,^ JlljM'j jjijjlfrTfnjiijiiiviii! j iM"'ri-^; ''/ 4ii!l!!ll!ili!ll!!l!!i:iHili!i:-;lil ;''r:'-^'^i'i^ V. (i! I!; 1 I 1)1 M Hi!' > j jiiiiii iiiiiiiniiiiii i ij ii III 1{ H i I i| !!lhl!li!i!!!!i liiji! 'I *y\'-' 1ii:^-.;t'' Ji|'i■lf«!^iil'i■l.■:':^:v■' ,:■-;::' "If' 1 1 ihI .'ill' *p,ii i- /-f'^ '■ 1 'i'-' ■'- ' 9^' t GIFT OF Miss E.H.Clymer ki^ MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT THE WORLD'S GREATEST LEADERS IN LITERATURE, ART, RELIGION PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE, POLITICS AND INDUSTRY EDITED BY HENRY W. RUOFF, M. A., D. C. L. W Author of "The Century Book of Facts," "The Capitals of the World, "Leaders of Men," "The Standard Dictionary of Facts," Etc. FULL Y ILL USTBA TED THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY BUFFALO, N. Y. CT/04 Copyright, 1910, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1911, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1913, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. ^ AU Rights Reserved. PREFATORY IN point of genuine human interest and educative value the life stories of individuals stand at the head of all literature. History is but an account of the connected achievements of individuals. Drama and fiction draw their fascination from the created individuals which people the realm of fancy. The great epics, the heroism, the romanticism of the ages, as well as the exploits of everyday life, center about the individual. Personality, in other words, is the supreme factor in human affairs, and is daily commanding more and more atten- tion in the curriculum of modern life. These facts naturally suggest the questions: Who are the great characters in the drama of the world development about whom we should know ? Who are the great master minds that have contributed most to the development of civilized life and institutions ? What have they accomplished ? These questions the following pages make an intelligent attempt to answer, by placing before the general reader a carefully discriminated selection of concise, personal studies from the great mass of biographical literature of all ages and countries. In carrying out this plan it has been thought best to divide the book into two parts, the first part being devoted to one hundred of the greater masters of achievement, and the second part to several thousand other persons, whose achievements entitle them to distinguished rank. Unfortunately there is no absolute metric unit of greatness. Probably it is better so. But the consensus of judgment has singled out certain great individ- uals who the best informed minds now agree should be placed in the first rank among the greatest men of history. Such a list is the One Hundred included in this volume. Not only has the editor appealed to the judgment of past writers to justify his selection, but he has also been greatly assisted in the final determina- tion of the list by over a hundred of the best contemporary authorities — educators, authors, jurists, journalists, publicists, and other specialists — who contributed individual lists giving the results of their best judgment in respect to each group of names finally included. This method has assured an authoritative selection by a board of personal advisors of the highest order. The sketches themselves are necessarily mosaics — drawn from the most authoritative sources — and deal, in a measurable degree of completeness, with the lives, personal characteristics and achievements of those selected. They are accompanied, too, by numerous full page illustrations reproduced from the originals of great artists, and in the case of foreign names or those of unusual difficulty the phonetic pronunciation has been supplied. This unusual combina- tion, it is believed, will make an especial appeal to a large body of discriminating readers. The second part of the volume is not designed as an exhaustive dictionary of biography in the ordinary sense. It is rather a selected list of distinguished names each of which stands for some special achievement of note or field of endeavor. Differing judgments would probably add or subtract from the names here included, but on the whole it is doubtful whether the well informed mind would greatly change it. A special debt of gratitude is due to many persons throughout the country for valuable assistance and suggestions — particularly to the body of distinguished educators and scholars who aided in the selection of names. The Editor. TABLE OF CONTENTS ONE HUNDRED GREAT MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT I. IN LITERATURE: Poets; Dramatists; Historians; Orators; Essayists; Novelists. Homer — iEschylus — Sophocles — Herodotus — Demosthenes — Cicero — Vergil — Plutarch — Dante — Montaigne — Cervantes — Shakespeare — Milton — Moli^re — Montesquieu — Voltaire — Lessing — Gibbon — Goethe — Schiller — Scott — Wordsworth — Balzac — Carlyle — Hugo — Emerson — Browning, 9 II. IN FINE ARTS: Sculptors; Painters; Musiclans; Architects. Phidias — Leonardo da Vinci — Michaelangelo — Raphael — Titian — Rufoens — Velasquez — Rembrandt — Bach — Handel — Mozart — Beethoven — Wagner, 121 III. IN RELIGION: Oriental Religions; Christianity. Moses — Zoroaster — Confucius — Buddha — St. Paul — St. Augustine — Mo- hammed — Gregory VII. — St. Francis of Asgisi — Luther — Loyola — Calvin — Wesley, 189 IV. IN PHILOSOPHY: Metaphysicians; Psychologists; Moralists; Edu- cators ; Logicians. Socrates — Plato — Aristotle — St. Thomas Aquinas — Bacon — Descartes — Spinoza — Locke — Leibnitz — Hume — Kant — Hegel — Spencer, 254 V. IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY: Naturalists; Biologists; Physicists; Mathematicians; Chemists; Inventors; Discoverers. Gutenberg — Columbus — Copernicus — Palissy — Galileo — Kepler — Harvey — Newton — Linnaeus — Arkwright — Watt — Lavoisier — Cuvier — Stephen- son — Morse — Darwin — Heknholtz — Kelvin, 324 VI. IN POLITICS: Military Leaders; Statesmen; Publicists. Alexander the Great — Csesar — Charlemagne — Alfred the Great — Charles V.— Grotius — Cromwell — Peter the Great — Franklin — Frederick the Great — Waslungton — Jefferson — Napoleon I. — Webster — Lincoln — Bismarck, . 419 FOUR THOUSAND OTHER MASTERS From the Earliest Times Down to the Present, 519-1038 UST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN FIRST PART VAoma HMM Homer, 9 Demosthenes Practicing Oratory, 19 Cicero Denouncing Catiline, 22 Dante and Beatrice, 32 Milton Dictating " Paradise Lost " to his Daughters, 53 Voltaire 67 Goethe and Napoleon I., 79 Sir Walter Scott, 88 Thomas Carlyle, 103 Ralph Waldo Emerson, 112 Michaelangelo at Work on his "Moses," 128 The Dying Raphael 134 Peter Paul Rubens, 144 Rembrandt in his Studio, 154 Handel and George I. of England, 164 Beethoven and his Friends, 175 Richard Wagner at Bayreuth, . » 180 Moses, 189 St. Paul Preaching to the Athenians, 206 St. Augustine, 212 Luther, Meianchthon,Pomeranus and Cruciger, 230 Wesley Preaching to the Indians, 246 Socrates at Athens, 254 Aristotle Teaching Alexander the Great, 266 Francis Bacon, 278 John Locke, 295 Immanuel Kant, 306 Herbert Spencer, 318 Gutenberg, 324 Copernicus, 337 Harvey Demonstrating the Circulation of the Blood to Charles I., 354 Linnseus, 367 Lavoisier and his Wife, 380 Samuel Finley Breese Morse, 397 Helmholtz in his Laboratory, 409 Julius Cffisar at the Tomb of Alexander, 425 Charles V. and Francis I. at St. Denis, 438 Cromwell at Whitehall, 449 Peter the Great in Holland, 454 Washington and Lafayette at Mt. Vernon, 473 Daniel Webster, 494 Abraham Lincoln, 500 Bismarck at Versailles, 511 IN SECOND PART Theodore Roosevelt at his Desk, 519 Alexander Graham Bell, 559 William Jennings Bryan, . . . . ' 589 Last Moments of Charles I., 610 Cleopatra SaiUng on the Nile, 623 Edison in his Library, 664 King Edward VII., 668 • LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOi -CONTINUED rxcma paob Queen Elizabeth Signing the Death Warrant of M iry, Queen of Scots 672 Queen Esther Before Ahasuerus, 681 Robert Fulton, 709 Cardinal Gibbons in his Study, 723 Ulysses Simpson Grant, 735 Lord Grey, Governor-general of Canada, 738 Gustavus Adolphus before the Battle of Liitzen, 747 Henry IV. at Canossa, 769 Alexander von Humboldt, 786 Thomas Henry Hiixley, 793 Jenner Performing his First Vaccination, 804 Sir Wilfred Laurier, 832 Robert Edward Lee, 836 Queen Louise of Prussia, 848 William McKinley, 856 Queen Maria Theresa, 865 John Marshall, 869 Maximilian before his Execution, 875 John Stuart Mill, . 880 Pasteur in his Laboratory, 913 William Penn, 919 Pestalozzi, the Children's Friend, 920 George Rawlinson, 940 Joseph Ernest Kenan, 947 Cardinal Richelieu, 951 Rouget de Lisle Singing the "Marseillaise," 961 Sheridan's Ride, 977 William Howard Taft at Work, 998 Tennyson in his Library, 1005 Emperor William II., 1031 KEY TO PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES d, as in farm, father; d, as in ask, fast; i, as in at, fat; 6, as in day, fate; A, as in care, fare; a (unmarked) represents the sound as neutral or obscure, as in final, infant, i, as in met, set; e, as in me, see; ?, as in her, ermine; e (unmarked) represents the sound as neutral or obscure, as in novel. ?, as in pin, ill; t, as in pine, ice. 6, as in not, got; 0, as in note, old; 6, as in for, fought; db, as in cook, look; 6d, as in moon, spoon; o (unmarked) represents the sound as neutral or obscure, as in combine. H, as in cup, duck; u, as in use, amuse; H, as in fur, urge; u (im- marked) represents the sound as neutral or obscure, as in circus, th, as in the, though. Foreign Sounds o cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in bum and burnt is per- haps the nearest equivalent to 6. u cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in luke and duke resembles the original sound of u. n represents tne nasal tone (as in French) of the preceding vowel, as in encore (dN'-fcSr'). x represents ch as in German ich, ach. Note. — The pronunciation of names included in the first part of the volimie will be found in regular alphabetical order in the second part. HOMER From an Artist Portrait • . i "^ e ' ', ' • HOMER The poems of Homer do not constitute merely a great item of the splendid literature of Greece, but they have a separate position which none other can approach. They and the manners they describe constitute a world of their own — a scheme of human life and character complete in all its parts. We are introduced to man in every relation of which he is capable, in every one of his arts, devices, institu- tions, in the entire circle of his experience. — Gladstone. HOMER, popularly referred to as the "father of song," will always remain the greatest and most typical name not only in ancient poetry, but in ancient art as a whole. His personal existence, his birthplace, and his era have proved fertile subjects of discussion among literary antiquaries. Some of these have maintained that the Iliad and the Odyssey — the chief poems attributed to Homer — are composed of a variety of leg- endary ballads, commemorative of incidents connected with the siege of Troy, which were the production of different authors, and were revised and skillfully interwoven during the age of Pisistratus; and that the name Homer was merely the impersonation of the genius of epic poetry. But the best of modern scholars are now agreed that we must hold some theory as to the nature of the personality hidden behind the poems which bear his name. Seven cities at least claimed the honor of having given birth to the poet ; and each of them seems to have had some tradition to allege in justification of its claim. The dis- crepancies of statement respecting the date of his existence are not less remarkable; for of the eight different epochs assigned to him the oldest differs from the most recent by a period of 460 years. According to the theory which carries with it the greatest probability. Homer flourished in 1100-1000 B. C, many years after the Trojan era. He appears to have been an Asiatic Greek, and a native of Smyrna, an Ionian city on the coast of Asia Minor. From the circumstance of his having been brought forth on the banks of the Meles, a river which ran beside the city, he is said to have obtained the name Melisigenes. It is impossible, however, to come to any satisfactory conclusion on sub- jects concerning which history has given us such scanty materials. On one point all tra- ditions agree, that he was afflicted with blind- ness ; and his descriptions of external nature warrant the conclusion that this misfortune arose from accident or disease, and not from the operation of nature at his birth. The writers of antiquity unanimously con- sidered the Iliad and the Odyssey as the pro- ductions of a certain individual called Homer ; and there is no evidence that the question of divided authorship was ever entertained by them. The literature and the poetry of that age were supplied in the Greek world, sur- rounding the iEgean sea, by a class of wan- dering minstrels who sang or recited from place to place the stories of bygone days. Some of the minstrels, no doubt, were poets of creative power ; others adapted or repeated their lays. One of the favorite legends among them related to a great siege of the city of Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor, by a combined force of Greeks from every tribe. The motive of the war was well fitted to commend the story to the hospitable halls of the Greek chiefs. It was revenge for the abduction of a Greek chieftain's wife by a foreign guest — Helen, the wife of Menelaus, by Paris of Troy. After many adventures and prolonged delay the invaders took the city and burned it. One incident in this story, which was sung in innumerable lays, was seized on by an imagination stronger than the rest, and was made the central thought and connecting link of a longer lay. It told of the wrath of AchiUes, the chief hero of the Greeks, who, wronged by Agamemnon, another leader, withdrew for some time from the fight. It 10 . '•/' i .'••*': ^A^ASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT described y,)i(? ^.'Jfferingsi of- th.6 Qreeks in the absence of the hero, arid how, at length, he was induced, by indignation and grief at the loss of a fallen friend, to return to their assistance, and to stem the tide of defeat. This story was the primitive Iliad, and forms the greater part of the present poem. The unity of the motive and the greatness of the poetry made the lay a favorite with the bards; but, as they recited it, they were tempted by local interests and by ambition to add fresh episodes celebrating other Greek chiefs, besides Achilles, and other tribes. In these additions, however, they maintained the spirit and the style of the greater bard, and very likely, in some cases, adopted other short poems. We may thus speak of the Iliad as the work of Homer in much the same sense in which we speak of the Parthenon marbles as the work of Phidias, though we cannot suppose that they were all executed by his own hand. The other great poem which we attribute to the same name embodies another fragment of the legend of Troy. It relates the adven- tures of Odysseus — the hero of counsel among the Greeks at Troy, as Achilles was the hero of war — on his journey home from Troy to Ithaca. It describes the troubles suffered in his absence by his wife, Penelope, and his son, Telemachus, at the hands of a crowd of greedy and importunate suitors; the fortitude and constancy with which they resisted the attacks and the final triumph of the hero on his return, who appears at last as great in action as in counsel. That this poem, the Odyssey, is the fruit of the same genius which planned the Iliad there is no evidence. The differences in gen- eral tone and in detail are many and striking ; and they led even a school of Greek critics to attribute the two poems to different authors. If we are led to the same conclusion, we need not marvel that the youthful vigor of a poetic race, and the favoring conditions of an age of minstrelsy, produced at least two poets of surpassing merit. But we must note a simi- larity of language and subject sufficient to show that the poet of the original Iliad exer- cised a powerful influence over later as well as contemporary poets. His unique greatness lies in this, that he combined the strong human sympathy, the life-like action, and the pic- turesque language of early poetry, in their most perfect form, with the conception of a unity of structure and a progressive interest which belongs naturally to a later and literary age. When we come to consider the Iliad and the Odyssey as a poetic whole, and to estimate their importance in the evolution, first, of the Greeks, and then of humanity as a whole, the question of the origin of the poems, and even of the personality of the poet, becomes com- paratively insignificant. Both the poems, and especially the Iliad, were accepted from the first as the type of the highest order of poetry, the epic. It is from Homer that Aristotle draws his canons of epic poetry. An epic poem must constitute a united whole. This unity in the Iliad is what we recognize as the trait of the great original poet — that trait which impressed itself most on his con- temporaries and reappears even more strongly marked in the later Odyssey. An epic poem, too, must develop a progressive interest. This interest we feel in the course of that primitive Iliad, free from inconsistent digres- sions, where reverses press harder and harder upon the Greeks until the death of Patroclus touches Achilles' personal feelings and brings him back to the Grecian host. And in the ! final catastrophe of the Odyssey we feel that j progressive interest even more strongly devel- I oped as the recognition of the hero and the ' overthrow of his enemies are slowly and I steadily prepared. The third mark of the epic which Aristotle demands — dignity of language and manner — belongs to Homer in an unapproachable degree, and gives a peculiar charm and force to almost every line of the two poems. Besides these qualities, which belong to the Iliad and the Odyssey as a whole, the details in every part are marked by certain unique and consistent features. We are presented with a picture of everj' typ>e of human char- acter and every phase of human life possible in an early military society. All these are drawn not with a subtle psychological analysis, but in clear characteristic strokes, marking out types true to all time. And, though tj'pical, few of Homer's characters are ideal, but purely human. We have bravery typified in many forms: commanding in Agamemnon; generous in Menelaus ; high-spirited in Achil- les. In Nestor we have the counsellor, wise in years; in Odysseus, the man of cunning word and scheme ; Andromache is the tender wife, fearful of her husband's danger ; Hector, the loving husband — lo\'ing honor more ; Penelope, the matron and constant wife. IN LITERATURE 11 faithful against time and importunity ; Achil- les, the devoted friend, tortured even at night by the loss of his companions. And in their subordinate spheres are warriors, children, slaves, clearly and truly drawn to life. Goethe finds in liis two chief characters two great fundamental forms of human nature — Achilles the most brave, and Ulysses the most prudent of men. Achilles, indeed, is the grand pagan hero, the ideal of antiquity. Homer is our greatest authority for what we know of the thought and life of primitive Greece. The main features of the society he describes, though in poetic language, are drawn from the facts around him. Here we see the patriarch become the priest and king of his tribe — the leader in battle and in council — the source and dispenser of justice. Such are the chiefs in the Iliad. In time of peace the chieftain lives in his ancestral house, and superintends his herds and lands. Art and commerce are almost entirely of foreign origin, due to Phoenician merchants. Litera- ture is unknown. The morality of Homer is indicated by the types of character which are held up to admi- ration — the brave warrior, the clever coun- sellor, the Uberal host, the faithful friend, the constant wife; and by those which are held up to reprobation — the coward, the spiteful detractor, the greedy and arrogant man. No principles are appealed to; but the loyal observance of particular ties, and especially those of a relative or a friend, is recognized as a duty. Women — as heads of households — enjoy a high degree of freedom and respect. But it is in his theology that Homer most perfectly sums up the thought of his age, and so revolutionizes the hierarchy of pagan deities as to influence most powerfully the thought of posterity. He supplants the older deities — earth, sun, sea, night — by the later and perfectly human types — Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Aphrodite, and Poseidon — in which the Greeks figured the deity. To these deities Homer gives the distinctive character and the position and function in the Pantheon which they retain throughout the Greek system. The gods become men and women of stronger passions and larger powers, but differing from men and women only in degree. And, al- though these supernatural beings take part in the action of the Homeric stories, and inter- fere with the course of natural events, their action and interference are so defined and limited that the story preserves its natural interest, and the men and women gain rather than lose by the presence of the superhuman. After the Bible, no book has been so uni- versally read as Homer's Iliad. It has been called the bible of heroes, and it was the bible of the ancient Greeks. Just as we read the Hebrew history to our children — much more from a moral than a historical attitude — and give to all the facts a didactic turn, so the old Greeks read Homer as a moral work, containing models of what they ought to be, exhibitions of punished vice and mean- ness, examples of fortitude, of temperance, of justice, and of wisdom. Homer was the one common possession of all the Greeks. Their actual life was broken up by innumerable feuds and jealousies; in Homer, more than in any historical event — more even than in Marathon and Salamis — they had a meeting ground in the record of a united and disinterested action. It is the charter of Greek unity. It was studied by every Greek — known by heart, we are told, by many. The expositor of Greek theology appealed to Homer. The sceptic attacked the belief of Homer as the representative of the popular creed. The teacher of morality quoted his texts from Homer ; and those who, like Plato, wished to purify and elevate the national morals, found in Homer the tradi- tional standard. Homer is a key to the Greek view of life and of the world. The human ideal of religion and morality which we find in him dominates their whole conception. The gods are greater men, perfect in those personal qualities which were prized as virtues — strength, beauty, and wisdom. As the old men in Troy adored the beauty of Helen in spite of the troubles she had brought upon them, so the Greeks found in beauty of every kind the seal of perfection, and connected ugliness with im- perfection and vice, as Homer united them in Thersites. The ideal of art, connected intimately from the first with religion, is to make the perfect human form as an honor and an offering to the gods. Not only in its general aim and spirit, but in every department and every detail of Greek art — and thence of Roman art — we find the influence of Homer. In sculpture and painting, the types of the gods were the types which Homer had created — the Zeus of Phidias was the Zeus of Homer. In the drama, tragedians found their subjects in the Homeric tale; the plays of iEschylus were 12 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT "morsels from the feast of Homer," while the spirit of Greek tragedy breathes already in many Homeric scenes — the parting of Hec- tor, the house of Priam after Hector's death, the ransoming of Hector's body. As the type of epic poetry, Homer gives inspiration, sub- ject, and many details to Vergil ; and through Vergil we trace the influence of Homer in the modern epic. "In conception and portraiture of char- acter," says William Mure, "and the deeper vein of tragic pathos, Homer may be equaled, if not siu'passed, by Shakespeare; in moral dignity of thought and expression, by Milton ; in the grace and delicacy of his lighter pic- tm-es, by Petrarch and Ariosto; and in the gloomy grandeur of his supernatural imagery, by ^schylus or Dante. But no one of these poets has combined, in a similar degree, those various elements of excellence in each of which they may separately claim to compete with him." ^SCHYLIJS Are .lEschylus and Sophocles and Euripides dead? No; the wondrous three are still in constellatioa. Bright are they as when they first shone, thousands of years ago, in the heavenly sky. But which are they? In what quarter of the region hang their golden lamps? Yonder. You see the glorious gems, enclosing as in a triangle a deep blue portion of stainless etner. The apex-«tar is JEachyluB — to the east is Sophocles — to the west, Euripides 1 — John WUaon. 7p SCHYLUS was the greatest of the Greek ■^-'--^ dramatists, and one of the greatest dramatic writers of any age. He was also, fortunately, by far the most historic personage, and possessed the most vivid personality of all the poets of Greece. We know with con- siderable precision the main facts of his life; but we know his inmost spirit, his temper, and his aspirations as clearly as we know those of Dante and Milton. We recognize in him a genius of a profoundly religious depth, a character of Homeric power and heroism; a passionate opponent of the old theocratic tyranny, which sought to crush out the free life of the Greek republic, and a zealous defender of the civil and religious institutions of his country. iEschylus, son of Euphorion, a Greek noble- man, was born in the year 525 B. C, in the district of Eleusis, in Attica, a few miles west from Athens, on the borders of Megara. In the neighborhood of the world-renowned sanctuary of Ceres, his youth was spent under the solemn religious influence which gave so decided a tone to his dramatic works. At the age of twenty-five, he exhibited his first tragedy ; but did not gain his first dramatic prize until the year 484 B. C, when he was forty-one years of age. Meanwhile the soul of Greek nationality had been roused in all its strength by the invasion of the generals of Darius, ending in their disgraceful defeat at Marathon in 490 B. C. In this battle ^schy- lus fought; and the ardor of lus patriotism was no less prominently manifested by the part which he took in the great naval engage- ment of Salamis, ten years afterward. He fought also with honor at Artemisium ftnd Plataea; and it is, with the heroism of Cer- vantes at Lepanto, one of the rare occasions on which one of the great poets of the world took part in one of the decisive campaigns of history. There can be no doubt that the lofty tone of his poetry is to be attributed in no small degree to the impulse which the whole Greek mind received from the great political move- ment that terminated in the complete over- throw of the insolent claims of the oriental autocrat Darius. But in ^Eschylus there is also distinctly visible a certain soldierly atti- tude, and a delight in the pomp and circum- stance of war, that is clearly traceable to the atmosphere of Marathon and Salamis, which the poet had breathed. The only other external event of any con- sequence in the life of the "father of trag- edy " is his sojourn in Sicily, a country which King Hiero had about that time rendered an agreeable place of residence for p>oets and literary men. He returned to Athens in later years, and his great play, Agamemnon, was produced in 458 B. C., when the poet was sixty-seven. In the Furies he shows himself an ardent opponent of the dominant demo- cratic party; and, apparently on political grounds, he again withdrew to Sicily, where he died at Gela in 456 B, C, aged sixty-nine. His epitaph, said to have been written or dictated by himself, ran thus: "iEschylus, IN LITERATURE 13 son of Euphorion, an Athenian, lies beneath this stone. He died at fertile Gela. Mara- thon can tell of his tried manhood, and the Persian who there felt his mettle." Not a word about poetry. iEschylus produced, it is said, seventy- eight plays, of which but seven remain, the Orestean trilogy of the Agamemnon, the Libation-bearers, and the Furies, being the sole extant trilogy, or series of three grouped dramas. It is permitted to hold the loss of these seventy-one tragedies to be the greatest which ancient literature has sustained. The fame of iEschylus, although at Athens it was placed second to that of Sophocles, as at Paris that of Corneille was dimmed by the fame of Racine, and for the same reasons, lasted long after his death. His plays were often represented by his sons and others — an honor extremely rare and almost unique. He was rightly called the "father of tragedy." For, in adding a second actor to the original single actor, who recited a narrative to the chorus, iEschylus made true tragedy possible; and when, in imitation of Sophocles, he placed a third actor on the stage simultaneously with the chorus, the dramatic machinery as conceived in Greece was complete. Before the time of iEschylus there was no real theater. Greek tragedy as he found it was simply a poem, recited or chanted by one speaker; it was declamation without action, scenery, or accessories of any kind. iEschylus introduced dialogue ; invented the tragic boot, mask, and mantle; dressed the speakers in character; and turned the platform into a mimic representation of the place or scene where the event was supposed to occur. What was the origin of the drama? Before there was such a thing in the world as "drama," there existed "chorus"; the drama grew out of the improvised recitations, given in the intervals of the Bacchic choruses sung at the great festivals. While the chorus rested, the leader chanted a long monologue in praise of Bacchus ; this was the first stage of development. In a later age, a second per- son was brought upon the platform, who replied to the first, and this made " dialogue," and was the foundation of tragic art. Finally, another actor was added, and still others ; the dialogue, which was at first but a recitative and an accessory, grew little by little till it usurped the principal place. In our day, it employs many actors, while the old chorus. which was once all in all, has dwindled away, the only vestige of it remaining in what is now called the orchestra. The greatest step in the gradual change was the transition from monologue to dialogue, and this took place in the time of iEschylus. Thus, this mighty genius may be said to have conceived full- grown, and to have created in its complete- ness, one of the grandest forms of human art. The style and conception of iEschylus were in every way those of his character and life. He was uniformly heroic, earnest, profound, and martial. He called his dramas "scraps from the rich banquet of Homer." He carried to a fault sublimity of diction, origi- nality of phrase, and tremendous intensity of dramatic situation. Cicero calls him a Pythag- orean, meaning thereby his deep and pure spiritual earnestness. iEschylus was a stern and passionate supporter of the old aristo- cratic and conservative party, of the old ceremonies, and the ancient institutions of the city of Solon. He is a stout upholder of rever- ence for the gods, the pervading power of religion, the sanctity of oaths, the duties of hospitality, and the inviolability of marriage. Intensely military, his dramas abound in terms of war ; and in the Persians his patriotic enthusiasm rings forth like a trumpet. He is saturated with the idea of the revolt of the free commonwealths against the theocratic despotism of Asia. In the Prometheus he idealizes the revolt of man from the pressure of the priestly caste, and the martyrdom of those who led the way to his emancipation. But, if the Prometheus be the first poem of iEschylus, the Agamemnon must be counted as his first tragedy — perhaps, as pure tragedy the finest ever produced, in massive intensity, in unity of impression, and in statuesque sub- limity of form. It may be doubted if Dante or Shakespeare has surpassed iEschylus, or even equaled him, in the art of bringing before us ideal beings so imposing, so awful, and so vivid; or, in so completely transporting us into a world of a weird imagery, real and yet superhuman. The occasional monotony of his stately man- ner, the harshness of his compound epithets, and the not infrequent tendency to extrava- gance and even bombast are slight defects among such grand qualities. Aristophanes painted the poet to the life, and did ample justice both to his unequaled greatness as a poet, and to his noble aim as a patriot and a teacher. For iEschylus was 14 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the great spiritual power of his age, the poetic voice of Greece in the one sublime epoch of her whole history. Aristophanes, in his inimi- table comedy, the Frogs, has brought out the heroic temper of the man, the proud and stately self-will, the fiery imagination, the burning faith in high and pure ideals, the avalanche of great thoughts, even the torrent of superabundant imagery which the poet threw into his work. uEschylus was more than poet. His inner purpose was that of Isaiah and Ezekiel, of Dante, and of Milton : the presentment of the great problem of human life, the sense of an overruling Providence, the moral greatness and force of the just man, the ruin and shame ultimately in store for the unjust, the inevi- table retribution that awaits crime, the inher- itance of evil, the grandeur of virtue, courage, purity, and good faith. Aristotle's definition of tragedy was that it " purified the soul by pity and terror." Its duty was to rouse the spirit from all that is sordid, torpid, and mean, by touching the sympathies to the quick, by calling out the dormant feeling of interest in our fellow men, pain at their sufferings, and enthusiasm for their heroism; by rousing the self-contented nature, fattened with good things, to a con- sciousness of the tremendous issues for good or evil with which human fife is surrounded. In this task it is doubtful if any Hebrew prophet, or mediaeval preacher, has ever sur- passed iEschylus. SOPHOCLES Sophocles shows at times one high power which but few of the world'* poet* share with him. He feels, as Wordsworth does, the majesty of order and well-being; sees the greatneaB of God, as it were, in the troubled things of life. — Murray. OOPHOCLES, the second great dramatist ^ of Athens, during his long life, witnessed the whole period of Athenian glory. He saw the Persian wars and the Peloponnesian wars, the whole career of Themistocles, Cimon, Pericles, and Nicias, the rise and perfection of all the arts of poetry and form, and all the great Athenians between Aristides and Plato. Five years before Marathon, and fifteen before Salamis, Sophocles was born at Colonus, a beautiful village in the immediate vicinity of Athens, in 495 B. C. He was thus thirty years younger than ^Eschylus, and fifteen years older than Euripides. His father, Sophilus, a man of good family, and possessed of considerable wealth, gave him a liberal education in all the literary and personal accomplishments of his age; and these were still further enhanced by a person eminently handsome, which had been moulded and trained by the exercises of the palaestra. He was instructed in poetry and music by the famous Lamprus, and his proficiency is attested by the fact that, when his country- men, after the battle of Salamis, assembled to celebrate the glorious victory which they had achieved, he, though a youth of fifteen, was selected to play an accompaniment on the lyre to the psean, in which the chorus of youths sang their country's triimiphs. It is, besides. probable that he also composed the words of the ode. The commencement of his career as a dram- atist took place under circumstances pecu- liarly interesting. iEschylus had for thirty years been the undoubted master of the Athenian stage, and was now to contest the palm with a youthful competitor of the age of twenty-seven, whose great accomplish- ments and personal graces had excited an xmusual interest in his favor. The festival of the Dionysia, was, on this occasion, rendered still more imposing by the return of Cimon from the island of Scyros, bringing with him the bones of Theseus. Many people accord- ingly flocked to the theater of Bacchus. When Cimon and his nine colleagues entered the theater to offer the customary libations to the god, the chief archon, instead of choosing judges by lot, detained the ten generals at the altar; and, after administering to them the usual oath, constituted them the judges between the rival tragedians. Before this tribunal Sophocles exhibited his first tragedy, and by their award obtained the first prize. His subsequent career fully justified the decision of the judges. From this epoch (468 B. C.) he maintained the supremacy until 441 B. C, when his for- midable rival, Euripides, was preferred to him, and gained the first prize. For sixty-three IN LITERATURE 16 years Sophocles continued to compose and exhibit. During that period he twenty times obtained the first prize, still more frequently the second, and never descended so low as the third — a degree of success which far exceeded that of his great rivals. In 440 B. C. he exhibited the Antigone, the earliest of his extant dramas, a play which gave such satis- faction to the Athenians that they appointed him as a colleague of Pericles and Thucydides in the war against Samos. He seems to have won no laurels in his military capacity. Several civic offices of honor and respecta- bility, however, were conferred upon him in his old age. He was made priest of Halon, a native hero; and after the disastrous termi- nation of the Syracusan expedition in 413 B. C, he was, in his eighty-third year, ap- pointed one of the committee of public safety. In this capacity he consented to the appointment of the council of four hundred in 411 B. C. The last years of his life were disturbed by family dissensions. In consequence of his partiality for a grandson, the eldest son endeavored to deprive him of the manage- ment of his property on the ground of inca- pacity and dotage. The only defense offered by the aged dramatist was to read in the pres- ence of his judges a passage from the CEdipus at Colonus which he had just written ; on hearing which the judges dismissed the case, and rebuked his son for his undutiful conduct. He died in his ninetieth year, just before the catastrophe of his country, having long been the model of Attic culture at its highest mark. He is famed for being the type of " sweetness and light," as conceived in the golden age of Athens, the man of "sweet temper," of con- summate grace, and of uniform balance of mind. His private character seems to have been, on the whole, amiable; the blemishes attributed to it being those of the age rather than of the individual. Sophocles marks the passage from the drama as a religious institution to the drama as a work of pure art. He made the great step in advance of adding a third speaker to the second of ^Eschylus; and this was evidently essential to the full development of the dramatic ideal. The plot and the elaborate evolution of character and situa- tion in his plays are artistically a great advance upon the simple conception of iEschylus ; and, in discarding the trilogy, he was able to make each drama a highly com- plex and refined study of character in action. Hence, by his contemporaries at Athens, and perhaps by the ancients, Sophocles waa regarded as the perfection of the tragic poet. The CEdipus King was taken by Aristotle as the type of true tragedy, and Professor Jebb calls it " in one sense, the masterpiece of Attic tragedy." As a work of consummate art, it is, perhaps, the most perfect tragedy extant. In the same way, all the plays of Sophocles which survive — CEdipus King (or CEdipus Tyranny^), CEdipus at Colonus, Antigone, Philoctetes, Ajax, and Maidens of Trachis — are examples of supreme skill in painting character, and in the combination of tragic situations. But the poet is no longer, as in the trilogy, hero, prophet, and preacher ; he is simply the faultless artist. The distinguishing trait of the compositions of Sophocles is their unrivaled harmony. The elements of his dramas, as dialogue and song, the expression of familiar sentiments or of violent passion, are so artistically gradu- ated as to pass without shock from one extreme to the other, in a manner quite dif- ferent from the rugged method of ^schylus. The latter may have been his rival in inven- tion, and it is true that Shakespeare far excels him there. He does not, like Shakespeare, give a complete picture of life in its manifold phases, but takes a single idea, a typical character, and embodies in it all the essential elements of humanity. He makes tragic poetry a true mirror of the soul, and exhibits, as has seldom been done, the true moral significance of human action. His later dramas, especially, are written in a most elegant style, with concise and vigor- ous dialogue, and rich poetical sentiment. He is the Phidias of dramatic art. He was, above all, an Athenian poet, as compared with iEschylus and Euripides, who were Hel- lenic, and he represented the genius of his well-loved city in its most perfect form. His teaching is the doctrine of fate, as it was understood by the ancients, and of this he is the best exponent. " Fate," he says, " is a dread power. If thou be wealthy, thou wilt not buy her ofif ; if thou be valiant, thou canst not withstand her; if thou shut thy- self within a tower, she will find thee out ; if thou cross the sea in ships, she will overtake thee on the way. Whoso contendeth against Fate, fighteth against fearful odds. Thou canst not shake off what load Fate shall have put on thy shoulders." 16 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT HERODOTUS As the general father of prose composition, Herodotus is nearly related to all literature whatsoever, modern not less than ancient. . . . We hold that Herodotus furnishes bv much the largest basis for vast commentaries revealing the archaeologies of the human race ; whilst, as the eldest of prose writers, he justifies his majestic station as a brotherly assessor on the same throne with Homer. — De Quincey. LJERODOTUS, the earliest of Greek histo- •*■ ■* rians, and by common consent called the "father of history," rendered the same services to history that Thales did to science. Before him there is no trace even of a chronicle of events other than that of the epic poets, between whom and the philosophic Thu- cydides he forms the only link. The accepted account of his life, gleaned largely from his own works, makes Herodotus a native of Halicarnassus, a Doric colony in Caria, Asia Minor, where he was born probably about 484 B. C. This province, at the time, was governed by Artemisia, a vassal queen of the great king of Persia. His father was named Lyxes; his mother, Dryo, was sister of Panyasis, one of the revivers of epic poetry, who was highly esteemed by the ancients. It is supposed that the poet superintended the education of his nephew, and inspired him with that love of the beautiful and the true, that desire to know and to see, which is the essential quality of a good historian. Proba- bly Herodotus commenced in early life that series of visits to distant lands, in the course of which he amassed those precious materials that were afterward so artistically worked up in his immortal history. Nothing positive is recorded, however, of the studies which occupied his early years, or of the circum- stances which favored the development of his genius. When he was about thirty years of age a rebellion broke out at Halicarnassus. Panya- sis was put to death by Lygadmis, grandson of Artemisia, and Herodotus was compelled to flee to Samos, which became his foster country. There he found devoted and power- ful allies, who assisted him in freeing his com- patriots from the yoke of Lygadmis; but after he had satisfied his vengeance, he expe- rienced so many disappointments that he quitted Greece proper, and fixed his residence at Thurii, near the ancient Sybaris, in Lucania, Italy, where he continued to live until his death about 424 B. C. There, it is supposed, he wrote his history. Several ancient authors, indeed, call him "the Thurian," on account of his prolonged residence in that city. The passion to know, to see, and to relate, appears to have taken possession of the mind of Herodotus in his youthful days. He be- took himself early in life to travel, aware that a civic career was closed to him. He visited almost every city of Greece; he became fa- miliar with every part of the coast of Asia Minor; he made a long stay in Egypt; and he reached even the distant Scythia. He penetrated to the extremity of the Pontus Euxinus, and sojourned for some time in every place which contained anything likely to gratify his insatiable curiosity. It is need- less to say that if the great historian visited the countries of the East, the Greek cities of Asia, and the northern extremities of the Hellenic world, he did not neglect to make himself acquainted thoroughly, and in detail, with all the localities of European Greece — with the cities, temples, and battlefields of the continent and of the isles. Tradition has it that on the conclusion of these voyages he placed in order the infor- mation he had acquired, and that when he had completed this great work he read it to the Greeks who were assembled for the Olym- pian games. It comprised the most remark- able occurrences within a period of 240 years, from the reign of Cyrus, the first king of Persia, to that of Xerxes, when the historian was living. His auditors were so charmed with the recital that they gave the name of one of the nine muses to each of the nine books into which his "History" is divided. It is added that Thucydides, then fifteen years of age, who was present at this reading, could not help shedding tears of admiration, and that Herodotus, noticing his tears, pre- dicted for the young man a brilliant future. Criticism has tried to prove this pretty story to be a mere invention; but another statement, which carries with it a greater appearance of truth, is that when thirty-eight years old Herodotus went to Athens on the occasion of the grand pan-Athenian festivals, and there read in public fragments of his work, still incomplete, but certain portions of which were already in the state in which they have been handed down to us. The audience received the work with enthusiastic applause, and awarded to the incomparable DEMOSTHENES PRACTICING ORATORY IN LITERATURE 19 narrator a prize of ten talents, besides bestow- ing upon him by acclamation the title of "father of history." Up to that period the narration of past events had been undertaken only by the logographers, or chroniclers, who merely described what had occurred in their own or in foreign countries, people by people, and town by town, without any connection. Herodotus made an immense advance in his- torical composition, by giving unity to a multitude of apparently disconnected occur- rences which had taken place in Europe and in Asia, and which centered chiefly about the Persian invasion of Greece. The link con- necting the whole he sought for and found, not like the more advanced of the chroniclers in the traditional series of genealogies, but in an idea — the idea, as profound as it is true, as dramatic as it is popular — of the old quarrel between the East and the West. He proposed to relate the causes and the course of the war between the Greeks and the bar- barians. He wrote with the recollection of the glorious close of the struggle still fresh in men's minds, in that brief period when a feeling of security filled all Greece. The war itself, however, is only the goal to which he moves. As each nation appears on the scene, the current of his story stops, that he may pour out his full knowledge concerning it : not merely chronicling the vicissitudes of its dynasties, but with a true instinct dwelling in curious detail on its religion, superstitions, and habits. Herodotus raised prose narrative to the height of poetry. Ancients and moderns have alike been struck, in various points of view, by the analogy between the work of Homer and that of the "father of history." Homer sang; Herodotus wrote; but both were animated with the same inspiration, with the same thought, at once national and poetic, for they both addressed themselvM to Greece in order to glorify her in the past, to delight and to instruct her people. The veracity of Herodotus has been some- times questioned, even by the ancients, but the researches of modern travelers, and the discoveries of science, show that his detractors were not infrequently in the wrong. As to his style, the ablest critics of antiquity proclaimed it perfection, not because it is entirely free from irregularities of construc- tion, but because the phraseology is alwaya simple, clear, harmonious, and brilliant, dis- playing all those qualities which are most calculated to captivate the mind. The author used the Ionian dialect in the composition of his "History." That which charms the readers of Herodotus is that child-like simplicity of heart which is ever the companion of an incorruptible love of truth, and that happy and winning style which is found only where manners are true to nature. While other pleasing discourses of men roll along like torrents, and noisily hurry through their short existence, the silver stream of his words flows on without concern, sure of its immortal source, everywhere pure and transparent, whether it be shallow or deep. The fear of ridicule, which too often sways the whole world, never affected the sublime simplicity of his mind. To him, as to iEschylus, all experience declared, in the life of nations as in the life of individuals, the presence of a power dispensing rigorous justice. Thus there was dimly recognized a continuity in human events at the very threshold of written history. DEMOSTHENES His manner is rapid harmony adjusted to the sense ; it is vehement reasoning without any appear- ance of art; it is disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, involved in a continued stream of argument; and of all human productions, the orations of Demosthenes present to us the models which approach the nearest to perfection. — Hume. "PJEMOSTHENES, the greatest of the "*^ Greek orators, has had no successful rival in eloquence, either ancient or modern. Though his voice is stilled, the majesty and beauty of his diction are not hidden from us even by a dead language, while his dialectical skill, his persuasiveness, his invective, and, above all, the lofty ethical character of his appeals lose nothing by translation. Demosthenes was born at Paeania, Attica, about the year 385 B. C, the son of a cutler and cabinet-maker and an Athenian citiien. Having lost his father at the age of sewn, the care of his youth, as well as the manag»> 20 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT ment of his property, amounting to fifteen talents, devolved upon three guardians ap- pointed by his father. At the end of his minority he commenced a prosecution against his guardians to recover his property, which they had squandered, and, after a litigation of two years, obtained a verdict against one of them, who was condemned to pay a fine of ten talents. The prosecution was conducted by himself ; and the speeches which he deliv- ered in support of his cause excited the admi- ration and applause of the judges. Encouraged by this successful beginning, he ventured to speak before the people, but his feeble and stammering voice, his inter- rupted respiration, his ungraceful gestures, and his ill-arranged periods brought upon him general ridicule. His failure, however, only roused the energies of his unconquerable will; he resolved to correct the deficiencies of his youth, and overcame them with a zeal and perseverance which have passed into a proverb. After a course of the most rigorous discipline, he reappeared in public, 355 B. C, and pronounced two orations against Leptines and Androtion, the former of which is con- sidered one of his greatest efforts. His fame as an orator now secured for him general esteem, and entitled him, as one of the lead- ing statesmen of Athens, to take an active part in all public affairs. Henceforth his career was that of an Athenian statesman seek- ing to compel an almost impossible Greek unity. Like Hannibal and many another admirable champion of conquered causes, Demosthenes devoted splendid talents and a grand character to resisting a destiny which, as we can now see, it would have been wise to accept. Him- self animated by a generous pan-Hellenic patriotism, he could not endure to learn the bitter lesson that the vices and defects of Greek poUtics were incurable, and that, though the advantages of Macedonian leader- ship might be marred and nuUified by irrecon- cilable hostility, the thing itself, in better or worse form, could not be escaped. Accord- ingly, from the moment when Philip began to interfere in Greece, he found a vigilant and unwearied opponent in Demosthenes. The Athenians of that day, though coveting empire as much as ever, were not as ready for personal sacrifice as in the time of Pericles. Their armies were oftener composed of mer- cenaries than of citizens, and the fimds which should have equipped fleets were lavished on the religioiis festivals and artistic displays so dear to that cultivated populace. Demos- thenes, at much risk not only of unpopularity but of punishment, strove, and not without some success, to reform these abuses and to inspire his countrymen with the ardor and energy of other days. But the reforms and the martial revival came too late. In an- other direction he labored to compose the fatal feuds between the leading Greek states, and to transform their inveterate jealousies into a noble emulation for the defense of their common independence, threatened by Mace- don. The crowning triumph of the patriot orator was when he confronted the ambas- sadors of Philip at Thebes, and by his glorious eloquence prevailed on the old enemies of his city to forget their grudge and join with Athens in striking a last blow for the hberties of Greece. Side by side stood the citizen soldiers of Athens and Thebes on the fatal field of Chaeronea, and together they went down before the trained battalions of Macedon, the genius of Philip, and the fiery valor of the youthful Alexander. The "sacred band" of Thebes, the old companions of Epaminondas, died to a man, and one thousand Athenians lay beside them. But Demostjhenes, who had himself served in the ranks of that terrible day, could proudly aver that he would never repent of the resolve which had saved the honor of his beloved city though all else were lost. The battle of Charonea left Philip of Mace- don master of the destinies of Greece; and the enemies of Demosthenes seized the oppor- tunity of assailing him by every form the laws allowed, and he was daily harassed by their opposition. To test the strength of public feeling, Ctesiphon, a political friend, introduced into the Athenian assembly a resolution to confer a golden crown on Demos- thenes as a suitable acknowledgment of his public services. Before the proposition be- came a law, any citizen might prosecute the author of it by an indictment for illegal prop- ositions. iE^chines accordingly prosecuted Ctesiphon. The trial was finally held in 330 B. C., after a postponement of eight years. Demosthenes appeared in the formal character of counsel for Ctesiphon, but in reality in his own defense. The orations delivered by the rival statesmen are con- sidered their masterpieces; but Demosthenes far surpassed iEscMnes, and was decreed the golden crown. IN LITERATURE 21 On the accession of Alexander, 336 B. C, Demosthenes still cherished the same feelings toward the Macedonians; but the sudden appearance of the youthful conqueror over- awed opposition. Even his great serv- ices could not protect him against an out- burst of popular feeling. Harpalus, one of Alexander's generals whom he had left at Babylon, absconded with the treasure in- trusted to his care, and, arriving in Athens, purchased the protection of the city by dis- tributing his gold among the popular leaders. Demosthenes was one of the suspected recip- ients; and, being declared guilty, and fined fifty talents, he retired to ^gina and Trozene, where he remained until the death of Alex- ander, 323 B. C. On the death of Alexander, Demosthenes again endeavored to rouse the Greeks against Macedon. But the insurrection was soon suppressed. Returning to Athens for a short time, he was forced again to withdraw in 322 B. C. ; and, returning to Calauria, a small island opposite Trozene, he took refuge in the temple of Neptune. Here the orator took poison that he might not fall into the hands of the victors. He was sixty-three when he died. After the verdict of centuries, opinions differ little as to the position which Demos- thenes occupies. His name is a synonym for eloquence. His style, less terse than that of Thucydides, surpassed in subtility by that of the dialogues of Plato, was better adapted than either to impress a popular assembly. He was not less remarkable for the skill with which he ordered his arguments, the telling humor and vivacity which gave them point, than for the majesty of his more impassioned appeals, Cicero, Quintihan, Longinus — all the best critics of the ancient world — com- bine with the foremost poets and orators of modern times to hold him forth as an almost faultless example of excellence. If we con- sider the total amount and compass of his speeches, we are at a loss whether to wonder more at the industry which made him master of so wide a range of subjects, or the genius which inspired his handling of them all. As a Greek statesman he is second only to Pericles and Epaminondas, who united to equal constancy and sagacity still greater powers of action; and when we place him after these, we must recollect the happier times in which they lived. In contemplating from a distance the game of history, we are wont to exaggerate the merit of the players who win, and under- estimate the greatness of those who ioBt, Success is elevated above the virtues; and failure degraded below the crimes. The un- fairness of this view has never been so well exposed as by Demosthenes himself in his own immortal defense. The events of the first part of the struggle justified his boast, that wherever his advice prevailed his coun- try's ruin was averted. He might well con- fess that he was responsible only for that over which he had control ; he had no control over fortune, or the follies of his age. He did what he could to enlighten it; and even if we assume that the great results of history are for the best, and that Greece had reached the natural term of her power, we must remember that the efforts of the brave men who fail, have yet their influence on those great results, and, if undertaken from high motives, their place among the agencies for good. The great orator shared perhaps too largely in that infirmity which last besets noble minds, but his policy seems to have been dictated throughout by the purest patriotism. It is in view of his constancy, his devotedness, and the single eye with which he pursued the great purpose of his life, that Niebuhr has called him a saint. He was a hero in no contracted sense, and none the less a martyr, that he died ffuthful to a cause which had become hopeless. Demosthenes inherited a delicate constitu- tion, but he overcame this weakness by the most rigid temperance in food and drink. He had an impediment in his speech, which, for a long time, would not suffer him to pro- nounce the letter "r." Moreover, ho had a weak voice, a short breath, and a very un- couth and ungracious manner; yet, by dint of resolution and infinite pains, he overcame all these defects. He accustomed himself to climb up steep and craggy places to facilitate his breathing and strengthen his voice; he declaimed with pebbles in his mouth to remedy the imperfection in his speech; he placed a looking-glass before him to correct the awkwardness of his gesture; and he learned from the best actors the proper graces of action and pronunciation. But, whatever stress he laid upon the ex- terior part of speaking, he was also very careful about the matter and the style. The latter he formed upon the model of Thucydi- 22 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT des, whose history for that purpose he tran- scribed eight times. So intent was he upon his study that he would often retire into a cave of the earth, and shave half his head, so that he could not, with decency, appear abroad until his hair was grown again. He also accustomed himself to harangue on the seashore, where the agitation of the waves gave him an idea of the motions in a popular assembly, and served to prepare and fortify him against them. Doubtless it was this energetic application to study which led those who envied his success to say that his orations "smelt of the lamp"; but he would truly retort that his lamp did not shine on the same kind of works as theirs. The orations of Demosthenes, upon which his fame as a statesman chiefly rests, are three "Philippics," against Philip of Macedon; three "Olynthiacs," against Philip's attack on the state of Olynthus; "On the Peace," "On the Embassy," "On the Affairs of the Chersonese," and "On the Crown." The latter contains a defense of his career, and by many is regarded as his masterpiece. CICERO B. C. AQE 106 Bom at Arpinum, Italy, 89 Served in social war, 17 79-77 Traveled in Greece and Asia, . . 27-29 75 Quaestor in Sicily, 31 70 Accused Verres, 36 69 Mdile 37 66 Praetor, 40 B. c. Aoa 63 Consul ; suppressed Catiliae's conspiracy, 43 58 Banished to Thessalonica, 48 51-50 Proconsul of Cilicia 55-56 49 Allied himself with Pompey, 67 44-43 Delivered his "Philippics" againat Antony 62-63 43 Proscribed and slain 63 MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, the fore- most orator of ancient Rome, a leading statesman, and the most brilliant of Roman men of letters, lived in the stirring later days of the Roman republic. On every hand were revolutions and civil wars. An old and decay- ing order of things was passing away. It was an age of great and daring spirits — Catiline, Caesar, Pompey, Antony — with whose history Cicero's life was closely intertwined. He was born at the old Italian town of Arpinum, in Latium, of a good family, in 106 B. C. He inherited from his father, who was a man of considerable culture, a large estate, and as a boy went to Rome, where he studied law, oratory, Greek philosophy, and Greek literature. He here acquired, in fact, the universal knowledge which he himself says in his essay " On the Orator " — De Oratore — an orator ought to possess. At the age of seventeen he served a few months as a soldier in the Marsic war ; but the forum had a much stronger appeal for him than the career of a soldier, and to this he devoted his talents. He soon became prominent in the law courts, and made his first speech, in his twenty- sixth year, in a criminal trial in which his client sought redress against one of the favor- ites of the powerful Sulla, then dictator. After a visit to Athens, and a tour in Asia Minor, where he profited by the society of eminent professors of rhetoric and men of letters, he returned to Rome, and at thirty years of age was in the highest repute in the Roman courts. About this time Cicero was appointed to the office of quaestor in Sicily, his duty being to supervise the corn supply of Rome, coming from that province. Here it was that he discovered the tomb of Archimedes, the cele- brated natural philosopher; and years after- ward — 70 B. C. — at the request of the Sicilians, undertook the impeachment of the infamous Verres, the result of which raised him to the pinnacle of reputation. In 66 B. C, at forty, he became praetor, and sup- ported in a great speech the passing of the Manilian law, which constituted Pompey commander against Mithridates, with extra- ordinary powers, in the place of Lucullus. Pompey was at this period accepted by the Roman oligarchy as their leader, though not without reluctance and distrust. Cicero gladly attached himself to their cause, and flattered himself with the hope of reconciling the senate with the knights by a more liberal and genial policy. Meanwhile, he hoped, by favor of the dominant party, to attain the consul- ship. He found himself a candidate for that magistracy along with Catiline, a man of ruined character and already under suspicion of plotting against the state. Cicero obtained § o IN LITERATURE 35 the consulship; Catiline was defeated, and thereupon betook himself to those treason- able machinations that are familiar to every student of Roman history. It was the busi- ness of Cicero to track these intrigues and defeat them. In one of the greatest philip- pics in any language, he mercilessly arraigned Catiline in the Roman senate ; and the vigor and courage with which he conducted him- self at this crisis won for him, by popular acclamation, the title of "father of his country." But the nobles ill requited the service he had done them. They now felt themselves serene in their ascendancy. Meanwhile, Cic- ero's enemies became more emboldened. Clodius, a worthless demagogue, assailed him with a formal charge of putting citizens to death summarily without appeal to the people. In vain did he assume the garb of mourning and traverse the streets as a suppliant. The magnates stood coldly aloof, and the factions arrayed against him did not scruple to menace his scanty defenders with violence. Cicero was obliged to seek safety in flight, and with- drew to Thessalonica. Clodius obtained a decree of the people for his banishment four hundred miles from the city, and the destruc- tion of his house on the Palatine, the site to be devoted to the erection of a temple of liberty. Pompey and Caesar had suffered Cicero to undergo this hiuniliation for their own pur- poses, but they were not disposed to submit to the arrogance of the upstart Clodius, who was now making himself generally obnoxious. In the following year they let it be under- stood that the persecution should cease. The partisans of Clodius raised tumults in the city, but they were speedily put down, and a resolution for the exile's recall was carried in the assembly of the people. Cicero had betrayed much weakness under banishment. The exultation with which he triumphed on his return was hardly more dignified. The senate, however, compli- mented him by coming forth to meet him, and the state undertook the restoration of his mansion. The armed opposition of Clodius was met by a counter demonstration on the part of Milo, a no less turbulent instrument of the oligarchy. But Cicero now felt himself powerless in the presence of chiefs of armies and leaders of factions. He attached himself more closely to Pompey, and devoted his eloquence to the defense of his patron's creatures, while he courted more and more the pursuit of literature in retire- ment. The attainment of a seat in the college of augurs on the death of Crassus, 53 B. C.», placed him in a position of dignity well suitfCd to his tastes. But Cffisar, though now absent in Gaul, was rapidly becoming a great power in the state, and Cicero did not fail to pay court to him also, proposing to celebrate his British wars in an epic poem. The death of Clodius, in 52 B. C, whose slayer, Milo, he defended, relieved him from the apprehension he had never yet shaken off. He accepted, though not without reluctance, the lot which assigned him the government of Cilicia for the year following. His conduct in this post seems to have been highly meritorious. He checked the corruption of his officials while he preserved his own purity ; and, distasteful as warlike affairs were to his studious and quiet temper, he did not shrink from leading his troops against the restless mountaineers. His vanity induced him to pretend to a triumph for his success in these trifling opera- tions; but in those degenerate days greater victories than his would have failed to secure such an honor, unless backed by the influence of the leaders of party, and neither Pompey nor Caesar was disposed to indulge him. The civil war between these two rivals was now imminent. Cicero naturally threw him- self into the ranks of the senatorial or con- servative party, which was blindly following the lead of Pompey; but he was coldly received by the violent men who ruled it, to whom his old-fashioned patriotism was utterly distasteful. Reluctantly and with much misgiving he quitted Italy in the train of the senate and consented to set up a shadow of the commonwealth on a foreign shore; while Caesar attached to himself in the city, as dictator and consul, both the substance and forms of constitutional power. After the disaster of Pharsalia and the rout of the senatorial forces, Cicero quickly threw aside his arms and returned to Italy, where Caesar had left Antony in command. He was soon relieved from apprehensions for his own safety by kind assurances from the victor, and, while Caesar was occupied in Egypt, Africa, and Spain, he withdrew alto- gether from public life. During this period, however, he abstained from making advances to Caesar, and did 26 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT himself honor by composing a panegyric upon Cato, to which Caesar condescended to make an iU-tempered reply. But the conqueror's clemency to Marcellus at last won his heart, and now, after the death of Pompey, Cato, and Scipio, with all the other chiefs of his party, he could not refrain from declaring warmly in favor of the new ruler. Csesar felt the compliment, and repaid it by sparing, at his instance, the life of Ligarius. The conduct of Cicero at this critical moment was undoubtedly the most truly politic. Other republicans, such as Brutus and Cassius, who had espoused the senatorial cause with feverish zeal or angry factiousness, did not scruple to give their actual support to the new government, and to accept oflBce under it, while they secretly chafed against it and threw themselves into a conspiracy against the life of their master. The differ- ence between their spirit and that of Cicero is marked by the fact that, in the plot to murder Caesar, which numbered, it was said, as many as eighty men of public note, Cicero himself was not included. The covert assas- sins dared not consult with men of true honor. So, too, when the liberators, as they called themselves, repaired to the provinces to strengthen their party against the Caesarians, Cicero declined to undertake active service. After the death of Caesar, Cicero remained in Italy, and employed himself in guiding, as he thought, the conduct of the young Octavius, the nephew and heir of the dictator. This crafty dissembler promised well, and Cicero expected to be able to use him as a convenient opponent to Antony. It must be confessed that the veteran statesman was himself playing a part, and dissembling with the youth whom he meant eventually to throw aside. It was a game on both sides, and Octavius won it. He looked on with satisfaction while Cicero excited the passions of the citizens against Antony, in the series of orations to which he gave the name of "Philippics," while he armed the consuls Hirtius and Pansa to overthrow him. The orator, now advanced in years, showed at this crisis all the vigor with which he had encountered Catiline twenty years earlier. To him the people intrusted the government of the city, and while all the forces of the republic were concentrated under various leaders on the Cisalpine, he might have fan- cied himself for a moment the real controller of affairs. But after the death of Hirtius and Pansa in the battles before Mutina, and the discomfiture of the republicans under Decimus Brutus, the opposing leaders, Octa- vius, Antonius, and Lepidus, formed a com- pact, and assimied to be a triumvirate, or a board of three special officers for the regula- tion of the commonwealth. Their arrival at Rome was followed by bloody proscriptions of their pubUc and private enemies. Antony demanded the head of Cicero, and Octavius yielded it. Old and feeble, the orator fled to his villa at Formiae, pursued by the soldiers of Antony, and was overtaken as he was being carried in a litter. With a calm courage he put his head out of the litter and bade the murderers strike; and his throat was cut by one of Antony's bravos. His head and hands were then cut off and sent to Rome, where Antony caused them to be affixed to the rostra, and Fulvia, the widow of Clodius and the wife of Antony, pierced with her needle the tongue which had declaimed against both her husbands. Cicero perished at the close of the year 43 B. C, at the age of sixty-three. Octavius, in his later years, as the emperor Augustus, coolly said of the great statesman and patriot to whose murder he had consented, " He was a good citizen, who really loved his country." The saying was indeed well deserved, but it should have come from purer lips. The character of Cicero has been depicted by panegyrists, and by calumniators. As usual, the truth probably lies between the extreme views. His virtues far outnumbered his vices and foibles. It is true he never lived happily with his wife, Terentia, and that he repudiated her according to the law of the times. Nor was it made a matter of reflection upon him that he afterward married his own ward, Publia, wealthy as well as beautiful. The yoimg bride seems, however, to have contributed nothing to his domestic happiness, and he soon repudiated her, too, for the satisfaction she had seemed to evince at the death of his much-loved daughter, TulUa. It has been charged against Cicero that he was deficient in prudence, decision, and forti- tude; but the chief charge against him has been vanity, which led him into his worst errors. He was not a great or a wise politician ; but throughout his whole political career he was a true patriot. He loved not only his country, but mankind in general. He loved them not merely from a kindly nature, but IN LITERATURE 37 from reflection and self-discipline. As a specimen of the highest culture of the ancient world, both moral and intellectual, he must ever stand preeminent. He was a wiser if not a more sincere patriot than Cato ; his private virtues were subjected to a severer test than those of Marcus Aure- lius. His intellectual superiority is suffi- ciently attested by the important place he attained in the face of many disadvantages, in the conduct of public affairs. As a man he was distinguished by steadfast integrity and justice, "faithful among the faithless" of the time. Learned, philosophic, and genial, he won a host of friends, and was singularly free from envy and jealousy of rivals. His religion was that of a theist, emanci- pated from legend and superstition. He believed, though without bigotry, in the immortality of the soul. His ethical system was practical and high-toned, as the third part of his work "On Duties" will show. He there discusses the question, whether a man, in dealing with another, may conceal important facts, as, if bringing com to a famine-struck town, the fact that other corn- ships are on their way. He decides in favor of openness. What it is for the interests of others to know, he in effect says, should not be withheld from them. Cicero's enduring fame, however, will rest on his philosophical wTitings quite as much, j)erhaps, as on his qualities as an orator. He was one of the principal channels through which Greek thought and culture diffused itself in the Roman world. His philosophy shows the enlargement of view that followed from the establishment of the Roman state. Two conceptions became much clearer through him than they had been to the Greeks ; duty to coimtry, duty to man as man. Rome, which had stimulated patriotism, first devel- oped the consciousness of humanity. "The fellowship of the human race," "the citizen- ship of the world," are phrases very promi- nent in his writings. Notable, too, is the influence of the "Roman peace" in his glorifications of human industry, "by which a new nature had been brought into the natural world." The great bulk of Cicero's works may be conveniently classed as (1) political, (2) philosophical, (3) personal. The first division comprises a collection of fifty-six speeches delivered in the forum or the courts, though some of them were written for publication and not actually delivered. Among these are : "For the Manilian Law," "Against Catiline,'' "On the Agrarian Law," "Against Verres," "For Archias," "For Milo," "Against Piso," "For Marcellus," and the "Philippics," so- called. Besides the speeches themselves, Cicero produced several treatises on the subject of oratory, which, as part of the Roman training for public life, may be regarded as political. Of these the principal are, " On the Orator " and " Brutus." To this division belong still more strictly the impor- tant works, "On Laws" and "On the Repub- lic," which contain valuable references to the events of early Roman history. To the second division belong the famous treatises on philosophy, from which we derive most of our knowledge concerning the Greek systems which succeeded to the schools of Plato and Aristotle, and in which it became the fashion to affect an interest at Rome. Of these, "The Academics," the "Tusculan Disputations," the "True Ends of Life," and others which have been lost, were devoted to speculative questions; the works, "On Divination" and "On the Nature of the Gods," refer more strictly to theological tra- ditions; while the book "On Duties" is an elaborate treatise on moral obligations. The smaller works, "On Old Age" and "On Friendship," may also be placed more or less definitely under the head of practical phi- losophy. Last to be named are his "Familiar Let- ters," of which about eight thousand are extant, half of them being addressed to his lifelong friend, Atticus. "These," says Mid- dleton, his admiring English biographer, "may justly be called the memoirs of the times, for they contain not only a distinct account of every memorable event, but lay open the springs and motives whence each of them proceeded." His works as a whole form the most authentic monuments of the events of his age. Moreover, in addition to their intrinsic worth, philosophical, historical, and biographical, they possess the charm of consummate literary style, and present to us the Latin language at its highest pitch of development. "Cicero," says Dr. Vicesimus Knox, "the world's great model in the oratorical and the philosophical, is no less eminent in the epis- tolary style. He rivaled his great patterns, the Greeks, in eloquence and philosophy; and he excelled them in his letters." 28 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT VERGIL, OR VIRGIL B. C. AGE 70 Bom near Mantua, Italy, 66 Assumed the toga virilis, 15 42-37 Wrote his Bitcolica, or "Eclogues,". 2S-33 41 Ejected from his paternal farm by soldiers of Octavius, 29 B. c. AOa 40 Restored to estates, 30 37 Settled at Rome, 33 37-30 Wrote his Georgica, 33-40 29-19 Wrote the ^neid 41-61 19 At Athens; died at Brundisium, Italy, 61 pUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARO, commonly •■■ called Vergil, or Virgil, greatest of the Roman poets, was about thirty years yoimger than Julius Caesar and Lucretius, and a little older than Augustus, Maecenas, and Horace. It is thought by critics that his name was written Vergilius, the first syllable suggest- ing a Gallic descent, and that he was not by birth a Roman citizen. Vergil was bom at Andes, a small village near Mantua, in the first consulate of Pompey and Crassus, 70 B. C. His father was a well- to-do farmer of the Cisalpine province, and gave his son the best education. He assumed the toga virilis of the Roman citizen at the age of fifteen, and studied at Cremona, Milan, and then at Rome. He studied, also, at Naples underParthenius, a native of Bithynia, and at Rome was instructed in the principles of Epicurean philosophy. With delicate health and of nervous temperament the young student shrank from arms and from oratory. But he devoted himself to study with intense application, and thus laid the foundation of that varied learning, for which he was scarcely less remarkable than for poetical genius. It is uncertain how long he may have been absent from home, and merely a reasonable conjecture that, after completing his studies, he returned to his paternal farm and there wrote some of the small pieces which are attrib- uted to him. But his peaceful seclusion was disturbed by an unexpected event, which is believed to be alluded to in his first "Eclogue." Octavius Caesar (Augustus), on his return to Italy after the battle of Phihppi, 42 B. C, assigned to a portion of his veterans the lands in the neighborhood of Mantua, thereby depriving Vergil of his patrimony, which, however, was afterward restored to him by the intercession of powerful friends. Soon after this occurrence — probably 37 B. C. — Vergil settled at Rome, and was introduced to Augustus, and to his minister, Maecenas, the munificent patron of genius, and continued during the remainder of his fife to enjoy their friendship and patronage. In 19 B. C. he visited Greece, intending to make a tour of that country, and to revise and perfect his Mneid; but having met the emperor at Athens on his return from the East, and finding his feeble health fast declin- ing, he resolved to accompany him to Italy. He succeeded in reaching the shores of his native country, and died soon after his arrival at Brundisium on the 22d of September, 19 B. C, before completing his fifty-first year. In compliance with his wish, his body waa conveyed to Naples, and there buried at the distance of about two miles from the city, at Posilipo, where a monument, traditionally said to be his, is still shown. From his own time, Posilipo has been a place of religious pilgrimage and superstitious reverence. No fife recorded offers a more complete dedication to one great purpose, or a more serene and unbroken concentration of powers on the poetic office. The poet was tall, dark, and somewhat rustic in air; modest, shy, retiring in disposition, and somewhat proud ; a confirmed invalid, and never married. His life and his verse were pure and refined, full of a deep religious melancholy ; he lived apart from all the storms and distractions around him, both public and private. Simplicity, honor, conscientiousness, are the words by which he is described by his closest friends. As already intimated, Vergil was born under the republic before the Itahans across the Po had received the Roman citizenship. He was twenty-two when the battle of Pharsaha made JuUus dictator of the civilized world; and he was thirty-nine when the battle of Ac- tium made his friend Augustus supreme ruler. The poet, deeply sympathizing with the new hopes for an era of peace and order, saw in the imperial dictatorship an epoch of pros- perity and stability ; and in the unification of the Roman provinces the prospect of a greater Rome to be. His whole career was inspired by a mission to idealize this future of peaceful development, with Rome as the protector and leader of the world. His works consist of, (1) Bucolica, or "Eclogues," pastoral poems, amounting to ten, written 42-37 B. C. ; (2) Georgica, "Georgics," an agricultural poem in four books, written 37-30 B. C. ; (3)J?neis, or the Mneid, a national epic poem, in twelve IN LITERATURE books, written about 29-19 B. C, besides some minor poems which are ascribed to him. The "Eclogues" are doubtless his earliest pro- ductions, and must, therefore, be estimated chiefly as indications of the future efforts of the poet. In the "Georgics" the powers of the poet are more matured ; freshness and vigor are given to a subject possessing but little of the poetical element; and the rude and rough hexameter of Lucretius is advanced to a degree of perfection which cannot be surpassed. But the jEneid is the central work of his life. Its form is found in the Homeric world of the ideal heroes; but its inner spirit is a contin- uous appeal to the sense of national dignity and to the patriotic hopes of his countrymen. Thus the poem is surrounded with all the halo of the Homeric legend ; and, though being in form a continuation of the Iliad and the Odyssey, in substance it is the epic of the national fortunes, alive with patriotic memo- ries and hopes in every part, rousing the Roman race to a sense of greater glories to come and a new mission to fulfill. The cen- ter of this new epoch was the dictatorship vested in the house of Julius Caesar, which the poem is designed to glorify, and almost to deify. But Vergil was no court flatterer. He was a patriot, and an enthusiast, who profoundly believed in a social and political revolution, under which the transition from the ancient world to the modern was ultimately effected. Not in the ways anticipated by the poet, who, like most of the greater Romans of the early empire, from Caesar to Marcus Aurehus, believed in a moral, social, and religious regeneration of the world without the revolu- tion embodied in Christianity and Mosaism. It was an error ; but it was a noble mistake. And the idea of this moral, material, social, and religious revivification of the ancient society under a beneficent emperor was never put in a finer and more religious spirit than it was in the jEneid, under its peaceful, be- neficient, pious hero, ^neas. Indeed, the whole epic is a poetical analogue of Augus- tine's "City of God," a pagan idealization of the city of the deified emperor. And it is this idea of a religious regeneration of mankind to be worked out under the leader- ship of Rome, as prefigured in his early poem, the Pollio, or fourth "Eclogue," which gave Vergil his vast influence throughout the Catholic period. This vision of a peaceful reorganization of the world, and the intense social and religious earnestness of Vergil, separate the ^neid from all the literary epics, ancient or modem, and place it alongside of the Divina Commcdia and the Paradise Lost. His ideal of the destiny and mission of Rome is inferior to the ideal of Dante and Milton — the destiny and mission of humanity. But it is less vague and less superhuman ; it is more real, more definite, and more true to fact. The Augustan age is often compared to that of Louis XIV., but it was far larger and with a grander future before it. Vergil combines Comeille and Racine, and surpasses both. He displays the heroic types, the moral eleva- tion, the massive dignity of Comeille, together with the religious spirit, the leaming, the pathos, the consummate mastery over lan- guage of Racine. But his theme is far less artificial, remote, and literary than that of any of the French or the Italian tragic and epic poets, save Dante alone. He was not presenting an historical picture, or dealing with an imaginary world : he believed in the reality or the mythology which he used as his machinery; and his main object was to present to his own countrymen the past, the future, and the dignity of their common coim- try. In this conception of human progress, unity, and life, he makes a step toward the ideal poet of humanity. Vergil was one of the most leamed and most serious of all poets. Like Dante, Milton, and Racine, he was profoundly saturated with the best culture of his age. He lived in personal relations with the great statesmen of his epoch, but meditated on the world of action from a distant and poetic retirement. Happily, his life was free from the cares and disap- pointments which weighed on the three poets whom he most resembles. Of all poets, Vergil was perhaps the most intensely conscientious and laborious. He said that he produced verses as a bear does her cubs, by licking them into shape. In twenty-four years of incessant labor, he wrote less than 13,000 verses. He spent seven years on the 2,188 lines of the " Georgics," and eleven years on the Mneid, which consists of only 9,896 lines, and which was unfinished at his death. He gave a characteristic proof of his passion for perfection, when he directed his friends to destroy the manuscript to which his final touches were still wanting. Fortunately, at the order of Augustus, they 30 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT disobeyed the poet, and saved to the world the great Roman masterpiece. Rdinan poetry is less spontaneous, less imaginative, and more artificial than that of Greece ; but, from the social point of view, its higher level has a finer moral power ; it has a nobler personality beneath its voices, and is more fully inspired with a national mission. In all this, Vergil stands preeminent as the national poet of Rome; and since his time he has always remained the supreme poet of the Latin race. In the middle ages, Vergil exerted the same spell, and even in church hymns was addressed as poetarum maxime. The reverential devotion of Dante to Vergil led him to personify the poet of Italy as earthly wisdom : " My master and my author," as he is invoked in the "Divine Comedy." And all through the mediaeval and renais- sance epochs, and down to the rise of the rev- olutionary and romantic outburst of the last century, Vergil reigned supreme. We can now see how vastly inferior he is in native purity and in sublime imagination to Homer and iEschylus; but we can also see better than ever how completely he embodied the dignity and social greatness of Rome, as it passed from a turbulent republic into a world- wide dictatorship. It is not necessary here to enlarge on the consummate mastery over language pos- sessed by Vergil, the majestic roll of his matchless hexameter, the symmetry and perfection of liis poetic form ; on his immense learning and philosophic spirit ; on the deeply practical and moral force of his appeals to duty and heroism; on his spiritual present- ment of human hfe and death ; on his refined picture of the great and just ruler of men ; on his consummate gift of tenderness, and the intense pathos with which he has painted heroic women ; or on the style which makes him the best known of the ancients by virtue of his massive and monumental embodiment of noble thought. Inferior as he is in spontaneous imagination to the greatest poets of Greece — to Dante and Ariosto, to Shakes- peare and Milton — he will always remain, by virtue of his unique historical position, one of the greatest poets of the world. The qualities of the genius of Vergil have been thus summed up by Saint-Beuve: " Warm love of nature, love of poetry ; respect for the great poets, and judicious imitation of their beauties, the erudition and science of the antiquary; patriotism, the price of being a Roman citizen, humanity, piety, sensibility, and tenderness. But, above all, his principal characteristic and perfection is that sovereign quality which embraces in it, and unites all the others — a quality which appears also in the genius of Raphael — unity of tone and color, harmony, fitness of parts, proportion, and sustained good taste." PLUTARCH Wise, hoaest Plutarch ! to thy deathless praise The sons of Rome this grateful statue raise; For why? Both Greece and Rome thy fame have shar'd; Their heroes written, and their lives compar'd. But thou thyself couldst never write thy own: Their lives had parallels, but thine has none. — Dryden. JpLUTARCH, the most famous biographer ■*■ in history, and a moralist as well, has left us a very imperfect account of his own life. But it is probably suflScient that we know him as the author of the incomparable Ldves. From his own writings we gather that he was a native of Chseronea, in Bceotia, and was a youthful student when Nero visited Delphi, in 66 A. D. He was probably born between the years 45 and 50, of the first century, A. D. He belonged to a good family, members of which occupied those high municipal oflSces that he himself in turn filled when he went back to settle at Chseronea after his long travels. He held it to be a point of honor to give to the place of his birth some of the celebrity he had himself acquired. "Born in a little town," he used to say, with simple pride, "I love to hve there in order that it should not become still smaller." Plutarch prosecuted his studies at Athens, under Ammonius of Alexandria, in whose house he dwelt. His preliminary education having been completed, he set out upon his travels, first visiting Egypt, where he began to accumulate his vast stores of historical and IN LITERATURE 81 mythological lore. In his treatise of " Isis and Osiris" he has described the principal ideas he entertained of the Egyptian religion, and this work possesses for us a singular interest. From this period, Plutarch systematically wTote down descriptions of what he saw, dili- gently examined public and private records, and composed collections of memoirs which eventually were of the greatest use to the historian and the moralist. On his return to Greece he visited the prin- cipal academies, and resided for some time at Sparta for the express purpose of studying on the spot the mechanism of its ancient govern- ment and of its legislation. Wherever he went he gathered facts and notable sayings, consulting, for the purpose, books, statues, medals, inscriptions, and paintings. "He appears," says one of his ancient biographers, "to have had his memory always engaged in collecting information, and his judgment ceaselessly occupied in discerning what it was necessary to reject or retain." Applying the same attention to the study of the positive sciences, and then to medicine, to the laws of health, and to other matters of a practical kind, and being eager, above all things, to become acquainted with the his- tory and development of the philosophic sects, Plutarch apparently remained ignorant of nothing that was known in his time. Before repairing to Rome, he was sent by his fellow citizens on a mission to the pro- consul of Achaia — a circumstance which attests the public esteem he was already beginning to enjoy. It was long beheved, on the authority of Suidas, that he was the tutor of Trojan, who, on being raised to the impe- rial purple, appointed him consul, and heaped honors and wealth upon him. This is proba- bly a mere invention. It is likely that Plu- tM"ch's residence in Rome, which extended over more than a quarter of a centiuy, was interrupted by frequent visits to Greece. During his long stay in the "eternal city" he did not find time, according to his own admission, to acquire a knowledge of the Latin tongue. He learned, indeed, the names of ordinary objects, but it was not until late in life that he applied himself to the study of Latin literature. Many celebrated Greeks attended his courses of philosophy, and not a few of his auditors belonged to the Roman aristocracy. He spoke fluently, being aided by notes care- fully prepared beforehand, which in his old age he edited, and gave to his thoughts the form in which they have descended to us. In the same way he has preserved his "Table Talk," the substance of familiar conversations which he held, chiefly at Rome, with men of rank and talent; so that it is possible to follow the development of his ideas and his doctrines during that long space of time. From various passages in his works it appears that while at Rome he was also intrusted by his fellow citizens with some kind of public office, like that of the modern charge d'affaires, and it is to be regretted that he has not more fully explained the nature and the duties of this post. The period at which he returned to estab- lish himself at Chaeronea is uncertain. He was there elected archon, and then he filled the humble post of inspector of buildings. His renown was at this time spread over all Greece. Athens accorded to him the right of citizenship; Corinth and Elis invited him to their grand civic ffeasts ; he was priest of the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. Foreigners who visited the principal cities of Greece went to see him, and accounted it an honor to be received at his home. His home was that of a sage, and he lived in tranquillity in the midst of his family. In this quiet retirement, Plu- tarch, reposing at the close of an extremely laborious life, put in order his voluminous notes and documents, and composed the works which have made his name immortal. The character of Plutarch is more inti- mately known to us than the facts regarding his Hfe. He was a well-bred, well-trained, well-read, genial, just, and honorable moralist of the old school: somewhat garrulous, sen- tentious, and credulous, but overflowing with interesting anecdote, a consummate master of life-like portraiture, with a deep foundation of pure, simple, and humane morality. He was an enlightened and pious polytheist, verging on monotheism of the neo-Platonic kind; who, without much sympathy for modem Roman culture, and without much knowledge of the Roman empire at its highest grandeur, devoted himself to devising a spontaneous scheme of practical ethics. His ethical writings, called in Latin Moralia, are among the most valuable pictures we possess of antique manners and thoughts. But they are surpassed by the Parallel Lives, or studies of character of illustrious Greeks and Romans in pairs, from Theseus to his own age. There were in all some fifty hves, of which fourteen 32 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT are lost, and unfortunately in that number are those of Epaminondas, Scipio, and the early Csesars. Plutarch was not a philosopher, for he had no powers of original thought and very little precision of reasoning; nor was he an histo- rian, or at all interested in the evolution of civilization as a whole. He was, as he justly describes himself, a moralist, a student of character; and his Lives are pictures of human nature, not narratives of events. Like Dr. Johnson, in a much later age, Plu- tarch always turns to the moral and human side of every incident ; he was a great talker, a keen judge of moral actions, and was him- self the oracle of a highly cultured society, living apart from the world of affairs toward the latter years of one declining epoch, and profoundly unconscious of the new epoch which was to succeed it. It is significant that Plutarch, a professed student of morality and religion, writing one hundred years after Christ, seems never to have heard of Chris- tianity. It is needless here to describe the Parallel Lives, which, in the library, follow Herodotus and Thucydides. They have been subject to famous eulogies from the time of Montaigne and Henry IV. down to that of Rousseau and Madame Roland — when the great moralist of antiquity had a very real part in forming the tone of the revolutionary movement. The Lives appeared in a Latin version in 1470, at Rome; in Greek, at Florence, in 1517; in French, by Amyot, in 1559; in English, by North, in 1579. The latter was used by Shakespeare as his textbook for Coriolanus, Juliiis Ccesar, and Antony and Cleopatra. It has been said, and it is hardly an exaggeration, that if all other record of antiquity but Plu- tarch's were lost, we could still conceive by his aid the general spirit of those ages. And it has often been declared that if we could save but one secular book in the world, the most valuable to preserve would be this unique record of antiquity as a whole. "In spite of certain reserves that criticism might make," observes a modern critic, " the Lives is one of the most excellent books which honor humanity. No known book, not being a work of devotion or of imagination, has ever exerted a greater influence in forming the ideas of generations, or has ever been so well and universally read. Though not a work of history or philosophy, Plutarch's Lives still remain for the general public the source of all practical knowledge of the genius of antiquity. His pictures of human nature under military civilization are as immortal as those of Shakespeare and Scott under mediaeval and modem manners. It is the book of those who can nobly think, and dare, and do. It is a mirror in which all men may look at them- selves." A. D. 1265 1289 1290 1294 1300 1301 DANTE AGE A. D. Bom at Florence, Italy, 1302 At victory of Guelplis at Campaldino, 24 1306 Served in expedition against Pisa, . 25 1307-09 Wrote Vita Nuova, 29 Commenced Divina Commedia; 1313 elected one of the priors of Flor- 1317 ence, 35 Ambassador to Rome on behalf of 1318 Bianchi, 36 1321 AOB Fined and banished, 37 Visits Padua, 41 Lived chiefly in Verona, Forli, and Casentino; visited Paris, . . . 42-44 Took refuge at Pisa, 48 Made his permanent home at Ra- venna 52 Divina Commedia finished, .... 53 Died at Ravenna, 56 ■pjANTE ALIGHIERI, the great Italian ■*-^ poet who opened the roll of modern litera- ture, was born in Florence, Italy, in May, 1265. His father was a lawyer, and a member of the Guelph party, whose family was of honorable and ancient descent, though not on the roll of nobles. The son was baptized Durante, afterward contracted into Dante. Of Dante's youth little is known. The first fact of importance narrated by all his biogra- phers is the extraordinary affection he con- ceived for Beatrice Portinari, when only nine years of age. Beatrice was nearly a year younger when they first met at a festival at the house of her father, and Boccaccio says, that "young as Dante was, her image was at once engraved so deeply upon his heart, that from that hour to the end of his life never was it effaced " ; and, when she died, he "suffered an affiction so profound, and shed so many and such bitter tears, that his friends believed they could end only in death." 5 > 3 Z 5- 2 IN LITERATURE 36 Except this early love, too many of the facts and dates connected with Dante's life, which have been the subject of learned dis- cussion, remain, and seem destined to remain, uncertain. The places where he studied, his masters — among whom we only know for a certainty of Brunette Latini — his friends, if we except Guido Cavalcanti, Giotto, Casella ; Charles Martel, king of Hungary; Forese, brother of Corso Donato ; his sister Piccarda, and perhaps one or two others whom he names in the poem, are involved in obscurity. It is said, however, that he studied at Bologna, Padua, and at Paris. Boccaccio describes him as skilled in painting and music. Some years after the death of Beatrice, Dante married Gemma Donati, a lady of noble family, by whom he had five sons, and one daughter, named Beatrice, who took the veil. Three of his sons died young. Pietro and Jacopo lived to edit their father's great poem and write a commentary upon it. In spite of opinions to the contrary, there seem to be no good reasons for believing the marriage uncongenial. Dante appears to have early taken an active part in public affairs; and we hear of him when quite young, as having fought against the Ghibellines at Campaldino, in 1289, and also in the wars against the Pisans, in 1290. The fame of his studies, and his reputation for prudence and inviolable firmness and honesty, raised him, while yet in the prime of Ufe, to the highest dignities of the republic. In 1300 he was elected one of the priors of Florence, and probably in the same year began the Divina Commedia, All Italy was at that time divided between the factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibel- lines— the Guelphs the supporters of the priest- hood, and the Ghibellines the supporters of the empire. Florence was at the same time dis- tracted by the quarrels of two powerful families, the Donati and the Cerchi, and their adherents. The discord was increased by the arrival in Florence of the chiefs of the Neri and the Bianchi, two rival factions of Pistoia, who came to submit their differences to the arbitration of the senate. The Bianchi allied themselves with the Cerchi, the Neri with the Donati. In a secret assembly held by the Neri, it was resolved to entreat the pope, Boniface VIII., to invite Charles of Valois to march against Florence, to put an end to these discords and reform the state. The step justly irritated the Bianchi ; they armed themselves, and hastened to the priors to accuse their adversaries of conspiring against the public liberty. The Neri armed in their turn, the whole town was in agitation, and a conflict was imminent, when the priors, on the advice of Dante, banished the leaders of both the rival factions. He thus provoked against himself the hatred of both parties, and that of Boniface and the supporters of Charles of Valois, by causing his offered mediation to be refused. Boniface, who feared and disliked the Bianchi, now urged Charles to march on Florence. He did so, but only to take possession of the town on his own account. The Neri tri- umphed, and Dante was the principal object of their vengeance. Accused on the strength of a forged document, of extorting money while he was ambassador to Boniface VIII., in 1301, he was sentenced the following year to make pecuniary reparation, and to two years' banishment. His house was given up to pillage, and his lands devas- tated. Three months afterward, he having neither paid the fine, nor sought to justify himself, his enemies condemned him to be burnt to death. Then began for Dante "the hell of exile — that slow, bitter, lingering death, which none can know but the exile himself — that consumption of the soul, which has only one hope to console it." He seems to have several times traversed the whole of Italy, and to have visited Paris. In 1306 we find him at Padua; in 1307, at Casentino; and, in 1309, in Paris. In 1313 he seems to have taken refuge at Pisa, and four years later took up his permanent abode at Ravenna, where he shortly finished the Divina Commedia. He wandered, unshaken by poverty and suffering, "from province to province, from city to city, from court to court, to see if among the heads of parties, among warriors of renown, he might find a man who could or < would save Italy, and he found no one." He says of himself that he was tossed about like a ship without sail or rudder, driven through every port, harbor, and shore, by the bleak wind of grievous poverty. He bore himself proudly under his great adversity, taking refuge in his conscience — and when, some time after, he was offered permission to return to the Florence he loved so well, under condi- tion of publicly asking pardon, he refused in s magnificent letter still extant. In one of his wanderings across the moun- 36 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT tains, shortly before his death, Dante knocked at the gate of the monastery of Santa Croce del Corvo. The monk who opened the door to the pale stranger asked, "What seek you here?" Dante gazed aroimd with one of those looks in which the soul speaks from within, and slowly answered, "Peace." "There is in this scene," says Mazzini, "some- thing suggestive of thoughts that lead up to the eternal type of all martyrs of genius and love, praying to his Father, the Father of all, upon the mount of Olives, for peace of soul and strength for the sacrifice." We last hear of the wanderer at Ravenna, at the house of Guido Novello da Polenta, nephew of the unhappy Francesca da Rimini. Through the influence of Guido, Dante was sent as ambassador to the republic of Venice in 1321. The Venetian senate refused him an audience, and he returned to Ravenna, where he died on September 14th of the same year, at the age of fifty-six. Dante was buried with great honor, " in the garb of philosopher and poet," at the portal of Saint Peter's church, in the spot where his tomb is still shown. The grave was once threatened with desecration by the papal party; but in 1483 Cardinal Bembo raised the tomb that we now see under much restora^ tion. The Florentines, who twenty years after his death again denounced their great poet as a rebel, an outlaw, and a thief, have many times since in vain sought for his bones. These at the sixth centenary of his birth, 1865, were finally refused by the city of Ravenna — which still remains the last "refuge and resting place " of the greatest of Italians. The dates and sequence of his various works are matter of conjecture. Doubtless the Vita Nuova is the earliest, and has been given the date 1294. It is an account of his love for Beatrice, written after her death. This exquisite little book is the outpouring of the incense of Dante's soul in gratitude to God for the joy of loving. It is ftill of purity, gentleness, and delicacy; the prose of much of it has been declared by the greatest of Italian critics to be a finished model of lan- guage and style, surpassing the best pages of Boccaccio, while many of the sonnets are far beyond the most admired of Petrarch's, almost untranslatable, so exquisite are they in their construction, and so purely Italian in their harmony. By far the most celebrated is the Divina Commedia, in which he purposes "to say to Beatrice that which never yet was said of any woman." In this version of hell, purgatory, and heaven we have an encyclopedic view of the highest culture and knowledge of the age, expressed in the sublimest and most exquisite poetry, and with consummate power and beauty of language. These three distinct poems describe punishment without end or hope, expiatory sufferings, and eternal felicity. The Divina Commedia may be said to have made the Italian language, which was before so rude and unformed that Dante himself hesitated to employ it on such a theme, and is said to have commenced his poem in Latin. No work, probably, in the world, except the Bible, has given rise to so vast a literature. The limits of a biographical sketch render impossible an adequate description of a work so gigantic as the Divina Commedia, which the abb^ Lamennais describes as having been created to sum up and be the expression and monument of the whole middle ages, before they passed away into the abyss. "Grand, terrible, and lugubrious is the immense appa- rition. One feels as if witnessing a mighty funeral, and hearing the service of the dead in a huge cathedral draped in black. Yet, mean- while, a breath of life, of a hfe destined to assume a higher and purer development than that which has expired, passes through the aisles, and rises to the vaulted roof of the inunense edifice — the quickening of a new life thrills through its mighty womb. The great poem is at once a tomb and a cradle — the splendid tomb of a world passing away, the cradle of a dawning brighter world to come. It is a porch that unites two temples — the temple of the past and the temple of the future. The past has deposited therein its religion, its ideas, its science — as the Egyptians deposited their kings and sjonbolic gods in the sepulchres of Thebes and Memphis. The future brings to it its born language of a splendid poetry. It is a mystic infant that draws its hfe from the two sources of sacred tradition and profane fiction — Moses and St. Paul, Homer and Vergil. Its glance tiuTied toward Greece and Rome announces Petrarch, Boccaccio, and a host to come; its thirst for light and knowledge, its eager search into the mysteries of the universe and its laws and constitution, foretell Galileo. Night still broods over the earth, but the horizon is streaked with the coming dawn." In the Commedia Dante's pride of soul is particularly manifested in the disdainful IN LITERATURE 87 silence he preserves as to his enemies. Not one, save Boniface VIII., whom he deemed it was necessary to punish in the name of religion and Italy, has he placed in hell. He seems to have applied to them the words spoken by Vergil in the beginning of the poem, that they were worthy neither of heaven nor hell. Equally strong in love and hatred, it was the love of right, and the hatred of wrong that inspired him — not love of himself, nor hatred of other men. The poem, which chronicles the destiny of the human race, chronicles also the poet's own struggles — with the wanderings of his under- standing, with the fire of the poet, with the fury of his passions. It chronicles the puri- fication of heart by which he passed from the hell of struggle to the heaven of victory — his desire to hve in the future, in the second life. The grand thought of a mutual respon- sibiUty, joining in one bond the whole human race, was ever before his eyes. The connec- tion between this world and the next is brought forward every moment in the poem. A feeling of tenderness, engendered by this idea, gleams across the Purgatorio, and even finds its way into the Inferno. The spirits even there anxiously ask for tidings of the earth, and desire to send back news of them- selves. The poem, as a whole, is a complete personi- fication of the intense religious spirit of the middle ages, and fully justifies the title posterity has bestowed upon its author, of the "Christian Homer." The next most important work is the frag- ment called the Convito, or "Banquet," which takes the form of a commentary on some canzoni, or short poems, of the author, of which there are only three, though the work, if completed, would have contained fourteen. The De Monarchia (in Latin) expounds Dante's theory of the divinely intended gov- ernment of the world by a universal emperor acting in harmony with a universal pope. Another unfinished work, De Vulgari Eloquio, discusses the origin of languages, and the dialects of Italian in particular. Canzoniere is a considerable collection of short poems, sonnets, and other forms of verse ; and, finally, we have a dozen epistles addressed mainly to leading statesmen or rulers. There are also some "Eclogues" and other minor works, as well as several of doubtful authenticity. It is difficult to vmderstand Dante's phi- losophy without a rather intimate acquaint- ance with the historical background. The true meaning of the struggle between Guelph- ism and Ghibellinism must be constantly held in view. The names of Guelph and Ghibelhne, which in Germany only con- veyed the idea of a family quarrel, signified far more in Italy. In the latter, Ghibellinism was feudality, the noblesse — Guelphism was the community, the people. If it supported the pope, it was because the pope supported it. The people triumphed, the community established itself irrevocably free and equal; and although, from wealth or military skill, certain noble families still obtained supreme power in some of the towns, the nobility, as a caste, was completely effaced. The people, the conquerors, stood embarrassed with their victory. The dawning of the day for the gathering together in one, all the people whose different races had crossed and mingled together in Italy, had not yet arisen. A kind of anarchy, therefore, began in the absence of one governing principle single and strong enough to bear down all fractional and per- sonal aims, aU local egotisms. This state of things was complicated by the interference of the French, who were called in by the popes. When Urban IV. called Charles of Anjou into Italy, the patricians — GhibeUines — were averse to him. After the Bianchi and the Neri parties were formed, Boniface VIII. called in Charles of Valois ; the Bianchi, who were plebians, were prosecuted, and the Neri, the patricians, then made them- selves Guelphs, because they sympathized with Charles, the envoy of Boniface. The Bianchi then allied themselves to the Ghib- eUines, whose ancient principle of feudalism had been irrevocably crushed. Dante, who in early life had been a Guelph, was thenceforth a Ghibelline ; that is to say, he was always on the side of the people, he always belonged to the element of Italian futurity. He speaks in the Paradiso of being a party in himself. Both parties endeavored to enhst him in their ranks, but in vain. He viewed both from the height of a superior aim, an idea which, perhaps, he alone in all Italy at that day had conceived. Beyond all the narrow factions of the period, beyond the emperor, beyond the pope, he saw the future Italian nation, and the divine mission he believed ordained by God for the "holy Roman people." This idea of national greatness and Italian supremacy is philosophically expressed in the 38 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Convito, politically in De Monorchia, in its literary aspect in the treatise De Vulgari Elo- quio, and poetically and religiously in the Commedia. It is as we see him in the minor works that the man can best be comprehended, and his leading thoughts grasped and under- stood. Never man loved his country with a more elevated or fervent love, never man had such projects of magnificent and exalted destinies for her. Relying on the Convito and the treatise De Monarchia for our author- ity, the following is a summary of what, in the thirteenth century, Dante believed : God is one ; the universe is one thought of God; the universe, therefore, is one. All things come from God; they all participate more or less in the divine nature, according to the end for which they are created. Flowers in the garden of God all merit our love accord- ing to the degree of excellence He has bestowed upon each ; of these man is the most eminent, and on him God has bestowed more of His own nature than upon any other creature. In the continuous scale of being, the most degraded man touches upon the animal, the most noble approaches the angel. Every- thing that comes from the hand of God tends toward the perfection of which it is suscep- tible. There is this difference between man and the other creatures, that his perfecti- bility is indefinite. Issuing from God, the human soul incessantly aspires toward Him, and seeks by holiness and knowledge to be reunited to Him. The life of the individual man is too short and weak to satisfy this yearning in this world, but before and around him is the whole human race — of which he is a part — that never dies, but moves onward through succeeding generations on the path- way of eternal truth. Mankind is one ; God has made nothing in vain. If there exists a multitude, a collection of men, it is because there is one aim for them all, only to be accomplished by all. This aim, then, does exist; man must discover and attain it. Mankind must work together toward their highest possible development in the spheres of thought and of action. Only by harmony and association is this possible. Mankind .must become one, even as God is one ; it must be one organization as it is one in principle. Unity is taught by the manifest design of God in the external world, and by the neces- sity of an aim. Unity must be a center to which the general inspiration of mankind must ascend, to descend again in the form of law. There must be a power strong in unity and in the support and advice of the highest intellects — destined by nature to rule — providing with calm wisdom for all the dif- ferent functions which are to be fulfilled; itself the pilot, the supreme chief, in order to bring to the highest perfection what Dante calls " the universal religion of human nature," that is, empire, imperium. It will maintain concord among the rulers of state, and this peace will diffuse itself thence into towns, into every cluster of habitations, into every house, into the bosom of each man. And where is the seat of this empire to be? Here the poet quits all analytical argument, and takes up the language of synthetical and absolute affirmation. "He is no longer a philosopher," says a great ItaUan critic; "he is now a believer." He points to Rome, the "holy city," as he calls it, "the city whose very stones are worthy of reverence." "There," he says, "is the seat of empire. There never was, there never will be, a people endowed with more gentleness for the exer- cise of command, with more vigor to maintain it, and more capacity to acquire it, than the Italian nation, and, above all, the holy Roman people. God chose Rome from among the nations. She has twice given unity to the world, and from her the world will again receive it, and for ever." Dante tells us that there was a time when he did not see the hand of Providence in the dominion of Rome, and his soul revolted at it as a usurpation. Afterward his eyes were opened; in the history of this people he recognized "divine predestination"; it waa necessary that the world should be in some sort equalized under the rule of a single power, in order that the preaching of Jesus might give new Ufe to the earth; and God conse- crated Rome to this work. When the work was done, Rome rested from her labors, until the second gospel of unity was needed by the world. Dante develops this argument from the authority of the poets to that of Jesus, who, he says, recognized by his death the legiti- macy of the jurisdiction exercised by Rome over the whole hiunan race. With this immense ideal ever present to his mind, Dante looked about for an element of unity as a means of carrying on the providential mission he believed destined to Italy. He chose the only instrument that appeared ready to his hand, the emperor. Rome once IN LITERATURE recognized as the living symbol of the Chris- tian dualism, the individual called to represent her was, in himself, insignificant; he would pass away; his successor would probably be an Italian ; but, whether or not, the inspira- tion which he would echo would be Italian. There is not a word in De Monorchia which concerns Germany or the emperor. The Roman nation is everything, and, indeed, great care is taken to lay every possible restriction on the man who might endeavor to substitute his own ideas to those of Italy. "Rouse yourselves," he writes to his fellow citizens, " rouse yourselves like free men, and recollect that the emperor is only your first minister. He is made for you, and not you for him." Here, then, was, in brief, his philosophy. A sincere patriot, and frightened at the symp- toms of decay visible in Christian society, he wished to save his compatriots, and he wrote to indicate the way of salvation. A thorough knowledge of Dante as a phi- losopher, a poet, and a man displays the unity of an imposing figure, which stands as a type of a whole nation mournful and grand as itself. "The first awakener," says Shelley, " of entranced Europe, he created a language, in itself music and persuasion, out of a chaos of unharmonious barbarisms. He was the congregator of those great spirits who pre- sided over the resurrection of learning; the Lucifer of that starry flock, which, in the thirteenth century, shone forth from republi- can Italy, as from a heaven, into the darknon of the benighted world." Boccaccio describes Dante as a figure of middle height, with noble and well-marked features, face long, nose aquiline, eyes large, under lip projecting, complexion dark, hair black, thick, and wavy, the expression of the eyes and mouth especially indicating pro- found and melancholy feeling. In all his relations he was modest and reserved, speak- ing rarely but with eloquent force. He was fond of female society, in which he showed much politeness and gaiety. Though simple in his manner of living, he bestowed consider- able attention on his dress and general appear- ance. After Dante's death a mask was taken, in plaster, of the face, from which terra cotta busts were made, and his best portrait obtained. Here Dante appears with a long and pointed nose, slightly curved; the eyes are deeply sunk beneath strong, evenly arched eyebrows, with a deep WTinkle between them ; the mouth has a spiritual and ironic expres- sion, under lip slightly projecting, with chin and cheek bones somewhat prominent. The whole head expresses intellect and vigor, strong will, and habits of meditation. Raphael painted Dante, after the mask likeness, in two of his principal works, and a large number of paintings, statues, and medals have repeated and familiarized his face until it has become one of the most authentic and best-known portraits in existence. MONTAIGNE I A. D. AGE 1533 Born at P^rigord, France, 1539-46 Studied at Bordeaux, 6-13 1554 Municipal councilor of Bordeaux, . 21 1566 Married 33 1580 Traveled in Switzerland, Germany, Italy; his "Essays" published, . 47 A. D. AOB 1581 Wrote his "Journal of Travels,". . 48 1586 Driven from his chAteau by war of the league, 53 1588 Mediated between Henry of Navmrre and the duke of Guise, . . . . M 1592 Died at Montaigne, P6rigord, ... 6© lyjICHEL EYQUEM DE MONTAIGNE, ^ *• the famous French essayist, was bom on the feudal estate from which he took his name, in P6rigord, France, February 28, 1533. His father, Pierre Eyquem, was a blimt feudal noble, of vigorous and eccentric character, who had his son brought up in one of his peasant's cottages, to inure him in hardy ways of living, and to give him a fellow feeling with the poor. As soon as he could speak, he was placed under the care of a German tutor, selected for his ignorance of French, and intimate ac- quaintance with the Greek and Latin lan- guages. All Montaigne's intercourse with his preceptor was carried on in Latin ; and even his parents made a rule never to address him except in that language, of which they picked up a suflScient number of words for common purposes. The attendants were enjoined to follow the same practice. "They all became Latinized," says Montaigne him- 40 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT self, "and even the villagers around learned words in that language, some of which took root in the country, and became of common use among the people." Thus, without any formal course of scholastic teaching, Mon- taigne spoke Latin long before he could speak French, which he was afterward obliged to learn as if it had been a foreign language. He studied Greek also by way of pastime, rather than as a task. The object of his father was to make him learn without con- straint and from his own wish. As an instance of his father's whimsical notions on education, be caused his son to be awakened in the morn- ing to the sound of music, that his nervous system might not be injured by any sudden Bhock. At six years old Montaigne was sent to the college of Guienne, at Bordeaux, an establishment which then enjoyed a very high reputation. He soon made his way to the higher classes; and at thirteen years of age, had completed his college education. Having no taste for military life, which was then the usual career of young noblemen, Montaigne studied law; and in 1554 was made councilor (or judge) in the parliament of Bordeaux, in which capacity he acted for several years. He went several times to court, and enjoyed the favor of Henry II., by whom (or as some say, by Charles IX.) he was made a gentleman of the king's chamber and knight of the order of St. Michel. Among his brother councilors at Bordeaux there was a young man of distinguished merit, named La Bo6tie, for whom Montaigne conceived a feeling of the most romantic friendship, which soon became reciprocal. The senti- ments and opinions of the two seem to have harmonized to an extraordinary degree. La Boetie died young, but his friend's affec- tion long survived. A chapter of the "Essays" is devoted to his memory, and in other parts of Montaigne's writings we find frequent recurrence to the same subject. Montaigne married Fran^oise de la Chas- saigne when he was thirty-three years of age ; and this he did, as he says, in consequence of external persuasions, for he was not inclined to a married life. When he succeeded to the family estate, he took the management of it into his own hands ; and although his father, judging from his habits of abstraction and seeming careless- ness of worldly objects, had foretold that he would ruin his patrimony, Montaigne, at his death, left the property, if not much better, certainly not worse than he found it. He was not rich, for we are told by Balzac that his income did not exceed six thousand livres, which was no great revenue for a country gentleman even at that time. In 1569 he translated into French a Latin work of Sebonde, or Sebond, in defense of the mysteries and doctrines of the church of Rome against Luther and other Protestant writers. France was at that time desolated by civil and religious wars. Montaigne, although he evidently disapproved of the conduct of the court toward the Protestants, yet remained loyal to the king. But the religious wars filled him with distaste for public life, and he retired to his estates, resolved to spend the rest of his life in study. In his retirement he took no part in public affairs, except to exhort both parties to moderation and mutual charity. By this conduct he became, as it generally happens, obnoxious to both factions, and he incurred some danger in consequence. The massacre of St. Bartholomew plunged him into a deep melancholy. He detested cruelty and the shedding of blood, and in several passages of his "Essays " has animad- verted in strong terms upon the atrocities committed against the Protestants. It was about this dismal epoch of 1572, when, soli- tude and melancholy urging him to the task, he b^an to write his celebrated "Essays." They were first published in March, 1580, and had immediate success. After some time a new edition was printed with additions, but without making any alterations in the part which had appeared before. The popularity of the book was such that in a few j-'ears there was hardly a man of education in France who had not read it. Shortly after the first publication of his "Essays," Montaigne undertook a journey for the sake of his health. He went to Germany, Switzerland, and, lastly, to Italy. In Rome he was well received by persons of distinction, and was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII. Montaigne was delighted with Rome; he foimd himself at home among those localities and monuments which were connected with his earhest studies, and with the first impres- sions of his childhood. His remarks on what he saw in the course of his journey are those of a man of penetration, sincere and plain spoken, and written in his pecuUar antique style. His manuscript journal of these travels, written in 1581, after lying forgotten IN LITERATURE 41 for nearly two centuries, was discovered in an old chest in the chfi,teau of his family, and published in 1774 under the title, Journal du Voyage de Michel de Montaigne. It is one of the earliest descriptions of Italy in a modern language. In this journey Montaigne re- ceived the freedom of the city of Rome, by a special bull of the pope, which he valued as the proudest distinction of his life. While he was abroad, he was elected mayor of Bordeaux by the votes of the citizens. This honor he would have declined, but that the king, Henry III., insisted on his accepting it. This was a mere honorary office, with no emolument attached to it, and the appoint- ment was for two years. But Montaigne was reelected at the expiration of that period, which was a mark of public favor of rare occurrence. On retiring from this office, Montaigne returned to his estate in 1586. The country was then ravaged by the war of the league. He had great difficulty in saving his family and property in the midst of the contending parties, and once narrowly escaped assassina- tion in his chateau. To add to the miseries of civil war, the plague broke out in his neigh- borhood in the same year ; and he then, with his family, left his home and became a wan- derer, residing successively at the houses of various friends in other parts of the country. It appears from De Thou that he went to Paris in 1588, and engaged in attempts to reconcile Henry of Navarre, afterward Henry IV., and the duke of Guise. Here he made the acquaintance of Mademoiselle de Gournay, whom he regarded as his adopted daughter, and to whom his widow intrusted the task of publishing the first complete edition of his works. This attachment, which, though warm and reciprocal, has every appearance of being purely Platonic, is one of the remarkable incidents of Mon- taigne's life. At the time of his death, Made- moiselle de Gournay and her mother crossed one-half of France, in spite of the civil troubles and the insecurity of the roads, to mingle their tears with those of his widow and daughter. On his return from Paris, in the latter part of 1588, Montaigne stopped at Blois, with De Thou, Pasquier, and other friends. The famous states-general was then assembled in that city, where the murder of the duke of Guise, and of his brother, the cardinal, soon after took place. He had long foreseen that the civil dissensions could terminate only with the ^eath of one of the great party leaden. After these events Montaigne returned to hit chateau. In the following year he became acquainted with Pierre Charron, a theological writer of considerable reputation. An inti- mate friendship ensued between the two authors, and, by his will, Montaigne empow- ered Charron to assume the coat-of-arma of his family, as he himself had no male issue. Montaigne's health had been declining for some time. He was afflicted with gravel and colic, and he was obstinately resolveon Qtiixo/r, . 08 1616 Died at Madrid, .'.'.'.'. 09 A/f IGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, •*■ *■ the greatest figure in Spanish literature, was baptized October 9, 1547, at Alcalsl de Henares, a town of New Castile, not far from Madrid. The exact date of his birth does not appear; and even the locality has been dis- puted by several towns, as the Grecian cities contended for the honor due to the birthplace of Homer. Sprung from noble, but not wealthy, parents, he was sent to the university of Salamanca, and afterward to Madrid, to qualify himself for one or other of the only lucrative profes- sions in Spain — the church, the law, or medicine ; but his attention was diverted from this object by a strong propensity for writing verses. Juan Lopez de Hoyos, a teacher of some note, under whom he studied ancient and modern literature, thought Cervantes the most promising of his pupils ; and inserted an elegy, and other verses of his favorite's com- position, in an account of the funeral of Queen Isabel, wife of Philip II. These, like the greater number of Cervantes' early poems, which are very numerous, do not rise above mediocrity; though the author, who was a long time in discovering that his real talent lay in prose writing, seems to have thought otherwise. He was an indefatigable reader, and used to stop before the bookstalls in the street, perusing anything that attracted his attention. In this manner he gained that intimate knowl- edge of the old literature of his country, which is displayed in his works. He thus spent his time reading and writing verses, seemingly heedless of his future subsistence, until the pressure of want, and the ill success of his poetry, drove him to quit Spain and seek his fortune elsewhere. He went to Rome in 1569, and entered the service of Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva ; but soon after enlisted as a private in the armament which Pope Pius V. fitted out in 1570, for the relief of Cyprus, then attacked by the Turks. In 1571 he fought in the famous battle of Lepanto, when the combined squadrons of the Christian powers, commanded by Don Juan of Austria, defeated and destroyed the Ottoman fleet. On that memorable day Cervantes received a gunshot wound, which for life deprived him of the use of his left hand. Far, however, from repining, the generous Spaniard always expressed his joyfulness at having purchased the honor of sharing in that victory at that price. He continued in active service in Italy and elsewhere until 1575, when the vessel in which he was returning to Spain was captured by the Moors, and he was taken to Algiers. Here he remained a prisoner for five years, making numerous but fruitless attempts to escape. At last he was ransomed by his friends for five hundred gold ducats. Early in the fol- lowing year he returned to Spain. Having met nothing but misfortunes and disappoint- ment in his endeavors to make his fortune in the world, he now determined to return to his literary pursuits. In 1584 he published his Galatea, a pastoral novel. At the end of that year he married Dona Catalina de Palacios Salazar, a la ture and language to which they belong. The interest excited by such a work never dies, for it is interwoven with the very nature of man. The particular circumstances which led Cervantes to the conception of Don Quixote have long since ceased to exist. Books of chivalry have been forgotten, and their influence has died away; but Quixotism, under some form or another, remains a char- acteristic of the human mind in all ages. Man is still the dupe of fictions and of his own imagination, and it is for this that, in reading the story of the aberrations of the knight of La Mancha, and of the mishaps that befell him in his attempt to redress all the wrongs of the world, we cannot help applying the moral of the tale to incidents that pass every day before our own eyes, and to trace similarities between Cervantes' hero and some of our living acquaintances. The contrast between the lofty, spiritual, single-minded knight and his credulous, simple, yet shrewd, and earth-seeking squire is an unfailing source of amusement to the reader. It has been disputed which of the two characters, Don Quixote or Sancho, is most skillfully drawn, and beat supported throughout the story. They are both excel- lent; both suited to each other. The con- trast, also, between the style of the work and its object affords another rich vein of mirth. Cervantes' object was to extirpate by ridicule the whole race of turgid and servile imitators of the older chivalrous tales, which had become a real nuisance in his time, and exercised a very pernicious effect on the minds and taste of the Spaniards. The perusal of those extravagant compositions was the chief pastime of people of every condition. Even clever men acknowledged that they had wasted whole years in this unprofitable occu- pation, which had spoiled their taste and perverted their imaginations so much that they could not for a long time after take up a 46 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT book of real history or science without a feeling of weariness. Cervantes was well acquainted with the nature and effects of the disease. He had himself employed much time in such pursuits, and he resolved to pre- pare a remedy for the public mind. That his example has been taken as a precedent by vulgar and groveling persons, for the purpose of ridiculing all elevation of sentiment, all enthusiasm and sense of honor, forms no just ground of censure on Cervantes, who waged war against that which was false and improbable, and not against that which is noble and natural in the human mind. Nature and truth have their sublimity; and these Cervantes understood and re- spected. Shakespeare and Cervantes lived in the same age ; they belonged to the same order of mind — t^e order of sovereign genius. It is rather extraordinary that no well-authenti- cated portrait exists of either : but Cervantes did what Shakespeare neglected to do — he left a very distinct sketch of his person, which was probably intended to accompany some engraving to be used as a frontispiece to one of his publications. "Him whom you see here," he says, "with an aquiline visage, chestnut hair, his forehead high and open, with lively, animated eyes, his nose curved, though well proportioned, a sil- ver beard — though not twenty years ago it was golden — large mustachios, a small mouth, but few teeth, and those so bad and ill assorted that they don't care to preserve harmony with each other — a body neither fat nor lean, neither tall nor short — a clear complexion, rather light than brown — a little stooping in the shoulders, and not very quick of foot — that is the author of Galatea, of Don Quixote de La Mancha, and other works which run through the streets as if they had lost their way, and, perhaps, without the name of their master." The best epithet ever applied to Shakes- peare was that of Ben Jonson, "gentle Shakes- peare " ; and it is a strange coincidence that no more fitting epithet can be given to the commanding literary genius of Spain. He is gentle Cervantes. SHAKESPEARE A. D. AQE 1664 Bom at Stratford-on-Avon, England,. 1682 Married, 18 1686 Went to London, 22 1689 Actor and playwright, Blackfriare theater, 25 1593 Venus and Adonis appears, 29 1694 Lucrece written, 30 1597 Purchased "New Place," Stratford, . 33 A. D. AQB 1598 Romeo and Jtdiet, and Merchant of Venice, already written, 34 1601 Twelfth Night; Julius Ccuar 37 1602 HamUt, 38 1604 Retired to Stratford; OihtUo 40 1606 King Lear 41 1610 The Tempest, 46 1616 Died at Stratford 62 ■Y/iriLLIAM SHAKESPEARE, the greatest I '^ ' of modern dramatists and first of English j poets, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, War- wickshire, England, where his baptism was registered April 26, 1564. There, too, he died on April 23, 1616. The few facts of his out- 1 ward life, which have come down to us, are! mere fragments. Something, perhaps, there was of the idyllic in his early years, something of license in his youth and early manhood, something of worldly wisdom in his maturity ; how much, relatively to other circumstances, we do not know. But it is certain that he was beloved for his genial and gentle disposition. "Bom at Stratford-on-Avon, married and had children there; went to London, where he commenced as an actor, and wrote poems and plays; returned to Stratford, made his will and died — this," says Steevens, "is all that is known, with any degree of certainty, about Shakespeare." We should have cared very little about the birth and marriage, the will, or the death, of this native of a petty country town in the sixteenth century, but for the one other cer- tainty, "he wrote poems and plays." That fact renders the minutest incident in the life of this son of a Warwickshire yeoman a matter of interest to the whole human race ; for out of the cottage in which he was born, has gone forth a voice which is the mightiest in modem literature ; and which, in connection with the higher teaching from above, is refining and humanizing wherever its sound is heard. Steevens was in a great d^ree right, as far as concerns a mere biographical notice of Shakes- IN LITERATURE 47 peare. His real biography lies in a critical estimate of his writings, as compared with others of his time, and in his relation to the age in which he flourished. Shakespeare's birthplace was also the home of his youth. His father was an alderman of Stratford, by occupation a farmer, and in rank a gentleman, having received in 1569 a grant of arms from the Herald's college. His mother, Mary Arden, came of an ancient and honorable family in the county. The regis- ters show that the father of the poet had five children who survived the period of infancy, and that William was the first son and the third child. There was a free grammar school at Stratford, and the probabilities are strong that here he received his education — EngUsh, something of Latin, and less of Greek. We have no trace how he was employed in the interval between his school days and man- hood. Some hold that he was an attorney's clerk. The tradition is that he was a wild young fellow, stealing deer. The certainty is that he was treasuring up that store of knowl- edge, and cultivating that range of genius, which made him what he became. At Shottery, a pretty village within a mile of Stratford, is an old farmhouse, now divided into several tenements, where dwelt a family by the name of Hathaway, and this property remained in the possession of their descend- ants. Anne Hathaway became the wife of William Shakespeare in 1582. The marriage bond and license are preserved in the consis- torial court, at Worcester, England. By this marriage there were three children, Susanna, Hamnet, and Judith. Hamnet, the only son, died in his twelfth year. The two daughters survived their father, and inherited his property. Some years after his marriage — 1586 — William Shakespeare became connected with the Blackfriars theater, in London. In 1589, when he was only twenty-five years of age, he was a joint proprietor of that theater, with four others below him in the list. The players of the Blackfriars were the lord chamberlain's company, those who acted under royal patronage. We know nothing of the date of the production of his first play. Shakespeare became rich in connection with the theaters. He purchased the principal house in Stratford in 1597, and also some lands in that parish. It is supposed that he ceased to be connected with the theaters in 1609, for there is a valuation of his property j in that year, for which he aaked £1,433, Cs. 8d. His father died in 1001 ; and it is more than probable that the greatest of poets succeeded him as a practical farmer in his native place. He had his actions, at any rate, in the bailiff's court for corn sold and delivered. His eldest daughter, in 1607, niarrie-sleeves, he would have been noticed anywhere as one evidently a scholarly thinker astray from the alcove or the study, which were his natural habitats. His voice was verysweet and penetrating without any loudness or mark of effort. His enunciation was beautifully clear, but he often hesitated as if waiting for the right word to present itself. His manner was very quiet, his smile was pleasant, but he did not hke explosive laughter any better than Hawthorne did. None who ever met him failed to recall that serene and kindly presence, in which there was mingled a certain spiritual remoteness with the most benignant himian welcome to all who were privileged to enjoy his companionship. The key to Emerson's mental position is to 116 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT be found in his intense individualism. What- ever interferes with the full development of the individual, whether it be the poHtical organization of the state or the authority exerted by venerated names in religion and letters, is to be regarded in his conception as more or less an evil. In the midst of his hterary labors Emerson found time to mani- fest his interest in great public questions as they arose. Some of his letters upon passing events in the newspaper press of his day exerted a wide influence. While he was a pastor in Boston he opened his pulpit to an earnest protest against American slavery, and during the whole period of the anti-slavery agi- tation he constantly manifested his sympathy with those who sought to dehver the land from human bondage. In 1844 he gave emphatic expression to his views in the British West Indies. Though not in the technical sense of the word a reformer, his habits and tastes being rather those of a scholar and man of letters, every earnest movement for the wel- fare of humanity had his sympathy. He gave his name to the call issued in 1850 for the first convention ever held in Massachusetts to secure for women equal rights with men as citizens and voters. As a writer, Emerson is eminently distin- guished for a singular union of poetic imagina- tion with practical acuteness. His observa- tions on society, on manners, on character, on institutions, are stamped with rare sagac- ity. To some he is untrammeled by the rules of the versifier; to others the prophet; and again he is by turns a visionary, and the shrewdest of guides in the ways of the world. His style is in the nicest harmony with the character of his thought ; and, though marked by an ethical and spiritual vitality of the highest order, is utterly devoid of system, and pervaded by a certain mystical quality, charming to some but bewildering to others. His intellectual gems are profusely sown throughout his pages according to no visible or conscious method, and with settings that seem quite accidental ; but they glow with a genuine luster wherever found. To the arts and processes of the logician he pays no regard, evidently thinking that they tend to behttle, rather than exalt, the truth. He simply affirms what he believes, making his appeal at every step to the moral institutions of the reader, in the faith that the " spirit of man is the candle of the Lord," with a power of illumination adapted to every emergency. He knows that an idea is more forcible and attractive, and can be clothed in more briUiant and picturesque phraseology when it is not quahfied, and, as it were, dragged down from its elevation by the influence of other ideas. He loves to watch the play of thought, and to dream and muse about it, borne up on the wing of a pure and deUcate imagination, rather than to weigh its significance, or to build it up into an "intellectual system" or a creed. Emerson thus belongs to the class of minds which are intuitional rather than re- flective, and subtle rather than sagacious. His thinking charms, animates, and vividly ex- cites the mental faculty of his reader, but it does not settle any question conclusively. Hence his speculations on religion, philosophy, literature, and life, though intensely stimu- lating to the young, are sometimes coldly regarded by men of mature and sage under- standing. Emerson can no more be measured for any regulation uniform worn by the army of writers than the rolling clouds that veil and reveal the summer sky can be condensed into a valise. In an age of unlovely materialism, in a land where progress is too much measured by profits, he dared to play the part of the youth with the banner "Excelsior," even if the nobility of the unpractical chmb won only smiles in the market place. His pure and expansive soul mirrored the aspirations of all great souls in all ages and countries, and, if the rays reflected were confusing to the average eye that would separate them, the intense force of the sunbeam of his intellect will cause it to shine the brighter and pene- trate further into the dim future. Emerson has nowhere defined the funda- mental basis of his philosophy; but his general attitude toward science throughout his writings is that of the poet and Platonist who views the phenomena of nature as so many adumbrations of ideal truths. He in- sists on the identity of physical and moral law; the same laws govern a state and an acid. He was known at one time as a tran- scendental philosopher; but even his appre- ciative admirers now rarely use that term. His earher wTitings are supposed by some to show a drift toward pantheism, but others repel this interpretation as unjust. Certainly he has never called himself a pantheist, and there is unquestionable evidence that what- ever may have been his former speculations, that name cannot truly be applied to him IN LITERATURE 117 now. His friend, A. Bronson Alcott, reports him as saying: "I do not care to classify myself with any painstaking accuracy with this sect or wnth that ; but if I am to have any appellation at all of a rehgious kind, I prefer to be called a Christian theist. You must not leave out the word Christian, for to leave out that is to leave out everything." Confirma- tion of this is to be found in his latest pubh- cation. The Preacher, in which he says: "Unlovely, nay, frightful, is the solitude of the soul which is without God in the world. Tosee men pursuing in faith their varied action, warm-hearted, providing for their children, loving their friends, performing their promises — what are they to this chill, houseless, fatherless, aimless Cain, the man who hears only the sound of his own footsteps in God's resplendent creation?" He will not recog- nize a God, however, who is not " one with the blowing clover and the falling rain." In regard to man and his destinies, Emerson entertains exalted hopes; but religion is not in his eyes a divinely revealed — in the ordinary sense — or infaUible thing. All creeds are merely "the necessary and struc- tural action of the human mind " in the course of its historical progress. Man made them all, and he believes that from the inex- haustible depths of our nature there will come forth in due time new and ever higher faiths, which will supersede those that have gone before. What we have to learn from Emerson is i chiefly the divine immanence in the world, jwith all its corollaries, from the point of view lof the poet. Indeed, he says of himself: i" I am not a great poet, but whatever there is pf me at all is poet." Though not a new jDhilosophy, it was restated by him in the i'ashion most suitable to his age, and with a !;ogency and attractiveness rivaled by no j!ontemporary. i Like most poets, he was under the influence jtf beauty in its various forms, and could lardly ascribe anything but excellence to the 'ndowment of personal beauty. He asso- iated the beautiful with the good; and hke :i.ugustine and the best philosophers he would lOt allow the existence of positive and original ',vil. But of sin, even in a theological sense, je had a clear perception ; and he knew the 'ark places of the human heart as well as fawthome did, though he did not delight in iieir portrayal. If we tried to simi up his message in a phrase, we might perhaps find most applicable the famous dictum from Keats, "Beauty is truth, truth beauty " ; only, while Keats waa evidently more concerned for beauty than for truth, Emerson held an impartial balance. These are with him the tests of each other"! whatever is really true is also beautiful, what- ever is really beautiful is also true. Hence, he has especial value to a world whose more refined spirits are continually setting up types of aesthetic beauty which must needs be delusive, as well as discordant with beauty contem- plated under the aspect of morality; while the mass never think of bringing social and political arrangements to the no less infallible test of conformity to an ideally beautiful standard. Even more important is that aspect of his teaching which deals with the unalterable- ness of spiritual laws, the impossibility of evading truth and fact in the long run, or of wronging any one without at the same time wronging oneself. Happy would it be for the United States if Emerson's essay on Compensation, in particular, could be im- pressed upon the conscience, where there is any, of every political leader; and interwoven with the very texture of the mind of every one who has a vote to cast at the polls 1 The special adaptation of Emerson's teach- ing to the needs of to-day is, nevertheless, far from the greatest obhgation under which he has laid us. His greatest service is to have embodied a specially American type of thought and feehng. It is the test of real greatness in a nation to be individual, to produce some- thing in the world of intellect peculiar to itself and indefeasibly its own. Such intellectual growths are indeed to be found in our htera- ture before Emerson's time, but they are not of the highest class. Franklin was a great sage, but his wisdom was worldly wisdom. Emerson gives us, in his own phrase, "moral- ity on fire with emotion " — the only moraUty which in the long run will really influence the heart of man. The idealist or transcendentalist in philoso- phy, the rationalist in rehgion, the bold advo- cate of spiritual independence, of intuition as a divine guidance, of instinct as a heaven-born impulse, of individualism in its fullest extent, making each life a kind of theocratic egotism — this is the Emerson of his larger utterances. For him nature was a sphinx, covered with hieroglyphics, for which the spirit of man is to find the key. 118 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT BROWNING A. n. AGE 1812 Bom at Camberwell, England, . . 1829 Entered Universitv college, Lon- don " 17 1833 Pauline, 21 1833-34 Traveled in Russia and Italy, . . 21-22 1835 Paracelsus, ". . . . 23 1837 Strafford: a tragedy, 25 1840 SordeUo, 28 1841-46 Bella and Pomeqranatea, .... 29-34 1846 Married ; settled at Florence, Italy, 34 A. D. AGE 1850 Christmas Eve and Easter Day, . . 38 1855 Men and Women, 43 1861 Death of his wife; settled in Lon- don, 49 1864 Dramatis Persona 52 1868-69 The Ring and the Book, .... 56-57 1872 Fifine at the Fair, 60 1879-80 Dramatic Idyls. 67-68 1889 Asolando; died at Venice, Italy, . . 77 r> OBERT BROWNING, one of the greatest ■*^ '^ of English dramatic poets, was born at Camberwell — a suburb of London — Eng- land, May 7, 1812. He was the child of affec- tionate and cultured parents, brought up in a prosperous and well-ordered household, and imbued with noble ideals. His boyhood fore- shadowed intellectual and literary qualities of an exceptional order, and, before he had passed his twelfth year, he had produced and had printed for him, by his father, a poetic effusion entitled Incondita. His education was of the most informal kind, and was largely under private tutors. He does not seem to have attended the public schools, nor the university in the usual way, but when he had made considerable advance- ment under private instruction, the records show that he was entered at University col- lege, London, during the session of 1829-30, for a course of lectures. Pauline, a dramatic poem, written at the age of nineteen, was pub- lished in 1833, but did not evince extraordi- nary powers. The most important event in his youth was his sojourn during 1833-34 in Russia and Italy. He went to the former country nominally as secretary to the Russian counsel-general, and became so enamored of diplomatic life that he attempted to enter it but failed. Even in after years its charms did not release their hold on him, and he was anxious that his son might choose this career. Browning's earliest dramatic effort, Straf- ford, was produced by Macready at Covent Garden, London, in 1837, but was unsuccess- ful, notwithstanding Macready himself per- sonated the hero. Two years earlier appeared his Paracelsus, which revealed a much greater force than his Pauline. Its boldness of thought, lofty aspirations, and grip of human passion, marked him as a writer of unusual gifts; and from this date Browning deter- minedly devoted himself to the art of poetry. It is significant to note in this connection that the three greatest modern Erghsh poets — Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Browning — eachi consciously and scrupulously, ordered his life and surroundings to the one great end of their high calling, never swerving, never despairing, never expending energy in any other direction. Sordello, which for its involutions of thought has given more trouble to Browning's readers than any other of his works, appeared in 1840. In it the author traces, with much crabbed writing and elliptical thinking, the develop- ment of a soul, following his hero, in the per- son of an Italian poet named by Dante, until his ambition closes in death. Incidentally, the poem gives a picture of the restless and troubled conditions of northern Italy in the early part of the thirteenth century. A series of plays, tragedies, and dramatic lyrics, written by Browning between 1841 and 1846, was issued under the collective title of Bells and Pomegranates in the latter year. The plays included Pip-pa Passes, King Vic- tor and King Charles, and Colombe's Birthday; and the tragedies. The Return of the Druses, A Blot in Die 'Scutcheon, Luria, and A Soul's Tragedy. Among the lyrics were. How they Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix, Saul, The Lost Leader, and The Pied Piper of HamMin — poems which became, and still remain, the most popular of all Browning's writings. In these lyrical efforts the poet pressed into his service in a masterly degree humor, pathos, passion, and tenderness; while the whole were distinguished for their ringing and melodious versification. His play, A Blot in the 'Scutcheon, was produced at Drury Lane theater, but failed through, lack of vivid and impressive incident; al- though it was afterward produced in this country by Lawrence Barrett. Pippa Passes secured a much greater measure of popular approbation. Browning married, in 1846, Ehzabeth Bar- rett, herself a poetess of high and noble gifts, and with her he went to Florence, where they IN LITERATURE 119 lived for fifteen years in perfect and happy union. There, in 1849, their only son, Robert Ikirrett Browning, the sculptor, was born. In 1850 Browning published Christmas Eve and Easter Day, a poem which defends cath- olicity in religion, the good to be discovered in the varying forms of Christianity. Men and Women, which appeared in 1855, contained some of its author's finest work, including the stirring poems of Fra Lippo Lippi, Childe Roland, Andrea del Sarto, Evelyn Hope, Holy Cross Day, and Up at a Villa. These poems, for depth and subtlety of conception, pro- found analysis of the human mind in its most delicate and impassioned conditions, and speculative insight, are unsurpassed in the English language. After the death of his wife in 1861, the poet settled permanently in London with his only son. Dramatis Pcrsonce, issued in 1864, again attested the strength of Browning's dramatic gifts in monologue. These poems included Abt Vogler, Caliban, A Death in the Desert, and Rabbi ben Ezra, in which the writer unfolded his views upon music, philoso- phy, and the higher questions affecting life and immortahty. His generally accepted masterpiece. The Ring and the Book, was pub- lished in 1868-69. It is written in epic form, and has for its basis the narrative of a murder by an Italian count as related by the various persons concerned in the tragedy. It deals in a most searching and complete manner with the powerful passions of humanity. The intellectual labor involved in this stupendous achievement, which embraces twenty-one thousand one hundred sixteen lines, is a marvel in itself, and there are many poetic passages scattered throughout the work which are as splendidly beautiful as anything that has been written in verse. Hcrve Riel, a poem upon a French sailor hero, was published in 1871, the proceeds being given to the fund for the rehef of Paris ; and from this time onward, works by Brown- ing appeared in rapid succession. Balaustion's Adventure, with the 4^lcestis of Euripides in an English dress, was the poet's first essay in Greek subjects ; Prince Hohenstiel-Schwangau, Saviour of Society, dealt with the career of Louis Napoleon ; Fifine at the Fair, which was published in 1872, handled a question in morals very powerfully; Red Cotton Night- Cap Country told the story of a famous Nor- man law case; Aristophanes' Apology was a second venture among the great Greek poets ; The Inn Album was a graphic story of a deeply- wronged woman; PacchiaroUo, and How He Worked in Distemper gave the author an op- portunity of defending his poetic methods; The Agamemnon of .^schylua was a graphic transcript of that famous work ; and The Two Poets of Croisic advanced a strong vindication of the faith in the future life. Then came, in 1879-80, two volumes of DramMic Idyls, which may be described as vigorous character sketches, each idyl having a distinct and leading purpose. All Are intense in their realism, and across the page constantly breaks the strong lightning flash of genius. Jocoseria, a volume containing a number of narrative poems, was published in 1883; and in 1884 appeared Ferishiah'a Fancies, a work consisting of twelve poems, each dealing with some profound question touching the relations of man with the divine. Parleyings with Certain People of Importance in Their Day was issued in 1887. Here again the author adopted his favorite method of developing through the medium of narrative his views upon important philosophical, literary, artistic, and other questions. From 1861 until 1889 Browning continued to reside in London; first, for more than a quarter of a century, in Warwick Crescent, Paddington, and then, for the last two years, in De Vere Gardens, South Kensington. During this period, however, he made fre- quent and often prolonged visits to Italy. In November, 1889, he paid a visit to his son in Venice, and there, at the Palazzo Rezzonico — which he had bought for his Venetian resi- dence — he died December 12th, of the same year, after a short and painless illness. His death took place on the very day that his last volume of poems, Asolando: Fancies and Facts, was published. His remains were placed in Westminster abbey. Browning, generally speaking, is distin- guished for the depth of his spiritual insight, his dramatic energy, his power of psychologi- cal analysis, and for his capacity to create real men and women. In these respects he has rarely been equaled. Besides being one of the most erudite of poets, he has intense human sympathies and high imaginative gifts, and a profound and vigorous faith. On the other hand, his style is too frequently obscure and difficult, his versification hard and rugged, and his rhymes forced. Aa between him and Tennyson— with whom fre- quent comparison is made — it is imdoubtedly 120 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT true that the latter far excels him in melody of versification and artistic beauty of style, but just as truly falls below him in vigor and brilliancy of thought. The first great characteristic of Browning's poetry is undoubtedly the essential, elemental quality of its humanity — a trait in which it is surpassed by no other English poetry but that of Shakespeare. It can be subtle to a degree almost fantastic (as can Shakespeare's to an extent that famiharity makes us forget) ; but this is in method. The stuff of it — the texture of the fabric which the swift and intricate shuttle is weaving — is always something in which the human being is vitally, not merely aesthetically, interested. It deals with no shadows, and, indeed, with few abstractions, except those that form a part of vital problems — a statement which may provoke the scoffer, but will be found to be true. A second characteristic, which, if not a necessary result of this first, would at least be impossible without it, is the extent to which Browning's poetry produces its effect by sug- gestion rather than by elaboration; by stimulating thought, emotion, and the aesthetic sense, instead of seeking to satisfy any one of these — especially instead of con- tenting itself with only soothing the last. And a third trait in Browning follows logically from this second; its extreme com- pactness and concentration. Browning some- times dwells long — even dallies — over an idea, as does Shakespeare ; turns it, shows its every facet ; and even then it is noticeable, as with the greater master, that every individual phrase with which he does so is practically exhaustive of the suggestiveness of that par- ticular aspect. But commonly he crowds idea upon idea even in his lyrics, and — strangely enough — without losing the lyric quality ; each thought pressed down to its very essence, and each with that germinal power that makes the reading of him one of the most stimulating things to be had from literature. His figures, especially, are apt and telling in the very minimum of words; they say it all, Uke the unsurpassable Shakespearean example of the dyer's hand ; and the more you think of them, the more you see that not a word could be added or taken away. It may be said that this quality of compact- ness is common to all genius, and of the very essence of all true poetry; but Browning manifested it in a way of his own, such as to suggest that he believed in the subordination of all other quahties to it ; even of melody, for instance, as may be said by his critics and admitted in many cases by even his strongest admirers. The vividness, vigor, and truth of Brown- ing's embodiments of character come, it is needless to say, from the same power that has created all great dramatic work — the capac- ity for incarnating not a quality or an ideal, but the mixture and balance of qualities that make up the real human being. There is not a walking phantom among them, or a lay figure to hang sentiment on. Some one has said that of all the poets he remembered, only Shakespeare and Browning never drew a prig. It is this complete absence of the false note that gives to certain of Browning's poems the finality which is felt in all consummate works of art, great and small; the sense that they convey, if not the last word, at least the last necessary word, on their subject. Andrea del Sarto is, in its way, the whole problem of the artist^ideal, the weak will of the inner failure in all times and guises ; and at the other end of the gamut nobody will ever need again to set forth Bishop Blougram's attitude, or even that of Mr. Sludge the medium. Of the informing, almost exuberant vitality of all the lyric and dramatic poems, it is needless to speak; that fairly leaps to meet the reader at every page of them, and a quaUty of it is their essential optimism. " What is he buzzing in my ears? Now that I come to die, Do I view the world aa a vale of tears? • Ah, reverend sir, not I ! " The world was never a vale of tears to Robert Browning, man or poet ; but a world of men and women, with plenty of red cor- puscles in their blood. Most thinkers write and speak of man ; Browning of men. With man as a species, with man as a society, he does not concern himself; but with individual man and man. Every man is for him an epitome of the universe, a center of creation. Through nature, Wordsworth would lead the soul to rest. Through the spiritual stnig- gles of the soul itself, Browning reveals the di\'ine touch that discloses the true end of living and thinking. PHIDIAS JDHIDIAS was the greatest sculptor of ■*■ Greece, and by many is regarded as the greatest sculptor in the whole history of art. In spite of his renown, we unfortunately know only the most meager details concerning his personal history — not even the dates of his birth and death. Two facts are certain in the chronological history of his life. The first is that the statue of Minerva, which he erected in the Parthenon of Athens, was finished in the year 438 B. C, and that he represented himself in the bas-rehefs which adorned the shield of the goddess as a bald- headed old man. , The second fact is that he introduced in the bas-reliefs of the throne of Jupiter at Olympia the figure of the youth Pantarces, placing on his head the crown which he had won in the Olympian games in the eighty-sixth Olympiad (436 B. C). It is generally supposed that he was born in Athens about the year 500 B. C. — sometime, at least, before the battle of Marathon — and that he died about 432 B. C. Phidias was the son of Charmides, and was descended from a family of artists. His youth was passed in the time of the great struggle between the Greeks and the Persians and during the illustrious career of Cimon, who founded an empire at Athens. He stud- ied his art first under Hegias at Athens and then under Ageladas of Argos, one of the most celebrated sculptors of his time. He began life as a painter, but when Cimon undertook to rebuild and adorn Athens, after its destruction by Xerxes, he came into view as a sculptor. His great works were all executed during a period most favorable for the development and encouragement of genius, when Greece was triumphant over external enemies and her people enjoyed a more perfect liberty than at almost any other period of their history. With the character of the age correspond the works of its poets, particularly of the tragedians, ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and of its sculptors, particularly of Phidias. The first public work of Phidias was prob- ably the statue of Athena (Minerva), at Plataea. The "Athena Promachos," which stood on the Acropolis at Athens, between the Parthenon and the Propyla?a, was probably executed soon afterward. This statue was of bronze. With the pedestal it was between fifty and sixty feet high, and navigators on coming round the cape of Sunium could perceive the point of the goddess's spear and the crest of the helmet. Phidias was not intrusted single handed with the execu- tion of so colossal a work, but he is universally accredited as the designer, and presiding genius of the entire decoration. It was probably about the same time that Phidias executed the goddess of Miner\'a in the town of Pellene in Achaia. This figure was of ivory and gold. The employment and the union of these materials in sculpture were not a new invention, for examples of their use are found in the most remote times ; but it was reserved for Phidias, thanks to the growth of wealth and luxury, to produce colossal statues of this kind, which surpassed by their magnificence all that had preceded them, and to create models which after ages have not had the genius even to equal. The administration of Cimon was also rendered memorable by another work of Phidias, namely, the offering which the Athenians consecrated in the temple of Del- phi, in memory of the victory at Marathon. It was composed of thirteen statues, that of Miltiades being placed by the side of ApoUo and Minerva. The rank accorded to Miltiades, although he had died in prison, clearly shows that this monument belongs to the period when Cimon in all the splendor of his glory restored to his father the honor which the latter had so justly merited. It was also at the epoch of the greatest 122 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT power of Athens, when the victories of Cimon increased the number of her allies, that the inhabitants of the isle of Lemnos offered to the Athenians the statue, which, in conse- quence of its origin, was called the "Lemnian Minerva." Phidias impressed on this figure a beauty to which art had not before attained. Lucian preferred it to all the other statues modeled by this great artist, and Pausanias did not hesitate to say that of all the images of Minerva produced by Phidias, this was the most worthy of the tutelary goddess of Athens. The statue of the mother of the gods, placed in the temple of that goddess at Athens, and the "Amazon" of the temple of Delphi, which are also reckoned among the first productions of Phidias, date from about the same period. The sculptor had now trained two pupils who were worthy of him — Alcamenes and Agoracritus. Both these young artists exe- cuted in a competition marble figures repre- senting Venus Urania. The work of Aica- menes was preferred to that of his rival. It was said that the master had worked on it, and this opinion was so well established that the ancients appear generally to have attrib- uted it, not to Alcamenes, but to Phidias himself. These different works had acquired for Phidias a briUiant reputation when the government of Pericles succeeded to that of Cimon. Pericles not only gave to Phidias a commission to execute all the more splen- did statues that were to be erected, but made him general superintendent of all works of art going on in the city. Plutarch tells us that Phidias had under him architects, statuaries, workers in copper and bronze, stone-cutters, gold and ivory beaters, and other artisans. To Phidias, as director- general of all the skilled artists and artificers of Athens, we owe, among other glorious edifices, the Propylaea and the Parthenon, or temple of Minerva, the sculptured orna- ments of which were executed under his direct superintendence, while the statue of the goddess Athena, the materials for which were ivory and gold, was the work of Phidias himseff. Writers never speak of this statue of Athena, or Minerva, except in raptures, yet what has rendered the name of the artist immortal proved at that time his ruin. The statue, clothed with a golden robe, is goiie forever, and the Parthenon is now only a magnificent wreck ; but we still possess some splendid evidence of the genius of Phidiaa in the sculptures and friezes of the temple, which are now preserved in the British mu- seum in London under the name of the Elgin marbles. These marbles were removed from Athens between 1801 and 1803, by Lord Elgin, at that time British minister to Constantinople, who procured permission from the Porte to take away from Athens "any stones that might appear interesting to him." The "stones" exhibit the highest development of Greek art. As types of beauty they have never been surpassed, and even in their present fragmentary condition they afford models of form which modem art has not been able to equal. About 433 B. C, Phidias went to Elis, where he produced a colossal statue of Zeua (Jupiter Olympus), also of ivory and gold. This is considered his masterpiece, and was afterward ranked among the most wonderful works of art in the world. It was executed with "astonishing sublimity of conception," its dimensions being sixty feet high, and in every way proportioned. " The majesty of the work equaled the majesty of the god," says Quintihan, "and its beauty seems to have added luster to the religion of the country." This celebrated statue was removed by the emperor Theodosius to Constantinople, where it was destroyed by a fire, 475 A. D. On his return to Athens, political passions were running high. There was a strong — at least a violent — party inimical to Pericles, but as they did not dare attack the great statesman, they assailed him through his friends, Phidias, Anaxagoras, Aspasia, and others. Phidias was accused of having appropriated to himself some portion of the gold destined for the robe of Athena. This accusation he repelled by taking off the robe and weighing it. He was then accused of impiety, for having introduced his own Hke- ness and that of Pericles on the shield of the goddess. On this most frivolous and con- temptible pretext he was thrown into prison, and died there, but whether of sickness or poison is uncertain. Recent research detects in a late and rude copy of the shield of Athena the portrait of Phidias himself, in a head unquestionably taken from hfe, and wholly unUke any possible ideal type. He is "a bald-headed old man," as described by Plutarch, apparently about sixty years of age, with an unsyxnmetrical head of the IN FINE ARTS 128 Socratic cast. This may represent a tra- ditional portrait of the sculptor. As a candidate for the honor of future ages, Phidias was singularly fortunate. He saw the rise and grandeur of the noblest century of the Greek world. He carved its ideals in marble, and enshrined them in a temple, and this temple, with its works, has become the standard by which all succeeding art is, either consciously or unconsciously, measured. Moreover, he had the good fortune to be in- spired at this happy moment with such a realization of the image of the supreme deity, that its expression in material shape served to establish the type for all time. We may form some conception of the char- acter of that lost work by the study of the well-known head — the Jupiter Otricoli. \ The high and expansive arch of forehead, the masses of hair gently falling forward, the largeness of the facial angle, which ex- ceeds ninety degrees, the shape of the eye- brows, the perfect calmness and commanding majesty of the large and full-opened eyes, the expressive repose of all the features, and the slight forward inclination of the head are the chief elements that go to make up that representation, which, from the time of Phidias downward, has been regarded as the perfect ideal of supreme majesty and entire complacency of the "father of gods and men," impersonated in human form. "There exists a God, Creator, and Father of all beings, older than the sun, older than the heavens, greater than time, greater than eternity, greater than nature itself, which dissolves and perishes; a God that the voice cannot express, that the eyes cannot see, but still one that imperfect man, a prisoner in the flesh, has need to imagine in sensible forms. Statues are the material symbols of the inac- cessible divinity. The duty of the artist is to comprehend the divine nature, and to make it comprehensive to the consciousness of his fellow men. With the Greeks it was the art of Phidias that awakened in their souls the souveniE and the thought of deity." Phidias is said to have declared that he drew his ideal of the gods from the description of Homer. And it is in the Homeric quality of serene majesty and simple beauty that his art excels. His work is as free as that of Homer himself from any taint of exaggera- tion, affectation, false emphasis or sensuous- ness. It is always at once sublime and per- fect. It was a saying of the ancients that I "the hand of Phidiaa alone of men ooukl make the image of the gods." With thb power of ideal majesty, he combined a full technical mastery over every form of plastic art. He himself claimed no other superiority except that of "accuracy of work." We are told that his skill was equally surpaanng in representing the grasshopiMjr and the bee as the gods of Olympus. He was a consummate master in marble, bronze, ivory, gold, or ebony; in sculpture, in relief, in engraving, in chasing, in enameling ; in colossal statues, and in the most delicate ornamentation of a moulding or a fringe. The distinguishing characteristic of the art of Phidias was ideal beauty, and that of the sublimest order, especially in the representa- tion of divinities, and of subjects connected with their worship. "While on the one hand," observes Philip Smith, "he set him- self free from the stiff and unnatural forms which, by a sort of religious precedent, had fettered his predecessors of the archaic or hieratic school, he never, on the other hand, descended to the exact imitation of any human model, however beautiful; he never represented that distorted action, or expressed that vehement passion, which lies beyond the limits of repose; nor did he ever approach to that almost meretricious grace, by which some of his greatest followers, if they did not corrupt the art themselves, gave the occasion for its corruption in the hands of their less gifted and less spiritual imitators. Of the four schools of sculpture existing at the commencement of the century of Phidias, two were chief — the school of iEginia and the school of Athens. Art was redeemed from archaic rudeness and developed into perfect beauty: physical beauty in the one school, the fair expression of which is seen in the ^ginetan marbles; spiritual beauty in the other, the grand example of which is still seen in the mutiUited remains of the Parthenon. Wherever art is normally developed, it passes through three successive phases — strength, ideal beauty, grace. In the develop- ment of Greek art the first is represented by Polycletus, the second by Phidias, the third by Praxiteles. Polycletus wrought out the perfect body; Phidias added to this the noble and beautiful face, the face of the Jupiter Otricoli, the Juno Ludovisi, the Minerva Vdletri, the Venus de Milo. After his time it became the favorite manner of 124 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the artist to make the faces of their statues express pathos or suffering, as in the " Niobe " or the "Laocoon," and to make the bodies of the statues express allurement and grace, as in the Venus de' Medici, or the "Faun" of Praxiteles. "His influence over all subsequent art," observes Frederic Harrison, "was almost equal to that of Homer in poetry. While all subsequent masters and schools had the defects of their qualities, the ancient and the modern worlds have never suggested a shortcoming in Phidias, or a single quality in which he was weak. Consummate judg- ment and unerring taste control the most sublime and lovely visions of beauty. It is significant that, while his representations of the nude surpass in knowledge and technical mastery any others known, we have no single extant example in which he presented the female form, even partially undraped. His Venus on the frieze, like all his other goddesses, is completely draped. Nor must it be for- gotten that we have no single statue by Phidias, in the true sense of the word. The Elgin marbles are all, without exception, architectural decorations. Even the so- called "Theseus" and the "River God," sublime as they are, are the ornaments of a group placed in a pediment, fifty feet above the spectator; and, consequently, Uke the figures in the metopes or the frieze, they are entirely subordinated to the conditions of the architect. "Nor are we able to judge whether the great artist was equal to present human expression and emotion with the same power that he has presented the human form. No single head of any of the larger figures that we can certainly ascribe to Phidias has sur- vived uninjured. But in the extant busts of Jupiter we may recognize faint copies of the majesty which he could give to the king of the gods. We cannot assume that even Michaelangelo or Raphael surpassed Phidias in power of expression; and they assuredly did not surpass him in invention, in knowledge, or in sublime and serene beauty. There is every reason to believe that Phidias was the most perfect and complete genius who ever appeared in the arts of form : the one artist in whom we find nothing wanting, and of whom we know no failure." LEONARDO DA VINCI ▲. D. AQE 1452 Born at Castello da Vinci, Ital^, . . . . 1470 Entered the studio of Verocchio, Flor- ence, 18 1482 Settled at Milan, 30 1493 Finished model for equestrian statue of the duke of Sforza, 41 1498 Completed "The Last Supper," ... 46 1500 Returned to Florence, 48 A. D. AOB 1502 Architect and en^neer to Cesare Borgia, 50 1503 Rival of Michaelangelo, 51 1504 Portrait of Mona Lma, 52 1506 Employed by Louis XII. of France, . 54 1514 Summoned to Rome, 62 1516 Entered service of Francis I. of France, 64 1519 Died at Amboise, France, 67 T EONARDO DA VINCI, whose works as '-^ a painter are classed with those of Raphael and Michaelangelo, was also a sculptor, architect, scientist, and engineer. He was a natural son of Pietro da Vinci, a notary, and was born at Castello da Vinci, a small village, or burgh, near Florence, Italy, ih 1452. His father was at first inclined to educate him for a mercantile career, but, when he discovered the boy's fondness for drawing, he placed him at the age of eighteen with Andrea Verocchio, a very versatile Florentine artist. Verocchio was a sculptor, designer, and painter, and, under his instruc- tions, the pupil soon surpassed the master. Vasari relates that Verocchio being occupied on a picture of the "Baptism of Christ," Leonardo was permitted to paint an accessory figure of an angel in the same work. Veroc- chio, perceiving that his own performance was manifestly surpassed by that of his young scholar, abandoned the art in despair, and never touched a pencil again. Although Leonardo thus excelled his master while a boy, and soon enlarged the boundaries of the art, he retained traces of the manner, and even ^ general tastes, of Verocchio all his life. Like % his master, he studied geometry with ardor; he was fonder of design than painting. In his choice of form, whether of face or limb, he preferred the el^ant to the full. From Verocchio, too, he derived his fondness for IN FINE ARTS 12ft drawing horses and composing battles, and from him imbibed the wish to advance his art by doing a few things well, rather than to multiply his works. During this early period of his career at Florence he produced the "Head of Medusa," thecartoonof "Adamand Eve," a "Madonna," the "Triumph of Neptune," "Adoration of the Magi," and some lesser works. His genius for mechanics had already manifested itself; he invented machines for sinking wells, and Ufting and drawing weights; proposed methods for boring mountains, cleansing ports, and digging canals. His architectural schemes, too, were numerous and daring: with the boldness of an Archimedes, he offered to lift the baptistery, or church of S. Giovanni, in the air, and build under it the basement and steps which were wanting to complete the design. It does not appear that his fellow citizens availed themselves of these powers in any memorable work ; but his plan for rendering the Arno navigable seems to have been adopted two centuries afterward by Viviani. Leonardo remained at Florence until about the age of thirty, after which we find him at Milan, in the service of Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan. The artist's residence at the court of this prince, from 1482 to 1499, may be con- sidered the most active and the most glorious period of his life. Lodovico il Moro — as the duke was often called — whatever may have been his character as a potentate and as a man, certainly gave great encouragement to literature and the arts, and the universal genius of Leonardo was in all respects calcu- lated for the restless enterprise of the time. All his powers were put in requisition by the duke of Milan. The warhke habits of the sovereigns of Italy at this time rendered the science and services of the engineer particu- larly useful, and Leonardo was constantly inventing arms and machinery for attack and defense. He was engaged in the architecture of the cathedral; he superintended aU the pageants and masques, then so commonly conducted with splendor and taste in the Italian courts, and in some of which his knowledge of mechanics produced almost magical effects. He improved the neighbor- hood of the Ticino by canals and irrigation, and attempted to render the Adda navigable between Brivio and Trezzo. A colossal equestrian statue of the duke occupied him at intervals for many years. It was finally finished in 1493, and no single work o( art of the renaissance called forth such tributet of praise. Want of means alone, it seenui, prevented the duke from rommisHJoning him to cast it in bronze; and the moticl cxiHtcd until the invasion of Milan by Louis XIL, in 1499, when it was broken to pieces by his Gascons. As the founder of the Milanese academy, the first, in all probability, established in Italy, Leonardo composed his "Treatise on Painting," which Annibalc Caracci declared would have saved him twenty years of study had he known it in his youth. This work was first published in Paris in 1651, and contained his studies in optics, perspective, anatomy, libration, and proportion. In this active period of his life were also composed the numerous manuscript books explained by designs, which appear to have comprised specimens of the whole range of his vast knowledge. This academy, of which he was named director, was attended by many eminent artists, and had a very beneficent influence on the Lombard school of painting. Leonardo's works in painting during his residence in Milan were by no means numer- ous owing to the number and variety of his occupations. The portraits of Cecilia Gal- lerani and Lucrezia Crivelli, done in the earlier part of this period, received unbounded praise from the poets of the day. The por- traits of Lodovico Sforza, his wife and family, were painted on the wall of the refectory in the convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, where "The Last Supper" was afterward painted. However, these portraits faded, owing to the dampness of the wall, soon after they were done. Other works in the same place are mentioned by some writers as having been done on canvas, but they all perished from the same cause. The paintings on the walla of the castle of Milan were destroyed by French invaders in 1499. Various portraita and a half figure of St. John are preserved in the Ambrosian library. In 1496 Leonardo began his greatest work, "The Last Supper," in the refectory of the Dominican convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, and it was completed within two years. It was painted on the wall in oil, to which circumstance Lanzi and others who have followed him attribute its premature decay. But had it been in fresco, it wouU probably have suffered as much, since that part of Milan, where the convent stands, baa 126 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT frequently been subject to inundations ; and as late as 1800 the floor, or rather ground, of the refectory was several feet under water for a considerable time. The walls have thus never been free from dampness: only fifty years after the picture was painted Armenini describes it as half decayed. From that day to this it has frequently been restored, first by one artist, and then by another, until practically nothing of the original work of Leonardo now remains. Fortunately, nu- merous copies were made from this painting soon after it was done, the best of which — one by Marco Oggione, now in London — has preserved for us this great masterpiece. After the fall of Lodovico il Moro, Leonardo returned to Florence, and in 1502 entered the service of Cesare Borgia, the duke of Romagna, as architect and engineer. He remained in Florence thirteen years, occasionally revisiting Milan. Among his first paintings done in Florence at this period were : the cartoon of the "Madonna and Child, St. Anne, and the Infant St. John," and a portrait of Mona, or Madonna Lisa, wife of Francesco del Giocondo. This was the labor of four years, and this, too, was left at last imperfect in 1504. The por- trait of Mona Lisa is now in the Louvre, Paris. It is most highly wrought, and resembles the broad softness of Correggio. Both he and Michaelangelo received com- missions to decorate the council hall in the Palazzo della Signoria with historical compo- sitions. Leonardo dealt with "The Battle of Anghiari," a Florentine victory over Milan, and finished his cartoon; but, having em- ployed a method of painting upon the plaster which proved a failure, he abandoned the work in 1506. Michaelangelo's rival work was the celebrated composition known by the name of the "Cartoon of Pisa." To this period belong, also, his own por- trait in the ducal gallerj' at Florence; the half figure of a nun ; the " Madonna, Receiving a Lily from the Infant Christ " ; the " Vertum- nus and Pomona," miscaUed "Vanity and Modesty " ; a " Holy Family," now in Russia ; the supposed portrait of Joan of Naples ; and the " Christ Disputing with the Doctors." His numerous imitators render, however, all deci- sion as to the originality of some of these works doubtful ; and the last mentioned picture, now in the national gallery, London, has been thought by more than one writer to have been, at least in part, painted by his scholars. A portrait of the celebrated Captain Giangia- como Triulzio may have been painted in one of Leonardo's short visits to Milan. In 1514, after the defeat of the French at Novara, Leonardo, being then at Milan, left that city for Rome, in obedience to a sum- mons from the pope, and again passed through Florence. His stay in Rome was short. Pope Leo X. seems to have been prejudiced against him by the friends of Michaelangelo and Raphael, and was displeased at his dila- tory, or rather desultory, habits. From the notes of Leonardo himself, it appears that, while in Rome, he improved the machinery for the coinage; but the only certain paint- ing of his done at this time was a votive picture on the wall of a corridor in the con- vent of S. Onofrio. Francis I., who succeeded Louis XII. in 1515, having reconquered the Milanese, Leonardo again went to Milan, in the follow- ing year, and once more superintended a pageant, in this instance intended to celebrate the triumph of the king after the victory of Marignano. Francis, having in vain at- tempted to remove the painting of "The Last Supper" from Milan to Paris, desired at least to have the painter near him. Leonardo accepted the invitation, and afterward ac- companied his new patron to France, taking with him his pupils, Salai and Melzi. This was scarcely more than two years before the death of Leonardo, and, as he was occupied in planning canals in the department of the Cher et Loire, he painted little, although the king repeatedly invited him to execute his cartoon of the "Virgin and St. Anne," which was afterward painted by Luini. His usual residence in France was at Cloux, a royal villa near Amboise, in Touraine, where he died May 2, 1519. The story of his having expired in the arms of Francis I., which, as Bossi observes, does more honor to the monarch than to the artist, appears to be without foundation. He was buried in the church of St. Florent, at Amboise, but no memorial exists to mark the place ; and it is supposed that his monu- ment, together with many others, was de- stroyed in the wars of the Huguenots. At his death he left his manuscripts, library, and other personal property to his pupil, Fran- cesco Melzi. Leonardo combined in his person an at- tractive presence and extraordinary powers of mind. He excelled in many physical exercises, was an accomplished musician, and IN FINE ARTS 127 possessed, besides, a captivating eloquence. He was intensely ambitious, haughty, capri- cious, dreamy, and restless ; and undoubtedly it may be laid to his gigantic conceptions, unattainable ideals of perfection, and his insatiable thirst after new achievements, that he left only three or four works of supreme beauty and perfection. Not only every art, but almost every science studied in his time seems to have engaged his attention. He was familiar with chemistry, geometry, anatomy, botany, mechanics, and optics; and there is scarcely a subject that he touched in which he did not, in more or less important points, anticipate the discoveries of later philosophers and scientists. His "Treatise on Painting " has been translated into many languages, and is the foundation of all that has been written on the art. Hallam, in his Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe, says: "Leonardo's greatest literary distinction is derived from those short fragments of his unpublished writings that appeared not many years since, and which, according at least to our common estimate of the age in which he lived, are more live revelations of physical truths vouchsafed to a single mind, than the super- structure of its reasoning upon any estab- lished basis. The discoveries which made Galileo and Kepler and Maestlin and Mauro- licus and Castelli and other names illustrious, the system of Copernicus, the very theories of recent geologists, are anticipated by Da Vinci within the compass of a few pages, not, perhaps, in the most precise language, or on the most conclusive reasoning, but so as to strike us with something like the awe of preternatural knowledge." The works of Leonardo da Vinci are ex- tremely rare. Among them, including those previously mentioned, are a portrait of Charles VIII., long attributed to Perugino; La Belle Ferroniere, a portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli (in Louvre, Paris) ; portrait of Mona Lisa, wife of Francesco del Giocondo, cele- brated under \he name of La Belle Joconde (Louvre) ; " St. John the Baptist " (Louvre) ; "The Madonna Seated on the Lap of St. Anne" (Louvre); La Vierge aux Rochers, of which the original is at Charlton Park, England, the seat of the earl of Suffolk, and copies are in the Louvre, at Naples, and else- where ; a fresco of the madonna in S. Onofrio at Rome; "The Daughter of Herodias Car- rjring the Head of St. John the Baptist in a Charger," regarded, however, by seme artiate as the work of Luini, or of Andrea SoUrio; "Vertumnus and Pomona," or "Vanity and Modesty," at Rome; "St. Jerome," at Rome; the "Four Evangelists"; the "Head of Medusa," at Florence; a "Leda," sometiiDM called a "Charity," at The Hague; La Co- lombina, or "Flora"; La Vierge au Ba^ Relief ; and another " Madonna " at St. Pctem- burg. "Christ Disputing with the Doctors," in the national gallery, liondon, was long thought to be the genuine work of Lcomirdo, but it is now universally believed by critics to be by Bernardino Luini. La Vierge au Fleur-de-Lys, at Rome, has also been at> tributed to Luini. As a painter, Leonardo da Vinci may be considered the first who reconciled minute finishing with grandeur of design and harmony of expression. His was the very poetry of painting. His exquisite taste, by continually making him dissatisfied with his works, urgr ot\ «c- "• THE DYING RAPHAEL From the painting by Morgari IN FINE ARTS W in Florence, from a sight of the cartoons, and, in Rome, from that of the ceiling of the Sistine chapel ; but no direct imitation of Michaelangelo is anywhere to be traced in Raphael, and he seemed desirous rather of exhibiting his own feeling as distinct from that of the great Florentine master than of aiming at that master's style. The picture he painted at Florence — the "Madonna of the Grand Duke," so called because Ferdinand III. always took it with him on his travels — is almost entirely in his earlier style. The celebrated picture at Blen- heim painted in 1505 holds a middle place between Raphael's first and his second, or Florentine manner. It was designed as an altar-piece for a church at Perugia, and repre- sents the madonna and child on a throne, with St. John the Baptist and St. Nicholas of Bari. The chief works executed in Raphael's second, or Florentine manner, about 1507, are the "St. Catherine of Alexandria," in the national gallery, London, "The Entombment of Christ," which is the principal ornament of 'the Borghese gallery at Rome, La Belle Jardiniere in the Louvre, Paris, and the Madonna del Baldacchino, and Madonna del Cardellino, both at Florence. With the exception of a few months passed at Perugia in 1505, and a short interval at Bologna and Urbino in 1506, the whole period from 1504 to 1508 was spent by Raphael in Florence. In 1508 Pope Julius II., a great patron of the arts, invited him to the eternal city, and received him with the most flattering marks of distinction. Vasari relates that Bramante, the architect of Julius II., being from the same city as Raphael, and distantly related to him, had recommended him to the pope as qualified to paint in fresco certain rooms of the Vatican. It is more probable that Raphael's great reputation, now second to none, was the real cause of the pope's notice, although Bramante may have been the medium of communication. To the honor of Julius it should be remembered that he had discernment enough to fix in every instance on the best artists of his age, and he left no means unemployed, sometimes even to an indulgence at variance with the haughti- ness of his character, to secure their very best efforts in his service. It is certain that at no period of Raphael's laborious life were his exertions greater than during the reign of Julius II., that is, until 1513, the year of that pontiff's death. He was first employed on the frescoes in the stanzas of Raphael in the Vatican. The first of these works pjiinted in the Stansa della Segnatura was the "Theology," com- monly called the " Dispute on the Sacrament." This was probably finished in 1509, and is painted in Raphael's second, or Florentine manner. His later works, including all the other Vatican frescoes, are painted in his third manner, or in that style which peculiarly characterizes him, and constitutes the Roman school in its highest development. They are distinguished for dramatic composition and expression, for correct and vigorous design, and, at least in the frescoes, for a grand and appropriate tone of coloring. In the Stanza della Segnatura are also the frescoes of "Poetry," or "Parnassus"; "Philosophy," or the "School of Athens"; and "Jurisprudence." They were all finished in or before 1511. In the second chamber, known as the Stanza del Eliodoro, are "The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple of Jerusalem"; the "Miracle of Bolsena"; " The Repulse of Attila by Pope Leo I. " ; and "St. Peter released from Prison." The two former were painted in 1512 during the life- time of Pope Julius II. ; the two latter were painted in 1513 and 1514 during the pontifi- cate of Leo X. Before the frescoes of the second stanza were completed, Juhus II. died and was suc- ceeded in 1513 by Leo X. Though the charac- ter of Pope Leo X. was in all respects different from that of Julius, he was not a less patron of Raphael than his predecessor had been; and certainly the number of learned and accom- plished men whom he attracted to his court, and the enthusiasm for classical learning which prevailed among them, strongly influ- enced those productions of Raphael which date from the accession of Leo. They be- came more and more allied to the antique, and less and . less imbued with that pure religious spirit which we find in his earlier works. Cardinal Bembo, Cardinal Bibbiena, Count Castiglione, the poets Ariosto and Sanazzaro, ranked at this time among Raphael's intimate friends. With his celebrity his riches in- creased ; he built himself a fine house in that part of Rome called the Borgo, between St Peter's and the castle of St. Angelo; he had numerous scholars from all parts of Italy, who attended on him with a love and reverence and duty far beyond the lip and knee homage 138 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT which waits on princes; and such was the influence of his benign and genial temper that all these young men lived in the most entire union and friendship with him and with each other, and his school was never disturbed by animosities and jealousies. All the other painters of that time were the friends rather than the rivals of the supreme and gentle Raphael, with the single exception of Michael- angelo. About this period, the beginning of the pontificate of Leo X., Michaelangelo had left Rome for Florence. Leonardo da Vinci came to Rome by the invitation of Leo, attended by a train of scholars, and lived on good terms with Raphael, who treated the venerable old man with becoming deference. Fra Bartol- ommeo also visited Rome about 1513, to the great joy o^ his friend. Raphael at this time was on terms of the tenderest friendship with Francia, and in correspondence with Albrecht Diirer, for whom he entertained the highest admiration. Under Leo X. Raphael continued his great work in the Vatican, assisted by his scholars. The third chamber, called the Stanza del Incendio, was now painted — almost wholly by Raphael's scholars ; and the fourth, called the Sala di Constantino, was completed from designs of Raphael, after his death, under the direction of Giulio Romano. Of all the Vati- can works the "Attila" is justly considered to be the most perfect example of fresco painting, and to exhibit the greatest com- mand over the material. Though produced after the death of Julius, it may be regarded as the noblest result of that impulse which the pontiff's energy had communicated to Raphael. The celebrated cartoons are the original designs executed by Raphael and his scholars in 1515 and 1516, as copies for tapestry work for Pope Leo X. The tapestries, worked in wool, silk, and gold, were hung in the Sistine chapel at Rome in 1519, the year before Raphael died, and excited the greatest ap- plause. Seven of the cartoons remained neg- lected in the warehouse of the manufacturer at Arras, and were there seen by Rubens, who advised Charles I. to purchase them. These exquisite compositions are now in the South Kensington museum, London. The subjects are: "Christ's Charge to Peter," "The Death of Ananias," "Peter and John Healing the Lame Man," " Paul and Barna- bas at Lystra," "Elymas the Sorcerer Struck Blind," "St. Paul Preaching at Athens," and "The Miraculous Draught of Fishes." Whether from the indifference of Leo, or from his neglect, as Vasari hints, to discharge his pecuniary debts to Raphael, we soon find the painter employed on various other works, and the remaining frescoes of the Vatican bear evidence of the frequent employment of other hands. Many works of minor impor- tance in the Vatican were entirely executed by his assistants. The first portrait of Leo with the cardinals De' Medici and De' Rossi completes the list of larger works under- taken for the pope. Among the numerous and extensive works done for other patrons by Raphael — all in his third manner — are the frescoes in the Farnese palace ; the " St. Cecilia," at Bologna ; the portrait of Julius II., in the national gallerj', London; the "Madonna, Infant Christ, and St. John," now called the "Gar- vagh Raphael," in the same collection; the celebrated "Sistine Madonna," at Dresden; the Spasimo, at Madrid; the Madonna dd Pesce, at Madrid ; the Madonna di Foligno, in the Vatican; the Madonna delta Sedia, at Florence. Many a palace in the neighborhood of Rome still exhibits remains of frescoes for which Raphael at least furnished the designs. A long Ust of portraits might be added to the above works, together with many inter- esting designs in architecture and even some productions in sculpture. At this time the lovers of painting at Rome were divided as to the relative merits of Michaelangelo and Raphael, and formed two great parties, that of Raphael being by far the more numerous. Michaelangelo with characteristic haughtiness disdained any open rivalry with Raphael, and put forward the Venetian Sebastian© del Piombo as no un- worthy competitor of the great Roman painter. Raphael bowed before Michael- angelo, and, with the modesty and candor which belonged to his character, was heard to thank heaven that he had been born in the same age and enabled to profit by the grand creations of that sublime genius, but he was by no means incUned to yield any supremacy to Sebastiano; he knew his own strength too well. To decide the controversy, the cardinal Giulio de' Medici, afterward Clement VII., commissioned Raphael to paint the picture of "The Transfiguration," and at the same time commanded from Sebastiano del Piombo the "Raising of Lazarus," which IN FINE ARTS 1» is now in the national gallery, London. Both pictures were intended by the cardinal for his cathedral at Narbonne, he having lately been created archbishop of Narbonne by Francis I. Michaelangelo, well aware that Sebastian© was a far better colorist than designer, furnished him with the cartoon for his picture, and, it is said, drew some of the figures (that of Lazarus for example) with his own hand on the panel; but he was so far from doing this secretly that Raphael heard of it, and exclaimed, joyfully, "Michael- angelo has graciously favored me, in that he has deemed me worthy to compete with him- self, and not with Sebastiano ! " But he did not live to enjoy the triumph of his acknowl- edged superiority, dying before he had finished his picture, which was afterward completed by the hand of his pupil, Giuho Romano. During the last years of his life, and while engaged in painting "The Transfiguration," Raphael's active mind was employed on many other things. He had been appointed by the pope to superintend the building of St. Peter's, and he prepared the architectural plans for that vast undertaking. He was most active and zealous in carrying out the pope's project for disinterring and preserving the remains of art which lay buried beneath the ruins of ancient Rome. He also made several draw- ings and models for sculpture, and, with a princely magnificence, sent artists at his own cost to various parts of Italy and into Greece to make drawings from those re- mains of antiquity which his numerous and important avocations prevented him from visiting himself. He was in close intimacy and correspondence with most of the cele- brated men of his time; interested himself in aU that was going forward; mingled in society, lived in splendor, and was always ready to assist generously his own family and the pupils who had gathered round him. Cardinal Bibbiena offered him his niece in marriage, with a dowry of three thousand gold crowns; but the early death of Maria di Bibbiena prevented this union, for which it appears that Raphael himself had no great inclination. In possession of all that ambition could desire, for him the cup of life was still rurming over with love, hope, power, glory, when, in the very prime of manhood, and in the midst of vast undertakings, he was seized with a violent fever — caught, it is said, in superin- tending some subterranean excavations — and expired after an illness of fourteen days. His death took place on Good Friday — hit birthday — April G, 1520, when he had oom- plet«d his thirty-seventh year. Great was the grief of all classes; unspeakable that of his friends and scholars. The pope had sent every day to inquire after his health, adding the most kind and cheering messages; and, when told that the beloved and admired painter was no more, he broke out into Iamen« tations on his own and the world's loss. The body was laid on a bed of state, and above it was suspended the last work of that divine hand, the glorious "Transfiguration." From his own house near St. Peter's a multitude of all ranks followed the bier in sad procession, and his remains were laid in the church of the Pantheon, near those of his betrothed bride, Maria di Bibbiena, in a spot chosen by him- self during his lifetime. Raphael was about five feet eight inches in height. He had a regular, agreeable, and delicate face, the features well proportione pointed palace marshal to the king. This post, the duties of which consisted in attend- ance on the king in his journeys, and the superintendence of everything essential to his convenience, was one of much honor and emolument. But it involved, at times, great trouble and anxiety; and on the specially important occasion of the conferences held in 1660, to arrange the marriage between Louis XIV. and the infanta, these were such as to utterly prostrate the painter. On June 26th of that year he returned to Madrid, worn down with the overwork to which he had been forced to subject himself. He was then attacked by a subtle fever on July 31st, to which, after much suffering, he succumbed a week later, on August 6th. He was buried with solemn and splendid obsequies in the church of San Juan. He left all he possessed to his wife, but she followed him to the grave on the 13th of the month. After his death the painter's affairs were found, or at least declared, to be in great disorder. The Spanish treasury claimed a large sum from his estate, and laid an embargo upon his effects. Six years later this was taken off on the payment, by his son-in-law, Mazo, of half the amount, the remaining half being remitted as due by the treasury for arrears of pay to Velasquez as king's marshal. As a man, Velasquez seems to have been all that was attractive and admirable. He is spoken of by Palomino in glowing terms for his courtly refinement, his noble and courteous manner, his kind and generous disposition. He was always ready to be- friend other artists ; Alonzo Cano and Murillo — rivals, in a sense — owed much to his kind- ness and advice. His fine spirit toward Murillo, who surpassed him in popularity, and toward the deposed Duke Olivares, to whom he had been indebted while yet an obscure artist, is especially noteworthy. His long career as an intimate of Philip's court had much to do with the character of his dress, which on most occasions was elaborate and elegant. Amid numerous costly dia- monds and gems, he also displayed rather prominently the red cross of the order of Santiago, with which the king had honored him. The chief works which belong to his later period are Las Hilanderas, or "The Tapestry Weavers"; Las Meninas, or "The Maids of Honor"; the so-called "Portrait of Alonzo Cano," the "^sop," and "Moenippus," and the later portraits of Philip and his family. Las Meninas was painted in 1656, and, near the close of his life, he painted two fine religious canvases: the "Coronation of the Virgin," and the "Anchorites," the latter representing St. Ajithony and Paul the Her- mit, in a desolate landscape of sublime gran- deur. IN FINE ARTS Itt The universal fame of Velasquez as a painter really dates from the first quarter of the nineteenth century. Until then his pictures had been immured in the palaces and museum of Madrid. In one respect, at least, this was fortunate for Spain: from want of popular appreciation they had, to a large extent, escaped the rapacity of the French marshals during the Peninsula war. In 1828 Sir David Wilkie, the noted Scotch painter, wrote from Madrid that he felt himself in the pres- ence of a new power in art as he looked at the works of Velasquez, and at the same time found a wonderful affinity between this master and the English school of portrait painters, being specially reminded of the firm square touch of Raeburn. He was struck by the sense of modernness of impression, of direct contact with nature, and of vital force which pervaded all the works of Velasquez, in landscape as well as in portraiture. Time and criticism have now fully estab- lished his reputation as one of the most con- summate of painters, and he more thoroughly foreshadowed the art of our own time than did any other "old master." Ruskin says of him that "everything Velasquez does may be taken as absolutely right by the student." His marvelous technique and strong individu- aUty have given him a power such as is prob- ably exercised by no other single individual. Acquainted with all the Italian schools, the friend of the foremost painters of his day, he was strong enough to withstand every external influence, and to work out for him- self the development of his own nature and his own principles of art. A realist of the realists, he painted only what he saw; consequently, his imagination seems limited. His religious conceptions are of the earth earthy, although some of his works, such as "The Crucifixion," and "The Scourging," are characterized by an intensity of pathos in which he ranks second to no painter. "His portraits," says the talented art critic, Richard 'Ford, "bafl[le description and praise. They must be seen. He ele- vated that humble branch to the dignity of history. He drew the minds of men — they live, breathe, and seem ready to walk out of the frames. His power of painting circumambient air, his knowledge of lineal and aerial perspective, the gradation of tone in light, shadow, and color, give an absolute concavity to his canvas ; we look into space, into a room, into the reflection of a mirror. It is even difficult to doubt the aDecdot« related of Philip IV., who, nuBtAldng for the man the portrait of Admiral Par«ja in a dark corner of Velasquez's room, exclaimed (he had been ordered to sea) — 'What! still here?'" England was the first nation to recog- nize his extraordinary merit, and owns by far the largest share of his works outaide of Spain. But Velasquez can only be seen in all his power in the gallery of the Prado at Madrid, where over sixty of his works are preserved, including historical, mythological, and religious subjects, as well as landscapes and portraits. Although acknowledged even by his con- temporaries to be the first among Spanish painters, Velasquez had, nevertheless, but few immediate followers. His son-in-law, Juan Bautista del Mazo-Martinez, his slave and afterward freedman, Juan de Pareja, and his successor in court favor, Carreno de Miranda, are all that achieved distinction. His true followers came much later. The painters of to-day and yesterday — the modern French painters and their fellow artists in Europe and America — these are the real followers of the great Spanish master. Paul Lefort, in his excellent estimate of Velasquez, says: "Velasquez may be re- garded as a precursor, an initiator of the modern school of painting. In his manner of interpreting life, in his just observation of the laws of light, in his habitually clear and simple method of representation, as well as in his technique — so novel and so original even nowadays — Velasquez marks buch an advance upon the art of his time that he seems rather to belong to our own. The striking relief and perfect solidity with which he endows natural objects, the marvelous envel- opment of air with which he surrounds them, gives such a pecufiar intensity of illusion and appearance of life to his work, that, compar- ing it with the productions of even our boldest realists, we are tempted to exclaim that this painter of Philip IV. speaks not only the lan- guage of the painter of to-day, but that of the painter of the future — a language so completely formulated, so definite, and so perfected by this master of two centuries ago that we may say, and without injustice, that even our impressionists — the advance guard of the modem school — have as yet scaroe learned to Usp it." 154 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT REMBRANDT A. D. AGE 1607 Bom at Leyden, Holland, 1619-23 Studied under Van Swanenburch and Lastman, 12-16 1623-30 Studied and painted at Leyden, . 16-23 1630 Established himself in Amster- dam, 23 1631 "Portrait of a Young Man"; "Simeon in the Temple," ... 24 1632 "The Anatomist Nicholas Tulp and his Pupils," 25 A. D. AOB 1633 " The Shipbuilder and his Wife," . . 26 1634 Married his first wife, 27 1640 Purchased his house in Amsterdam, 33 1642 Death of his first wife; "The Ni^ht Watch," 35 1648 "Christ at Emmaus," 41 1661 "The Syndics of the Merchant Drapers," '>4 1669 Died at Amsterdam, U2 rjEMBRANDT HARMENSZOON VAN '■^ RUN, or Rembrandt, son of Harmen of the Rhine, the most celebrated of Dutch painters, was born at Leyden, near Amster- dam, Holland, July 15, 1607. He was the sixth son of a well-to-do miller of Leyden, Harmen Gerritsz, and Neeltje (Cornelia), daughter of Willems of the village of Zuyd- brock. At the early age of twelve, Rembrandt, who showed decided proclivities toward art, was placed under Van Swanenburch, a painter of modern talent in Leyden, and he also attended the university of Leyden. His parents entered him at the university in the expectation that he would eventually take up the profession of law; but his almost com- plete alisorption in the study of painting led him to devote himself exclusively to that art. From Leyden he went to study for a year at Amsterdam under Pieter Lastman, whom he left in order to frequent the studio of Jacob Pinas at Haarlem. After having learned all that others could teach him, Rembrandt returned to his father's house, and during several years devoted himself to that solitary study from which genius derives its power and originality. He remained seven years in his native town — from 1623 to 1630 — and carried out those elaborately staged compo- sitions which mark his first period as a painter, and he took his first steps as an etcher. His etching, "The Presentation with the Angel," and several fine portrait studies belong to this early period. At the age of twenty-three Rembrandt established himself at Amsterdam, and began his remarkable independent career, never leaving that city until his death thirty-nine years later. M. Michel in his life of Rembrandt paints a graphic picture of Amsterdam in 1630, of her growing trade and prosperity, and of the transformation, not only in the city itself, but in the spirit of the inhabitants, which followed the long struggle with Spain. The revival of civil life had been followed by a great increase in the attention given to the arts. The institutions fostered by the war had encouraged painters, and now, with returning prosperity, other institutions, and especially those connected with charity, came forward as patrons of pictures. For a long time Amsterdam was the chief place to profit by the return of peace. Her position, at once well sheltered and easily accessible both from the interior and the sea, has often been likened to that of Venice, but perhaps a comparison would be better with Constanti- nople. Her position at the head of the then navigable Zuyder Zee, and at a point where all the canals of Holland converged from the south, was very similar to that of the eastern capital on the sea of Marmora. Within a century of William the Silent's assassination in the palace at Delft, Amsterdam had practi- cally grown into the town we all knew until the other day. Like several other Dutch cities, she has now begun to put on suburbs at an alarming rate, but in 1630 she was already at the knees of that rampart over which she only began to swarm some twenty years ago. During his first year in Amsterdam, Rem- brandt painted the " Portrait of an Old Man," now in the Cassel gallery, and thereafter followed portraits, landscapes, historical, and genre subjects, in great numbers, as well as the hundreds of wondrous etchings, which have served almost as much as his paint- ings to immortalize him. There are two pictures dated by him 1631, both of which, a "Portrait of a Young Man" and "Saint Simeon in the Temple," are now in the mu- seum at The Hague. In the following year Rembrandt painted for the anatomical theater of the college of surgeons at Amsterdam "The Anatomist Nicholas Tulp and his Pupils," a famous picture — now in the museum at The Hague — which alone would suffice to place IN FINE ARTS 157 the author in the first rank of the Dutch mus- ters. In the picture Professor Tulp is seen standing behind an operating table upon which is placed the corpse. Forceps in hand, he lifts the tendons of the partly dissected arm, while around him press his colleagues, eager to watch and to listen. It is a marvelous picture for a young man of twenty-five, and is generally accepted as a milestone in the career of the painter, and as marking a new departure. "It is Rembrandt's triumph," says Fred- erick Wedmore, "that over all this terrible reality of the dead, the reality of the living is victorious; and our final impression of his picture is not of the stunted corpse, but of the activity of vigor and intellect in the lecturing surgeon and passing crowd." Malcolm Bell has written: "The enthusi- asm aroused by 'The Anatomy Lesson,' when it was finished and hung in its predestined place in the little dissecting room of the guild of surgeons, was immediate and immense. Commissions flowed in upon the artist faster than he could execute them, so that those who wished to be immortalized by him had often to wait their turn for months together, while all the wealth and fashionable of the city flocked to the far-off studio in the outskirts, the more fortunate to give their sittings, the later comers to put down their names in anticipation of the future leisure. From the beginning, too, pupils came clamor- ing to his doors, eager to pay down their hun- dred florins a year, as Sandrart says they did, and work with and for the lion of the day." In 1633 Rembrandt finished "The Ship- builder and his Wife." The next year, 1634, marks his marriage to Saskia, daughter of Rombertus van Uylenburgh, pensioner" and burgomaster of Leeuwarden in Frisia. He received a considerable fortune with his wife, and lived with her happily until her death. The eight years following his marriage were the happiest period of the artist's fife. He received numerous commissions for pictures, and his etchings Were also a source of great profit to him. He purchased his house, and formed a fine and valuable collection of Italian pictures, engravings, marbles, armor, and works of art. Saskia formed one of Rembrandt's best models, and during her short married life sat for eighteen separate portraits, of one kind or another, besides other compositions. She died in 1642, leaving a son named Titus. Rembrandt married again about 1653, but nothing is known respecting this second marriage, except that it resulted in the birth of two children, one of whom, Cornelia, survived her father. The year of Saskia's death produced the famous "Sortie of the Civic Guard," usually known as "The Night Watch," a guild picture representing Captain Banning Cocq and his company of musketeers. The incident repre- sented is a call to arms of the civic gtianl. The company is issuing from its guild house; the captain, dressed in black and wearing a red scarf, gives his orders to the lieutenant, who, clad in yellow, with a white scarf about his waist, and wearing a yellow hat adorned with a white feather, walks at his side — the two men preceding the rest of the group. The canvas measures eleven by fourteen feet, but, as originally painted in 1642, was considerably larger. The mutilation which it has undergone took place in 1715, when the picture was removed from the hall of the Musketeers' Doelen to the town hall of Amsterdam; and, in order to suit it to the dimensions of the place assigned to it, part of the drum to the left, and two figures to the right of the canvas were cut off. A contem- porary copy of the work by Gerrit Lundens, now in the national gallery, London, shows this to have been the case. Erroneously called "The Night Watch" — a name given it by French writers at the end of the eighteenth century — it is not a night scene, as its darkened condition, caused by time, thick coatings of varnish, and fumes from peat-fires and tobacco smoke seemed to indicate, but, on the contrary, as a recent cleaning and restoration has proved, was painted in full sunlight. It has even been asserted that the exact position of the sun can be ascertained from the shadow cast by Banning Cocq's hand on the tunic of his lieutenant. The decade after his wife's death brought disastrous changes in the financial fortunes of Rembrandt, though in it he produced some of his best work. "Christ at Emraaus" was painted in 1648. Holland during this period suffered from a severe industrial stringency, and a consequent change in public expendi- tures for the refinements of art. In addition to this, the documents preserved in the court of insolvency at Amsterdam show that in 1656 Rembrandt was under the necessity of abandoning to his son, Titus, all the real property in which he had a life interest under 158 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the will of his first wife. Shortly afterward he was forced to intrust to a court of law the administration of his own property, which was sold by public auction. Fortunately for his memory, the inventory of his personal effects has been preserved. It proves that this man, who had been made a type of sordid avarice, devoted nearly the whole of his wealth to the purchfise of pictures and engravings by the Italian masters, antique marbles, rare and precious articles of furni- ture, and objects of art of all kinds. The passion for beautiful works of art and curiosi- ties, and the mal-administration of a fortune, estimated at the time of his first wife's death at upward of forty thousand florins, had been the sole means of reducing Rembrandt to the sad position in which we now see him placed. After abandoning to his creditors absolutely everything he possessed, he with- drew into a laborious isolation, and after ten years of patient toil the old artist at last succeeded in satisfying their claims. However, during this time of stress and vexation, Rembrandt produced probably his greatest work, "The Syndics of the Merchant Drapers," completed in 1661. In this great picture five members of the cloth guild are ranged round the inevitable table, prosaically occupied in the verification of their accounts. They are all dressed in black costumes, with flat white collars, and broad-brimmed black hats. Behind them and somewhat in the shadow, as befits his office, a servant, also in black, awaits their orders with uncovered head. The tablecloth is of a rich scarlet; a wainscot of yellowish-brown wood with simple mouldings forms the background for the heads. No accessories, no variation in the costumes; an equally diffused light falling from the left on the faces, which are those of men of mature years, some verging on old age. With such modest materials Rembrandt produced his masterpiece. Never before had Rembrandt achieved such perfection ; never again was he to repeat the triumph of that supreme moment when all his natural gifts joined forces with the vast expe- riences of a life devoted to his art in such a crowning manifestation of his genius. Bril- liant and poetical, his masterpiece was at the same time absolutely correct and unexcep- tional. Criticism, which still wrangles over "The Night Watch," is unanimous in admi- ration of the "Syndics." In it the colorist and the draughtsman, the simple and the subtle, the realist and the idealist alike recog- nize one of the masterpieces of painting. Rembrandt's son, Titus, died in 1668, and the distinguished painter in his melancholy last years was left with two children — his daughter, Cornelia, and a granddaughter — to form his only links with the past. His own death took place about thirteen months later. The only allusion to it that has been found is the record on the death register of Wester- kerk, Amsterdam, in which this entry occurs : "Tuesday, October 8, 1669; Rembrandt van Rijn, painter, on the Roozegraft, opposite the Doolhof. Leaves two children." Rembrandt painted more than forty por- traits of himself, in many aspects and various fantastical costumes. Although probably few of them are accurate likenesses, it is clear that he was a strong man, of ordinary figure, with a thick nose, firm mouth framed with a stiff moustache, and imperial and dark piercing eyes. He possessed a rather somber, thoughtful, dreamy disposition, which he communicated to his works, though many are also full of pathos, mystery, sympathy, and fine imagination. Some of his censorious critics charge him with dissipation, extrava- gance, and even avarice; but these stories have been proven to be entirely unfounded. Among his chief paintings, including those already mentioned, are "The Syndics," at Amsterdam ; " The Shipbuilder and his Wife," in the collection of the British royal family; the "Jewish Rabbi," in the national gallery, London ; and " The Night Watch," at Amster- dam. Of his historical pictures, the most remarkable are: "Duke Adolphus of Guel- dres Threatening his Father," and "Moses Destroying the Tables of the Law," in the Berlin museum; the "Sacrifice of Abraham," in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg; the " Woman Taken in Adultery," in the national gallery, London; the "Descent from the Cross," and the "Nativity," in the same col- lection; "Christ in the Garden with Mary Magdalen," and the "Adoration of the Magi," in the collection of the British royal family; and "Tobit Adoring the Departing Angel," in the Louvre, Paris. Of his landscapes, of which he painted fewer than of other kinds of pictures, a very characteristic specimen is that known as "The Mill," in the possession of the marquis of Lansdowne. His most noted etchings include a "Descent from the Cross"; "Christ Healing the Sick"; "The Raising of Lazarus"; "Burgomaster Jan IN FINE ARTS 1« Six " ; and the well-known " Landscape with Three Trees." Rembrandt is one of the most perfect colorists that ever existed ; and in chiaroscuro — the contrasts of light and shade — he has no equal in the whole range of art. He has clearly shown in all his works that the grand resources of his art consist in subduing gaudy and harsh colors, because they ought not to be used except for bringing out the principal objects. Rembrandt used them with ad- dress, either by glazing them over in the man- ner of the Venetian school, or by blending other tints to lessen that harshness which dazzles the eyes. He perceived that by the circulation of air which surrounds all objects, colors receive a reflection from whatever is near them; and, consequently, all represen- tations of nature ought to participate in those aerial gradations which in his pictures appear to raise the figures from the canvas as if they were animated. As examples of composition, expression, color, and light and shade, his works rank with those of the greatest artists. In order to thoroughly know and appreciate Rembrandt, it is not sufficient to admire his paintings ; it is also necessary to examine and study the wonderful engravings, upward of three hundred sixty in number, which he executed between 1628 and 1661, and which amateurs search for with an enthusiasm which every year grows more ardent. As an etcher he has neither equals nor rivals. Mentally he was a man keen to observe, assimilate, and synthesize. His conception was localized with his own people and time — he never built up the imaginary or fol- lowed Italy — and yet into types taken from the streets and shops of Amsterdam he infused the very largest humanity through his inherent sympathy with man. Dramatic, even tragic he was at times, and yet showed it lew in vehement action than in passionate expra»> sion. He had a way of striking universal truths through the human face, a turned head, bent body, or outstretched hand that waa powerful in the extreme. His people have great dignity and character ; and we are made to feel that they are types of the Dutch race — people of substantial physique, slow in thought and impulse, yet capable of feeling, comprehending, enjoying, suffering. His landscapes, again, are a synthesis of all Duteh landscape, a grouping of the great truths of light, space, and air. Whatever he turned his mind upon was treated with that breadth of view that overlooks the little and gra^M the great. Emile Michel says: "His originality of interpretation was always controlled by study of nature. Nature made him what he was, and to her he turned unceasingly. One of his principles was that 'Nature alone should be followed.' Tradition had httle power over him, and yet he never deliberately threw off its yoke. On the contrary he was always keen to know what men had done before his time, and to profit by their teaching. But when a subject had to be treated he did not trouble himself too much about what others had said. He thought about it for himself; he entered into it ; he, as it were, hved it over again, and then set himself to reproduce it in his own way, giving special force to those aspects which had stirred his own emotions. " Rembrandt belongs to the breed of artists which can have no posterity. His place is with the Michaelangelos, the Shakespeares, the Beethovens. An artistic Prometheus, he stole the celestial fire, and with it put life into what was inert, and expre&sc TMm tw all concur in speaking of him as A 'coloaus,' a ' giant,' a ' man mountain.' His atmoq>liere is the immensity resplendent with the sun. Like Corneille, he lived in the sublime. • • • Handel has treated all styles, and has excelled in all, whether the subject be gay or serious, light or solemn, profane or sacred. He would be the Shakespeare of music if he were not the Michaelangelo. * In that musical Olympus the most divine mastera have given to Handel the place of Jupiter Tonans." "He is the father of us all," exclaimed the patriarchal Haydn. "Handel," said the dogmatic Mozart, "knows better than any one of us what is capable of producing a great effect; when he chooses he can strike like a thunderbolt." The lyrical Beethoven called him "the monarch of the musical kingdom. He was the greatest composer that ever lived," said he to Mr. Moscheles. " I would uncover my head, and kneel before his tomb." MOZART AGE A. D. Bom at Salzburg, Austria, 1780 Received music lessons from his 1781 father 4 1782 First public appearance, at Munich, 6 1786 1763-73 Musical tours of Europe; "Mith- 1787 radates," 7-17 1788 1766 Returned to Salzburg, 10 1791 1768 La Finta Semplice, 12 1756 1760 1762 Idomeneo, 24 Married ; settled at Vienna, .... 26 "The Abduction from the SeracUo," "The Marriage of Figaro," .... Settled at Prague; Don Ounnnni, . Returned to Vienna, Die Zauberflate, "The Magic Flute " ; the Requiem; died at Vienna, . . TOHANN WOLFGANG AMADEUS •^ MOZART, famous Austrian composer, and chief founder of the opera, was born at Salzburg, Austria, January 27, 1756. He was the son of Leopold Mozart, a violinist of talent, in the service of the archbishop of Salzburg, and Vas reared to music almost from the cradle. In many respects, indeed, he was the greatest genius in the whole history of music. When three years old the child Mozart attracted attention by his evident delight in seeking out and striking chords on the piano; thirds and sixths specially pleased him. The musical lessons of his sister, five years older, he learned easily, and, under the happy tuition of his father, began him- self to take lessons in his fourth year. The boy had an exquisite ear for pitch, and could detect a slight difference in the tuning of a violin with singular accuracy. His nster was an admirable player on the harpsichord in her eleventh year. The father, whose position as vice chapel master at Salzburg was a poorly paid one, determined to give concerts in various cities to exhibit the precocious talent of his cliil- dren. Mozart with his sister made his first appearance in public at Munich in his sixth year, afterward visiting Vienna, Paris, and London, everywhere exciting astonishment, even among old musicians, by his wonderful 170 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT musical abilities. He could play on the organ, harpsichord, piano, and violin, accom- pany French and Italian songs at sight, and readily transpose them into different keys. The boy's exquisite sensibility colored all his actions. He sought the love and friend- ship of all who came near him with a child- like simplicity that made him a general favorite. One day as he sat in the lap of the empress of Austria, he lost his balance and slipped down on the floor. One of the daughters of the empress, Marie Antoinette, afterward the unfortimate queen of France, hastened to lift him up and soothe him. "You are very kind," said the little artist of six years. " I will marry you." " Why her, rather than one of my other daughters? " asked the empress. "Out of gratitude," said Mozart. "She was very good to me, while her sisters never stirred to help me." To all who came near him he asked one constant question, "Do you love me?" And his little eyes filled with tears if an answer were not quickly given. For his father he had the fondest respect. "God first and then papa," was a motto he frequently repeated. After making the tour of Europe, his father returned to Salzburg and set to work to give his son a thorough musical education in theory and practice. He bestowed the great- est care on his education, assisting and en- couraging all his youthful efforts in com- position with the enthusiasm of an artist added to a father's pride. Happy would it have been for poor Mozart if all his later surroundings had been of an equally loving kind. He studied the works of the famous organists of Germany and those of the old Italian masters, and it was this happy com- bination in his studies of two wholly different schools that prepared him for the task on which his reputation chiefly rests, that of fusing together into a single work the severe harmony of German music with the charming melody of Italy. The position of the family at Salzburg was a hard and unpleasant one, for the father was wretchedly paid. They were obliged to travel about giving concerts to keep out of debt; and, up to the age of seventeen, Mozart was engaged in a long series of jour- neys over Europe, chiefly in the coml cities of Germany, and the great continental capi- tals. In all of them his marvelous genius created the utmost enthusiasm. He played, composed elaborate pieces, and improvised, besides exhibiting various feats of a some- what dubious value. They finally arrived in Salzburg in 1766, and again in 1768 were at the court of Vienna. While there the emperor urged Mozart to compose an opera and conduct it. La Finia Scmplice was the result, and it was performed both at the capital and at Salzburg. At theageof fifteen he traveled in Italy, com- posed and produced the opera of "Mithra- dates" at Milan in 1770, and was overwhelmed with applause and distinctions. At sixteen he was the foremost player on the clavichord in the world ; had produced two requiems and a stabat mater, numerous offertories, hymns, and motets, four operas, two can- tatas, thirteen symphonies, twenty-four piano- forte sonatas, not to speak of a vast number of concertos for difl"erent instruments, trios, quartets, marches, and other minor pieces. These ten years of wandering in boyhood from 1763 to 1773 could not but be a terrible strain on a lad of intense susceptibility and ardent genius. He sought employment else- where without success. He went to Paris in 1778, when the contest between the rival musical systems of Gluck and Piccini was at its height, and for six months vainly sought an opportunity to produce an opera. The death of his mother, who had accompanied him to Paris, was a severe blow to him, and he returned to Salzburg at his father's re- quest just as his prospects in Paris began to brighten. The time spent in Paris had not, however, been wasted, for he had the opportunity of hearing the various kinds of opera then in vogue. He was now appointed concert master and organist at Salzburg with a small salary, and permission to travel occasionally to per- form his new works in larger cities. His opera, Idomeneo, was composed in 1780 for the Itahan opera at Munich, and was received with great applause in spite of its novelty. This work belonged to no existing school of music. It was as original in its phraseology and development as in its modulation, har- mony, and instrumentation, and introduced a new epoch in dramatic music which has not ceased to influence the stage even to-day. This great opera, it is said, Mozart com- posed to win the good graces of the W^eber family, whose acquaintance he had made during a previous visit to Mannheim, and who now were destined to affect very inti- mately his succeeding years. The Webers IN FINE ARTS 171 were a musical family. Fridolin von Weber, its head, was a copyist and prompter at the Mannheim theater. His eldest daughter, Josepha, subsequently Frau Hofer, was the prima donna for whom Mozart wrote in later years the " Queen of the Night" in his " Magic Flute." Aloysia, a younger daughter, was a pupil of Mozart's for some time, and he was not long in faUing in love with her. The Webers, however, did not view such an alliance favorably on the ground that Mozart's reputation was not at that time sufficiently established. Nor was the love of his youth- ful sweetheart itself of long duration, though, in after years, as the celebrated prima donna, Frau Lange, she did more than any other singer to make his music famous. In 1781 Mozart accompanied the arch- bishop of Salzburg to Vienna, and there, with some journeys to other cities and coun- tries, the rest of his short life was passed. Here he took up his residence with the Webers, who had now removed there from Mannheim. His father remonstrated with him for this and he sought other lodgings. But he had already fallen in love with Constanza, a sister of his former sweetheart, and in spite of remonstrances he married her. She proved an affectionate wife, and their marriage was a happy one, notwithstanding the hardships which constantly confronted them, largely due to his thriftless genius, and her incapacity to manage. Mozart's master, the archbishop of Salz- burg, a man of very boorish manners, treated him as if he were a domestic servant, and seemed to be jealous of the applause the young musician won from his admirers. At last Mozart gave up his miserable situation under him, and determined to support him- self and his young wife by giving concerts and music lessons. These yielded him a scanty and irregular livelihood, but still per- mitted him to devote considerable time to his own original work. Emperor Joseph of Austria tried to found a German operatic school, and Mozart wrote his "Abduction from the Seraglio " to promote this idea. There was, however, strong opposition displayed by the lovers of Italian music at Vienna, and both the opera and the project failed. After incessant rebuffs and amidst violent intrigues, in 1786 he set "The Marriage of Figaro" to music as an Italian opera. The piece was successful, though violently assailed i by his rivals and opponents. He was then ! thirty years old, and it marks the high tide of his genius; but thecompoeer received little but applause. At Prague it« reception was 80 favorable that Mozart wa« induced to visit that city, and here he Bp<;nt the hi4>piert period of his life. His master opera of Dm Giovanni was written in 1787 at Prague, and met with great succcas there, although coldly received at Vienna. Both of these operas he conducted in person, for which he received a salary of about four hundred dol- lars. In 1788 he returned to Vienna, and now came the busiest period of his life. Jour- neys followed to Dresden, Berlin, Leipzig, and Frankfort, at all of which he gave concerts which brought him nothing but fame. It was at this time he began to feci symp- toms of a disease of the lungs, coupled with a nervous affection, which often threw him into fits of melancholy. He worked fever- ishly to drive away his sad thoughts, com- posing with incredible rapidity, yet all this work bears the stamp of genius and perfe(y tion. The fear of an early death took posses- sion of his mind. He thought he had not done enough work to establish his reputation, and he exhausted his strength by incessant labor day and night. It was in this condition he composed "The Magic Flute," an opera wholly unlike any- thing he had written before. That a dying man could fill a fairy tale with the beauty and freshness of the melody he wrote for it seems scarcely credible. This opera had an unexampled success at Vienna. It was played no less than one hundred twenty successive times, and was hailed with enthusiasm over all Germany. While he was at work on "The Magic Flute," a mysterious stranger applied to him to compose a Requiem, and paid for it handsomely in advance. Mozart's health was already shattered by his intense labor, and, being unable to discover the name of the stranger, the event preyed on his mind until he fancial there was something super- natural about it. He worked at it with the firm conviction that it was his own requiem ; nothing could dispel the fatal delusion. His wife and friends tried in vain to distract his attention, but he continued to work on with restless energy until illness confined him to his bed. His presentiment was true. The Requiem was never finished ; but he sketched out the principal features of the uncompleted part, leaving them for his pupil, Siissmayer, to fill 172 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT out. On November 15th, though visibly dying, he composed a cantata, and conducted it himself; but he was forced to take to his bed, where he labored at his Requiem, con- sumed with fever and anxiety. On Decem- ber 4th he had the score brought to his bed- side, tried a passage, singing the alto him- self; but his strength gave way; he burst into tears, and put aside the score. But up to midnight he continued to give directions, and was seen, in delirium, to be puffing his cheeks to imitate the action of the drums. By one o'clock in the morning of December 5, 1791, he was no more. The next day, with- out music and with no friends around the coffin, Mozart was laid in the common grave of St. Marx churchyard at Vienna. Research has failed to identify the exact spot, nor can his bones be found. So ended the greatest of musicians at the age of thirty-five. It is now generally believed that the myste- rious commission for the Requiem came from Count Walsegg, a musician of some note, whose evident purpose was to keep his identity from Mozart, and have the work performed as his own. While practically on his death bed, Mozart was nominated chapel master to St. Etienne cathedral; and another, still better appoint- ment was offered him at Amsterdam. The ill-fortune which pursued him through life with brutal masters and petty rivalries filled up the cup by dangling fame and wealth before his dying eyes. In stature, Mozart was short, with a pleas- ant countenance, beautiful hands and feet, hair and eyes. His physical delicacy de- tracted much from his personal impressive- ness, and left little to recommend him except a childlike simplicity and lovable nature. He was affectionate, generous, sociable, joy- ous, and sympathetic; but at the same time careless, improvident, and not uniformly abstemious. He has been well compared with Raphael, inasmuch as both were artists — at least in the modern world both lived in one unbroken life of beauty, and both have clothed with instinctive grace every side of their art and of life. In looking over the long list of his works, it is astonishing to think a man, who spent so much of his time in traveling about giving concerts and who died in his thirty-fifth year, could ever have found time to accomplish so much. He wrote eight hundred works of various kinds, comprising eighteen operas, forty-nine s3niiphonies, fifteen overtures, sev- enty pieces of sacred music, not to speak of an immense quantity of work he began but left uncompleted. No musician of any epoch has possessed so universal a genius for all the departments of musical art — song, sonata, concerto, symphony, mass, and opera. He was the greatest pianist of his time in Ger- many; his cantatas bear the inspiration of a true religious spirit; and in the opera he effected nothing less than a complete trans- formation. No other master has left an equal number of exquisite airs of which the world is never tired. Id(mieneo was a revolution in the lyrical drama. In construction, detail, instrumentation, and every imaginable re- spect, it was an enormous advance on all previous works of the kind. The change was carried to its highest pitch in "The Marriage of Figaro"; and the romantic opera may almost be said to have been created by Don Giovanni and Die Zauberflote. His genius rose steadily without a sign of feebleness to the day of his death, and, had he lived a few years longer, still grander works than these might have been expected from his fertile brain. But it is not so much the quantity as the excellence of his music which excites the astonishment of the musician. This was owing not more to the greatness of his genius than to his profound studies, which from infancy to the close of his life never ceased. As an instrumental composer perhaps one only has surpassed him, Beethoven; but Beethoven had perfected his genius by study- ing Mozart. Haydn had developed the quartet form and invented the grand symphonj'. Mozart gave them a new spirit, and one sees his influence in all Haydn's later works. The symphony in C with the fugue is the greatest work of the kind ever written before Beethoven. Mozart is the first composer in whose works all traces of the old tonality disappear; he is the father of the modern school. No com- poser has ever combined genius and learning in such perfect proportions; none has ever been able to dignify the lightest and tritest forms by such profound scholarship, or, at the moment when he was drawing most largely on the resources of musical science, to appear so natural, so spontaneous, and so thoroughly at ease. "In musical art," observes Frederic Harri- son, " the test of power to impress the imagina- > » » ; 5\ • .; £^ ir < t X i IN FINE ARTS 17S tion of numbers in various ages and races is decisive. The philosopher, the man of science, the inventor, can produce his vast social efforts indirectly through the medium of other minds. It is enough that Aristotle, Kepler, Newton, Descartes, Gutenberg, are followed by competent minds who can give to posterity the results of their work. Even in poetry it is enough that ^schylus and Dante have given to mankind eternal types of tragedy and sacred poem, which the masses of men know only by repute. But in music the business is to delight, to touch the soul, and to elevate the spirit; and its effects can be indirectly extended in a much leas degree. It is not the business of musical creation to astonish a coterie or to delight a company of virtuosos. When in art men talk ing,' 'profundity,' and 'subjective coMoiou*- ness,' we know that they are passing into the field of abstract science, not of concrete ex- pression. Music must rouse enthustaam in races and throughout ages. Judged by this test, the supremacy of Mozart is plain. 'Tha bewitching melody of Mozart,' in the language of Sir Archibald Alison, 'will captivate man- kind to the end of the world.' " BEETHOVEN A. D. AGE 1770 Born at Bonn, Prussia, 1781 Played in Holland as a virtuoso on the piano, 11 1787 Went to Vienna to study with Mozart, 17 1792 Studied under Haydn; settled at Vienna, 22 1795 Published his Opus 1 25 1798 Defect in hearing developed, .... 28 1800 His "First Symphony," 30 A. D. AOB 1803 The Kreutzer Sonata, 33 1804 The " Heroic Symphony," 34 1805 Fidelio, an opera, 35 1813 The " Battle Symphony," 43 1814 "Eighth Symp"hony," 44 1823 Completed "Mass in D" and "Ninth, or Choral Symphony," 5.1 1827 Died at Vienna, 57 T UDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN, the great- •*-^ est of all composers, with the possible exception of Mozart, though of Dutch extrac- tion, was a native of Bonn, Prussia, where he was born about December 16, 1770. His father, Johann van Beethoven, was a tenor singer in the chapel of the elector of Cologne, and married the daughter of a cook at the elector's palace. Unlike Mozart, young Beethoven showed little or no predilection for musical studies, but his father compelled him to practice on the harpsichord daily in his fourth year. It was not until he had made some progress in his art that his ardor began to be excited. Mozart was a musician by instinct. Beetho- ven's musical inclinations were intellectual rather than intuitive, and had to be awakened before his interest was excited. His early teachers, Pfeiffer and Van der Eden, laid the foundation for the technical skill which after- ward made him one of the greatest pianists of Germany, and a later teacher, Neefe, made him familiar with the grand conceptions of Bach and Handel. For these works he had an admiration that became a kind of worship in after life. When eleven years old, it is said he could play the whole of Bach's pianoforte exercises, and had already shown the bent of his genius by com- posing three sonatas. At this period he also appeared in Holland as a piano virtuoso, chiefly of Bach's music, and was made the assistant of Neefe at the organ in elector's chapel. In his thirteenth year he published, at Mannheim, a volume of marches, songs, and sonatas, and the year following earned about seventy-five dollars as second court organist. In the year 1787 he went to Vienna, at the expense of the elector of Cologne, to study with Mozart, from whom he received only a few lessons when he was recalled to Bonn by the illness of his mother, who died shortly afterward. From this time on he became the main support of his family. The death of his mother was a severe blow to him, and removed from his life his "best friend," as he frequently styles her in his letters, in con- trast with his father, who was both shiftleei and intemperate. His natural talent and refinement began to assert themselves in spite of his unpleasant home surroundings, and he now began to give lessons, and to make an occasional public appearance. He included among his early friends many lovers of music, including the Von Breunings, Archduke Rudolph, Baron van Swieten, and Count 176 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Waldstein — all of whom took an extraor- dinary interest in his future career as indi- cated by his dedications. An early love affair with Babette Koch, the attractive daughter of the proprietress of the Zehrgarten at Mannheim, began about this time, but was interrupted by the plans of the elector, who arranged to send Beetho- ven again to Vienna. Accordingly, in 1792, his two younger brothers having found employment, he returned to Vienna, where, with the exception of short voyages under- taken for business or pleasure, he remained for the rest of his days. The first five years of his residence at Vienna were the happiest of his life. He had excellent patrons, was received into the best society, and became a general favorite by his admirable skill on the harpsichord, although his manners and temper were not of the kind to make or keep friends. When he arrived at Vienna, he possessed a rare talent for execution, but very little knowledge of har- mony or composition. There he studied under Haydn and Albrechtsberger. His rapid progress in the study of musical form is due to his own unaided efforts, rather than to any assistance he received from his teachers, whose methods were too scholastic to please his original tastes. About 1795 he made his debut in Vienna as a pianist, and with his "Concerto in C major " he created a great impression. He also took part in a benefit concert for the relief of Mozart's widow and children, and attracted attention by his extraordinary ability as an extempore player of fantasias. His compositions, too, produced a great stir in the musical world ; for it was in this year that his Opus I appeared, containing his three trios for the piano. As a relaxation from music, Beethoven's ardent interest in general literature — which hitherto had suf- fered far too great a neglect on his part — received a fresh impetus, and he was smitten with a veritable passion for reading. He read the great German poets, the works of Homer, Vergil, Tacitus, and this absorption had a tendency to soften in some measure the troubles and afflictions which afterward were his heritage. From about 1798 he was afflicted with a defect in hearing which gave him much concern. His highly sensitive nature was so perturbed over it that in ISOO he wrote a letter to one of his friends enjoining him to keep it "a profound secret." In 1814, or earlier, the loss of his hearing was com- plete, and so sorely affected him that the character of his compositions were even tinged with a passionate melancholy. It saddened his thoughts, and was the cause of the fits of ill-temper and misanthropic ten- dencies he manifested ever after. Before the end of the year 1800, Beethoven had composed twenty sonatas for the piano- forte, a large number of trios and quartets, as well as his first and second symphonies. The sale of his musical publications brought him very little money, and his position for some years was not an easy one. A pension was at length settled upon him on condition that he should continue to live in Austria. Then he fixed his residence at Beden, a pretty village near Vienna ; and there he would walk about for hours in the most unfrequented spots, shunning all companionship, compos- ing as he walked. It was his habit never to write down a single note until the whole piece was complete in his head ; but this habit did not prevent his cor- recting and modifying the manuscripts until he was satisfied with them. His works had already placed him in a high position among composers, when the calamity of his deafness fell upon him, and his productiveness in the year immediately following gives remarkable evidence of his fortitude during the years of bitter trial — doubly bitter to a musician. Among these were a sonata containing the well-known funeral march; the so-called "Moonlight Sonata"; the Kreutzer Sonata, written for piano and violin, in 1803; the "Heroic Symphony," in 1804; and his one opera, Fidelio, written in 1805, but sub- sequently revised on several occasions. He did not vmte a second opera because he could get no libretto of a sufficiently ele- vated character which he thought essen- tial, and which alone he would consent to consider. Though friends and admirers surrounded him during these years, he yet led a solitary life, and frequently changed his lodgings to avoid visitors. To add to his troubles, he became involved in a law suit relating to the custody of his nephew, and for several years he produced but few new works. This nephew was wholly unworthy of the affection Beethoven lavished upon him. The boy failed to pass his school examination, and made an unsuccessful attempt to commit suicide. As this was an offense against the IN FINE ARTS 177 laws of Austria, Beethoven was compelled to remove his nephew from Vienna. Beethoven's fourth, fifth, and sixth sympho- nies and the "Mass in C" were composed between 1805 and 1810. The music to Kotzebue's " Ruins of Athens " was first per- formed in 1812; the "Battle Symphony" in 1813; the cantata, "The Glorious Moment," at the Vienna congress in 1814; and thfe eighth symphony was written in 1814, when he was totally deaf. The principal produc- tions of the last ten years of his life were several great sonatas for the pianoforte; the grand "Mass in D," a three years' labor; the overture in C, op. 115; the ninth symphony with chorus, the greatest of his productions, completed in 1823; and the last grand quartets. The last four years of the composer's life were passed amid great distress from poverty and feebleness. He could compose but little ; and, though his friends solaced his latter days with attention and kindness, his sturdy independence would not accept them. It is a touching fact that Beethoven voluntarily suffered want and privation in his last years, that he might leave the more to his selfish and ungrateful nephew. He went to reside on his brother's estate on the Danube, but the society of his brother's family became insup- portable, and he returned to Vienna in 1826. The return journey was undertaken in cold, wet weather, he caught a severe cold, which brought on inflammation of the lungs, suc- ceeded by dropsy, and he died in Vienna, March 26, 1827, in his fifty-seventh year. His death took place during a frightful thunderstorm, and prompted, no doubt, by the keen burden his soul had borne so long, his last words were, "I shall hear in heaven." His remains were laid in Wahring cemetery, near Vienna. In 1802, in expectation of death, Bee- thoven addressed to his brother a testa- mentary letter, or will, which speaks more eloquently of the hidden life of an heroic soul than any other words could do. From this letter we cannot refrain from reproducing the following extracts : "O ye, who consider or declare me to be hostile, obstinate, or misanthropic, what injustice ye do me! Ye know not the secret causes of that which to you wears such an appearance. My heart and my mind were from childhood prone to the tender feelings of affection. Nay, I was always disposed even to perform great actions. But only consider that for the last six yeara I have been attacked by an incurable complaint, aggravated by the unskillful treatment of medical men, disappointed from year to year in the hope of relief, and at last obliged to submit to the endurance of an evil the cure of which may last perhaps for years, if it i« practicable at all. Born with a lively, ardent disposition, susceptible to the diversions of society, I was forced at an early age to re- nounce them, and to pass my life in seclusion. " If I strove at any time to set myself above all this, oh how cruelly was I driven back by the doubly painful experience of my defective hearing ! And yet it was not possible for me to say to people, ' Speak louder — bawl — for I am deaf ! ' Ah ! how could I proclaim a defect of a sense that I once possessed in the highest perfection — in a perfection in which few of my colleagues possess or ever did pos- sess it? Indeed, I can not! Forgive me, then, if ye see me draw back when I would gladly mingle among you. Doubly mortifying is my misfortune to me, as it must tend to cause me to be misconceived. From recrea- tion in the society of my fellow creatures, from the pleasures of conversation, from the effusions of friendship, I am cut off. Almost alone in the world, I dare not venture into society more than absolute necessity requires. I am obliged to live as an exile. If I go into company, a painful anxiety comes over me, since I am apprehensive of being exposed to the danger of betraying my situation. Such has been my state, too, during this half year that I have spent in the country. Enjoined by my intelligent physician to spare my hearing as much as possible, I have been almost encouraged by him in my present natural disposition, though, hurried away by my fondness for society, I sometimes suffered myself to be enticed into it. "But what a humiliation when any one standing beside me could hear at a distance a flute that I could not hear, or any one heard the shepherd singing, and I could not distin- guish a sound ! Such circumstances brought me to the brink of despair, and had wellnigh made me put an end to my life : nothing but my art held my hand. Ah! it seemed to me impossible to quit the world before I had produced aU that I felt myself called to accomplish. And so I endured this wretched life — so truly wretched, that a somewhat speedy change is capable of transporting me 178 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT from the best into the worst condition. Patience — so I am told — I must choose for my guide. Steadfast, I hope, will be my reso- lution to persevere, till it shall please the inexorable Fates to cut the thread. " Perhaps there may be an amendment — perhaps not ; I am prepared for the worst — I, who so early as my twenty-eighth year was forced to become a philosopher — it is not easy — for the artist more difficult than for any other. O God ! Thou lookest down upon my misery; Thou knowest that it is accom- panied with love of my fellow creatures, and a disposition to do good! O men! when ye shall read this, think that ye have wronged me; and let the child of affliction take com- fort on finding one like himself, who, in spite of all the impediments of Nature, yet did all that lay in his power to obtain admittance into the rank of worthy artists and men. " I go to meet Death with joy. If he comes before I have had occasion to develop all my professional abilities, he will come too soon for me, in spite of my hard fate, and I should wish that he had delayed his arrival. But even then I am content, for he will release me from a state of endless suffering. Come when thou wilt, I shall meet thee with firmness. Farewell, and do not quite forget me after I am dead; I have deserved that you should think of me, for in my lifetime I have thought of you to make you happy. May you ever be so." Beethoven was never married, but his heart was more than once sensibly affected by the tender passion, even in his mature years. His " Moonlight Sonata " was inspired by Countess Guicciardi, "who loves me, and whom I love," he says in his dedication, but "unluckily, she is not in my rank of life." He also had a love affair with Eleonora von Breuning, who married another ; with Count- ess Braunsschweig, one of his pupils, to whom he was engaged for four years ; another with Bettina Brentano; still another with Marie Pachler-Koschak, whom, he says, "alone I wished to possess, but never shall call mine"; and, finally, with Countess Erdody, who erected a temple to him in her park, as a memorial. Rochlitz, who visited Beethoven in his later years, thus describes his personal appear- ance : He was of short stature, thick-set. and bony, slightly round-shouldered, with a full face, somewhat flushed, and brilliant piercing eyes that seemed to transfix you. His thick black hair fell in uncombed masses round his magnificent head. There was no play in the features, nor in the eyes so full of life and genius, but an expression of benevolence and timidity wholly unlike the character his fits of passion gave him. In all his manner, one could see the strained attention to catch every sound, noticeable in the manner of deaf per- sons of a sensitive temperament. He would speak gaily for a minute, and then sink into a profound silence. His voice was rough on occasions, but when he was touched it had a light tone that was peculiarly affecting. His character was simplicity itself; false- hood was absolutely foreign to his nature, and he carried truth and sincerity into brusquerie, and often into shocking rudeness. The books are full of stories of this, which can not be given here. And yet so great was the influ- ence of his personality that those to whom he was rudest were fondest of him. Princes, cardinals, high-born beautiful ladies, women like Rahel, and men like Goethe were de- voted to him, and put up with every un- punctuality and incivility. His simplicity sometimes became credulity, blinded him to real facts, and made him often unfair and harsh. This showed itself unjusti- fiably toward his relations, and toward many of his best and truest friends. Such conduct must have been greatly due to his deafness, his sensitive nature, and his absorp- tion in his music, and he was always ready to confess his error. He was fuU of the deepest feeling, and there is something wonderfully touching in his devotion to his nephew, one of the meanest, most graceless scamps on record ; but on whom, partly because he was left to him, partly because of his craving for affection, he lavished all his tenderness. His nature and his deafness drove his goodness inward, and we must look to his music, and to the mystical aspirations with which he salutes God in the sunrise, or the beauty of the woods, for the deeply religious feehngs of his great heart. Though a Catholic by birth, and dying in that faith, he had little formal religion ; and yet a more deeply religious mind never existed. In every trial his thoughts flew upward, and his note books are full of the most passionate ejaculations, God was to him the most solemn and intimate reality, whom he saw and welcomed through all aspects of nature, and in every mood of joy and sorrow. Living in a profligate city, and in a time of the loosest morals, and himself singularly attractive to IN FINE ARTS 179 women, his name is not connected with a single liaison or scandal. He treated his pianoforte as an intimate friend, to whom he could confide his thoughts and secrets, and taught it to respond in sym- pathy with all his innermost feelings, making his music the medium for communicating the feelings which swelled his own breast. The works of Beethoven may be divided into three classes, or may be assigned to three distinct periods of his intellectual develop- ment. All the works of his first period, though important, show the influence of his teacher, Haydn, or of his more highly esteemed model, Mozart. This period of composition may be said to extend to his sixteenth orches- tral work, including, besides several piano- forte sonatas, trios for pianoforte and for stringed instruments. All these early works display the highest cultivation of the forms and principles of art previously established in the Viennese school of music. The second period of Beethoven's artistic life, in which his genius was completely self- reliant, extends from the sixteenth to the eightieth work. This was certainly the most productive and brilliant part of his career. To it belonged his greatest creations, his mag- nificent and powerful orchestral works — symphonies, overtures, sonatas — all of which display the highest qualities of imaginative composition. Besides the great orchestral works, it includes many sonatas for piano- forte, and various compositions of chamber- music — septets, quintets, quartets, trios, serenades, and other musical forms. In dramatic composition Beethoven produced only one opera, but this was Fidelio, the first truly German musical work of a dramatic character. This was the result of great study, and, as it is now given, is the reconstruction of an earlier composition. Other dramatic pieces are the overture, interludes, and melodramatic music in Goethe's Egmont, and the instrumental music and choruses in the "Ruins of Athens." In the third and last period of Beethoven's career we find these two gigantic works, the Missa Solemnis in D minor, and the ninth sjrmphony in D minor with chorus. These works transcend all common laws and forms, and belong to the highest sphere of art. Their deep mysteries can be apprehended only by those who have deep emotions and pro- found technical knowledge of music. Other works of this last class approach those just mentioned though they do not readi the i elevation. But all are alike in paasing far beyond the ordinary traditional fomw of art. All are pervaded by an impulse as of insptn^ tion. Among these works may be mentioned the great quartets for bow-instrumoats — mostly published after the death of Beetho- ven — the grand overtures — Opj« 115 and 124, and several sonatas for pianoforte, especially that in B flat major. The music of Beethoven has left a profound impress on art. In speaking of his genius it is difficult to keep expression within the limite of good taste. For who has so passed into the very inner penetralia of his great art, and revealed to the world such heights and depths of beauty and power in sound ? Barbedette, speaking of Beethoven's work and genius, says, "Bach created the typical form of the sonata, the form which is most logical, largest, and most readily adapted to the development of a serious thought, or even that of some capricious fancy, restrained within due limits by the laws of art. The first part explains the subject, and develops its plan, terminating with a brief synopsis and peroration, then comes a slow movement, lending itself to the inspiration of melancholy, dreamy thoughts ; this is followed by a third part, reveling in wild fantasie ; and the whole ends with a fourth, of a lively captivating character, leaving the auditor under the influence of a pleasing impression. Such is the framework of the sonata, on which, for more than a century, all the great composers have exercised their genius. Haydn com- posed sonatas for a whole orchestra, and created the quartet and symphony. Mosart modified it to form the concerto, by making it a grand composition, rich in effects. While Beethoven — passionate, poetic Beethoven — took his predecessors' models, and surpassed them all. He made few innovations on the traditional form of the sonata. He haa enriched it with the scherzo, a ravishing inter- lude that takes the place of the old minuet (the third part). When he does depart from the classical form, it is in his musical trifles, charming in themselves, but only the amus^ ment of a great composer." Beyond this Beethoven composed nine sjnnphonies, which, by one voice, are ranked as the greatest ever written, reaching in the last — known as the "Choral" — the full perfection of his power and experience. Other musicians have composed symphonic 180 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT works remarkable for varied excellencies, but in Beethoven this form of writing seems to have attained its highest possibilities, and to have been illustrated by the greatest variety of effects, from the sublime to such as are simply beautiful and melodious. His hand swept the whole range of expression with unfaltering mastery. Some passages may seem obscure, some too elaborately wrought, some startling and abrupt, but on all is stamped the die of his great genius. Beethoven's compositions for the piano — the sonatas — are no less notable for range and power of expression than for their adaptation to meet all the varied moods of passion and sentiment. Other pianoforte composers have given us more warm and vivid color, richer sensual effects of tone, more wild and bizarre combination, perhaps even greater sweetness in melody. But we look in vain elsewhere for the spiritual passion and poetry, the aspiration and longing, the lofty humanity, which make the Beethoven sonatas the suspiria de profundis of the composer's inner life. In addition to his symphonies and sonatas, he wrote the great opera, Fidelio, and in the field of oratorio asserted his equality with Handel and Haydn by composing "The Mount of OUves." A great variety of cham- ber music, masses, and songs bear the same imprint of power. Beethoven may be rightfully called the most original and conscientious of all the composers. He seems to have been so fecund in great conceptions, so lifted on the wings of his tireless genius, so austere in artistic morality that in these respects he stands for the most part far above all other composers. His genius was universal ; he embraced the whole circle of human emotions. It is not in this sense that Michaelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci, though they were painters, architects, and poets, at the same time were universal. Each of them represents a special phase of human nature. Beethoven felt all phases, and expressed all. The simple emo- tions of confiding youth, then the difficulties of life with the courage that surmounts them, the combat, the victory, and the heroic joy it brings; finally, the exhaustion of a soul broken by the struggle, the deceptions of unhappy love, the renunciations of earthly affections and thirst for the ideal, celestial contemplation, the solitary communion of man with the Infinite — this is the immense circle which his genius embraced. Goethe alone, in literature, has equaled this universality. Beethoven's principal title to fame is in his superlative place as a symphonic composer. In the symphony music finds its highest intellectual dignity; in Beethoven the sym- phony has found its loftiest master. WAGNER A. D. AQE A. D. 1813 Bom at Leipzig, Prussia 1849-61 1830 Entered the university of Leip- zig, 17 1861 1833 Wrote his first opera, Die Feen, 1865-69 "The Fairies," 20 1836 Music director at Konigsberg; 1870 married, 23 1872-82 1839—42 Lived, studied, and wrote in Paris ; Rienzi produced, 26-29 1874 1843 "The Flying Dutchman," .... 30 1843-49 Chapel master at Dresden; Tanri- 1882 hauser; Lohengrin, 30-36 1883 AOB Exiled from Germany; Rheingold; Die Walkiire, "The Valkyrs," . 36-48 Returned to Germany, 48 Tristan und Isolde; Die Meister- ainger; Siegfried 52-56 Married second wife, 57 Settled at Bayreuih, and pro- duced his Nihelungen trilogy, . 59-69 Gdtterdammerung, "Twilight of the Gods " 61 Parsi/cU, 69 Died at Venice, Italy, 70 '\\/'ILHELM RICHARD WAGNER, the ' ~ greatest composer since Beethoven, and a romantic poet and philosopher as well, was born at Leipzig, Prussia, on May 22, 1813. His father was a municipal clerk of Leipzig, who died a few months after the birth of his son. The boy's mother then married Lud- wig Geyer, a playwright and portrait painter, and removed to Dresden, Saxony, where he passed his childhood. From his father, who had a fine appreciation of poetry and the drama, Richard inherited his love for the theater; and this was stimu- lated, in a degree, by his stepfather. After his stepfather's death, in 1821, he was sent to the Kreuzschule in Dresden, where he received an excellent education; and, at the age of thirteen, the bent of his taste, as well as his diligence, was shown by his translation — out of school hours — of the IN FINE ARTS 18S first twelve books of the Odyssey. In the follow- ing year his passion for poetry found expres- sion in a grand tragedy. " It was a mixture," he says, " of Hamlet and Lear. Forty- two per- sons died in the course of the play, and for want of more characters I had to make some of them reappear as ghosts in the last act." In 1827 the family removed from Dresden to Leipzig. Weber, who was then conductor of the Leipzig opera, seems to have attracted the boy, both by his personality and by his music, and he was deeply impressed with Beethoven's music which he heard there. His artistic and susceptible temperament was so completely captivated, indeed, that he decided to set his youthful tragedy to music. For this purpose he first tried to instruct himself in the art of composition, took some lessons from Gottlieb Miiller, and finally fin- ished an overture that was produced between acts at a theater where his eldest sister had an engagement. His individuality was im- pressed even on this first composition, and he then began studying under Theodor Weinlig, a teacher of considerable reputation, whom he honored throughout all his after years. About the same time — 1830 — he entered the university of Leipzig, where his student career was marked both by his individuality and brilliant talents. From 1830 to 1833 many compositions after standard models are evidence of hard and systematic work, and in 1833 he began his long career as an operatic composer with Die Feen, "The Fairies," which, however, never reached the dignity of performance until 1888 — five years after his death. He now spent several years in very unre- munerative routine work in Magdeburg, Konigsberg, Riga, and other places, during which period he brought out his opera, Das Liebesverbot, and some lesser compositions. In the year 1836 he added to his financial burdens by marrying in Konigsberg an actress, Minna Planer. During the years he spent at Riga as chapel master — 1837-39 — he found time" to complete the libretto and first two acts of the opera, Rienzi, and with this he resolved to try his fortune in Paris. With his wife he accordingly took passage in a sailing vessel from Pillau to London. The voyage was exceedingly tem- pestuous, and from this experience he gained the first inspiration for Der Fliegende Hol- lander, "The Flying Dutchman," subsequently one of his most successful creations. His remarkable receptivity is evidenced in thia work from the fact that the wondeiful too»- picture of Norway's storm-beaten shore wt» painted by one who until that voyage had never set eyes on the sea. Wagner passed a week or more in London, several weeks in Boulogne, and remained in Paris from September, 1839, until April, 1842. In these three years he passed throu^ some of the bitterest experiences of hia career, and finally left Paris with Rienzi unperformed — in spite of the efforts of Meyerbeer in its favor — and heartsick with hope deferred. He reached such straits that he offered him- self as a chorus singer at a small second-rate theater, but was refused even that humble post. However, in Paris, he finishcil a " Faust Overture," some sketches of "The Flying Dutchman," and revised his Rienzi. "The Flying Dutchman" was also offered to the authorities of the grand opera house, and refused; but the directors were so charmed with the beauty of the libretto that they bought it to be reset to music. In 1842 he sent Rienzi to Dresden — and speedily followed himself — where it was produced with great enthusiasm in October of the same year, and its signal success led to his appointment as chapel master there in January, 1843. "The Flying Dutchman," produced in 1843, was not so enthusiastic- ally received, but it has since easily distanced the earlier work in popular favor. In 1845 his new opera, Tannhduser, proved at first a comparative failure in Dresden. It was produced in Weimar by Liszt, however, in 1849, with better results, and the event led to the famous friendship between Wagner and Liszt which has now become hi.storic. The part played by Liszt in compelling public appreciation of this great opera is regarded as one of the noblest and most self-sacrificing roles ever taken by genius. After hearing of the Weimar performance, Wagner wrote to Liszt, " I once more have courage to stif- fer"; while Liszt replied: "So much do I owe to your bold and high genius, to the fiery and magnificent pages of your Tannh&utfft that I feel quite awkward in accepting the gratitude you are good enough to express with regard to the two performances I had the honor and happiness to conduct." The theme of Tannhduser, which is founded on a well-known legend preserved in a six- teenth century ballad, had been proposed to Weber in 1814, and especially attracted 184 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Wagner while he was in Paris. The tem- porary failure of the opera led him to the consideration and self-examination of his theories of composition and construction, which resulted in an elaborate exposition of his ideals, subsequently pubhshed in "Opera and Drama," and many other essays, "I saw a single possibility before me," he writes, "to induce the public to understand and partici- pate in my aims as an artist." Lohengrin, which had also been suggested during his stay in Paris, was finished early in 1848, and likewise the poem of "Siegfried's Death," the result of Wagner's studies in the old Nibelungenlied. This opera was about to be performed in Dresden in 1849, when the revolutionary outbreak took place there. Wagner was an active leader in the movement, which reigned for two short days behind the street barricades in Dresden. A few days after the suppression of the revolution, news reached Wagner in Weimar that a warrant was issued for his arrest. With a passport procured from Liszt he fled across the frontier, first to Paris, then to Zurich, and for nearly twelve years the bitterness of exile was added to the hardship of poverty. It is this period which is mainly responsible for Wagner's polemical writings, so biting in their sarcasm, artd often unfair in their attacks. This period of his musical activity also commenced to witness the development of his theories on the philosophy of his art, and some of his most remarkable critical writings were then given to the world. In 1850 he was appointed director of the Zurich musical society and of the orchestra of the theater. Here he chiefly resided until 1859, composing Tristan und Isolde, and a portion of his great series of operas founded on the Nibelungenlied, known as the Nibel- ungen trilogy. During these years of exile Wagner's most faithful friend and benefactor was Franz Liszt — almost his artistic twin soul. Liszt fur- nished Frau Wagner with means to join her husband just after the failure of the revolu- tion; he was his provider in exile; and, in spite of the zest which came to Wagner through his passionate devotion and loyalty to his art, it is questionable whether he could have stood the strain without the aid of his brother artist so generously bestowed. In 1850 Liszt first produced Lohengrin at Weimar, the greatest of solaces to Wagner. This production and the generous heart that was behind it acted as a vitalizing tonic on him. Though at a distance, he directed the productions as well as he could through numerous written instructions. This per- formance was one of the most important in Wagner's career. It started the now historic "Wagner question," which was fought out in a fierce war of words, with vituperation almost unheard of in art matters, on the part of Wagner's enemies, covering many years. The Wagner cause, however, forged steadily ahead, and finally emerged triumphant. Wagner went to London in 1855 as con- ductor of the Philharmonic society for one season. At last, in 1861, he received permis- sion to return to Germany, and in \'ienna he had the first opportunity of hearing his own Lohengrin. For three years the struggle with fortune seems to have been harder than ever before, and, in broken health, he had practic- ally determined to give up the unequal contest, when an invitation was sent him by Ludwig II., the young King Louis of Bavaria. "Come here and finish your work." Here at last was salvation for Wagner, and the rest of his life was comparatively smooth. He settled at Munich, and with the glories of the royal opera house of that city, and subsequently at Bayreuth, his name is hence- forward principally connected. In 1865 Tristan und Isolde was performed at Munich, and was followed three years later by a comic opera. Die Meisier singer, the first sketches of which date from 1845. Siegfried was com- pleted in 1869, and in the following year Wagner married Cosima, the daughter of Liszt, and formerly the wife of Von Biilow. His first wife, from whom he had been sepa- rated in 1861, died at Dresden in 1866. Wagner for a long time despaired of the visible execution of his ideas exhibited in his later operas. At last, in 1870, the cele- brated pianist, Tausig, suggested an appeal to the admirers of the new music throughout the world for means to carry out the com- poser's great idea, viz., to perform the AHbe- lungen at a theater to be erected for the pur- pose, and by a select company, in the manner of a national festival, and before an audience entirely removed from the atmosphere of viilgar theatrical shows. After many delays the foundation-stone of the Bayreuth theater was laid in 1872, and in 1876 Wagner's hopes were attained, two years after the completion of the Gotterddmmerung. IN FINE ARTS IM The first work given at Bayreuth was the entire trilogy. The principal celebrities of Europe and America were present to witness the perfected fruit of the composer's theories and genius. In July, 1882, Wagner's long and stormy career was magnificently crowned there by the first performance of Parsifal, which, with its sacred allegory, its lofty no- bility of tone, and its pure mysticism, stands on a platform by itself, and is almost above criticism, or praise, or blame. The libretto alone might have won Wagner immortality, so original it is and perfect in intention ; and the music seems to be no longer a mere acces- sory to the effect, but the very essence and fragrance of the great conception. A few weeks later his health showed signs of giving way, and he resolved to spend the winter at Venice. There he died suddenly of heart disease, on February 13, 1883, at the Palazzo Vendramin. He was buried in the garden of his own house "Wahnfried" at Bayreuth. It is a remarkable coincidence that in the very town of Bayreuth, where since 1876 the Wagner festivals have been held, Jean Paul Richter, in a preface to a book, wrote the half-prophetic words: "Hitherto, Apollo has always distributed the poetic gift with his right hand, the musical with his left to two persons so widely apart that up to this hour we are still waiting for the man who will create a genuine opera by writing both its text and its music." This is precisely what Richard Wagner did. He was a musician of the highest type, and was a poet of supreme eminence in the field of romantic drama with scarcely a rival. He possessed a genius for reconstructing in form and spirit the splendid conceptions of the legendary ages, and infusing into the char- acters of that heroic time the more compli- cated emotions of our modern days; and this he did with a power of dramatic con- struction, and a depth of poetic imagination, that rank him among the great romantic poets of the nineteenth century. When Schopenhauer, the famous philoso- pher, read the text of the Nihelungen trilogy, he exclaimed, "The fellow is a poet, not a musician"; and again, "He ought to hang music on the nail; he has more genius for poetry." But the might of Wagner's musical genius long obscured the poet's fame. Critics continued to sneer at the lines long after they had conceded the merit of the scores; but it is a crowning tribute to the greatness of the poet-composcr, that now a whole Utem- ture has arisen around his operas aa poema, and the process still goes on. It is now uiU« versally acknowle velopment of instrumental music as a ba«8, and freeing it from the fetters which conven- tionality had imposed in the shajMs of set forms, in a style of singing now h:ippily almost extinct. In this "art work of the future," as he called it, the interest of the drama is to depend not entirely on the music, but also on the poem and on the acting and staging as well. Theme, verse, and melody must unite in one exquisite rhythm in which it is impossible to separate the one from the other. The first radical development of Wagner's theories we see in "The Flying Dutchman." In TannhdtLser and Lofiengrin they find full sway. J'or a while he oscillated between history and legend, as best adapted to furnish his material, but finally selected the dream- land of myth and legend. He saw the utter incongruity of any dramatic picture of ordi- nary events, or ordinary personages, finding expression in musical utterance. Even char- acters set in the comparatively near back- ground of history he conceived to be too closely related to our own familiar surround- ings of thought and mood to be regarded as artistically natural in the use of music. But within the dim and heroic shapes that haunt the borderland of the supernatural, which we call legend, the case is far different. This is the drama of the demigods, living in a dif- ferent atmosphere from our own, however akin to ours may be their passions and pur- poses. For these we are no longer compelled to regard the medium of music as a forced and untruthful expression, for do they not dwell in the magic lands of the imagination? All sense of dramatic inconsistency instantly vanishes, and the conditions of artistic illuaon are perfect. " 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view. ^^ And clothes the mountains with their aiure bu«. 186 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Thus all of Wagner's works, from Der Fliegende Hollander to the Nibelungenlied, have been located in the world of myth, in obedience to a profound art principle. The opera of Tristan und Isolde, first performed in 1865, announced Wagner's absolute emanci- pation, in the construction both of music and poetry from the time-honored and time- corrupted canons, and, aside from the last great work, it may be received as the most perfect representation of his school. The third main feature in Wagner's music is the wonderful use of the orchestra as a factor in the solution of the art problem. This is no longer a mere accompaniment to the singer, but translates the passion of the play into a grand symphony, running parallel and commingling with the vocal music. Wagner, as a great master of orchestration, has had few equals since Beethoven ; and he uses his power with marked effect to heighten the dramatic intensity of the action, and at the same time to convey certain meanings which can find vent only in the vague and indistinct forms of pure music. The romantic conception of the mediajval love, the shudder- ings and raptures of Christian revelation, have certain phases that absolute music alone can express. The orchestra, then, becomes as much an integral part of the music-drama, in its actual current movement, as the chorus or the leading performers. Placed on the stage, yet out of sight, its strains might al- most be fancied the sound of the sympathetic communion of good and evil spirits, with whose presence mystics formerly claimed man was constantly surrounded. Wagner's use of the orchestra is probably best illus- trated from the opera of Lohengrin. The ideal background in Lohengrin, from which the emotions of the human actors in the drama are reflected with supernatural light, is the conception of the "Holy Graal," the mystic symbol of the Christian faith, and its descent from the skies, guarded by hosts of seraphim. This is the subject of the orchestral prelude, and never have the sweet- nesses and terrors of the Christian ecstasy been more potently expressed. The prelude opens with long-drawn chords of the vioUns, in the highest octaves, in the most exquisite pianissimo. The inner eye of the spirit discerns in this the suggestion of shapeless white clouds, hardly discernible from the aerial blue of the sky. Suddenly the strings seem to sound from the farthest distance, in continued pianissimo, and the melody, the Graal-motif, takes shape. Gradu- ally, to the fancy, a group of angels seem to reveal themselves, slowly descending from the heavenly heights, and bearing in their midst the Sangreal. The modulations throb through the air, augmenting in richness and sweetness, till the fortissimo of the full orches- tra reveals the sacred mystery. With this climax of spiritual ecstasy the harmonious waves gradually recede and ebb away in dying sweetness, as the angels return to their heavenly abode. This orchestral movement recurs in the opera, according to the laws of dramatic fitneas, and its melody is heard also in the motif of Lohengrin, the knight of the Graal, to express certain phases of his action. The immense power which music is thus made to have in dramatic effect can easily be fancied. A fourth prominent characteristic of Wag- ner's music-drama is that to develop its full splendor there must be a cooperation of all the arts, painting, sculpture, and architecture, as well as poetry and music. Therefore in reaUzing its effects much importance rests in the visible beauties of action, as they may be expressed by the painting of scenery and the grouping of human figures.. But all Wag- ner's principles would have been useless with- out the energy and perseverance which di- rected his work, the loving study which stored his memory with all the great works of his predecessors, and, above all, the genius which commands the admiration of the musical world. As a great musical poet, rather epic than dramatic in his powers, there can be no question as to Wagner's rank. The perform- ance of the Nibelungen trilogy, covering Rheingold, Die Walkure, Siegfried, and GoUer- ddmmerung, was one of the epochs of musical Germany. However deficient Wagner's skill in writing for the human voice, the power and symmetry of his conceptions, and his genius in embodying them in massive operatic forms, are such as to storm even the preju- dices of his opponents. The poet-musician rightfully claimed that in his music-drama is found that wedding of two of the noblest of the arts, pregnantly suggested by Shakes- peare: " If Music and sweet Poetry both agree. As they must needs, the sister and the brother; * * * * * • * One (Jod is God of both, as poets feign." MOSES From the painting by Carlo Dolci MOSES TV/f OSES, the great Hebrew lawgiver and ^ •*• prophet, is the first gigantic figure that rises to view in the traditional history of the human race. As in the case of Homer and other great names of antiquity, great differ- ence of opinion has existed as to the dates of his life and activities. These range all the way from the seventeenth to the seventh century B. C, but the best historians and critics now practically agree that he lived and flourished within the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries B. C. The story of Moses is told in the book of Exodus, is referred to, also, in the writings of Strabo and Josephus, and, as we now know it, has been embellished much by legend. The main features, however, are on the whole con- sistent; and there is no reason to doubt the truthfulness of an account which shows us Moses, hke many other supreme benefactors and "suns" of mankind, struggling against an apparently adverse fate from the instant of his birth. Moses, it appears, was the son of Amram, of the tribe of Levi, and was born at the time this Hebrew tribe was settled in the north- eastern part of Egypt. In consequence of an Egyptian royal edict that all male infants of the Hebrews should be drowned, his mother, unable to hide the child, put it into a basket of papyrus and hid it among the Nile rushes, Miriam, his sister, watching it from afar. The king's daughter, Thermuthis, or Merrhis, coming down to the river, observed the weeping child, and was so struck with its beauty that she allowed Miriam to fetch a Hebrew nurse, Jochebed. When grown up, Moses was sent to the king's palace at Hehopolis as the adopted son of the princess, and here seems to have enjoyed not only princely rank, but also a princely educa- tion. He is also said to have become a priest, imder the name of Osarsiph, or Tisithen, and to have been a mighty adept in all the sciences of Egypt, Assyria, and Chaldea; to have led Egyptian armies against the Ethiopians, defeated them, and pursued them to their stronghold, Saba, or Mcroe, this place being delivered into his hands by Tharbis, the king's daughter, whom he subsequently married. The Bible contains nothing whatever about the time of his youth. He first reappear* there as the avenger of a Hebrew slave, ill- treated by an Egyptian overseer. Threatened by the discovery of this bloody act, he escapes into Midian, where he is hospitably received by Jethro, the priest, and marries his daugh- ter, Zipporah. He stayed for many years in Midian, tending the flocks of his father-in-law. This most sudden transition from the brilliant and refined life of an Egyptian court, of which he had been brought up a prince, to the state of a poor, proscribed, exiled shepherd, to- gether with the influences of the vast desert around him, produced in his mind a singular revolution. The fate of his brethren went now to his heart with greater force than when he was a prince and near them. There rushed upon his memory the ancient traditions of his family, the promises of Jehovah to the mighty sheikhs, his forefathers, that they should become a great and a free nation, and possess the ancient heritage of Canaan ; why then should not he be the instrument to carry out this promise? So Moses obe)'ed the prophetic spirit that now came upon him, and decided to return to Egypt for the purpose of delivering his breth- ren from slavery. A new king had succeeded in Egypt, his old enemies were either dead or had forgotten him, and with Aaron, his brother, the man of small energy but of fine tongue, he consulted about the first steps to be taken with the king as well as with their own people — both of whom treated them at first with suspicion, and even cont«n^t. Presently, however, a series of most disastrous and terrifying afflictions visited Egypt, and 190 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the king finally concluded that these had been brought upon the land by the unknown God — Jehovah — whose name Moses had in- voked. He accordingly ordered the Israelites to leave at once, and they immediately began their departure, the event in their history known as the exodus. Moses very soon had occasion to prove that he was not only the God-inspired liberator of his people, who, in the enthusiasm of the moment had braved the great king and his discipUned armies, but that he possessed all those rarer qualities which alone could enable a man to mould half-brutalized hordes of slaves into a great nation. Calmness, disin- terestedness, patience, perseverance, meek- ness, coupled with keen energy, rapidity of action, unfailing courage — "wisdom in coun- cil and boldness in war " — constituted the immense power which he held over the hun- dreds of thousands who knew no law in their newly acquired liberty, and who were apt to murmur and to rebel on any or no provoca- tion. Nor were the hostile Bedouin tribes, whose territories the new emigrants ap- proached, easily overcome with untrained warriors, such as formed the ranks of Moses's army. The jealousy of certain elders foster- ing seditions within added to his unceasing vexations; and, to fill the measure to over- flowing, indeed, his own brother Aaron, whom he had made his representative during his temporary absence on the mount of Sinai, himself assisted in the fabrication of an idol. His sacred office as legislator he in reality first assumed in the third month after the exodus, when, after many hard and trying marches and countermarches, made more trying by want of food and of water, by encounters with Pharaoh and the Amale- kites, having arrived near the mount of Sinai, he made the people encamp all round, and ascended the summit of the mountain by himself. Shortly thereafter he disclosed to his people that famous code of laws — chief of which was the decalogue — which had such a mighty influence in succeeding time. When on the eve of entering into the promised land, the people broke out in open rebellion, and threatened, by a spontaneous return to the land of slavery, to undo the entire work of Moses's life. Convinced that they were not as yet fit to form a common- wealth of their own, the liberator and law- giver had to postpone, for the long space of forty years, the crowning act of his work ; and in fact did not himself live to see them taking possession of the hallowed territory. How these years of nomadic journeying through the desert were spent, save in rearing up a new generation of a more manly and brave, as well as a more "civilized," stamp, we can only conjecture. All those who had left Egypt as men were doomed to die in the desert, either by a natural death, or by being suddenly "cut off," in consequence of their openly defying Moses, and through Moses, Jehovah. On the first month of the fortieth year after the exodus, we find Moses at the head of an entirely new generation of Hebrews at Kadesh, in the desert of Phoran or Zin. Here his sister Miriam died. Here, also, for the first time, Moses, seeing the new generation as stubborn and " hard-necked " aa their fathers, is recorded to have despaired of the divine providence; and his disobedience to the letter of the commandment given to him, " to speak to the rock," is alleged as the reason " that his bones, too, hjul to fall in the desert." His brother Aaron died at Mt. Hor (near Petra, according to Josephus and St. Gerome) whither the Israelites had gone next. Not long afterward Moses once more had occasion to punish with relentless severity the idolatrous tendencies of the people, thus showing that age had had no power of making him relax his strong rule over the still half- savage and sensuous multitude. Having finally fixed the limits of the land to be con- quered, and given the most explicit orders to Joshua, to Eleazar, and the chiefs of the ten tribes respecting its division, he prepared the people for his own impending death. He recalled to their minds in the most impressive language their miraculous hberation, and no less miraculous preservation in the desert. Their happiness — their life — was bound up, he told them, in the divine law, commu- nicated through him by Jehovah. A recapit- ulation of its principal ordinances, with their several modifications and additions and reiterated exhortations to piety and virtue, forms the contents of his last speeches, which close with one of the grandest poetical hymns. The law was then handed over to the priests that they might instruct the people in it henceforth ; Joshua was installed as successor, and he blessed the whole people. Moses then ascended Mt. Nebo, from whence he cast a first and last look upon the land toward which he had pined all his IN RELIGION 191 life, and on which his feet were never to tread. He died upon this mountain, when one hun- dred twenty years old, in the full vigor of manhood, according to the scriptures, "and no man knew his burial place up to this day" — so that neither his remains nor his tomb were desecrated by "divine honors" being superstitiously paid to them. This is a summary of Moses's life as derived from biblical as well as non-biblical sources. Of far greater import than this imperfect chronicle of facts is his influence on the human race. In one of the churches of Rome — St. Peter in Chains — rests a colossal statue of Moses — the immortal work of Michaelangelo. The great lawgiver is represented in sitting posture holding in his right hand the tables of stone, his left touching the long beard which falls upon his breast. This statue has been called "the incomparable masterpiece of its author, and, perhaps, of modern sculpture." We can not affirm that the statue looks like Moses, but no one can stand in its presence without feeling tempted to say that it looks as Moses ought to have looked. It is the interpretation of one great genius by another great genius. The subject of this statue, as also of Carlo Dolci's famous painting, is for us of supreme interest. In the ancient language, both of Hebrews and Christians, he was known as "the great lawgiver," "the great theolo- gian," "the great statesman"; and in the pentateuch, or first five books of the Bible — of which he is the reputed author — we have the first attempt to formulate a written con- stitution for the government of a people. The Hebrews call these books the Torah, or the " Law." They are too well known to need special exposition. Genesis is the history of creation and of patriarchal life; Exodus, an account of the migration from Egypt and the foundation of the Hebrew law ; Leviticus is a book of religious ceremonial regulations; Numbers, a book of statistics; and Deu- teronomy, a continuation and completion of the law. Three distinct parts compose this Mosaic constitution: the doctrine with respect to God and His attributes; the symbolical law, as the outward token of His doctrine; and the moral and social law. The institution of the sabbath, the symbol of creation and the Creator, forms the basis of all religious observ- ances; while the remaining part of the laws relates to the intercourse among the members of the human commonwenlth. It is then things, taken together, which form the baiis of the Christian religious system of the civil- ized world — the highest of that daa known to scholars under the name of monotheian. We find in apocryphal works an explanatioo of how Abraham first came to worship, in the midst of idolaters, the one, invisible God; how he first lifted up his eyes, and saw a brilliant star, and said, "This is God"; but when the star paled before the brightness of the moon, he said, "This is God." And then the sun rose, and Abraham saw God in the golden glory of the sun. But the sun, too, set, and Abraham said, "Then none of you is God, but there is one above you, who created both you and me. Him alone will I worship, the maker of heaven and earth." Such is the possible origin of monotheism. In the "Con- fessions" of St. Augustine will be found a similar idea. In the first of the sacred writings, Genetiit, the author appears as the philosopher or theosophist; in the great ethical and civil code known as the "Law," he is the teacher and moralist. But he may also be considered from another point of view. He estjiblished a government — a government diflfercnt from that of Rome or Greece — one of that kind to which Josephus was the first to give the name of theocracy, a government under the control of deity. Of the cosmogony of Genesis — that is, the theory of the origin of the world — it is necessary to say but little. It has been impeached, and it has been defended. Of all the like theories ever attempted, this is the only one which will bear a second reading — the only one which is temperate and decorous. All others contain such admixtures of the monstrous and the grotesque as to seem, by comparison, simply incoherent. A few words will suffice to explain what is meant by the "Law," as the Hebrews, and after them other nations, understood it. Sup- pose one should define and write down all the relations, public and private, which unite the members of a people, and, in addition to these, all the principles upon which those relations are founded. The result would be an ensemble, a complete body, a system, more or less rational, which would be the perfect expression of the mode of existence of that people. It is such a system as this to which the Hebrews gave the name of Torah, the "Law," or the "Constitution." 102 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT This body, the " Law," is made up of several parts containing distinct propositions. Some establish the general relations of the citizen, others are laws in the more limited sense. Some command or forbid certain things, attach a penalty for disobedience, and show the guilty the punishment which the nation will inflict or cause to be inflicted for the sake of the safety of its members. Others, still, prescribe simple measures for the regulation of affairs, while, finally, others under the name of precepts trace out the duties to be performed, and show the general evil, which, in the natural order of things, ever accompa- nies infidelity to the principle of the supreme good. "If the lawgiver, educated in all the wis- dom of the Egyptians, departed most widely from the spirit of Egyptian polytheism in the fundamental principle of his religious insti- tutes," says Milman, "the political basis of his state was not less opposite to that estab- lished in the kingdom of the Pharaohs. He was the first, and certainly the most successful legislator of antiquity, who assumed the wel- fare of the whole community as the end of his constitution." With the Hebrews there were none of those disastrous distinctions of caste established among the Egyptians; nothing of that spirit of disdain in one order for those in another order; neither those barbaric laws, concen- trating in a favored portion of the nation all knowledge and all authority. With the peo- ple of Jehovah everything tended toward a natural equality; the whole nation was one great caste, that of husbandmen, cultivating their own property. The social system of Moses was a democ- racy, based upon the notion of duty. He proclaimed the equality of men before the law, the sense of duty the sole origin of law, no such thing as justice, no equality being possible without it. The perfect equality, then, in the sight of their God, the Eternal, seems to be the mark by which the Hebrew theocracy was distinguished, strangely resem- bhng in many respects its modern Puritan ideal of an industrial commonwealth. The sanction on which Hebrew morals depended was, if possible, even more extraor- dinary. The lawgiver, educated in Egypt, where the immortality of the soul, under some form, most hkely that of metempsychosis, or the transmigration of the soul, entered into the popular belief, nevertheless maintained a profound silence on that fundamental doc- trine, if not of political, at least of religious legislation — the rewards and punishments of another hfe. He substituted temporal chastisement and temporal blessings. On the violation of the constitution followed inevi- tably blighted harvests, famine, pestilence, barrenness among their women, defeat, cap- tivity ; on its maintenance, abundance, health, fruitfulness, victory, independence. In this respect it presents a contrast to the great organization which succeeded it, the modern Christian church. This distinction has been clearly defined ; and "we often see," in the language of Fleury, " the life of those whose thought and occupation is not of earth, but in heaven, and who, while still in the flesh, yet live according to the spirit. In the manners of the Hebrews, on the other hand, we see the best use of temporal goods, and the aim to pass in the way the most rational the hfe spent upon earth." We come finally to consider the crowning glory of all the work of Moses, the decalogue. The principles embraced by the ten com- mandments may be reduced to three : 1. The duty of man never to accord to his fellow beings, or to any other creatures, that kind of homage which belongs alone to the deity. 2. The right of the people to assemble in meeting every seventh day, in the interest of the laws and of the prosperity of the country ; the duty of each citizen to divide his time and his thought between civil and religious interests in proportion, at the least, of one of six. 3. The duty of respect to persons and to property, the right of each to be himself respected. It is not in the twentieth chapter of Exodus alone that we find the law ; there is a chapter in Leviticus, the nineteenth, which contains the same doctrine, though in a less impressive form. This is but the simplest and plainest expression of what are to-day acknowledged to be the first principles of good morals. What was the substance of the ten com- mandments? What has the human race gained by its adoption of what Burckhardt called " the code of the Beni-Israel "? " It is, in one word," says Dean Stanley, "the decla- ration of the indivisible unity of morality ' with religion. It was the boast of Josephus that whereas other legislators had made reUgion to be a part of virtue, Moses had made IN RELIGION 108 virtue to be a part of religion. Of this, amongst all other indications, the ten com- mandments are the most remarkable and enduring example." The personal characteristics of Moses are too faintly drawn to admit of very full delinea- tion; but several features are indisputably marked out. He combined in himself two qualities rarely found together in the same man: he was hero as well as legislator. He found a people in bondage, and he led them out of it and left them free. It has sometimes been attempted to reduce this great character into a mere passive instru- ment of the divine will, as though he had him- self borne no conscious part in the actions in which he figures, or the messages which he delivers. This, however, is as incompatible with the general tenor of the scriptural account as it is with the common language in which he has been described by the church in all ages. The frequent addresses of the divinity to him no more contravene his per- sonal activity and intelligence than in the case of Elijah, Isaiah, or St. Paul. In the new testament the legislation of the Jews is expressly ascribed to him : " Moses gave you circumcision"; "Moses, because of the hard- ness of j^our hearts, suffered you " ; " Did not Moses give you the law?" "Moses accuseth you." St. Paul goes so far as to speak of him as the founder of the Jewish religion : "They were all baptized unto Moses." And he is constantly called " a prophet." "No modern word," says Dean Stanley, "seems exactly to correspond to that which our translators have rendered, 'the meekest of men ' ; but which rather expresses * endur- ing,' 'afflicted,' 'heedless of self.' This, at any rate, is the trait most strongly impressed on all his actions from first to last. So in Egypt he threw himself into the thankless cause of his oppressed brethren; at Sinai he besought that his name might be blotted out, if only his people might be spared; in the desert he wished that not only he, but all the Lord's people might prophesy. He founded no dynasty; his own sons were left in deep obscm'ity; his successor was taken from the rival tribe of Ephraim. He himself receives for once the regal title ' the king in Jerusalem ' ; but the title dies with him. It is as the highest type and concentration of this endur- ance and self-abnegation that the last view from Pisgah receives its chief instruction. To labor and not to see the end of our labors ; to sow, and not to reap ; to be removed tnm this earthly scene before our worit haa been appreciated, and when it will be carried on, not by ourselves, but by others, is a law ao common in the highest characters of history, that none can be said to be altogether exempt from its operation. "Never was there an undertaking more arduous than that on which he waJs com- missioned. To lead forth a mob of slaves, debased as only slavery can debase humanity, sunk below the dead level of pagan I^yptian civilization ; to form them into a daring army, a free commonwealth, and a believing church ; to be exposed to all the ready and violent vicissitudes of their desires and hopes and fears, and so to have to suffer their manners in the wilderness ; to have them upbraid him for their very deliverance when their sensual natures lusted after the fleshpots of Egypt; to have them talk of stoning him when the wells were dry; to have them dispute with him for his command, and rebel against his rule; to have them break their covenant with Jehovah, and turn to the sacred calf of their old Egyptian oppressors — all this was such a burden as was never laid on any other. "Each of the two former selections of his life gave its own contribution to the last, with its glorious time of harvest and achievement. He who was to be victor over Pharaoh, and the emancipator of the Israelites, was trained in the very military school which he was to oppose. Humanely speaking, he could never have so dealt with Pharaoh if he had not enjoyed his Egyptian advantages. As Wil- liam the Silent was educated in the closet of Charles V., and at the court of Philip II., into the liberator of the united provinces, and thus turned to account, in the emancipation of his fellow countrymen, the lessons in diplomacy and military tactics which he had learned from the oppressor himself, so Moees, under God, made his learning in all the wisdom of the Egyptians subservient to the great work of his life. Nay, as he was to stand before the nations the grand champion for spiritual monotheism, in the face of idolatry, mate- rialism, and polytheism, he was first initiated in the system which he was to oppose. Just as Saul of Tarsus was prepared by his educ** tion in the school of Gamaliel for under- standing the real symbolism of Judaism, and thereby advancing the simplicity and spiritu- ality of the gospel — so Moees was enabled by 194 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT his Egyptian learning to penetrate to the image of Jehovah to ally it with the idolatries heart of the religious symbolism of his time. | of the nations." Thus, at length, he became the instrument of | In spite of all the daring criticism that has producing an external system in which the i been proposed concerning the personality and eye was made to minister to the under- work of Moses, history shows few, if any, standing, while yet there was no sculptured j men of his towering grandeur. ZOROASTER Oh Persic Zoroaster, lord of stars ! — Who said these old renowns, dead long ago, Could make me overlook the livine world To gaze through gloom at where tney stood, indeed. — Browning. 7'OROASTER is the Latinized name of ^^ Zarathustra, the founder of the Persian- Iranian religion, usually designated Zoroas- trianism, of which the Magian and Parsee religions are forms. A wide range of dates is assigned to the activities of Zoroaster, but modern scholars usually accredit him to the seventh and sixth centuries B. C. Roth, an eminent scholar, puts his date about 1000 B. C, while others have placed him as far back as 1500 B. C. Special significance attaches to Zoroaster and the religion he founded, because Persia is, in a certain sense, the elder brother of the Aryan family, first of the Indo-European peoples. Indeed, the prominence of the Indo-European races — from which we are descended — in the great drama of universal history commences with the era of the early Persian empire. The personal history of Zoroaster is known only in outline. In the Zend-Avesta — the authorship of which is generally accredited to him — he appears under his family name of Spitama, the inference being that Zarathustra was a title, or sobriquet, meaning "chief," "senior," or "high priest," which were com- mon designations for a spiritual guide and head of a province. The terms he applied to himself are: Manthran, a reciter of man- thras; a messenger sent by Ormuzd; a speaker; one who listens to the voice of oracles given by the spirit of nature; one who receives sacred words from Ormuzd through the flames. He seems to have been born in Bactria, in the northwestern part of Iran, and was the son of Pourushaspa. His doctrine then spread to Media, and Persia proper. Various cities are' mentioned as his birthplace, and the ancient town of Rei, near the modern Teheran, is said to have been the original home of his mother, Dugheda. Many legends and a number of miracles gathered about his birth and child- hood, and tradition leaves space for a period of religious preparation from his fifteenth to his thirtieth year, when he received a revela- tion of the faith and came forward as a reformer of the superstitious beliefs of the old Brahmanic creed. He evidently traveled over a considerable part of Iran, for mention is made of his pres- ence at various places ; and he was doubtless, also, the leader of a group of chieftains — one of whom w^as King Vishtaspa — who carried on a political, military, and religious struggle for the establishment of a holy agricultural state, whose laws encouraged pastoral labor, tillage, and thrift, as against the freebooting tendencies of Turanian and Vedic aggressors. That he was legislator, prophet, pontiff, and philosopher, as tradition asserts, is quite within the boimds of truth ; but that he was the "abyss of all wisdom and truth, and the master of the whole living creation " must be taken as a mere oriental extravagance, though at the same time it shows the place Zoroaster occupied in Persian thought. " We worship " — so runs one of the prayers in Fravardin Yasht — "the rule and the guardian angel of Zarathustra Spitama, who first thought good thoughts, who first spoke good words, who first performed good actions, who was the first priest, the first warrior, the first cultivator of soil, the first prophet, the first who was inspired, the first who has given to mankind nature, and reality, and word, and hearing of word, and wealth, and all good things created by Mazda, which embellish reality; who first caused the wheel to turn among gods and men, who first praised the purity of the living creation and destroyed IN RELIGION IM idolatry, who confessed the Zarathustrian belief in Ormuzd, the religion of the living God against the devils. * Through whom the whole true and revealed word was heard, which is the life and guidance of the world. * * * Through his knowledge and speech, the waters and trees become desirous of growing; through his knowledge and speech, all beings created by the Holy Spirit are uttering words of happiness." The conflict that led to this schism between the Iranians and those Aryan tribes which immigrated into Hindustan proper, and whose leaders afterward became founders of Brahmanism, sprung from many social, politi- cal, and religious causes. The Aryans seem to have originally led a nomad life, until some of them, reaching, in the course of their migra- tions, lands fit for permanent settlements, settled down into agriculturists. Bactria and the parts between the Oxus and Jaxartes seem to have attracted them most. The Iranians became gradually estranged from their brother tribes, who adhered to their ancient nomad life; and by degrees, the whilom affection having turned into hatred, they considered those peaceful settlements a fit prey for their depredations and inroads. The hatred thus nourished by further degrees included all and everything belonging to these devastators; even their religion, originally identical with that of the settlers. The deva religion became in their eyes the source of all evil. Moulded into a new form, styled the Ahura religion, the old elements were much more changed than was the case when Judaism became Christianity. Generation after gener- ation further added and took away, until Zarathustra, with the energy and the clear eye that belongs to exalted leaders and found- ers of religions, gave to that which had origi- nally been a mere reaction and spite against the primitive Brahmanic faith, a new and independent life, and forever fixed its dogmas, not a few of which have sprung from his own brains. The propagation of his religious system occupied Zoroaster down to the time of his death, which tradition has fixed at the end of seventy-seven years. His end seems to have been a violent one, and to have taken place during the invasion of Iran by the Turanians who waged a religious war against Vishtaspa. Firdausi and other later writers locate the place of his death as Balkh, or Bactria. The present Avesta, or Zend-Avesta — the bible of Zoroastrianism — is only the i^niuot of a greater religious literature. It includet: (1) A collection of hymna or gathas ; (2) » col- lection of liturgical forms; (3) a coUeotioa of religious laws; (4) mythical fraguMato d»> voted to various divinities; and (5) various prayers and fragments. The gathas, or hynms, are verses from the eennoM of Zoroas- ter, and they form the oldest and most sacred part of the Aveata. The vendidad, or reli- gious laws, is similar to the pentateuch of Moses, and is chiefly directed against the devas, or demons. It is chiefly from the gathas that Zar»> thustra's real theology, unmutilated by later ages, can be learned. These are written in the language of ancient Persia, and profess to give the revelations made by Ormusd to his servant and prophet Zarathustra. His sys- tem teaches that the world or universe is the scene of a conflict between two principles — the good, called Ormuzd, and the evil, called Ahriman — the god of life and the god of death. Every good action helped the one, every evil action the other. The soul of man, the soil of every field, were scenes of never-ending battle. Those who touched what was impure gave Ahriman the more power over them. "Ormuzd was glorious with light," he says in the gathas, "pure, fragrant, beneficient, daring, all that is pure. Then looking be- neath him he perceived, at the distance of ninety-six thousand parasangs, Ahriman, who was black, covered with mud and rottenness, and doing evil. Ormuzd was astonished at the frightful air of his enemy. He thought within himself, 'I must cause the enemy to disappear from the midst of things.' " The great dualism of good and evil, which is his fundamental idea, does not stop, how- ever, at the single generaUty; it creates a hierarchy extending to all created things, animate and inanimate, men, animals, insects, vegetables; all of which, according as they are pure or impure, attach themselves to God the prince of good, or to satan the prince of evil. Fire and light progressively diminish in intensity ; where heat and light cease, mat^ ter commences, with darkness and evil, which we must attribute to Ahriman, not to Ormuid. A countless host of inferior angels and demons are distributed through the two I ri n gd nm s, which are in eternal war with each other. But Ahriman and the power of da rk ness will in time be vanquished, and over all the uni- verse will extend the reign of light. 196 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT "This duality," says M. Haug, one of the highest authorities on the Zend-Avesta, "is threefold, and refers: first, to the two principal spirits ; second, to the two lives, i. e., this life and the life hereafter; third, to the two wisdoms, i. e., the knowledge acquired by study and experience, and the inborn celestial wisdom." Thus declares Zoroaster : " I will proclaim the two primeval spirits of the world. I will proclaim the primeval thought of this life. I will proclaim the best in this life. All that have been living, and will be living, subsist by means of his bounty only. The soul of the pure attains to immor- tality, but that of the wicked man has to undergo everlasting punishment. Such is the rule of Ormuzd, whose creatures we are." Each of the two primeval spirits — Ormuzd and Ahriman — are represented in the Zend- Avesta as having a council and court of his own, like earthly rulers. The number of councilors was six, each having to rule over some special province of creation ; but Ormuzd, who at first merely presided over this council, came gradually to be included in their number, and we then read of seven instead of the usual six Ameshaspentas, or immortal saints. These six supreme councilors, who have also found their way into the Jewish tradition embodied in the Talmud, are, both by etymol- ogy and the sense of the passages into which they figure, distinctly seen to be but abstract nouns or ideas, representing the gifts which Ormuzd grants to all those who worship with a pure heart, who speak the truth, and per- form good actions. The first of these angels or principles (Vohu Mano) is the vital faculty in all living beings of the good creation. He is the son of Ormuzd, and penetrates the whole living good creation. By him are wrought all good deeds and words of men. The second (Ardi- behesht) represents the blazing flame of fire, the hght in luminaries, and brightness and splendor of any and every kind. He repre- sents, as the light, the all-pervading, all- penetrating Ormuzd's omnipresence. He is the preserver of the vitality of all hfe and all that is good. He thus represents providence. The third presides over metals, and is the giver of wealth. His name is Sharavar, which means possession, wealth. The fourth (Issandarmat, or devotion) represents the earth. It is a symbol of the pious and obedi- ent heart of the true worshiper, who serves Ormuzd with his body and soul. The last two (Khordad and Amerdat) preside over vegetation and produce all kinds of fruit. But apart from the celestial council stands Sraosha (Serost, or messiah), the archangel, vested with very high powers. He alone seems to have been considered a personality. He stands between Ormuzd and man, the great teacher of the prophet himself. He shows the way to heaven, and pronounces judgment upon human action after death. He is styled "the sincere, the beautiful, the victorious, who protects our territories, the true, the master of truth." " For his splendor and beauty, for his power and victory," he is to be worshiped and invoked. "He first sang the five gathaa of Zarathustra Spitama " ; that is, he is the bearer and repre- sentative of the sacred tradition, including the sacrificial rites and the prayers. He is the protector of all creation, for "he slays the demon of destruction, who prevents the growth of nature, and murders its hfe. He never slumbers, but is always awake. He guards with his drawn sword the whole world against the attacks of the demons, endowed with bodies after sunset. He has a palace of one thousand pillars, erected on the highest sununit of the mountain Alborj. It has its own light from inside, and from outside it is decorated with stars. He walks, teaching religion round about the world." In men who do not honor him by prayer, the bad mind becomes powerful, and impregnates them with sin and crime, and they shall become utterly distressed both in this life and in the hfe to come. In the same manner, Ahriman, the evil spirit, was endowed with a council, imitated from the one just mentioned, and consisting of six devas, or devils, headed by Ahriman himself, who is then styled Devanam Devo, "arch-devil." The first after him is called Ako Mano, or naught mind, the original "non-reahty," or evil principle of Zoroaster. He produces all bad thoughts, makes man utter bad words, and commit sin. The second place is taken by the Indian god, Indra ; the third, by Shiva, or Shaurva; the fourth, by Naonhaitya — lie collective name of the Indian Ashuras, or Dioscuri; the fifth and sixth, by the two personifications of "dark- ness" and "poison." There are msiny devas, or devils, besides, to be foimd in the Zend- Avesta, mostly allegorical or symboUcal names of evils erf all kinds. While the IN RELIGION Wf heavenly council is always taking measures for promoting life, the infernal council is always endeavoring to destroy it. They endeavor to spread lies and falsehoods, and coincide, together with their great chief, with the devil and the infernal hierarchy of the new testament. The Zend-Avesta also contains an account of the creation of sixteen regions by Ormuzd, together with sixteen evil ones by Ahriman, in opposition to these. Thus : "Ormuzd spake to the holy Zoroaster: I created a place, a creation of delight ; the first and best of regions and places I created. Then the Evil One, who is full of death, created an opposition to the same: a great serpent and winter. Ten months are there; two summer months. And these are cold as to the water, cold as to the earth, cold as to the trees. After this, to the middle of the earth, then to the heart of the earth, comes the winter ; then comes the worst evil. "The second and best of regions and places have I created. "Then the Evil One, who is full of death, created an opposition to the same: a wasp, which is very death to the cattle and the fields. "The third and best of regions and places I created. " Then He, who is full of death, created an opposition to the same : evil thoughts. "The fourth and best of regions and places have I created. " Then the Evil Spirit, who is full of death, created an opposition to the same : devouring beasts." The sixteen regions thus created give to us a most important geographical record of the countries known to the early Iranians — Balkh, Merv, Herat, Cabiil, and others. The account goes on with the entire sixteen. In the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth regions — " the best of regions and places " — the Evil One in opposition places unbelief, sloth- fulness, and poverty, evil defilement, wicked inexpediable deeds, etc. The remaining eight are very similar: on the one hand, the best of regions and places, the fair and the beauti- ful, full of pasture grounds; on the other, wicked signs, wicked deeds, wicked tokens. The chapter closes with the words: "There are also other regions, places, plains, and lands." Other chapters describe the work of crea- tion, both material and spiritual. In oriental religions, the creation of spirit preoedet that of matter ; but othpr\^'iBe the account rraom bles slightly that given in Oeimis. It ooeo- pied, however, three hundred sixty-fiTtt days, or one year, divided into six pwioda, each of which is commemorated with a fecti> val. The world will last twelve tJi^^tif fiTH years : the first three thousand is the reign oi the good principle ; the second three thoiuaad that of the good and the bad pnnciplea together; while, at the last, the triumph of the good is assured. The belief in the latter, and in immortality, was one of the principal dogmas of ZiOTOuier, and it is held by many that it was not through Persian influence that it became a Jewish and a Christian dogma. Heaven is called the "house of hjonns," a place where angda praise God incessantly in song. It is alao called the "best life," or paradise. "Hell" is called the house of destmction. It is the abode chiefly of the priests of the bad (deva) religion. The modem Persians call the former Behesht ; the latter, Duzak. Between heaven and hell there is a bridge of the gatherer or judge, over which the soul of the pious passes unharmed, while the wicked is precipitated from it into hell. The restirreo- tion of the body is clearly and emphatically indicated in the Zend-Avesta; and it belongs, in all probability, to Zoroaster's original doc- trine — not, as has been held by some, to later times, when it was imported into his religion by other religions. It is often asserted that men and peoples are actuated to virtuous conduct by one or more of four motives : fear, self-interest, love, and duty. It has also been said ^ith equal force that the age of the individual, or of the society, will determine which of these motivea will predominate. Infancy — whether in the individual, or the society — is specially influenced by fear ; mature age, by a sense of duty. It must be confessed that Persia, ever regarded as the infant of the human raee, exhibits, in its religion, the general character- istics of infancy. The sword of Ormuzd ia grand and terrible ; the Parsee bows hia head before a jealous god; he hears his god'a reprobation ; prayers and sacrifices are incea- sant, the sacred fire must ever be supplied with wood, with oil, with perfumes. Yet we find striking exceptions, at least in theory. The moral and economic reforms of Zoroaster must be considered of a highOTdw; and, unlike Buddhism, a holy life is rewarded 198 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT by immortality and heaven. The elements — €arth, air, fire, and water, but especially fire — received homage as creations of Ormuzd. The tillage of the soil was regarded as the highest of pursuits; and it is probable that from this teaching the somewhat unorthodox Persian maxim originated: "It is better to plow than to pray." The following are a few of the moral sayings found in the creed of Zoroa.ster : "Never lie; it is infamous, even when falsehood may be useful. "We ought not to become answerable for others, for we can hardly be answerable for ourselves. "True happiness consists in a competence of this world's goods, health, and the appro- bation of a good conscience. "He who sows the ground with care and diligence acquires a greater stock of religious merit than he could gain by the repetition of ten thousand prayers." Virtue, finally, may be summed up in a word — the essence of all : " There are three rules of life, saith the law : purity of thought, purity of word, purity of action." Nowhere, probably, has the work of Zoroas- ter been more concisely and correctly summed up than in the language of James Anthony Froude: "Zoroaster, like Moses, saw behind the physical forces into the deeper laws of right and wrong. He supposed himself to discover two antagonistic powers con- tending in the heart of man as well as in the outward universe — a spirit of light and a spirit of darkness, a spirit of truth, and a spirit of falsehood, a spirit life-giving and beautiful, a spirit poisonous and deadly. To one or other of these powtirs man was nec- essarily in servitude. As the followers of Ormuzd, he became enrolled in the celestial armies, whose business was to fight against sin and misery, against wrong-doing and impurity, against injustice and Ues and baseness of all sorts and kinds ; and every one with a soul in him to prefer good to evil was summoned to the holy wars, which would end at last after ages in the final overthrow of Ahriman. * The Persians caught rapidly Zoroaster's spirit. Uncorrupted by luxury, they responded eagerly to a voice which they recognized as speaking truth to them. They have been called the Puritans of the old world. Never any people, it is said, hated idolatry as they hated it, and for the simple reason that they hated Ues." CONFUCIUS Superior, and alone, Confucius stood, Who taught that useful science, — to be good. — Pope. /^ONFUCIUS is the Latinized name of the ^^ illustrious Chinese religionist and sage, Kung-fu-tse (variously spelled), whose influ- ence has held uninterrupted sway over the Chinese people for almost two thousand five hundred years. The name really signifies "the master Kung," the latter being the family name of the sage, and "fu-tse" the denomination apphed to him by his disciples. Most authorities agree in a number of details relating to his early life and subsequent career, but the reverence in which he is held by his countrymen has colored the facts with a tincture of fiction not easy to efface after such a lapse of time. He was born, according to tradition, in the village of Ch'ueh, state of Lu — now in the province of Shantung — China, 551 B. C. His father died when Confucius was three years old. The former had been an official of some rank and a soldier of distinguished courage. At the age of seventy he married his second wife, the mother of Confucius. To her wise counsels the son owed much. At nineteen Confucius had been married, and held a position as district inspector of agri- culture. He showed such unwonted zeal and honesty in fulfilling the duties of his new office that the whole district began to show its effects. " Neglected fields," says tradition, "were again cultivated, and idleness and misery gave place to labor and abundance." His renown had already begun to spread beyond the narrow limits of his natal king- dom, when an event occurred, in his twenty- fourth year, which changed the whole course of his after life. His mother died ; Confucius had already become an ardent student of the religious rites and moral doctrines of the older period in Chinese history, then fallen into IN RELIGION IM disuse. He resigned his office, and lived in retirement for three years, mourning his loss, in accordance with an old custom. This act of fihal piety made a strong impression upon his fellow citizens, and evidently led to the restoration of ancient funeral rites in honor of the dead; a restoration which has been more or less strictly adhered to by the Chi- nese nation up to the present day. Confucius believed that the ancient usages and moral doctrines of the Chinese nation contained the germ of all social and political virtues, and he longed to establish a school, educate disciples, and publish books for the purpose of spreading his opinions, and regen- erating his countrymen. In his thirtieth year he began to put this plan into execution. His fame rapidly spread, admirers and scholars increased. He trav- eled over China to obtain converts to his revived moral philosophy, and to study the laws and customs of the country. His repu- tation having preceded him, he was well re- ceived wherever he went. His journey, he says, was "honorable, but sterile"; for, while nearly all admitted the justice of his principles, few had the courage to practice them. His school of philosophy, in fact, though it counted many influential adherents, was not fairly established until the third cen- tury after his death. On returning to his native place after his wanderings, he turned his house into a school to receive his disciples, who consisted of young men of all stations in life, but more especially men of letters, man- darins, and government officers. About 501 B. C. Confucius was appointed governor of the state of Lu, where a mar- velous reformation in the manners of the people took place. The next year saw him minister of works, and next minister of crime. He improved the condition of the people, took a special interest in the poorer classes, their taxes and the manner of collecting them, regarding the agricultural classes as the source of all riches and prosperity, and as deserving of the special cares of the legislature. The success of his system provoked the jealousy of a neighboring kingdom ; intrigues were set on foot to diminish his influence, and, finally compelled to retire from office, he sought refuge in the province of Wei, where he lived in exile. Followed by numerous disciples, however, he here continued the propagation of his moral philosophy. His wanderings were very unpropitious, however, and state after refused to be improved. He waa, in some instances, persecuted; once he waa impria- oned and nearly starved. He waa finally recalled to Lu, in extreme poverty, waa well received, but did not reenter political life. In his last years he is said to have put the finishing hand to his labors on the ancient writings that posterity, at least, might be instructed. He himself tells us that he i^ formed the music to which the andeot odes were sung, and edited the odea themadves. He died 478 B. C, in his seventy-aeoond year, about ten years before Socrates waa bora. His wife and son were already dead, but a grandson has transmitted the family down to the present day. Immediately after his death Confucius began to be venerated, and succeeding agea adorned his name with golden epithets. The finest temple in China occupies the site of hia residence, while in every city, down to those of the third order, there is a temple to hia honor. The 18th day of the second moon is kept sacred by the Chinese as the anniversary of his death. The statue of Confucius in the chief temple represents him as a man of tall stature, large head, and imposing presence. His descendants form a distinct class in China, the city of Kio-fu-ien, where he is buried, being inhabited chiefly by them. They have been distinguished by various honors and privileges, and are the only ex- ample of hereditary aristocracy in China. In all that Confucius did or taught, the useful and practical, in a broad sense, formed the sole object of his labors and his thoughts. For many ages the classic literature of China has consisted exclusively of commentaries on the five canonical books which Confucius pro- fessed merely to abridge, and of four others, which were composed partly by himself and partly by his disciples, and which, togethor with the former, constitute the nine Chinese classics. The five canonical books are the Vtlk- king— originally a cosmological essay, now, curiously enough, regarded as a treatise on ethics; the Shu-king— & history of the deliberations between the emperors Yaou and Shun, and other personages, called by Con- fucius the "ancient kings," and for whose maxims and actions he had the highest vener- ation; the Shirking— a book of sacred songs, consisting of poems, the best of idiicfa every well-educated Chinaman leama by I 200 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT heart; the Le-king — the "Book of Rites," the foundation of Chinese manners, prescrib- ing, as it does, the ceremonies to be observed in all the relationships of life, and the great cause of the unchangeableness and artificiality of Chinese habits; and the "Chun tsien" — a history by Confucius of his own times, and those which immediately preceded him. The first of the four books is the Ta-heo, or "Great Study," a political work, in which every kind of government, from the domestic to the imperial, is shown to be essentially the same — viz., parental ; the second is Chung- yung, or the "Invariable in the Mean," a book devoted to teaching men what is "the due medium," or the golden mean, to observe in their conduct; the third is the Tun-yu, or "Philosophical Dialogues," containing the recorded conversations of Confucius, and the best book for obtaining a correct knowledge of his character; and the fourth is the Hitse, written by Meng-tse or Mencius, who died 317 B. C, and who was by far the greatest of the early Confucians. The main object of this work is to inculcate philan- thropic government. These are the basis of Confucianism, and, rightly considered, are the most faithful expression of the Chinese mind, although it is not the oldest of the extant Chinese religions. It is, however, the cornerstone of Chinese civilization. It is often said that Confucianism is a system of morality without religion, because it is simply a system of social and political life built upon a slight founda- tion of philosophy. The direct teaching of Confucius is to be found in the treatise compiled by his imme- diate disciples, in three books, and called the Shu. The first teaches the art of govern- ing the people with wisdom ; the second, how to avoid extremes in life by the aid of knowl- edge and virtue ; the third, " The Great Learn- ing," is a series of dialogues between Confucius and his disciples on moral and social subjects. His system is not avowedly speculative, but practical. It contains no trace of a personal God, makes no pretense of explaining the origin of things, but aims to teach social economy, chiefly by moral precepts. The mythical, miraculous, and ideal have no place in his philosophy; it is simple rationalism, founding progress on an increase of population, and improvement in national well-being. No founder of any religion can boast of greater success than Confucius, yet, strictly speaking, he did not originate a religious creed; he built up a moral philosophy based on the material wants and tendencies of the human race, making all real advance to consist in self-knowledge. He lauds the present world ; rather doubts, than otherwise, the existence of a future one; and calls upon all to culti- vate such virtues as are seemly in citizens — industry, modesty, sobriety, gravity, decorum, and thoughtfulness. He also counsels men to take part in whatever religious services have been established from of old. "There may be some meaning in them, and they may affect your welfare in a way you do not know of. As for the genii and spirits, sacrifice to them ; I have nothing to tell regarding them, whether they exist or not ; but their worship is part of an august and awful ceremonial, which a wise man will not neglect or despise." "Vast and deep," he said, "are the subtle powers of heaven and earth; they are one with the substance of things and can not be separated. There are oceans of subtle intelli- gence above and about us on every side." Confucius finds evil and good, wisdom and folly, in the hearts of men. He cannot help making this distinction ; some things are bad, others good; such is the oracular utterance of his conscience, which he terms "the light of intelhgence." He does not, however, ad- vance a step further, and make this moral conviction the basis of a religion. His " good " has no connection with any God. It exists; we are forced to recognize it as such ; that is all we can know. Cultivate it. Those great laws of nature about which we know nothing except that they are realities, are on its side. Do not foster what you know to be mean and unworthy, for " he who offends against heaven has no one to whom he can pray." " Imperial heaven will only assist virtue." From this standpoint Confucius taught a simple and comprehensive rule of life, both private and public. First, let every man govern himself according to the sacred max- ims; then his family according to the same; and, finally, let him render to the emperor, who is the father of his people, such filial obedience as he demands of his own children, and worship him with the same veneration as he does his own ancestors; for thus will domestic peace, social order, and the safety of the commonwealth be preserved. To further this end (and in accordance with his belief that by instruction in the sacred precepts everything desirable could be IN RELIGION Ml accomplished), Confucius inculcated the necessity of universal education, and, in consequence, schools are diffused throughout the length and breadth of the empire, pene- trating even to the remotest villages, where the maxims of the philosopher are taught, whose influence is thus perpetuated from generation to generation. His crowning achievement as a moral teacher was his formulation of the golden rule, "What you do not wish done to your- self, do not do to others," and his injunction, "Have an upright heart; love thy neighbor as thyself." So domestic is the religion of the Chinese, as taught by Confucius, that their ancestral rites are simply an extension of their home associations; and this is so affected that the grave has lost its terror, and the tomb is dedicated to joy. The symbolic tablet brings closer intimacy with the unseen than the grave. The ancestral temple is the center of family union, without distinction of rank or wealth; the ancestral hall is the open conscience of the people, where duties are laid bare. Here is the family sanctuary ; here the youth assumes his virile cap; here mar- riages are celebrated, and betrothals are announced. The forms of tablet for father and mothw do not differ. This filial piety of the livii^ would fain establish a real union with the dead. Such invocations as the following are common : "Thy body is laid in the grave, but thy spirit dwells in this temple of our home. We beseech thee, honored one, to free thyaetf from thy former body, and abide in this tablet henceforth and forever." "So far as we can see," says James Fre^ man Clarke, " it is the influence of Coofudut which has maintained, though probably not originated, in China that profound reverence for parents, that strong family affection, that love of order, that regard to knowledge and deference for literary men, which are fundi^ mental principles underl}ring all the Chinen institutions. His minute and practical 8]rs> tem of morals studied as it is by all the learned, and constituting the sum of knowledge and the principle of government in China, haa exerted and exerts an influence on that in- numerable people which it is impossible to estimate, but which makes us admire the power which can emanate from a single soul. "To exert such an influence requires great- ness. If the tree is to be known by its fruits, Confucius must have been one of the master- minds of our race." BUDDHA In the rest of Nirvana all sorrows surcease : Only Buddha can guide to that city of Peace Whose inhabitants have the eternal release. — W. R. Alger. "pUDDHA is the title of the Hindu sage, ■*-' Gautama, or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism. The term signifies "the wise, the enlightened," and is applied in the East as an analogue of our word " saint " ; that is, to a class of persons who lived saintly hves, undergoing the severest penances, penetrating by divine contemplation to the highest truth, teaching to their fellows the law by which men can be saved, and who arrived at last at what is regarded by Buddhists as the highest goal — nirvana, heaven, rest, eternal sleep. Oriental scholars now generally concur in fixing the time of the great Buddha in the sixth century B. C. His history is overlaid with a mass of extravagant legend, and the doubt has even been raised as to whether he was an actual historical personage, and not rather an allegorical figment. But there is little question now that he was the actual per- sonal founder of the religion that bears his name. The accepted history of Buddha is that he was the son of a king who voluntarily became an ascetic. His father was Suddhodana, king of Kapilavastu, which is placed some- where on the confines of Oude and NepauL He is often called Sakya, which was the name of the family, and also Gautama, the name of the great "solar" race of which the family was a branch. The name Sakya often be- comes Sakya-muni, in allusion to the sohtary habits assumed by the prince. The prince Siddhartha gave early indica^ tions of a contemplative, ascetic disposition; and his father, fearing lest he should desert 202 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT his high station as Kshatriya and ruler, and take to a religious life, had him early married to a charming princess, and surrounded with all the splendor and dissipation of a luxurious court. Twelve years spent in this environ- ment only deepened the conviction that all that life could offer was vanity and vexation of spirit. He constantly brooded over the thought that old age, withered and joyless, was fast approaching; that loathsome or racking sickness might at any moment seize him ; that death would at all events soon cut off all present sources of enjoyment, and usher in a new cycle of unknown trials and suffering. These images hung like Damocles' sword over every proposed feast of pleasure, and made enjoyment impossible. He therefore resolved to try whether a life of austerity would not lead to peace; and, although his father sought to detain him by placing guards on every outlet of the palace, he escaped, and began the life of a religious mendicant when about thirty years old. To mark his breaking off all secular ties, he cut off the long locks that were the sign of his high caste ; and com- menced by studying all that the Brahmans could teach him. He found their doctrine unsatisfactory, and turned ascetic. Six years of rigorous asceticism were equally vain ; and, resolving to return to a more genial life, he was deserted by his disciples, and then under- went a fierce temptation from the demon of wickedness. But no discouragement or oppo- sition could divert him from the search after dehverance. He resolved to conquer the secret by sheer force of thinking. He sat for weeks plunged in abstraction, revolving the causes of things. If we were not born, he reflects, we should not be subject to old age, misery, and death; therefore, the cause of these evils is birth. But whence comes birth or continued existence? Through a long chain of intermediate causes, he arrived at the conclusion that ignorance is the ultimate cause of existence; and, therefore, with the removal of ignorance, existence and all its anxieties and miseries would be cut off at their source. Passing through successive stages of contemplation, he realized this in his own person, and attained the perfect wisdom of the Buddha. The scene of this final triumph received the name of Bodhimanda (the seat of intelligence), and the tree under which he sat was called Bodhidruma (the tree of intelligence), whence the Bo-tree. Throughout a whole day he remained under the Bo-tree wrestling with despair and doubt. At last the hght of hope and certainty broke in upon him, as he per- ceived that in self-conquest and universal loving kindness lay the true path of salvation from suffering. That instant he consciously became Buddha — " ei^lightened." The Bud- dhists believe the spot to be the center of the earth. Having arrived at the knowledge of the causes of misery, and of the means by which these causes are to be counteracted, the Buddha was now ready to lead others on the road to salvation. It was at Benares that he first preached, or, in the consequential phrase, " turned the wheel of the law " ; but the most important of his early converts was Bimbisara, the sovereign of Magadha (Behar), whose dynasty continued for many centuries to patronize the new faith. During the forty years that he continued to preach his strange gospel, he appears to have traversed a great part of northern India, combating the Brahmas, and everywhere making numerous converts. He died at Kusinagara (in Oude), at the age of eighty, and, his body being burned, the relics were distributed among a number of contending claimants, and monu- mental tumuli were erected to preserve them. Twelve hundred years after the Buddha's death, Hiouen-Thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, found the Bodhidruma — or a tree that passed for it — still standing. Although the religion of Buddha is extinct in the neighbor- hood, there are, about five miles from Gaya proper, in Behar, extensive ruins and an old dagoba, or a temple, which are believed to mark the place. Such are the generally accepted facts relative to Buddha's hfe. According to tra- dition, "a Ukeness accurate to the life was done by one of his disciples in sandal wood, and served as a model for all statues and portraits of him in the North." But the truth probably is that later Hindu artists simply evolved a certain ideal likeness that — as in the case of Jesus — has become accepted as his. The peculiarity to be noted about it is the emphasis of feminine rather than masculine features. "He has the twenty-foiu- marks of beauty," says the native description; "his hair was curly and of deep black, the forehead broad and smooth, the eyelashes like those of a heifer, the eyes of jet black. His eyebrows were arched Uke the rainbow, his eyes ribbed IN RELIGION an like the leaf of the lotus, a perfect nose, regu- lar cheeks, beautiful hands and feet," and so on. All the later images agree in the soft feminine forms; there is an air of great serenity, something of the sphinx in the expression, while the monstrous appendages in the ears reveal the idol. Many of the Buddhas bear a strange resemblance to the Venus of the Greeks. When Buddha appeared, he signaled a crisis in the history of the East. The Hindu state had reached its apogee, and was ready for the revolution which began its decline. This revolution was a change from aristo- cratic sentiment and religion to democratic sentiment and religion. Brahmanism was the religion of the Brahman twice-born castes ; Buddhism was the religion of all. Two thousand years before Francis d'Assisi, Buddha established the mendicant order. Absolute poverty, perpetual celibacy, a total renunciation of the things of this world, a life in monasteries, such was the foundation which he laid. When he took up his mission, India was cut up into a multitude of Httle kingdoms reduced to poverty by a series of petty wars between adjoining states. Each community was still further subdivided by its social laws and occupations into rigid class-distinctions. The people, with nothing to hope for in this life, sought consolation in the superstitious doc- trine of the transmigration of souls, being completely under the dominion of their priests, who taught them to prepare for a happier state of existence in some other form by a system of liberal payments to the priesthood during this life. The disciples of Buddha, well trained and organized, continued his work. The doctrine and rules of discipline were settled in general councils. The first was held soon after his death ; the second about a century later ; the third, and most important, about 250 B. C, in the reign of Asoka. This monarch was the Constantine of Buddhism, and sent out mis- sionaries in all directions. His own son car- ried the new teaching into Ceylon, where, after having been for ten generations handed down orally, it was for the first time com- mitted to writing in the three great collections known as the "Tripitakas," containing, re- spectively, the rules of discipline of the order, moral discourses for the laity, and philosophi- cal disquisitions. From Ceylon, Burma was converted in the fifth century, and Siom nearly two onturMi later. These arc the countriat iHicra tht southern or purer form of Buddhim prevails. But its most extensive conquetts were nuKie toward the north. By the begunii^ ol the Christian era, it had become the religioo of the northwesterly parts of India; and under the patronage of Kanishka, king of Kaahmir, it spread into Afghanistan, Tartaxy, the Panjab, Sindh, Guzarat, and Rajputana. It was adopted in China in 62 A. D. by one of the Han emperors, and rapidly spread throughout that populous reahn. Under the next great dynasty, the Tang (61»-905), the sutras and commentaries were translated into Chinese. From China the religion passed to Korea at the close of the fourth century, and from Korea over to Japan in the middle of the sixth. In China it was never able to supersede the ancient astrolatry, though, since the thirteenth century, it has profoundly stimu- lated and influenced philosophical speculation. And it still combines with the Confucianism and Tao-ism of those populations. In Japan it soon absorbed, and has now practically superseded, the indigenous fetichism. The most abnormal form of northern Buddhism was developed in Tibet. Introduced in the seventh century, it was there soon mixed up with the native devil-worship and belief in magic. Perversion of doctrine, kept pace with the change of the order into a regular priesthood, whose rich endovvTnents and com- pact organization made them formidable rivals of the government ; imtil, in 1419, the Dalai Lama, the incarnate representative of deity, became sole temporal sovereign as well as head of the church. In India itself Buddhism declined steadily after the sixth century. In the twelfth, the Mohammedan invasion swept away what remnants of it, in Kashmir and Orissa, vict c t— Is I. o Is bo !X *." IN RELIGION SO0 in response to his question, "Who are you?" answered, "Jesus." According to the second, Paul, overcome by the heat and fatigue of the march, and the mental excitement his mission had brought upon him, fell senseless on the road, and was carried by his companions to Damascus, where he remained for several days blind, a prey to fever and delirium. A Christian named Ananias attended him during his ill- ness. Paul felt remorse for the cruel treat- ment to which he had subjected the Christians, learned of Ananias enough of their principles to change his opinions completely, became a convert to the new faith, and was baptized. This latter account probably grew out of the fact mentioned in scripture that no/ one but the apostle heard words. He says himself, "They that were with me heard not the voice of Him that spake to me." It is, therefore, held by some theologians that the miracle was subjective. Whatever the exact facts may be, there certainly came a day when the enthusiasm for Jesus and His doctrines took possession of him with convincing force, after a fierce internal conflict, and he realized that his highest hopes for humanity lay in his defense of them. With sublime abnegation he sur- rendered himself to the movement, avowedly its servant, but in reality its leader; and henceforth he preached the gospel of Chris- tianity with a vigor and pertinacity that out- stripped all his fellow believers. After a solitary sojourn in Arabia — per- haps to calm his perturbed spirit in com- mvmion with God, and to solemnly prepare himself for his new mode of life — on his return to Damascus, he changed his name to Paul, and resumed or began (it is not quite clear which) his apostolic labors. Naturally, he became an object of intense hostility to the unbelieving Jews in that city. They re- solved to kill him; but his friends contrived a way of escape, and he fled to Jerusalem, where at first h£ was received with suspicion by the disciples, but afterward, through the kind offices of Barnabas, with great cordiality. He now "spoke boldly in the name of Christ," disputing also against the "Grecians " — i. e., the Hellenistic Jews — with dangerous success, for his opponents sought to take his life. Again he was obliged to flee, and betook himself to his birthplace. Tarsus, where he seems to have remained until Barnabas, about 40 A. D., brought him to Antioch (not far off) to assist in the great work of evai^^elink tion going on in that city. After a Aoei vUt to Jerusalem in the year of the famine, 44 A. D., Paul and Barnabas were set apart by the prophets and elders of the church at Antioch for the evangelization of the mora distant Jews. From Seleucia they proceeded on their firat missionary expedition to the southern dis- tricts of Asia Minor, Pamphylia, I*isidia, and Lycaonia, where they met, especially in aooM places, with considerable success in preaching the gospel. It is very interesting to notice how gradually the light of Christianity dawned on the mind of the apostle. He did not grasp all at once its grand design. It was not even by abstract reflection that he arrived at it. Circumstances of quite an outward sort forced him to the sublime conclusions of his creed. It was when the Jews of Pisidian Antioch, enraged at his preaching the gospel indis- criminately to their Gentile fellow townsmen and themselves, "contradicted and blas- phemed " him, that he boldly announced Christ as the universal Redeemer. After the return of Paul and Barnabas to Antioch, they continued to labor in that city for a long time, until dissensions having arisen about the circumcision of Gentile converts, he, along with Barnabas and others, was chosen to go up to Jerusalem to get the opin- ion of the apostles and elders there on the question, about 51 A. D. Paul and Barnabas now returned to Antioch, where they con- tinued to teach and preach, until a yearning grew up in the heart of the former to revisit his Gentile converts in Asia Minor. In his second expedition Paul was accom- panied by Silas instead of Barnabas, and traversed the whole of Asia Minor from south to north, evangelizing with great suooeas, after which the two missionaries crossed the iEgean and landed in Europe, planting at Philippi, the capital of Thracian M acedonia, the first Christian church in that continent. The details of his visits to Theosalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth are familiar to all Bible readers. We can only notice his appearance at Athens, where on Mars' hiU, before a crowd of the citizens, among whom were Epicurean and stoic philosophers, he delivered that magnificent discourse in which he declared to the Athenians the character of the " unknown " God. On his return to Asia Minor he visited Ephesus, where, as usual, he " reasoned " with the Jews in their synagogue ; 210 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT sailed thence to Caesarea, in Palestine, and proceeded to Jerusalem "to keep the feast" ; after which he again returned to Antioch, the center from which his operations radiated. Thus closed his second evangelistic journey. The third journey of Paul conumenced prob- ably about 57 A. D., and extended over much the same district as the previous one. At Ephesus, where he remained for a period of two years and three months, his efforts were powerfully seconded by the eloquence of one of his converts, ApoUos. Driven from Ephe- sus, he visited Achaia and Macedonia again, and by way of Miletus returned by sea to Jerusalem. There the fanaticism of the Jews against him led to disturbances, whereupon he was brought to Caesarea to be tried before Felix, the procurator, and, after two years' imprisonment, before King Agrippa, when he defended himself by a noble and eloquent speech. Now, using his right as a Roman citizen, Paul appealed to Caesar, and in the spring of 62 A. D. arrived in Rome, where he spent two years a prisoner, but in his own hired house. He was executed under Nero about 67 A. D. — probably at the end of a fourth missionary journey, during which tradition makes him visit Spain and other countries. It must be remembered that the journeys of Paul and his companions were not made like those of modem missionaries, at the expense of rich societies, but resembled the wanderings of joumeymen mechanics, seeking employment from place to place. They lived by the labor of their hands — Paul wove tent-cloth — and they remained to work and preach wherever they could find employment. They traveled on foot, lived on little, were frequently ill-treated, sometimes imprisoned, and were fortunate indeed to escape with their lives. At his death the total number of Christians at the various centers is supposed to have been about one thousand; these primitive groups scarcely numbered more than a dozen members each, the meetings being held in private houses. There are several representations of the apostle Paul upon medals and in ivory carv- ings, as well as numerous descriptions of his personal appearance. He was not a hand- some man; his face was not pleasing, his figure was short and thick, and round shoul- dered. Nor was he an eloquent speaker; "his discourse rarely traveled beyond the repeated assertion that Jesus was the true Son of God, put to death by the priests"; but he had an inexhaustible fimd of energy, though continually suffering from ill-health, and excited astonishment by his bold audacity in preaching a doctrine that might at any moment subject him to a violent death. A moral hero like this had never before been seen. Of the twenty-one epistles embraced in the canon of the new testament, fourteen are popularly ascribed to Paul. Of these, the epistle to the Hebrews is pronounced by many critics to be the work of some other hand. The genuineness of the pastoral epistles, the two to Timothy and the one to Titus, of those to the Colossians and Ephe- sians, and even those to the Philippians, Philemon, and Thessalonians, has also been caUed in question. It is impossible to deter- mine their chronological order. The two to the Thessalonians are placed first by most of the critics who admit their genuineness, and after them the epistle to the Galatians. The teaching of Paul aimed at a universal religion. It is certain that he had in him something of all three of the great civilizar tions of the ancient world ; by birth he was a Jew and a Pharisee, yet he was bom in a Greek city, a city claiming to rival Athens ; but this Greek city was in a Roman province, and entitled him to the privileges of a Roman citizen. Thxis he was by his origin and teach- ing fitted to be the expounder of a cosmopoli- tan religion. After his conversion he regarded his mission not as Jewish, but as universal. His first hopes for the r^eneration of the world he had founded on an extension of Jewish monotheism; but when he was con- vinced that the crucified and risen Redeemer was for all men, not for the Jewish tribe alone, he established a community wider than the family or the country under the common headship of Christ, which later became the regenerating force of the Roman empire and of its northern invaders. Henceforth there was a new power in the world, modifying the political forces round it, governed by new principles and aiming at new objects. A spiritual power, wholly independent of the state, forming opinion and moulding char- acter, but not claiming to interfere with prao tical government, arose for the first time in the world's history. The doctrine on which it rested was not such as to satisfy the claims of science. But the importance of this new IN RELIGION 211 growth, politically speaking, was immense; and it responded to a permanent need of human society. The vague benevolence that would ignore the claims of relationship has no place in his teaching. He dwells often on the mutual duties of parents, children, and servants. For his own nation he had a passionate affection. He held the law of Rome in pro- found respect. His teaching was real, human, genial. His picture of the loving, charitable temper, upheld by him as the highest spiritual gift, is perhaps the noblest ideal ever pre- sented to man. And with all this he knew how to exercise stern spiritual authority when necessary. It is important to notice that, though Christian dogma was to undergo much further development in succeeding centuries, its central institution, the eucharist, was brought by him into full prominence. Of the great names in early Christianity, St. Peter is often referred to as the apostle of catholicity, St. John as the apostle of love, and St. Paul as the apostle of progress. Each of these three chosen ones represented a special side of hutaan nature — will, emotion, and intellect. While St. Peter is the symbol of the church militant, the rock on which the church is built, St. John the beloved is the forerunner of that mystic love, that tender piety, ever and anon appearing in the course of its history — in the lives of St. Bonaven- tura, St. Francis, and the author of the "Imitation." These are classed together on the one hand, while its more masculine minds, St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, Calvin, and Luther, stand on the other, and with them, in a preeminent degree, St. Paul. But in one quality he transcended them all — in his moral energy. Removed alike from the extremes of fanaticism on the one hand, and apathy on the other, his whole life was a noble instance of the consecration of the highest powers and the most indefat- igable energies to a work in which he had no personal interest apart from that of his fellow Christians! "That life of his," says Dean Farrar, "as it stands revealed to me in his own epistles, how sad it was, and how frightful 1 From that day on which, blind and trembling, and with the scars of God's own thunder on his soul, he had staggered into the streets of Damascus, what a tragedy had encompassed him of ever deepening gloom! That first peril, when he had been let down in a basket through a window — the flights from nation — the hot disputes at Antioch — the expulsion from Iconium — the stoning at Lystra — the quarrel with his own heart's brother — the acute spasms of that impale ment by the stake in the flesh at Galatia — the agony in Macedonia, of outward fightinp and inward fears — the five Jewish scourgings — the three Roman flagellations — the pol- ished scorn of Athens — the factious violokce of Corinth — the streaming tears of the part^ ing at Miletus — the gnashing fury of Jewish mobs — the illegal insolence of provincial tribunals — these were but a fragment, and a small fragment, of his trials and miseries. Even the brute forces of nature seemed to be against him — he had to struggle in her rush- ing water-courses, to faint in her sultry des- erts, to toss for long days and nights in leakj vessels on her tempestuous seas. This was the perilous, persecuted life on which he had to look back as he sat chained to the rude legionary in that dreary Roman priscMi." But how resplendent do his achievements stand out against this dark background of suffering and deprivation. Through the right- eous zeal which burned within, he introduced Christianity to the civilization of Europe, and became its chief champion to all mankind. He exalted the practice of faith, hope, and charity — by these two acta creating a world- religion. Christ being God, St. Paul is His apostle ; one the spiritual head, the other the temporal founder of Christianity. During his career he developed a force and play of spirit, a keenness, depth, clearness, and cogency el, per- haps for centuries, on the borders of Asia, which he has made the center of the conver- sion and civilization of the worid. Imagine the Bible without St. Paull It would mean Christian truth only half revealed ; Christian life only half understood; Christian charity only half known; Christian faith only half victorious. 212 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT ST. AUGUSTINE 354 371 373 379 383 384 386 387 Born at Tagaste, Numidia, Studied at Carthage, 17 Adopted Manichseism, 19 Teaches rhetoric at Carthage, ... 25 Went to Rome, 29 Removes to Milan, 30 Converted to the Christian faith, . 32 Baptized by St. Ambrose; death of his mother, 33 A. D. Aoa 388 Returns to Africa, 34 391 Ordained priest, 37 395 Bishop of Hippo, 41 397 Confeasionea, "Confessions," ... 43 413-426 De CivUate Dei, "The City of God," ,, . 59-72 430 Hippo besieged by Genseric ; ' died at Hippo, 76 CT. AUGUSTINE, or, in Latin, Lucius ^ AuRELius AuGUSTiNUS, was the most eminent of the Latin church fathers, and one of the greatest of theologians. The son of Patricius, a pagan nobleman, and the saintly Monica, an earnest Christian, he was bom at Tagaste, in Numidia, November 13, 354 A. D. Augustine's father, a man of violent temper, though at the same time of a kindly disposi- tion, died before his son reached manhood. His mother was a model of gentleness and virtue, the child of Christian parents, and from her youth up accustomed to live under the influence of Christian principles. She sought to win her husband over to Chris- tianity, and also to imbue the mind of their son with religious truth, and to train him in the ways of piety and virtue. For a time, however, it appeared as though her care had been bestowed in vain. Like many another pious mother, she had to go through the severe discipline of seeing her child apparently hastening to ruin before she was permitted to reap the reward of her anxieties and her labors. Meanwhile, Augustine's intellectual culture was going forward. His father was anxious that he should become a fine scholar, probably chiefly for the reason that he noticed not a few persons in his day who were obtaining large rewards by their wits. Accordingly, Augustine was sent to school at Madaura, and subsequently to Carthage, at the age of seventeen, to complete his studies. When he left home for Carthage, a joyous, ardent, and resolute student, a bright career of worldly prosperity seemed to open before him. But strong as Augustine was, the temptations of Carthage were stronger. His nature, deep, impetuous, and passionate, thirsted for excite- ment. He had just reached the age when happiness is conceived to be synonymous with pleasure, and Carthage, the second city of the empire, rank as Rome in its sensual corrup- tion, held him captive under its spell. In his "Confessions," he paints the frightful abyss into which he felt himself plunged. Nor does he seek to excuse himself; on the contrary, the shadow of his guilt is thrown forward over all his boyish life, and he displays even a morbid zeal and acuteness in pointing out what others, less censorious, might term the frivolous errors of his childhood, but which seemed to Augustine the parents of his subse- quent vices, and, therefore, equally bad and equally reprehensible. He tells us that he loved the Latin authors, but hated the Greek — a circumstance, he says, he never could fully account for, but which, he adds with much naivete, was probably owing to the difficulty of learning the Greek, to him a foreign language, and to the harshness of his teacher, who enforced his lessons "with savage terrors and punish- ments." He applied himself with character- istic vigor to the study of eloquence and phi- losophy. The perusal of Cicero's treatise entitled Hortensius, in his nineteenth year, first awakened him to a nobler state of being than he had hitherto aimed at. The study also of Aristotle's categories, he says, exerted a potent and beneficial effect upon his mind. This treatise he read in his twentieth year; and about the same time he mastered, by his own efforts, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arith- metic, and music. He now became impelled by a love of truth to pursue his studies, having before only aspired to be an adroit master of words. To use the language of Neander: "The conflict now began in his soul which lasted through eleven years of his life. The sim- plicity of the sacred scriptures possessed no attractions for his taste — a taste formed by rhetorical studies and the artificial discipUne of the declamatory schools — especially as his mind was now in the same tone and direction as that of the emperor Julian, when the latter was conducted to the Platonic theoso- phy. Moreover, he found so many things in the doctrines of the church which, from want of inward experience, could not be otherwise than uninteUigible to him, while he attempted ST. AUGUSTINE From the fainting of Fra Filifpo Lippi e ,», » » IN RELIGION 2U to grasp, by the understanding from without, what can be understood only from the inner life, from the feeling of inward wants, and one's own inward experiences. So, under these circumstances, the delusive pretensions of the Manichaean sect, which, instead of a bUnd belief on authority, held out the promise of clear knowledge and a satisfactory solution of all questions relating to things human and divine, presented the stronger attractions to his inexperienced youth." In 373 Augustine became a professed Manichaean. Returning to his native town, he lectured for a short time on rhetoric — that is to say, on literature. Afterward, in 379, he returned to Carthage to pursue his profession under more favorable auspices. Here he wrote, in his twenty-seventh year, his first work, De Apto et Pulchro, "On the Befitting and the Beautiful " — a treatise on aesthetics, which has unfortunately been lost. About the same time his spiritual nature became keener and more imperative in its demands. The futile speculations of the visionary sect to which he had attached him- self now became apparent. He had a series of interviews and conversations with Faustus, one of the most celebrated teachers of Mani- chaeism ; and these so utterly disappointed his expectations that he left the society in dis- gvist and sad bewilderment, after having wasted ten years in a fruitless search for wisdom and truth. In 383 he went to Rome, followed by the tears, the prayers, and the anxieties of his excellent mother, who was not, however, bereaved of hope, for both her faith and her love were strong. After a short stay, Augus- tine left Rome, and proceeded to Milan, where he became a teacher of rhetoric. No change could have been more fortunate. Here he came under the influence of Ambrose, bishop of Milan, a man of eminence alike for his piety and eloquence. To him Augustine was attracted in the first instance by his kindness to him. " The maq of God," says he, " received me like a father, and loved the stranger like a true bishop. And I began to love him, at first, indeed, not as a teacher of the truth, which I had no hope of then finding in the church, but as a man who had been kind to me." He became an assiduous attendant on Ambrose's ministry, not, as he confesses, from any great interest he took in the matter of his discourses, but because he was delighted with the elegance and suavity of his style, and, as a teacher of rhetoric, wished to study him m a master of oratory. Gradually, howerw, he found that there was something beyond Um mere elocution of the preacher deserving his attention. He felt convinced that the Chris- tian faith could, in many points, be suooeaiH fully defended against the Manidueans. At this time, however, his mind was in any- thing but a settled state. He was, in faot, neither a Manichaean nor a Christian. Thoi^ he placed himself under Christian instruction, he was in reality a sceptic, " in doubt about all things, and fluctuating from one thing to another through all." Still he adopted the wise expedient of thoroughly exploring the Christian doctrine, if, haply, he might find a resting-place in it for his intellect and heart. He was a diligent hearer of Ambrose, from whom he imbibed with much readiness the maxim often enunciated by him, "The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life." But he demanded a certainty of conviction before he would embrace Christianity, which the nature of the case did not admit. He wanted mathe- matical certainty, such as we have for the belief that "seven and three are ten." Con- sequently, he still remained in doubt and perplexity, like a man afraid of falling over a precipice should he advance. He seems at this time, also, to have been still under the influence of that sensuality which had tyrannized over him at an earlier period of his life, and to have led a life by no means pure. He was helped to a healthier state of mind by the perusal of several treep tises of Plato and the Platonists, which, he says, "enkindled within me an inconsiderable conflagration." The effect of these on his mind was to counteract the materaliiing tendency of Manichaeism, and to prepare him for the reception of the spiritualities of Qiris- tianity. Platonism of itself could not satisfy him. He rested in it for a while, but ere long found that it was not adequate to his inner needs. It taught him to seek "incorporeal verity," and helped him "to prattle as if he were a proficient," but it could not satisfy the conscience nor purify the heart. "I waa puffed up," he says, "with knowledge; for where was that charity which buikleth on the foundation of humility, which foundation is Christ Jesus? Else how could these books teach me it?" Reinvigorated, however, by his Platonic studies, he turned with fresh ardw to the perusal of scripture, and especially to the 216 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT epistles of St. Paul. These he read with a mind gradually opening to divine truth, and growing with a conformity to the mould of doctrine therein taught ; and to this, aided by the teaching of Ambrose and the conversa- tions of Simplician, a presbyter of the church of Milan, his ultimate conversion to Chris- tianity is to be instrumentally ascribed. Having, after many struggles, and as the result of grave deliberation, resolved publicly to profess himself a Christian, he was baptized by Ambrose on April 25, 387 A. D. A friend and fellow townsman, named Alypius, and his natural son Adeodatus, born while he was pursuing his studies at Carthage, were baptized along with him. His mother, Monica, to whom he had conveyed the news of his conversion, was present at this ceremony having hastened from Africa to Milan; to her it was an exultation, when her mourning was turned into gladness, and a full reward for all her instructions, anxieties, and prayers, was poured into her bosom. As if the great end of her life was now gained, she did not long survive this event. Her son resolved to return with her to Africa, but she was taken ill during her journey at Ostia, on the banks of the Tiber, and in 387 died there, after a short illness, in the fifty-sixth year of her age. After the death of his mother, Augustine remained some time at Rome, where he wrote treatises against the Manichaeans, and on free will. His character and principles of action had now become fixed, and he brought the whole majesty of his intellect to bear upon the side of Christianity. He returned in the year 388 to Tagaste, where he sold the remains of his paternal property, gave the proceeds to the poor, and gave himself up to religious meditation. In 391 he was ordained a priest by Valerius, bishop of Hippo; and during the next four years, though earnestly engaged in the work of preaching, contrived to write three different works. In 395 he was made colleague of Valerius, as bishop of Hippo. Then ensued a period of hot strife, known in church history as the Donatist and Pelagian controversies, in which he took the main part on the orthodox side. It is from these writings against Pela- gius that we obtain the fullest view of his theological system. Augustine, as may natu- rally be supposed, having passed through so fierce a fire of personal experience on religious questions, would be very jealous both of what he knew to be the truth, and of what he only thought to be the truth. This, added to his acute and profound intellect, made him, in spite of the poverty of his historical erudition, a most formidable and relentless antagonist. In 397 appeared his Confessiones, a deep, earnest, and sacred autobiography of one of the greatest intellects the world has seen. In 413 he commenced his De CivUate Dei, and finished it in 426. It is generally considered his most wonderful work. Augustine held his place as bishop of Hippo until the year 430, when he died in the seventy- sixth year of his age. His end was peaceable, though amid scenes of violence and suffering. The Vandals under Genseric had laid siege to Hippo during that year, and for many months exposed its inhabitants to peril and straits. The aged bishop, pained by the scenes which constantly met his ^e, and anticipating still greater disasters, earnestly besought of God deliverance for the people from their enemies, and for himself a speedy emancipation from all earthly burdens and cares. His prayer for himself was heard ; in the third month of the siege, on the 28th of August, he was, to use the words of Gibbon, "gently released." Augustine was a very voluminous writer, and a large proportion of his writings still remain. Of these the most important are his "Confessions," Rdradationes, or "Retracta- tions," "The City of God," and his homilies and comments on portions of scripture — particularly his "Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount." His "Confessions" contain a history of the earlier period of his life, interspersed with reflections, and addressed to God, which, if they somewhat interrupt the course of the narrative, more than compensate for this by the insight they give us into the heart and soul of the man. His "Retractations" was the work of his old age, and contains a sort of review of all his previous writings and opin- ions, in which, with characteristic candor, he retracts and condenms what his maturer judgment led him to deem erroneous or imperfect. " The City of God " is perhaps, as a whole, his greatest production. It is an elaborate defense of Christianity, and a refutation of pagan mythology and philosophy, under- taken in consequence of an attempt on the part of the pagans to cast the odium of the sacking of Rome by the Goths on Christianity. On this work Augustine spent thirteen years, IN RELIGION 917 and it remains a monument of his knowledge, eloquence, and mental strength. " 'The City of God,' " says Milman, " is at once the funeral oration of the ancient society, and a gratula- tory panegyric on the birth of the new. It acknowledged, it triumphed in the irrevocable fall of the Babylon of the West, the shrine of idolatry; it hailed, at the same time, the universal dominion which awaited the new theocratic polity. The earthly city had imdergone its predestined fate ; it had passed away, and all its vices and superstitions — with all its virtues and its glories (for the soul of Augustine was not dead to the noble reminiscences of Roman greatness) — with its false gods and its heathen sacrifices: its doom was sealed, and forever. But in its place had arisen the city of God, the church of Christ; a new social system had emerged from the ashes of the old: that system was founded by God, was ruled by divine laws, and had the divine promise of perpetuity." The grandeur of the occasion on which this book was conceived, and of its general sub- ject, is unsurpassed in literature. In 410 Rome was taken and sacked by the Goths under Alaric. The wail sent up from the empire included the indignant complaint of many that the public disasters were due to the forsaking of the ancient gods. Thus the whole issue between polytheism and Catholic monotheism was raised before a world-wide audience, deeply interested, and deeply excited. Augustine, "outflaming with zeal for God's house," stepped forth as the cham- pion of Christianity, and produced this monu- mental work. As an interpreter of scripture, Augustine does not rank as high as he does as a theolo- gian — a polemic. He lays down excellent rules of exegesis, but does not himself adhere to them, and consequently it is rather for their homiletical and spiritual merits than for their exegetical worth that his commenta- ries are in repute. It is in the department of ethical and polemical theology that his merit lies. He was the father alike of the mediaeval scholasticism and of the theology of the mystics. The central tenets of his creed were the cor- ruption of human nature through the fall of man, the consequent slavery of the human will, predestination, election, and reprobation, and the perseverance of the saints. It was not by his controversial writings merely, but by his profound conception of Christianity and the religious life, and by hispcreonal fenror and force of character that Augustine nnwildwi the spirit of the Christian church for oeoturict, so that, at the reformation, I*rot«8t«nta and Catholics alike appealed to his authority. No mind has exerted greater influence oo the church than that of Augustine. He wm a man of powerful and acute intellect, whidi he had cultivated by diligent study. His writings are somewhat rugged, but full of force and fire ; and in many of his works there is an undercurrent of sentiment and tender- ness which lends an indescribable charm to the whole. His conduct after hc[ became a Christian was marked by scrupulous integrity and purity, and impressed all who bchckl it with a conviction of the sincerity of his pro- fession. As a bishop he was conscientious and diligent; unmoved by worldly ambition, he remained "faithful to his first bride, his earliest though humble see " ; and when dan- gers surrounded his flock, he refused to desert them, but, like a true pastor, remained to share with them in their privations, and to lend them what aid and encouragement his presence could supply. The holy light of faith and hope that was in him was not extin- guished by his death, but only ascended to a higher place, and has been shining through the centuries ever since. " No Christian teacher since the days of the apostles," says Dr. William Bright, "has influenced Christian thought so powerfully as St. Augustine. This influence has sometimes been, so to speak, imperial: the 'doctor of grace ' has reigned in the schools of theology ; his Benedictine editors in the seventeenth century described him as 'the oracle of the church ' ; and, as Archbishop Trent has told us, a Spanish sermon was proverbially said to lack its best ingredient if it contained nothing out of Augustine." "The vehement temperament," adds Walt«r Bagehot, "the bold assertion, the ecstatic energy of men like St. Augustine or St. Paul, burn into the minds and memories of men, and remain there at once and forever. Such men excel in the broad statement of great truths which flash at once with vivid evidence on the minds which receive them. The very words seem to glow with life ; and even the sceptical reader is half awakened by them to a kindred and similar warmth. Such are the men who move the creeds of mankind, and stamp a likeness of themselves on ages that succeed them." 21« • MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT MOHAMMED A. D. AGE A. D. AOB 6707 Bom at Mecca, Arabia. 625 Subdued the Koreish, 56 582 Traveled in Arabia and Syria, .... 12 629 Conquered Mecca ; defeated tke Chris- 595 Married; shepherd and trader, .... 25 tians at Muta, 59 610 Announced his revelations as a prophet, 40 630 Great increase of followers, 60 622 The hegira, or flight to Medina, ... 52 632 Died at Medina, 62 623 Expelled the Jews from Medina, ... 53 "V/f OHAMMED, or Mahomet, the founder ^ *• of Mohammedanism, was bom about 570 A. D., at Mecca, Arabia. According to tradition, he was an Ishmaelite — a descend- ant of Ishmael, son of the Hebrew Abraham and Hagar. His father, Abdallah, a poor merchant, though he belonged to the tribe of the Koreish — one of the noblest of Mecca, the sacred city, and center of Arabian com- merce — died two months after the birth of his son. At the age of six years he lost his mother, Amina, and was carried to his grand- father, Abd al-Muttalib, Two years later he also lost his grandfather, and was then adopted by his uncle, Abu Tahb, who held the key to the Kaaba, and who remained Mohammed's best friend and protector throughout his whole life. The accounts of his early life are of too legendary a nature to deserve entire credit; but it seems certain that he first gained a scanty livelihood by tending the flocks of his uncle, and other Meccans, and that he made trading journeys with the former to southern Arabia, and to Syria. At the time of these journeys he was about twelve years of age; and it is believed that through them he learned many facts about the religions of western Asia. He was already marked out from his fellows by abstinence from coarse pleasures, and by unstained loyalty, and had received the name Al-Amin, " the faith- ful." In his twenty-fifth year he entered the service of a rich widow, named Khadija, Ukewise descended from the Koreish, and accompanied her caravans — in an inferior capacity, perhaps as camel-driver — to the fairs. Up to that time his circumstances were very poor. Suddenly his fortune changed. The wealthy, but much older, and twice widowed Khadija offered him her hand, which he accepted. She bore him a son, Al-Kasim — whence Mohammed adopted the name Abu al-Kasim — and foiu- daughters: Zainab, Rukaija, Umm Kulthum, and Fatima; and afterward a second son, whom he called Abd Manaf, after an idol worshiped among his tribe. Both his sons, however, died early. Mohammed continued his merchant's trade at Mecca, and in his thirty-fifth year he is said to have been chosen, by chance only, arbiter in a quarrel about the replacing of the sacred black stone in the Kaaba. For several years it was noticed that he often withdrew himself to a lonely cave out- side the city, and remained there for hours and days wrapped in intense thought. There, at the mountain of Hira, near Mecca, when he was forty years of age, he had his first vision, in which — according to the tradition — the angel Gabriel commanded him to recite the message given to him. "The work of his life was revealed to him in flashes of prophecy, scorching like bolts from heaven, whitening his hair and for the time paralyzing his strength. In the name of God, it was laid upon him to preach the true religion." At this time, in Arabia, no central govern- ment had been set up through the vast penin- sula. Various tribes, partly nomad, partly sedentary, held sway through ill-defined dis- tricts. A certain unity was maintained by language, by community of custom, by mer- cantile and religious pilgrimages. "The period before the advent of Moham- med," says Ockley, "is called by the tribes the age of darkness or ignorance. The 'sciences' cultivated by them were that of their genealogies; a knowledge of the stars to foretell the changes of the weather, and the interpretation of dreams. The accom- pHshments on which the Arabs valued them- selves chiefly were eloquence, a perfect skill in their own tongue, expertness in the use of arms, horsemanship, and hospitality. The exercise of arms and horsemanship they were obliged to practice and encourage, by reason of the independence of their tribes, whose frequent jarrings made war almost continual, and they chiefly ended their disputes in field battles. It was a usual saying among them that God had bestowed four peculiar things on the Arabs: that their turbans should be to them instead of diadems, their tents in- stead of walls and houses, their swords IN RELIGION 31» instead of intrenchments, and their poems instead of written laws. "Their minds, however, were liberal, their hearts cheerful, their pedigrees pure and genuine ; the words flowed from their mouths like arrows from a bow, but milder than the breezes of spring, and sweeter than honey. Their ideal man was pictured to be 'free and liberal, an eloquent poet, and a successful robber.' " Mecca was a reUgious center. From time immemorial it had been the sacred city; pilgrimages to Mecca had been for the Arabs what the Olympic games were to the Greeks. Here was the sharp conflict of religious ideas — Jews, Christians, Magi, mingled with in- numerable oriental idolatries, all centered in Mecca and the temple had become a pantheon. In it were statues of Abraham, Ishmael, statues of angels and of the Virgin, sacred stones, representations of planets and stars, a deity for every day in the year. Indeed, Abraham was regarded as the founder of this temple, and here Hagar took refuge with Ishmael when driven forth. Jews were set- tled in many of the surrounding towns, and had told the story of their nation, and their religion, and Christian ascetics lived in the desert places. Meditating amid these influences, Moham- med's mind was seriously affected. Of a singularly impressionable temperament, the times weighed heavily upon him; and, when his mission in life was revealed to him, he determined to lift the tribes around him above their lawless life of pillage, sensuality, and idolatry, by unveiling the presence of an all- powerful God who judged the earth, and who sent Mohammed, the last of a long line of prophets, to bring all nations to Islam — the perfect surrender of the will to God. His first revelation he communicated to no one but his wife, daughters, step-son, and one friend, Abu Bekr. In the fourth year of his mission, however, he had made forty prose- lytes, chiefly slaves and very humble people; and now some verses were revealed to him, commanding him to come forward publicly as a preacher. God's mercy was principally to be obtained by prayer, fasting, and alms- giving. The Kaaba and the pilgrimage were recognized by the new creed. The prohibition of certain kinds of food belongs to this first period, when Mohammed was imder the influence of Judaism ; the prohibition of gam- bling, usviry, and wine came after the hegira. His earliest teachings, written down by amanuenses, consisted of brief, rhymed no- tences, and for a time the Meccans oouidflrad him a common "poet" or "soothsayer," perhaps not in his right senses. Gradually, however, fearing for the sacred* ness of Mecca, they rose in fierce opposition against the new prophet and his growing adherents. Many of the converted slaves and freedmen underwent terrible punishments; some suffered so much that they abjured their creed. Mohammed's faithful wife Khadija died, and his uncle and protector, Abu Talib ; and he was reduced to utter poverty. He now, with his followers, emigrated to Taif, where he sought to improve his position ; but this resulted in failure, and it was with difficulty that he escaped with his life. Dur- ing this epoch he had the well-known dream of his journey to Jerusalem and in the heavens on the back of the Borak (Miraj), the relation of which caused even his stanchest adherents to smile at his hallucination. Shortly after his return from Taif he married Sauda, and afterward so increased the number of hia wives that at his death he still left nine, of whom Ayeshah, the daughter of Abu Bekr, and Hafsa, the daughter of Omar, are best known. In the midst of his vain endeavors to find a hearing in his own city, and those near it, he succeeded, during a pilgrimage, in convert- ing several men from Medina, whose inhabit- ants had long been accustomed to hear, from the mouths of the numerous Jews living in the city and its neighborhood, the words revelation, prophecy, God's word, messiah, to the Meccans mere soimds without any meaning. The seed sown into the minds of these men bore a fruitful harvest. The next pilgrimage brought twelve, and the third more than seventy adherents to the new faith from Medina, and with these he entered into a close alliance. Mohammed now con- ceived the plan of seeking permanent refuge in the friendly city of Medina, and about 622 he fled thither, about one hundred families of his faithful flock having preceded him KOM time before, accompanied by Abu Bekr, and reached, not without danger, the town after- ward called Medinat Annabi, "city of the prophet," by way of eminence. This was the great movement, called in history the hegira, and from it dates the beginning of the Arabian nation, as well as the Moham- medan era. 220 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Now everything was changed to the advan- tage of the prophet and his religion; and if formerly the incidents of his life are shrouded in comparative obscurity, they are from this date known often to their most insignificant details. Formerly a despised "madman or imposter," he now assumed at once the posi- tion of highest judge, lawgiver, and ruler of the city and two most powerful Arabic tribes. His first care was directed toward the con- solidation of the new worship, and the inner arrangements in the congregation of his flock. His next chief endeavor was to proselyte the numerous Jews who inhabited the city, to whom, besides having received their principal dogmas into his religion, he made many important concessions also in the outer ob- servances of Islam, and concluded alliances with many of their tribes ; but he was sorely disappointed in his hopes to convert them. They ridiculed his pretension to be the mes- siah, and so enraged him by their constant taunts that he soon abrogated his concessions, and became their bitterest enemy up to the hour of his death. The most important act in the first year of the hegira was his permission to go to war with the enemies of Islam — especially the Meccans — in the name of God. The first battle, between three hundred fourteen Mos- lems and six hundred Meccans, was fought at Badr, in December, 623 ; the former gained the victory and made many prisoners. A great number of adventurers now flocked to Mohammed, and he successfully continued his expeditions against the Koreish and the Jewish colonies. In January, 625, the Mec- cans defeated him at Ohod, where he was dangerously wounded. The siege of Medina by the Meccans in 627 was frustrated by Mohammed's ditch and earthworks. In 628 he made peace with the Meccans, and in 629 celebrated the pilgrimage with two thousand followers for three days at Mecca. His missionaries at this time began to carry his doctrines abroad to Chosroes II., to Heraclius, to the king of Abyssinia, the vice- roy of Egypt, and the chiefs of several Arabic provinces. Some received the new gospel; but the king of Persia, and Amru, one of the Arabian chiefs, rejected his proposals with scorn, and the latter had the messenger exe- cuted. This was the cause of the first war between the Christians and the Moslems, in which the latter were beaten with great loss by Amru. The Meccans now thought the long-desired moment of revenge at hand, and broke the peace by committing several acts of violence against the Chuzaites, the allies of Mohammed. The latter, however, marched at the head of ten thousand men against Mecca before its inhabitants had time to prepare for the siege, took it, and was pub- licly recognized by them as chief and prophet. With this the victory of the new religion waa secured in Arabia. While employed in destroying all traces of idolatry in the besieged city, and fixing the minor laws and ceremonies of the true faith, Mohammed heard of new armies which sev- eral warlike Arabic tribes marched against him, and which were concentrated near Taif. Again he was victorious, and his dominion and creed extended further and further every day. From all parts flocked the deputations to do homage to him in the name of the various tribes, either as the messenger of God, or at least as the prince of Arabia, and the year 8 of the h^ira was, therefore, called the year of the deputations. Once more he made most extensive preparations for a war against the Byzantines; but not being able to bring together a sufllicient army, he had to be satis- fied with the homage of a few minor princes on his way to the frontiers, and to return without having carried out his intention. Toward the end of the 10th year of the hegira he undertook, at the head of at least forty thousand Moslems, his last solemn pilgrimage to Mecca, and there on Mount Arafat instructed them in all the important laws and ordinances, chiefly of the pilgrimage ; and the ceremonies observed by him on that occasion were fixed for all times. He again solemnly exhorted his beUevers to righteous- ness and piety, and chiefly recommended them to protect the weak, the poor, and the women, and to abstain from usury. After returning from Mecca, he occupied himself again with the carrying out of his expedition against Syria, but fell dangerously ill very soon after his return. One night, while suffering from an attack of fever, he went to the cemetery of Medina, and prayed and wept upon the tombs, praising the dead, and wishing that he himself might soon be delivered from the storms of this world. For a few more days he went about ; at last, too weak further to visit his wives, he chose the house of Ayeshah, situated near a mosque, as his abode during his sickness. He continued to take part in the public prayers as long as IN RELIGION aai he could. At last, feeling that his hour had come, he once more preached to the people, recommending Abu Bekr and Osama, the son of Zaid, as the generals whom he had chosen for the army. He then asked, like Moses, whether he had wronged any one, and read to them passages from the Koran, preparing the minds of his hearers for his death, and ex- horted them to peace among themselves, and to strict obedience to the tenets of the faith. A few days afterward he asked for writing materials, probably in order to fix a successor to his office as chief of the faithful ; but Omar, fearing he might choose Ali, while he himself inclined to Abu Bekr, would not allow him to be furnished with them. In his last wan- derings he only spoke of angels and heaven. He died in the lap of Ayeshah, June 8, 632. His only surviving child was Fatima, the wife of Ali, and the ancestress of all the sherifs, or nobles, of the Mohammedan world. His death caused an immense excitement and distress among the faithful, and Omar, who himself would not believe it, tried to persuade the people that he was still alive. But Abu Bekr said to the assembled multi- tude: "Whoever among you has served Mohammed, let him know that Mohammed is dead; but he who has served the God of Mohammed, let him continue in His service, for He is still alive, and never dies." While his corpse was yet unburied, the quarrels about his successor, whom he had not definitely been able to appoint, commenced; and, finally, Abu Bekr received the homage of the principal Moslems of Medina. Mohammed was then buried in the night, after long dis- cussions from the 9th to the 10th of June in the house of Ayeshah, which afterward be- came part of the adjoining mosque. In personal appearance, Mohammed is described as of middle height, rather lean, but broad shouldered, and altogether of strong build; slightly curled black hair — at least before his conversion — flowed round his strongly developed head. His eyes, overhung with thick eyelashes, were large and coal- black ; his nose, large and slightly bent, was well formed. A long beard added to the dignity of his appearance. His countenance was mild and pensive, and his laugh rarely more than a smile. In his walk he moved his whole body violently, "as if descending a mountain." His gait and presence were alto- gether of an extremely imposing nature. He was of a nervous and melancholic tempera- ment, and throughout his life wm subject to epileptic attacks. He poanned great natural eloquence, a keen intellect, an ovendwlmii^ fluency of speech, and indomitable oouraga. Once, in the thick of persecution, when nrgad by his uncle to desist from his cruaade, he replied : " If they brought me the sun to my right hand and the moon to my left, to force me from my work, I would not leave it till the Lord had made my cause good, or till I perished." In his habits he was extremely simple. He visited the sick, followed any bier he metp accepted the invitation of a slave to dinner; mended his own clothes, milked his goats, and waited upon himself. He never with- drew his hand first out of another man's palm, and turned not before another had turned. Tradition says he was most generous, most truthful ; the most faithful protector of those he protected; the sweetest and most agree" able in conversation; those who saw him were suddenly filled with reverence; tboee who came near him loved him; they who described him would say, " I have never seso his like either before or after." What Confucius was to the Chinese, Zoro- aster to the Persians, Pythagoras and the Seven Sages to the Greeks, Moses to the Hebrews, Mohammed was to the Arabians. When the religious elements are ready, a great man has always arisen in history to put them together; the mass is organized into a system, a code, a bible, and upon this nucleus a nation is bom. Confucius, like Pythagoras, was philosopher and legislator; Buddha was priest and philosopher ; Moses, Zoroaster, and Numa were priests and legislators; Orpheus was reputed priest and poet ; but Mohammed was poet, priest, philosopher, legislator, and conqueror, all in one. He was a theocrat of the fullest type. Coming last of the theocrata, he had special advantages, and he used them well. Before his death all Arabia had submitted, and threats had been sent to the great potentates of the world, the rulers of Rome and Persia. Once before the Arab hordes had encoun- tered the Roman l^ons. The life and soul of these aggressions was Omar, an early con- vert, a daring warrior, the " St. Paul of Islam," the real hero of the crescent. Mo h a mmed died, but the crusade went on. Syria, PenU, and Egypt bowed before the shibboleth, "Koran, tribute, or sword." Damascus was stormed and taken, then Jerusalem, then 222 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Balbeck, Antioch, Alexandria, all Persia; Islamism nearly overran the world. It was checked in the West by Charles Martel, and in the East by Leo the Isaurian, but it had won an empire hke that of Alexander or Caesar. The origin of most religions is lost in an obscurity of myth and miracle; that of Mohammedanism is as clear as day. Of all the religions of the world, it is the one that has the least mystery about it, and especially is there no mystery about its founder. Mohammed's whole religious system, tem- poral as well as spiritual, is embodied in the Koran, which is the standard of faith, as well as the basis of Mohammedan law. Commen- tators divide the Koran into three general heads: (1) Directions, relating either to religion, as prayers, fasting, pilgrimage; or to civil polity, as marriages, inheritances, judicatures. (2) Histories, chiefly from the sacred writings of the Hebrews. (3) Admo- nitions, under which head are comprised exhortations to receive Mohammedanism, to fight for it, to practice its precepts, prayer, alms, etc. ; the moral duties, such as justice, temperance, etc.; promises of everlasting felicity to the obedient, dissuasion from sin, threatenings of the punishments of hell to the unbeUeving and disobedient. The style of the work is wild and rhapsodical in the early part, prosaic and narrative in the second, oflBcial and authoritative in the last. The parts of the Koran, it should be remem- bered, were not composed at will by Moham- med, as ordinary books are made; but its chapters, without exception, came to his mind while in a certain excited mental state, ecstasy, or trance, in which he had visions of angels, saw lights, heard voices, and had truths put into his mind. Mohammedanism, as a whole, recognizes four main articles, one belonging to the dogma or theory, the rest to the worship or practice. The former is the coiifession of faith which every Moslem considers as the summary of his religion, viz.: "There is no God but the true God, and Mohammed is His messenger " ; but this article includes six distinct elements : (1) belief in God; (2) belief in His angels; (3) belief in His scriptures ; (4) belief in His prophets; (5) belief in the resurrection and judgment day; (6) belief in the absolute decree of God, and in the predestination of good and evil. The four articles including worship and practice are: (1) prayer; (2) alms; (3) fastr- ing ; (4) pilgrimage to Mecca. Under the head of the prophets, the Koran teaches that God has revealed Himself to various men in divers ages of the world. He gave the pentateuch to Moses ; the psalms to David ; the gospels to Christ, and the Koran to Mohammed. The happiness promised to Mohammedans in paradise is wholly material : fine gardens, rich draperies sparkling with gems and gold, delicious fruits and wines that neither cloy nor intoxicate; but, above all, affording the fruition of all the delights of love, is the society of women having large black eyes, and every trait of exquisite beauty, who shall ever continue young and perfect. As to the punishments threatened to the wicked, they are hell fire, breathing hot winds, drinking foul and boiling water, eating briars and thorns, and the bitter fruit of the tree of Zacom, which shall feel in their stomachs hke burning pit tion; and commentaries on almost all the books of the Bible proceeded from his un- wearied pen. Councils were in those days reckoned a grand speciQc for healing ecclesi- astical discord, and there were not a few in the life of Luther : Worms in 1521, Nurembuif in 1522-23, when the German princes pre- sented a list of "a hundred grievances"; another at the same place in the following year, at which the members resolved to work out as far as possible the decisions of that of Worms; and that of Augsburg in 1525, adjourned to Spires in 1526, at which a general council was demanded. Another diet was convoked to meet in February, 1529, and the imperial party having the mastery, decreed to suppress the reformation by force. Against this decree the deputies solemnly proUtied, and the reforming band received from this circumstance the appropriate name of Prole»- tants. Luther and Zwingli now quarreled about the nature of the Lord's Supper, and maintained a worse than idle contest, even meeting personally for disputation at Marburg. The diet of Augsburg met in 1530, the confes- sion prepared by Melanchthon was submitted to it, and Protestantism, in spite of all obsti^ cles, was firmly established among the German nations. From this time on the life of Luther has comparatively little interest. He continued to reside at Wittenberg during his remaining years. In his sixty-second year his health began to give way, and the strong man was bowed down. After an altercation with the lawyers about clandestine marriages, and cer- tain female fashions in dress, he indignantly left Wittenberg for Eisleben in the month niing. His disease is supposed to have been angina pectoris, but some say, cancer of the i k 236 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT He was buried in the Schloss-Kirche, or court church, in Wittenberg. Luther was a man of short stature, com- pact physical frame, with broad shoulders, a large and massive brow, a firm-set mouth, and falcon eyes. His voice was clear and of great power. Melanchthon is said to have ex- claimed upon beholding his picture, "Each of thy words was a thunderbolt." Yet he was a man of loving and generous heart — playful and happy with his wife and family or friends. He liked hilarity, and his great mind rejoiced to unbend. He was very fond of music, and had great capabilities for it. He sedulously studied its theory, and wrote many hymns and set them to music ; and may be regarded as the founder of German hymnology and music. His most famous hymn, Ein feste Burg ist unser GoU, the war song of the reformation, was written in 1529 on the basis of the 46th psalm. But amidst all his literary labors his trans- lation of the Bible stands preeminent. Fully aware of the difficult and responsible task, he craved assistance in every form and from every available quarter. When the Hebrew terms belonging to botany and zoology per- plexed him, he consulted the physician, Sturciad, and he also obtained useful informa- tion from his friend, Spalatin, who not only instructed him in natural history, but sent him specimens from the superb collection of gems which belonged to the elector of Saxony. He even employed butchers to dissect animals in his presence, that he might be able to dis- criminate and render accurately the various sacrificial terms of the Levitical code. But especially did he summon erudite and skilled professors of theology to his aid. They met from time to time, each having prepared him- self for the interview by a thorough elabora- tion of the literary materials belonging to his department of investigation. At those repeated and prolonged consulta- tions Luther invariably presided, and he had always spread out before him his own manu- script, the ink of which was scarcely dry, the Hebrew Bible, and the Latin vulgate. On his one hand sat Melanchthon, with the Greek scriptures before him, and on his other was placed Casper Cruciger, with his notes made from the Chaldee Targums. Bugenha- gen, usually called Pomeranus, from the coimtry of his birth, was also by their side, ready with his suggestions from the rabbinical writings and the old Greek versions. These scholars did their work with marvelous precision and fidelity, for they sometimes returned fourteen successive days to the reconsideration of a doubtful clause or word. His other works are very voluminous, partly in Latin, and partly in German. Among those of more general interest are his "Table Talk," his "Letters," and "Sermons." The two great branches of the Christian church quite naturally take widely divergent views of Luther and his work. To the one he is a great religious hero; to the other, a schismatic, a heretic, and a defiant contro- versialist. To affirm either one of these views, and deny the other, is not within the contem- plation of this sketch. All will agree that Luther was an extraordinary man — earnest, courageous, sincere. His character presents, indeed, an imposing combination of great qualities. That he sometimes spoke roughly and wrote harshly, no one better knew than himself. Endowed with broad human sympathies, massive energy, manly and affectionate simplicity, and rich, if sometimes coarse, humor, he is at the same time a spiritual genius. His intui- tions of divine truth were bold, vivid, and penetrating, if not comprehensive; and he possessed the art which God alone gives to the finer and abler spirits that He calls to do special work in this world, of kindling other souls with the fire of his own convictions, and awakening them to a higher consciousness of religion and duty. He was a leader of men, therefore, and a reformer in the highest sense. His powers were fitted to his appointed task ; it was a task of Titanic magnitude, and he was a Titan in intellectual robustness and moral strength. It was only the divine energy which swayed him, and of which he recognized himself the organ, that could have accom- plished what he did. Reckoned as a mere theologian, there are others who take higher rank. There is a lack of patient thoughtfulness and philosophical temper in his doctrinal discussions; but the absence of these very qualities gave wings to his bold, sometimes crude conceptions, and enabled him to triumph in the struggle for fife or death in which he was engaged. To initiate the religious movement which was destined to renew the face of Europe, and give a more enduring Ufe to the Saxon nations, required a gigantic will, which, instead of being crushed by opposition, or frightened by hatred, should only gather strength from IN RELIGION Hxe fierceness of the conflict before it. To clear the air thoroughly, as he himself said, thunder and lightning are necessary; and he was well content to represent these agencies in the great work of the reforma- tion in the sixteenth century. Upon the whole, it may be said that history pre- sents few greater characters — few at once that excite more love and admiration, and in which we see tenderness, humor, and a certain pictvu-esque grace and poetic sen- sibility more happily combine with a lofty and magnanimous, if MtnetiiiMt n^jfed mb* limity. Carlyle in his Heroes and Hero-Wor$kip hM probably struck the truest keynote to Luther't greatness. " I call this Luther a true-gr««k man; great in intellect, in courage, affeo> tion, and integrity; one of our meet lorabfe and precious men. Great, not M a hewn obelisk; but as an Alpine mountain — to simple, honest, spontaneous, not setting up to be great at all ; there for quite another purpose than being great ! " LOYOLA A. D. 1491 1505 Bom at castle of Loyola, Guipuz- coa, Spain, Entered court of Ferdinand V., as page, 14 1521 Wounded in defense of Pamplona, . 30 1522 Resolved to devote himself to the church, 31 1523 Visited Rome and Jerusalem, ... 32 1526-27 Studied at universities at Alcald and Salamanca, 35-36 1527 Imprisoned during inquisition at Salamanca, 36 A. D. AMI 1528 Liberated ; went to Paria, and an- tered the university, S7 1534 Master of arts from univenlty Ot Paris ; founds order of Jeaonii, . . 4S 1536-37 Order promoted at Venice mmI Rome, 45-40 1541 Elected general of the order, ... SO 1548 Published his Exercitia Spiritualia or "Spiritual Exerclws"; and "Constitution of the Order," . . 57 1556 Died at Rome, 55 IGNATIUS DE LOYOLA is the name by * which history knows Inigo Lopez de Recalde, celebrated Spanish reformer and foimder of the order of Jesuits. He was the youngest son of Bertram de Recalde, a Span- ish nobleman, and Marina Salez de Baldi, and was born at the ancestral castle of Loyola, in the Basque province of Guipuzcoa, Spain, in 1491, He inherited an ardent, imaginative temperament, and in his youth was a votary of chivalrous romance, such as inspired the pen of Cervantes. After the scant training of that age in letters, and destined to the profession of arms, Ignatius was sent, at the age of fourteen, to the court of Ferdinand V. to learn the rudi- ments of war and gallantry. The restraint and inactivity of the court, however, were repellent to his -natiiral enthusiasm. He de- sired and sought activity; and, under the auspices of his relative, the duke of Najura, he entered upon that military career, which subsequently proved the turning point of his Ufe. The details of his career as a soldier are of little importance in his history, although they display in a very marked degree both the excellency and the irregularities of his tem- perament, thrown indirectly among the temp- tations as well as the duties of a military life. Of his bravery and chivalrous spirit many remarkable instances are recorded, chief of which, perhaps, was his bearing at the d»> fense of Pamplona against the attack of the French in 1521. On this occasion he dis- played his wonted valor, and, while standing in the breach of the castle, he was struck by a cannon shot, which wounded both legs, one being fractured by a cannon ball, and the other injured by a splinter. He was then taken prisoner by the French, and a tedious confinement followed. This was in part occa^ sioned, as some assert, by his great anxiety to preserve the symmetry of the limb, which led him to undergo a second operation, to remove a deformity which had been occa> sioned by an ill-set bone. To relieve his weariness he called for some books of chiv- alry, and when these were exhausted their place was supplied with the " Lives of Sainte," and other devotional works. He read the latter with extraordinary eagemees. He admired the zeal of those holy men; he sjnn- pathized in their sufferings; he envied their glory ; and he aspired to their eternal recom- pense. His thoughts and widies were thue turned into a new channel, and he entered on the path of spiritual warfare, with hk 238 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT natural ardor stimulated and inflamed by religious devotion. Accordingly, he arose from his bed of sick- ness, resolved to renounce the pursuits and pleasures of the world, and to dedicate him- self to the service of God. Still it was not without a desperate struggle that he could accomplish this resolution. He had a passion for military fame; he had questionable alli- ances which it was necessary to abandon; and his earthly ties were as strong as his temperament was violent. But the new-born influence of religion overcame all obstacles. March 24, 1522, he passed the night in prayer and fasting in the church of tUe Holy Virgin at Montserrat; and, having hung up his arms on the altar, he consecrated himself, according to all the forms of chivalry, to her service. At the same time he made a vow to perform a pilgrimage barefoot to Jerusalem; and he carried his immediate penance to such ex- tremes of austerity as to enervate his frame and to endanger his life. The spiritual glories of St. Francis or St. Dominic now took, in his aspirations, the place which had been before held by the knights of mediseval romance. With souls like his there is no middle course : he threw himself, with all the fire of his temperament, upon the new aspirations which these thoughts engendered. When he set out from Mont- serrat, the first step which he took was to serve the poor and the sick in the hospital of the neighboring town of Manresa. There his zeal and devotion attracted such notice that he withdrew to a solitary cavern in the vicin- ity, where he pursued alone his course of self- prescribed austerity, until he was carried back, utterly exhausted, to the hospital in which he had before served. To this physical exhaustion succeeded a state of mental de- pression, amounting almost to despair, from which, however, he arose with spiritual powers renewed and invigorated by the very struggle. In 1523 he repaired from Manresa by Barce- lona to Rome, whence, after recei\nng the papal benediction from Adrian VI., he pro- ceeded on foot, and as a mendicant, to Venice, and there embarked for Cyprus and the holy land. He would gladly have remained at Jerusalem, and devoted himself to the propa- gation of the gospel among the infidels ; but, not being encouraged in this design by the local authorities, he returned to Venice and Barcelona in 1524. It is curious, in reviewing the lives of some of those eminent men who have left lasting traces of their exertions, to observe how their own inclinations, had Providence allowed them their course, would sometimes have led them away from the work which they were commissioned to accompUsh. Had Wesley proved a successful missionary, which was his earliest enterprise, the society which bears his name might never have existed. Had Loyola been permitted to spend his energies in attempts at converting the Jews, or Turks, his life might have been of short duration, and his name might never have been heard beyond the limits of Palestine. When his pilgrimage was completed, and he was restored to his native countrj', his passion for religious enterprise and distinction did not in any degree abate; but he soon discovered that his literary acquirements were wholly insufficient for his purpose. He began, therefore, at Barcelona, when thirty-three years of age, to prepare himself by study for the work of religious teaching, and, with this in view, he was not ashamed to return to the very rudiments of grammar. He followed up these elementary studies by a further course, first at the new university founded by Cardinal Ximines at Alcali, and after- ward at Salamanca. At Alcald he pursued his studies with great ardor until the year 1527. He attempted at the same time the sciences of logic, physic, and theology, and was bent on accomplishing by a single effort what results to other men from the patient employment of much time and labor. But it was too late in life to accomplish much without supreme effort. His mind had been already formed to more active pursuits, and he could with diflSculty bend it to the acquisition of learning. He acquired a confused mass of knowledge, but his endeavor to grasp so much, at so great a disadvantage, still left him far abaft in true scholarship. He discovered his failure and thence for- ward directed his energies to a more attain- able end; and, though he did not relax his struggles after learning, he seems rather to have looked for success from the influence which personal intercourse generally enabled him to acquire over those about him. Some lectures, however, which he delivered at Alcald, gave offense to the authorities of that university; and after an imprisonment of forty-two days he was prohibited from pub- lic preaching, until he should have completed IN RELIGION 380 a course of four years in theology. It seems, too, that, together with two or three com- panions, he had assumed a peculiar dress, which they were ordered to lay aside. From Alcald he removed to Salamanca; but there, too, he had no sooner resumed his preaching than the inquisitors laid hands on him; and, after a second confinement, with severer treatment, he and his companions were again dismissed, under a sentence not widely differing from the preceding. On these occasions it was not so much the char- acter of his sermons which gave the offense, as the circumstance that they were delivered by a layman. Thus discouraged in his native country, he hoped to find a wider, or at least a safer, field for his exertions in France. Accordingly, he departed for Paris, and arrived there in the beginning of February, 1528. His means were extremely small, but, with what had been provided by the generosity of his friends, he continued his studies at the university of Paris, and received his degree of master of arts in 1534. Here, too, at the university, which then contained more than ten thousand students of various nationalities, and was fer- menting with religious reform, he gathered the first members of his future society — the "company of Jesus" — ^ which exercised such an immense influence upon the religious, moral, and social condition of the modem world under the later name of Jesuits. In 1534, Loyola, Peter Le Fevre, James Lainez, Francis Xavier, Nicholas Bobadilla, Alfonso Salmeron, and Simon Rodriguez formally met in the chapel of Montmartre in Paris, and took vows to make a pilgrimage to the holy land, and, failing in that, to offer their lives to the service of the pope. By arrangement they met again in Venice in 1536, and the pilgrimage having become impossible through the outbreak of a war with the Turks, they journeyed to Rome the next year to take further measures for the establishment and enlargement of the new order. They submit- ted to the pope, Paul III., the rule of the proposed order, the great aim of which was expressed in their adopted motto : "To God's greater glory"; and the vow of which, in addition to the threefold obligations common to all Catholic religious orders, of chastity, poverty, and obedience, comprised a fourth, whereby the members bound themselves un- reservedly to go as missionaries to any coxm- try which the pope might indicate to them. The new rule waa approved by a bull dated September 27, 1540; and in the foUowii^ year the association waa prartically inaii^u- rated at Rome, by the election of Loyola aa its first general, with tenure for life and abso- lute powers. He and his subjects made their profession in the church of St. Paul, April 22, 1541. His own vow waa aa follows: "I hereby promise to the all-powerful God, and to the pope, his vicar upon earth, in presence of the blessed Virgin, his mother and of the company, perpetual poverty, celibacy, and obedience, according to the rule of life «»- tained in the bull of the society of our Lord Jesus, and the constitutions alrca ward ; yet he was neither the my^o nor the contemplatist — his institute is aU earthwaitl bent. Spiritualism would have been to him idleness ; he could occupy himwlf with noth- ing that had no product. The depths which he fathomed were not those ab y ssal <^ the moral worlds whereinto somber and solitary meditation plunges; but those near-atrhand deeps of human nature which a few minds are gifted to reach, aa at a step, by intuition of the way. As our Shakespeare knew human nature to paint it truly in all its moods, so Loyola knew it to rule it absolutely in all those moods. " Loyola could never have been the reformer of established systems ; for he worshiped every shred of the ecclesiastical tatters of past ages. But he was the inventor of a scheme essen- tially his own, and with marvelous sagadty, and a tact fertile in resources, he contrived to lodge the prodigious novelty — the society of Jesus — within the very adytum of the old system, and to do so without noise, without any displacement of parts, or the breaking off even of a moulding! By his hands a house was built within a house; yet none had heard the din of the builder's tools while it was in progress." CALVIN A. D. AGE A. D. 1609 Bom at Noyon, France, 1538 1521-26 Studied at Paris, Orleans, and Bourges, 12-17 1540 1528 Advocated doctrine of reformation, 19 1541 1529 Preached at Noyon; returned to 1553 Paris, 20 1559 1533-34 Fled from Paris; resigned benefice 1561 at Noyon, 24-25 1636 Arrived at Geneva; lectured on 1564 theology; published his "Insti- tutes" at Basel, 27 Aoa Banished from Geneva; preached at Strassburg, 29 Married; attended diet at Worms, . 31 Returned to Geneva, 83 Appeared against Servetua, .... 44 Founded the academy at Oeneva, . fiO Invitation to Paria; ^' New Teat*- ment Commentanea," .... 52 Died at Geneva, Switserland, ... 66 JOHN CALVIN, one of the most eminent ^ of the Protestant reformers, and a noted theologian, was born at Noyon, Picardy, France, July 10, 1509. His father, Gerard Calvin — or Cauvin, as it was in French — was secretary of the diocese, and procureur- fiscal of the district of Noyon, and his mother was Jeanne Lefranc. One of a family of six — four sons and two daughters — he was, with his two sxu^iving brothers, destined by his father for the church ; and when but twelve years of age he was appointed to a benefice in the cathedral church of Noyon. At the age of seventeen to this benefice was added the curacy of Marteville. These benefices Calvin held as a means of support during the period of his education, and even for a short time after he had entered upon his career as a reformer. Calvin's education was greatly aided by the noble family of Montmor, in whose neighbor- hood he lived, and by whom he was invited to 242 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT share in the studies of their children. In a way he was adopted by them; and, when they went to Paris in his fourteenth year, he accompanied them. Here he entered the College de la Marche, then under the regency of Mathurin Cordier — better known as Cor- derius — and it was under this distinguished master that Calvin laid the foundation of his wonderful mastery of the Latin language. During this early period, even, he was dis- tinguished by great mental activity, and grave severity of manner, which led his companions to surname him the "accusa- tive." It seems that about this time Calvin's father changed his plans with reference to his son's career, and sent him to Orleans to study law at the university under Peter de Stella, one of the most famous jurists of his day, and afterward president of the parliament of Paris. At Orleans he continued the same life of rigorous temperance and earnest studious- ness for which he was already noted. Beza tells us that he spent half the night in study, and devoted the morning to meditation on what he had acquired. These undue habits of study thus laid the foundation of the ill- health which marked his later years. It was while at Orleans that he began to study the scriptures, and received his first impulse toward those theological studies which afterward distinguished his name. Peter Robert Olivetan, a relative of Calvin, was there engaged in making a translation of the Bible, and it was through this contact that the religious instinct was awakened within him which was soon to prove the master- principle of his life. From this time on he began to question his traditional faith, and, although he continued his legal studies for a time, it was evident that his main interest was religious and theological. From Orleans he went to Bourges to con- tinue his studies, and here a more pronounced change took place in his character. Zeal for the truth, as he now apprehended it, became the passion of his life. He learned Greek, began to preach the reformed doctrines, passed over into the ranks of Protestantism, and openly avowed himself a disciple of the reformation. In 1529 he preached at Noyon, and shortly thereafter proceeded to Paris, which had become a center of the " new learning " under the teachings of Le Fevre and Farel, and the influence of the queen of Navarre, sister of Francis I. Here he published, at his own expense, an edition of Seneca's De Clementia, with the view of conciliating Francis, who had taken active measures to quell the rising spirit. But he was compelled to flee from Paris in 1533, on account of a sermon on justification by faith which openly provoked the Sorbonne. He also resided for a time at Angouleme, where he began his " Institutes," returned to his native place, where he resigned the preferment he held in the Roman church, and for a year or two led a wandering life, sheltered in various places. Under the anticipated patronage of the queen of Navarre, he returned to the French capital in 1534; but the persecution against the Protestants raged with such fury that the fate of his previous visit again pursued him, and he betook himself to Basel, where, in 1536, he published in Latin the first edition of the "Institutes of the Christian Religion," with the famouB preface addressed to Francis I. The concentrated vigor of this address, its intensity of feeling, rising into indignant remonstrance, and at times a pathetic and powerful eloquence, made it one of the most memorable documents in connection with the reformation. From Basel, Calvin went to Ferrara, where, at the court of the duchess Ren6e, daughter of Louis XII., an adherent of the reforma- tion, he found a refuge in common with many others. Driven thence by the inquisition, he returned to France, and, as he still found no security there, in August, 1536, he went to Geneva on his way back to Basel, as if by accident, and with this city henceforth his name is immortally identified. Arrived in Geneva, he met there his friend, Louis Tillet, who communicated the fact of his arrival to Farel, then in the very midst of his struggle to promote the reformation in the city and neighborhood. Farel hastened to see him, and urge upon him the duty of remaining where he was, and imdertaking his share of the work of God, under the burden of which he was threatened with failure. Calvin did not at first respond to the call. He was given, he himself says, to his "own intense thoughts and private studies." He wished to devote himself to the service of the reformed churches generally, rather than to the care of any particular church. A life of intellectual and theological labor was that which at that time was most con- genial to him. By some strange insight. IN RELIGION aa however, Farel penetrated to the higher fit- ness of the young stranger who stood before him, and he ventured, in the spirit of that daring enthusiasm which characterized him, to hiy the curse of God upon him and his studies, if he refused his aid to the church of Geneva in her time of need. This seemed to Calvin a divine menace. "It was," he said, " as if God had seized me by His awful hand of heaven." He abandoned his intention of pursuing his journey, and joined eagerly with Farel in the work of reformation. Such was the beginning of Calvin's great career in Geneva. Having entered upon his task, he soon infused an energy into it which crowned the struggling efforts of Farel with success. Farel had already introduced the reform worship; the citizens had asserted their independence against the duke of Savoy, whose regime had called forth the patriotic as well as the religious feelings of the people. The magistrates and people eagerly joined with the reformers in the first heat of their freedom and zeal. A Protestant confession of faith was drawn out, approved of by the council of two hundred, the largest govern- ing board of the city, and then proclaimed in the cathedral church of St. Peter's as binding upon the whole body of the citizens. Great and marvelous changes were wrought in a short time upon the manners of the people; where license and frivolity had reigned, a strict moral severity began to characterize the whole aspect of society. The strain, however, was too sudden and too extreme. A spirit of rebellion to the rule of Calvin and Farel broke forth ; they refused to yield to the wishes of a party animated by a more easy and liberal spirit than themselves, and known in the history of Geneva under the nickname of Libertines; and the conse- quence was that they were both expelled from the city after less than two years' residence. Calvin retreated to Strassburg, where he had meant to go when arrested in his course at Geneva. Here he settled, and devoted himself to theological study, and especially to his critical labors on the new testament. Here, also, in October, 1540, he married Idelette de Bures, the widow of a converted Anabaptist. The marriage appears to have proved a happy one, although not of long duration. They had but one child, a son, who died in infancy. The Genevans found, after a short time, that they could not well get on without Calvin. His rule might be rigid; but an authority, even such as his, which might gall from iU severity, waa better than no settled authority at all. So, in September, 1 54 1 , at the repeated solicitation of the magistracy, who had alto procured the intervention of Bern and Baad, Calvin returned to Geneva with the fair and full understanding that his discipline was to be carried out. His ideal was a church in which reform should embrace not only doo> trine and ritual, but the whole life. The state is to aid, not rule this spiritual institu- tion, although both church and state concur in the sphere of morals. To this end the presbyterial system was fully inaugurated, which became a model for the government of the reformed churches. The consistory, or presbytery, a body composed of twice as many laymen as clergymen, the laymen annually elected by the church, gradually abewbed Om power of the general council elected by the people. The consistory was the real tribunal of morals, and its inquisitorial power extended to the whole population. It could not punish beyond excommunication, but the civil power was to do the rest. The system waa for a time eminently successful. Geneva became the most moral town in Europe. At the same time public worship was ordered with extreme simplicity, all that appealed to the senses and imagination being excluded. Such power as Calvin now exercised could not be maintained, except in a thorough despotism with a standing army. Frequent collisions occurred between the consistory and the council, and in the former the author- ity of Calvin was far from being absolute. His struggle with the Libertines lasted four- teen years. During that long struggle occur- red also Calvin's controversies with Castellio, Bolsec, and Servetus — the most melancholy events which took place under his sway. The polemical truculence displayed in his controversy with his one-time friend Cas- tellio, and his part in the condemnation of Servetus, whose speculations on the Trinity were abhorrent to him, reveal phases of intolerance that can never be reconciled with the other evidences of greatness in his char- acter. Michael Servetus had entered into various connections with Calvin, even from the time of his early residence in Paris. He subse- quently sent him various dociunents oootain- ing the views he held, finally developed and 244 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT published under the title RestitiUio Christian- ismi, or "Christianity Restored." Calvin never concealed his abhorrence of these views, and as early as 1546 threatened that if Servetus should come to Geneva, "he would do what he could to bring him to condign punishment." The history of his seizure and condemnation at Vienne by the Catholic authorities, and especially of Calvin's share in the correspond- ence which led to his seizure, is very com- plicated and obscure. It has been maintained that Calvin was the instigator, through a creature of his own by the name of Trie, of the whole transaction; it is certain that he forwarded to the authorities, through Trie, private documents which Servetus had ii^- trusted to him, with a view to the heretic's identification, and as materials for his con- demnation. Servetus was sentenced to be burned, but effected his escape, and, after several months' wandering, he was found at Geneva. It was his intention to proceed to Italy, where he hoped his opinions might meet with some degree of toleration, and he arrived at Geneva on his way. This is the explanation of an event otherwise unaccount- able. Having ventured to church, according to the common account, he was recognized, apprehended, and conveyed to prison by Calvin's order, just as he was about to leave the city. The particulars of his trial cannot be detailed here. It lasted, with various inter- ruptions, for two months. He attacked Cal- vin with the foulest epithets, and Calvin retorted with a virulence and foulness quite equal to his own. At length, on October 26, 1553, sentence was passed upon Servetus, condemning him to death by fire. Calvin used his influence to have the mode of death alleviated, but without success. On the very next morning the sentence was put into execution. On an extended eminence at some distance from the city of Geneva, Servetus was fastened to a stake, surrounded by heaps of oakwood and leaves, with his condemned book and the MS. he had sent to Calvin attached to his girdle ; amid his agon- izing cries the fire was kindled, and the wretched man expiated his heresy amidst the flames. No one now attempts to justify Calvin's share in the burning of Servetus. The other reformers, even the gentle Melanchthon, vin- dicated the sad tragedy. It will not suflace to say that Calvin was drawn into the meas- ure, or that the fate of Servetus was in accord- ance with the law of the state, and, therefore, beyond the control of the reformer. Calvin distinctly understood his own part in the business, and felt that compassion was to yield to conscience. The only apology for him is that he was not, in the matter of religious liberty, in advance of his age. He was no exception to the general rule. Cran- mer sent Joan of Kent to the stake, and he himself in a few years followed. Five Gene- van disciples of Calvin were burned in France about the same time that Servetus was com- mitted to the flames of Geneva. John Knox and Peter Dens use the very same argument and imagery for the capital punishment of heretics. It took a long time, indeed, for the warring schismatics of the Christian church to learn that man is responsible to God alone for his belief, and that liberty of conscience is a universal birthright. After the execution of Servetus, and the expulsion of the Libertines two years later, Calvin's power in Geneva was firmly estab- lished, and he used it vigorously and benefi- cently for the defense of Protestantism throughout Europe. By the mediation of Beza he made his influence felt in France in the great struggle that was there going on between the hierarchical party, with the Guises at its head, and the Protestants, led by Cond6 and Coligny, and, in 1561, he received an invitation to Paris. In that year, however, his energies began to fail. The incessant and exhausting labors to which he gave himself could not but tell on the strong- est constitution: how much more on one so fragile as hisl Amid many sufferings, how- ever, and frequent attacks of sickness, he manfully pursued his course for twenty-eight years; nor was it until his frail body, torn by many and painful diseases, had, as it were, fallen to pieces around him, that his indom- itable spirit relinquished the conflict. In the early part of the year 1564 his sufferings became so severe that it was mani- fest his earthly career was rapidly drawing to a close. On February 6th of that year he preached his last sermon, having with great difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. He was several times after this carried to church, but never again was able to take any part in the service. He nobly refused to receive his stipend, now that he was no longer able to discharge the duties IN RELIGION au of his oflSce. In the midst of his suflferings, however, his zeal and energy kept him in continual occupation; when expostulated with for such unseasonable toil, he replied, "Would you that the Lord should find me idle when He comes? " After he had retired from public labors he Ungered for some months, enduring the severest agony without a murmur, and cheer- fully attending to all the duties of a private kind which his diseases left him strength to discharge. A deep impression seems to have been made on all who visited him on his deathbed; they saw in him the noble spec- tacle of a great spirit that had done its life- work, calmly and trustfully passing through the gates of suffering into the long-desired and firmly expected repose. He quietly ex- pired in the arms of his faithful friend Beza, on the evening of May 27, 1564, in the fifty- fifth year of his age. Calvin was of middle stature; his com- plexion was somewhat pallid and dark; his eyes, to the latest, clear and lustrous, bespoke the acumen of his genius. He was sparing in his food and simple in his dress; he took but httle sleep, and was capable of extra- ordinary efforts of intellectual toil. His memory was prodigious, but he used it only as the servant of his higher faculties. As a reasoner he has seldom been equaled, and the soundness and penetration of his judgment were such as to give to his conclusions in practical questions almost the appearance of predictions, and to inspire in all his friends the utmost confidence in the wisdom of his counsels. The literary work which he performed is almost incredible, especially when we con- sider his other labors. He established the academy at Geneva in 1559, of which Beza was the first rector. Here he taught theology to the numerous students that flocked to it, from Scotland, Holland, and Germany. He preached nearly every day, besides; and conducted an immense correspondence. When his works were finally collected and published, they amounted to fifty-two volumes, and comprised commentaries on nearly the whole Bible. His "Institutes," the most important of his works, was also his earliest. In it Calvin elaborated the system of theology based upon the sovereignty of the will of God, and including, as integral parts, the doctrines of predestination, election, and reprobation. His energetic decisiveness and moral zeal spoke in every page of it. The work was hailed with enthusasm by the German reformers, and it really brought into one body of divinity the scattered and un- systematized reformed opinions of all Europe. It was not until many years later, however, that the name of Calvin came to be attached to a certain set of doctrinal opinions, and not until the rise of Arminius and the synod of Dort, in 1618, that these opinions may be said to have been polemically marked off from others with which they are generally contrasted, and to which they are reoogniaed as standing in opposition. The difference of thought expreaeed in the Arminian and Calvinistic systems is as . AGE 1703 Born at Epworth, England, 1720 p:rtered Christ Church, Oxford, . . 17 1725 Ordained deacon, 22 1727 M. A., Oxford, 24 172a-29 Ordained priest; tutor at Oxford, 25-26 1735 Missionary in Georgia 32 1738 Returned to England, and met Peter Bohler, 35 A. D. AOB 1738 Visitmmiilb^\e departure for England. The exalted piety of the Moravian mis- sionaries, with whom Wesley had come in contact, had wrought deeply on his feelings, and given them some influence over his future course. On his return to England in 1738, already impressed with some sense of his own unworthiness, and his failure as a missionary, he became closely connected with Peter Bohler, a man of talents and authority, and a Moravian. With Bohler he could by no means justify the results of his miasioiimry experience, simply on the ground that the Indiana had expressed no wish for converatoD. If his conscience were thus easily satiaBed, argued Bohler, he was yet very far from Christian perfection. Thus, indeed, he c«^ tainly appears to have learned from this first experiment on his own powers that he was not yet qualified for the office of miariooaiy. He was thoroughly convinced that he, who would have converted others, was not yet converted himself. So, through the instructiMis men, artisans, yeomen, and day-laborers in towns. The door was thus opened to all mankind. The new member was never called upon to secede from the body to which he had previously belonged. He might bear the denomination he chose among the visible members of Christ's church, so long as he renounced his vices and his pleasures, and engaged with regenerate heart in the woric of his salvation. ,.Atettai»a(tine — about 1742 — Wesley and his disciples attained that degree of impor- tance which qualified them to become objects of persecution. On two or three occasions the person of the master himself was in some danger from popular fury ; and it may perhaps have been preserved by his singular presence of mind, and the awe which he knew how to inspire in his fellow creatures. But these violent eruptions of indignation, as they were founded on no semblance of reason, and opposed by the civil authorities, were partial and of short duration; and their influence, as far as they had any, was probably favor- able to the progress of Methodism. Some calumnies that were raised against Wesley from more resp>ectable quarters, touching his tendency to papacy and his disaffection to the reigning dynasty, arising from entire mis- understanding or pure malevolence, w«« immediately repelled, and speedily silenced and forgotten. In the year 1744 Wesley invited his brother Charles, four other clergymen who cooperated with him, and four of his lay preachers to ft conference. This was the origin of the as- sembly or council, which was afterward held annually, and became the governing body for the r^ulation of the general affairs of the society. Four years subsequently a school was opened at Kingswood for the education chiefly of the sons of the preachers. In the 262 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT extreme severity of some of the rules which he imposed on this establishment, Wesley seems to have been guided by an ambitious design to set apart his own people from the rest of the community, rather than by the common principles of education, or the com- mon feeUngs of nature. From London, as a center, Wesley made long and frequent journeys, usually on horse- back, preaching generally twice a day and often four times on Sunday. His journeys were soon extended beyond England — to Ireland in 1749, and to Scotland in 1751. Ten to thirty thousand people would wait patiently for hours to hear him ; and his denomination. itineraries were triumphal processions fronaf^ Wesley was now eighty-one years old, and one end of the country to the other. During his unparalleled apostolate he traveled two hundred fifty thousand miles, and preached forty thousand sermons, y In 1751 Wesley married a widow named Vazeille, who had four children, and possessed an independent fortune. The marriage proved an unhappy one. He was greatly annoyed by her jealousy; she opened his letters, re- vealed his secrets, and deserted him, after proving his foulest slanderer and bitterest enemy. After a few months of continued discord and vexation a separation took place, which became final in 1771. "I have not left her ; I have not put her away ; I will not recall her," he said. The same calmness of temper and perfect self-possession, which so remarkably distinguished him in his public proceedings, seem not to have abandoned him even in the more pressing severity of his domestic trials. In 1770, under Wesley's direction, the con- ference adopted resolutions which provoked the indignation of his orthodox Calvinistic friends. A spectacular controversy then fol- lowed between him and two of the most eminent divines of his time — Bishops Living- ston and Warburton — on the ultimate salva- tion of the heathen. In this controversy Wesley maintained that "the heathen who had never heard of Christ could be saved if they feared God and worked righteousness according to the light they had." He be- lieved Marcus AureUus would be saved ; and spoke of the "execrable wretches" who wrangled at the various coxmcils. /In 1784, when it seemed desirable to create a head for his body of followers in America, who should be invested with the highest spiritual authority, Wesley designated Dr. Coke, and issued to him letters of ordination He announced in substance that regarding himself providentially called, at that time, to set apart some persons for the work of the ministry in America, he, therefore, under the protection of the Almighty God, and with an eye single to His glory, had set apart, as a superintendent, by the imposition of his hands and prayer, Thomas Coke, a doctor of civil law, and a presbyter of the church of England. This is properly considered the second important epoch in Methodism, and was the foundation of the Episcopal form of government which after^^ard marked the / he lived for seven years longer in the perfect enjoyment of his health and exercise of his faculties almost to the very end. He died March 2, 1791. yHis remains lay in state for several days iiiTiis chapel in the City Road, where they were also buried. He left no property except the copyright and current editions of his works, which he bequeathed for the use of the religious body he had created. The whole number of his followers at the time of his death is stated at about one hundred thirty-five thousand, of whom more than fifty-seven thousand six hundred were Americans. In personal appearance, Wesley was under average height, but, according to Tyerman, was "beautifully proportioned, without an atom of superfluous flesh, yet muscular and strong, with a forehead clear and smooth, a bright, penetrating eye, and a lovely face which retained the freshness of its complexion to the latest period of his life." His style in the pulpit was fluent, clear, and argumenta- tive, not impassioned like Whitefield's. His natural ardor and eagerness were moderated by great sagacity and calmness of judgment; and it was through these qualities that he exercised a very imperial domination over the preachers of the Methodist body. He pos- sessed agreeable manners, a conciliating and forgiving temper, and a spirit of marked benevolence. The entire income from his literary work — amounting to thirty thousand pounds — he distributed in charity during his Ufe. In addition to the school already noticed, he founded an orphan's home at Newcastle, charity schools in London, and a dispensary in Bristol. Yet he managed to do a pro- digious amount of hterary work. His IN RELIGION writings are chiefly polemical and religious. He wrote short English, French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew grammars; a compendium of logic; extracts from Phaedrus, Ovid, Vergil, Horace, Juvenal, Persius, Martial, and Sallust ; an English dictionary ; commentaries on the old and new testaments ; a short Roman his- tory ; a history of England ; an ecclesiastical history ; a compendium of social philosophy ; and a Christian library of fifty volumes, for the benefit of his itinerant preachers. He edited the "Imitation of Christ," and the principal works of Bunyan, Baxter, Edwards, Rutherford, Law, Madame Guyon, and others; endless abridged biographies; an abridged edition of Brooke's novel, The Fool of Quality ; a compendium of physic — not to speak of collections of psalms, hymns, and tunes, his own sermons and journals, and a monthly magazine. Wesley lived to fix and consolidate, by the calmer deliberation of his later years, the effects, which might otherwise have been transient, of his early enthusiasm. It required many talents, as well as many virtues, to accomplish this — • and Wesley was abun- dantly endowed with both. His own labors and those whom he inspired to imitate his example were of the noblest description and met with remarkable success. The reformation of life which his preaching produced, for example among the Kingswood colliers and the Cornwall wreckers, is a testi- mony to the power of religion which cannot be too highly estimated. The subsequent zeal, indeed, which has since characterized the body which he founded as to its mission in the world is only the logical development of its first leaders — for they originally regarded their society in England as simply "one vast mission." Neither Wesley nor his followers, it seems, at first desired to consider themselves a "sect," or new church, in the common usage of the term, but were warmly attached to the old national church, and considered themselves among her true chil- dren. ^ When Wesley died, his " societies " had spread over the United Kingdom, the con- tinent of Europe, the states of America, and the West Indies, but were somewhat lacking in unity. Since then they have so increased, in something over a century since his death, that the living disciples of this great reformer and evangelist form a body of twenty mil- lions throughout the English-speaking world. Wesley defined the doctrine* of his denomi- nation in the tract entitled A Plain Account of the People called MethodiaU. The point* chiefly insisted upon were four: First, that orthodoxy, or right of opinions, is At latii but a very slender part of religion, if it can bo allowed to be any part of it at all; that neither does religion consist of negatitei, in bare harmlessncss of any kind, nor tatnfy in externals, in doing good, or using the w»*^«** of grace, in works of piety (so-odled) or of charity; that it is nothing short of or dif- ferent from the "mind that was Christ," the image of God stamped upon the heart, inward righteousness attended with the peace of God, and "joy in the Holy Ghost." Second, that the only way under heaven to this religion is to "repent and believe the gospel " — or, as the apostle words it, " repent- ance toward God, and faith in our Lord Jesus Christ." Third, that by this faith "he that worketh not, but believeth on Hun that justifieth the ungodly, is justified freely by His grace, through the redemption which is in Jesus Christ." And, lastly, that "being justified by faith " we taste of the heaven to which we are going ; we are holy and happy ; we tread down sin and fear, and "sit in heavenly places with Christ Jesus." Probably no man ever exerted so great an influence on the religious condition of the peo- ple of England as Wesley, and his influence has extended to the remotest parts of the world. " No single figure influenced so many minds, no single voice touched so many hearts." " The Christ of the Cross and of the Throne," said Dr. John Clifford on the occasion of the Wesley centenary, "has received gifts of meo for men, some apostles and prophets, and some pastors and evangelists. And of thoae men He has in His grace bestowed in then later centuries, John Wesley holds a place at primary as it is arresting, and as unchallenged as it is immeasurably and prophetically fruitful. He is the chief prophet of the eighteenth century. The prophetism of the new testament in all its sublime qualities and successes reaches its maximum in him, and places him at the spring head of the spiritual life of our modem England. • No man with an eye for spiritual facts can look into Wesley's history without seeing God ; and he who looks continuously is likely to feel, as Newton did after looking at the sun, that the image of God is so burned into his soul that he can see nothing else." SOCRATES First Socrates, Who firmly good in a corrupted state, Against the rage of tyrants single stood, Invincible! calm reason's holy law. That voice of God within th' attentive mind. Obeying, fearless, or in life, or death : Great moral teacher! wisest of mankind I — Thomson. COCRATES, celebrated Greek philosopher, ^ and founder of moral philosophy, was born at or near Athens, Greece, about 470 B. C. Some writers definitely assign the year 469; others, dates ranging from 469 to 471. He was the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and himself followed this artistic profession in the early part of his life. His mother, Phaenarete, was a midwife, and he frequently compared his method of teaching, in after years, to her vocation. The period over which the lifetime of Socrates extended was the most brilliant in Athenian history. He saw Athens at its zenith, and he Uved to see its fall. A few years before his birth the great Persian war had come to an end. Sparta had renounced the headship of the Greek states in favor of Athens; and Pericles began to take part in public affairs the same year that Socrates was born. iEschylus was still living. Sopho- cles won his first prize in 468, and Euripides began to exhibit in 455. The genius of Phidias and Polygnotus created and adorned the Parthenon; and Athens was made the most splendid of Greek cities. Orators and rhetoricians were attracted to its streets and groves, and under the name of sophists won an important place in its intellectual history. Few events of Socrates' life are recorded with much definiteness. He had the usual education of the Athenian citizen, which included readings from the Greek poets, and the elements of the sciences then known. To the study of physics he gave special attention, but, finding no satisfaction in the current speculations and guesses in that field, he abandoned it, and turned his attention exclusively to the study of man and morals. The most important influence on his mental development was his intercourse with the sophists who frequented Athens. Among these was Archelaus — a disciple of Anax- agoras ; Parmenides, and " the double-tongued and all-objecting Zeno." Before he began the serious business of his life — teaching — Socrates had led an active life among his fellow citizens. He distin- guished himself as a soldier at the battles of Potidaea, Delium, and AmphipoHs. His con- stitution was singularly robust, and enabled him to surpass all his comrades in the endur- ance of toil, hunger, thirst, and hardships of war and weather. He went barefoot, and wore the same light clothing all the year round. His courage was not confined to the battle field. He stood equally fearless and unmoved before a tyrant and in the face of a mob. Nothing could terrify him into doing what he deemed to be unjust. Somewhere about the middle period of his life he relinquished his profession as a sculp- tor, and ga\e himself up to the career that made him famous. It is evident that he married, unhappily for himself, about this time. His wife — Xanthippe — who has passed into history as the typical scold — bore him three sons, one of whom was a mere lad at the time of his father's death. Socrates himself is reported to have said that, knowing her violent temper, he married and endured her chiefly for self-discipline. Unlike other philosophers, Socrates did not travel in pursuit of knowledge; he did not write; he had no school; he neither asked nor would receive pay for his instructions. fc > ^ > IN PHILOSOPHY m In the spirit of a prophet or an apostle he girt himself to work with an immovable con- viction that he was divinely called to it. His habit was to go about the streets of Athens and talk with any one who came in his way, young or old, rich or poor. In outward aspect he presented a strange con- trast to the professional and paid teachers of the day, the sophists. These, wealthy and well dressed, and accompanied by flocks of admiring disciples ; he, poor, and poorly clad, ugly to a ridiculous degree, and conversing with men of all classes on any subject familiar to them, or that afifected human life — jus- tice, courage, temperance, and all the duties and relations of a citizen. He was likened to the popular figures of Silenus, which, out- wardly ugly, held within them images of the gods. His reputation grew, and people came from distant Grecian cities to hear him talk. In the story of his own life, which he told at the close of it, he says that one of his friends, Chaerephon, put the question to the oracle at Delphi, whether any other man was wiser than Socrates? The answer given was that there was none wiser. Not being conscious of the possession of wisdom, Socrates was perplexed, imtil at last, after testing the sup- posed knowledge of many distinguished men, he interpreted the reply of the oracle as meaning that whereas other men thought they knew, he was one of the few conscious of their own ignorance. From this time he gave him- self up more sedulously to the work of con- vincing men by cross-examination as to the vagueness of their knowledge on those things which it was most important for them to know, the things relating not to each man's special trade or profession, but to that which was common to all — the conduct of life. Beginning with familiar conversation on any matter of passing interest, he led his companion to an attempt at defining the subject which he wished him to examine, as justice, courage,^ or temperance; he then asked questions to test his answer, and so brought him to see that his definition was imperfect, including some things that had nothing to do with the matter, excluding others that were essential; a second and third attempt was then made, to be followed up in a like manner. Aristotle remarks that Socrates was the first thinker who paid atten- tion to accurate definitions. The process stimulated thought in many ways; and by his friend and disciple, Plato, it was applied to every subject of intellectual reeearch. But Socrates discouraged speculation upon all subjects that had not a direct and pracUcal bearing upon man's action and duty. He was especially fond of the young, aad was successful to an extraordinary degree in winning their hearts. His aim was always to lead them in a path equally remote from a despairing scepticism like that of the sophista, and from a groveling superstition such as was spreading among the people. It is not easily apprehended what a rapture of admiration, reverence, and love was called forth by this Silenus, shrining a divinity. Strong men in middle age, as well as the young, yielded to the witchery of his voice, and bowed, often weeping, before this searcher of their hearts. He believed himself to be under the guid- ance of an inner voice which habitually re- strained him from this or that course of action in which he would otherwise have engaged. It forbade him, for instance, to enter into the ordinary contests of political life. Again, when he was put upon his trial, the voice dissuaded him from preparing any elaborate defense. He spoke of this habitually in famihar conversation ; and it lent color after- ward to the accusations of his enemies that he was making innovations in the established religion. He was, nevertheless, scrupulously careful in conforming to all recognized rites and ceremonies, and in exhorting men to reverence the gods. It is not clear what was the exact position of Socrates as to the religion of the state. That he believed in one supreme God, Creator and Ruler of the universe, is clear. That when he touched the tales of mythology he did so with delicate latent laughter and con- tempt is also clear. But no record is made of any distinct avowal, either of belief or disbelief, in the gods recognized by the state. The charge of introducing new divinities is believed to refer to his constant assertion of an inward voice which he recognized as a divine guide, which, however, never incited to action, but only warned and restrained. This inward voice was afterward spoken of as the daemon of Socrates, and has been the theme of endless discussions. He appears to have held no public office until his sixty-third year. In that year he took his place as one of the fifty senators taken by lot from the tribe Antiochus. It so 268 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT happened that the senators of this tribe had \ the task of presiding over the popular as-' sembly on a very important occasion. Cer-| tain generals, who had gained a great naval I victory over the Spartans at Arginusae, were] accused of having neglected to rescue the drowning soldiers on their own side. Great popular excitement arose ; a proposition was made to the assembly to set aside the regular formalities prescribing that each accused per- son should be separately tried before sworn jurors, and to leave it to a vote of the people there assembled whether these generals should be condemned to death. It was for the pre- siding senators to put this question to the vote. Socrates, undeterred by threats of sharing their fate, stood alone in refusing to be a party to the illegality, and the vote was carried under his solemn protest. Not less courageous was his conduct when the oli- garchy known as the thirty tyrants had estabhshed themselves in Athens, It was impossible that such a man should escape the usual lot of prophets and reformers. Socrates made enemies of many men whom he humihated by his remorseless criticism, or by his public denunciation of their vices; others disliked and dreaded him, on account of his seemingly ambiguous position toward the government and religion of his country. The men whom he sought out for cross- examination, he tells us himself, were the most famous artists, poets, orators, and statesmen — those at once most sensitive to the humiliation of his intellectual surgery, and most capable of making their enmity effective. We must recollect, too, that in the old age of Socrates, the Athenians were suffering the degradation of the tyranny which resulted from their defeat in the Pelo- ponnesian war, and that at the time of his accusation, as they were exulting in deUver- ance from the yoke of their tyrants and in return to their ancient institutions, they were all the more disposed to have their suspicions roused by an accusation of leadership in an enterprise which threatened intellectual as well as religious revolution. As early as 423 B. C. a formidable assault was made by Aristophanes in one of his masterpieces, Tfie Clouds. Aristophanes was a man of an earnest conservative temper in poUtics and religion, and in this play he held up Socrates to ridicule as the arch- sophist, and the ringleader of Athenian freethinkers. The great teacher was pre- sented on the stage and made not only ridiculous, but odious as a corrupter of religion and morals. The blow told. The satirist gave definite form and utterance to hostile feeling already existing, and even suggested the course ultimately taken. Socrates, however, was allowed for twenty years longer to pursue his course unmolested by the government. When the Peloponnesian war came to an end, and the thirty tyrants were masters of Athens, Critias, his old pupil, being one of them, Socrates was subjected to some persecution ; and, on the reestablishment of the democratic government, a formal prose- cution was instituted. The leader in the cause was one Anytus, a wealthy trader and an influential pohtician. With him were associated Meletus, a poet, and Lycon, an orator. The charges brought against Soc- rates, now an old man of seventy, were sub- stantially the same as those put fon^ard by Aristophanes in The Clouds: that he did not believe in the gods which the state be- lieved in, that he introduced new gods, and that he corrupted the youth by his teaching. Death was proposed as the penalty. Socrates declined to make use of a speech composed for him by the orator, Lysias; and he avoided making in his own speech the customary appeals to the passions. He spoke with the confidence inspired by a good conscience, and at the same time with a consciousness that his condemnation was a foregone conclusion. The spirit and sub- stance of his defense is probably presented to us in the piece known as the Apology of Socrates, attributed to Plato. Socrates was condemned, but only by a small majority of his judges. In his speech, after sentence, in mitigation of the penalty, he repeated his avowal of ignorance of matters which were to others themes of confident boasting and dogmatism. He told the judges that to die was a pleasure, because he was going to hold converse with the gods. He claimed as his due from the state honor rather than punish- ment. Such a bold, frank defense proved so offensive to the court that it not only re- mained inexorable, but decreed death by a still larger majority. Fidelity and firmness in the martyr are always in the eyes of the persecutor pride, obstinacy, and wilfulness, and make his offense the greater. Socrates was sent back to the prison to await the end. He was to drink the cup of hemlock. This would, in the usual course, have followed on IN PHILOSOPHY the day after the sentence; but the sacred vessel which carried the annual Athenian offering to the temple of Apollo at Delos had just set sail, and during its absence no execu- tion could take place. For thirty days the life of the teacher was prolonged, and during this time his friends had free access to him. Means of escape were offered by some of them, but he declined to avail himself of the offer. Death had no terrors for him, and he conversed with his friends to the last with unaffected serenity and the cheerfulness of faith and hope. On the last day Socrates set before his friends the ground of his belief in the immortality of the soul. The conversation is preserved for us, with other details of the closing scene in the dia- logue of Plato, named after PhjEdo, the beloved disciple of the master. The sunset on the fatal evening, as the executioner pre- sented the cup to the firm hand, directed by the unyielding countenance; the silence broken by his parting words as life ebbed away and the darkness gathered over his eyes ; the illustrious form recognized as lifeless by the sorrowing attendants — these are familiar pictures to the readers of the Phoedo. The sublime pathetic story has moved readers to tears generation after generation. The wonder and beauty of it will shine through the poorest version ; and the mysteries of life and death catch some gleams from its glory. Socrates was no sooner in his grave — 399 B. C. — than the Athenian democracy re- pented of their sacrifice, and his accusers suffered from the power they had invoked. His martyr death put the seal to his philoso- phy, and inaugurated the most splendid period of intellectual greatness which the world has yet seen — the philosophical age of Plato and Aristotle. The schools of Athens rose over the grave of Socrates, and for more than a thousand years maintained there the light which his Athenian persecutors only made more conspicuous by their intolerance. Powerful as was the personal influence of Socrates in his own day, this sinks into insig- nificance when compared with the vast results of his teaching in after ages. Through his greatest disciple, Plato, his spirit became identical with the spirit of philosophy, and the great schools which sprang up after his death were the offspring of his teaching. As already stated, Socrates committed nothing to writing. He left no books; but the dia- logues of Plato — especially the Crito, and Phcedo — mAy be regarded as the substance of his philosophy. Xenophon, in his 3/cmor- abilia, has also contributed liberally to our knowledge of the man and his teachings. His work, in general, in its influence on the subsequent course of human thought, maj be summed up under three heads: subject, method, and doctrine. As to subject, he effected a signal revolu- tion, which may be metaphorically expressed in the saying of Cicero, that " Socrates brought down philosophy from the heavens to the earth." The previous philosophies consisted of vast and vague speculations on nature as a whole, blending together cosmogony, astron- omy, geometry, physics, metaphysics, into a very imperfect whole. Socrates had studied this system, and it left on his mind a feeling of emptiness and unsuitability for any prac- tical human purpose. He could not go to any public assemblage without hearing ques- tions raised respecting the just and the un- just, the honorable and the base, the expe- dient and the hurtful. He found, moreover, that the opposing disputants were, without knowing it, very confused in their ideas as to the meanings of those large words in which the weightiest interests entered. Accordingly, Socrates was the first to pro- claim that "the proper study of mankind is man"; human nature, human duties, and human happiness made up a field of really urgent and profitable inquiry. In astronomy, he saw a certain utility for navigation, and for the reckoning of time, to which extent he would have it known by pilots and watchmen ; geometry was useful in its literal sense of land measuring ; arithmetic he allowed in like manner as far as practically useful; but general physics, or the speculations of phi- losophers, from Thales downward, as to the origin of all things out of water, fire, air, and so on, he wholly repudiated. "Do these inquirers," he asked, "think that they ah-eady know human affairs well enough, that they thus begin to meddle with divine? Do they think that they shall be able to excite or calm the winds at pleasure, or have they no other view than to gratify an idle curiosity?" He considered it not only un- profitable but impious to attempt to com- prehend that department. The gods, he thought, managed all those things after their own fashion, and refused to submit them to invariable laws of sequence, such as men might discover by dint of study; the only 260 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT means of knowledge permitted was religious sacrifice and prayer, and the consultation of the oracles. While this was the appointed way in reference to divine things, it was equally appointed that human things should be learned by diligence in study and investi- gation. In regard to method, Socrates was the author of still greater innovations. It was to little purpose that men applied themselves to human affairs, if they conceived them loosely, and with no regard to evidence. He introduced at least one element of logical precision into the handhng of questions, by insisting on accuracy in definition and classi- fication. His mode will be seen in the state- ment of Xenophon. "Socrates continued incessantly discussing human affairs, investi- gating — What is piety? What is impiety? What is the honorable, the base? What is the just, the unjust? Men that knew these matters, he accounted good and honor- able; men that were ignorant of them, he assimulated to slaves." His investigation thus took the form of ascertaining the exact meaning — that is, the definition — of the leading terms in ethics and in politics, the settling of what John Stuart Mill calls the connotation of a general word, which determines how to apply it rightly to each individual case. The very idea of defining a general term, now so ob- vious, never seems to have suggested itself to any one previous to Socrates. His man- ner of seeking out those definitions is also characteristic, and links itself to his con- versational method, convicting men in general of ignorance in things that they thought they knew. Professing himself to be able to furnish no exact definition — which professed ignorance was called the Socratic irony — of justice, temperance, cour- age, etc., and finding others — particularly the so-called sophists — quite confident in their ability to supply the want, he asked some one to state his definition; and, on its being given, he put a few further interroga- tions, as he said, by way of making sure that he understood the meaning, but with the speedy effect of driving the respondent into a humiliating self-contradiction. His method is most fully exemplified in certain of the Platonic dialogues, as the first Aldbiades, Laches, Charmides, or Euthy' pkron. According to Xenophon, he could pass from his severe cross-examining method. with its humiliating shock of convicted ignorance, and address to his hearers plain and homely precepts, inculcating self-control, temperance, piety, duty to parents, brotherly love, fidelity in friendship, diligence, and other virtues — such direct admonitory in- fluence being common to him with the sophists. He probably went beyond the or- dinary teaching of the sophists in exhorting men "to limit their external wants, to be sparing in indulgence, and to cultivate, even in preference to honors and advancement, the pleasures arising from a performance of duty, as well as from self-examination and the consciousness of internal improvement." This strain of exhortation, his manner of life in harmony therewith, and the virtual self- immolation of his death may be considered as the foimdation of the cynic and the stoic philosophies. As regards doctrine, Socrates was dis- tinguished chiefly by his theory of virtue. Virtue, he said, consisted in knowledge. To do right was the only road to happiness, and as every man sought to be happy, vice could arise only from ignorance or mistake as to the means; hence the proper corrective was an enlarged teaching of the consequences of actions. Any fair interpretation of knowledge, how- ever, would now regard this as a one-sided view of human conduct. It takes note of only one condition of virtue. It omits, what is also essential, the state of the emotions or dispositions, which may be directed either to exclusively self-regarding ends, or to ends involving also the good of others. There is an obvious connection between the doctrine and the Socratic analogy of virtue to the pro- fessions. The virtue of an artisan is almost exclusively contained in his skill or knowl- edge ; his dispositions can usually, though not always, be depended on, through the pressure of his immediate self-interest. But the prac- tice of Socrates was larger than his theory; for, as already remarked, his exhortations were addressed to men's feelings or senti- ments as well as to their intellect. His political doctrines were biased by the same analogy of special professions. The legiti- mate king or governor was he alone that knew how to govern well. The philosophy of Socrates is often epi- grammatically stated in the injunction: "Know thyself"; but in his teachings equally stand out the formulas: "Virtue is IN PHILOSOPHY 261 knowledge " ; " Virtue may be taught " ; " No one wilfully goes wrong " ; "Virtue results in happiness." "There can be no doubt," says the his- torian Grote, "that the individual influence of Socrates permanently enlarged the hori- zon, improved the method, and multi- plied the ascendant minds of the Grecian speculative world, in a manner never since paralleled. Subsequent philosophers may have had a more elaborate doctriDe, and a larger number of disciples who imbibed thdr ideas; but none of them applied the —m^i stimulating method with the same efficacy; none of them struck out of other minds that fire which sets light to original thought ; none of them either produced in others the paina of intellectual pregnancy, or extracted from others the fresh and unborrowed ofTspring of a really parturient mind." B. c. 429 409 399 395 PLATO AGE B. C. Bom at Athens, or in the island of 389 iEgina, Greece, 387 Came under the influence of Socrates, . 20 Went to Megara, and resided with 367 Euclid, 30 347 Returned to Athens, after traveling in Italy, Cyrene, and Egypt, 34 Visited Sicily, 40 Returned to Athena; founded the academy at Athens, 42 Made a second visit to Sicily, .... 03 Died at Athens, 82 TDLATO, or, to use his proper name, Aris- ■*• TOCLES, was one of the greatest philoso- phers of all time; and it is a remarkable circumstance that of the man Plato and of the details of his life we are almost wholly ignorant. His written works have come down to us in singular completeness, and surpris- ingly free from corruption in the text; but in them he never speaks in his own person, nor is any biographical information about him to be gathered from them. He hved to a great age, in one of the most literary cities of the ancient world, was very widely known and held in highest honor, and for all that we have no information about him bearing the stamp of contemporary authority. No dates are assignable to any of his dialogues with much certainty, so that it is impossible to find in them a clue to the growth of his mind. The philosopher still lives in his works, the man has vanished. As one has said, "There is no personal Plato," Many interesting particulars of Plato's hfe, it is true, are ^iven in some extant letters attributed to him; but the genuineness of these letters has been much disputed. The difficulty of the biographer from dearth of facts is increased by the abundance of ficti- tious stories told by later writers. We therefore give briefly the usually accepted theory of Plato's life. He was born at Athens, or in iEgina, about 429 B. C, the year in which Pericles died. He was the son of Ariston and Perictione, both of ancient and noble family. His own name was Aristocles, the surname "Plato" being simply applied to him as indicative of his broad forehead — or, as some say, his broad shoulders. His mother's ancestors were connected with the family of Solon, his father's were reputed to be connected with the mythical C!odrus. He was a nephew of Critias, one of the thirty tyrants of Athens, and also of Charmides, one of the ten oli- garchs. Of robust constitution and thoroughly trained in gymnastics, he could take part in the contests at the Pythian and Isthmian games. His mind was no less carefully cul- tivated. He made quick progress in his studies, dipped into the current philosophies, and wrote poems, epic, dramatic, and lyrical. These he afterward burned. Some of his epigrams, however, are preserved. The most important fact in his life, and its dominating force, which took the helm and steered him to the end, was his connection with Socrates. It began when he was about twenty years of age, and terminated only with the death of his master. It remains uncertain whether, as usually supposed, he spent the ten years, from 409 to 399 B. C, in study alone, or in the society of Socrates. It seems hardly possible that in such a crisia he should not have taken, like other young Athenians, his share in military service. He was deeply interested in public afifairs, and was no stranger to political ambition. But his truthful and pure nature shrank from 262 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT contact with the corrupt governments with which he had experience; and he was ulti- mately driven by the prosecution of Socrates into studious seclusion. After attending his beloved master during his trial and last days, he quitted Athens, resolved to keep clear of politics and to give himself wholly to phi- losophy. He retired first to Megara about 399 B. C, then visited Cyrene and Egypt, returning to Athens about 395 B. C. ; and some years later he visited Italy and Sicily. In these journeys he met with the Pythagorean philosophers, whose doctrines powerfully influenced his mind. He visited ^tna about 389 B. C, made the acquaintance of Dion, and was intro- duced to the tyrant Dionysius the Elder. Plato is said to have offended the latter by his bold speaking, and to have been not only sent angrily away, but even sold into slavery. If so, he was soon ransomed, and reached Athens again about 387 B. C. He now settled there, and began his chosen task as a teacher of philosophy. He had a small house and a garden about a mile from the city on the road to Eleusis. It adjoined the "Academia," the precinct sacred to the hero Academus ; and here was founded, says Grote, "the earliest of those schools of phi- losophy which continued for centuries forward to guide and stimulate the speculative minds of Greece and Rome." Pupils were attracted from all cities and parts of Greece. The greatest among them was Aristotle. Demos- thenes may have been there. The great geometrician and astronomer, Eudoxus, was one of them. Plato adopted in his teaching the method of Socrates ; and like Socrates he taught gratuitously, receiving remuneration only when offered by the rich. The quiet seclusion of his school presented a striking contrast to the publicity which Socrates sought. After the death of Dionysius the Elder, Plato, at the instance of his friend Dion, again went to Sicily, about 367 B. C, with a view to assist the younger Dionysius in establishing a better government. The project failed, Dion was banished, and Plato returned home. A second visit hkewise ended in failure. These relations with the tyrant of Sicily brought down severe censure on the philoso- pher; and his last years were saddened both- by the disappointment of his high hopes and the reproaches of his enemies. Plato died about 348 or 347 B. C. The school which he had founded and presided over for forty years was carried on in the same place until the siege of Athens by Sulla, 87 B. C, when it was removed within the city. Cicero, it is recorded on good authority, visited the school and the academy. Plato never married, had no child, took no part in political affairs or in social gayeties. He hved the hfe of thought, and liis habitual seriousness passed into the proverbial expres- sion — " as sad as Plato." Plato's hfe coincided with the most eventful period of Greek history. Not long before his birth the Peloponnesian war had begun, which, after confused struggles protracted through a quarter of a century, ended with the fall of Athens in 404 B. C. The tyranny of the thirty, the restoration of the democracy, and the death of Socrates followed within the next few years. During the period of ten years following Plato's death the most mem- orable change in Greek history was the exten- sion of the Macedonian power under Philip of Macedon, who, in 338 B. C, became master of the whole of Greece. Plato survived Socrates about fifty years, and all his works were composed during this period. He was the most Socratic of all the disciples of Socrates ; and his reverence for his master is shown by the place assigned to him in his works. These are all in the form of dia- logues, of which, with one exception, Socrates is the central figure, the speaker of all thought- out conclusions. Each dialogue is an inde- pendent work, and inconsistencies are to be found not only between separate dialogues, but even within the limits of a single one. At- tempts have been made to classify these works, both logically and chronologically, but without success. In range of speculation, and in the harmonious union of the philosophic with the poetic spirit, the works of Plato stand alone. First of all come those short dialogues in which Plato does not go beyond what the actual Socrates might have said. The most important of this group is the Protagoras. The Apology, or "Defense of Socrates on his Trial," has probably more historical accuracy than any other composition of Plato's — since he tells us he was present at the trial — and may have been \vTitten soon after Soc- rates' death. The Phcedo — the last conver- sations of Socrates, on the immortality of the soul — is probably of later date. Some mod- ern scholars assign the great metaphysical dialogues — Parmenides, Theoetetiis, Sophistes, IN PHILOSOPHY *J88 Politicus — to the time, between 399 and 386 B. C, when Plato began his teaching at the academy. Others, with more probabiUty, consider these dialogues and the Philehus to belong to a later period than the Republic. The Phcedrus, Symposium ("Banquet"), Gor- gias, Republic, and Phcedo, in which — along with the ThecEtetus — Plato's literary skill is at its very highest, may perhaps all be assigned to the period of his life after forty, but before his old age. The works that give the fullest account of his philosophical and aocial system are the Republic, the Timceus, and the Laws. As with Socrates, so with Plato the aim is not so much to teach particular truths as to stimulate inquiry and impart a method. Idlers were warned away from the severe intellectual disciphne of the academy by the inscription over its entrance, "Let no one enter who is not a geometrician." The severity of thought in Plato's writings is, however, relieved by the charm of inimitable style, by consummate dramatic art, and by the play of fancy and imagination. A light, buoyant humor, irony, sarcasm, banter, now broad and now delicate, picturesque illustra- tion, and occasionally elaborate and gorgeous fable, alternate with and relieve the stern reasoning processes. The starting point of Plato's philosophy, as, indeed, it must be of all philosophy, prop- erly so called, is the theory of knowledge. This is set forth in the Theoetetus, the Sophistes, and the Parmenides; and in the Cratylus the foundations are laid for a science of language, as the necessary product of a creature ener- gizing by ideas. The Platonic theory of knowledge, as developed in the Theatctus, embraces one of the most constant and notable of Plato's doctrines — that of ideas. He makes no formal division of philosophical science, but evidently regards it substantially under the threefold division of logic (or dialectics), metaphysics, and ethics or politics. Dialectics he regarded as a science par emi- nence, and it was through its process that the mind, according to his reasoning, reached its conception of ideas. By ideas he meant the essences, or eternal archetypes, of which all merely outward, ever-changing objects are but copies or like- nesses, and the innate notions of which in our minds are recollections awakened by means of perception of these copies. In other words, they are forms or types of things which are common to ail individuab of a species, aU the species of a genun, all the genera of a family, and all the families of a class, generate classification — that is, knowl- edge of the permanent in phenomena — and definition, which is merely the articulate verbal expression of this permanency. They pervade the world of sense, yet are not sen- sation, being, as it were, the substance of which it is the shadow, giving to it whatever of partial reality it possesses. A man only knows when he has gotten at the reasons or causes of things, when he sees facts not in an isolated way, but connected by the "chain of causation"; he must be dealing with what is permanent and universal. According to Plato, both the one (the per- manent) and the manifold (the changing) have their place in the universe, the former in the world of ideas, the intelligible world, with which science deals, the latter in the world of sense, with which mere opinion is content. These ideas are not mere con- cepts of our minds: they are, in Plato's phrase, "the most real existences." Every general term, as horse, man, table, denoting a group of objects, had in Plato's philosophy a real existence corresponding to it, of which any particular horse, man, or table was but an imperfect transitory copy. Men when uneducated were Uke dwellers in a cave chained with their backs to its mouth. A fire behind them threw shadows of passing objects on the ground before them, and then shadows they took for the realities of things. A prisoner, set free from the cave and taken to the daylight, would be dazzled and blinded, and it would be long before he got to know about real objects, and about the sun which gave them light, and brought the changes of the seasons, and growth and life in the world. If such a man went down again into the cave he would be again blinded; none of his fellow prisoners would believe his visions, and he would be less able than they to discourse eloquently about shadows. Such is the con- trast between the trained mind of the philoso- pher, cognizant of ideas, and the untrained mind of the multitude. The ideas, however, are not themselvei all of equal excellence; but supreme above the others are the forms of the true, the beau- tiful, and the good, in which triad again the last takes the highest place, and becomes perhaps identical with the deity, who thus, under the Platonic conception, seems to 264 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT fluctuate between a personal being and the highest and noblest of the ideas. And as the ideas are the only object of true science, and preparation to commune with them, especially with the good, the noblest of them all, is the great end of philosophical striving, so in the last analysis science and virtue coincide, and the ideas furnish the basis not only of all science, but of piety and morahty. He does not accept the Cyrenaic view that pleasure is the good; but neither does he agree with the cynics that all pleasure is evil. Pleasures are good or bad, high or low, accord- ing to the part of the soul to which they belong. The Republic, starting from the attempt to prove that righteousness is preferable to up- rightness, whatever pains and calamities may go with the first, or pleasure with the second, depicts an ideal government, in which the governing class, corresponding to the reason- ing faculty in man, is trained and educated for the work in the most perfect way. For this class the institutions of private property and the family are to be suppressed. The children are to be children of the state. Both sexes are to receive the same gymnastic and intellectual training. In the education of their intellect the great object is to set them free from the tyranny of sense and prepare them for the perception of ideas. The object of all wise polity, therefore, is that philosophers should be the governing class because of their powers to estimate at their true worth the shadowy pursuits and pleasures of the multitude. His picture of the ideal state has won for Plato the dis- tinction of being the first scientific socialist, inasmuch as the individual and the family, marriage, property, and all are to be sacrificed to the interests of the state. The work is pervaded by a profoundly religious spirit. In the Timceus a description is given of the origin of the universe and of the human body. Plato here introduces his conception of the Demiurgus, or constructive workman, who, by impressing the eternal forms or ideas upon preexistent formless matter, produced the second order of gods, the stars and planets, by whom afterward man with his mixed nature, compounded of earthly and divine, was created. It was this treatise that con- vinced the Alexandrine Jews and Christians that Plato had borrowed his leading coneep)- tions from Moses. In the Laws, Plato portrays a common- wealth, not purely ideal as in the Republic, but such as might be actually realized in the Grecian world. He supposes it to be a colony founded in the island of Crete, and composed of settlers representing all varieties of the Hellenic race. He enters into minute details of legislation and of education, from which we gather that his guiding principle was to secure stabihty even at the risk of tyranny. No great public reform, he says, can be accomplished without large interference with public and private life. Private property is to be allowed, but is to be fenced in with restrictions that few socialist schemes have exceeded. The number of landholders is to be rigidly fixed; marriage is to be compul- sory, the number of children strictly limited ; and one son only is to succeed to the landed property of the father. But, above all, everything connected with education and religion is to be sedulously guarded from change. As in Egypt, so in Greece, according to the Laws, all songs, dances, and festive ceremonies must first receive the approval of official censors, who are to be men above the age of fifty, and when so approved must never after- ward be changed. All the existing dramatic literature of Greece must be freely and sys- tematically expurgated. Much reading of any kind is to be discouraged. Arithmetic, geom- etry, and astronomy are to be taught, not for their practical utility, but to inspire true thoughts as to the universe and the great divinities, the sun, moon, and planets. The belief that the planets moved irregularly should be regarded as blasphemous. Bodily exercises, under the same stringent relations, are to be systematically encouraged in both sexes, and their efficacy in restraining sexual impulse is strongly insisted on. In his criminal legislation, heresy — that is, erroneous beliefs about the gods — occu- pies a very prominent place. Even when the life has been morally blameless, the punish- ment is five years' imprisonment, persistence in unbelief being pimishable with death. Heresy, combined with vicious conduct, sor- cery or charlatanry, is punishable as the worst of crimes. It is certain that the legislation here proposed by Plato would have condemned Socrates, his great preceptor, many times over. Plato is often styled an idealist. But this is true of the spirit rather than of the form of his doctrine; for strictly he is an intense IN PHILOSOPHY 9M realist, and differs from his great pupil, Aris- totle, far less in his mere philosophical method than in his lofty moral and religious aspira- tions, which were perpetually winging his spirit toward the beautiful and the good. In other words, the philosophy of Plato is essen- tially a poetical and an artistical philosophy ; for poetry, painting, and music all grow out of idealism, or those lofty inborn conceptions by which genius is distinguished from talent. It is also, at the same time, a scientific philoso- phy, for the purest science, as mathematics — on which Plato is well known to have placed the highest value — is a science of mere ideas or forms conditioned by the intellect which deduces their laws; and, above all, it is essentially a moral and a theological phi- losophy, for practice, or action, is the highest aim of man, morality is the ideal of action, and God, as the cause of all, is the ideal of ideals. Neither Plato nor any of the great Greeks looked on their intellectual exercises and recreations as an end in themselves. With them philosophy did not mean mere knowl- edge or mere speculation, but it meant wis- dom, and wisdom meant wise action, and wise action meant virtue. The philosophy of Plato, therefore, with all its transcendental flights, of which we hear so much, was essen- tially a practical philosophy. All his discus- sions on the theory of knowledge and the nature of ideas are undertaken mainly that a system of eternal divine types, as the only reliable knowledge, may serve as a foundation for a virtuous life, and the only consistent course of action. Virtue, with Socrates and Plato, is only practical reason. As in the proverbs of Solomon all vice is folly, so in the philosophy of Plato the imperial virtue is wisdom or practical insight. The other two great Greek and Platonic virtues — moderation or soundmindedness, and justice, or the assigning to every act and every function its proper place — are equally exem- plifications of 8, reasonable order applied to action, such an order as alone and everywhere testifies the presence of the mind. The theory of morals as worked out from such principles is, of course, as certain as the necessary laws of the reason which it ex- presses ; and, accordingly, the Platonic moral- ity, like the Christian, is of that high order which admits of no compromise with passing prejudice or local usage. The contrast be- tween the low moral standard of local respect- ability and that which is in hannony with the universal laws of pure reason stands out m strikingly in Plato as the morality of the sermon on the mount in the gospels docs against the morality of the Scrib^ and Phari- sees. Splendid passages to this effect occur in various parts of Plato's \\Titings, particu- larly in the Republic and the Gorgia*. In perfect accord with the Platonic theory of noble action is his doctrine with r^ard to pure emotion and elevated passion. Love with Plato is a transcendental admiration of excellence — an admiration of which the soul is capable by its own high origination and the germs of godlike excellence, which are im- planted into it from above. The philosophy of love is set forth with imaginative grandeur in the Phcedrus, and with rich dramatic variety in the "Banquet," of which dialogue there is an English translation by the English poet, Shelley. In his works, also, we find the first formal development of the spirituality of the soul, and the first attempt to demonstrate its immortality. His moral conclusions are of the loftiest and most rigorous character, and are announced clearly, positively, and per- sistently. In some cases his teaching is a surprising anticipation of a higher doctrine that was to come. A tendency to a trinity of doctrines runs through it all. In psychol- ogy we have the trinity of reason, passion, and appetite ; in ethics, of wisdom, courage, and temperance; in ontology, of being, be- coming, and not being; in knowledge, of science, opinion, and sensation ; in cosmogony, of God, the soul of the world, and matter; in the state, of magistrates, warriors, and laborers. So remarkable was this fact to early Christian thinkers that they readily accepted by way of explanation the story of his eastern travels and communication with the Jews. The same fact led Coleridge to speak of him as " that plank from the wreck of paradise thrown upon the shores of idol- atrous Greece." The influence of Plato's thoughts on suc- ceeding centuries was great and prolonged; but it was largely due to the dramatic skill and poetic style in which they were delivered* To the building up of human life on the basis of science they contributed nothing. But they inspired ardor for social r^encration; and when transplanted into the soil of Alex- andria they formed one of the channels through which Jewish and Christian thought 260 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT penetrated into the western world. His works were extensively studied by the church fathers, one of whom joyfully recognizes, in the great teacher of the academy, the school- master who, in the fullness of time, was des- tined to educate the heathen for Christ, as Moses did the Jews. His philosophy disappeared from the world for a time, with Proclus, the last Platonist of the famous Alexandrian school, about the close of the fifth century, when his works were brought to Italy and expounded at Florence by learned Greeks from Constanti- nople. In the intervening ten centuries the seat of philosophy was usurped by the off- spring of Catholic theology and Aristotelian logic, scholasticism ; and his doctrine of ideas formed the basis of the famous controversy during the middle ages between realist and nominalist. After the French revolution, particularly, the study of Plato was pursued with renewed vigor in Germany, France, England, and America; and many distinguished authors, without expressly professing Platonism — as Coleridge, Wordsworth, Mrs. Browning, Rus- kin, and others — formed a strong and a growing party of adherents, who could find no common banner under which they could at once so conveniently and so honorably muster as that of Plato. More important, perhaps, than any results, either moral or metaphysical, which have been brought to maturity by Plato, are the inexhaustible germs of latent wealth which his writings contain. Every time his pages are turned, they throw forth new seeds of wisdom, new scintillations of thought — so teeming is the fertility, so irrepressible the fullness of his genius. All philosophy, specu- lative and practical, has been foreshadowed by his prophetic intelligence, often dimly, but always so attractively as to whet the curiosity of those who have chosen him for their guide. To whatever censure his philosophy may be justly exposed, we cannot sufficiently applaud that seducing eloquence, which Quin- tilian has called " Homerical," and that beauty of style which appeared so admirable to Cicero that he declared, "If Jupiter himself had been willing to adopt the language of man- kind, he would have spoken as Plato wrote." ARISTOTLE B. C. 384 367 364 847 344 342 Born at Staf^ira, Macedonia, Went to Athens, 17 Began study under Plato, 20 At death of Plato went to Atameus, . 37 Visited Mitylene, 40 Invited to court of Philip of Macedon; teaches Alexander the Great, ... 42 338 334 323 322 Rhetoric, 46 Returned to Athens; opened his school 60 Accused of impiety; escaped to Chalcis, 61 Died at Chalcis, 63 ARISTOTLE, founder of the celebrated •** peripatetic school of philosophy at Athens, and one of the greatest intellectual forces in the history of the world, was bom at Stagira, Macedonia, in the year 384 B. C. He belonged to a family in which the practice of medicine seems to have been hereditary. It is asserted that on the side of his mother, Phaestis, he was a descendant of Esculapius. His father, Nikomachus, was the friend and physician of Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, father of Philip of Macedon, and grandfather of Alexander the Great. Aristotle lost both his parents while he was quite young, and was brought up xmder the care of Proxenus, a prominent citizen of Atarneus, a city in Asia Minor. When he had completed his seventeenth year, he re- ! paired to Athens, then the inteUectual center of the entire civilized world, as well as of Greece. Plato, with whom he doubtless intended to study, was then absent in Syra- cuse as adviser at the court of Dionysius. Aristotle therefore pursued his studies by means of books, and with the aid of other teachers that he could find, during the first three years of his stay. On the return of Plato, he placed himself under his instruction, and soon made his master aware of the remarkable penetration and reach of his intellect. Plato spoke of Aristotle as the "intellect of the school," and he rapidly gained a place of honor and distinction in the estimation of both his great teacher and his companions. He remained at Athens twenty years. Aui^iwiLL. 1 CACHING ALEXANDER THE GREAT From the fainting hy y. L. G. Ferris IN PHILOSOPHY 7» during which the only facte recorded, in aildi- tion to his studying with Plato, are that he set up a class of rhetoric, and that in so doing he became the rival of the celebrated orator and rhetorical teacher, Isocrates, whom he appears to have attacked with great severity. It was in the schools of rhetoric that the young men of Athens received the principal part of their education for public life. They learned the art of speaking before the dicas- teries, or courts of law, and the public as- sembly, with force and elegance; and inci- dentally acquired the notions of law and public policy that regulated the management of affairs at the time. We can easily suppose that Aristotle would look with contempt upon the shallowness — in all that regarded thought or subject matter — of the common rhetorical teaching, of which, doubtless, the prevailing excellence would lie in the form of the address being artistic rather than profound or erudite. One of the disciples of Isocrates, defending his master against Aristotle, wrote a treatise wherein allusion is made to a work — now lost — on proverbs, the first recorded publi- cation of the philosopher. The death of Plato in 347 B. C. was the occasion of Aristotle's departure from Athens. It was not extraordinary or unreasonable that Aristotle should hope to succeed his master as the chief of his school, named the academy. We now know that no other man then living had an equal title to that preeminence. Plato, however, left his nephew, Speusippus, as his successor. We may suppose the dis- appointment thus arising to have been the principal circumstance that determined Aris- totle to stay no longer in Athens. There are also other reasons that may be assigned, arising out of his relations with the Mace- donian royal family at a time when the Athenians and Philip of Macedon had come into open enmity. Whatever may be the explanation, he went in his thirty-seventh year, after a stay of nearly twenty years in Athens, to the Mysian town of Atarneus, in Asia Minor, opposite the island of Lesbos. Here he lived with Hermeias, the chief of the town, a man of singular energy and ability, who had con- quered his dominion for himself from the Persians, at that time masters of nearly all Asia Minor. Aristotle had taught him rhet- oric at Athens, and he became in return the attached friend and admirer of his teacher. At this small but interesting court, sur- rounded by the scenes of his early studiet, Aristotle spent three happy years, enjoying the society of intellectual friends, and devot- ing himself with unremitting aawduity to the study of nature. Here, too, he had formed ties warmer than those of friendship. Pythias, the niece of the king, had gained his affection, and when the unfortunate sovereign had been betrayed by some worthless individuals who had enjoyed his hospitality, and had forfeited his life as a rebel against the king of Persia, Aristotle fled to Lesbos with the family of his friend, and was soon afterward married to his niece. In a noble ode he haa commemo- rated the merits of the friend and benefactor who was thus lost to him through the treach- ery of a Greek renegade. His wife, Pythias, died about ten years later in Macedonia, leaving him a daughter of the same name, and a son, Nikomachus. To his son Aristotle dedicated his chief works on ethics — called, from that circumstance, the Nikomacheaai Ethics. During his residence at Mitylene, in Lcsboe, to which he went about 344 B. C, Aristotle seems to have received from Philip, king of Macedon, the flattering invitation to superin- tend the education of Alexander, his son. The compliment thus paid to his talents and character was too high to be rejected; and, though the duties which such an office de- manded might have interfered with the prog- ress of his studies, he cheerfully accepted it, and took up his residence at Pella, in 342 B. C, when Alexander had reached his four- teenth year. The king received him with the most marked attention, and science and learn- ing have in no future age been more highly honored than they were in the court of Macedon in the person of the distinguished Stagirite, and through the liberality of the most powerful of sovereigns. The Macedonian prince was instructed dur- ing five or six years in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and in those branches of physics which had even at that time made some considerable progress. Aristotle made a new collection of the Iliad for the use of his pupil, wrote his Rhetoric, in 338 B. C, and composed a treatise, On a Kingdom, which has not descended to our times. After the death of Philip in 336 B.C., Alexander succeeded to the throne, when in the twentieth year of his age, and Aristotle con- tinued to live with him as his friend and coun- sellor until Alexander set out on his Asiatic 270 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT campaign in 334 B. C, when he returned to Athens. The delicate constitution and intellectual habits of the philosopher prevented him from following Alexander on his career of military conquest, and he accordingly returned to a less strenuous life. At the age of fifty, Aristotle now entered upon the final epoch of his career. He opened a school called the Lyceum, from the prox- imity to the temple of Apollo, and here in this charming retreat he delivered his lectures to crowded audiences, while walking in the shade, amid the trees and fountains with which it was adorned. From his habit of walking up and down in the garden during his lectures arose the other name of his school and sect, the peripatetic. It would appear to have been his custom to give a morning lecture to select pupils on the more obtuse subjects, and one in the evening of a more popular kind to a general or mixed audience. At this time, too, it is supposed he composed his principal writings; but unfortunately there is nothing known definitely concerning the dates of any of them. While thus instructing his pupils, and en- joying the popularity and reputation to which he had attained, he became, like all illustrious teachers of philosophy, the object of envy and persecution. His rivals in learning di- rected against him the usual calumnies which genius is ever destined to endure from the ignorance and malice of its enemies ; and the heathen priests, dreading the progress of truth as the greatest enemy of their faith, charged the philosopher with impiety and sedition. The friendship of Alexander had hitherto shielded him from open persecution, but upon the death of that monarch, in 323 B. C, he was charged before the Areopagus as an enemy of the religion of his country, and avoided the fate of Socrates, which he knew awaited him, by making his escape to Chalcis, a city of Euboea. In this city of refuge he spent the remainder of his life, that the Athenians might not, as he said — alluding to the death of Socrates — be guilty of "twice sinning against philosophy." Ex- hausted with mental labor and broken in spirit by his misfortunes, his feeble constitu- tion gave way, and he died in 322 B. C, in the sixty-third year of his age, about a year after his retreat to Chalcis. His remains were carried to Stagira by his fellow citizens, and an altar and shrine erected over his grave. The festival of Aria- totelia was instituted in gratitude for his services, and even in Plutarch's time the garden of the philosopher, with its walks and bowers, was exhibited to the public. In his personal appearance, Aristotle waa not attractive. He is described as having small eyes and slender limbs, with a feeble voice and an imperfect utterance; and he is said to have improved the symmetry of his person by great attention to dress, and the use of elegant ornaments. His character seems to have been in every way estimable. In his friendships he was constant and glow- ing. In his will — which is preserved to us in the biographies of Laertius — he shows affectionate thought for each member of his family, and grateful remembrance of those who had died before him. His household servants were not forgotten, and were to be set free from bondage. It is often but erroneously said that " Plato was an idealist, Aristotle an empiricist " ; the difference is great in appearance mainly. Sir Alexander Grant truly declared that "Aris- totle codified Plato." Plato was a poet, and is always an artist, as well as a thinker, in his dialogues. Aristotle, with the education of a physician, has the mental habits and tend- encies of the man of science predominant; and, while lacking Plato's inspiration and enthusiasm, has a wider, in fact, an all- embracing range of interests, and cares more for actual facts for their own sake. He appears to have projected what may be called an encyclopaedia of philosophy, though the scheme is only imperfectly car- ried out in his works. The most important of Aristotle's writings bear the titles of Organon, or "Logic"; Rhetoric; Poetics; Ethics; Politics; History of Animals; Phys- ics; Metaphysics; Psychology; and Meteor- ology. It is impossible to read even the titles indicative of the range of research accom- plished by a man whose life reached only to sixty-two years, without the profoundest astonishment. Perhaps no better illustration is furnished by history, of the great truth that universahty is an unfailing characteristic of loftiest geniuses — not universality as to information, but universality as to thought — than in his case. It may be said with justice that there was not one subject of interest mooted in his day, which Aristotle did not touch and adorn. He laid, besides, the IN PHILOSOPHY 371 foundations of many new sciences. He divided his philosophy into three depart- ments : theoretic, embracing physics, mathe- matics, theology, and metaphysics; efficient, including logic, rhetoric, and poetry; and practical, including ethics and politics. He distinguishes three branches of theoretical philosophy: (1) Physics — the study of sen- sible material, particular things, each of which differs from every other, and all of which have in themselves the principle of change or motion. (2) Mathematics — that of geomet- rical and numerical entities known by general definitions, susceptible neither of change nor of movement, capable of being considered and reasoned upon apart from matter, but not capable of existing apart from matter. (3) The first or highest philosophy — which studies the essence of things eternal, un- changeable, and apart from all that change, movement, and differentiation which material embodiment involves. His writings on mathematics have not come down to us, and his work on physics had mainly to do with the metaphysical aspects of movements, or motion. In his time the value of experiment was not recognized, nor its methods understood, as we now under- stand them. Yet even in these treatises his marvelous sagacity is evident and he fore- shadowed some remarkable modern discov- eries. Although he saw the importance of discovering the laws of motion, his own crude attempts to solve the problem rested either on such purely metaphysical conceptions as that of the inherent perfection of circular motion, or on the definite but untrue hypothe- sis that the velocities of falling bodies varied as the distance traversed. This last was at least a useful starting point for the more fruitful efforts of Kepler and Galileo. The metaphysics, or first philosophy, deals with the extreme abstractions or generalities of all sciences. It is a collection, partly of doubts and difficulties, partly of attempted solutions, upon^these last refinements of the human mind. It includes many valuable comments on the philosophy of Plato and others anterior to or contemporary with Aris- totle. The general terms and subtle distinc- tions, which this treatise first brought to view, were highly prized throughout all the philosophy of the middle ages. His Organon, or "Logic," is his complete development of formal reasoning, and is the basis and nearly the whole substance of syllo- gistic or scholastic logic. This foteooe ha almost entirely created. Grote obwrves that "what was begun by Socrates, and improved by Plato, was embodied as a part of a com- prehensive system of formal logic by the genius of Aristotle; a system whidi was not only of extraordinary value in reforenoe to the processes and controversies of its time, but which also, having become insensibly worked into the minds of instructed men, has contributed much to form what is correct in the habits of modem thinking. Though it has now been enlarged and recast by some modern authors — especially by John Stuart Mill in his admirable System of l^gic — into a structure commensurate with the vast increase of knowledge and extension of posi- tive method belonging to the present day — we must recollect that the distance between the best modern logic and that of Aristotle is hardly as great as that between Aristotle and those who preceded him by a century — Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and the Pytha- goreans; and that the movement in advance of these latter commences with Socrates." His philosophical method, in brief, consists in the principle that all our thinking must be founded on the observation of facts. Logic is the fundamental science, and the principles which he laid down for it have never been superseded, or even advanced, as acknowl- edged by Kant and Hegel. He invented the categories, or fundamental forms of thought, and devised the so-called syllogistics, or science of forming correct conclusions. He likewise became the father of modern psy- chology, showing how the mind creates its speculative methods and general notions; and that though we cannot prove their cor- respondence with the reality, as transcending our senses and observation, yet we are com- pelled to take them for indispensable forms of thinking. He first discriminated between the substance of things and their accidental peculiarities, and created the philosophical notions of matter and of form. He also established the philosophical notions of space and time, and argued that back of the infinite series of finite causes there must be an infinite immaterial something, unmoved, all-moving, pure energy, absolute reason, God. Not imtil we reach what may be termed the natural history of Aristotle do we find his full powers of generalizing and coordinating, based on minute and accurate observation of 272 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT fact. He was the first careful observer, dis- sector, and describer of animals. He first divided the animal kingdom into classes, discriminated between the several faculties, the nourishing, feehng, concupiscent, moving, and reasoning powers of animal organism, attempted to explain their origin within the body, and built his moral and political philosophy on the peculiarities of human organization. A fourth part of his writings is occupied with the study of living bodies. Many of his conclusions have required the knowledge of the present century for their just appreciation. " I cannot read this book," says Cuvier, "without unbounded wonder. It is indeed impossible to conceive how one man was able to collect and compare the multitude of special facts, and the mass of aphorisms contained in it — of none of which his predecessors had the remotest idea. The 'History of Animals' is not a zoology, com- monly so called — that is to say, a mere description of various animals. It is nearly a general anatomy, in which the author treats the generalities of the organization of animals and in which he exposes their differences and resemblances, as indicated by a compar- ative examination of their organs — thus laying the true basis of all grand classifica- tions." He grasped and appUed the comparative method with extreme breadth and vigor. He anticipated Lamarck's division of the animal kingdom into vertebrate and inver- tebrate. In each sub-kingdom he defined the principal groups not less clearly. In vertebrates he distinguished mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes. Of mammals he defined most of the leading groups, arranging them by the character of their locomotive organs and of their dentition, the connection of dentition with the digestive apparatus being clearly apprehended. The mammalian characters of the whale tribe were perfectly well known to him. Among invertebrates, his minute study of cephalopods is specially noteworthy. Seven at least of the species described by him are recognized by modern naturalists. In embryology, Aristotle had observed the first appearance of the heart in the develop- ment of the chick. Of histology he may be regarded as the foimder. His history of animals begins with the explicit distinction between the tissues of which animal structure is built up, and the organs compovmded from those tissues: a distinction unappreciated until Bichat made it the foundation of his Anatomie Generale. Perhaps one of Aristotle's greatest works is his Politics. This treatise is the thought- ful and compressed result of his lost collec- tion of upward of one hundred fifty actual constitutions, and is one of the works in which his penetrating genius is the most clearly revealed. There is nothing to which it is more unlike than a book of description. It is a methodical deduction of great principles of government, a discrimina- tion of the principles underlying every form of government, and a prophetic declaration concerning their comparative stabilities. A few remarks in this precious volume made the fortunes of Machiavelli and Montesquieu; nor has even Rousseau in the Conlrat Social escaped its all-pervading influence. Every framer of a Utopia has borrowed from Aris- totle; but in itself his treatise on Politics is not Utopian. The book is the result of experience, of the widest research and im- partial reflection, and it will continue a great classic so long as man remains as he is. His works on Rhetoric and Poetics were the earliest development of a philosophy of criticism, and still continue to be studied. Even more so are his elaborate disquisitions on ethics still made the subject of immense study and interpretation. The subject mat- ter of this final science was rightly conceived by him as the conduct of the individual moulded by the social state. Apart from a social environment there could be, he clearly saw, no moral life. His scheme of politics is thus an appendage to his ethics, intended to examine and describe such an environment. For moral exhortation or discussion would be, he says, thrown away on men imprepared by the discipline of life to give reason precedence over passion. The end of ethical inquiry, he points out, is practical rather than speculative. Our object here is not to acquire knowledge, but to become better men. Whatever general principles we may reach, we come at last, hke physicians or navigators, to cases that have to be judged individually. He begins by explaining that all men, consciously or otherwise, have an aim in each action, the special aim being subordi- nate to one still larger, and so on. The iilti- mate aim, consciously or unconsciously pur- sued, is happiness. Wherein consists true happiness? It consists in a life of noble IN PHILOSOPHY 37S I activity. For perfect happiness the outward conditions must be favorable. Still, what- ever misery may come, "the blest one can never become wretched, for he can never do hateful or worthless things." What is to be our canon of right action? Aristotle wisely declines to lay down such a canon. We become just and righteous, he says, not by hstening to ethical discourses, but by doing just and righteous things ; and these things are those that just and righteous men do. Subject to this warning against overtrust in theory, he defines virtue as the state in which we use our free choice to avoid excess on the one hand, or defect on the other, as defined by right reason and the practice of wise men. A large part of his ethical treatise is occu- pied with illustrations of this in detail. Courage, temperance, liberality, magnanimity, mildness of temper, geniality, truthfulness, graciousness, are analyzed and contrasted with the vicious states of exaggeration or defect between which they stand. The discussion of justice, temperance, and friend- ship is carried out with special care. His manner of contrasting the false friendships of pleasure and interest with the perfect friendship following from intercourse of noble natures, wishing good for one another in that they are themselves good and pure, is but one of many signs that the heart of this great thinker was worthy of his intellect. Not less striking are his remarks on self-love, which, in its highest form, meant love for what was best in self; readiness to throw life away, if need were, at the call of duty; to do one great and noble deed rather than many small ones; to choose noble life for a year above many years of mediocrity. He ends, as he began, with renewed insist- ence on the need of moral discipline begun in early life. The whole environment must be such as to predispose to the love of good and hatred of evil. No other philosopher ever exerted so large an influence on so many centuries and nations as Aristotle. His greatness was not recog- nized until the middle ages. The Greek world, politically degenerated, at the time of his death and after, looked on Plato, and men far weaker than Plato, as his superiors. By a strange incident his principal works, in- trusted to his disciple, Theophrastus, disap- peared from view for two centuries, until brought to Rome by Sulla and edited by Andronicus. In the tvirmoil of barbarUm invasion, and during the building up of the Christian church, his name was forgotten, except by a few obscure writers in Constanti- nople, until the great Mohammedan schools arose in Baghdad and Cordova. Averrote, mentioned by Dante as the great Aristotelian commentator, and the Jew, Maimonides, were his principal introducers to the we s tern world. From the twelfth to the fourteenth century his metaphysical system became, in the hands of the schoolmen, the basis of Catholic the- ology. It gave birth to the celebrated dis- cussion between nominalism and realism, and to all the teaching of Abclard. Albertus Magnus commented on the whole works of the Stagirite; Thomas Aquinas explained some of their more difficult por- tions; a crowd of illustrious doctors imme- diately followed their example ; and Aristotle, translated by care of Pope Urban V. and of Cardinal Bessarion, became forthwith, in respect to science, that which the fathers of the church, or even scripture itself, were in relation to faith. No one, apparently, was allowed to think otherwise than with Aris- totle, and every doctrine set up against one of his was practically equivalent to a heresy. But what is curious respecting the influence of Aristotelianism is that, after some hesita- tion. Protestantism adopted Aristotle as ar- dently as the Catholic church. Melanchthon introduced his writings into the Lutheran schools. The society of Jesus adopted the peripatetic philosophy in its entireness; and, with its peculiar ability, turned it against all bold thinkers of the time and especially against the adherents of Descartes. It was not until the eighteenth century — a century victorious over so many other abuses — that this one also came to an end. Aristotle reigned no more, except in colleges and seminaries; the manuals of philosophy in use among ecclesiastical establishments were, and still are, nothing but a dry r6nun6 of his doctrine. But the general reaction went to excess, in spite of the wise counsels of Leibnitz; the Stagirite was treated with that unjust disdain with which men had begim to regard the whole past. Even the gravest historian of philosophy could not do him justice. The yoke had been broken too recently, and men could not forget how oppressive it was. 274 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT At last, however, Aristotle again assumed the place in philosophy which was unquestion- ably due to him. Kant and Hegel, in Ger- many, Cousin, in France, Sir William Ham- ilton, in Great Britain, gave a tremendous impetus to the study of Aristotle, with the result that the great doctrines of the Greek philosopher are probably now better known and more accurately appreciated than at any other time in the history of thought. As the founder, too, of biological and social science, his influence has passed far beyond the limits of his pure philosophy, both theoretical and practical. There is no work he ever wrote which may not nourish and inspire every searcher after truth and correct method. There are many of them, such as the Organon, wholly above reach of cavil, which must remain a necessity for all sects and all men, as well as for all time ; and he must be regarded as one of the greatest glories of Greece. If men have freely dissented from him, his own words are ample apology: "It is best to examine theories carefully and narrowly, even though phi- losophers who are very dear to us have espoused them. It is best also to put aside personal feelings, and to think only of the truth. Both are dear, nevertheless it is a sacred duty to give preference to the defense of truth." ST. THOMAS AQUINAS A. D. AQE A. D. AQB 1227 Bom at Rocca Secca, near Aquino, 1261 Summoned to Rome by Pope Urban Italy. IV., 34 1240 Studied at Naples, 13 1269 Returned to Paris, 42 1243 Entered the Dominican order, . . 16 1272 Settled at Naples, 46 1244-48 Studied at Cologne and Paris, . . 17-21 1274 Died at Foasa Nuova, near Terra- 1253 Taught and studied at Paris, ... 26 cina, 47 1257 Doctor of theology at Paris, ... 30 nPHOMAS AQUINAS, or Thomas of *■ Aquino, was the most famous representa- tive of the scholastic philosophy, and one of the greatest of all theologians. He belonged to the great feudal family of the counts of Aquino in the kingdom of Naples, and was born at the castle of Rocca Secca, near the famous monastery of Monte Cassino, in 1227. His father was a nephew of Frederick Barbarossa, and he was thus related, also, to the emperor Frederick II. of the holy Roman empire. Thomas received his earliest instruction at Monte Cassino, whence he passed, about 1240, to the newly-founded imiversity of Naples. A thoughtful boy, fond of study from his earliest years, he was not eager to run with others the race of worldly ambition or to fight his way with the sword to honors and rewards. These things he rather shunned, and turned with longing to the secluded quiet of the monastic life, of which he had already seen something. Without the knowledge of his family he entered, in his sixteenth year, the Dominican convent at Naples, and stead- fastly resisted all endeavors to change his purpose. It is said that when he was sent to France he was seized, soon after setting out, _by his two brothers, who kept him in confine- ment for a year or more, until his release was ordered by the emperor. He made profession as a Dominican in 1243, and then became a pupil of Albertus Magnus, or Albert the Great, at Cologne. From this master he learned the doctrine which he after- ward taught, but in a form more precisely and decisively elaborated. Among his fellow students his modesty and silence procured for him the nickname of "the great dumb ox of Sicily." But when on one occasion a test was applied to his knowledge and capacity, they found they were mistaken ; and the mas- ter declared that the lowings of this ox would one day resound throughout the world. With Albert he spent a short time at Paris. After their return to Cologne, in 1248, Albert was commissioned by the Dominican order to establish a theological school, in which Aquinas taught. In 1253 he again went to Paris, and soon afterward took a leading part in the defense before the pope of the mendicant orders against the assaults of the university of Paris. During his visit to Paris he became the friend of the Franciscan Bonaventura, whose char- acter, so unlike that of Aquinas, was indicated by his title of "doctor seraphicus." When IN PHILOSOPHY 276 he sought the doctor's degree at Paris, the university resolved not to admit him ; but so great was his renown that they were compelled to rescind the resolution, and in 1257 he received his doctor of theology. Thoroughly imbued with the scholastic, dialectic, and Aristotelian philosophy, he came forward, after a few years, as a public teacher in Paris. His masterly application of this philosophy to the systematizing of theology gave him the first place as a philosophical and theological authority. His fame as a theologian became supreme throughout Europe, and the popes acknowledged him as the greatest theologian of his age. Louis IX. of France (St. Louis) admitted Aquinas to intimate friendship, and he was a frequent guest at the court of that ruler. Numerous stories are told in connec- tion with the intensity with which he pursued his theological and philosophical inquiries. On one occasion, it is related, when dining at the table of Saint Louis, his absorption was so complete that he struck the board violently, with the exclamation, "This is conclusive against the Manichaeans I " The king, no way disconcerted, simply ordered his secretary to take the argument down, and the repast was then resumed. In 1261 Pope Urban IV., upon his ascen- sion to the pontificate, called him to Rome, to assist in the difficult task of reconciling the Greek and Latin churches. The succeeding pope offered him the archbishopric of Naples ; but this he declined, as he did other promo- tions and dignities. He was content to remain a simple monk, free to devote himself to the arduous task he had chosen. In 1269 he was once more at Paris; but was called again to teach at Naples in 1272. Pope Gregory X., having convoked a general coun- cil at Lyons, France, in 1274, the object of which was to formally settle the union of the Greek and Latin churches, Aquinas was sum- moned to assist. He set out for Lyons before the end of winter, and on his way visited the castle of Magenza, the seat of some of his kinsfolk. Here he was suddenly seized with a fever, and by his own desire was removed to the convent of Fossa Nuova, where he died, still in the prime of life, March 7, 1274. Ac- cording to a report that was given wide cur- rency — and accepted, apparently, by Dante — he was poisoned at the instigation of Charles I. of Sicily, who dreaded the evidence that Aquinas was able to give of him at the council of Lyons. The possession of his remains was u eagerly coveted as his living presence and teaching had been. For nearly a century the dispute for his dead body was maintained between the monks of the convent of Fossa Nuova, the order to which he belonged, and the univer- sity of Paris. It was at last settled in favor of the Dominican onler, and the body was removed, in 1369, to Toulouse, where a splendid monument was erected to his memory. He had before this, in 1323, been canonized by Pope John XXII. The further honor was reserved for him of being named, two centuries later, by Pius V., the fifth doctor of the church. Aquinas was remarkable for modesty, exemplary obedience, and purity of life. Neither can we withhold our admiration of his lofty aim, unselfish toil, grand patience, and the wholesome influence he exerted in the world. He was a man of distinctly philo- sophical temper, gifted with great mental powers. His intellect was acute, clear, logical, passionless. He looked at every subject through the understanding, and reduced it with minute precision and accuracy to the syllogistic form. He had great perspicacity of thought and perspicuity of expression, and carried the penetration of his intellect into all theological subjects with the boWest and calmest confidence. His definitions and dis- tinctions are minute as well as numerous, often impalpable to the common intellect. Aquinas may be said to have carried the Aristotelian logic, as applied to theology, to its utmost limit. In him the scholastic sys- tem of theology reached its highest point. To appreciate the work of Aquinas and the schoolmen, we must realize the intellectual shock given to the western mind by the spread of the Mohammedan faith, and by the revival of Greek learning under Mohammedan auspices. Monotheism, stripped of the myste- ries of the Catholic faith, had spread oyer eastern Europe and Spain, and, by absorbing and propagating Greek thought, was asserting intellectual supremacy. The solvent effects of contact between East and West had already shown themselves in the heresies with which southern France teemed, and which had roused the fervor of Dominic. Against this formidable invasion the schoolmen, headed by Aquinas, instituted a spiritual crusade. Aquinas saw and felt the chronic enigmas of human existence. He faced them with astonishing boldness. The aim and hope of 276 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT his life was to serve the world and the church by solving them. To this high task he early set himself with unselfish courage and devotion ; by a lifetime of immensely laborious study he accumulated all the learning of his own age, and thus equipped himself for the accom- plishment of his grand design. It was nothing less than this : to effect a harmony of reason and revelation. His assumptions were that both were of divine origin and authority, and that no truth uttered by the one could con- tradict any truth uttered by the other. Dis- gusted with the obscurity and confusion which prevailed in the theologies of the age, he sought to introduce an orderly, consistent, and all-comprehensive system; and in his effort to accomplish this purpose he invoked all the subtleties and power of Aristotle's logic. He first published several works which served as preliminaries to his greatest work. Among these were a commentary on the so- called Sententice, or "Sentences," of Lom- bardus; and the Summa Catholicce Fidei contra Gentiles, or "Defense of the Catholic faith." In the latter — the ablest of his philosophical writings — he throws new light over the most abstract truths, and the princi- ples of the church are defended against its enemies both within and without. The cir- cumstance of his being a Dominican, and boasted of by his order as their great orna- ment, excited the jealousy of the Franciscans against him. In the beginning of the four- teenth century. Duns Scotus, a Franciscan, came forward as the declared opponent of the doctrines of Aquinas, and founded the phi- losophico-thcological school of the Scotists, to whom the Thomists, mostly Dominicans, stood opposed. The Thomists leaned in philosophy to nominalism, although they held the abstract form to be the essence of things; the Scotists, on the other hand, inclined to realism; and out of this rivalry sprang up the famous controversy over nominalism and realism that characterized the philosophical discussions of the middle ages for several centuries. One great service which Aquinas rendered to philosophy was that of encouraging and obtaining a complete translation of the works of Aristotle directly from the Greek. Until then only portions of them had been known, and those very imperfectly by Latin transla- tions from the Arabic. After ten years of labor Aquinas expanded his earlier work — Contra Gentiles — into hia great work, the Summa Theologice, or "Sum of Theology," which remains to this day the most comprehensive and complete of all expositions of the Catholic system. The work has three divisions, broadly cor- responding to the subjects God, man, the church. The existence of God is demon- strated, on Aristotelian principles, as the final source of motion, itself unmoved. But how pass from the Aristotelian to the Christian God? To demonstrate the Trinity was infi- nitely beyond human power. Nevertheless, even here reason must not abdicate. In human nature rightly fathomed was to be seen something that rendered the mysteries of the faith not indeed intelligible but con- ceivable. Those things, Aquinas explains, that are said of God are to be interpreted by analogies drawn from the highest of created things. Whoever understands is aware that in the act of understanding there issues some- what from his mental power and knowledge, which is the concept of the thing understood. This is the word — first unspoken, then spoken. So, too, in the operation of will there is within us something else that pro- ceeds, a proceeding of love, by which the loved object is said to dwell within the lover. But disquisitions on the nature of being and the existence of God, though the foundation of the Catholic system, yet occupy but a small portion of it. Even of this first division of the work, a large part is occupied with the attempt to reconcile the accepted conclusions of physical science with the Mosaic account of the creation, and with the relations of mind and matter, as illustrated in the contrast of human nature with the bodiless intellects called angels — a discussion fertile in after consequences. Under the guidance of his master, Albert the Great, Aquinas had thoroughly assimilated the physical science of his time. He had begun his career by voluminous commentaries on the physical and metaphysical works of Aristotle. Enough was known of the solar system and of natural history to render the acceptance of the Hebrew story of creation very difficult. Why was light created on the first day, and the stars on the fourth? Why was the moon called one of the two great lights, being smaller than any of the planets? Why were birds and reptiles said to issue from the water, quadrupeds from the land? These and countless other objections are fully set IN PHILOSOPHY 377 forward. The task of reconciling science and scripture, familiar to our own times, then begins, the result being that a far wider pathway was opened for scientific research than is commonly supposed. The second and most important division of the work deals with the moral government of man. It has two parts, the first discussing the more general aspects of human conduct, the second the more special. In the first the principal subjects considered are free will; human passions; virtue and vice; sin, origi- nal, venial, and moral; law, natural. Judaic, Christian; and grace. In the second sub- division each virtue is considered with its opposing vice ; first, the theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity ; second, the cardinal virtues, prudence, justice, fortitude, and tem- perance. Throughout this part of the work the Ethics of Aristotle is far more frequently quoted than the scriptures or the fathers. It may be noted that in the discussion of jus- tice Aquinas was considered by the great Grotius to have laid a sound foundation for the theory of international law. The third part deals with the incarnation, the sacraments, and the state of the soul after death. Of this part the first ninety chapters only are believed to be by Aquinas. It is known at any rate, that on December 6, 1273, he was writing at Naples the ninetieth chap- ter when weakness of health compelled him to break off his studies. It may be remarked that the doctrine of papal infallibility, as the result of ultimate appeal in question of dis- puted doctrine, is systematically maintained. Aquinas could not conceive of a society like the church existing without government. The only scholastic theologian who in any degree rivaled St. Thomas in his own age was the so-called "subtle doctor," Duns Scotus, of the order of St. Francis. The Franciscans naturally followed Scotus, and the Dominicans founded their teachings on St. Thomas ; henceforward mediaeval theology was divided Jnto two schools — Scotists and Thomists. The divergencies which penetrate almost every branch of doc- trine depend upon the different systems of metaphysics or scholastic philosophy upon which the theologies were based. These differences concerned principally the idea of God, the operations of grace and justification, the mode in which the sacraments take effect, etc. Popularly, Scotism is best known for its advocacy of the immaculate concep>- tion, and for its doctrine of the incamAtioo. Thomism represents, on the other hand, with few exceptions, the general teaching of the Catholic church to-day — the aouroee oC truth through revelation and reafloo, the doctrine of God, the visible church, the virtues, and other cardinal doctriDes set out in his writings. It is statixl that on the assembling of the council of Trent, essentially a council against Lutheranism, the advances of which had ren- dered it necessary to reconstruct the dognutio fortifications of the church, there was laid 00 the desk of the secretary of the council, beside the Bible, a ponderous folio of the Summa Theologice, the masterpiece of St. Thomas Aquinas, produced about three centuries earlier. It had long won acceptance and reverence as the highest authority in theology and philosophy, and was held to contain the final solution of all the problems which were to be discussed at the council. The incident is significant, not only of the extraordinary authority of the book at that time, but also of the character which modern Catholicism was to take from it. "In his works," says Milman, "or rather in his one great work, is the final result of all which has been decided by pope or council, taught by the fathers, accepted by tradition, argued by the schools, inculcated in the con- fessional. The 'Sum of Theology' is the authentic, authoritative, acknowledged code of Latin Christianity." The commentaries of St. Thomas Aquinas on scripture and his devotional treatises also have a high reputation. His influence on the theological thought of the world from his own time down to the present has been immense. He imited theology with ethics, and laid broad and deep the foundations of Christian morals — one of his distinct achievements. In 1879 his philosophy and theology were declared, on papal authority, the basic teachings on those subjects, throughout the Catholic world; and, in 1883, his complete works were published under the auspices of Pope Leo XIIL, in Latin, the language of their original composition. Important parts of all his works, as well as summaries, have also been published in English. In recognition of his talents and virtues, St. Thomas has been variously styled the "universal doctor," "angelical doctor," "prince of scholastics," "doctor of the church," and "patron of all CathoUc schools.** 278 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT BACON A. D. AGE 1661 Bom at London 1573 Entered Trinity college, Cambridge, . 12 1676 Visited France, 16 1682 Admitted to the bar, 21 1697 Essays 36 1603 Knighted by James I., 42 1606 Advancement of Learning, 44 1609 Wisdom of the Ancients, 48 A. D. AOB 1613 Attorney-general of Great Britain, . . 62 1617 Lord keeper of the great seal, .' . . . 66 1618 Lord chancellor, and Baron Verulam, 67 1620 Novum Organutn, 59 1621 Charged with corruption, 60 1622 History of Henry VII., 61 1626 Died at Highgate, 66 ■pRANCIS BACON, commonly, but incor- * rectly, called Lord Bacon, was one of the most illustrious of English philosophers, as well as an eminent jurist and statesman. He came of distinguished parentage, being the second son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper of the great seal, under Queen Elizabeth, and Anne, daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, the preceptor of Edward VI. The place of his birth was York House, in the Strand, London, where he was bom January 22, 1561. In childhood Bacon was remarkable for physical delicacy and mental precocity. He had a lively wit, and his sedateness was so marked that the queen took pleasure in calling him her "young lord keeper." At the age of twelve he was sent to Trinity college, Cambridge, where he remained in residence for three years, and quitted it with a strong conviction against the fruitfulness of the sys- tem of philosophy there taught, and the con- sequent necessity of educational reform. He revolted especially against the philosophy of Aristotle, which he considered "a philosophy only for disputations and contentions, and barren in the production of works for the benefit of the Ufe of man " ; and his intellec- tual efforts were ever after bent on working out and declaring the philosophical views for which he is chiefly famous. In 1576 he was entered as a student in the society of Gray's Inn, with the view to pre- paring for the bar. Before, however, he commenced his legal studies, his father sent him to France, in the suite of the British ambassador. Sir Amyas Paulet. During his residence abroad he wrote his first work, which was not intended originally for publi- cation, but was improved and printed after some years. It was called Of the State of Europe, and derives its chief interest from its having been written at the early age of nineteen. The civil and political views, how- ever, of even this very early production, are sound, and the composition graceful. In 1579 Sir Nicholas Bacon died, leaving Francis but a small share of his fortune. Finding his private means insufficient for his support, he returned to England and com- menced the study of law, to which he applied himself with great diligence. He did not, however, suffer the demands of his legal studies to interfere with those pursuits, in which he was fully persuaded that his great strength lay. Between the ages of twenty and twenty-eight he produced a work, which he called the Greatest Birth of Time. It was never published, and is lost in its separate form, but the substance of it remains in his Instauralio. In 1582 Bacon was admitted to the bar, and in 1588 was chosen reader, or lecturer, by the society of which he was a member. In the same year he received the only mark of honor conferred upon him in the reign of Elizabeth, in the title of "counsel learned in the law extraordinary." It is worthy of notice that Bacon, who was the nephew of the lord high treasurer Burleigh, and cousin of the secretary of state, Sir Robert Cecil, was never able to obtain any office in the court of Elizabeth. The reason evidently was that he had early attached himself to the faction of the earl of Essex, who, though the queen's greatest favorite, was in constant opposition to her ministers. This unfortunate nobleman exerted himself to the utmost, at the extreme risk of offending his testy mistress, to secure for Bacon the place of solicitor- general, as the first step of legal advancement ; but he was unsuccessful. The ministers declared their belief that Bacon was merely a theorist, and that his talents were not fitted for practical purposes. Perhaps there was no small mixture of jealousy in this declara^ tion. To make some amends to Bacon for this disappointment, Lord Essex gave him an estate out of his own private fortune, which he afterward sold at a ridiculously low price. This was one of many kindnesses which Bacon illy requited in after years. In 1592 Bacon published a defense of the government, in answer to a hbel, in conse- quence of which he received the reversion of FRANCIS BACON From a fainting IN PHILOSOPHY 381 the register's office to the star chamber, which he did not enjoy until twenty years later. In the parliament of 1593 he was chosen a member for the county of Middlesex, a proof that his pubhc talents were not unap- preciated by his countrymen. In parlia- ment he proved himself an orator of the first class; his speeches were extremely elegant and forcible, and his wit so well blended with good sense and winning manners as to secure him the favorable attention of that assem- bly. He was frequently employed by the government to defend their measures in parlia- ment, which he did with consummate pru- dence, but he still went publicly unrewarded. In 1596 Bacon wrote but did not then publish his Maxims of the Law; and in the year following he published his first edition of Essays, or Counsels Civil and Moral — the work by which he is best known to the general reader. In the trial of the earl of Essex for high treason, a few years later. Bacon appeared as counsel for the crown; and, after the execution of that unfortunate nobleman, the queen directed him to compose and publish an account of the earl of Essex's treasons. His apparent zeal on this occasion excited the indignation of the people, among whom Essex was much beloved, and he was obliged to apologize for his conduct by a letter to the earl of Devonshire, one of the firm partisans of Essex. The death of Elizabeth, which soon followed that of her favorite, revived Bacon's hopes of advancement. He applied himself early to obtain the favor of the new king, James I., and a proclamation, which he drew up on the latter's arrival, though never pubhshed, did him great service. He was introduced to the king at Whitehall, and was knighted, July 23, 1603. In the following year his services to the court, in parliament and elsewhere, were rewarded by the title of king's counsel, with a stipend of forty pounds, and an additional pension of sixty pounds. Although he seemed on the high road of preferment. Bacon had powerful enemies to obstruct his advancement. Sir Robert Cecil, son of Lord Burleigh, created earl of Salisbury by James I., though Bacon's cousin, had always shown himself adverse to his kinsman's advancement, apparently from jealousy of his uncommon talents. Between Bacon and the attorney-general. Sir Edward Coke, there existed a more violent hostility, arising from various causes. Sir Edward was successful early, Bacon late; and the power which Coke obtained he used to depress his antagonist. They had both been suitors of the rich Lady Hatton, Lord Burleigh's granddaughter, wlumi Coke married. As a further exasperation of their enmity, a celebrated legal dispute occurred in 1616, between the courta of king's bench and chancery, " Whether the chancery, after judgment given in the courts of law, was prohibited from giving relief upon matters arising in equity, which the judges at Uw could not determine or relieve." Bacon had a leading share in obtaining that decision in favor of the privileges of the court of chan- cery, which has had so great an influence upon the jurisdiction of courts. In 1605 Bacon published the first part of Advancement of Learning, subsetjuently ex- panded into De Augmentis Scientiarum, or "Advancement of Science," which inaugu- rated a new era in English hterature and science. His view of the service he was doing is shown in a letter to Lord Salisbury, sent with a copy of this work, where he says that in this book he was contented to awake bet- ter spirits, being himself like a bell ringer, who is the first to call others to church. The year following this notable work he married Alice, the daughter of Benedict Barn- ham, a wealthy London merchant and alder- man, who outlived him many years, and by whom he had no children. In the year 1607 Bacon achieved his first substantial success in public affairs. Lord Salisbury had arisen to such power and con- fidence with the king that he no longer feared the talents of Bacon, and with his concurrence, if not by his means. Bacon was at length appointed solicitor-general of the kingdom, which, besides its future promise, was an office worth five or six thousand pounds a year to him in private practice. Though now a busy man, and constantly engaged in affairs of the crown, he nevertheless found time to write and publish, in 1609, his Wisdom of the Ancients, a work of great elegance and pro- found learning. In 1611 he was appointed joint judge of the knights marshals' court, and, in 1613, attorney-general, on the promo- tion of Lord Coke to the office of chief justice of the king's bench. Bacon did not attach himself to the fortunes of the reigning favorite, the earl of Somerset, and when that lord and his countess were brought to trial for the mur- der of Sir Thomas Overbury, he had the management of the case for the crown, which 282 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT he so conducted as to keep himself out of the disgrace into which Coke and others fell with the king, on account of this critical affair. He was further advanced to the office of lord keeper of the great seal in March, 1617, on the resignation of the lord chancellor, Viscount Brackley, and the same year sat at the head of the council board as manager of the king's affairs, during the absence of the monarch and his new favorite, Buckingham, in Scotland. On the return of the king. Bacon was made lord high chancellor, January 4, 1618, and in July following he was created Baron Verulam. In 1620 he sent to the king his Novum Organum, or "New Instru- ment of Logic, better calculated for the real progress of science than that of Aristotle." The next year Bacon received the title of Viscount St. Albans, and opened parlia- ment of February, 1621, the most honored and among the most powerful subjects of the realm. But this parliament was fatal to him. James I. had not called this assembly together for more than ten years, except for the short session of two months in 1614, and during that period had been subsisting on the uncon- stitutional resources of benevolences, and the sale of monopolies. Almost the first act of this parliament was the inquiry into abuses, more particularly those of the courts of justice, and the sale of patents. As all patents had to pass the seal, it was natural that the conduct of the lord keeper should be looked into, and this led to further inquiry concerning the administration of justice in the chancellor's court. The chair- man of a committee appointed to conduct this inquiry brought up two charges of bribery against Bacon. This alarmed James and his favorite, and parliament was ad- journed for three weeks in the hope that the affair would blow over. But during this recess twenty-two cases of bribery were charged upon the chancellor, and a deputa- tion from the house of commons waited on him to know whether he would confess or refute them. In a few days he chose to make confession, and threw himself on the mercy of his peers. Bacon's confession was not thought ample enough, and too extenuatory. He was then obliged to make one still more full, in writing, upon which a deputation of thirteen lords was sent to him, to know whether it were really his. His answer to them was, " My Lords, it is my act, my hand, my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed." At the petition of the peers, the seals were sequestered, Bacon was deprived of his speakership and of his seat in parliament, and further was fined forty thousand pounds, sentenced to imprisonment during the king's pleasure, debarred from entering the court, and declared incapable of holding any office in the future. This penalty was considerably mitigated by James, who confined him but a short time in the Tower, allowed him to make over the fine to assignees of his own choosing, and, for the settling of his affairs, gave him leave to reside for some time within the verge of the court. After some years, at the earnest sohcitation of Bacon, "that his royal master would be pleased to wipe out his disgrace from the page of history by his princely pardon," he received the favor he so much desired. At the age of sixty-one he retired to his country seat at Gorhambury, having an in- come of about twenty-five hundred pounds. His debts amounted to about thirty thou- sand pounds, of which he Uquidated a third before his death. Here — at Gorhambury — apart from the noise and stir of life, Bacon more sedulously bent his mind to the cultivation of philosophy, his true field of labor. With the exception of his History of Henry VII., in 1622, and a tract written against the match between Prince Charles and the infanta of Spain, the last years of his fife were spent in making philosophical experiments, and in moulding his works to a more perfect form. It was his great wish that what he had written should be translated into the general language of learn- ing, Latin. Consequently, much of his time during this period was employed in expanding and translating the Advancement, or revising the translations of his friends. In March, 1626, he caught cold while stuffing a fowl with snow near Highgate, in order to observe the effect of cold on the pres- ervation of flesh. He was taken to the house of Lord Arundel, in Highgate, on his way to London, and a week's acute illness carried him to his grave, April 9, 1626. He was buried in St. Michael's church, St. Albans. For a long time no stone told where he lay, until the affection of an old servant erected a marble monument to the memory of his noble master. Bacon's personal appearance was prepos- sessing. He was of medium stature, well IN PHILOSOPHY 888 I formed, but not robust. His head was well poised, with a high, broad forehead, and his face was expressive of benevolence and high intellectual culture. " In advanced life," says Lord Campbell, "his whole appearance was venerably pleasing, so that a stranger was insensibly drawn to love before knowing how much reason there was to admire him. He was a most delightful companion, adapting himself to company of every degree, calling, and humor, and bringing out with great effect his unexhausted stores of jests new and old." He was singularly free from all jealousy, delighted to recognize merit in others, and was uniformly kind to his servants and dependents. His glaring weaknesses were founded on his extravagance and inordinate love of display. These, together with his supreme belief in himself, led him to ignore many of the ordinary laws of morality, and finally culminated in his social disgrace and ruin. He seemed peculiarly deficient, too, in gratitude, was continually in pecuniary difficulties, and was even arrested for debt on several occasions. Whether the classic char- acterization of him as the "wisest, brightest, and meanest of mankind " was altogether just and accurate will ever be a matter of divided opinion; but that he was eminently human both in his faults and his virtues, all will agree. At the time of his death. Bacon's name was widely known throughout Europe, and he himself was appreciated on the continent to a far greater extent than by his fellow country- men. Some allusion to this is found in his will, in which, after having commended his soul to God, and his body to dust, he proceeds, prophetically, to "bequeath his name and fame to foreign nations, and to his own coun- trymen after some time be passed over." Bacon's literary work is divisible into phil- osophical, purely literary, and professional writings. His philosophy is chiefly to be studied in (1) Advancement of Learning, a review of the state of knowledge in his own time, and its chief defects; (2) De Augmentis Scientiarum, a Latin expansion of the Ad- vancement; and (3) Novum Organum, intended to form the second book of a never-completed greater treatise, Instauratio Magna, a review and encyclopedia of all knowledge. The Novum Organum is his chief work, and may be regarded as the one supreme thought of his life. He not only commenced it twelve different times, but after it had been first completed he was almost oeaaden in retouch- ing it. In this work, as indicated by the title. Bacon proposes to substitute for the Organum of Aristotle, the scholastic logic, the syllogism and abstract principlee gener- ally, a new Organum, a logic of experience and induction. This new logic was only presented as the instrument of a vast reform, which he himself sets out as follows : " Man, being the servant and interpreUr of nature, can do and understand so much and so much only as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature ; beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do any- thing. "Neither the naked hand nor the under- standing left to itself can effect much. It is by instruments and helps that the work ia done, which are as much wanted for the under- standing as for the hand. And as the instru- ments of the hand either give motion or guide it, so the instruments of the mind supply other suggestions for the understanding or cautions. "Human knowledge and human power meet in one ; for where the cause is not known the effect cannot be produced. Nature to be commanded must be obeyed ; and that which in contemplation is as the cause is in operation as the rule. "The conclusions of human reason as ordinarily applied in matter of nature, I call for the sake of distinction Anticipations of Nature (as a thing rash or premature). That reason which is elicited from facts by a just and methodical process I call Interpretation of Nature. " I am of the opinion that if men had ready at hand a just history of nature and experience, and labored diligently thereon; and if they could bind themselves to two rules — the first to lay aside received opinions and notions; and the second, to r^ain the mind for a time from the highest generalizations, and those next to them — they would be able by the native and genuine force of the mind, without any other art, to fall into my form of interpretation. For interpretation is the true and natural work of the mind when freed from impediments. It is true, however, that by my precepts everything will be in more readiness, and much more sure. "Nor again do I mean to say that no im- provement can be made upon these. On the contrary, I that regard the mind not only in ita own faculties, but in its connection with 284 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT things, must needs hold that the art of dis- covery may advance as discoveries advance." The purpose of it all was to be the great philosophy of the future — active science. The conflict between science and metaphysics had already begun through the astronomi- cal discoveries of the sixteenth century. Bacon conceived the next step to be the scientific observations of nature, and the construction of a doctrine applicable to the conduct of human life, so that the richness of its results might be contrasted with the sterility of metaphysics. He found that the beliefs of learned men — apart from religious beliefs — rested upon the authority of one unquestionably great intelligence, Aristotle, who had invented laws of science, unfounded except in the speculations of his own mind, and many of them misunderstood by his idolizers. These laws were given or made, and facts were supposed to follow from them necessarily and without question. But Bacon proposed to found his general laws on actual experiments. So that, when a multitude of conclusions were adduced from this course of proceeding, and laws should be formulated which fairly accounted for certain phenomena, the application of such laws might further become the confirmation of fresh, and, it may be, more difficult combinations. The Novum Organum begins by eliminating four sources of error, called by Bacon idols. (1) The errors due to the inherent weakness of man's understanding, its incapacity for resisting sensuous impressions or impulses of passion; its readiness to suppose far more simplicity in surrounding nature than really exists; its want of patience and sobriety. These things he called idols of the tribe. (2) The errors originating in the peculiar con- stitution and temper of each individual. These he called idols of the den. (3) The errors springing from inaccurate use of lan- guage — the idols of the market. (4) The errors brought about by the prejudice of philosophic systems — the idols of the theater. The second part of the Organum deals with the interpretation of nature. The object is to detect what Bacon calls forms, correspond- ing very nearly to what we know as laws of nature, i. e., uniform actions exhibited in widely different objects. "A nature being given," he says, "we must first present to the understanding all the known instances which agree in the same nature, though the subject- matter be considerably diversified." These must be contrasted with instances which do not admit of the given nature. Most im- portant of all are what he terms prerogative instances, of which he defines twenty-seven classes. Among them may be noted, solitary instances, those showing the same quality in bodies otherwise different, or some difference in bodies otherwise identical; migratory instances, the gradual transition from a given state to its opposite; singular instances, objects apparently exceptional, and standing alone in nature ; instances of power, i. e., the study of the principles underlying man's practical arts; instances of the road, the study of the gradual and continuous motions of nature, as in the germination and growth of seeds, the incubation of eggs; finally, instances of the cross, otherwise called decisive, or judicial — the metaphor being borrowed from the crosses erected where two roads meet: when two explanations of a fact are equally possible, find a fact that can only be explained by one of them. This will illustrate sufficiently the method of the Organum. He did not propose to make discoveries but simply cause them to be made ; yet he himself anticipated several. For instance, he invented a thermometer; he instituted ingenious experiments on the com- pressibility of bodies, and on the density and weight of air; he suggested chemical pro- cesses; he suspected the law of universal attraction; he foresaw the true explication of the tides, and the cause of colors. Here are a few of his prophecies as appended to the New Atlantis: The prolongation of life, the restitution of youth in some degree, the retardation of age, the curing of diseases counted incurable, the mitigation of pain, more easy and less loathsome purgings, the increasing of strength and activity, the increasing of ability to suffer torture or pain, the altering of complexions, and fatness, and leanness, the altering of statures, the altering of features, the increasing and exalting of the intellectual parts, conversions of bodies into other bodies, making of new species, trans- planting of one species into another, instru- ments of destruction, as of war and poison; exhilaration of spirits and change of tempera- ment; force of the imagination, either upon another body, or upon the body itself ; accel- eration of time in maturations, acceleration of time in clarifactions, acceleration of putre- faction, acceleration of decoction, acceleration of germination, making rich composts for the IN PHILOSOPHY 9B5 earth, impressions of the air, and raising of tempests; great alteration, as in induration, emollition, etc.; turning crude and watery substances into oily and unctuous substances not now in use, making new threads for ap- parel, and new stuffs, such as paper, glass, etc.; natural divinations, deceptions of the senses, greater pleasures of the senses, artificial minerals and cements. While soaring on sublime heights we must not forget that the chief end of all speculation is practice, the philosophical is only a means to the practical ; all science has prevision for its object. Bacon's greatness, therefore, con- sists in his insistence on the facts that man is the servant and interpreter of nature, that truth is not derived from authority, and that knowledge is the fruit of experience; and in spite of the defects of his method, the impetus he gave to future scientific investigation is indisputable. He was the practical creator of scientific induction. "Bacon," says Bishop Creighton, "&nt clearly set forth the claims of inductive philosophy as against the old methods of metaphysical speculation. He asserted that knowledge was to be found by careful inveati- gation of nature, not by spinning cobweba of the brain. He turned men from disputations of words to an observation of the world around them. Bacon's method was faulty, as was natural for a beginner; but modem science has still to point to him as the man who first brought into due prominence the principles on which its method was to be founded." DESCARTES A. D. AQE A. D. AOB 1596 Born at La Haye, France, ... 1641 Meditationea de Prima PhUoto- 1604-12 Attended the Jesuit college at La phia, or "Speculations on Fun- Fl^che, 8-16 damental Philosophy," .... 45 1617-21 Served in several military cam- 1644 Principia Philosophug, or "Prin- paigns, 21-25 ciples of Philosophy"; visited 1624-25 Visited Italy and Switzerland, . . 28-29 France, 48 1629 Retired to Holland, 33 1649 At court of Sweden, 63 1637 Discours de la Mithode, OT "Dis- 1650 Died at Stockholm, Sweden, . . 64 course on Method," 41 T3ENE DU PERROT DESCARTES, dis- ■'■^ tinguished French philosopher, and founder oi modern philosophy, was born at La Haye, near Tours, France, March 31, 1596. His father held hereditary membership in the provincial government of Touraine, and be- longed to one of the best families of that province. At his death, Descartes inherited a modest competency, which enabled him, in after life, to follow the philosophic bent of his mind without difficulty or distraction. When about eight years of age, Descartes was sent to the Jesuit college at La Fl^che, where he remained, in all, about eight years. During this period of his life he appears to have devoted himself mainly to poetry and mathematics, particularly the latter. He was also conducted by the professors through the regular course of physics and philosophy ; but even at that early age he became deeply impressed with the uncertainty of the prem- ises they laid down, and the conclusions they drew from them, and felt then the first rising desire to see a totally new reconstruc- tion of all the sciences. Influenced by these doubts which pressed upon him, he returned home and gave up all literary pursuits. His father, some time after, sent him to Paris, to broaden his knowledge of the world and acquire the general culture which was considered necessary to a youth of noble origin. Here he was won over for a time to the illicit pleasures and dissipations of the capital ; but the silent reproaches of his best friend, Father Mersenne, brought him back, before it was too late, to his original love both of study and virtue. He hid himself away, therefore, in some comer of the metrop- olis, concealed from all his associates, and there devoted his whole time, for more than two years, to mathematical and other philo- sophical pursuits. When he emerged from his solitude, he yielded to the solicitations of his friends and family to take up the military profession. Perhaps he also thought that the great problems of human life might appear to him in a new and clearer light, if he withdrew himself temporarily from all theorizing, and entered into more practical and active ptir- suits. What philosophy failed to teach him. 286 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT he hoped to acquire in the way of personal experience. For this purpose he betook himself to Holland in 1617, where he served under Prince Maurice as a volunteer; but, as there were no active operations at hand, he gave up his commission, and entered the Bavarian service. We find him soon after taking part in the thirty years' war, where he witnessed the struggle of arms in Bohemia and Hungary, and bore himself with courage and credit. In 1621, after more than four years' experience of military life, he renounced the profession, and returned home to France. He appears to have taken no interest whatever in the political quarrels of the age, and to have used his experience in war merely to study human passions; to observe the application of mechanical principles to practical uses; and to extend his knowledge of mathematical and physical science generally. He now came into possession of a comfort- able income inherited from his mother, and, for a short period, lived in serene meditation at home. In 1624-25 he made excursions into Switzerland and Italy, and acquired a steadily increasing fame as a mathematician and a philosopher. The fame which he thus gained was little to his taste; and the per- petual disturbance to which he was subject at Paris, as it increased more and more widely, induced him to return to Holland, where he spent nearly all of the remainder of his hfe. His motive for taking this step was evidently not merely the desire of philo- sophic repose, but also the consideration that he might, in the course of his future career, find a land of universal toleration, a condition as necessary to his peace as it was agreeable to his temperament. In 1629, therefore, when in his thirty-third year, he took up his abode in Amsterdam, and in this retreat he composed all his prin- cipal works. He communicated with the great world without only through the inter- mediate agency of his old and faithful friend, Mersenne. His "Discourse on Method" he gave to the world in 1637; his "Speculations on Fundamental Philosophy," in 1641; his "Principles of Philosophy," in 1644. In Holland, Descartes lived and studied for twenty years, devoting himself to optics, meteorology, anatomy, chemistry, and me- chanics, as well as to the reform of philosophy itself. He attracted many disciples, and at the same time became involved in several learned controversies, especially with the theologians. In 1649 he yielded to the pressing invita- tion of Queen Christina of Sweden, to remove to the court of Stockholm, and become her private tutor. His willingness to leave Hol- land was partly occasioned by his anxiety to escape from the hostility of his enemies. The breaking up of his old habits, combined with the severity of the climate, however, threw him soon upon a bed of sickness, and, in 1650, he dial in the fifty-fourth year of his age. He never married. In 1666 Louis XIV. caused his remains to be carried to France and entombed in the church of St. Genevieve du Mont. In 1819 they were transferred to the church of St. Germain- des-Pr^, their final resting place. Descartes fell on one of those recurring periods of intellectual depression when phi- losophy is in decrepitude, representing little knowledge, liberty, or wisdom, and he regenerated it. We can speak but briefly of what he did or what he was. In an epoch of dogma and intolerance, an original thinker appears, as if inevitably, to strike always into the same course. Turning from the disorder of the received physical sciences. Lord Bacon prepared for his Instauratio by research con- cerning true method in physical inquiry. Descartes, repelled by corresponding disgust from the moral and psychological discussions of his time, demanded: What is fitting method in speculative philosophy ; and what the basis and criterion of certainty? The reply was not a new one, but only a repro- duction of the method of Socrates, of Plato, or Aristotle, and its adjustment to the con- dition and culture of his time. The first and shortest yet most important work of Descartes is his "Discourse on Method." This work may be considered the foundation of modem philosophical investiga- tion, and breathes the spirit of the man with his bold innovating genius, his exact obser- vations, and vivid imagination. It was the custom in Descartes's time to publish all learned works in Latin, a language known only to learned men. He revolutionized this custom by publishing his works in French, "appeaUng to the good sense of men," which he said was "fairly divided among all classes." It contains a history of the inner life of the author, tracing the progress of his mental development from its commencement in early years to the point where it restilted in his IN PHILOSOPHY 9B7 resolution to hold nothing to be true until he had ascertained the grounds of certi- tude. The "Discourse" is divided into six parts, with a preface of fifteen lines, describing its purpose and arrangement. He begins by insisting upon the necessity of a new method, and then lays down the rules on which it should be founded. He declared he could find nothing but doubt and uncertainty in the opinions of men on all subjects. He repeats what the sceptic philosopher had already said about the general reasons for suspecting all our so-called knowledge. Our senses, memory, and even the reasoning faculties deceive us, not merely in complex subjects, but even in the simple details of geometry. There seemed only one way to overcome the difficulty, and that was to make universal doubt the point of departm-e for a new method of reasoning. He found one, and only one proposition that seemed to him to stand the test, and of which the truth could not possibly be doubted : that proposition was that he existed, which he inferred from the fact of his possessing con- sciousness. He could not doubt that he felt and thought, and therefore he could not doubt that he, the feeler, the thinker, existed. This relation between consciousness and existence he expressed by the memorable words : " I think, therefore I exist." Instead, however, of making the above proposition the foundation of his philosophy, by which he would have been led into a direction similar to that of Kant or Fichte, he employed it only so far as to ascertain from it the cri- terion of certitude — viz., that whatever is clearly and distinctly thought, must be true. Among these clear and distinct thoughts he soon recognized the idea of God as the abso- lutely Perfect Being. This idea, he reasoned, could not be formed in our minds by our- selves, for the imperfect can never originate the perfect ; it must be connoted, or be a part of the original structure of our understanding, and be implanted there by the Perfect Being Himself. Hence, from the existence of the idea of perfection, Descartes inferred the existence of God as the originator of it; he inferred it also from the mere nature of the idea, because the idea of perfection involves existence. But if God exist, then we have a guarantee of the previously determined ground of certitude, for God the Perfect Being cannot deceive, and, therefore, whatever our con- sciousness clearly testifies, Duty be implicitly believed. One of the meet general fundamental prin- ciples of the philosophical system of Descartee is the essential difference of spirit and matter — the thinking and the extended substanoee — a difference so great, according to Des- cartes, that they can exert no influence upon each other. Hence, in order to account for the correspondence between the material and the spiritual phenomena, he was obliged to have recourse to a constant cooperation on the part of God. This doctrine gave rise subse- quently to the system called occasionalism, the principle of which was that body and mind do not really affect each other, God being always the true cause of the apparent or occasional influence of one on the other. This doctrine received its complete develop- ment in the preestablished harmony of Leib- nitz, almost a century later. Descartes did not confine his attention to mental philosophy, but devoted himself sys- tematically to the explanation of the prop- erties of the bodies composing the material universe. In this department his refonns amounted to a revolution, though many of his explanations of physical phenomena were purely a priori, and some of them sufficiently absurd. His principal purpose was to explain the whole visible world, including the physical structure of man, in accordance with fixed laws derived from the simplest facts of form and motion. It was a philosophy of evolu- tion as opposed to creation. To soothe the theologians, who, in his time, were pressing so hard upon Galileo, Descartes was content to say that the operation by which God maintains the world is similar to that by which He created it; so that, if it had pleased Him, instead of creating it instantaneously, to allow these laws of evolution to operate, the result woiild have been what we now see. He began by assuming space to be occupied by perfectly homogeneous and continuous matter. He then supposed this solid sub- stance to be divided into parcels of various shape and size, each of them animated by motion in various directions. These would observe the laws of motion as Descartes defines them: (1) Each would maintain its own condition of rest or motion or magnitude, until altered by contact with another. (2) In such contact the gain or loss of motion to one body would be exactly compensated by the loss or gfun to another — the total quantity 288 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT of motion in the world remaining invariable. (3) Owing to constant contacts, motion would be usually in curved lines, the moving body tending always to follow the tangent to the curve. The result after a period of time would be the differentiation of primitive matter into three kinds. The moving portions of matter, by constant attrition, would be for the most part converted into spheroidal molecules of various sizes. Some larger masses of irregular shape would amalgamate into solid masses; the finer particles rubbed off from the mole- cules would insert themselves between them, vibrating with far more rapid motion than they. This vibrating ethereal substance would collect toward the center of a vortex, and form a sun or star; round it would revolve aerial matter, and plunged amidst this, at various distances, the solid masses of the planets. How by degrees yet further differentiation took place in the substance of the earth and planets, by different velocities and shapes of the component molecules, so that the various metals and crystals arose, and finally plant life and animal life, cannot be told here, but is described in the Principia and in the "Treatise on Man." For man, as far as the structure of his organs, including the organs of sensation, was concerned, was brought within the range of these mechanical concep- tions. Descartes was among the first to welcome Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood, as the first step toward the reduction of vital phenomena to physical laws. The achievement of so vast a task was obviously not possible while the science of physics was in its infancy, and while the chemical basis of biology was still undis- covered. Descartes was aware of this. But he looked forward to the combined labors of the future for its fulfillment. The last chapter of his "Discoiu^e" contains his forecast of the positive philosophy of the future, resting not on scholastic subtleties, but on a solid basis of mathematical and biological knowledge, and directed to the practical service of man. What Descartes could not foresee was that, by the time that physics, chemistry, and biology had defined themselves as distinct sciences, the impossibility of reducing them to a single law would be far more evident than it was in his own time. His celebrated " theory of vortices " gained many adherents, did away with that of Aris- totle, and paved the way for Newton's dis- covery of the law of gravitation, and for the mechanical theory of planetary motions. He described the mathematical principles which should govern the construction of lenses for telescopes; and, among other contributions to physical science, gave the earliest complete description of the causes of a rainbow. It was in mathematics, however, that Descartes achieved the greatest and most lasting results ; and, indeed, his mathematical discoveries procured among his contempo- raries, for his, in many cases, wild philo- sophical views, a greater importance than they in themselves are entitled to. It was Descartes who first recognized the true meaning of the negative roots of equations; and we owe to him the theorem, which is called by his name, that an equation may have as many negative roots as there are continuations of sign, and not more of either kind. He gave a new and ingenious solution of equations of the fourth degree; he first introduced exponents, and thereby laid the foundation for calculating with powers. He showed, moreover, how to draw tangents and normals at every point of a geometrical curve, with the exception of mechanical or transcen- dental curves; and, what, perhaps, was his highest merit, he showed how to express the nature and the properties of every curve, by an equation between two variable coordinates ; thus, in fact, originating analytical geom- etry, which really may be said to constitute the point of departure of modem mathe- matics. Measured by its influence, his work in geometry takes rank with the infinitesimal calculus; nor was its empire disputed until in the most recent times by the remarkable theory of quaternions. The intellectual vigor of Descartes left its marks on many various departments of knowl- edge after his death. For a while his phi- losophy threatened to succeed to the place of absolute dictation and mastery which had been so long assigned to Aristotle. His influence passed from the cloister and the study to popular literature; all the great writers of the age of Louis XIV. were tinc- tured by it; but just as it appeared to have attained a vmiversal acceptance, it began as rapidly to fade and shrink. The reasons of this decline are to be found partly in the growth of Locke's sensational philosophy; partly in the demonstrated impotence of IN PHILOSOPHY Descartes's principles to resolve many of the higher problems to which he aspired; but chiefly in the discoveries of Newton and the progress of physics, which discredited his physical theories, and therefore brought his metaphysical conclusions into distrust. However, even at the present day, when our contemporary philoaophy fails, and truth is threatened by scepticism, or dogmatiam, the methods and fundamental principlea of Descartes are invoked to restore it to a proper basis. In elevation and amplitude his influence, in that respect, ranks with Plato and Aristotle, Bacon and Newton. ▲. D. 1632 1656 1661 1663 1664 SPINOZA AQE A. D. A0. Born at Amsterdam, Holland, 1668 Resided at The Hague jK Excommunicated by the synagogue; 1670 Tractatus Theologico-Politicu* ' " ' ' 88 left Amsterdam, 24 1673 Declined chair of philoeophy at Ucidet- Settled at Rhynsburg, near Leyden, . 29 berg, 41 "Descartes's Principles of Philosophy," 31 1674 "Ethics" finished 42 Removed to Voorburg, near The Hague, 32 1677 Died at The Hague, \ 46 "DARUCH SPINOZA was one of the greatest -*-* of modern philosophers, and is frequently termed the apostle of pantheism. His name has also been Latinized into Benedictus de Spinoza, supposedly because his works were written in that language. He was born at Amsterdam, Holland, on November 24, 1632. His parents were rich Portuguese Jews, who had been driven from Portugal by the inquisition, and then settled in Amsterdam. From childhood Spinoza was physically delicate, and naturally inclined to retired and studious habits. He received his first education from the rabbis, to whose care he was committed by his parents, and whom he constantly irritated and perplexed with his puzzling questions. He was carefully instructed in the Bible and its commentaries, and the Jewish Talmud; and subsequently devoted himself to a life of study. At first, Spinoza's parents had strongly hoped that he might enter the rabbinical profession, but his study of the physical sciences and the writings of Descartes very soon drew him away from the rigid belief and practices of the synagogue. His extra- ordinary talents, coupled with his inquisitive and penetrating turn of mind, at length aroused the displeasure of the talmudical authorities under whom he had studied. Saul Levi Morteira, his principal teacher, was the first to threaten him with the direst pun- ishment if he did not retract the heresies he then began to utter, and a vain attempt was even made to bribe the young sceptic into the required faith and obedience. An attempt was also made later — but again without suc- cess — to get rid of him by assassination; but he escaped with a slight wound. His revolt against Hebrew theology finally re- sulted, in 1656, in his excommunication from the synagogue. Spinoza, now cut off from the faith of his fathers, was also exiled from Amsterdam by the magistrates on application of the rabbis. A forlorn outcast and an alien, without a home and without citizenship, he attached himself to a learned physician by the name of Francis Van den Ende, who kept a school in Amsterdam for the better class of young Dutchmen. In this school, which was after- ward broken up through the sleepless malice of his enemies, Spinoza was tutor in mathe- matics and modern languages, while at the same time he was taught Latin by the daughter of the master, with whom he fell passionately in love. Fortunately or unfortunately, he was rejected. From that time forth phi- losophy became the sole aim and object of his life. After his separation from Van den Ende, Spinoza, feeling the need of some r^ular means of support, had taken to the fashion- ing of glass lenses for telescopes and micro- scopes, and, having been again in imminent danger of his life from a Jewish dagger, he withdrew, in 1661, from Amsterdam to the village of Rhynsburg, near Leyden, wha« he remained three years, practicing his mechan- ical art and meditating the deepest questions in philosophy. Besides being a master crafta- man in lens polishing, he was also an expert in the art of design, and among a number of other portraits he drew one of himself in the dress of Masaniello. In 1663, while still at Rhynsburg, Spinora 290 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT wrote his abridgment of the "Meditations" of Descartes, under the general title of " Des- cartes's Principles of Philosophy," with an appendix which was the first draft of his "Ethics." The year following, 1664, he removed to Voorburg, a few miles from The Hague; and then, about 1668, at the invita- tion of the illustrious Dutch statesman, Jan de Witt — who some time after gave him a pension of about one hundred dollars a year — he settled in The Hague itself. At first he hved at a house kept by a widow named Van Velden. Finding her house too expen- sive for his small income, he crossed the street to that of a painter named Van der Spyck, with whom and his good wife — and they deserve honorable mention for the great love they bore him — he spent the remaining years of his life of recluse and study. At The Hague he completed his great work, the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, in 1670, and his "Ethics," about 1674, although the latter was not pub- lished until after his death. During this period the elector of the Palatinate, Charles Louis, offered him in 1673 the vacant chair of philosophy at the university of Heidelberg, with full "liberty of teaching," provided he would not say any- thing to the prejudice of the established religion. It is needless to say that, with his independence and integrity of thought, Spinoza declined both the honor and the emolument of the professorship. His small pittance was enough to satisfy his wants. In a similar way he refused generous offers made to him by wealthy friends, like Simon de Vries, who offered to bestow a large sum of money upon him. All he could be pre- vailed upon to accept was a small annuity; the rest he persuaded his friends to settle on De Vries's own brother. An offer of a pen- sion, on condition that he dedicate one of his works to Louis XIV., he rejected with scorn. Spinoza's constitution was naturally frail, and during much of the period at The Hague he suffered both bodily and mentally. At last, due to the inroads of disease and over- work, he died of consumption on February 21, 1677, when in his forty-fifth year. Distinguished for extreme gentleness and placidity of temper, and pious to a remarkable degree in the original and broader meaning of the word, Spinoza was greatly loved by all who knew him, except, of course, his ac- quaintances of the synagogue. His habits were of the simplest, as simple, indeed, as those of the simplest peasant. His domestic accounts, found after his death, showed that he lived on a few pennies a day. Indifferent to money, or what money could bring, he earned an honest maintenance by manual labor, and scrupulously devoted his spare time to his abstruse and difficult studies. The attainment of truth was the one object of his life, and for this he sacrificed every- thing for which most people hold fife dear. Seldom, indeed, has the world seen such an instance of freedom from worldly and selfish ends, such disinterested and pious loyalty to the promptings and aspirations of the intellectual mind. Although his sensitive mind was violently disturbed by the severance of all natural ties of affection — to say nothing of the misery of occasional want and of constant persecu- tion — yet no complaint ever passed his lips. By his contemporary enemies he was charged as an epicurean and an atheist ; but it has been well said, that no man, perhaps, was more filled with religion than he, and that to be an epicure and riotous liver at the rate of five or six cents a day cannot be a very serious crime. Such was the intolerance of the times, that, for more than a century after his death, Spinoza continued to be stigmatized as an atheist, a blasphemer, and an intellectual and religious monster in general. Then his works came into marked favor with Goethe, Lessing, Novalis, and Schleiermacher. Spinoza was not a voluminous writer, but his writings have had an extensive and enduring influence on modem thought. Few philosophers have been so rigidly logical and deeply meditative. Hallam called him a "reasoning machine," so thoroughly intel- lectual and rational were his processes of speculation. His first work, Renaii Des- cartes Principiorum Philosophioe, immediately gave him the reputation of a great philoso- pher. His second work, Tractatus Theologico- Politicus, published anonymously in 1670, treats the relation between church and state, and is entirely distinct from his philosophical writings. Numerous refutations of this work appeared, especially from Cartesian theolo- gians. Averse to controversy, Spinoza with- held his other and more important works, which were first published after his death by his friend, Ludwig Meyer. His manuscripts were, in accordance with his order, sent to his pubUsher at Amsterdam, and within a year IN PHILOSOPHY »1 appeared Ethica, Ordine Geometrico Demon- strata, containing his pantheistic philosophy, written between 1663 and 1666 ; Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione, and Tractatus Polit- icus, both fragments; a collection of letters to Oldenburg, Simon de Vries, Ludwig Meyer, and Bleyenbergh ; and a fragmentary sketch of Hebrew grammar, aiming to give it a logical development. The whole system of Spinoza is a demon- stration from the eight definitions and seven axioms of the first book of the Ethica, which is really not a treatise on ethics in the modern sense, but a system of philosophy. Spinoza — like Descartes — made it his principle to admit nothing to be true which he could not recognize on suflficient grounds. He endeav- ored to found a system which should deduce the fundamental principles of moral life by strictly mathematical demonstrations, founded on the knowledge of God. To this end he called his system one of ethics. "Most of the writers on the affections of man and the conduct of fife," he says, "ap- pear to treat, not of natural things, which follow the usual laws of nature, but of things beyond nature; they seem, indeed, to con- ceive man as an imperium in imperio. For they believe that man rather disturbs than conforms to the order of nature, and, further, that he possesses absolute power over his actions, being influenced and determined in all he does by himself alone. And then, they refer the cause of human shortcomings and inconsistences to no common natural power, but to some — I know not what — vice or defect in human nature, which they forthwith proceed to lament, to deride, to decry, and even more generally to loath and to execrate. So that he who discourses upon the infirmities of the human soul with more fluency and fervor than common is looked upon as a kind of divine or inspired person. "To such persons it will doubtless appear strange that I should set about treating the vices and follies of mankind in a geometrical way, and seek to demonstrate on definite principles things which they cry out against as repugnant to reason, as vain, absurd, and even horrible. Yet such is my purpose, for nothing happens in nature that can be : ascribed to any vice in its constitution, nature being ever the same, everywhere one, ; and its inherent power, and power in act ' identical. I shall in a word discuss human ^ actions, appetites, and emotions precisely as i if the question were of lines, planes, and solids." He therefore assumes, first of all, three fundamental things, which he calls, N^MO- tively, substance, attributes, and mode. By substance he understands, like Descartes, that which needs nothing else to its existence; but, unlike Descartes, he assumed only (me such substance — God. Yet this term is not to be understood in the onlinary sense, for Spinoza's God neither thinks nor creates. There is no real difference, he holds, between mind, as represented by God, and matter, as represented by nature. They arc one, and, according to the light under which they are viewed, may be called either God or nature. The visible world is not distinct from him. It is only his visible manifesta- tion, flowing out of him, who is the last fountain of life and essence, as a finite from the infinite, variety from unity — a unity, however, in which all varieties merge again. Extension and thought, which, with De»- cartes, had been two substances, with Spinoza become "attributes" : that which the mind perceives as constituting substance. Exten- sion is visible thought; thought is invisible extension. The relation between substance and attributes Spinoza illustrates by the example of an object — colorless in itself, perhaps — seen through yellow or blue spec- tacles. And this explains the relation be- tween body and mind, and the complete unity between them. The mind is the idea of the body — i. e., the same thing considered under the attribute of thought. The modus or accidens is only the varying form of substance. Like the curling waves of the ocean, they have no independent existence; nay, less than these are they things of reality; but they are simply the ever-varying shapes of the substance. 8ul> stance, thus, is the only really existing, all- embracing essence, to which belongs every- thing perceptible to our senses, and not perceptible. Thus, every thought, wish, or feeling is a mode of God's attribute or thought ; everything visible is a mode of God's attri- bute of extension. God is the "immanent idea," the One and All. "World" does not exist as world, i. e., as an aggregate of single things — but is one complex whole and one peculiar aspect of God's infinite attribute oi extension. The variety we behold in things is a mere product of our faulty conceptions, particularly of, as Spinoza terms it, our 292 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT "imagination," which perceives unity as a complex of multiplicity. On these metaphysical speculations he founds his Ethica, which he deduces in a mathematical form, after the method of Euclid. The chief doctrines are: The ab- sence of free will in man — himself only a modus dependent on causes without and not within him. Will and liberty belong only to God, who is not limited by any other substance. Good and evil are relative no- tions, and sin is a mere negative ; for nothing can be done against God's will, and there is no idea of evil in Him. Utility alone, in its highest sense, must determine the good and the evil in our mind. Good, or useful, is that which leads us to greater reality, which preserves and exalts our existence. Our real existence is knowledge. Highest knowledge is the knowledge of God. From this arises the highest delight of the spirit. Happiness is not the reward of virtue, but virtue itself ; and this is to be attained by a diligent follow- ing in God's ways. Sin, evil, negation, etc., are merely things that retard and obstruct this supreme happiness. Spinoza's system, therefore, appears to be nothing but the most rigid, most abstract monotheism that can be conceived by man. There is only substance, only God — nothing else. It was not unnatural, however, that this system should be misunderstood either as materialism or as pantheism, seeing the word "substance," which, with Spinoza, means "existence," is, in ordinary language, associated with the idea of matter or body. Be this as it may, "this most iniquitous and blasphemous human invention," as it has been called, has become the acknowledged basis of modern German philosophy; and pious theologians like Schleiermacher did not hesitate to apply the highest terms of "pious, virtuous, God-intoxicated," to Spinoza, who, we need not add, never left Judaism, although he left the synagogue and its hxmian formal- ities. The chief good, according to Spinoza, is to Uve a life freed from passion, comprehending the order of things by the highest exercise of the intellect, the knowledge and love of God. He concludes his great work thus: "In what precedes I have delivered all I wish to say in connection with the freedom of the mind. And now we are able to appreciate the wise at their true worth, and to under- stand how much they are to be pref^red to the ignorant, who act from mere appetite or passion. The ignorant man, indeed, besides being agitated in many and various ways by external causes, and never tasting true peace of mind, lives in a state of unconsciousness of himself, of God, and of all things, and ceases to suffer only when he ceases to be; the wise man, on the contrary, in so far as he is truly to be considered, scarcely knows what mental perturbation means; but conscious of himself, of God, and of that special, eternal necessity of things, never ceases from being, but is always in possession of true peace of mind." "Whatever else Spinozism is," says John Caird, " it is an attempt to find in the idea of God a principle from which the whole uni- verse could be evolved by a necessity as strict as that by which, according to Spinoza's favorite illustration, the properties of a triangle follow from its definition. For the clear intelligence of Spinoza it was im- possible to rest satisfied with a system in which metaphor plays the part of logical thought." Touching his personality, A. B. Lee said on a memorial occasion: "Let us not fall short of the truth through fear of falling into exaggeration. Spinoza's life was of a beauty to which history can hardly find a parallel. On that Sunday afternoon of the 21st of February, two hundred years ago, there broke as noble and as sweet a heart as ever beat in human breast." In summing up his estimate of Spinoza, Maccall says : " Bigotry does not hke to con- fess its blunders, otherwise it would long have abandoned as a deplorable error and a flagrant injustice the ignorant and stupid calumny which places Spinoza foremost among blasphemers and atheists. Those who reject popular idols are always classed by popular prejudice with such as deny God; and few have suffered more from this cruel wrong than the great thinker whose career we propose to chronicle in all honesty and in no prejudiced or proselytizing spirit, and whose holy deeds are the best indication of his sublime ideas. * * * Never was high thought so nobly embodied in every action, even the most insignificant, as in Spinoza; which makes his path a fecund lesson and a blessed spectacle to many who feel nothing but distaste, and who express nothing but scorn for philosophy." JOHN LOCKE From a painting IN PHILOSOPHY 9M 1632 1652 1658 1665 1666 1669 1672 1675 LOCKE _ _. . AOB A. D. Born at Wnngton, near Bristol, Eng- 1683 land, 1686 Entered Christ Church, Oxford, ... 20 1690 Received degree of M. A., 26 Secretary of legation at Berlin, ... 33 1693 Resided with Lord Ashley, 34 1695 Drew up the Carolina constitution, . 37 1096 Secretary of presentations, 40 1704 Resided at Montpellier, France, ... 43 Went to Holland, 51 Adveraariontm MeUtodu* M Easay Coneemxnu Human VtuUritaitd- xng; Treatute on CivU OormvmmU, . 58 Thoughta on Bdueation, 01 The ReaaonabUnma 0/ Chritliaivaif, . . 63 Commissioner of trade (14 Died St Oatet, High Laver, Emn, . . 73 JOHN LOCKE, one of the most influential •^ of modern thinkers, is usually regarded as the founder of the so-called sensational or empirical school of philosophy. He was born in the village of Wrington, near Bristol, Eng- land, August 29, 1632. At that time Bacon had been dead six years. Hobbes had reached middle age, and Descartes was in studious retirement in Holland. Pascal was nine years old, Milton was taking his degree of M. A., and Spinoza was born the same year. Locke's father was a country lawyer of supe- rior intelligence, who served under his friend Colonel Popham in the parliamentary army during the English civil war. In 1646 he was sent to Westminster school, which at that time had for head master Dr. Busby. In 1652 he entered Christ Church, Oxford. Like Bacon and Hobbes before him, Locke was disgusted with the barrenness of the studies in philosophy and theology then imposed, and gave himself with hearty interest to the classics and to the reading of Bacon and Descartes, not without admixture, it is said, of the classic romances. He took his degree of B. A. in 1655, and that of M. A. in 1658. His father, toward whom he cherished the highest respect and love, died in 1661. In the relations between father and son, and in some other particulars, Fox Bourne, one of the most appreciative biographers of Locke, points out an interesting parallel with the case of John Stuart Mill and his father, James Mill. For some time Locke hesitated as to the choice of a profession. His tendencies were toward experimental philosophy, but he at length decided in favor of medicine. In 1665 he entered upon his political career as secretary of the British ambassador to the elector of Brandenburg at Berlin. Having acquitted himself well at this post he was offered a similar one at Madrid. He pre- ferred, however, to continue his studies, and therefore returned to Oxford. By a special dispensation he was relieved from the cus- tomary obligation of the students of Christ Church to take orders in the church, and devoted his attention to medical studies. His early contact with medicine shows his bent to the inductive interpretation of external nature, and aversion to the unscien- tific methods and wranglings of the schools. He does not even appear to have taken a degree in medicine, but he launched into some sort of an amateur practice at Oxford, and attracted the attention particularly of the celebrated English physician, Sydenham. His acute diagnosis of a disease from which Lord Ashley, afterward the earl of Shaftes- bury, was suffering, in 1666, gained him the friendship of that nobleman, and led to that lifelong acquaintance which was a significant part of Locke's career. He now became a member of Lord Ashley's household, as physician, tutor to the only son, and confidential adviser on public and private concerns. He was also introduced to many eminent persons, among them the dukes of Northumberland and Buckingham, and the earl of Halifax. In 1669 he was employed at the instance of Lord Ashley and others, as proprietors, to draw up a constitution for the then American province of Carolina , but his articles on religion were deemed too liberal, and the clergy had a clause inserted, giving the favor of the state exclusively to the estab- lished church. A couple of years later, at a meeting of Locke's philosophical friends, it was suggested that some attempt should be made to settle the question with what problems the human xmderstanding was or was not fitted to deal. This problem was undertaken by Locke himself, and continued thencefor- ward to occupy his best energies for seventeen years. It was issued in 1690 in the famous Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Meanwhile, in 1672, when Lord Ashley — now the earl of Shaftesbury — became chan- cellor of Great Britain, Locke was appointed secretary of presentations, and, in the fol- lowing year, secretary to the council of trade and plantations. This post brought 296 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT him plenty of hard work, with merely nominal pay. In 1675 he took up his residence at Montpellier in the south of France, for the benefit of his health, and remained there several years. At Montpellier he formed the acquaintance of the earl of Pembroke, to whom his essay is dedicated. In 1679 Locke rejoined the earl of Shaftes- bury — then president of the council — in England, and he also appears to have resumed his tutorial life at Oxford. However, Lord Shaftesbury was charged with high treason in 1682, and fled to Holland to avoid trial. Locke, who was not without suspicion — though no evidence was found against him — went to Holland in the following year. Here he remained a number of years. So obnoxious was he to the court that by an arbitrary act of the king, Charles II., he was expelled from Christ Church ; and his person was afterward demanded of the states- general as a conspirator. He escaped, how- ever, by temporary concealment. During his stay in Holland he became acquainted with Limborch, Le Clerc, and other men of mark, and published in 1686 his first work, the Adver- sariorum Methodus, a rather commonplace book on method. Here, in his enforced retirement, he also completed his great phil- osophical work, projected in 1670, and an abridgment of it was published in French by his friend, Le Clerc. His first letter on toler- ation was published in Holland in 1689. After the revolution he returned to Eng- land in the fleet that conveyed the princess of Orange, where hearty welcomes and assured safety awaited him. By the new government he was offered the post of ambassador to Beriin, which he declined, but accepted instead that of commissioner of appeals. In 1695 King William appointed him a commis- sioner of trade and plantations, but he did not accept this honor until he was reappointed in May, 1696, when he immediately entered upon his duties. He became the ruling spirit of the council, and rendered services of great value in espousing the cause of toleration, and maintaining the principles of the revolution. He took a warm interest and active part in the establishment of the bank of England, the abolition of the censorship of the press, reform of the coinage, and the promotion of Irish linen manufacture. In 1690 his Essay Concerning Human Un- derstanding was published, and met with a rapid and extensive celebrity ; also a second letter on toleration, and his well-known treatises on government. In 1691 he was engaged upon the momentous question of the restoration of the coinage, and published various tracts on the subject. In 1692 he brought out a third letter on toleration, which, as well as the second, was a reply to the attacks made on the first. In 1693 he published his Thoughts on Education, followed in 1695 by his treatise on The Reasonable- ness of Christianity, which was written to promote William's favorite scheme of a com- prehension of all the Christian sects in one national church. He maintained a contro- versy in defense of this book, and another in defense of the Essay Concerning Human Understanding, against StiUingfleet, the bishop of Worcester. His feeble health now compelled him to resign his office of commissioner of planta- tions, and to quit London. He spent the remainder of his life at Oates, in Essex, at the seat of Sir Francis Masham. His friendship with Lady Masham began in 1683. She was a daughter of the philosopher, Ralph Cudworth, and inherited her father's love for philosophy and learning. Her young stepdaughter, Esther Masham, was a special favorite of the philosopher. After a long decline, soothed by the tender ministrations of this family, Locke died, in the arms of Lady Masham, October 28, 1704. His remains were interred in the family tomb of his friends at High Laver church, and a tablet was set up to his memory. In 1855 the tomb, which had fallen into decay, was restored; among the contributors to this restoration were the celebrated French philosophers, Victor Cousin and Barth61emy Saint-Hilaire. Locke was never married; but his nature was eminently social, and one of the great charms of his biography is the story of his friendships and domestic relations. He suf- fered habitually from ill health, but by tem- perate habits his life was prolonged to more than three score and ten years. It is seldom that a personal history so much delights one as that of John Locke. Not only can no one discern a stain on the char- acter and career of the great Englishman, but his practical career is everjrwhere in strict accordance with the principles he labored to establish. Firmly attached to the cause of toleration, civil or religious, he did not scruple to suffer for either or both. Neither did his opposition to any faction ever drive IN PHILOSOPHY 307 him from moderation and justice, disincline him to appreciate his opponents aright, or to conceal the excesses of the party whose fortunes he mainly espoused. He accepted human liberty as a basis of his philosophy, and practically stood by that. Few writers, before or since, have had a finer sense of the respect due to the determination of the per- sonal conscience. No one can peruse the record of a career Uke that of John Locke without profound admiration. It exhibited a rare combination of lofty abilities, patient industry, intelligent and unaffected piety, and unsullied integrity, with the most extensive intellectual acquire- ments. Great as were Locke's services to his coun- try, and to the cause of civil and religious liberty, his fame rests on the Essay Concern- ing Human Understanding, which marks an epoch in the history of philosophy. In it he first institutes a preliminary inquiry, in the first book, as to the existence of innate ideas, theoretical and practical, on which the philo- sophical world has been so much divided. Locke argues against the existence of these supposed innate conceptions, or intuitions, of the mind with a force and cogency that appear irresistible. Having thus repudiated the instinctive sources of our knowledge or ideas, he is bound to show how we come by them in the course of our experience. Our experience being two-fold, external and internal, we have two classes of ideas — those of sensation, and those of reflection. He has, therefore, to trace all the recognized conceptions of the mind to one or other of these sources. Many of our notions are obviously derived from experience, as colors, sounds, etc. ; but some have been disputed, more especially such as space, time, infinity, power, substance, cause, mere good and evil; and Locke discusses these at length, by way of tracing them to the same origin. This is the subject of book second, entitled "Of Ideas." Book third is on language considered as an instru- ment of truth, and contains much valuable material. The fourth book is on the nature, limits, and reality of our knowledge, including the nature of demonstrative truth, the exist- ence of a God, the provinces of faith and reason, and the nature of error. Locke's object in his great work was, as stated by himself, " to inquire into the origin, certainty, and extent of human knowledge." Rejecting the Cartesian doctrine, he taught. generally speaking, that the mind is * mere tabula rasa, capable of receiving improflmons through the senses; and that the ultimate sources of all our ideas were the aenne and the subsequent operations of the mind upon theni. He saw both the subjective and the relative nature of human knowledge, and fore- saw the possibility of the idealist and sceptical systems afterward built upon his foundations. Nevertheless, he maintained the pomibility of a demonstrative knowledge of the existence of God and the immortality of the soul. Whatever may be the shortcomings of Locke's philosophy — and they are real and important — though it fails, like all other systems, to solve the problems of oxir being, no reader of his essay can refuse to recog- nize in it the work of a patient, original thinker, a sagacious observer, an accurate recorder, an earnest lover of truth, an honest and modest man. To the attractions of the subject is added the charm of a homely, racy speech, welcome and refreshing to those who love to draw from "wells of English unde- filed." As a philosopher, Locke is generally recog- nized as founder of the so-called sensational school. His claim to this distinction is dis- puted by some writers, who assign it to his predecessor, Hobbes. The fundamental prin- ciple of Locke's system — the derivation of all our knowledge from experience through the senses — is undoubtedly laid down by Hobbes with the utmost clearness. But, so wide is the difference between the two thinkers on momentous points, that it is now regarded as absurd to look upon Locke as a copier of Hobbes. Their agreement in their starting point is explained by the fact that they were both students of Bacon, and both adopted the method which he had then recently expounded in relation to physical research, and applied it to the study of mind. It is even doubtful whether Locke ever read the works of Hobbes. The effect on general modes of thought of Locke's system of philosophy, which rapidly spread not only in his own country, but in France, Holland, and Germany, within the century following its publication, exemplifies the truth that "in every age the speculative philosophy in general acceptance will influence the theology of that age." The principles of his philosophy and psychology, as applied by Hume, led to the great system of critical philosophy by Immanuel Kant, the most momentous in all modem philosophy. 298 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT "Locke's writings," says A. C. Fraser, his biographer and expositor, " which ever3rwhere express his character, have made his intel- lectual and moral features not less familiar to Englishmen than his countenance has been made by Kneller. * * *! can no more know anything by another man's understanding,' he would say, 'than I can see by another man's eyes. The knowledge which one man possesses cannot be lent to another.' Reluctance to believe in the dark, on blindly accepted authority, instead of faith sustained in the judgment by self-evident or demon- strative reason, or by good probable evidence, runs through his life. He is the typicaJly English philosopher in his love for concrete exemplification of the abstractions in which more speculative minds delight ; in his rever- ence for facts — facts in nature, or facts in conscious life; in indifference to speculation on its own account; in aversion to verbal reasonings; in suspicion of mystical enthu- siasm; in calm reasonableness, and ready admission to truth, even when the truth could not be reduced to system by a human understanding; and in the honest originality which stamped the features of his intellect and character upon all that he wrote." LEIBNITZ A. D. AQE A. D. 1646 Bom at Leipzig, Prussia, 1684 1661 Entered universitv of Leipzig, . . 15 1663 De Principio Individui, 17 1692 1666 Doctor oi laws, Altdorf univer- sity; Tractatua de Arte Com- 1700 binaioria, 20 1667 Councilor of state, 21 1710 1672-74 Visited France and England, . . 26-28 1716 1676 Librarian to duke of Brunswick, . . 30 AOS RegUa du Caletd Differentid, "Dif- ferential Calculus," 38 Attempted to unite Protestants and Catholics, 46 President Berlin academy of sci- ences, 54 Th^odieie, 64 Died at Hanover, Prussia, .... 70 /GOTTFRIED WILHELM VON LEIB- ^^ NITZ was celebrated both as a philoso- pher and as a mathematician, and was per- haps the most extraordinary example of universal scholarship in intellectual history. He was bom at Leipzig, Prussia, July 6, 1646, where his father was a jurist, and professor of natural philosophy in the university. His father died early, and Leibnitz was left to the care of a wise mother, who allowed him great freedom in study. He learned Latin and Greek at the school of Saint Nicholas, and entered the university of Leipzig at the age of fifteen, where he studied under the philologist, Thomasius, and devoted himself, also, to philosophy, literature, jurisprudence, and mathematics. From Leipzig he received his bachelor's degree in 1663, and presented the remarkable thesis, De Principio Individui. In the same year he spent some time at the university of Jena in the study of mathematics and law, and published a dissertation on certain specific difficulties in law. In 1666 he pub- lished his Tractatus de Arte Combinatoria, a most unusual treatise on the combination of numbers and ideas, and also presented him- self for the degree in law at Leipzig. In con- sequence of his youth, however, it was refused by the university authorities; but a few months later he applied for and received the degree of doctor of laws from the university at Altdorf, in his twentieth year. Leibnitz refused, in 1667, a professorship at Altdorf, and accepted instead the office of councilor of state at Frankfort. Here the friendship of Baron von Boineburg — whom he served for some time as secretary — gained him an entree to the most cultivated society of Germany, and gave him a clear insight into the political state of Europe, which at that time was slowly recovering from relig- ious strife. At Boineburg's suggestion, Leib- nitz had dedicated to the elector of Mainz an essay on a "New Method of Learning and Teaching Jurisprudence " ; under the patronage of the latter he set to work to reform German jurisprudence, and published several theological treatises. He was like- wise appointed to the bench of the upper court of appeals, the supreme court of the electorate, when but twenty-four years of age. He soon abandoned the science of philo- sophical jurisprudence, and extended his fame as a philosopher by republishing and annotating the Antibarharus Philosophus of Nizolivis, in which he ranks Aristotle above IN PHILOSOPHY 90B Descartes; wrote a theological argument in defense of the Trinity, Sacrosancta Trinitas, aimed against the Polish SocinianWissowatius, who had procured the erection of a temple to the harmony of the three Christian confessions ; and addressed to the academy of sciences of Paris and to the royal society of London two remarkable memoirs on the laws of motion. Associated with Cassini, Huyghens, and others, he devoted himseK especially to mathematics and physics, and established a European reputation by bold and striking thoughts in all departments of learning. In 1672 Leibnitz accompanied Boineburg's sons to Paris, and there submitted to Louis XIV. an essay entitled Consilium ^gyp- tiacum, containing a plan for the invasion of Egypt, which is generally supposed to have led to the Egyptian expedition of Bonaparte in 1798. In the course of this tour he came into contact with many followers of Descartes — Arnauld, Malebranche, and, above all, Huy- ghens. Now for the first time he became associated with that critical period of mathe- matical research which, dating from the geometry of Descartes, was to culminate, four years later, in his own discovery of the transcendental calculus. In the following year public business took him for a few weeks to London, where he made the acquaintance of the remarkable group of men who had founded the royal society, and among them, Newton. On the death of the elector of Mainz, Leibnitz declined an appointment at Paris, and entered the service of the duke of Brunswick at Hanover. Here, in 1676, he was made privy councilor and librarian, and permanently fixed his residence. His literary services to this court were of a very miscel- laneous character, and he was partially occupied for six years in arranging and en- riching the famous Wolfenbiittel library. He also improved the royal mines and coinage, gathered in Austria and Italy materials for a history of the Brimswick ducal house, and took an active part in the negotiations for church union between Protestants and Cath- olics, and the theological discussions connected therewith. At the congress of Nimeguen in 1677 there was a dispute about the right of precedence between the princes who were electors and those who were not. Leibnitz maintained the cause of the latter in a treatise containing the ultramontane rather than the Protestant declaration that all the states of CSiristeDdom should form but a single body, having the pope for their spiritual and the cmpiTor for their temporal head. This idea of a grand theoo> racy appears prominently in several of his writings, and was particularly emphasised in his protracted correspondence with the cele- brated Bossuet and with M. Peliason. It led to the preparation, on his own part, of a very curious exposition of doctrinal belief, pub- lished much later under the title Sydema Theologicum, which, although written in the assumed character of a Catholic, was intended to form a basis of negotiation. The religious strife which had agitated Europe for a century was hateful to him as a barren waste of energy, and he earnestly desired to see the unity of Catholic and Protestant churches. Failing in this, he sought, also unsuccessfully, to reconcile the Lutheran and Reformed churches. His private studies, however, were chiefly philosophical and philological. His corre- spondence on these subjects was most exten- sive, and he contributed largely to almost every literary and scientific journal of his day, especially to the Acta Eruditorum of Leipzig, of which he was one of the founders, in 1682. He was the chief organizer of the academy of Berlin, of which he was the first president, in 1700; and he originated both at Dresden and Vienna a project for the establishment of similar bodies. It was to him, likewise, that Peter the Great, who invited him to a meeting at Torgau, and bestowed on him a pension of one thousand rubles, with the title of privy- councilor, owed the plan of the si ace cele- brated academy of St. Petersbui^. In 1704 he wrote his examination of Locke's philosophy. He published in 1710. in French his Thiodic6e, the noblest monument of his genius. The fragment on "Monadol- ogy " belongs to the year 1714. His discover- ies in connection with the calculus were made even before 1684, and were fully described in the Acta Eruditorum in that year. A controversy with Newton concerning the discovery of the differential calculus embit- tered the latter years of his life. There is little doubt that Newton's method of fluxions and Leibnitz's method of infinitesimals were independent and original discoveries ; but the priority of publication belongs to Leibnitx. A letter, indeed, of Leibnitz to Newton in 1677, shows the "Differential Calculus" fully formed, the first draft of the letter exhibiting 300 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT also the symbol of integration. It was first fully described in the Acta Erudiiorum of Leipzig in 1684. It is clear from the corre- spondence that Newton had been for some time in possession of the method of fluxions leading to similar results. But Newton had concealed his method in an anagram which, when interpreted, yields no proof that his notation, on which the value of the method depended, was fixed until a much later date. It is in any case certain that the differentials of Leibnitz proved, in the course of the two following generations, far more fertile in dis- covery than the fluxions of Newton. On the accession of the elector George to the crown of Great Britain, as George I., Leibnitz was disappointed in his expectation of accompanying the prince to his new court ; nor did he long survive that event. His death, which was rather unexpected, occurred at Hanover, November 14, 1716. His biogra- phers justly complain that his memory was treated with but little honor by his contem- poraries; but a tardy atonement for their neglect has resulted in the erection of a monu- ment to him in one of the squares of the city of Hanover, and also a statue in his native city of Leipzig. The real life of such a man is in his charac- ter and writings. With regard to the first, Fontenelle is probably our best authority. He had a strong constitution, ate a good deal, drank little, and never undiluted liquors. Many of his habits were in strange contrast with his philosophy. When alone, he always took his meals as his studies permitted. His chair was frequently his only bed, and in this way he is said to have sometimes passed whole months. He communicated freely with all classes of men, and could entirely divest himself of his character of a philoso- pher. His correspondence was immense ; he answered every one who wrote, however small the pretext for addressing him. He was of a gay humor, easily excited to anger, and easily appeased. He lived at great expense, but had preserved and hid two years' amoimt of his salary. The securing of this treasure gave him great uneasiness, and upon this slight ground he has been charged with ava- rice. He took so little exercise that during his later years he suffered greatly in his lower limbs, and often lamented that they were not as sound as his head and stomach. Leibnitz was small of stature, slightly bent, with large hands, and small piercing eyes. He was never married ; but it is said that he contemplated such an alliance at the age of fifty. The lady of his choice desired time to consider. "This," says his biographer, "gave Leibnitz the same opportunity, and he con- tinued unmarried." The most important of the works of Leib- nitz — in addition to his "Calculus" — are the " New Essays on the Human Understand- ing," in which the opinions of Locke are con- troverted; the "Theodicy: on the Goodness of God, the Liberty of Man and the Origin of Evil " ; " Pre-Established Harmony," a theory of optimism; and his "Monadology," in which is developed his system of metaphysics. It is difficult to convey, in popular language, a correct notion of his system as a whole, for the reason that he has nowhere reduced it to an orderly presentation himself. The ambition of Leibnitz was to conciliate all things. "I have been struck," he said, "with the idea of a new system, for I beUeve I see the interior of things in a new light. This system would reconcile Plato with Democritus, Aristotle with Descartes, the scholastics with the moderns, theology and morals with reason. I would take the best from all, and push the matter further than it has yet gone." Locke's doctrine that our ideas were due to external impressions was unacceptable to Leibnitz. Nothing in the intellect, said the schoolman and Aristotle, that was not first in the sense — except, replied Leibnitz, the intellect itself. External influences merely bring into activity what is already there. It was the problem of the mutual action of organism and environment, which was after- ward studied by Kant far more systematic- aUy. According to Leibnitz, nature and spirit correspond, the laws of thought are those of things. If we would comprehend the first principles of nature, let us study our reason. Reason has two great laws which it applies as soon as experience furnishes occasion. The first is the axiom of contradiction : that at the same time and under the same conditions a thing cannot exist and yet not exist; the second is the axiom of sufficient reason: nothing can exist without a reason which suffices to explain it. The axiom of contradiction corresponds to the possible, that of the sufficient reason to the actual. But it is not enough that a thing exists actually, as established by the axiom IN PHILOSOPHY aoi of contradiction; there must still be a suffi- cient reason why it has passed into existence and is realized in creation. This reason, according to the Theodicee of Leibnitz, is order, suitableness, and harmony, the uni- versal well-being. In the mind of man the principle ought to be established that all is good, that all is beautiful, that all is regular, and in order ; that nothing exists which ought not to be. Experience without reason only furnishes the connections or associations of images as those which serve to guide animals. Man, alone, according to Leibnitz, is acquainted with the chain of reasoning. And what is there innate in this faculty? Itself. This theory sufficed to overthrow that of the sensualists defended by Locke, who had affirmed it. In possession of the great laws of the intelligence, the next step is to proceed to the study of things themselves, to go from the ideal order to the real order, which is only an expression according to Leibnitz, who affirmed that in nature reason found only itself. Space, he argued, is not a real existence, but a pure relation of coexistence. To attribute to it a proper reality is to admit, as Descartes has seemed to do, the passivity of substances and to introduce into the uni- verse inertia and torpor. Leibnitz had barely escaped being seduced by this system earlier in life. But he felt its insufficiency, and to the pantheism of Spinoza, to the occasional causes of Malebranche so nearly related to Spinoza, to the purely mechanical theories of Descartes, he opposed the activity of the individual substance. To be, is to act. Creative act did not produce simply phenom- ena which would be then only the modes of God, but it deposited in beings a force or intimate virtue, from which could proceed naturally their actions as well as their pas- sions. If mechanism accounts for visible nature by the laws of motion, it does not give the invisible reason of these laws nor the rea- son of motion, and consequently does not explain itself. In a word the surface of things is explained by mechanism, while the depths of things can be explained only by dynamism. Leibnitz spent much thought in reconciling the belief in an omnipotent and benevolent Creator with the existence of moral evil. His solution was that evil was permitted for the sake of greater good. Good, he conceived, immensely preponderated over evil; and much of it, but for evil, could never have ( to light. A world free from evil might have been created; yet the good in that world might have been of so much lower sort tm to stand, on the whole, lower than that in which we live. It might have been arranged that the crime of Tarquin should not have been permitted; but in that case the Rcnnan republic, with its vast influence for good, would not have arisen. God then foresees and permits evil; but we must believe that He has created out of all possible combina- tions that world which on the whole waa beet. "The theodicy of Spinoza," says Baring- Gould, "had started from a substance, one, infinite, the base of the world, impersonal and undetermined. Leibnitz opposed to this the hypothesis of a living primal force. Matter, which Anaxagoras and Plato among the ancients, and Descartes and Spinoza among the moderns had regarded as inert, became in the system of Leibnitz the sensible revela- tion of motion, life and force. Spirit he sup- posed to be, not thought only, but a virtuality, an essence endowed with original ideas, which are not innate in man under an adequate form, but exist virtualiter, ■poterUialiter. "Spinoza deduced all things from the sole substance, and was consequently obliged to sacrifice individualities to the unique general being. Leibnitz, on the contrary, considered all things as the reunion of an infinite number of essences or independent forces, active, living, distinct, indivisible, imperishable, with- out form or extension, to which he gave the name of monads, that they might not be con- founded with the atoms of Democritus and Epicurus. Each of these monads differs from the other, not in kind but in degree. Each is a little complete being in itself, and reflects ai in a mirror the entire universe or God. "The world is an assemblage of these monads. Each monad, by virtue of the inde- pendent inherent force in it, is without natural relationship to the other monads. Their bond of union is a ' preestablished harmony,' as Leibnitz called it, in virtue of which, without destroying the independence of these primitive forces, he considered them to be so constituted that their mutual development in no way clashed, but on the contrary worked toward a harmonious end. The preestablished hai^ mony is due to God, the author of these living monads." The scholarship of Leibnitz, as regards the vastness of its range, is probably un ex a m pled. 302 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT He was eminent in languages, history, divinity, philosophy, political studies, experimental science, mechanical science, and even belles- lettres. He was perhaps the first among the modern philosophers to read the literature of opinion in an eclectic spirit, with an apprecia- tion of all the great systems of the past, and a recognition of the mutual relations of different systems. In the course of his immense reading it was his habit to make extracts in his common- place book, and to note, often on fragments of paper, his critical remarks on what he read. His extraordinary memory made it almost unnecessary for him to refer afterward to what he thus wrote, for Leibnitz was one of those prodigies of memory of whom many anecdotes are recorded. He forgot almost nothing that he had once read or heard. In his old age he could recite the most beautiful passages of the ancient classics, and whatever else he had read in his youth. But though he read much he reflected more. In most parts of knowledge it may be said that he was essentially self-taught, because he always struggled for deeper insight into things than that attained by other minds. He preferred solitary meditation to conversation, but when once roused in social intercourse he spoke \iith interest, and even indulged in playful sallies. In accordance with his Hberal and tolerant spirit, it was his habit to speak well of others, and to put the best construction on their words and actions. "When I err in my opinion of men," he often said, "I prefer to err on the side of charity, and so too as regards their writings. I seek there for what is worthy of praise, rather than of blame ; and there are few books or persons whence I may not in some form draw wisdom and useful instruction." Such was the spirit of Leibnitz, and to these comprehensive sympathies we may trace the modern philosophy of the his- tory of man and of human opinion. HUME A. X>. AGE A. D. 1711 Bom in Edinburgh, Scotland, 1754-61 1734-37 Visited France, 23-26 1757 1739 A Treatise of Human Nature, ... 28 1763 1741-42 Essays, 30-31 1747 Visited Austria and Italy, .... 36 1766 1751 Enquiry Concerning the Princi- 1767 pies of Morals; Political Dis- 1776 courses, 40 1752 Librarian to faculty of advocates, . 41 ASB History of England, 43-60 Natural History of Religion, .... 46 Secretary of British embassy at Paris 62 Returned to England, 65 British under-secretary of state, . 56 Died at Edinburgh, Scotland, ... 66 ■pjAVID HUME, the famous Scotch phi- ■*~^ losopher and historian, was born in Edin- burgh, Scotland, April 26, 1711. His family was of noble origin, but poor. His father's house and estate, Ninewells, were in Berwick- shire. The family was a branch of that of Lord Home, or Hume, who figured in the French wars of the fifteenth century. David was the youngest of three children, and these were brought up carefully by the mother, the father having died in David's infancy. David, who inherited from his mother his intellectual acuteness, was sent at an early age to study at Edinburgh, and was destined for the profession of the law. But his taste for literature and phi- losophy was too strong to permit him to rest contented with any other pursuit. He therefore remained at home studying closely. After a few years he made trial of business in a merchant's office at Bristol, England, but conmierce was less congenial to him than law, and he gave it a very short trial. Student life now became a confirmed pas- sion with him, and he devoted himself to books with no settled practical object before him. He has recorded in his memoirs his sufferings at this time from despondency and depression of spirits, caused, apparently, by the effects on the stomach of monotonous study. At twenty-three years of age he went to France, and lived some time in La Fl^che, where he describes himself as wander- ing about in solitude, and dreaming the dream of his philosophy. Here he wrote his first work — A Treatise of Human Nature — the materials for which he had been long gather- ing. This work was published in 1739, after his return to Great Britain, and contained the germ of his philosophy, and still, perhaps, the best exposition of it, since it has a freshness IN PHILOSOPHY 303 and decision approaching to paradox, which he modified in his later works. Although written at the dawn of a new era in philosophy, this book was little noticed. It was a work of demolition. By separating the impressions or ideas created on the think- ing mind by an external world from the absolute existence of that world itself, he showed that almost everything concerning the latter was taken for granted, and he demanded proof of its existence of a kind not yet afforded. It was thus that he set a whole army of philosophers at work, either to refute what he had said, or seriously to fill up the blanks which he discovered; hence he originated both the Scotch and the German school of metaphysicians. From the fact that his philosophical treatise was far from a financial success, Hume for- sook the path of philosophy for some time, and turned to themes which appeared to promise better remuneration. In 1741 and 1742, consequently, appeared two volumes of Essays, dealing with morals and politics. In these he showed so great a capacity for politi- cal speculation, and ran so far ahead of received opinions, that he has been called the father of the liberal and rational policy. In literary style the Essays far surpassed the Treatise, and they met with immediate recog- nition. In 1745, after a fruitless attempt on the part of his friends to get him a professor- ship of ethics at the university of Edinburgh, he accepted, for a large salary, the post of companion or guardian to the weak-minded young marquis of Annandale, and had to mix with the jealousies and mercenary schemes which naturally attach to such a position. He bore the infliction for a year, and then escaped from it. In 1746 he became secretary to General St. Clair in the expedition intended for Canada, but diverted to France. He also attended St. Clair on his mission to Turin and Vienna, both as secretary and aide-de- camp. During his absence his Philosophical Essays Concerning the Human Understanding, a popular recast of the Treatise, with some important additions, were published. After his return to London in 1749, he heard of his mother's death, which moved him to a greater show of tenderness than did any other event of his life. During the next two years he wrote, at Ninewells, his Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, his Political Dis- courses — the second series of Essays — and his Dialogues on Natural Religion. The last named was not published until after his death; but the Enquiry and the Discourses appeared at once, and the latter won a great success. In these Discourses the principles of political economy were expounded a quarter of a century before the appearance of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, whose author was one of Hume's intimate friends. About this time, too, he made an unsuccess- ful attempt to obtain the chair of logic at the university of Glasgow, and after his failure settled at Edinburgh, where his sister presided over his house. In 1752 he was elected librarian to the faculty of advocates, a post which gave him access to a large Ubrary, and thus encouraged him in his next important undertaking, the History of England. The first volume of this work, containing the reigns of the first two Stuarts, appeared in 1754, and excited the wrath of all parties alike. The second voliune, issued in 1756, was well received, but the next two, which followed in 1759, and treated of the house of Tudor, gave general offense as the first had done. Hume published, in 1757, his Natural History of Religion, which was violently assailed in a pamphlet supposed to be written by Dr. Hurd, but now definitely considered to be the work of Warburton. Two other dis- sertations, intended to accompany these, were cancelled by him after they were printed — On Suicide and The Immortality of the Soul — but were subsequently included in his works. The History of England was completed by the publication of the earlier portions in 1754-61. Through this work Hume took rank as the first eminent historian in Great Britain, the first endowed with the habits of a philosophical inquirer and master of a fine literary style. Of his style, indeed, he was far more careful than of accuracy. The general criticism of it was that the time spent in the production of the history was too short to justify adequate original research. Moreover, a strong partisan spirit inspired the narrative, and, in process of revision, this fault was designedly exaggerated, so that, as has been said, all the lights of the book are tory and all the shades whig. This may well surprise the readers of Hume's political writings, in which his doctrines are not only liberal, but most democratic. The History, however, long held its ground as the chief authority on the subject, and is still one of the historic classics. 304 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT In 1763 Hume accompanied Lord Hertford, British ambassador to France, and became secretary to the embassy, with a salary of one thousand pounds a year. At Paris, where his reputation as a philosopher stood very high, he was petted and lionized by society as Voltaire was to be some years later. He became familiar with the brilliant wits and savants of the Parisian circle — with Turgot, D'Alembert, Hclvetius, Holbach, Diderot, Buffon, Malesherbes, Cr^billon, and the rest, as well as with the no less distin- guished female eminences, De Boufflers, Page de Boccage, Geofrin, DuDeffand, and L'Espinasse. After Lord Hertford's depar- ture Hume remained as charge d'affaires, returning to England in 1766. While in France occurred the episode of his friendly intervention on behalf of the restless, vain, and self-tormenting Rousseau, resulting in a quarrel, in consequence of the insane hallu- cinations of the latter and his charges of treachery against Hume. From 1767 to 1769 Hume held the office of British under-secretary of state, and then finally retired to Edinburgh, where he built a house and expressed his purpose to reside for the rest of his hfe. Hume's success was the beginning of the brilliant period of literary culture and society at Edinburgh, and his house became the center of attraction. In 1775 began the illness which waa to prove fatal. Distinctly aware of this, he wrote My Own Life, a simple, cheery, and also, it may be added, a very appreciative record. He died at Edinburgh, August 25, 1776, and his remains were interred in the old burial ground on Calton hill, that city. Hume's philosophical writings do not form a complete system, but he discusses many of the salient ideas of philosophy, in a bold, penetrating, and original manner. His rea- sonings were the outcome of the empirical philosophy of Locke, and have been fre- quently assailed as sceptical and destructive. He was the first to see clearly that the great starting point of Cartesian philosophy — the fact of self-consciousness — was not more amenable to demonstration than was our belief in the existence of an outer world. That we possessed both these beliefs was certain, in common probably with the higher animals; but to prove their validity, or to discuss the natm:e of their objects, was not possible for man. Limiting himself, therefore, to phenomena. Hume went on to explain that the materials of our knowledge are of two kinds: vivid impressions and faint impressions. To a series of vivid impressions of form, color, weight, texture, etc., constantly found in conjunction, we attach by an instinctive belief the notion of external body. Of these vivid impressions there are faint echoes or repetitions. These, to distinguish them from the vivid impressions, Hume, following Locke, called ideas. If the idea of an apple results from the vivid impression of an apple, does not the first prove the existence of the second, since every effect must have a cause? Here we come to the most salient point of Hume's philosophy, the elimination of the conception of cause, as nothing but a mental figment. "The idea of cause and effect," he says, "is derived from experience, which, presenting us with certain objects constantly conjoined with each other in a certain order, produces such a habit of surveying them in that rela- tion, that we cannot without a sensible violence survey them in any other." Two vivid impressions being constantly seen in sequence, the belief arises in our minds, not merely that one will be followed by the other, but that the first possesses power to produce the second. A billiard ball in motion strikes another, and there ensues the motion of the second ball. This, said Hume, is all that we can assert with philosophical certainty. To maintain the existence of a power in the first bsdl to produce the motion of the second is to go wholly outside the limits of our knowledge. The objection has been made to this view, that night always follows day, yet that day is not regarded as the cause of night. But here we have a cycle, not a succession. Day follows night as well as precedes it. Placing an opaque body in the line of the sun's rays, we mark that a shadow results, and we say that the body is the cause of the shadow. This assertion of a cause, of a power to pro- duce, is called by Hume a mental fiction, or habit, from which, however, we cannot escape. Hume extends this view to impres- sions arising from an internal source. A man determines to raise his arm. The volition is followed by the contraction of certain muscles. To introduce a mysterious agency called will, or force, as explanatory of the sequence of the contraction on the volition, does not help us forward in the least. A similar train of IN PHILOSOPHY aoi reasoning led to his remarkable analysis of the fact of belief, as a "vivid idea related to or associated with a present impression." Having thus laid the foundation of his method, and demonstrated the futility of metaphysical discussion, he passed, in his Essays, to other subjects. Among them are a series of very valuable studies on com- mercial and industrial relations. His ethics, contained in his Enquiry Con- cerning the Principles of Morals, rightly re- garded by himself as his most important work, is a striking example of the application of his method to the highest order of phenomena. Avoiding all speculation as to the origin of evil, or as to the existence of a special faculty for the discernment of right and wrong, he asked two plain questions, susceptible of a definite answer: (1) What are the actions and motives which men in all ages and coun- tries praise or condemn? (2) Can we see how this praise and condemnation arose? The first was a question to be solved by induction from facts; the second by demanding a law of filiation or evolution. With admirable clearness and directness of illustration, he shows that virtue, or personal merit, consists in the possession of mental qualities useful or agreeable to the person himself or to others. Not that men's appro- bation of these qualities rests upon an elabo- rate calculation of personal interest. It is instinctive and immediate, and operates where no such interest is involved. Gradually, as the social state widens from the family to the tribe, and from the tribe to a large political community, the quahties tending to the good of that community are more keenly recognized. The instinct of benevolence, of a fellow feeling with others, is innate in human nature. Crushed at first by coarser animal passions, it gradually asserts itself, because, unlike the other instincts, it arouses no antagonism, and can be indulged by all simultaneously. This instinct, therefore, is the principal source of morality. In Hume's remarkable study, the Natural History of Religion, though fetichism is not clearly dis- tinguished from polytheism, yet the origin of fetichism — that is to say, the passions — is clearly indicated. "There is an universal tendency," he says, "among mankind to conceive all beings like themselves, and to transfer to every object those qualities with which they are familiarly acquainted, and of which they are intimately conscious. We find human faces in the moon, annies in Um clouds; and by a natural propensity, if not corrected by experience and reflection, w« ascribe malice and good will to everythii^( that hurts or pleases us." Taking his philosophic writings as a whole, Hume's great distinction is, that by his acute investigation of the nature of man, from the point of view of Locke's system, he gave to philosophical scepticism a strength and logical consistency which it never had before. Locke had taught that all our knowledge was derived from experience; Berkeley had fol- lowed and proved that we have no experience except that of ideas; and that, there- fore, matter is a figment. Hume went still further, and, as some one has said, had courage to follow truth to the very bottom of her well, and showed that mind is a fig- ment, too. Both Locke and Berkeley foresaw this possible issue, but shrank back from the abyss. "Hume," says George Henry Lewes, "de- serves the gratitude of mankind for having brought philosophy to this pa.ss. Mankind, however, has paid him with execration." Perhaps the most memorable result of Hume's philosophical conclusions was that it awakened Kant to a sense of the necessity of fresh investigation, more searching and more profound, and thus became the occasion of the birth of the critical philosophy. But he, also, anticipated some of the advanced specu- lations of the present day. His influence has told upon many of the writers who have since influenced the world, and it is still far from being exhausted. Notwithstanding his remorseless criticism, both philosophical and religious, he always treated his subject with gravity and decorum, never employed rib- aldry, and seldom even wit in support of his views. Among his closest friends were men of known piety and some of the religious leaders of the day. The character of this distinguished man has often been misunderstood and misrepresented alike by friends and foes. His nature was a great one, but not developed in some most vital directions. No man of his time had a stronger understanding, larger intellectual capacity, finer tastes, higher courage, or more deeply rooted love of independence. His disposition was mild, benevolent, and gener- ous; his temper even, placid, and gay. He was fond of society, and extremely beloved by those who associated with him. Always 306 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT soaring above the petty prejudices of man- kind; guarded in his own conduct, and indulgent toward that of others, he preserved his own life and character from calumny; and it was only by his works that he was so often the object of malignity and hatred. He died as he lived. Attacked by a slow but incurable disease, he beheld without dis- may the gradual diminution of his strength ; and preserved almost to his last moments his ardor for study, his habitual serenity, and even gaiety of temper. A few days before his death, he said to his physician, "I am going as fast as my enemies, if I have any, can wish, and as calmly as my best friends can desire." In his memoir written by himself, he de- scribes himself as follows : " I am, or rather was — for that is the style I must now use in speaking of myself, and which emboldens me the more to speak my sentiments — I was, I say, a man of mild disposition; of command of temper ; of an open, social, and cheerful humor, capable of attachment, but little sus- ceptible of enmity ; and of great moderation in all my passions. Even my love of literary fame, my ruling passion, never soured my temper, notwithstanding my frequent disap- pointments. My company was not unac- ceptable to the young and careless, as well as to the studious and literary; and as I took particular pleasure in the company of modest women, I had no reason to be displeased with the reception I met with from them. In a word, though most men, any^vise eminent, have found reason to complain of calumny, I was never touched, or even attacked by her baneful tooth; and although I wantonly exposed myself to the rage of both civil and religious factions, they seemed to be disarmed, on my behalf, of their wonted fury. " My friends never had occasion to vindicate any one circumstance of my character and conduct; not but that the zealots, we may well suppose, would have been glad to invent and propagate any story to my disadvantage, but they could not find any which they thought would wear the face of probability. I cannot say there is no vanity in making this funeral oration of myself, but I hope it is not a mis- placed one ; and this is a matter of fact which is easily cleared and ascertained." The great economist, Adam Smith, said that Hume approached "as nearly to the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as, perhaps, the nature of human frailty will permit." This statement is probably colored by the enthusiastic glow of a warm atlmirer; but certainly no one can justly impeach either Hume's honesty of intellect, or the attitude of his heart. "For kindly David Hume," says Professor Huxley, " the damnation of one man is an infinitely greater evil in the universe than the subversion of a thousand million of kingdoms. And he would have felt with his countryman Burns, that even 'auld Nickie Ben ' should ' hae a chance. ' " KANT A. D. AGE A. D. 1724 Bom at Konigsberg, Prussia 1784 174t) Entered the university of Konigs- berg, 16 1746 "The True Measure of Living 1788 Forces." 22 1790 1755 "Natural History and Theory of the 1793 Heavens"; Ph. D., 31 1770-97 Professor of logic and meta- 1798 _physics, Konigsberg, 46-73 1781 "Critique of Pure Reason," .... 57 1804 AGS "Ideas About Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View," 60 "Critique of Practical Reason," . . 64 "Critic^ue of Judgment," 66 "Religion within the Bounds of Mere Reason," 69 "Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View," 74 Died at Konigsberg, Prussia, ... 80 TMMANUEL KANT was one of the very ■■• greatest thinkers of all time, and the founder of the so-called critical philosophy. He was of Scotch descent, and was born in Konigsberg, Prussia, April 22, 1724. His father was a saddler and strapmaker, ex- tremely poor and exceedingly honest. His mother was innately pious, and with his early instruction, which was entirely religious, Kant acquired that reverence and love of sincerity which so markedly influenced his character and writings in later life. He was educated at the expense of his uncle, at the university of his native town, which he IMMANUEL KANT From a fainting IN PHILOSOPHY m» entered in 1740. He pursued the study of mathematics and the sciences with great delight, and gave much attention to theology. History and poetry remained comparatively neglected. For nine years he was a family tutor, and, in the year 1755, he received from his university the degree of doctor of philoso- phy. In the same year he pubhshed an essay on " Natural History and Theory of the Heavens," in which he was the first to suggest the theory of the nebular hypothesis. He had previously, however, when but twenty- tW^o years of age, published an extraordinary treatise on "The True Measure of Living Forces," which contained an acute criti- cism of the arguments of Descartes and Leibnitz. Shortly after receiving his doctorate, Kant settled as a docent at the university, and delivered lectures on logic, metaphysics, natural philosophy, and mathematics. In 1762 appeared his work on the "Only Pos- sible Ground of Demonstrating the Being of God," proposing a new form of the ontological proof, and rejecting the other three arguments. Existence, he says, is not a predicate concep- tion, and, therefore, cannot be proved; but the non-existence of God contains a logical contradiction. In 1770 he obtained the chair of mathematics — after declining the chair of poetry in 1762 — but soon exchanged it for that of metaphysics and logic, which he occupied until 1797, seven years before his death. During this period of almost half a century occupied in professorial duties at the university of Konigsberg, he evolved his philosophical works. His inaugural dissertation, "Form and Principles of the Sensible and Intelligible World " — De Mundi Sensihilis atque IrUelli- *gibilis Forma et Principiis — contains germs of his metaphysical system. In 1772 he wrote about his scheme of a transcendental philosophy, which he hoped to finish in three months ; in 1776 it was to be completed the next summer; but not until 1781 did the "Critique of Pure Reason" — Kritik der reinen Vernunft — make its appearance. In 1783 appeared his "Prolegomena to every future System of Metaphysics claiming to be a Science," a more popular exposition, and also a more complete analysis, of the questions and problems mooted in the " Critique." He then endeavored to counteract the negative results of the system of pure reason by his "Foundation of the Metaphysics of Ethics" — OrundUgung der Metaphytik der Sittm — in 1785, and "Metaphysioal Elemento of Natural SciencQ "— Mdaphytitche Anfang*' griinde der Naturxeisaemchaft — iasued in 1786, completing the exjxwition of his views in these two branches of philosophy. In 1787 he published the second edition of the "Crit- ique of Pure Reason," omitting the preface to the first edition, and altering it so as to avoid the charge of idealism which had been generally preferred against his speculations. The "Critique of Practical Reason" — Kritik der praktischen Vernunft — published in 1788, was intended to give the positive aspect of the new philosophy in relation to God, freedom, and immortality. It is a further exposition and application of what was given in outline in the " Metaph)rsics of Ethics," and it contributed to give currency to his system among those who had been repelled by the apparently negative conclu- sions of the "Critique of Pure Reason." To these works, in 1790, Kant added his "Critique of Judgment " — Kritik der UrtheiU- krajt — which developed more fully the principles of the metaphysics of the natural sciences, and supplemented many positions in his other treatises. With the latter work closed the productive metaphysical period of Kant's philosophic career. His subsequent writings form, accord- ing to his own statement, its practical period, applying to different special sciences the principles he had elaborated. The more definite conflict of his philosophy with the orthodox theology was aroused by the publi- cation of his essays on "Religion within the Bounds of Mere Reason " — Die Religion in- nerhalh der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft — in 1793. In 1797 appeared his "Metaphysics of Ethics " — Der Metaphyaik der SiUen — in two parts, viz. : the " Metaphysical Elements of Right," and "of Virtue." The "Strife of the Faculties," issued in 1798, is a review of the controversy about his religious opinions, with the documents concerning it. His "Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View " — ArUhropologie in pragmati»cher Hin- sicht — was published the same year. Besides his larger works and essays, Kant also wrote many minor treatises, sufficient to have made a literary reputation for most men. In 1784 he published an essay entitled "Ideas about Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View " ; and in 1795, a " Project of Per- petual Peace." SIO MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Kant died February 12, 1804, in his eighti- eth year, having never in the whole career of his life, it is said, traveled more than forty miles outside of his native city. Sixteen days after his death, on February 28th, a public funeral was accorded him. His remains were buried in a vault in the university church, and were followed to their last resting place by his familiar friends, by students of the university, and by hundreds from the city and neighborhood. People of all sorts and conditions vied with one another to do honor to his memory as a man of genius, and to pay their final tribute to his worth. He left a modest fortune, and a library of four hundred fifty volumes. Kant's external life was one of the utmost regularity and simplicity. He was a man of small stature and frail body, but by rigid rules he kept in tolerable health, and never had a severe illness until worn out by advanced age. He was never married; philosophy was the passion of his soul; and his whole career seems to have been shaped by his definite theory of morals. His household consisted of an old man- servant and a cook. Summer and winter he arose at five minutes before five, and at five o'clock precisely was seated at his breakfast table, where he drank two cups of tea, and smoked a pipe, while laying out his day's work. At seven he went to give his lecture at the college. Then he returned and worked until a quarter before one o'clock, which was his dinner hour. He always had an invited guest ; but if by chance he saw himself likely to dine alone, the servant was obliged to go into the street and ask in some passer-by. During the meal he talked on all subjects, philosophy excepted, and tenaciously held to his pet theories on electricity, etc. After dinner, always long, came the daily promenade, when at half-past three, as regularly as the church clock struck, he emerged from his house and entered the small street, which after his death was called the "philosopher's alley," there to walk back and forth eight times, respectfully saluted by the old burghers, and, in threatening weather, anxiously followed by the faithful servant with an umbrella \mder his arm. Kant assigned as his reasons for this promenade the oppor- tunity it gave him to meditate, and at the same time to breathe the air through the nose only, so that the air might be softened before reaching the lungs — a rule of hygiene which he held to be invaluable in preventing uolds and coughs. On reentering the house, he read the scientific and pohtical journals until six o'clock, when he commenced work. In order that his thinking should be agreeable and without distraction, he always occupied a certain place, before the window overlooking the castle at Konigsberg, and the heat must always be just fourteen degrees centigrade summer and winter. He imagined himself sick if it varied ever so little. He was always much occupied with his health ; wore silk stockings attached by cords to his waist — because he conceived that garters impaired the circulation of the blood — detested beer, and, in short, all the arrange- ments of his person and hving were as com- plicated almost as his metaphysical treatises. He retired at ten o'clock, terminating the evening with reading, and methodically put- ting away all ideas likely to prevent or trouble his slumbers. He always slept in a perfectly dark and cold chamber, where the windows were kept closed on principle, summer and winter, in spite of all theories in favor of change of air. He knew neither passion, suf- fering, nor unhappiness, except by name; he was simply a thinker and an observer in the world, devoted entirely to study. In general society in his earlier life he was sometimes odd, but also genial and animated. He was a capital listener, could tell a good story, and commented on all matters of literary, philosophical, or political interest, with freedom and thoughtfulness. In general literature his reading was very large ; but the most brilliant oratory he considered to be merely "delirioxis prose." In his political views he warmly sjrmpa- thized with the most thoughtful spirits of the age. Man, he says, is born free. His great political idea was that there must be a separa- tion of the powers in the state to secure a true social order. He was a zealous advocate of freedom of opinion and freedom of the press. He sympathized with the American colonies in their struggle against Great Britain, and also with the French people in their revolt against monarchical abuses. Kant's religion, it must be confessed, was not of the conventional t)rpe, but of a broader and more liberal description — the religion of the philosopher rather than of the eccle- siastic. With him the feeling of pure obliga- tion on an inexorable duty was paramount; IN PHILOSOPHY 311 in fact, his sense of duty was so strong as to leave little room for religious sentiment. He defined religion as "the recognition of our duties as divine commands"; nor did the positive truths of Christianity as a redemptive system modify either his metaphysical or ethical theories. Of the church itself he had a noble idea, but did not find it realized in the church of the day. Hence he held aloof from them, and, indeed, is said during his manhood never to have entered a church door at all. His repugnance to the spirit of sectarianism was so great — but the spirit of sectarianism was far more rampant than it is now — that he refused to ally himself with any religious body or denomination whatever. He claimed that they should really be one, but as they were, each was infected with a spirit of bigotry and intolerance quite the reverse of charitable toward all others with which there happened to be a conflict of opinion. With such feel- ings Kant had no sympathy. His life was severely pure, and his benevolence great. He lived up consistently to the light he had, and trusted in providence with the confi- dence of a child. "I fear not," said he, "to die. If this very night the summons of death were to overtake me, I should hear it with calmness; I should raise my hands to heaven and praise God 1 " It is a difficult task to describe Kant's philosophical system within brief hmits — or, indeed, within any limits, brief or otherwise. The important principle resulting from it is the conception of knowledge as resulting from the interaction of two factors — one supplied by the outer world, the other by the structure of the human mind. Thus Kant's fundamental principle is a special instance of the essential fact, first indicated by Comte, and subsequently illustrated with such full- ness by Spencer, which constitutes life of every kind, the action and reaction, tending toward adjustment, between organism and environment. The starting point and the most important development of this great system is the "Critique of Pure Reason," which was the result of twelve years of prodigious thinking. This masterpiece is a direct antithesis of the Novum Organum of Bacon. Its leading object was to check philosophical scepticism, partic- ularly as expounded by Hume, and in a less degree by Bacon and Locke. The doctrine had been propounded that all our knowledge is derived from sensational experience, and that, because it is so, no absolutely oertAio knowledge is possible to us as human creatures — since all that we know, or can know, of things external to ourselves is resolvable into our sensations, which may be delusive and phantasmal altogether. We think we recog- nize things without us, but we really recognize nothing but our sensations within. Kant argues, and endeavors to show, that this view is a mistaken one. "That all our knowledge begins with expe> rience there can be no doubt," says the opening paragraph, "but though all begins with experi- ence, it by no means follows that all arises out of experience." "There exists a knowledge independent of sensuous impressions, a knowl- edge a -priori." "Philosophy," he declares, " stands in need of a science which shall deter- mine the possibility, principles, and extent of human knowledge o priori." Such a knowl- edge is given to us by intuition; on this he founds his metaphysics, the transcendental philosophy. Space is not a concept or derived from out- ward experience. Space is a necessary repre- sentation a priori. Space is the subjective condition of the sensibility and the necessary foundation of external perception. Time is not a conception derived from outward experi- ence. Time is the formal condition a priori of all phenomena whatever ; space is the con- dition of external phenomena alone. Time and space have no empirical reality, but an absolute and transcendental reality. These two elements are all that are pure intuition. All other conceptions appertain more or less to sensibility; motion, for example, unites both these elements and presupposes aom^ thing movable, a perception besides. From the two intuitions, the primary de- ments, we come to consider the four concep- tions of the understanding, the secondary elements. Two of these are mathematical, quantity and quality; the other two are dynamical, for instance, cause and effect, necessity. From these his logic gave to Kant his whole tree of categories aa syntheses in correspondence with the analyses of the func- tions of judgment — his twelve categories being unity, multitude, allness; reality, neg»> Ition, limitation; substance, causality, reci- jprocity; possibihty; actuality; necessity. In I like manner he arrived at the three ideas, the [ objects of p8ychol(^y, cosmology, and theol- I ogy, or the soul, the world, and God. I The soul is substance, a simple unity; ita 812 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT qualities are immateriality, incorruptibility, personality, spirituality, animality, and im- mortality. The world suggests to us ideas of a beginning, limits, parts, and liberty — spontaneity — and also necessity. By world we mean the mathematical whole, by nature the dynamical whole. The world has a beginning in time and is limited in space ; it is made up of simple parts, a casuality of free- dom is necessary; there exists a necessary being as its cause. Of God, termed the Ideal — Plato's idea of the divine mind — two ideas are given ; the deist cognizes the existence of a supreme being by pure reason alone, the theist discerns him by analogy with nature ; to one he is the cause of the world, to the other he is its author. All recognition begins with intuitions, pro- ceeds from them to conceptions, and ends with ideas. Reason asks the questions, what can I know, what ought I to do, and what may I hope? The legislation of human reason has two objects, nature and freedom ; the philosophy of nature relates to that which is; that of morals to that which ought to be: thus we have two principal sciences of reason, mathe- matics and ethics. So far the philosophy of Kant is severely critical, even purely negative and destructive ; but his stoical morality would not allow him to rest satisfied with merely negative results. He therefore came forward with this "Cri- tique of Practical Reason," nobly vindicating the claims of duty and religion, and forming a fitting corallary to the previous work, but inferior to it as a work of genius. In his system of morality he maintained the unconditional validity of the moral law, and the consequences which legitimately flow from it. He first proves that the concept of duty has an objective character, which is not possessed by any of the concepts of specula- tive reason. He then maintains that this concept of duty communicates immediately its objectivity to a second concept, that of liberty, which is so closely bound up with the first that they form together an inseparable whole. Duty and liberty become the pivots of man's conscious being ; and his life is one of conflict between the impulse of free will to assert its liberty, and the impulse of conscience to insist on duty, as a curb. This conflict must cease; there must be some moral equi- librium between duty and liberty. Therefore, there is a future life and a God. There is nothing really good in this world but a good will. A good will is the absolute scope and end of man. A good will is not estimated by its good effects, but must be good in itself. Temperance, fortitude, and like virtues aid and strengthen good will, but have no inward worth of their own. Good will has an inward, absolute, and necessary principle ; this is the moral sense, product of pure reason. Laws are either hypothetical or categorical : a hypothetical law is one which indicates a means to an end, but a categorical imperative is a law which is absolute. Moral laws are of this kind. " Let the maxim on which you act be fit for a law to all mankind" — this is Kant's famous rule of life. His "Critique of Judgment" completed the critical philosophy, and of its merits Kant had the most superlative notions. He did not scruple to declare that, in his esti- mation, it satisfied the reason, and, for the highest aims of humanity, would be indis- pensable to all future ages! He had as con- fident a conviction of the permanence of his philosophy as Horace of the immortality of his Odes, and if he had modesty enough not to say so quite with the boastfulness of the Roman poet, he yet felt as surely as the latter in his inmost consciousness. That he was prophet as well as philosopher, the period from his death to the present is ample testimony. The influence of Kant's speculations began to be felt at the same time that the French revolution was changing the face of Europe, and when old chaos seemed to have again revisited the earth. Materialism was pre- dominant in France; in Scotland, Reid was combating scepticism on the principles of common sense; and an abstract dogmatism ruled the German mind. Here was a philoso- pher who, with unmatched analytic and synthetic powers, came forward to show to each previous and prevalent system its metes and bounds. Against the materialist and the sceptic, he proved that the mind had its a_ priori principles of knowledge; against the dogmatist, he maintained that the sphere of the supersensible, though a reality, is not disclosed to positive thought. He proved that empiricism is right so far as it asserts that the matter of our ideals is drawn from without, but wTong so far as it implies that their form can also there be found. And he is allied with the principle of the common-sense philosophy in ascribing an absolute validity to those IN PHILOSOPHY tu moral ideas by which life is and must be guided. The utterances of this practical rea- son are true and valid, whatever may be the diflficulties of the theoretical reason. We must live and act in view of God, freedom, and immortality. His philosophy became the starting point for the most remarkable development of speculation since the days of the Greeks. German speculation was thoroughly quick- ened. Those who oppose Kant and those who espoused his views equally acknowledged his greatness. Reinhold at first defended and then modified his system. Schulze, Beck, and Bardih tried to bring it into more popular forms. Krug wrote a new Organon, and Fries a new "Criticism of the Reason." Hamann, Herder, and Jacobi developed their systems, which made faith the basis of philoso- phy, with constant reference to the principles of Kant. Herbart's positive philosophy claimed to have the true key to the Kantian metaphysics. Fichte unfolded his subjective idealism as the only logical result of the critical philosophy. And even in some of the latest products of German speculation there are not wanting attempts to show that Kant has not been superseded by any of hi« mi^ cessors. Although we live now at a distance of more than a century from the publication of Kant's great works, they are still growing in learned estimation, and it is probable that they are more appreciated at the present time than at any former period. De Quincey asserted that " measured by one test of power — namely, by the number of books written directly for or against himself, to say nothing of those which indirectly he has modified — there is no philosophic writer whatever, if we except Aristotle, Descartes, and Locke, who can pr^ tend to approach Kant in the extent or in the depth of influence which he has exercised over the minds of men." Still more recently Dr. Hutchinson Stirling in his textbook says: "There can be no doubt that at this moment the place of Kant, as generally estimated, is that of greatest German philosopher, greatest modern philosopher, greatest philosopher of all, with only the usual exceptions of Plato and Aristotle." HEGEL A. D. AGE A. D. 1770 Born at Stuttgart, Wiirttemberg, . . . 1811 1788 Entered the university of Tiibingen, 18 1816 1801 Settled at Jena; privat-docent at 1817 university of Jena, 31 180G Professor-extraordinary of philos- 1818 ophv, Jena, 36 1807 "The Phenomenologv of the Spirit," 37 1821 1808-16 Rector of the gymnasium at 1829 Nuremberg, 38-46 1831 AQB Married Marie von Tucher, .... 41 Professor at Heidelberg, 40 "Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences," 47 Professor of philosophy at univer- sity of Berhn 48 "Philosophy of Right," 61 Rector university of lierlln, .... 69 Died at Berlin, Prussia, 61 /^EORGE WILHELM FRIEDRICH ^-^ HEGEL, one of the most eminent of German philosophers, was born at Stuttgart, Wiirttemberg, August 27, 1770. He could trace his descent through a long line of Carin- thian and Swabian ancestors who had filled respectable places in the middle ranks of society. Some of these during the period of the thirty years' war had suffered persecu- tion and expatriation on account of their attachment to the Protestant cause. His father was superintendent of the ducal finances — a post, it may be supposed, of much trust and responsibility. The Swabian temperament — characterized by gravity, straightforwardness, and perse- verance — is said to have declared itself at a very early age in the life and conversation of the future philosopher. While still in his " teens " he went by the nickname of " the old man." His school and college diaries, ex- tracts from which have been published by his biographer, Rosenkranz, attest the extent and variety of his studies. They afford evidence of indefatigable industry, of pains and thoroughness, rather than of precocity of genius. Method and persistency were the characteristics of the youthful scholar, as they were of the mature metaphysician. At the university of Tiibingen, to which he proceeded in 1788, he was a fellow student with the philosopher, Schelling — a kindred spirit, who presented, too, some very decided points of contrast. They lived together, for 314 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT a time, in the same room; and the intimacy thus commenced exercised from first to last a marked influence, partly through sympathy, and partly through rivalry, on the destinies of these two great thinkers. In later life they had their differences. "They stood aloof, the scars remaining"; and so wide, indeed, was the breach that, after Hegel's death, Schelling was summoned to Berlin to preach down the doctrines of his early friend, which were sup- posed to have become too dominant and exclusive — an enterprise which he attempted without much success. But in those early days at Tubingen, in the springtime of their youth, the identity of their aspirations seems to have knit them together, as it afterward did at Jena, in the closest intellectual fellow- ship. After completing his university course, Hegel accepted the office of tutor in a family in Switzerland, which he exchanged, some years afterward, for a more agreeable appoint- ment of the same kind at Frankfort. For six years he gave his attention to his tutorial duties, to the study of the life of Jesus, the philosophy of religion, and ancient history. He read Thucydides, Montesquieu, Gibbon, Hume, and even wrote a "Life of Jesus," which, however, was never published. On the death of his father, in 1799, he received a small patrimony. In the year ISOl he pro- ceeded to Jena, where he established himself on a more independent footing, and began lectures on philosophy at the university there as a privat-docent. His friend Schelling, although some years his junior, had gotten the start of him, and was settled as a professor-extraordinary in the same place. Goethe, Schiller, and Wieland lived at Weimar, which was not far off, so that he was in contact with the most brilliant intellectual society which Germany at that time afforded. The genius of Schelling, as prolific as it was precocious, had by this time given to the world a series of profound phil- osophical disquisitions. At the age of nine- teen he had shown a wonderful insight into the philosophy of Fichte, and had even carried it forward into a new development; and when Hegel now joined him he had just published his system of transcendental ideal- ism. Hegel made no pretensions to such pliancy of intellect and rapid power of composition ; but he, too, was laying the foundations of a system which, although identical in its groimdwork, or nearly so, with that of Schelling, waa intended to be far more rigorous and logical in its procedure. It was, indeed, in their method that the main difference between the two philosophers lay. Schelling was of the opinion that the citadel of truth was to be carried by a coup de main, by a genial, "intel- lectual intuition." Hegel conceived that it was to be won only by slow sap and regular logical approaches. Accordingly, he pub- lished his first important work "On the Dif- ference between the Philosophical Systems of Fichte and Schelling." Hegel remained at Jena until 1807, and edited, along with Schelling, a journal of philosophy, besides delivering his lectures on philosophy. Schelling, however, migrated to Wiirzburg about 1803, and after three years Hegel was promoted to the chair which he had vacated. During his occupation of this chair, he completed the great work on "The Phe- nomenology of the Spirit " — Die Phanome- nologiedesGcistes — on the eve of the celebrated victory of Napoleon over the Prussians. But the emoluments of an extraordinary professor- ship being inadequate to support him during the excitement of war and conquest, he resigned the appointment and removed to Bamberg, where he acted for a short time as the editor of a political journal. In 1808 Hegel was appointed to the office of rector of the gymnasium at Nuremberg. Here, in 1811, he married Marie von Tucher, a lady of strong religious convictions and moral virtues, to whom he was always devot- edly attached. He remained at Nuremberg, giving elementary courses of instruction in philosophy and religion, and seeing the first two parts of his " Logic " through the press, until 1816, when he received a call to a phil- osophical professorship at the university of Heidelberg. At Heidelberg he remained two years, and completed his "Logic," under the title of the " Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences " — Encyklopddie der philosophischen Wissenschaften — in which his entire scheme of philosophy is comprised. In 1818 he was summoned to fill the chair of philosophy in the university of Berhn, which had been vacant since the death of Fichte in 1814. His fame now rose rapidly. His disciples began to be ardent and prophetic. His sys- tem was proclaimed as completing the struc- ture of German idealism. His lectures soon became the rage. Officers of state and the literati and savants of Berlin sat on the IN PHILOSOPHY US students' benches. Hegellanism was the road to office. His previous lectures on the differ- ent branches of philosophy were carefully revised, and he wrote two new courses, on the "Philosophy of Religion" in 1821, and on the " Philosophy of History " in 1827. His " Out- lines of the Philosophy of Right " was issued in 1821, combining in one exposition natural rights, ethics, and the philosophy of society and the state. The noted aphorism in which he summed up its teachings, "The rational is actual, and the actual is rational," was inter- preted in an ultra-conservative sense. He was understood as supporting the existing Prussian political system as the perfection of reason and freedom. His system received concentration and impulse from the establishment, with the favor of government, of the Berhn " Yearbook of Scientific Criticism" — Jahrbiicher jur wissenschaftliche Kritik — in 1827. All things were here discussed in the light of absolute knowledge. The school had solved the problem of the universe, and nothing remained but to bring all thoughts into subjection. The rationalists had no more violent foe than this prophet of the universal reason. He defended against them the truths of the incar- nation of sin, and of redemption. The long conflict between philosophy and faith was now to be adjusted ; the absolute idealism was to do it, and it was to be done in Berlin. In 1829 he became rector of the university, and administered its affairs with the punctuality and painstaking of an accomplished disci- plinarian. In the autumn of 1831 he began his lectures in the university with more than usual fresh- ness and vigor, but died suddenly of cholera on November 14, 1831. The disease seems to have attacked his brain principally, and to have run a milder course than is usual with that formidable malady. The regulation which declared that all persons dying of cholera should be buried in a separate church- yard was relaxed, by high authority, in his favor. He was interred beside the grave of Fichte, in a churchyard near one of the principal gates of the city. Thus, although the events of Hegel's Ufe were simple and monotonous, the scene of his labors was not a Uttle varied. Stutt- gart, Tiibingen, Jena, Bamberg, Nuremberg, Heidelberg, and Berlin were the stages in his pilgrimage. It was at these stopping places along the way that he taught and wrote ; he evolved one of the most profouod philotopht cal systems that the world haa yet pondered. Soon after Hegel's death an edition of hit collecte versies of recent times. Beyond Gennany, Hegelianism is represented in France, in Italy, in Denmark, and in Sweden by niuneroua philosophers of note ; and has alao exerted an important influence on British and American thought, especially in the region of psychol- ogy- Hegel's appearance and general character- istics as a lecturer are thus given by his leading biographer, Rosenkranz: "Utterly careleM about the graces of rhetoric, thoroughly real and absorbed in the business of the moment, ever pressing forward, and often extremely dogmatic in his assertions, Hegel enchained his students by the intensity of his speculative power. His voice was in harmony with his eye. It was a great eye, but it looked inward; and the momentary glances which it threw outward seemed to issue from the very depths of idealism, and arrested the beholder like a spell. His accent was rather broad, and without sonorous ring; but through its apparent commonness there broke that lofty animation which the might of knowledge inspires, and which, in moments when the genius of humanity was adjuring the audience through his lips, left no hearer unmoved. " In the sternness of his noble features there was something almost calculated to strike terror, had not the beholder been again pro- pitiated by the gentleness and cordiality of the expression. A peculiar smile bore witness to the purest benevolence, but it was blended with something harsh, cutting, sorrowful, or rather ironical. His, in short, were the tragic lineaments of the philosopher, of the hero whose destiny it is to struggle with the riddle of the universe." Professor Edward Cwrd, another of his biographers and interpreters, speaks thus of the moral influence of his philosophy: "As Socrates was compared to Uiose figures of Silenus which were contained within the image of an Olympic god, so it may be said that in Hegel we find an idealist, for whom truth is poetry and religion one with philoso- phy, in the dress of a punctual and orderly civil servant of the Prussian government. 318 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 'Pq ijiju, therefore, the great aphorism, in which the Christian ethics and theology may be said to be summed up, that 'he that saveth his Hfe shall lose it, and he that loseth his life shall find it,' is no mere epigrammatic saying, whose self-contradic- tion is not to be regarded too closely; it is rather the first distinct, though as yet unde- veloped, expression of the exact truth as to the nature of the spirit." SPENCER A. D. ^^^ ■*• ''• 1820 Born at Derbv, England 1861 1837 Takes up civil enginoerine 17 1862 1845 Went to London ; devoted himself 1863-67 to literature, 25 1871-72 184»-63 Assistant editor of The Economist, 28-33 1876-96 1850 Social Statics, 30 1882 1855 Principles of Psychology first pub- 1879-93 lishe^, 35 1903 AOB Education, 41 First Principles 42 Principles of Biology, 43—47 Principles of Psychology revised, . 51-52 Princivles of Sociology, 56-7fJ Visited the United States, .... 62 Principles of Ethics 59-73 Died at Brighton, England 83 TTERBERT SPENCER, one of the most •^ *■ distinguished philosophers, and author of the System of Synthetic Philosophy, was born at Derby, England, April 27, 1820. His father was a teacher, with educational views considerably in advance of his time, and with strong leanings toward mathematics and the natural sciences. He believed in training the student's mind in observation and in reflec- tion on objective facts instead of mere ideas. Both parents were originally Methodists in their religious affiliations, but his father latterly became a Quaker. Herbert's health was delicate in childhood, and he was largely educated by his father at home with as much outdoor life as possible. A little later he was put in charge of his uncle, a clergyman of the church of England. He early showed a fondness for studies of nature, and for a good many years his favorite occu- pation was the catching and preserving of insects and the rearing of moths and butter- flies. He also studied botany with some pas- sion, and in these ways he laid the foundation for the scientific character and interest of his later work. His uncle planned to send him to Cam- bridge university, but the boy "persever- ingly objected," and continued to study privately. He had no aptitude for languages, and made little progress in the classics, but showed original constructive power in mathe- matics and mechanics. His mind rapidly developed marked independence, and, having yearly been brought into contact with the intellectual influences centering about John Stuart Mill, and with the scientific spirit, he imbibed the tendencies of the age toward extreme liberalism in theological matters. At first it was his father's wish that he take up teaching, but an accidental opportunity decided in favor of another vocation more suitable to his tastes. In the autumn of 1837 work was ofTered to him under the chief engineer of the London and Birmingham railway, with whom he spent nearly a year. For some ten years more he engaged in engi- neering pursuits; and while still in the rail- way service — though a mere boy — he wrote some articles for The Nonconformist on The Proper Sphere of Government, in which he outlined the principles of non-inter- ference which regulated all his thinking in later life. When the railway mania finally subsided, SpenQer, now twenty-six years of age, was left, like many other young men, without occupation. But the time spent at home while he was looking for something to do was not wasted. He had leisure for a good deal of miscellaneous reading. He studied Lyell's Principles of Geology, in which the doctrine of evolution was defended by Lamarck's doc- trine as against creationism. About 1845 he found his w^ay to London and soon obtained employment on The Economist, becoming its assistant editor in 1848. This position, which he held until 1853, gave him time for his studies, and made him acquainted with that brilliant coterie of thinkers, chief of which were George Henry Lewes, "George Eliot," and John Stuart Mill. During his leisure hours he wrote the first work which brought him notice — Social Statics — pubhshed in 1850. This work was of a decidedly a priori character, and did not follow the inductive spirit of his later writings. It shows, however, his tendency to reconcile HERBERT SPENCER From a fhotograph A ? \^l y\ t!*'*^ • ' '*c*» . ,• IN PHILOSOPHY 331 opposing influences and to discover closeness of relations where others did not suspect them. Subsequently, he became dissatisfied with both its views and its methods, and wished to recall it from circulation. This being found impossible, in later years he revised it by omitting what he had outgrown. For eight years after leaving The Economist, Spencer pursued with eagerness the studies he had begun, and published in 1855 a work on psychology which he afterward revised and expanded into a part of his Synlhelic Philosophy. Over-application brought on a serious attack of nervous prostration, which obliged him for the rest of his life to abridge his hours of study. He became a chronic sufferer from dyspepsia and insomnia, so that all his later work had to be done under these disadvantages. In the meantime he had con- ceived a system of philosophy which should embrace the general principles of all existing knowledge; he published a prospectus, or outline of it, indicating his intention to give twenty years to its development. The first installments of the system did not meet with the reception he expected in Great Britain, and he feared he would have to abandon his undertaking. But the timely aid of his admirers in the United States, chief among whom was Youmans, editor of the Popular Science Monthly, enabled him to continue his work. His health, however, was so precarious that at one time he feared he would not live to complete the system. With this in view he suspended his labors on the main part of his work to write The Data of Ethics, which had been the object of the whole system, and in which it was intended to culminate. Fortunately, through the utmost care, his life was prolonged far beyond all expectations. He was enabled to complete the system, and to revise an important portion of it in order to bring it up to date. It consists of the following parts written or published at or within the -dates indicated: First Prin- ciples, 1862; Principles of Biology, 1863-67; Principles of Psychology, revised, 1871-72; Principles of Sociology, 1876-96; Principles of Ethics, 1879-93. He also wrote three volumes of Essays: Scientific, Political, and Speculative, between 1858 and 1863, and the small but exceedingly popular work on Education. In 1894 and 1895, respectively, appeared two important essays on the theories of the German scientist, Weismann, ] and a number of other fugitive artielM and addresses have found their wajr into hit complete works. In 1882 Spencer made a visit to the United States and lectured befoi-e a number of academic and scientific societies and institutions. I It is doubtful whether the works of any I other philosopher have been more widely [ translated than those of Spencer. They are known and studied in all the European languages, as well as in several oriental I languages. In Japan and India, particularly, they have received a high place, and seem to have met there the peculiar needs of the j speculative mind with greater success than any other system. In the later years of his life Spencer was almost wholly occupied with his Autobiog- raphy, which has recently been published and forms a most impressive commentary on contemporary thought and thinkers, as well as many introspective glances into the life of this remarkable man. He died at Brighton, England, on December 8, 1903. The story of Spencer's life is neither eventful nor picturesque, but it commands the interest of all who admire faith, courage, and loyalty to an ideal. It is the record of plain Uving and high thinking of one who, though vexed by an extremely nervous temperament, was as resolute as a Hebrew prophet in delivering his message. In it we see a quiet servant of science, indifferent to conventional honors, careless about "getting on," disliking contro- versy, sensationalism, and noise, trusting to the power of truth alone, that it must prevail. Spencer's personality, according to W. H. Hudson, one of his students, rarely made a favorable impression upon strangers. This was due, in part, to the difficulty which many seem to have experienced in getting into touch with him under the conditions of casual intercourse. He was a reserved man; his manner, save toward personal friends, was habitually cold and distant ; there was nothing about him to set the chance comer — eq>e- cially if he happened to be of the all too com- mon lion-hunting order — at his ease. And even his friends had to make occasional and sometimes large allowance for the irritability which was an inevitable result of constant insomnia, dyspepsia, and nervous prostration. His heroic struggle to fulfill the purpose of his life told in many vf&ya upon him, for it involved sacrifices, which in turn brought about some narrowing of personal interests 322 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT and sympathies ; while the fact that he never married, and lost most of his immediate rela- tives early in life, undoubtedly led him to dwell overmuch within himself. But to emphasize a certain austerity which marked him in his more formal associations, without at once adding that this was in reality only the superficial aspect of a singularly strong, upright, and noble nature, would be to give an altogether false idea of the man. Continuing, Hudson observes, "Absolute rectitude seems to me to have been the keynote of his character. Throughout his life, in small things as in great, he governed his conduct according to the most stringent principles of justice and right; and if his severe sense of what was due from others made him occasionally seem over-exacting — if in his judgments of men's motives and actions he might sometimes appear to take ordinary human weakness too little into account, he at all events claimed from other people not a whit more than he demanded of himself. And of the rest, if I may draw upon the memory of my own long relationship with him, he was a man whom intellectually and morally one might admire at a distance, but whom one grew to revere and love as one came to know more and more of him. The real emotional richness of his nature, his trans- parent simplicity and freshness, the depth of his sympathy and kindness, were not opened to the general world, and revealed themselves only at close touch. "For all his reserve, for all his hatred of publicity, he was not by temperament a recluse. Ill health and the urgent need of economizing his strength alone kept him out of many social activities he would otherwise have enjoyed. As it was, he was devoted to his friends ; was fond of the genial intercourse of the dinner table; and delighted in story and repartee. For a good many years, until, indeed, his nervous trouble assumed its more serious form, when he was well on toward seventy, he was a regular habitue of the Athenaeum club, where he played a capital game of billiards. Though always a rather impatient reader of general literature, he was a passionate lover of music, which, during the years when I saw most of him, seemed to jrield him his greatest solace and pleasure." So much for Spencer's personality; now, a brief look at his intellectual achievements. By a happy accident Spencer began his career at a time when the great theory of evolution was being propounded, and a new world seemed to open for scientific discovery. With the enthusiasm of youth he set himself to map out this new world, and with a rare fidelity he continued his labors unremittingly to the end of a long life. To unite science and abstract thought, to deduce from the isolated discoveries of departmental science a guiding principle, and to work out this principle in every domain of human activity was the task he set for himself. From the beginning of his philosophical career Spencer surveyed all fields of physi- cal theory and of biological investigation, and all psychological, sociological, and moral problems. His first important pamphlet, The Proper Sphere of Government, soon expanded into the radical volume Socicd Statics, offered a carefully constructed theory of human happiness. The first edition of Principles of Psychology, published four years before Darwin's Origin of Species appeared, clearly presented a conception of life and of mind as a continuing adaptation of organic and nervous changes to environing conditions, and outlined the hypothesis of evolution in most of its essential features. The essays that followed, including the famous papers on Progress: Its Law and Cause, and The Social Organism, contained in brief and striking presentation the substance of the doctrine aften^'ard systematically set forth in exhaustive detail in the ten large volumes of the Synthetic Philosophy. Spencer's philosophy is, in a word, the philosophy of evolution; its object is to exhibit the life history of the world as a com- plex result of a universal process, the funda- mental laws of which are first established and traced down to their ultimate explanation in terms of the constant and necessary redistri- bution of matter and notion. In other words, beginning with the first principles of all knowledge, he proposed to trace how the law of evolution was realized in Ufe, mind, society, and morality. The truth of all organic development — or the law of evolution — he defines as a change from a state of homoge- neity to a state of heterogeneity, and this is regarded as the organizing principle of his entire system. This, and other universal truths, is developed in his First Principles inductively and deductively, and used as the basis for a complete unificatioa of knowledge. The ultimate test of truth is the inconceiv- ability of the negation by the individual IN PHILOSOPHY »S thinker; the "relativity of knowledge" is much insisted on. This done, he had then to carry sucK^ uni- versal truths forward into the particular phenomena of life and mind, society, and morality; two volumes on biology, two on psychology, three on sociology, and two on ethics, embracing the entire scheme. Assisted by elaborate ethnographical charts (Descrip- tive Sociology) he attempted to trace the development of human ideas, customs, cere- monial usages, and political institutions. The genesis of religion is traced generally to ancestor worship. Ethics has its root in physical, biological, psychological, and social phenomena; the best conduct is that which most fully realizes evolution. How much or how little of this vast edifice is Ukely to stand the test of time and criticism is a question that the future alone can answer. Merely to have created so huge a structure is a claim to immortality, for though every axiom and conclusion were denied, later gen- erations might well wonder at the vitality which could carry one thinker through so many arduous paths. Every system of phi- losophy, or of science, must be judged on the qualitative as well as the quantitative side; it must not only be complete, it must be true. A laborious industry in collecting facts will not avail if the basis of the synthesis is false or inadequate. It is Spencer's chief claim on the attention of posterity that he built broad his foundations on the organic unity of the world. Of no modern thinker, perhaps, have so many or so varied estimates been offered to the world as of Spencer. By his adversaries he has been pictured as an arch-heretic, one of the flowers of nonconformity, against theology and against metaphysics, against monarchy and against moUy-coddhng legis- lation, against classical education and against socialism, against war and against Weismann. So that it would be difficult to select the man who has tiot some crow to pick with Spencer. It is not to be wondered at, then, that we find extraordinary difference of opinion as to the value of the great dissentec's deliverances. By his disciples he has been described as the greatest intellect since Aristotle. By his traducers he has been characterized as a pur- veyor of pretentious explanations of the universe that already have passed into the] shadow world of bygone phiUMophies. Ooe class of readers has found his pagea charged with inspiration; another class has reaented his orderly exposition as mechanical and repellent. His very personality, aa revealed in his philosophical system, haa been conceived by some among his critics aa commonplace, unrelieved by any touch of genial sympathy or illuminating humor; and by others aa heroic in its straightfonn-ard devotion to one single aim. These are the extremes of estimate. Be- tween them lies every imaginable shade of superficial impression and of critical appre- ciation. However, no human being of two generations, intelligent enough to know any- thing of the great issues of modern thought, has been wholly unmoved by the magnitude and power of this commanding mind. He was probably one of the most learned men of our day, a great polymath, whose encyclo- pedic learning may justly entitle him to rank with those other synthetic philosophers, Aristotle and Bacon. If in his desire for a complete system of thought there is a suggea* tion of the German metaphysician, in moat respects he was a t}'pical English philosopher. The gravity and moderation of his argumen- tative methods, his high character, hb fidelity to his enormous self-imposed task, were all influences of the highest value in a world which is becoming daily more disposed to judge men and things from a low material standpoint, and look askance at the self- sacrificing life of the thinker and scholar. Few men have ever more completely domi- nated contemporary thought than Spencer. He made popular the greatest of modem scientific truths. The wide knowledge of phys- ical science, which all his writings display, and his constant endeavor to illustrate and support his system by connecting his positiona with scientific facts and laws have given his philosophy great currency among men of science. The impulse given by him, also, to workers in almost every field of thought and investigation testifies to the immense range and rare originality of his genius; and hia Synthetic Philosophy itself, no matter in what way it may hereafter be modified or outgrown, will unquestionably be regarded by future generations not only as one of the grandeat achievements of the century which brought it to birth, but also as a permanent landmark in the history of civilization. SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY GUTENBERG A. D. AGE 14007 Bom at Mainz, Germany, 1420 Exiled to Straasburg, 20 1436 Formed partnership for perfecting his printing devices 30 1438 Press, types, and forms completed, . . 38 A. D. AOU 1440 Returned to Mainx, 46 1450 Partner of Jobann Fu«t, 60 1455 Partnersliin dissolved, 55 1405 p:nnohled by Adolph of Ni 1468 Died at Mainz, JOHANNES GUTENBERG, the inventor of printing from movable types, was bom at Mainz, Germany, of noble lineage, about the year 1400. Recent investigations tend to show that his true name was Hans Ganz- FLEiscH DE SuLGEix)CK, and that he assumed the name of his mother's family, Gutenberg, on account of some poHtical troubles that existed at the time, as well as some defects which existed in the feudal title to the family property. It seems probable that he devoted himself at an early age to mechanical arts; and that about 1420, when the disturbance at Mainz occurred, immediately succeeding the entrance of the emperor Frederick III., the young mechanician, as well as his family, was forced to quit his native city. It is generally believed that he went immediately to Strassburg ; at least he was in that city in 1434. Two years later he formed a partnership with Andrew Dritzehn, in the business of polishing stones and manufacturing mirrors. Subsequently, he formed another partnership with Dritzehn and others "for the working out of certain secret processes invented by him," by which he bound himself to instruct them in all the "secret and wonderful arts," and to employ these for their common advan- tage. His associates, it appears, were of noble birth, like himself, and the fact that they had compromised their social position by entering into industrial pursuits was at that time viewed with considerable suspicion. The "secret processes," undoubtedly, com- prehended the first steps in the art of printing. In the abandoned convent of St. Arbogaste the first attempt had been made, and the works had been executed with the greatest secrecy. There is a mention in the written agreement of " materials and utensils, of lead, of a press, of a vise for holding the parts together," etc., and that the work should be ready for the coming fair at Aix-la-Chapelle. The wording is anything but clear, the aim seeming to be to avoid revealing to the public anything of which it ought to remain ignorant. At that epoch all industry surrounded itself with secrecy. In 1439 the death of Andrew Dritzehn involved Gutenberg in a lawsuit with the former's brother, George. The suit was decided against Gutenberg, and the papers in it, which are now carefully preserved in Strassburg, form the earliest documents relative to the printer's art. About 1446 he returned to Mainz, and permanently located there. The great ex- pense involved in his undertakings had con- sumed all his means, and in 1450 he formed a new partnership with a rich goldsmith. Fust, for the further exploitation of his admirable invention, and acquainted him with the results already obtained. Fust made the necessary advances, but later on introduced a third, Schoeffer, as partner or employee, and took such guarantees for the money advanced that five years after he was able to break the connection by demanding a reimbursement from Gutenberg. The latter, unable to satisfy his demands, was forced to hand over to him his apparatus and nearly all his stock. After the first break in the partnership. Fust and Schoeffer continued to print, and Gutenberg, on his side, succeeded in again establishing himself in the same city, where, with the assistance of Conrad Hvunerj-, a GUTENBERG From the painting by Ferris IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY m councilor of Mainz, he brought out the first printed Bible, the famous Bible of thirty-six lines, begun long before with other partners at Strassburg. According to some, four edi- tions of the Donatxis were likewise printed by Gutenberg, while others ascribe them to Fust and Schoeffer. In 1457 appeared the Latin Psalterium, or rather a breviary con- taining psalms, with antiphones, collects, etc., and arranged for choruses for Sundays and holidays. This specimen of the art of printing, remark- able as being the first bearing the name of the printer and the locality, as well as the year and day of its completion, and valued at fifty thousand pounds, was printed with an elegance which sufficiently proves the rapid progress that had been made in the newly invented art, and the diligence with which it had been presented. Gutenberg's printing establish- ment existed until 1465 in Mainz. His last years were passed obscurely in the midst of hard work, and xmhappily in the embarrassments of poverty. In 1465 Adolph of Nassau, elector of Mainz, named him one of his courtiers and raised him to the rank of a noble. Three years after this occurred his death in 1468. Nothing is known of his private hfe. That he married appears from the fact, that, in 1437, a complaint was entered against him at Strassburg by a lady of rank, claiming the fulfillment of a promise of marriage, and later her name is identified with his in the register. The obscurity which envelops the early epoch of the history of printing is rendered more cloudy still by the precautions which the inventor and his partners were obliged to take to conceal their proceedings. The books printed by them were done with such rapidity — for those times — that their work gave rise to grave suspicions among the authorities. It was ascribed to magic, and Mephistopheles, rather than either Gutenberg or Fust, got the credit of the invention. Printing from engraved wooden blocks had been in use for more than half a century, especially in Germany and the low coimtries. It was employed in connection with pictorial engraving to explain such series of pictures as the "Dance of Death," "Biblia Pauperum," etc., but was obviously inapplicable to works of considerable length. The expedient of making the types for each letter movable may be compared both for ingenuity and for momentous results with the Phoenician invention of the alphabet m coo- trasted with ideographic writing. Theauihoiw ship of this expe covered some of the wild regions of the East. He supposed Hispaniola to be the ancient Ophir, which had been visited by the ships of Solomon, and that Cuba and Terra Firma were but remote parts of Asia. What visions of glory would have broken upon his mind, could he have known that he had, indeed, discov- ered a new continent, equal to the whole of the old world in magnitude, and separated by two vast oceans from all the earth hitherto known by civilized man 1 And how would his magnanimous spirit have been consoled, amidst the chills of age and the cares of penury, the neglect of a fickle public, and the injustice of an ungrateful king, could he have anticipated the splendid empires which were to spread over the beautiful world he had dis- covered, and the nations and tongues and languages which were to fill its lands with his renown, and to revere and bless his name to the latest posterity 1 " COPERNICUS A. J5. AGE 1473 Bom at Thorn, Prussia, 1491 Entered the university at Cracow, . 18 1496-1500 Studied at Bologna, Italy, . . 23-27 1500 Lecturer on astronomy at Rome, . 27 1501 Studied at Padua 28 1503 Received doctorate at Ferrara, . . 30 1 530 Completed De Revolvtionibua Othium Caleatium, "The Revolution of the Celestial Orbs," *7 1543 Publication of his great work ; died at Frauenburg, Prussia 70 "^ICOLAS COPERNICUS, or ^^ KoppERNiGK, celebrated mathematician, and the founder of modern astronomy, was bom at Thorn, Prussia, then a part of Poland, February 19, 1473. Notwithstanding the celebrity of the system — the Copemican — which still bears his name, the materials are very scanty regarding his life and character. His father, whose name was also Nicolas, was a surgeon, and, it is believed, of German extraction. That the elder Koppernigk was not a native of Thorn, or of Poland, even, appears from the fact that he was naturalized in 1462. He there married Barbara, of thej noble Polish family of Watzehrode, one ofj whose brothers attained the high dignity of bishop of Ermeland in the year 1489. Through the prospects of advancement which this connection held out to young Koppernigk, his father was probably induced to destine him for the ecclesiastical profession. Copernicus first acquired at home the ele- ments of a liberal education, and, in 1491, entered the university at Cracow, where he remained until he received the diploma of doctor in arts and medicine. He is said to have gained considerable proficiency in the latter branch of study ; and he possessed, even in more advanced life, so high a reputation for skill and knowledjge, as to produce an MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT erroneoiis belief that he had once followed the practice of medicine. Copernicus also exhibited at an early age a very decided taste for mathematical studies, especially for astronomy; and attended the lectures, both public and private, of Albert Brudzewski, then mathematical professor at Cracow. Under the latter, Copernicus, as we shall hereafter call him, became acquainted with the works of the astronomer, John Miiller — now more commonly known by his assumed appellation of Regiomontanus — and the reputation of this celebrated man is said to have exercised a marked influence in deciding the bent of his future studies. A journey into Italy, which Copernicus under- took about the year 1496, also added to his zeal in this direction. One of his brothers and his maternal imcle were already settled in Rome, and this was the destination, there- fore, to which his steps eventually tended. He quitted home in his twenty-fourth year, when his diligence in cultivating the practical part of astronomy had already procured for him some reputation as a skillful observer. It seems to have been in contemplation of this journey, too, that he began to study painting, in which he afterward became tolerably proficient. He first settled for a time at Bologna, where he was drawn by the reputation of the astronomical professor, Dominic Maria Novarra. Copcrniciis was not more delighted with this able instructor than Novarra with his intelligent pupil. He soon became an assistant and companion of Novarra in his observations, and in this capacity acquired considerable distinction, so that on his departure from Bologna and arrival at Rome, in 1500, he found that his reputation had preceded him. At Rome he was appointed to a professorship of mathe- matics, lectured on astronomy, and observed an eclipse of the moon. In 1501 he con- tinued his studies at Padua, and in 1503 he was made doctor of canon law by the univer- sity at Ferrara. It does not appear at what time Copernicus entered into holy orders: probably it may have been during his residence at Rome ; for on his return home in 1505 he was made superintendent of the principal church in his native city. Thorn. In the year 1497 his uncle, Luke Watzelrode, who in 1489 succeeded Nicolas von Thimgen in the bishopric of Erme- land, had enrolled him as one of the canons of his chapter. The cathedral church of the dio- cese of Ermeland is situated at Frauenburg, a small town built near one of the mouths of the Vistula, on the shore of the lake called Frisches Haff, separated only by a narrow strip of land from the gulf of Dantzig. In this situation, rendered unfavorable to astro- nomical observations by the frequent marshy exhalations rising from the river and lake, Copernicus took up his future abode, and made it the principal place of his residence during the remainder of his hfe. Here those astronomical speculations were renewed and perfected, the results of which have forever consigned to oblivion the subtle contrivances invented by his predecessors to account for the anomalies of their own complicated theories. We should form a very erroneous opinion of the life and character of Copernicus, how- ever, if we considered him, as he sometimes is considered, the quiet inhabitant of a cloister, immersed solely in speculative in- quiries. His disposition did not unfit him for taking an active share in the stirring events which were occurring around him, and it was not left entirely to his choice whether he would remain a mere speculator of them. The chapter of Ermeland, at the time when he became a member of it, was the center of a violent pohtical struggle, in the decision of which Copernicus himself was called on to act a considerable part. In the latter half of the fifteenth century a bitter war was carried on between the king of Poland and a military- religious fraternity, called the Teutonic or German knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem, who were incorporated toward the end of the twelfth century. Having first been invited temporarily into Prussia, they finally estab- lished themselves permanently in that coun- try, built Thorn and several other cities, and gradually acquired a considerable share of independent power. On the death of Paul von Sengedorf, bishop of Ermeland, Casimir, king of Poland, in pursuance of a design which he was then prosecuting, to get into his own hands the nomination of all the bishoprics in his dominions, appointed his secretary, Stanislas Opporowski, to the vacant see. The chapter of Ermeland proceeded, notwithstanding, to a separate nomination, and elected Nicolas von Thvmgen. Opporowski, supported by Casimir, entered Enneland at the head of a powerful army. From this period the new bishop of Ermeland necessarily made IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY common cause with the German knights; they renounced their allegiance to the crown of Poland, and threw themselves on the protection of Matthias, king of Hungary. At length, Casimir, finding himself unable to master the confederacy, separated Nicolas von Thungen from it, by agreeing to recognize him as prince bishop of Ermeland, on the usual condition of homage. Nicolas thus became conformed in his dignity, but his unhappy subjects did not fare better on that account, the country being now exposed to the fury of the German knights, as it had suf- fered before from the violence of the Polish soldiery. These disturbances were continued during the life of Luke Watzelrode, and the city of Frauenburg, as well as its neighbor Braimsberg, frequently became the theater of warlike operations. The management of the see was often com- mitted to the care of Copernicus during the absence of his uncle, who on political grounds resided for the most part at the court ; and his activity in maintaining the rights of the chapter rendered him especially obnoxious to the Teutonic order. In one of the short intervals of tranquillity they took occasion to cite him before the meeting of the states at Posen, on account of some of his reports to his vmcle concerning their encroachments. Gassendi, who mentions this circumstance, merely adds that at length his work and his uncle's merit secured the latter in the posses- sion of his dignity. In 1512 Watzelrode died, and Copernicus was chosen adminis- trator of the see until the appointment of the new bishop, Fabian von Losingen. In 1518 the knights under their grand master, Albert of Brandenburg, took possession of Frauen- burg and burned it. During the following year hostilities con- tinued in the immediate neighborhood of Frauenburg, but in the course of that simimer negotiations for peace between the Teutonic order and the king of Poland were begun, through the mediation of the bishop. At last a truce was agreed upon for four years, during which Fabian von Losingen died, and Coper- nicus was again chosen administrator of the bishopric. In 1525 peace was concluded with the Teutonic knights, Albert having consented to receive Prussia as a temporal fief from the king of Poland. It was probably on this occasion that Copernicus was selected to represent the chapter of Ermeland at the diet of Graudenz, where the terms of peace were finally settled ; and by his firmiien the chapter recovered a great part of the po«w sions which had been endangered during the war. This service to his chapter was followed by another of a more strictly political nature. During the struggle which had continued with little interruption for more than half a century, the currency had become greatly debased anid depreciated ; and one of the most important subjects of deliberation at the meeting at Graudenz related to the best method of restoring it. There was a great diflerencc of opinion whether the intended n w coinage should be struck according to the old value of the currency, or according to the depreciated value. To assist in the settlement of this important question, Copernicus drew up a table of the relative value of the coins, then in circulation throughout the country. This he presented to the states, accompanied by a report on the subject of great practical value. Throughout the whole troublesome period of which we have just given an outline, Coper- nicus seems, indeed, to have displayed much political courage and talent, entirely aside from his scientific endowments. When tran- quillity was at length restored, he resumed the astronomical studies which had been thus interrupted by more active duties. There appears to be little doubt that the philosopher began to meditate on the ideas which led him to the theory of the solar system set forth in his book — De Revolulionibus Orbium Ccelestium — at least as early as 1507. The publication of this book, however, he delayed for many years. During the greater part of that time he was employed in collect- ing, by careful observation, the materials of which it is constructed and the opinions on which it is based, comprising the whole of what was afterward declared by him long before the work itself appeared. He delayed to an- nounce them formally, until he was able at the same time to show that they were not random guesses, taken up from a mere affectation of novelty ; but that with their assistance he had compiled tables of the planetary motions, which were immediately acknowledged, even by those whose minds revolted most against the means by which they were obtained, to be far more correct than any which until then had appeared. Copernicus seems to have practicaDy com- pleted this work about 1530, but it was not until the year of his death that he could be 340 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT persuaded to give his book to the world by his friends, who urged its publication out of regard at once to his fame and the interests of science. Perhaps the strongest motive for his reticence was the fear of the unpopularity which the work threatened to bring him. Many, who had heard of the views it ad- vocated, doubted if these were in harmony with religion. But it is quite certain that his desire to conciliate the church led him to dedicate his book, when it was published, to Pope Paul III. The first copy of this Ufe work reached Copernicus when he was no longer able to enjoy the triumph. An attack of dysentery, followed by paralysis of the right side, had destroyed his memory and obscured his under- standing. In this state he lingered several days. The copy, it is said, arrived just a few hours before he died. It was placed in his hands, and he seemed to know it 1 He died May 24, 1543, aged seventy years, a century before the birth of Newton. He was buried in the cemetery of the chapter of Ermeland, and only a plain marble slab inscribed with his name for a long time marked the place of his interment. Until this was rediscovered in the latter half of the eighteenth century, an opinion prevailed that his remains had been transported to Thorn, and buried in the church of St. John. A colos- sal statue of him, executed by Thorwaldsen, was erected at Warsaw in 1830, with all the demonstrations of honor due to the memory of a man who holds so distinguished a place in the history of human discoveries. From the little that is known of the private character of Copernicus, his morals appear to have been most exemplary, his temper good, his disposition kind, but inclining to serious- ness. He was so highly esteemed in his neighborhood that the attempt of a dramatic author to satirize him by introducing his doctrine of the earth's motion upon the stage at Elbing was received by the audience with the greatest indignation. The house at Thorn, in which he is said to have been bom, as well as that at Frauenburg, in which he passed the greater part of his life, for centuries after his death were objects of veneration. A hydrau- lic machine for supplying the houses of the canons with water, and another of similar construction at Graudenz, which long con- tinued in use, were said to have been con- structed by him. In the year 1584, Tycho Brahe, the cele- brated Swedish astronomer, commissioned Elia Olai to visit Frauenburg for the purpose of more accurately determining the latitude of Copernicus' observatory, and on that occasion received as a present from the chapter the Ptolemaic scales, made by the astronomer himself, which he used in his observatory, and also a portrait of him said to have been painted by his own hand. Tycho placed these memorials, with great honor, in his own observatory, but it is not known what became of them after his death and the dis- persion of his instruments. Besides "The Revolution of the Celestial Orbs," Copernicus also wTote a treatise on trigonometry, and several other minor works. But that upon which his fame rests, is this principal work. It must be observed, how- ever, that the phrase "Copernican system" suggests that our debt to Copernicus is really greater than his work warrants. For it was not until Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and others had supplemented it that the system, in its present form, could be said to be finally estab- lished. Almost everyone who has heard the name of Copernicus mentioned, is aware that before him the general belief was that the earth occupies the center of the imiverse; that the changes of day and night are pro- duced by the rapid revolution of the heavens, such as our senses erroneously lead us to believe, until more accurate and complicated observation teaches us the contrary ; that the change of seasons and apparent motions of the planetary bodies are caused by the revolution of the sun and planets from west to east round the earth, in orbits of various complexity, subject to the conunon daily motion of all from east to west. The Copernican system of to-day represents the sun to be at rest in the center of the solar system, and the earth and planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The actual con- tribution of Copernicus to it will appear from a brief consideration of his book. The char- acter of the reasoning which then passed for demonstration must be borne in mind in judging of the author's procedure in estab- lishing his various positions. It was then thought a suflBcient demonstration of a phenomenon to make a supposition, on which its occurrence would be intelligible, without attempting to bring the supposition itself, by an induction of facts, within the truth of nature ; many abstract propositions, too, which would not appear to be simply IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 841 silly, were at that time universally admitted to be of great weight in scientific arguments. Illustrations of both of these peculiarities may be gleaned from the first of the six books of De Revoluiionibus. It contains the follow- ing propositions: (1) That the universe is spherical. This is established by such argu- ments as that the sphere is the most perfect figure, etc. (2) That the earth is spherical, which flows from the same kind of considera- tions. (3) That the earth and the sea make one globe. (4) That the motions of all the heavenly bodies mustbe uniform and circular or compounded of uniform and circular motions. Here, again, we meet with singular reasons. A simple body must move circularly, and nothing but circular motion could give peri- odicity to phenomena. (5) That, supposing the distance of the stars to be immense, there is no reason why the earth should not have a motion round its axis as well as a motion in its orbit. (6) That the sphere of the stars is immensely distant. The proof is fanciful, and shows he had no notion of a universe of stars pervading space. (7) and (8) The ancients were wrong in placing the earth at the center of the universe. The arguments under this head are as imaginary as those which they were designed to refute. The falling of a body to the earth he deduces from the assumption that it is only given to wholes to move circularly, while it is of the nature of parts, separated from their wholes, to move in right lines. That there must be a centrum mundi, an entity unknown to modem science, is admitted, the question being as to its posi- tion. (9) It is possible for the earth to have several motions. (10) He establishes the order of the planets, and draws a diagram of the system much as it is now represented. It may be observed that, following the old sys- tems, such as the Ptolemaic, he lays down a sphere for the fixed stars. It is clear, also, that he had no idea of the motions of planets other than that they were such as would be caused by their being fixed in immense crystal spheres revolving round the sun. The most brilliant and valuable part of the De Revolvdionihus is that in which he ex- plained, for the first time, the variations of the seasons, the precession of the equinoxes, and the stations and retrogradations of the planets. In general, his explanations are right and perfect as to the general nature of the causes of the phenomena. But Coper- nicus had neither mathematical nor mechani- cal knowledge sufficient to enable him to explain more than the mean mottOM of the solar system. To account for irregularitiee, he was obliged to introduce a lystein of epicycles entirely resembling that of Ptolemy. This arose from the false notion of his times, that all motions must be compounded of circular ones, with the application of which idea, and with the invention of convenient epicycles, the greater part of the De Revolu- iionibus is occupied. It may further be added that Copernicus had no ans^iv-er to offer to the mechanical objections to his system. Most of them, indeed, were such as could not poe- sibly be met in the state of mechanical knowl- edge at the time. One of the commonest was that against the axial motion of the earth: that it was inconsistent with the fact of bodies falling to the points of the earth directly beneath the points from which they are dropped. For this he had no ansiR-cr, nor could he have, the laws of motion not yet being discovered. Such being the state of the case, the reader w^ill consider whether, when Copernicus wrote that he held the doctrine of the earth's motion as a mere hypothesis, and not as absolutely in fact true, it is more likely that he made a concession to the religious prej- udices of his times, or to difficulties surround- ing his hypothesis, which he could well appreciate though not overcome. Copernicus came into the world at that period of revival when the human mind seemed suddenly to wake up after a sleep of ages. That sleep, however, had been appar- ent and not real, for all the great problems then so eagerly canvassed were not few. More than once they had been put forward by bold thinkers whose utterances were soon stifled by the dominant authority, or failed to find an echo among their contemporaries. As a general rule it may be safely nuun- tained that every revolution openly accepted has been previously accepted in men's minds. Thus a long time prior to the discovery of America the probable existence of a fourth part of the world had been spoken of, and Copernicus himself was well aware that he was not the first to make the earth move round the sun. But extraordinary perseverance was required in order to gain a hearing for his theory; and in this respect the recent dis- covery of the new world was a great help to a revolutionary astronomer. There was now no obstacle to the earth's circulating in spaee, since it had been demonstrated that it forms. 842 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT with the ocean, one single globe; that it is not immoderately large, and that there may really exist underneath us inhabitants whose feet are opposed to our own. Yet to no man is granted the power of discovering all truths at once. Copernicus continued to deceive himself, in common with the ancients, in reference to the movements of the planets, and he made a great error in his theory of what he called the " third move- ment of the earth." In spite of these mis- takes and shortcomings, Copernicus is the father of those men of genius who have created modem astronomical science ; and the name of the canon of Frauenburg will be ever memorable, because, to cite his own stately language, he placed " the light of the world — the orb which governs the planets in their circulation — upon a royal throne, in the midst of the temple of nature." Kepler and Newton penetrated much more deeply into the mysteries of the heavenly bodies, but it was Copernicus who gave them the key ; and even at the present day, after their immortal labors, the true explanation of the universe is rightly called the Copemican system. PALISSY A. D. AQE A. D. AOB 1510 Bom at La Chapelle Biron, France, . . . 1540 Embraced Protestantism, 36 1528 Began his travels in France and Ger- 1555 Enamel experiments successful, ... 45 many, 18 1575 Public lecturer in Paris, 65 1639 Married; settletl at Saintes, France, . 29 1580 "Discourses on Waters and Fountains," 70 1543 Appointed to survey the marslies of 1588 Imprisoned in the Bastille, Paris, . . 78 SaiHtonge, 33 1589 Died in the Bastille, 79 "DERNARD DE PALISSY, potter and ■*-^ naturalist, famous as the discoverer of china enamel, was born at La Chapelle Biron, in the province of P^rigord, France, about 1510. His father was a tile maker, or worker in clay, and in his early youth Palissy kneaded marl and burned tile at his father's kiln. Later he was apprenticed to a glass stainer at Agen, and made rapid progress. To render himself better fitted for the art which he had adopted, he spent the hours of the night, and what money he could spare from his wages, to obtain all the scientific knowledge and manual skill relating to his craft. His mind, both ardent and persever- ing, became trained as well as his hand. He soon acquired geometry, drawing, painting, and the elementary part of sculpture. The search for subjects for design also led him to study sacred and profane literature, as he turned over the pages of books to find scenes, descriptions, and allegories. While studying a single business, with the view of extending his knowledge to its utmost limits, he learned a little of everything. He thus, unwittingly, laid the foundation for the man of letters, poet, theologian, philosopher, and politician, which he became in later years. The art-glass craft at that time ranked almost on the same plane as that of the nobil- ity itself because of the technique and dignified form of art it implied. It included not only the melting of glass, but the geometrical and artistic shaping of it to cathedral or chapel windows, and its decoration with landscapes, animals, figures, and the mysteries of religious symbolism. In the language of Lamartine, "The glass windows were a poetical lesson- book for the people that frequented the churches. They brought home to the minds of the peasantry the creation of the world, the delights of the terrestrial paradise, with its rivers, trees, lions, lambs, and birds, the companions of men ; the miracles of revealed religion, the sufferings of the crucifixion, the martyrdoms in the circus, the resurrection and the assumption of the victims of the new faith — then the heavens open, with the Father eternal, the Son, the Word, and the mercy of God, and the Holy Spirit under the form of a dove fl)nng from the one to the other, to denote the \mity of the Trinity, and giving forth rays from its glowing breast, to spread everywhere light and love. Lastly, the souls of the blessed, represented by num- berless winged faces, scattered about like the stars in the sky, and rejoicing in the divine radiance in the dwelling of the Father." : "It is characteristic of real genius," con- tinued this same writer, " always to aspire to universality. The hmits, indeed, which are said to separate one science from another are IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 848 simply the limits of our knowledge. Genius always overleaps them to reach the infinite, the true field of human thought. In the infinite, all things are united completely and harmoniously into one great whole. The universe is but infinite art, which sketches, carves, draws, paints, writes, and sings the revelation of the beautiful, which is God. Thus it was understood by Palissy." His contact with geometry and designing, as well as his love of outdoor life, led Palissy also to study surveying, and, in an elementary way, topographical engineering. When he had acquired considerable proficiency in these various arts, he set out to make the tour of France — which was the custom among artisans of that time — living by the products of his two trades of glass painting and survey- ing. Between 1528 and 1530 he first worked his way from town to town until he reached Tarbes, built on a table-land facing the Pyrenees, and in which glass painting then flourished. Soon, attracted by the pictur- esque scenes which were spread before his eyes, he felt himself a painter, at the sight of this picture of nature, and left for a time his glass and clay to wander among the gorges and cliffs of the mountains, in which the Divine Artist seems to have sported with peaks and ravines amid the grandest and most beautiful scenes of nature. If Bernard de Palissy was a mere workman when he entered the labyrinth of the Pyrenees, he left it a painter and a poet. His wanderings over the Alps and the Pyrenees, and the great interest he took in the various qualities of the earths, rocks, sands, and waters, on account of the relation they bore to his business, had made him a natur- alist, also. He employed his leisure hours in wandering over the woods and meadows ; in searching the beds of springs ; in catching the reptiles, beetles, and insects which inhabit the marsh among the rushes and tall water plants ; in climbing the mountains, and finding his way to the precipitous ravines and deep caverns. The vast view within the distant horizon of the mountain-top, the varying hues of the sky, the changes of the leaf and of the greensward of the meadows, made a pleasing and a lasting impression on his sight, hereafter to be reproduced under his hand. To the soli- tary child of genius, nature was both a teacher and a store. He reveled in the ecstasy, the truth, and the simplicity of his feelings ; and | the want of an interpreter in these conversa- 1 tions between Palissy and nature afterwaid gave rise to a new art. He married about 1530 and settled per- manently at Saintcs. His trade of gUas painter gave him but a pittance. He was restless and constantly experimenting. It was necessary- to provide for a rapidly ex- panding family, and in 1543 he temporarily turned to the surveying of land in the Sain- tonge, under the officers of the revenue, who came in the king's name to mark out and measure estates for the land tax. This work did not take him away from the constant object of his study — the earth. While sur- veying, he tried the clay, felt the sand, crushed the stones, and thought upon the mixtures and combinations of ingredienta most likely to lead to those fortuitous dis- coveries of material, ground, color, and glaac, which had been the object of his thoughts from the day when he first handled a trowel. A small fragmentary cup of Italian majolica ware — evidently of Luca della Robbia — falling into his hands, he set himself to find out the secret of making glaze, enameled ware being at that time unknown to French indus- try. If he could make such cups as this he thought he should obtain both wealth and fame. This bit of majolica seemed to stimu- late his mind, as the fall of an apple did Newton's ; or as the ivy branch floating on the ocean, with its leaves still green, led the first navigators of the Atlantic, the companions of Columbus, to suspect that land was near. Tired of the lucrative but temporary and monotonous employment of surveying, he returned home to his wife, with a determina- tion to try all and risk all for her sake and the sake of his children — to complete his inven- tion or perish in the attempt. The story of his struggles, his poverty, the contempt of friends and neighbors, the cries and upbraid- ings of wife and children, have been too often told at length to be more than mentioned. It is sufficient to know that sixteen years had elapsed since he first entertained the idea before the final triumph came, and he was able to produce in all their perfection of color the works of art which had been ever present in his imagination. He now made vases, statuettes, dishes, plates, and divers utensils, ornamented in relief, richly colored and highly e nam eled, which he callal rustic figulines. His renown now spread with his works; and the price that he received for his ena m eled earthenware — his sculpture in clay — raind 344 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT his house and his family from their misery. Glory and wealth visited together, although late, his furnaces. His productions — rough at first, and imperfect, but in which we may see the rising vigor of a new art, born of itself, and not trammeled by tradition — soon adorned mansions and palaces. Paris — to which Catharine de' Medici had called the genius, the arts, and the ideas of Italy — attracted him, as it had attracted the great sculptors of the age — Jean Cousin, Germain Pilon, and Jean Goujon, the heirs of Raphael and Michaelangelo. Great men received him ; little men envied him. The Marshal de Montmorency became his patron, and Catha- rine de' Medici gave him a site for his furnaces on a portion of the ground now occupied by the palace of the Tuileries. She used to visit him at his work, like the princes of her family at Florence, who spent much of their time in the studios and society of artists — those princes of nature, of labor, and of genius. It was at a happy and honored period of his life that he made his numberless master- pieces of porcelain in relief, and dishes orna- mented with figures, beasts, reptiles, insects, beetles, plants, and flowers, which, after having been dug up at the end of three centu- ries from the burial places in the mansions of the rich, now make their appearance, and sell for their weight in gold, as treasures of art, full of grace, beauty, and simplicity, to take their places in the museums of palaces and in the cabinets of the wealthy, who do honor to their riches by making their houses the repositories of art. Many of the masterpieces of Palissy, after he had become a more consummate artist by seeing great pictures and fine sculpture during liis stty in Paris under the patronage of Catharine de' Medici, later found their way to the private collections of Prince Soltikoff, in Paris; of Baron Rothschild, in London; of M. Sauvageot; M. RalUer; and of M. Sellieres, who devoted himself to the memory of this great artist by making his house a museum of the great potter's works. Mag- nificent specimens of his work are also to be found in the Louvre, the Musee de Cluny, and at Sevres. Some may be seen in the South Kensington and British museums, London, and the Fountaine collection at Narford hall, England, is scarcely equaled by any even in France. At the present day his works are almost beyond price, and his ornaments and ara- besques must be classed among the most beautiful of the renaissance period. His faience is of a peculiar style. All figures and other ornaments are executed in colored relief, the colors being unusually bright, but not of great variety. The blues, grays, and yellows generally prevail. It was about 1559 that France was greatly beset by the struggles between Catholicism and Protestantism. In 1546, with all his family, Palissy had embraced the new ideas of Luther and Calvin, and contributed much toward the foundation of a reformed church at Saintes. It was not to be 8upix)sed, there- fore, that he could escape the rigors of perse- cution. He was denounced to the authorities, incarcerated at Bordeaux, and it required the intervention of Montmorency, aided by Catha- rine de' Medici, to save his life. The ingenious inventor of rustic figulines must not become a sacrifice to religious contention; so a strata- gem was resorted to that clemency might be shown without opposition to the edict. By the intercession of Catharine he was named inventor of rustic figulines to the king, and by j this became answerable only to the grand j council. By means of these powerful friends I he escaped the jurisdiction of the parliament I at Bordeaux, and went to Paris soon after, being charged with the decoration of the royal gardens of the Tuileries, in which work he associated with him his two sons, Nicolas and Mathurin. During many years he lived at Paris, sheltered and protected by royalty, escaping the horrors of the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew, and giving his leisure, not only to his artistic employments, but to the study of chemistry, geology, and natural history, for all of which he had a special genius. In 1575 the "Huguenot potter" began a course of public lectures, to which he called all the learned doctors of the capital to assemble and hear in three lessons the exposition of his theories on natural history; these discourses became so popular that they were continued for many years. In 1580 a number of them were published under the title "Discourses on Waters and Fountains." French science owes a large debt to Palissy ; he was the first in France to substitute for the vain explanations of the philosophers positive I facts and rigorous demonstrations. M. Hoefer, I in his "History of Chemistry," remarks that ! Francis Bacon was still a child when Palissy was publicly teaching at Paris that to obtain IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERT Mi the truth it is necessary to have recourse to experience. Palissy did for chemistry what Bacon did for science in general, pointed out its true method. Many of Palissy's observa- tions are beyond the teaching of his time. His classification of salts is still regarded as exact, and he was the first to establish a rational theory of crystallization. The hate of the theologians, excited no doubt by his scientific opinions, revealed itself all at once in the midst of the comfort which he was enjoying. In 1588 the royal family could shelter him no longer; he was arrested as being a Protestant and sent to the Bastille. Here he occupied his captivity in writing those things concerning his art, his soul, and his faith, which have been pro- nounced by able critics as among the most remarkable in any language. He was then approaching those last hours of life when the voice of the soul acquires additional melancholy and solemnity, hke the sounds of evening when nature puts on her veil of darkness and repose. His patron took pity on the aged man, who was about to die in his fetters, and thus change from one tomb to another. King Henry IH. went to visit him in his prison, desiring to give him his liberty, and asking, as the price of his par- don, the easy condition of giving up his faith. "My worthy friend," said the king, "you have now been forty-five years in the service of my mother and myself; we have suffered you to retain your religion amid fire and slaughter. I am so pressed by the Guises and by my people, that I find myself com- pelled to deliver you into the hands of your enemies; and to-morrow you will be burned unless you are converted." The old man bowed, touched by the goodness of the king, humbled by his weakness, but inflexible in the faith of his fathers. " Sire," he answered, " I am ready to give up the remainder of my life for the honor of God. You have told me several times that you pity me, and now, in my turn, I pity you, who have used the words / am compelled. It was not spoken like a king, sire ! and they are words which neither you, nor the Guises, nor the people shall ever make me utter. I can die ! " The courtiers who accompanied the king, instead of admiring his courage, were angry. "Here is insolence!" exclaimed they; "one would suppose he had read Seneca, and was parodying the words of the philosopher, 'He who can die need never be constrained.' " Henry III., more merciful than hit court, in consideration of the beautiful works which graced his palace, and of his mother's memory, would not give up Palissy to the Guiaos, but suffered age and natural decay to finiflh the prisoner. A voluntary martyr, in the dun- geons of the Bastille, he gained his liberty only in death, in the year 1589. The principal book of Palissy's maturity is a collection of philosophical, religious, artistic, and especially horticultural meditations, which he calls his "Garden." These writings have been eloquently characterized by Lamar- tine as follows: "The old workman, reposing like Solomon in the setting sun of a holy and laborious life, remembers the phenomena of nature, of his art, and of his soul, which have left an impression on his mind and heart during his pilgrimage here below. It breathes the spirit of the laborer, the workman, and the dreamer; we feel that it is pervaded by the adoration of the great Creator in spirit and in truth. The love of nature gives him the power of understanding her, and his knowledge of his model explains to him the laws, the powers, and the beauties of creation. "Alas! it was within the walls and moats of his prison-house, separated from his wife by the grave, and from his children by his captivity; shut out from the view of the Seine by proscription; from the tools and pursuit of his trade by old age; from his brothers in religion by martyrdom, that Palissy wrote these records as mental consola- tion for his ruin, his dungeon, and his ap- proaching death. His scattered leaves, long forgotten, and at last collected, form two volumes, real treasures of human wisdom, divine piety, and eminent genius, as well as of great simplicity, vigor, and copiousness of style. It is impossible, after reading them, not to consider the poor potter one of the greatest writers of the French language. Montaigne is not more free and flowing ; Jean Jacques Rousseau is scarcely more graphic; neither does Bossuet excel him in poetical power. In his allegories, his reflections, his pathos, his descriptions, and his poetry, he is as great as any of the authors I have named." Palissy is an original genius — Uke Rabelais, Cellini, and Leonardo da Vinci, a character- istic product of the renaissance. His life, aims, and opinions are well worth the study of those who are seeking for new ideas. Like Benjamin Franklin, he is the highest possible example for the self-made man, and, as with 346 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the American, a money success was but the stepping-stone to a higher life. It is as a practical man, however, and not as a man of science, that the world is most indebted to Palissy. He is the most perfect model of the craftsman. "It is by his example," says Lamartine, "rather than by his works, that he has exercised an influence on civilization, and that he has deserved a place to himself among the men who have ennobled humanity. Though he had re- mained unknown and Hstless, making tiles in his father's pottery; though he had never purified, moulded, or enameled his handful of clay; though his living groups, his crawling reptiles, his slimy snails, his slippery frogs, his lively lizards, and his damp herbs and dripping mosses had never adorned the bot- toms or edges of those dishes, ewers, or salt- cellars, those quaint and elaborate ornaments of the tables and cupboards of the sixteenth century, it is true nothing would have been wanting to the art of Phidias or of Michaelan- gelo — to the porcelain of Sevres, of China, of Florence, or of Japan, but we should not have had his life for the operative to admire and imitate. He is the patriarch of the work- shop, the poet of manual labor in modern days; he is the potter of the Odyssey, the Bible, and the gospel, the type incarnate to exalt and ennoble every business, however trivial, so that it has labor for its means, progress and beauty for its motive, and the glory of God for its end." Although Lamartine has probably been somewhat over-enthusiastic in his glowing estimate of Palissy, yet we can turn to no other biographer who has a finer appreciation of Palissy's true place in history. "Un- taught," says this writer, "save by himself, he feels that he has a genius in his fingers' ends. He does not trample the fine earth under his feet ; he despises not the common material which his situation has placed in his hands ; he endeavors to purify and ennoble it by an infusion of his own spirit ; he travels over the country with his trowel and knife, earning his bread honorably from kiln to kiln ; and, when his business has nothing more to teach him, he goes into the wilderness to examine nature, the teacher of teachers, by unveiling her mysteries ; he acquires love and enthusiasm for her by dint of contemplation ; he rivals her in form, color, and in playful ease; he transports the leaf, the herb, the fly, the reptile, the insect, the brook, the dew, the dampness, the freshness, and the gleam of light to a piece of clay. In seeking the perfection of art, which hides itself that it may be discovered, and which holds it- self back that it may be mastered by force, he meets with misery, unbelief, and the scorn of his neighbors ; he follows his pursuit obstinately, and even savagely; he burns his house to feed his last furnace; he forces his inventive genius; he exhausts the folly of hope and the heroism of labor; finally, he is rewarded, he triumphs, he becomes illustrious, and enriches his children. "But these earthly rewards, for which he gives thanks to Providence, are as yet as nothing to him: the laborer is satisfied, but not the man ; he thirsts after the beauty and glory of the Eternal. The most precious dis- covery of his solitary contemplation of nature is not his art, but God, the object and end of every perfect art. In his leisure hours he writes his wonderful meditations; he gives full scope to his intellect in his hymns, the produce of his piety, far more than in his vases, the work of his hands. Without study and unlettered, his soul bursts forth with a holy enthusiasm. He attaches himself with steadfast faith to the persecuted worship of his brethren. He devotes his youth to trade ; he sacrifices his house for his art ; he gives up his old age, his liberty, and his life to his God ; he flies from his dungeon to heaven on the wings of celestial hope ; he leaves behind him masterpieces — vain works, doubtless, hke the grottoes of earth, sand, or shells that children leave forgotten where they have played with their companions, but he be- queaths impressive lessons and immortal examples of labor, of patience, of perseverance under difficulties, of mastery over matter, of gentle dignity, piety, and virtue to workmen of all professions. "His life signifies labor; his works, inven- tion; his death, martyrdom. His book be- comes the manual not only of the manu- facture of earthenware, but also of the more sublime profession of speaking right, doing right, and living right ; his name is a beacon to all unkindly, stubborn, yet successful occupations. Palissy has thus won a legiti- mate place among the great men who have risen from obscurity. Some will say, 'But he only moulded clay ! ' What can it signify? Greatness does not depend upon the occupa- tion, but upon the mind. If stick a man be little, who then is great? " IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY GALILEO 347 K. D. AOB 1S64 Born at Pisa, Italy 1581 Entered university of Pisa 17 1582 Discovered law of vibration of pen- dulum, Ig 1589-92 Lecturer and professor of mathe- matics at Pisa, 25-28 1592 Professor of mathematics at Padua, 28 1609 Constructed telescope, 46 1610 Discovered satellites of Jupiter: Sidereus Nundus, "Sioereal Messenger," 46 1611 Visited Rome, 47 1615-16 His work condemned by Um inqol* sition at Home, 61-62 1624 Revisited Rome, QQ 1632 Dialo^o aopra i dut moMnmi Sitttmi, "Dialogue on the Two Chief 8y»- tems," Qg 1633 Summoned to Rome; tined •biu> ,i.oo ^ration of "Copcrnlcantheory,'' . 00 1638 Dialoqhi ddU due Suov Seimm, "Dialogues on the Two N«w Sciences," 74 1642 Died at Arcetri, near Floranee. , . 78 /^ALILEO GALILEI, celebrated scientist, ^^ the founder of physics, was born at Pisa, Italy, February 15, 1564, three days before the death of Michaelangelo. His father was a distinguished musician, and a descendant of the ancient and illustrious Florentine family of Bonajuti, who, in the fourteenth century, had changed their name to Galilei. The boy showed early signs of ardent and versatile genius. He constructed mechanical toys for his schoolfellows; he threw himself eagerly into Greek and Latin study ; he inherited his father's skill in music; and he showed remarkable aptitude for painting, to which two generations earlier his life would probably have been devoted. In his eighteenth year he was sent to the university of Pisa, where he attended the lectures of the great Cesal- pino, one of Harvey's forerunners. In accordance with the desire of his father, Galileo at first directed his attention exclu- sively to medical studies and the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy, the dogmas of which he soon ventured to disbelieve. At the age of eighteen he made one of his most important discoveries. Happening on one occasion to observe, in the cathedral of Pisa, the oscilla- tion of a lamp casually set in motion, he was struck with the regularity of its vibrations. He then proceeded to test the correctness of this observation by comparing the beat of his own pulse with the action of the pendulum, and concluded that by means of the equality of oscillation a simple pendulum might become an invaluable agent for the exact measurement of time. This discovery he subsequently utilized by the successful appli- cation of the pendulum in constructing a clock for astronomical purposes. Galileo's decided bent toward mechanical construction and experimental science re- ceived a new impulse from his contact with a friend of his father's, Ostilio Ricci, professor of mathematics at Pisa, who now directed his studies, and from whom he received, at Uie age of twenty-two, his first lesson in Euclid. From this time onward he seems to have practically abandoned medicine and conoeii- trated his powers on his chosen sciences. He soon passed from Euclid to Archimedes, and fastened upon that part of his work, in which the greatest of geometers stood alone, the marvelous researches on the lever and on floating bodies. The first fruit of his geometrical investiga- tions was the invention of a hydrostatic balance, by which the spyecific gravity of solid bodies might be ascertained with the nicest accuracy. In 1589, the fame of Galileo's extraordinary learning having reached the grand duke of Tuscany, this enlightened prince appointed him professor of mathematics in the university of Pisa, where he covertly inculcated many of those great innovations in physical science which have since added such luster to his memory. About this period he turned his attention to the then very imperfectly comprehended laws of bodies in motion ; and, in opposition to all received systems, he propounded the novel theorem that all falling bodies, great or small, descend with equal velocity. This soon led him to the discovery of "the three laws of motion," and the law regulating the motion of falling bodies. This theory of falling bodies was proved correct by several experiments which were made from the sum- mit of the leaning tower ef Pisa. Galileo and his colleagues did not long remain on good terms. The latter were con- tent with the superstructure which a priori reasoners had raised upon Aristotle, and w«e by no means desirous of the trouble of learning more. Galileo chose to investigate physical truths for himself ; he engaged in experiments to determine the truth of some of Aristotle's positions, and, when he found him in the wrong, he said so, and so taught his pupils. 848 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT This made the "paper philosophers," as he called them, very angry. He repeated his experiments in their presence; but they set aside the evidence of their senses and quoted Aristotle as much as before. The enmity arising from these disputes rendered his situation so unpleasant, that, in 1592, at the invitation of the Venetian com- monwealth, he gladly accepted the professor- ship of mathematics at Padua. There, under the shelter of the Venetian republic, he spent the following eighteen years, and did most of his constructive work. His lecture hall had an audience of two thousand, and was crowded with pupils from all parts of Europe ; and it was here by him that the Italian idiom was first adapted to scientific instruction. His latest discoveries and his suggestions for original research were poured out to all comers ungrudgingly. The range of subjects was wide. Besides the laws of equilibrium and motion, he dwelt upon the importance of measuring all natural forces, great or small, abstruse or familiar, so as to bring them within the range of geometry, and thus adapt them to the service of man. No one before him had sought to measure heat with pre- cision, and among the notable discoveries which he there gave to the world were: his thermometer; a proportional compass or sector; and his refracting telescope. It was his pupil, Torricelli, who first measured the weight of the atmosphere with the barometer. In astronomy it was well known that Galileo took the Copemican view. He held, with Bruno, that the universe was infinite, not finite ; and that the stars and planets were made of the same substance as the world we live in. So when he became acquainted with the crude telescope, invented in Holland in 1608, he immediately set to work to improve it, and to adapt it to a verification of his views. The Dutch telescope was for terrestrial pur- poses only ; his was for the exploration of the heavens. It was completed in the early part of 1609, and offered to the doge of Venice, Leonardi Deodati, by whom it was tested from the tower of St. Mark with equal sur- prise and delight. In the same year he con- structed a microscope; and then this inde- fatigable interpreter of the mysteries of nature commenced his astronomical researches by means of his own telescope. He speedily discovered Jupiter's four moons, the irregular surface of oxir own satellite, the phases of Saturn, and the solar spots. The first of these has been well described as a miniature Copemican system: all of them showed the solar system to be far more com- plicated than men thought. His resolution of the milky way into separate stars gave another proof that our sun with its planets was but an atom in a boundless universe. The moons of Jupiter he named the Medicean stars. They have long ceased to be known by that name; but so highly prized was the distinction thus conferred upon the ducal house at Florence that Galileo received an intimation that he would " do a thing just as proper in itself, and at the same time render himself and his family rich and powerful forever," if he "named the next star which he should discover after the name of the great star of France, as well as the most brilliant of all the earth, Henry IV." These discoveries were made known in 1610, in a work entitled Sidereus Nuncius. When, in 1609, he received an invitation to return to his original situation at Pisa, he sent a letter, still extant, which indicates the catalogue of undertakings on which he was already employed : "The works which I have to finish," he says, "are principally two books on the 'Sys- tem or Structure of the Universe,' an immense work, full of philosophy, astronomy, and geometry ; three books on ' Local Motion,' a science entirely new, no one, either ancient or modem, having discovered any of the very many admirable accidents which I demon- strate in natural and violent motions, so that I may, with very great reason, call it a new science, and invented by me from its very first principles. Although others have treated this same matter, yet all that has been hitherto written, neither in quantity nor otherwise, is a quarter of what I am writing on it. "I have also different treatises on natural subjects — on 'Sound and Speech,' on 'Light and Colors,' on the 'Tides,' on the 'Composi- tion of Continuous Quantity,' on the 'Motions of Animals,' and others besides. I have also an idea of writing some books relating to the military art, giving not only a model of a soldier, but teaching with very exact rules everjrthing which it is his duty to know that depends upon mathematics, as the knowledge of castrametation, drawing up of battalions, fortifications, assaults, planning, surveying, the knowledge of artillery, the use of instm- ments, and so on." IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY Out of this comprehensive list, the treatises on the xiniveree, on motion and mechanics, on tides, on fortification, or other works upon the same subjects, have been made known to the world. Many, however, of Galileo's manuscripts, through fear of the inquisition, were destroyed, or concealed and lost, after the author's death. Shortly after this letter was written, the Venetian senate raised Galileo's salary. But as the grand duke offered him equal advantages in Florence, with a liberal salary, exemption from the necessity of residence, and complete leisure to pursue his studies, patriotism turned the scale. He left Padua for Florence in 1610, and from that time until his death he never knew peace. Neither Copernicus nor his immediate followers suf- fered inconvenience or restraint on account of their astronomical doctrines: nor had Galileo, until this period of his life, incurred ecclesiastical censure for anything which he had said or written. But in the war between science and theology, which was now insti- tuted, he was eager for the fight; he had powerful friends, and felt sure of victory. In 1611 he visited Rome, and freely advo- cated the new conception of the universe. Systematic clerical opposition now began. A letter from Galileo to Castelli, in which he took the dangerous course of trying to har- monize science and scripture, was laid before the inquisition in 1615. Early in 1616 the propositions of the sun's fixity and the earth's diurnal motion were formally condemned; the work of Copernicus, pubhshed seventy years before, was placed on the index ; and a promise was extorted from Galileo not to defend his theory. Galileo now remained silent for seven years; but after his friend Maffeo Barberini became Pope Urban VIII., he went to Rome in 1624 and strove to get those edicts reversed. In this he failed, yet still persisted in writing his celebrated "Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems." This work with much difficulty he obtained leave to print in 1632, on the con- dition of inserting reservations dictated, it is thought, by Urban himself, which disfigure the preface and the first section of the work. But the dramatic form gave free play to the irony of which Galileo was a master. Sim- plicius, the personage who advocates obscur- antism, was said, truly or not, to be Urban himself. The book spread swiftly through Europe from south to north. It was resolved , that Galileo should be crushed. He was l moned to Rome ; and on June 22, 1633, he wa« forced to read and sign a fomuU abjuratioD of his belief in the Copemican doctrine. It is said by one of his biographers that even after Galileo had taken the oath of abjuration that the earth moved, he whispered to one of his friends, as he rose from his knees, B pitr H muove — " It does move though." He was then sentenced to an indefinite term of imprisonment by the inquisition, which after four days waa commuted by Pope Urban, and he waa reconducted to the Florentine ambassador's palace. In July he was sent to Siena, where he remained five months in strict seclusion; but he then obtained permission to return to his villa at Arcetri, a mile from Florence, near the convent of St. Matthew, where his daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, was a nun. It is sad to know that this daughter, whose touching letters are preserved, and whose loving care had been his mainstay for years, should have died soon after his return from Rome, worn out by anxiety. But his strenuous activity survived. His greatest book, the "Dialogues on the Two New Sciences," summing up his work at Pisa and Padua, was completed at this time, and published in 1638 in Holland. He carried on a long correspondence with the Dutch government as to adopting observa- tions of Jupiter's satellites for determination of longitudes. His last astronomical work was to discover the moon's libration. In the course of 1636-37 he lost successively the sight of both eyes. He mentions this calamity in a tone of pious submission, mingled with a not unpleasing pride : " Alas, your dear friend and servant, Galileo, has become totally and irreparably blind; so that this heaven, this earth, this universe, which with wonderful observations I had enlarged a hundred and thousand timet beyond the belief of by-gone ages, henoo- forward for me is shnmk into the narrow space which I myself fill in it. So it pleasei God ; it shall therefore please me also." In 1638 he obtained leave to visit Florence, still under the same restrictions as to society ; but at the end of a few months he was re- manded to Arcetri, which he never again quitted. From that time, however, the strictness of his confinement waa relaxed, and he was allowed to receive the friends who crowded around him, as well as the many 360 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT distinguished foreigners who eagerly visited him. Among these we must not forget Milton, whose poems contain several allusions to the celestial wonders observed and published by the Tuscan astronomer. Though blind and nearly deaf, GaUleo retained to the last his intellectual powers ; and his friend and pupil, the celebrated Torricelli, was employed in arranging his theories on the nature of per- cussion, when he was attacked by his last illness. He died of heart disease complicated with fever, on January 8, 1642, aged seventy- eight. His remains were placed, by ducal orders, in the cathedral of Santa Croce, Florence, where a majestic memorial now symbolizes his great achievements. GaUleo was of small stature, but of a robust and healthy frame; his countenance was attractive, and his conversation cheerful. He loved art, and cultivated especially music and poetry. Ariosto he knew almost by heart, and appreciated keenly the beauties of this great classic. Tasso, on the other hand, he unduly depreciated, and inflicted much pain on the sensitive spirit of the poet by his severe criticism of him. His own style is nervous, flowing, and elegant, and is at its best in his "Dialogues" and "The Assayer," a contro- versial work. In the former, nothing can exceed the classic beauty of its style and the compactness of its chain of argument. The latter is a model of philosophical composi- tion. GaUleo keenly enjoyed the social wit and banter of his chosen friends, and the generous pleasures of the banquet; and the readiness with which he offered or accepted atonement modified a somewhat irascible disposition. The greatest deficiencies in his character were a want of tact to keep out of difficulties, and a want of moral courage to defend himself when involved in them. His biting satirical turn, more than his physical discoveries, was the cause of his misfortunes. The dignita- ries of the church, who persecuted Galileo, warned him beforehand in the friendliest way to be "more prudent." Their conduct in persecuting opinion, or rather, in Galileo's case, demonstrated fact, is, of course, utterly inexcusable; but that is no reason why we should run to the other extreme, and declare GaUleo to be a martyr. No great man had ever less claim to the title. It is also right to add that the congregation of the inquisition by which Galileo was condemned, is not now beUeved to have spoken with the plenary authority of the Catholic church, nor are ita decisions regarded as infaUible even by the most extreme ultramontanes. It may be said generally that the note of GaUleo's whole work is mathematical research controlUng and controUed by observation of nature. What he did was to found the science of dynamics — essentially mathemati- cal — and to lay the foundations of Newton '8 demonstrations, nearly a century later. Hia most important contributions to physical science may be summed up under the following heads: (1) The relation between space and time in the case of falling bodies, also the "three laws of motion"; (2) The path of projectiles is a parabola; (3) The isochronism of the pendulum; (4) That air has weight, also partial discovery that suction is owing to the pressure of the atmosphere; (5) The reinvention of Aristotle's theory re- specting sound; (6) The invention of the telescope ; (7) The discovery of the satellites of Jupiter, phases of Venus, and spots on the sun. By many scientists his discovery of the law of velocity is regarded as the crowning point of his fame. GaUleo tells us that he put to himself as the simplest hypothesis that equal increments of velocity took place in equal times. As time is infinitely divisible, these increments are infinitely small and numerous, and the problem was to sum them. It was a problem of integration, though so simple as not to need a special calculus. He shows by a simple geometric process that, in motion uniformly accelerated, the time occupied is equal to that spent by a body moving uni- formly with velocity equal to half that attained by the accelerated body at the end of the period; that the spaces traversed are as the squares of the time ; and, as a corollary from this, that the spaces in each successive interval are to one another as the series of the odd numbers. In a further section of the work Galileo shows, with extreme fullness, that a body, Uke a projectile, acted on simul- taneously by an impulse and by the continu- ous force of gravity, will move in a parabola. The second law of motion also was clearly known to him. Original as his discoveries in djrnamics were, those in statics were hardly less important; and Lagrange, in the first section of the Mecanique Analytique, fully appreciated their importance. His work on the " Utility of Mechanical Science and the Instnunents it IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY Ml Employs " contains on its first page the dis- tinct germ of the principle of virtual veloci- ties, as solving the apparent paradox that the small weight at the long arm of the lever could balance a large one. The velocity with which the two arms tended to move was inversely proportionate to the weights; and the case was, therefore, as though a man, having to carry to a certain distance a load beyond his strength, undertook many jour- neys and conveyed a portion of it in each. The element of time comes in. Galileo tested his law of falling bodies partly by direct observation, partly by com- paring the spaces traversed in given times upon incUned planes of the same altitude. The velocity, identical at the end of the fall, admitted of measurement more easily in the earlier parts than when the fall was vertical. For abstract mathematics he had little taste. "Philosophy," he says in his Saggiatore, "is written in the great book of the universe which lies always open. But we must first understand the language and the character in which it is written. That language is mathe- matics. Its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures, without which we cannot, humanly speaking, undentand the words, and wander aimlessly through A dark labyrinth." The almost numberless inventions of hii acute industry ; the use of the telescope, and the brilliant discoveries to which it led ; the patient investigation of the laws of weight and motion, must all be looked upon as forming but a part of his real merits, as merely particular demonstrations of the spirit from traditional opinions to the judgment of reason and com- mon sense. He claimed and bequeathed to us the right of exercising our faculties in examining the beautiful creation which sur- rounds us. Emerson says that "Galileo, with an opera glass, discovered a more splendid series of celestial phenomena than any one since." If an intense desire of being useful is every- where worthy of honor; if its value is im- measurably increased when united to genius of the highest order ; if we feel for one, who, notwithstanding such titles to regard, is harassed by intolerant persecution, then none deserves our sympathy, our admiration, and our gratitude more than Galileo. KEPLER A. D. AGE 1571 Bom at Well, Wurttemberg, 1591 M. A., Tubingen, 20 1594 Lecturer on astronomy at Gratz, . . 23 1596 "Cosmographical Mystery," .... 25 1601 Assistant to Tycho Brahe, 30 1606 "Supplement to Vitellio," 35 1609 Astronomia Nova, "New Astronomy," 38 A. D. Aoa 1612 Professor at Linr; mathematician to emperor, 41 1619 Harmonice Mundi, "The Harmonies of the World," « 1627 "Rudolphine Tables," 66 1629 Profes-sor at university of Rostock, . S8 1630 Died at Ratisbon, W lOHANN KEPLER, or Von Kappel (as *' his family was originally called), was one of the chief founders of modern astronomy. He was the son of Henry Kepler, an officer in the German army, and Catherine Gulden- mann, who had made an unhappy marriage, and whose wedded life was continually beset with trouble. The date of his birth was December 27, 1571, and the place Weil der Stadt, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, Germany. As a child, Kepler was of sickly constitution, and of equally marked precocity. To add to his constitutional weakness, he had a severe attack of smallpox in his early youth, which left him in delicate health throughout life. After his recovery from smallpox, he was sent to school in 1577. In the year 1586 he waa admitted to the school at the monastery of Maulbronn, which was established during the German reformation, and maintained at the expense of the duke of Wurttemberg, as preparatory for the university of Tiibingen. He entered the university a year later and received his bachelor's and master's degrees, respectively, in 1588 and 1591. While attending the mathematical lectures of Maestlin, a disciple of Copernicus, he adopted the opinions of his teacher, and wrote an essay to prove that the primary motion was produced by the rotation of the earth. In 1594 he was unwillingly made to accept the astronomical class at Gratz, thou^ he knew little of the subject. He was thus 862 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT forced to study astronomy, and, in 1595, he devoted all his leisure time, and all his mental energy to studying the size and the motions of the planets, and their orbits. To find them, he built up, with every resource of a most power- ful imagination, hypothesis after hypothesis — all of them daring, and many extravagant. In 1596 he published his " Cosmographical Mystery " — Mysterium Cosmographicum — containing the first of these conjectures, that the orbits of the planets corresponded to circles inscribed or circumscribed round one of the five regular solids. This theory of the order of the heavenly bodies was, of course, purely fanciful, and he was saved from further extravagance of this kind by his future con- nection with the celebrated astronomical observer, Tycho Brahe, at Prague, In 1597 he made a foolish marriage with a young widow, and, in addition to pecuniary difficulties in which this involved him, he was obliged to retire into Hungary to escape from religious persecution. Though he was soon recalled to his professorship by the states of Styria, he did not occupy it long. Tycho Brahe — probably the greatest of observers — whom he visited at Prague in 1600, induced him to become his assistant. When Kepler came to Prague in 1601, Tycho presented him to the emperor, who gave him the title of "imperial mathematician," on the condition of assisting Tycho in his calcu- lations. Their first joint work was the com- putation of the "Rudolphine Tables," the expense of which was to be defrayed by Rudolph II., and hence named for him. Upon the death of Tycho in 1601, Kepler succeeded him as principal mathematician to the emperor, with a handsome salary, partly from the imperial treasury, and partly from the states of Silesia. He also inherited from Tycho his vast store of facts, and his habits of accurate and patient observation, without impairing the creative energy of his own mas- ter spirit. In 1606 he published a "Supplement to Vitellio," in which he treats of the optical part of astronomy, and had very nearly stumbled on the law of refraction, afterward discovered by the Dutch mathematician, SneUius. In 1611 he published his Dioptrics, an admirable work, which laid the foundation of the science of optics. In this work he gives the theory of the telescope — describes the astronomical one with two convex lenses — expoimds the spherical aberration of lenses, and the law of total reflexion at the second surfaces of bodies. The work, however, on which his fame rests is his " New Astronomy, or Commentaries on the Motions of Mars," published in 1609. In this work he proves that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit, in one of the foci of which the sun is placed, and that the radius vector, or the Une joining the planet and the sun, describes equal areas in equal times. These two great discoveries, the first made in physi- cal astronomy, he extended to all the planets in the solar system, and it was through them that Newton, Hooke, Halley, and Wren independently arrived at the great law of the diminution of gravity with the square of the distance. In the midst of the studies which led Kepler to these fine discoveries, he was har- assed with pecuniary difficulties, which were the bane of his existence. His salary was ever in arrears, and the treasury of Rudolph was always empty. Upon the death of the emperor, however, in 1612, Kepler's arrears were paid. Matthias, the brother and suc- cessor of Rudolph, reappointed him imperial mathematician, and he was permitted to accept the professorship of mathematics at Linz, in Austria. He had lost his wife and one of his children by smallpox in 1611, and his family now consisted of a daughter born in 1602, and a son born in 1607. He married a second time in 1615, and added to his family three sons and two daughters, who, along with their mother, survived him. About this time Kepler was summoned to the diet at Ratisbon, to give his opinion on the reformation of the calendar, a subject upon which he published a short essay. His pension was again in arrears, and in order to support his family he was obliged to compose what he calls "a vile prophesying almanac," which, he adds, "is scarcely more repu- table than begging, unless from its saving the emperor's credit, who abandons me entirely, and would suffer me to perish with hunger." In 1619 there appeared one of the most interesting of his works, entitled "The Har- monies of the World." It is dedicated to James I. of England, and is remarkable as containing his celebrated law that the squares of the periodic times of the planets are as the cubes of their distances. This law occurred to him on March 8, 1618, but from a blunder in his calculations he rejected it. Having IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY discovered his error on May 15tli, he recog- nized with transport the absolute truth of a principle which for seventeen years had been the object of incessant pursuit. He was almost frantic with joy. "The die is cast," he exclaimed, " the book is written to be read, either now or by posterity, I care not which. It may well wait a century for a reader, as God waited six thousand years for an observer." In the same year Kepler published the three first books of his " Epitome of the Copernican Astronomy," the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh appearing in 1622. In 1620 Sir Henry Wotton, the English ambassador at Venice, visited Kepler while passing through Germany. He urged the astronomer to take up his residence in Eng- land, assuring him of a welcome and an honorable reception ; but neither the welcome nor the reception, which is all the encourage- ment he would have received, would have released him from his pecuniary difficulties. "If the imperial mathematician, therefore," said Sir David Brewster, in his Martyrs of Science, "had no other assurance of a com- fortable home in England than that of Sir Henry Wotton, he acted a wise part in dis- trusting it, and we rejoice that the sacred name of Kepler was thus withheld from the long hst of distinguished characters whom England has starved and dishonored." Notwithstanding his own pecuniary difficul- ties, the emperor Ferdinand, in 1622, ordered the whole of Kepler's arrears to be paid, including those due by Rudolph II. and Matthias I., and he supplied, also, the neces- sary funds for continuing the "Rudolphine Tables." The wars of the reformation, how- ever, interfered with this and with every other peaceful pursuit. Kepler's residence at Linz was blockaded by the religious reactionaries, and his library sealed up. It is too often forgotten that, while pursiiing his purely scientific researches, Kepler was incessantly laboring at the practical business of his fife, bequeathed to him by Tycho — the construction of astronomical tables. These appeared at last in 1627, with a long historical title-page, indicating the part which Tycho, Frederick II. of Denmark, three successive emperors of Germany, and finally Kepler himself had taken in their construction. Without the invention of logarithms, which Kepler eagerly adopted from Napier, these tables could hardly have been constructed; and they figure side by side with Kepler's ellipse and Galileo'* toltioope, in the AUagori- cal frontispiece. The grand duke of Tuscany sent him a gold chain in testimony of his approbation of this great work, and Albert Wallcnstein, duka of Friedland, munificently invited him to reside at Sagan, in Silesia. With the em- peror's permission he accepted this offer, took his family to Sagan in 1629, and by the duke's influence obtained a professorship in the university of Rostock. Finding it difficult in this remote locality to obtain payment of his imperial pension, the arrears of which were eight thousand crowns, he went to the imperial assembly at Ratisbon to obtain them. The vexation which the failure of this attempt occasioned, and the fatigue of his journey, threw him into ft catarrhal fever, which was accompanied with an abscess of the brain, the result of excessive study. Medical skill failed, and he died on November 15, 1630, in his sixtieth year. His remains were interred in St. Peter's church- yard at Ratisbon, and on his tombstone was placed an inscription written by himself. This monument was destroyed in* the wars which desolated Germany, and it was not until 1803 that the prince bishop of Constance erected a handsome monumental temple near the place of his interment, surmounted by a marble bust of Kepler. This great man published no fewer than thirty-three separate works. His discoveries in optics, general physics, and geometry are numerous; but his fame rests chiefly on the discovery of three remarkable laws by which the movements of all the planets are explained. The first of "Kepler's laws," as they are called, is that planets move round the sun in ellipses or ovals, and not in circles; the second law is that planets describe equal areas about their center in equal times; and the third law is that the squares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their distances. Even if Kepler had never turned his attention to the heavens, his optical labors would have given him high rank among the original inquirers of his age. Kepler had a strong, though very vague, con- ception of planetary gravitation. " Gravity," he says, in the introduction to the work on Mars, " is a mutual tendency of similar bodies to imite. Heavy bodies do not tend to the center of the world, but to that of the spheri- cal body of which they are a part. If the earth was not spherical, bodies would not 354 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT fall vertically to its surface. If the earth and the moon were not kept at their respective distances, they would fall one on the other; supposing them of the same density, the moon would pass through fifty-three fifty- fourths of the distance, the earth through the remaining part." He attributed the tides also to their true cause — the action of the moon on successive points of the ocean as the earth rotated. Between these floating conjectures and the solid ground of Newton's Principia there was a wide gulf which only the calculus of Leibnitz or Newton could bridge over. But they show the soundness of Kepler's scientific instinct. In the same work is to be found the earliest indication of the first law of motion : that a body unaffected by external force remains at rest or in uniform rectilinear motion. The history of science does not present us with any discoveries more truly original, or which required for their establishment a more acute and vigorous mind. The speculations of his predecessors afforded him no assistance. From the cumbrous machinery adopted by Copernicus, Kepler passed at one step to an elliptical orbit, with the sun in one of its foci ; and from that moment astronomy became a demonstrative science. The splendid dis- coveries of Newton sprang immediately from those of Kepler, and completed the great chain of truths which constitute the laws of the planetary system. The eccentricity and boldness of Kepler's genius form a striking contrast with the calm intellect and enduring patience of Newton. The bright spark which the genius of the one elicited was fostered by the sagacity of the other into a steady and enduring flame. Kepler's simple but solemn announcement that the two things which filled him with wonder — " the starry heavens above, and the moral law within " — will, in itself, long continue to impress his greatness upon the soul of the ages. HARVEY A. D. AOE 1578 Bom at Folkestone, England, 1593 Entered Cambridge university, ... 15 1598 Studied at Padua, Italy, under Fabri- cius, 20 1602 M. D. from Padua, and Cambridge, . 24 1604 Married; settled in London, 26 1615 Lecturer on anatomy and surgery, collie of physicians, London, ... 37 1618 Physician to James I., 40 A. D. AOB 1628 ExercitatiodeMotuCordiitrt Sanguinis, "Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood," 50 1632 Physician to Charles I., 54 1645 Warden of Merton college, Oxford, . . 67 1651 Ezerciiationet de Genrratirme Anima- lium, "Exercises on Generation of Animals," 73 1657 Died at London 79 VyiLLIAM HARVEY, celebrated English ' ^ anatomist, physiologist, and physician, and discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was born at Folkestone, England, April 1, 1578. He was the son of Thomas Harvey, a merchant of good repute, and Joan Halke. Five of his brothers followed merchandizing in the city of London, and the sixth was a member of parliament for Hythe. After attending the grammar school at Canterbury, young Harvey in his sixteenth year entered Caius college, Cambridge, where he was graduated, B. A., in 1597. TTie fol- lowing year he went to Padua, Italy, then the most celebrated school of medicine in the world, where he spent four years in preparation for his professional career. He studied at Padua imder the noted Fabricius of Aqua- pendente, Julius Casserius, Gahleo, and other eminent men, who then adorned that univer- sity, and received his diploma as doctor of medicine in 1602. Returning to England in the same year, he obtained also a doctor's diploma from his alma mater, Cambridge university. It is frequently noted that in his subsequent discoveries Harvey owed a large debt to the distinguished Fabricius, who discovered the valves in the veins, favoring the flow of blood in a special direction. Galileo's lectures at Padua, on motion and mechanical force, were at that time also revolutionizing thought on all physical questions, and it is not likely his influence was totally lost on Harvey's keen intellect. In 1604, when twenty-six years of age, he married the daughter of Dr. Lancelot Browne ; and, entering his name on the list of candi- dates for a fellowship in the college of physi- cians, he settled to the practice of medicine in London. In 1609 he was appointed physi- cian to St. Bartholomew's hospital, and o 2 H z IS a "" a: IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 817 devoted himself assiduously to his professional duties. His rise to distinction appears to have been rapid, for we find him, after no very protracted practice, in the position of physi- cian to many of the foremost men of the age — among whom were the earl of Arundel, Lord Chancellor Bacon, and others of dis- tinction. In the year 1615 Harvey was chosen lecturer on anatomy and surgery to the college of physicians, on the foundation of Dr. Richard Caldwell ; and from this year dates the most important period in his career. Shortly thereafter he began to give oral expositions of his views on the action of the heart and the motion of the blood through all parts of the body in a continuous circle. It was not, however, until much later that he gave wider publicity to his discoveries by his Exercitatio de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis, at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1628. Up to this time the views of Harvey were probably unknown beyond the sphere of his own immediate influence. There was no stir in the anatomical world about the circulation of the blood, and no notice of Harvey as an inno- vator until after the publication at Frank- fort. Shortly after that event, however, there is evidence that the subject was attract- ing the notice of anatomists; and various dissertations in contravention of his views began to make their appearance on the continent of Europe. At home he had no public opponent ; but his opponents there had their revenge in another way, by questioning his skill as a practitioner; so that he complained to his friend and contemporary, Aubrey, that " after the coming out of his book his practice had greatly declined." It is important here to observe that the conclusions of Harvey, of course, took the professional world by surprise. Among his original opponents there is no hint at similar views already entertained by others. Dif- fering entirely from current and long accred- ited notions, Harvey's inferences were at first simply rejected, and rejected by all the authorities of continental Europe with singu- lar unanimity; his merit as a discoverer in contrast with others was not even made the subject of discussion. It is only later, when the possibility of the truth of Harvey's dis- covery was dawning on men's minds, that envy began to see things in the writings of older anatomists which had never been seen there before, and which, with the new inter- pretation, went to rob Harvey of almost all merit as a discoverer. The worics of Realdua Columbus, Cesalpino, and Servetus were now declared to contain enunciations of the circulation of the blood — of the leaser cir^ culation at all events, if not of the greater — and, strange to say, it was not until the earlier half of the nineteenth century that it waa conclusively shown, by immediate reference to the writings of these celebrated men, that they had in no instance conceived a circulation of the blood in the sense in which Harvey demonstrated and we now understand it. Michael Servetus, it is true, in his Ratilip- tio Christianismi, published in 1553, had described the circulation of the blood from the right side of the heart, through the lungs, to the left side. He knew the change of the color of the blood from dark to bright red that took place in the lungs; he knew also that in the act of expiration the blood was purified from "fuliginous vapors." Rcaldus Columbus in 1559, and after him Cesalpino of Arezzo, Galileo's first teacher, by careful study of the valves of the heart, had shown that the course of the pulmonary circulation must be as Servetus had stated. Cesalpino went so far as to conjecture that by the great artery (aorta) and its branches bright blood passed to all parts of the body; and that in the veins the passage was not from the main trunk to branches, but from branches to trunk. But, in the first place, these views, espe- cially as regarded the systematic, or general circulation, were conjectural only, and were complicated with erroneous views aa to the relations of the heart and liver. Secondly, what is far more important, neither these great anatomists, nor any one else, had any conception of the muscular contraction of the heart as the mechanical force that impelled the blood. They were still under the full dominion of metaphysical fancies as to motion being naturally in circles, and as to the effervescing spirits which caused the heart, in its diastole, to swell and so attract the blood ; whereas, in systole, the heart collapsed, when the body drew from it a supply of nutriment. Harvey showed for the first time that the periods of activity and rest were exactly the reverse of what had been thought ; that the energy of each chamber of the heart was exerted in contraction. Combining the re- searches of his predecessors, and availing himself of the discovery of Fabricius as to the 368 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT valves of the veins, he showed the precise manner in which the machine worked. It was the first introduction into biology of the laws of mechanical science. Harvey's title of his great work gives the key to the right understanding of the vital points of his system. It is not an exercise on the circulation of the blood, but an " Exercise on the movement of the Heart and Blood " : the action of the heart has precedence, as of right, over the motion of the blood. The action of the heart once understood, the double circulation of the blood through the lungs, and through the body at large, follows as a necessity from the arrangement of the wonderful valvular apparatus of the pro- pelling organ. Though his scientific inquiries may have interfered with his popularity, and led to the decline of his general practice, Harvey seems to have made steady way with the court and the great world. Three years after he had been made lecturer to the college of physi- cians, he was chosen one of the physicians extraordinary to James I., and in 1G23 re- ceived promise of the office of physician-in- ordinary on the first vacancy. To this latter dignity he attained about 1632, but it was after the death of James and when his son Charles I. had already occupied the throne for several years. The treatise on the heart and blood was dedicated to Charles, who took such a decided interest in the studies of his physi- cian as to have commanded a demonstration of the matters in question in his presence. Charles also most liberally furnished Harvey from the royal parks with the does which he required in the observations he was now pur- suing upon the subject of generation. Harvey's position as physician to the coxirt had led in 1630 to an engagement as medical attendant on the young duke of Lennox in his travels on the continent of Europe, in the course of which Venice and the north of Italy were visited. In 1636 we again find Harvey in the suite of the earl of Arundel in his extraordinary embassy to the emperor of Germany, during which journey he publicly demonstrated, in the city of Nuremberg, to the celebrated anatomist, Caspar Hoffmann — one of the chief opponents of his views — the anatomical particulars and necessary conclusions of his theory. This demonstra- tion, it seems, was absolutely conclusive to all present except Hoffmann himself, who still continued to lU'ge futile objections. Charles I., now having in 1640 brought political matters to a crisis between himself and his people, the standard of despotic power on one hand, and of parliamentary and constitutional government on the other, was unfurled, and the battle of Edgehill was fought in 1642. At this conflict Harvey was present; and during the fight, according to Aubrey, the prince and duke of York were committed to his care. Charles continued to have his headquarters at Oxford for several years after the battle of Edgehill, and Harvey remained with him; and, besides his court duties, began those studies which seem for many years to have absorbed a large share of his attention. Oxford university conferred upon him its honorary degree of doctor of physic ; and, in 1645, by order of the king, he was made warden of Merton college, an office which he did not long retain, for, in July, 1646, Oxford surrendered to the parliamen- tary party, and he returned to London. Harvey was now sixty-eight years of age, and seems to have withdrawn himself from practice, and from all further participation in the fortunes of his royal master. Indeed, he seems not to have resided constantly in Lon- don, but to have spent much of his time at the houses of more than one of his brothers in the country. Through his very lucrative practice before the civil war broke out, he accumulated a fund which grew so fast under the prudent management of his brother, Eliab, the city merchant, that at his death Harvey was worth more than one hundred thousand dollars, a very ample fortune in those days. In retiring from public life, how- ever, he did not by any means abandon him- self to idleness. He had long been engaged in the study of the difficult subject of genera- tion, and, in 1651, at the especial instance of Dr. Ent, by far the most bulky of his works — "Exercises on Generation of Animals" — was given to the world. Ent's account of his interview with Harvey on the occasion of his obtaining this work for publication is extremely interesting, and brings us face to face with the great anato- mist, whose language to Ent is highly imagi- native as he refers to the troubles he had brought upon himself by the publication of the " Exercise on the Heart." "Would you be the man," he exclaimed to Ent, who was pressing him to share with the world some further fruits of his ingenuity, " Would you be the man to have me quit the IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY peaceful haven where I now pass my life, and launch again upon the faithless sea? You, who know well what a storm my former lucubrations raised! Much better is it, oftentimes, to grow wise at home than by publishing what you have gathered with infinite pains, to stir up tempests that may rob you of peace and quiet for the rest of your days." Ent, nevertheless, succeeded in overcoming the objections of the scientist, and carried ofif the MS., comparing himself to a second Jason laden with another golden fleece, and engaging to perform the midwife's part in ushering the work into the world. The scope and character of the work on " Generation " were of themselves guarantees that Harvey would not be disturbed by the cavils and objections of ill-informed and specu- lative opponents. Here he offended no accred- ited ideas, came in rude contact with no fore- gone conclusions by his observations. It contained, like his first work, a mass of original and carefully classified observations on human beings and animals, but was less fertile in immediate discovery. But it con- tinued, with alternate strivings of the positive and metaphysical spirit, the researches of Aristotle, and it fills a most important place in the history of embryology. His striking generalization, Omne vivum ex ovo, though not true absolutely, shows most prescient insight into the process of organic evolution. The work on generation, then, does not appear to have made any stir in the world of science; but that it enhanced its author's reputation among his contemporaries is unquestionable. Harvey was, in fact, now looked up to by common consent as the most distinguished anatomist and physician of his age, and, soon after the publication of the work in question, the college of physicians decreed him a statue to be erected in their hall, where, with a suitable inscription on its base, it stood until the great fire of 1666 desolated London. From this period on to the time of his death, the chief object which occupied his mind was the welfare and improvement of the college of physicians. He built, furnished, and endowed a handsome hbrary for this institution at his own expense, but his name did not even appear in connection with the gift; the inscription round the cornice merely annotmced that the building was erected under the auspices of Dr. Prujean, the president of the year. Harvey preserved his mental activity and vigor to the very end of his life. Hit letter to Clegel of Hamburg, written in his seventyo fifth year, has all the perspicuity and force of a much younger man's productioo. In 1654 he was elected, in his absence, preaident of the college, but he declined the office on account of his age. In July, lft56, he resigned his Lumleian lectureship, which he had held for more than forty yean; and, in taking leave of the college, presented to it his patrimonial estate at Burmarsh, in Kent, then valued at fifty-six pounds per annum. He did not long survive, but, worn down by repeated attacks of gout, he died at London on June 3, 1657, and was buried in a vault at Hempstead, in Essex, which his brother Eliab had built. Aubrey, Harvey's chief biographer, has left us the following graphic description of him: "In person, he was of the lowest stature, round-faced, and with an olivaster complexion. He had little eyes, round, very black, and full of spirit. His hair was black as a raven. In temper, he was very choleric, and in his younger days he wore a dagger, as the fashion then was, which he would be apt to draw out upon every occasion." Harvey, however, was unquestionably of a most placable and amiable disi>osition. With his own family he lived on terms of entire intimacy, and he was universally beloved and honored among his professional friends. He seems to have been entirely free from all love of ostentation. He was fond of meditation and retirement; and there is much in his works to characterize him as a man of wahn and unaffected piety. With the ancient philosophers he i^pears to have regarded the universe and its parts as existing by the will, and actuated by the power, of a supreme and all-pervading intelli- gence. In this he seems to have anticipated the celebrated philosopher, Schopenhauer — without, however, the latter's pessimism. He was a great admirer of Vergil, whose works were frequently in his hands, and whose religious philosophy he appears also in a great measure to have adopted, though upwi the purely deistic notions of cultivated an- tiquity he undoubtedly engrafted a speaal faith on the Christian dispensation. It is impossible to overestimate the influence which Harvey's induction has had on the progress of physiological knowledge, and on the science, as contrasted with the empirical 360 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT practice, of medicine. He was universally inquisitive into natural things and natural phenomena, and his industry in collecting facts and recording them was unwearied. He was the first English comparative anato- mist; that is, he was the first physiologist that country produced whose superiority of mental endowment led him to perceive the relations between the lowest and the highest organized beings, and who made the simplicity of structure and function in the one the means of explaining the complexity of structure and function in the other. The great British physiologist of the nineteenth century. Hun- ter, had certainly a herald in the great com- parative anatomist and physiologist of the seventeenth century. "Had anatomists," says Harvey, "only been as conversant with the dissection of the lower animals as they are with that of the human body, many matters that have hitherto kept them in a perplexity of doubt would in my opinion have met them freed from every kind of difficulty." Aubrey mentions particularly Harvey as having often said that, of all the losses he sustained, no grief was so crucifying to him as the loss of his papers containing notes of his dissections of many of the lower animals, which, together with his goods in his lodgings at Whitehall, were plundered at the beginning of the rebellion. But these notes on com- parative anatomy were not the only loss ; the "Medical Observations," or "Medical Anat- omy," perished at the same time, a great work still more to be regretted, in which Harvey himself informs us that he intended, from the many dissections he had made of the bodies of persons worn out by serious and strange affec- tions, to relate how and in what way the internal organs were changed in their situa- tion, size, figure, structure, consistency, and other sensible quahties from their natural forms and appearances. For even as the dissection of healthy bodies contributes essentially to the advancement of philosophy and sound physiology, so does the inspection of diseased and cachectic subjects powerfully assist philosophical pathology. This is precisely the system which the celebrated Morgagni — founder of pathologi- cal anatomy — pursued, and it is still the grand business which the most illustrious among modern pathologists are striving to extend and perfect. NEWTON A. D. AOE 1642 Bom at Woolsthorpe, England, . . 1661 Entered Trinity college, Cambridge, 19 1663 Invented the "binomial theorem, ' 21 1665 Established the "theory of flux- ions," or calculus, 23 1666 Doctrine of colors 24 1668 Constructed reflecting telescope, . . 26 1669 Professor of mathematics at Cam- bridge university, 27 1672 Fellow of the royal society; dis- covered the composition of light, 30 A. D. AOB 168&-87 The Principia 44-45 1689 Member of parliament for univer- sity of Cambridge, 47 1696 Warclen of the mint, 54 1699 Master of the mint 57 1701 Reelected to parliament for Cam- bridge university, 59 1703 President of the royal societv, ... 61 1705 Knighted bv Queen Anne, .... 63 1727 Died at Kensington 85 CIR ISAAC NEWTON, one of the most ^^ celebrated mathematicians and natural philosophers, was bom at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham, in Lincolnshire, England, Decem- ber 25, 1642. His father, also Isaac Newton, was a farmer and small landed proprietor of Lincolnshire, who married Hannah Ayscough, and died a few months after his marriage. Young Newton was then a posthumous child, and, dviring his earliest years, was of very delicate physical constitution. For three years his mother watched over him with great maternal anxiety, when she married Rev. Barnabas Smith. In consequence of this marriage, the boy was then left under the care of his grandmother, who had general oversight of his youthful education. Newton, at the age of twelve years, attended Grantham grammar school, but he was slow in book learning, and much absorbed in mechanical contrivances, windmills, water- clocks, carriages, and paper kites ; and among his early tastes may be mentioned his love for drawing and writing verses, in neither of which he was destined to excel. On the death of his stepfather in 1656, his mother returned to Woolsthorpe with her children; and Isaac, who was now in his IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY Ml fifteenth year, was recalled from school to assist in the management of the farm. At this, however, he was far from a success. While he was occupied with his books, models, water wheels and dials, the business of the farm was neglected, and the cattle were luxu- riating among the corn. When he thus demonstrated his unfitness for the business of a farmer, he was sent back to Grantham school, where he made a distinguished record for himself, and finally stood at the head of the school in scholarship. On June 5, 1661, when nineteen years old, he was admitted subsizar at Trinity college, Cambridge but was somewhat unprepared for its course of instruction by his preliminary mathematical studies. He had been disposed to undervalue ancient geometry, and afterward confessed to Dr. Pemberton that he had applied himself to the works of Descartes and others before he had sufficiently considered the Elements of Euclid. He now devoted himself eagerly to mathematical study, and within a very few years not only made himself master of most of the works of any value on such subjects then existing, but also made marked progress in the methods for extending that science. In 1663 he invented what is now known as the binomial theorem. In April, 1664, he was elected to a scholarship. He took his degree of B. A. in January, 1665, was elected major fellow in March, and took his degree of M. A. in July, 1668. In May, 1665, it appears that Newton com- mitted to writing his first ideas on fluxions, or the calculus — that subject which subse- quently gave rise to so extensive a controversy with Leibnitz. In 1666, having procured a prism, he discovered the unequal refrangi- bility of light, and the true doctrine of colors, and, having drawn the erroneous conclusion that the improvement of the refracting tele- scope was impossible, he set himself to the construction of a reflecting telescope. While thus occupied he was driven from Cambridge by the plague^ in 1665, and went to Wools- thorpe, where the fall of an apple, as he sat in his garden, suggested to him the most magnifi- cent of his subsequent discoveries — the law of gravitation. On his first attempt, however, by means of the law so suggested to his mind, to explain the lunar and planetary motions, he employed an estimate then in use of the radius of the earth, which was so erroneous as to produce a discrepancy between the real force of gravity and that required by theory to explain the motions. He accordingly abandoned the hypothesis and returned to his inquiries into the application of fluxions, and to the con- struction of a small reflecting teleaoope, which latter he completed in 1668. In 1669 Newton waa appointed to the Luca.sian chair of mathematics at Cambridge, on the resignation of Dr. Harrow, and from this time we may date the conunencement of his great discoveries. In 1672 he wm elected a member of the royal society, and his first communication to that body waa a description of a second reflecting telescope, which excited great interest in England koA abroad. The telescope itself waa sent to the society in December, 1671, "for his majesty'i perusal." In January, 1672, he announced to the secretary, Oldenburg, a philosophical discovery which he considered the boldest if not the most considerable detection hitherto made in the operations of nature. This was the discovery of the composition of light, which was read to the society on February 8, 1672, and which led him into interminable controversies with Hooke, Huygens, and several other eminent scientific investigators. These controversies embittered his peace, and led him to resolve to have nothing more to do with that litigious lady, philosophy. In 1673 he was disappointed in a competi- tion for a law fellowship, then vacant at Cambridge — a disappointment increased by the fact that he was about this time in such wretched financial circumstances as to be unable to afford the weekly payment to the royal society, which "excused him." Very soon afterward, however, when his fellowship was about to expire, he obtained permission from the crown to hold the Lucaaian chair along with a fellowship, without being obliged to take orders in the church. In 1675 Newton read before the royal society a dissertation on colors, which contained fuller details on the composition and decomposition of white light, and a new hypothesis concerning colors, with some proposition explaining the colors of thin transparent plates, and their relation to the colors of natural bodies. This again brought Newton into a controversy with Hooke, but, notwithstanding the interruption, he was soon occupied with those profound studies, the results of which were afterward set forth in his immortal work,, the Principia. He had long since deduced from the laws of Kepler the important law that gravity 362 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT decreases with the square of the distance, a law to which Sir Christopher Wren, Halley, and Hooke had all been led by independent study. No demonstration of it, however, had been given, and no proof obtained that the same power which made the apple fall was that which retained the moon and the other planets in their orbits. Adopting the ordinary measure of the earth's radius, Newton had been led to the conclusion that the force which kept the moon in its orbit, if the same as gravity, was one-sixth greater than that which was actually observed, a result which perplexed him, and prevented him from communicating to his friends the great speculation in which he had engaged. In 1682, however, he had heard of Pi card's more accurate measure of the earth's diameter, and, repeating with this measure his former calculations, he found to his extreme delight that the force of gravity by which bodies fall at the earth's surface, four thousand miles from the earth's center, when diminished as the square of two hundred forty thousand miles, the moon's distance, was almost exactly equal to that which kept the moon in its orbit. Hence it followed that the same power retained all the other satellites round their primaries and aU the primaries round the sun. When Dr. Halley visited Newton at Cam- bridge in 1684, the former learned from him that he had surmounted the difficulties of the planetary motion, and promised him a treatise he had written on the subject. This treatise, De Motu Corporum — which was the germ of the Principia — was after some delay completed, and presented to the royal society in 1686. It was subsequently made the first book of the Principia. The second book was sent to the society in March, 1687, the third on April 6th, and the whole work published at the expense of Dr. Halley about midsummer of that year. It has been already noted that Newton's alleged discovery of fluxions, or calculus, led to an embittered controversy between Newton and Leibnitz, as to the priority of the dis- covery. The verdict of the impartial histo- rian of science to-day is that the mettods were invented quite independently. It is admitted now that Newton made his discovery prior to that of Leibnitz, but no description of New- ton's fluxions was publjfhed until 1693. The letters of Leibnitz show that he had invented his differential and integral calculus in 1675 ; and a full account of it was published in the Acta Eruditorum at Leipzig, 1684. It must be further admitted that the differentials and integrals of Leibnitz proved more fertile in the subsequent development of mathematics than the fluxions and fluents of Newton. But it fell to the lot of Newton to combine the discovery of the calculus with what was by far the most important of its applications. And hence it is that the Principia, notwith- standing the archaic form into which he thought fit to transpose his discoveries, will by many be looked upon as the greatest, and by all as one of the two or three greatest mas- terpieces of scientific intellect. In unity of purpose, though not in native power, it sur- passes the work of Archimedes; in the importance of its application, though not in philosophic breadth, the Mecanique of Lagrange. There was only one solar system, as Lagrange himself observed, for man's intellect to master. Shortly before the Principia was given to the public, Newton had been called to take an active part in defending the rights of Cambridge university against the illegal encroachments of James II. The conspicuous part which he had taken on that occasion procured him a scat in the convention parlia- ment, in which he sat from January, 1689, to its dissolution in 1690. In 1696 he was made warden of the mint, and was afterward promoted to the office of master of the mint in 1699, an ofllice which he held until the end of his life. He again took a seat in parlia- ment in the year 1701, as the representative of his university, and in 1705 the honor of knighthood was conferred upon him by Queen Anne, at Trinity lodge, Cambridge. Thus engaged in the public service, he had little time left for mere scientific studies — pursuits which he always held of secondary importance to the public duties in which he was engaged. In the interval of public duty, however, Newton showed that he still retained the scientific power by which his great dis- coveries had been made. This was shown in his solution of two celebrated problems proposed in June, 1696, by John Bernouilli, as a challenge to the mathematicians of Europe. A similar mathematical feat is recorded of him as late as 1716, in solving a problem proposed by Leibnitz, for the pur- pose, as he expressed it, of feeling the pulse of the English analysts. When in parliament, Newton recommended IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY the public encouragement of the invention of a method for determining the longitude — the first reward in consequence being gained by John Harrison for his chronometer. He was president of the royal society from 1703 until his death, a period of twenty-five years, being each year reelected. In this position, and enjoying the confidence of Prince George of Denmark, he did much toward the advancement of science. One of his most important works during this time was the superintendence of the publication of Flam- steed's "Greenwich Observations" — a task, however, not accomplished without much controversy and some bitterness bfetween himself and that astronomer. Newton continued to enjoy a regular and pretty equal state of health until he attained his eightieth year, when, having become sub- ject to a urinary disorder, his health gradually declined. He presided for the last time at a meeting of the royal society on March 2, 1727, and died at Kensington on March 20th, in the eighty-fifth year of his age. His body lay in state for a time in the Jerusalem chamber, adjoining the house of lords, from whence it was conveyed to and interred in Westminster abbey, the pall being borne by the lord chancellor, two dukes, and three earls. In 1731 a magnificent monument designed by Kent, and sculptured by Rysbrack, was erected in the abbey at the expense of his relatives; and his statue by Roubillac was subsequently placed in Trinity college, Cambridge. Besides the scientific works particiilarly mentioned, Newton published a treatise on Universal Arithmetic, on Analytical Geometry, and on Optics. His literary and theological works included a work on Chronology, Obser- vations on the Prophesies of Holy Writ, and an Historical Account of Two Notable Corrup- tions of Scripture. These latter were published after his death in Sir David Brewster's Memoirs of Newton, and clearly indicate that he accepted the Arian view of Christian dogma. Prior to 1692 Newton was popularly known as an "excellent divine," and it is therefore probable that his posthumous papers were written in the prime of life at Cambridge. At the time of his death Newton left a private fortime exceeding one hundred fifty thousand dollars, which was divided among his four nephews and four nieces — descendants of his mother's second marriage. He himself never married. In stature Newton wm bekm ratlMr than above the middle height, and became aom^ what corpulent as he advanced in age. Thomas Heame, the antiquary, and a contem- porary of his, speaks of him as "a short well- set man looking deep in thought and little inclined to conversation." His hair, which was abundant, turned grey before be was thirty, and late in life was completely white, giving him when divested of his peruke an extremely venerable appearance. His eye was bright and penetrating up to the latest years of his life. Conduitt informs us that "until his last illness he had the bloom and color of a young man, never wore spectacles, nor lost more than one tooth to the day of his death." In his latter years Newton lived in hand- some style in London, attended by a coterie of servants. He was extremely generous and liberal in the use of money, and for mere worldly wealth he had a supreme contempt. He entertained a very modest opinion of his own abilities, saying, when complimented on the extraordinary power of his mind, if he had done anything worthy of notice, and of service to the world, it was owing more to his industry and patience of thought than to any extraor- dinary sagacity. "I keep the subject con- stantly before me," said he, "and wait until the first dawnings open slowly, by Uttle and little, into a full and clear light." On one occasion, when his friends expressed their admiration of his splendid discoveries, he said, " I know not what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverts ing myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." When engaged in the solution of diffictilt problems, he was often so completely lost to the world as to forget the common concerns of life. He has been known to sit for hours on the side of his bed with his clothes half on and half off, absorbed in thought; at other times he has gone through the day without food, having forgotten the wants of nature, in the contemplation of some mathematical truth. His temper is said to have been so mild and equal that scarcely any accident could disturb it. One instance in particular is mentioned of this disposition : he had a favorite little dog called Diamond, which, being left in his study, 8M MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT had overset a lighted candle among his papers, and burnt the almost finished labors of many- years. This loss was irretrievable, yet the philosopher only exclaimed, "O Diamond! Diamond 1 thou little knowest the mischief thou hast done." His patience indeed may be said sometimes to have been carried too far ; particularly in suffering other men to run away with the merit of his discoveries. Although Newton was a profound thinker, at no time of his life was he a ready speaker. When he gave his evidence in 1714 before a parliamentary committee on the problem of finding the longitude at sea, it was said by Whiston, who was present at the time, that "what the rest had to say they delivered by word of mouth, but Sir Isaac Newton delivered what he had to say on paper." Nor was he a ready writer. "At no period of his life," says Brewster, " was he fond of writing letters, and least of all in his old age. He wrote scrolls of almost every letter he composed." Like the great philosopher, Kant, he is also a remarkable instance of a distinguished man who never traveled. While in mind he sur- veyed the heavens and journeyed to the remotest stars, he traversed in body but a tiny portion of the earth. It is a notable coincidence in the history of science, that the same year — 1642 — chronicled the death of Galileo and the birth of Newton. The circumstances with which the pursuit of truth in scientific matters was at this time surrounded, in the respective countries of these great philosophers, were not more different than the characters of the philosophers themselves. Galileo died a pris- oner, under the surveillance of the inquisition, "for thinking, in astronomy," as Milton says, "otherwise than the Franciscan and Domini- can hcensers thought." In England it had become the practice, and soon became the fashion through the influence of Bacon and Descartes, to discard altogether the dictates of authority in matters of science. The dispositions of the two philosophers were happily suited to the situations in which they thus found themselves. Galileo's was a mind whose strength and determination grew by the opposition it encountered. The disposi- tion of Newton, on the other hand, diffident of the value and interest of his own labors, and shrinking from the encoimter of even scientific controversy, might have allowed his most remarkable discoveries to remain in obscurity, had it not been for the constant and urgent solicitation of his friends that they should be published to the world. In viewing the character and genius of this great man, it is not easy to determine whether sagacity, penetration, strength, or diligence had the greatest share in his composition. We hardly know whether to admire more the sublime discoveries at which he arrived, or the extraordinary character of the intellectual processes by which those discoveries were reached. "To the highest powers of inven- tion," says Sir David Brewster, "he added, what so seldom accompanies them, the talent of simpUfying and communicating his pro- foundest speculations. In the economy of her distributions nature is seldom thus lavish of her intellectual gifts. The inspired genius which creates is rarely conferred along with the matured judgment which combines, and yet without the exertion of both the fabric of human wisdom could never have been reared. Though a ray from heaven kindled the vestal fire, yet a humble priesthood was required to keep alive the flame." In his speech, unveiling the statue of, New- ton at Grantham, Lord Brougham said: "The contemplation of Newton's discoveries raises other feelings than wonder at his matchless genius. The light with which it shines is not more dazzling than useful. The difficulties of his course, and his expedi- ents, alike copious and refined for surmounting them, exercise the faculties of the wise, while commanding their admiration; but the results of his investigations, often abstruse, are truths so grand and comprehensive, yet so plain, that they both captivate and instruct the simple. Nor when we recollect the Greek orator's exclamation, ' The whole earth is the monument of illustrious men,' can we stop short of declaring that the whole universe is Newton's." It has been said by others that the history of Sir Isaac Newton is also the history of science ; yet the character of his life and work does not entirely exclude him from the cate- gory of men of letters. While his great book, the Principia, is written in Latin and treats of mathematics, its tremendous scope and magnificent revelations entitle it to be placed without incongruity among those works which, like Paradise Lost or the "Divine Comedy," have widened men's outlook into the universe. Milton and Dante dealt with the spiritual order of creation. Sir Isaac Newton with the LINNAEUS From a painting by Rodin IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY m material ; yet to those who perceive an almost mystical significance in numbers — to whom the science of mathematics is, in a sense, a gateway to the unseen — the author of the Princijria and of the treatise on Optics will seem scarcely less a teacher than the poets. His soul was childlike in the presence of mysteries to which he held one key. His bequests to posterity are, therefore, not only his stupendous discoveries, but the example of the scientific temper of mind which is positive rather than negative, and which seeks a spiritual order behind the veil of matter. LINNiEUS A. D. 1707 1727 1728 1730 1731 1732 1735 1736 1737 AQB A. D. Bom at Rashult, Sweden, 173S Attended the university of Lund, . . 20 1739 Entered the university of Upsala, . . 21 1741 Curator of the botanic garden at 1742 Upsala, 23 Wrote Hortus Uplandicus, 24 1751 Traveled in Lapland, 25 1753 M. D., university of Harderwijic, Holland; Systema Naturae, .... 28 1773 Visited England ; Fundamenta Botanica, 29 Visited France; Genera Plantarum, . 30 1778 Returned to Stockholm, Sweden, Married Aoa 31 82 Professor of medicine at Upsala, . . 84 Transferred to chair of botaoy at Upsala 85 Philoaophia Botanica 44 Species Plantarum ; knight of the polar star, 49 One of the translators of the Bible into Swedish, 00 Died at Upsala, Sweden, 71 /^AROLUS LINN.EUS is the usual Latin- ^-^ ized name of Carl von Linne, the cele- brated botanist and naturalist, and founder of the " Linnaean system " of botany. He was born in Rashult, province of Smaland, Sweden, on May 23, 1707. His father, Nils Linn6, was a Lutheran minister, in straightened circum- stances, and a collector of curious plants. His mother, Christina Broderson, was a daughter of the previous village pastor. Hence both parents were eager in their efforts to fit their son for a ministerial career. Carl, however, showed little inclination toward a clerical life, and took infinitely more interest in his father's plants and garden, and the indigenous species of the neighborhood. He was then apprenticed to a shoemaker for a brief period, but his enthusiasm for outdoor studies, as well as the encouragement of Dr. Rothman, a physician, and friend of his father's, soon led him to devote himself almost exclusively to the physical sciences. Botany, which was then Uttle cultivated in Sweden, more particularly- engrossed his attention. He formed a small library of botanical works, and although unable to comprehend some of the authors he possessed, yet he continued to read them day and night. He even learned some of them by heart, and acquired, among his teachers and fellow scholars, the name of the "little botanist." Dr. Rothman aided him in a very practical way by taking him into wise upon the right method of studying his favorite science of botany, according to the system of Tournefort. In 1727 Linnayus went to study medicine at the university of Lund, and was equally fortunate there in gaining admission into the family of Dr. Stobaeus, professor of physics and botany. Here he pursued his botanical studies with great zeal, and, in the following year, he entered the university of Upsala, by advice of his friend, Dr. Rothman. At Upsala he was at first greatly disappointed, and his scanty means led him through miserable straits of poverty. He even mended his own shoes with the bark of trees, but followed his work of observing plants and insects with unflagging persistency. In the autumn of 1729 a fortunate incident greatly relieved his impoverished circum- stances, and forwarded his ambitions. While examining some plants in the university gar- den, he attracted the attention of one of the noted professors of the university — who subsequently proved to be the celebrated Dr. Celsius — who, after some inquiry into the nature and extent of the youth's botanical studies, received him into his own house and employed him to assist in a work on the plants mentioned in scripture, and to collect botani- cal specimens around Upsala. Linnaeus enjoyed great advantages in his new situation. He had the full use of an his own house for a period, during which he ' extensive library, rich in botanical works, instructed the youth in physiology, and like- 1 He lived on most familiar terms with his 868 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT patron, and was introduced by him to Dr. Rudbeck, the professor of botany, who, obliged by age to execute the duties of his office by deputy, in 1730 made Linnaus his assistant and associate in his work, and placed him in charge of the botanical collections. It was while discharging the duties of this posi- tion that he published his first scientific work, Hortus Uplandicus, in 1731. The young man's reputation as a naturalist was now established in the university; and the royal academy of sciences at Upsala deputed him to make a tour through Lapland, with the sole view of examining the natural productions of that desolate region. He set out on horseback in May, 1732, with few encumbrances of any kind, and bearing all his baggage on his back. In the flower of youth, bold, enterprising, and in robust health, he was well adapted to traverse the wild countries of northern Sweden and Lapland, in which he met with a number of romantic and dangerous adventures. When in the districts of Pitea and Lulea, on the gulf of Bothnia, his life itself was endangered, the circumstances of which he has given in the following animated account : " Several days ago the forests had been set on fire by lightning, and the flames raged at this time with great violence, owing to the drought of the season. I traversed a space, three-quarters of a mile in extent, which was entirely burnt, so that the place, instead of appearing in her gay and verdant attire, was in deep sable : a spectacle more abhorrent to my feelings than to see her clad in the white livery of winter. The fire was nearly extin- guished in most of the spots we visited, except in ant-hills and dry trunks of trees. "After we had traveled about half-a-quar- ter of a mile across one of these scenes of deso- lation, the wind began to blow with rather more force, upon which a sudden noise arose in the half-burnt forest, such as I can only compare to what may be imagined among a large army attacked by an enemy : we knew not whither to turn our steps. The smoke would not suffer us to remain where we stood, nor durst we turn back. It seemed best to hasten forward, in hopes of speedily reaching the outskirts of the wood ; but in this we were disappointed. We ran as fast as we could in order to avoid being crushed by the falling trees, some of which threatened us every minute. Sometimes the fall of a huge trunk was so sudden that we stood aghast, not knowing whither to turn to escape destruction, and throwing ourselves entirely on the pro- tection of providence. "In one instance a large tree fell exactly between me and my guide, who walked not more than a fathom from me ; but, thanks to God! we both escaped in safety. We were not a little rejoiced when this perilous adven- ture ended, for we had felt all the time like a couple of outlaws, in momentary fear of sur- prise." In the space of five months Linnaius per- formed, mostly on foot, a journey of three thousand seven hundred ninety-eight Eng- lish miles, and with the approach of winter he returned to Upsala. On that occasion he was admitted to membership in the Swedish academy, and received the equivalent of about fifty dollars for his expenses. The Flora Lapponica was the result of this journey. It was not published, however, until 1737. Scarcely had Linnaus recovered from the fatigues of this tour through Lapland, when he again felt the pressure of poverty. He consequently began a course of lectures on the assaying of metals, but his success excited the jealousy of Dr. Rosen, the successor of Dr. Rudbeck, at Upsala, who insisted that, in con- formity with the statutes, Linnseus should no longer be allowed to lecture. The authorities had no alternative except to enforce the statutes, and thissevere blow deprived Linnaeus of all present means of advancement. He then quitted Upsala and took up his residence at Fahlun, the capital of Dalecarlia, where he gave lectures on assajring to the copper miners of that district. In 1735, having saved a small sum of money, he resolved upon another tour of travel, with the view to taking a medical degree at some foreign university. He directed his course first to Hamburg, then to Holland, and obtained the degree of M. D. from the little university of Harderwijk. In Holland he gained the friendship of Gronovius and the celebrated Dutch physician, Boerhaave, by whom he was strongly urged to settle in Hol- land, then in the height of its commercial prosperity. But Linnaeus' mind was set upon returning to Sweden, where he had formed an attachment for the eldest daughter of Dr. Moraeus, a physician at Fahlun. Intending to pass homeward through Amsterdam, Linnaeus obtained from Boer- haave an introduction to an eminent botanist, Dr. Burmann, with whom he resided for a IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 800 short time. During his stay at Amsterdam he formed the acquaintance of George ClifTord, a rich burgomaster, who had a magnificent countryseat and garden at Hartecamp, near Haarlem, and into whose services he now entered for several years, as director and naturalist. The Hortus Cliffortianus, a mag- nificent work, describes these collections. His entire period of residence in Holland he made in publications, the most important of which were the Systema Naturae, containing his classification of animals, and the Genera Plantarum, in which the sexual system of plants was fully developed. In 1736 Linnaeus made a tour of England at the expense of CUfford, who wished him to inspect the gardens of that country, and confer with the most eminent English botan- ists of that time. The English professors were warmly attached to the system of Ray; but Dillenius, the botanical professor at Oxford, was so impressed with the talents of Linnaeus that he urged him to take up his residence there, even offering to share the profits of his professorship with him. Professor Martyn of Cambridge, Miller, CoUinson, and others gave him a most courteous reception, and he returned to Holland with very favorable impressions of the English scientists. About the close of 1737, contrary to the wishes of Clifford, Linnaeus left Hartecamp with the intention of returning to Sweden. His fame as a scientist was now thoroughly established. The regard in which he was held in Holland was probably best expressed by Boerhaave, practically on his deathbed. Before the time of Linnaeus' intended depar- ture from Leyden, Boerhaave became too ill to admit visitors. Linnaeus was the only person in whose favor an exception was made, so that the dying physician might bid him an affectionate farewell. "I have lived," he said, "my time out, and my days are at an end; I have done everything that was in my power. May God protect thee! What the world required of me it has got; but from thee it expects much more. Fare- well, my dear Linnaeus." When upon the point of leaving Leyden, Linnaeus was attacked by illness ; and upon his recovery he determined to visit France before his return to Sweden. At Paris he received great kindness from the famous French botanist, Jussieu ; and also received the high compliment of being elected a corresponding member of the French academy of sciences. In the summer of 1738 he embarked at Rouen for Helsingborg. Soon after his arrival in Sweden he established himself in Stockholm as a physician. Notwithstanding the fame he had acquired abroad as a natural- ist, his early efforts to gain practice met with little encouragement. He met with so much opposition that he almost resolved to quit his native country. But by perseverance he worked his way into a highly reputable prac- tice, and was fortunate enough to number the queen of Sweden among his clients. In 1739 he married Sara, the daughter of Dr. Moneus, to whom he had been so long attached. In the same year he contributed, with some other like-spirited persons, to form an acad- emy of sciences at Stockholm, of which he was elected president. The professional success of Linnsus did not lead him aside from his favorite studies, how- ever; and he kept his eye steadily on the great object of his ambition, the botanical chair at Upsala. In 1741 he was appointed medical professor in that university, and soon entered into an agreement with Professor Rosen to allow him to perform the duties of the botanical chair, while his colleague lectured on physiology and other subjects. Before entering the duties of his professorship, he pronounced a Latin oration before the university, " On the Necessity of Traveling in our own Country." In 1747, in addition to his duties as professor of botany, he was also made archiater or rector of the university. Linnaeus was at last placed in the situation which of all things he had most coveted. The academical garden was soon laid out on a new plan. When he was appointed professor, it did not contain above fifty exotic plants. In 1748, six years afterward, he published a catalogue from which it appears that he had introduced eleven hundred additional speci- mens, besides most of the vegetable produc- tions of Sweden itself. He now applied to all his scientific corre- spondents for plants. In a letter to Albert Haller, he says, " Formerly I had plants, but no money ; and now, of what use is my money, without plants?" His exertions so much extended the fame of the university that the number of students considerably increased, particularly during the time he hold the office of rector. They came from Russia, Norway, Denmark, Great Britain, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and even from America. He made summer excursions attended by his 870 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT pupils, often to the number of two hundred. When some rare or remarkable plant or other natural curiosity was found, a signal was given by a horn, at which the whole party assembled round their leader to hear his analysis. His pupils spread themselves over the globe ; they carried everywhere with them the spirit of their master, and diffused the love of natural history. When Captain Cook's first voyage around the world was undertaken, one of Linnaeus' most celebrated pupils. Dr. Solander, accompanied the distinguished Eng- lish botanist and naturalist. Sir Joseph Banks. It was not, however, from his pupils alone that Linnaeus received botanical information and help ; in every part of the world persons were found anxious to fon^'ard specimens to him, and his collections thus became unrivaled. The chief publication of Linnaeus after his establishment at Upsala were his Philosophic Botanica, and Species Plantarum, in 1751 and 1753 respectively. Of these, the first is a col- lection of treatises on various subjects; the second is the foundation of the Linnsean sys- tem of botany, and from it, for a long time, many introductions to the study of botany were compiled. The latter is termed by Haller his "great and everlasting master- piece." The introduction of the Linnaean system was attended with such great change, espe- cially of nomenclature, that it experienced considerable opposition from the older natural- ists; and the biographers of Linnaeus have recorded several literary feuds with distin- guished contemporaries, and especially with Albert Haller, a genius of almost equal merit with himself. Even to-day he is commonly thought of as the constructor of the artificial system of classifying plants which bears his name, and is sometimes unfavorably con- trasted with the constructors of the natural system. His Systema Naturce, first published in 1735, and republished by him in successive editions until 1770, was a comprehensive survey of the "three kingdoms of nature, systematically arranged in classes, orders, genera, and species." In the formation of natural groups, very much had been done by Aristotle, and his work was carried on in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by Aldro- vandus, Conrad, Gesner, and others; but the merit of first arranging these groups in orderly succession belongs to Linnaeus. Owing to the greater complexity of functions and organs in the animal kingdom, this proc- ess, especially the latter part of it, was far more possible with animals than with plants. Linnaeus, in 1735, distinguished six sub- kingdoms: (1) quadrupeds, afterward called by him mammalia ; (2) birds ; (3) amphibia, in which reptiles were included; (4) fishes; (5) insects; (6) worms. Each was sub- divided into orders. Mammals, e. g., were arranged in the following orders : (a) anthro- pomorpha or primates, including the genera man, ape, sloth; (b) ferae or carnivora; (c) glires or rodents; (d) jumcnta, including horse, hippopotamus, elephant, and pig; (e) pecora or ruminants. In subsequent editions the scheme was somewhat modified, but it was not substantially altered until, at the close of the century, the invertebrate terms of the series received vast development under Lamarck. Linnaeus made an attempt to illustrate the diminishing complexity of his descending series as shown in the structure of the heart and the respiratory system, an attempt renewed afterward in a far more effective way by Vicq d'AzjT and John Hun- ter. In the vegetable kingdom, where the dif- ferentiation of organs is less conspicuous, Linnaeus found the formation of natural groups, and especially an attempt at serial arrangement, to be impracticable. He con- structed, therefore, the well-known provisional system which bears his name, based on a single character, the sexuality of plants, a character recognized vaguely by some pre- vious botanists, as by Burkhard in 1702, an4 more explicitly by Vaillant, who died in 1722, to whom Linnaeus freely owned his obligations. As a mode of orderly arrangement and simple nomenclature, the value of this artificial sys- tem to botanists has been incalculable. But Linnaeus most emphatically maintained the necessity for a natural system based on no single character, but on the aggregate of real affinities, though he was not able himself to construct it. The latter years of Linnaeus were spent in a state of ease, affluence, and honor, very dif- ferent from the poverty and obscurity of his early life. His fame increased, apparently, with his years, and his scientific connections and correspondence with foreign countries became very extensive. In 1753 the Swedish sovereign, Gustavus III., bestowed upon him a most flattering mark of his regard, by creating him a knight of the polar star. This order had never before IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 871 been conferred on any literary or scientific personage; nor had any person below the rank of a nobleman been honored with it. In 1761 the king issued a patent of nobility in his honor and thereafter he was Carl von Linn6. He was made a member of the royal academy of sciences of Paris, of St. Peters- burg, and of Berlin, and elected a fellow of the royal society of London. There was hardly a learned body in Europe that did not enroll his name among their numbers. A most flattering compliment was received from the king of Spain, who invited him to settle at Madrid, with the offer of an annual pension for life of two thousand pistoles, letters of nobility, and the free exercise of his own religion. He, however, did not accept this offer, and simply answered that, if he had any merit, his services were due to his own country. In 1773 the reigning king of Sweden ap- pointed him, in conjunction with others, to make a new translation of the Bible into the Swedish language. In May, 1774, while lecturing in the botanical garden of the uni versity, he was attacked with apoplexy, the debilitating effects of which obliged him to relinquish the more active parts of his pro- fessional duties, and to close his literary career. In 1776 a second apoplectic stroke paralyzed his right side and impaired his mental powers. Even in this painful and miserable state the study of nature remained his greatest pleasure, and he was constantly carried into his museum to survey the treas- ures there accumulated. He died January 10, 1778, in the seventy-first year of his age. His death threw a general pall of mourning over Upsala. A medal was struck upon the occasion, and a monument erected to his memory in the cathedral church of Upsala. The king of Sweden himself pronounced a panegyric on his distinguished subject before the royal academy of Sweden. In person LinnjBus is described as of medium height, with heavy limbs, piercing brown eyes, acute vision, and quick-tempered. He was accustomed to sleep five hours in sum- mer and ten in winter. He lived simply, acted promptly, and noted down his observa- tions at the moment. His handwriting was peculiar, and not very easy to read ; copies of his own books were interleaved and copiously annotated, every new discovery being posted in its proper place at once, so that new editions were readily prepared when wanted. Linmeus was one of those great men, who have shown by example how much the geniuf and activity of an individual are c^Mble of accomplishing. He was the reformer of botany, and perhaps the greatest promoter of natural history that ever lived. So much, at any rate, has never been done for that science, in so short a space of time, as at the period in which he flouriahetl, and imme- diately after. With him arrangement seemf to have been a passion ; he delightixl in deriv- ing classifications; not only did he system*' tize the three kingdoms of nature, but even drew up a treatise on the Genera Morbonan, or "Classification of Diseases." He found biology a chaos ; he left it a cosmos. When he appeared upon the scene, new plants and animals were in course of daily dis- covery in increasing numbers, due to the increase of trading facilities; he devised schemes of arrangement by which these acquisitions might be sorted provisionally, until their natural affinities should have become clearer. He made many mistakes; but the honor due to him for having first enunciated the true principles for defining genera and species, and his uniform use of trivial names, will last as long as biology itself endures. His style is terse and laconic ; he methodi- cally treated of each organ in its proper turn ; he had a special term for each, the meaning of which did not vary, so that the term did not suggest two ideas at once. The reader cannot doubt the author's intention; his sentences are business-like, and to the point. The omission of the verb in his descriptions was an innovation, and gave an abruptness to his language which was foreign to the writing of his time ; but it probably by its succinctnea added to the popularity of his works. By his force of character he shifted the scientific center of gravity during his life to * small town in Sweden. He was constantly receiving presents and praise from crowds of correspondents in every civilized country, and in every station of life; hence it is not sur- prising that this universal homage should have bred the vanity which dbfigures the latter part of his diary. No modem naturalist has impressed his own character with greater force upon his pupils than did Linnaeus. He imbued them with his own intense acquisitiveness, reared them in an atmosphere of enthusiasm, trained them to close and accurate observation, and then 872 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT dispatched them to various parts of the globe. His students being drawn from many quarters, he had an extensive choice ; some fell victims to fatigue and unkindly cUmates, but there was no lack of successors. With these young enthusiasts their master's lore was like a gospel ; they were eager to extend the knowl- edge of it, and to contribute to its richness. ARKWRIGHT A. D. AGE 1732 Bom at Preston, England, 1750 Barber at Bolton Willows, 18 1700 Hair merchant and dyer, 28 1767 Constructed model of spinning ma- chine, 36 1769 Obtained patent; erected first mill at Nottingnam, 37 A. D. AOB 1771 Built mill at Cromford, 39 1775 Obtained second patent, 43 1785 Patent nullified, 63 1786 High sheriff of Derbyshire; knighted by George III., 64 17^2 Died at Cromford, 60 rj ICHARD ARKWRIGHT, inventor of the *^ spinning frame, and founder of the fac- tory system in manufactures, was born at Preston, Lancashire, England, December 23, 1732. He was the son of poor parents, and the youngest of thirteen children. His early educational opportunities were exceedingly limited, and in his boyhood he learned the trade of a barber. About 1750 he seemed to have settled at Bolton Willows, or Bolton-le-Moors, near Manchester, and here pursued his trade up to 1760, when he invented a process for dyeing human hair. In that day, when wigs were general, this dis- covery was of considerable value, and in con- nection with it he traveled about collecting hair, and disposing of it again when dyed. It is unfortunate that very little is known of the steps by which he was led to those inventions that raised him to affluence, and have immortalized his name. He resided in a district where a considerable manufacture of linen goods and of linen and cotton mixed was carried on. This contact gave him ample opportunities, it may be reasonably assumed, of becoming acquainted with the various processes that were then in use. If we add to this the fact that he was endowed with a most original and inventive genius, and had the sagacity to perceive what was Ukely to prove the most advantageous pursuit in which he could embark, his attention was naturally drawn to the employment of the method of spinning practiced in his neighbor- hood. He stated that he accidently derived the first hint of his great invention from seeing a red-hot iron bar drawn through two pairs of rollers, the second pair moving more rapidly than the first. Between this operation and that of elongating a thread, aa practiced in spinning, there is very little mechanical analogy; yet this hint suggested to Ark- wright that cotton, when cleaned and carded, might be dealt with in the same way ; and it ultimately produced an invention, which in its consequences has been a source of indi- vidual and general wealth almost unparalleled in the annals of the world. The precise date of the discovery is not known, but it is most probable that the idea of spinning by rollers had occurred to Ark- wright's mind as early aa the period when Hargreaves was engaged in the invention of the spinning jenny in 1767. No previously invented machinery had been able to produce cotton thread of sufficient tenuity and strength to be used as warp. Hargreaves's invention had multiplied the spindles that a single work- man could manage ; but the yarn produced by it was soft, and could be used only for weft in conjunction with linen warps. An unsuccess- ful invention by Charles Wyatt of Birming- ham, England, about 1738, deprives Ark- wright, also, of the honor of having been the first to use rollers in spinning ; but there is no reason to believe that he owed anything to this previous attempt. On the principle mentioned, therefore, Arkwright, with the assistance of John Kay, a watchmaker of Warrington, whom he employed to work out the mechanical diffi- culties, completed his celebrated spinning frame — or at least a model of it — about 1767. Its paramount advantage was that by it several threads might be spun at the same time, and by one application of force, in the place of a single thread produced on the ordinary spinning wheels. The method by which he ultimately succeeded in doing this IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 878 is thus described in Baines's History of the Cotton Trade, in a passage which renders the operation and the invention as clear as it can be made by a mere verbal description : " In every mode of spinning, the ends to be accomplished are, to draw out the loose fibres of the cotton wool in a regular and continuous line, and, after deducing the fleecy roll to the requisite tenuity, to twist it into a thread. Previous to the operation of spinning, the cotton must have undergone the process of carding, the effect of which is to comb out, straighten, and lay parallel to each other its entangled fibres. The carding or sliver •— as it is called — of cotton requires it to be drawn out to great fineness, before it is thin enough to be twisted into a thread. "The way in which this is done, is by means of two or more pairs of small rollers placed horizontally — the upper and lower roller of each pair revolving in contact. The carding or sliver of cotton being put between the first pair of rollers, is, by their revolution, drawn through and compressed; while passing through the rollers, it is caught by another pair of rollers placed immediately in front, which revolve with three, four, or five times the velocity of the first pair, and which, therefore, draw out the sliver to three, four, or five times its former length and degree of fineness; after passing through the second pair of rollers, the reduced sliver is attached to a spindle and fly, the rapid revolutions of which twist it into a thread, and at the same time wind it up on a bobbin. That the rollers may take hold of the cotton, the lower roller is fluted longitudinally, and the upper is covered with leather. "Such is the beautiful and admirable con- trivance, by which a machine is made to do what was formerly, in all ages and countries, effected by the fingers of the spinner. It is obvious that, by lengthening or multiplying the rollers, and increasing the number of spindles, all of which may be turned by the same power, many threads may be spun at once, and the process may be carried on with much greater quickness and steadiness than by hand spinning. There is also the impor- tant advantage — the thread produced will be of more regular thickness, and more evenly twisted." Such was Arkwright's machine, for which he obtained a patent in July, 1769, and from that day the subsequent rise and great- ness of cotton manufactures dates. At this time Arkwright was so poor that he Deeded to be supplied with a suit of clothes before he could appear to vote at an election for bur- gess of Preston. Soon after, he removed to Nottingham to escape the popular rage of a Lancashire mob, such as had already driven out Hargreaves, and destroyed his machinery. Here his operations were at first greatly fet- tered by lack of capital ; but he finally set up his first mill, on a small scale, and o|)eratod the machinery by horse power. This motive power proved too expensive; and then, in 1771, in association with two partners — Strutt, of Derby, an extensive stocking manufacturer, and Reed — he built a second mill at Cromford, near Matlock, in Derby- shire, the machinery of which was turned by the river Derwent. Soon after the erection of this mill, Ark- wright made many improvements in the mode of preparing the cotton for spinning, and invented a variety of ingenious machines for effecting this purpose in the most correct and expeditious manner, for all of which he obtained patents in 1775. He also formed other establishments, similar to the one at Cromford, in other parts of England and in Scotland. These produced for him and his associates prodigious fortunes for those times, and gave a wonderful impulse to the industry and productive power of Great Britain, as well as to other countries. The results of Arkwright's discovery were, however, multi- plied a hundred fold by James Watt's not less wonderful improvement of the steam engine, which created a motive power of inexhaustible strength, and capable of being produced wherever fuel could be procured in sufficient abundance. Combined, these discoveries made Manchester, Glasgow, and Liverpool the greatest industrial and commercial cities of the eighteenth century. The vast importance of the discovery for which Arkwright had taken out patents became very speedily known, and it is not surprising that every effort should have been made in the courts of law to have them set aside, and Arkwright deprived of the profit and honor to be derived from them. From both the employers of Lancashire and from the workmen he was compelled to meet oppo- sition, and frequently open revolt. They entered into a combination not to buy his yarn. They strenuously resisted the reduc- tion of the tax on cotton cloth. They aUowed one of his factories at Chorley to be destroyed 374 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT by a mob, in the presence of police and soldiers, without any attempt at interference. Lawsuit after lawsuit was brought against Arkwright's patent right; and to such an extent did other cotton spinners use his designs that he was obliged, in 1781, to bring legal action against nine different manufacturers. The first action against Colonel Mordaunt, backed by a strong combination of Lancashire manufacturers, was lost solely on the ground that his description in his specification was not sufficiently clear and distinct. The other actions were abandoned ; and, in the following year, Arkwright published a pamphlet con- taining a statement of his case. In a new trial in 1785 he obtained a favorable verdict. The whole question, however, was brought finally before the court of king's bench a few months after, when Arkwright's claim to the inventions patented was for the first time called into dispute. On the doubtful evidence of a person named Highs, or Hayes, com- bined with that of Arkwright's old assistant, Kay, the jury decided against him, and his patent was annulled. This was but the for- mal outcome of an opposition which had from the beginning marked out Arkwright as an object of hostility. Fortunately, not for himself only, but for his country and the world, every corner of which is benefited by his inventions, the energy and good sense of Arkwright triumphed over all opposition. The same ingenuity and skill which had originally enabled him to invent his machine and get it introduced, likewise enabled him to overcome the various combinations with which he had subsequently to contend. Notwithstanding the nullifica- tion of his patent, Arkwright continued his prosperous career. Wealth flowed upon him with a full stream from his judiciously man- aged concerns ; and at the time of his death the value of his property amounted to about half a million sterling, or two and a half million dollars. For several years he fixed the price of cotton twist, all other spinners conforming to his prices. In 1786 he was appointed high sheriff of Derbyshire, and, having presented an address of congratulation from that county to King George III. on his escape from the attempt of Margaret Nichol- son on his majesty's life, Arkwright received the honor of knighthood. When it is considered that for many years he was afl3icted with a violent asthma, which was extremely oppressive, and sometimes threatened immediately to terminate his existence, his great activity and exertion must excite astonishment. For some time previous to his death he was rendered inca- pable of continuing his usual pursuits by a complication of maladies which at last de- prived him of life at the Rock House, Crom- ford, August 3, 1792. Arkwright's is the greatest name in textile industry; but it may also be interesting to take a quick glance at a few other aspects of this important form of human labor, leading up tt) the marvelous revolution effected in the eighteenth century. Spinning by the distaff and spindle is prehistoric. We cannot tell when it was that parallel vegetable fibres were first formed into a continuous thread by twisting; the drawing out of the thread and the twist being effected by a slender cylinder of wood, weighted with a central whorl of stone, rotated by the fingers, and then allowed to fall. Not merely does this primi- tive invention do, in its own slow way, all that can be done by the machines of our own time, but it surpasses them in delicacy and fineness. Linen yarn for the finest lace is still spun by the spindle, and surpasses the highest "counts" — that is, the slenderest threads — produced by the most elaborate machine. The spindle used for the yarn of the ethereal muslins of Dacca was hardly larger than a needle, kept steady by a slight pellet of clay ; which, yet being too heavy for the fine thread, was supported by a socket of shell in which it revolved. Leonardo da Vinci, regardful of the hum- blest forms of industry, is believed to be the first to improve the spindle by adding a flyer. Toward the end of the seventeenth century the spinning wheel, turning two spindles, and worked with a treadle motion, so that both hands were free, came into common use. Then came Hargreaves's spinning jenny, al- ready referred to. Arkwright's invention followed; and immediately after it Samuel Crompton of Bolton combined many of the merits of Arkwright's and Hargreaves's machines in his "mule," capable of spinning a fine thread of great strength. When the mule, at first worked by hand, was made self- acting half a century afterward, spinning machinery in all its essential principles was complete. In addition to the merit of inventing the spinning frame, Arkwright may also claim the IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 179 merit of having invented and organized the factory system, which added immensely to the resources of the laboring classes, and enlarged the productivity, not only of wealth, but of intelligence and virtue. The most marked traits in his character were his wonderful ardor, energy, and perse- verance. He commonly labored in his numer- ous concerns from five o'clock in the morning until nine at night; and, when considerably more than fifty years of age, feeling that the defects of his education placed him under great difficulty and inconvenience in conduct- ing his correspondence, and in the general management of his business, he encroached upon his sleep, in order to gain an hour each day to learn English grammar, and another hour to improve his writing and spelling. He was impatient with whatever interfered with his favorite pursuits ; and the fact is too strikingly characteristic not to be mentioned, that he separated from his wife not many years after his marriage, because she, con- vinced that he would starve his family by scheming when he should have been shaving, broke some of his experimental models of machinery. Arkwright was a severe econo- mist of time ; and, that he might not waste a moment, he generally traveled with four horses, and at a very rapid speed. So unbounded was his confidence in the success of his machinery, and in the national wealth to be produced by it, that he would make light of discussions on taxation, and say that he would pay the national debt. His speculative schemes were vast and daring; he contemplated at one time entering into very extensive mercantile tranaactions, and buying up all the cotton in the world, in order to make an enormous profit by the monopoly. From the extravagance of aoine of these designs, his judicious friends were of the opinion that, if he had tried to put them into practice, he might have overturned the whole fabric of his prosperity. But no man ever better deserved his good fortune, or has a stronger claim on the grati- tude of posterity than Sir Richard Arkwright. His inventions opened a new and boundless field of employment ; and while they conferred infinitely more real benefit on his native country than it could have derived from the absolute dominion of Mexico and Peru, they have been universally productive of wealth, prosperity, and many other forms of human benefit. "It required," says Ure, "a man of Napo- leonic nerve and ambition to subdue the refractory tempers of workpeople accustomed to irregular paroxysms of diligence, and to urge on his multifarious and intricate con- structions in the face of prejudice, passion, and envy. Such was Arkwright, who, suf- fering nothing to turn aside his progress, arrived gloriously at the goal, and has forever affixed his name to a great era in the annals of mankind." A. D. 1736 1755 1756 1757 1759 1763 1765 1769 1774 1775 WATT AGE A. D. Bom at Greenock, Scotland, 1782 Mechanical apprentice in London, . . 19 1783 Settled at Glasgow, Scotland, .... 20 Mathematical instrument maker for 1784 university of Glasgow, 21 Began his experiments with steam, . 23 1785 First marriage, • • • ^^ 1800 Invented condensing steam engine, . 29 1806 Patented Ms engine, 33 1808 Partner of Boulton at Soho, 38 1819 Patent for his engine extended, ... 39 ^ Aoa Double-acting engine constructed, . . 4C Discovered the chemical compoaition of water, <7 Fellow of the royal Bocicty of Edin- burgh, • • Fellow of the royal society, London, Retired from active business, . . . LL. D. from university of Glucow, . Member French in»titute, London,. . Died at Ileathfield, England, .... JAMES WATT, a celebrated Scotch engi- neer and mechanician, and inventor of the condensing steam engine, was born at Green- ock, on the Clyde, Scotland, January 19, 1736. His father, James Watt, was a merchant, ship chandler, and magistrate of Gre§nock, who had settled there after the confiscation of his land in Aberdeenshire during the dWl wars. His mother was Agnes Muirhead, an intelligent woman, and said to be "bounti- fully gifted with graces of person as well as ci mind and heart." As a boy James had feeble health, and carried on his studies at home undtf the 376 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT direction of his parents. His mother, to amuse him, encouraged him to draw with a pencil upon paper, or with chalk upon the floor, and he was supplied with a few tools from the carpenter's shop, which he soon learned to use with considerable expertness. The mechanical dexterity he acquired was the foundation upon which he built the speculations to which he owes his glory, nor without this mechanical training is there the least likelihood that he would have become the greatest improver, and practically the creator, of the steam engine. Several remarkable instances of precocity are related of Watt. On one occasion, when he was bending over a marble hearth, with a piece of chalk in his hand, a friend of his father said : " You ought to send that boy to a public school, and not allow him to trifle away his time at home." "Look how the boy is occupied," replied the father, "before you condemn him." Though only six years of age, he was "trying to solve a problem in geometry." A still more wonderful story is told of the idle James watching the steam escaping from the teakettle. Let these pass for what they are worth; Watt's teakettle may be placed alongside the little hatchet of George Washington. His early years were passed at Greenock, but from the age of fourteen he was often in Glasgow with his uncle, and read and studied much on chemistry and anatomy. Having finished his education at the grammar school of his native town, he received no further instruction. As with all distinguished men, his extensive after-acquirements in science and literature were entirely by his own self-culture. In the year 1755 he went to London to place himself under a mathematical instru- ment maker, and, after acquiring such a knowledge of that profession as a year's instruction could give him, he returned to Glasgow in 1756, with the intention of carrying on his business there. He had not acquired, however, the privilege of so doing from a burgess, and the incorporation of trades pro- hibited him from establishing a shop within the limits of the city. The university of Glasgow thus became the sanctuary of Watt, and the academical authorities, having found for him a small shop within its walls, employed him in fitting up the instrvunents in the Macfarlane observatory. These premises he occupied from 1757 to 1763; but they seem to have been badly situated for his business, for which, moreover, at that time there was but little room in Glasgow. Watt during those years was scarcely able to make a hving. In 1763 he secured a place of business in the town, and after that he did somewhat better. Still, he had to eke out his livelihood by making or mending fiddles — which he was able to do, though he had no ear for music — or doing any mechanical job which came in his way. No work requiring ingenuity or the applica- tion of scientific knowledge seems to have come amiss to him. At length, in 1767, he obtained a new and a more lucrative occupation. In that year he was employed to make the surveys and prepare the estimates for a canal projected to unite the Forth and the Clyde. This work could not be carried out at the time, because it failed to obtain the sanction of parliament ; but Watt had now made a beginning as a civil engineer, and henceforth he secured consider- able employment in this capacity. He made surveys for various canals, for the improve- ment of the harbors of Ayr, Port Glasgow, and Greenock, and for the deepening of the Forth, the Clyde, and other rivers. One of the tasks committed to him was to decide whether a projected canal between the Firth of Clyde and the western ocean should be made by way of Crinan or of Tarbert ; and the last — also the greatest — undertaking of this kind on which he was employed was a survey for a canal between Fort William and Inverness, a work which was subsequently executed on a greater scale by Telford. In his surveys he made use of a new micrometer, and of a machine, also of his own invention, for dravving in perspective — the latter of which appears to have been for several years, about this time, one of his sources of income. The reports which he drew up in the capacity of engineer are said to have been remarkable for perspicuity and accuracy. Living in the college at Glasgow, in con- stant intercourse with the professors of the university, with access to books, and with much unemployed time on his hands — hav- ing, too, a great love of knowledge, and a lively interest in mechanical novelties — Watt had been a diligent student of science, and experimented in the application of science to the arts. As early as 1759 his attention had been directed to the capabili- ties of steam as a motive force by Robison, IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY tn afterward professor of natural philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, who was then a student in Glasgow. It had occurred to Robison that steam pressure might be used to propel wheeled carriages ; but it does not appear that either Watt or Robison attempted to carry out this idea. In 1761 or 1762, how- ever. Watt made a series of experiments on the force of steam, using a Papin's digester. These do not seem to have led to any results ; and it was not until the winter of 1763-64 that he began the investigations which ended in his improvement of the steam engine. During that winter a working model of the Newcomen engine, kept for the use of the natural philosophy class in the college, was sent to him to be put in repair. Watt quickly foimd out what was wrong with the model, and easily put it in order. Watt was much struck with the contrivance, but he soon perceived defects in it which pre- vented it from becoming more generally use- ful. From that time he devoted himself to the improvement of this machine, directing his attention chiefly to the saving of heat in the production and condensation of steam. So much confusion seems to exist as to the actual achievements of Watt in connection with the steam engine that a brief review of his improvements will tend to a better under- standing of his true place in the history of invention. The Newcomen engine was still but little used, and only for pumping water out of mines. It was a cumbersome machine, and it required so much fuel that the expense of working it had restricted, and must always have re- stricted, its use. It was not a steam engine at all. It was worked by means of the atmos- pheric pressure, steam being only used in producing, by its condensation, a vacuum in a cylinder, into which — the vacuum made — a piston was depressed by the pressure of the air. The steam issuing from a boiler was admitted into the cylinder until it filled it, when the supply was cut off by a self-acting cock; and then the steam was condensed in the cylinder by means of a jet of water. The water so greatly cooled the cylinder that the greater part of the steam at each stroke of the piston was wasted in heating its walls; and, on the other hand, much of the injected water was heated to the boiling point, and gave off steam, which resisted the descent of the piston. Watt foimd that about four-fifths of the steam, and consequently of the fuel, wu wasted; and he saw that to make the machine work economically, two apparently inoom- patible conditions must be obtained — first, that the walls of the cylinder must oonsUntly be of the same temi)crature as the steam which came in contact with them ; and second, that the injected water must never be heated up to one hundred degrees, the boiling point in vacuo. He now experimented upon the conducting power of various substances, and made trial of a cylinder made of wood steqMd in oil ; but with this cylinder, though it cooled less rapidly than a metallic one, there was still far too much waste of steam. Constantly, from the end of 1763, occupied with the sub- ject of steam, he at length, eariy in 1705, hit upon the expedient which solved all his diffi- culties — the separate condenser, an air- exhausted vessel, into which the steam should be admitted from the cylinder and there con- densed. The separate condenser at once pre- vented the loss of steam in the cylinder which had arisen in the process of condensation; and there was no difficulty in keeping it cool, so as to prevent the undue heating of the injection water. He had now a perfectly economical engine on Newcomen's principle. This was the condition of Watt's invention in 1765. But he did not rest content with this. He resolved to make steam his motive power. Closing the cylinder at both top and bottom, and connecting the piston with the beam, to which it was to communicate motion, by a piston rod passing through a stuffing box, he admitted the steam by suitable valves alternately above and below the piston, to push it downward and upward in turn ; and this done, his invention was substantially complete. He had at last made a real steam engine, capable of being worked with a com- paratively small expenditure of fuel, and of yielding any desired amount of power. He received a patent for his engine in 1769 ; and in 1775 parliament granted him a prolonga- tion of it for twenty-five years. Comparing his invention with the atmospheric engine of Newcomen, it must be admitted that it is not without justice that the popular voice has awarded him the name of inventor of the steam engine. The machine was still employed as a pump only, and surpassed that of Newcomen simply in its economy of fuel. The force applied was intermittent, ceasing at the end of the down stroke of the piston. It was 378 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT unavailable for all purposes in which continu- ous force was required, such as mill work. Its direction was rectilinear, whereas for the purpose of turning machinery rotation round an axis was necessary. Soon after perfecting his model, Watt formed a partnership with Dr. Roebuck, then of the Carron iron works, for the construction of engines on a scale adapted to practical uses ; and a model was erected at Kinneil, near Borrowstounness, where Dr. Roebuck then lived. But Roebuck got into difficulties; and nothing further was done until, in 1774, Watt entered into a partnership with Matthew Boulton of Soho, near Birmingham, when, Roebuck's interest having been repurchased, the manufacture of the new engine was com- menced at the Soho iron works. In 1782 Watt invented his double-acting piston, which allowed the circular motion of the engine's beam, and thus rendered it adapt- able to any system of machinery. Yet there remained the fact that from various causes the motive 'power, or the resistance to be overcome, would frecjuently vary. Unless absolute uniformity could be secured in the rate of evaporation, the supply of steam would not be uniform. Again, if at any moment a particular machine was brought to rest, or others previously at rest were set in motion, the work to be done by the driving shaft would diminish or increase, and the equability of the general motion be disturbed. To remedy this inconvenience, a valve called the throttle valve was placed in the steam pipe, controlling the amount of steam that passed through it. An extremely ingenious device, known as the governor, attached to the fly- wheel, was made to control this valve auto- matically. Two balls attached by jointed rods to a spindle round which they revolved, diverged by centrifugal force when the wheel moved more quickly, and thus by a system of levers partially closed the valve, diminish- ing the steam supply; when speed was slackened, then gravitation brought them nearer together, with the opposite result. By the combination of these six distinct inventions — the condenser, the employment of steam above and below the piston, parallel motion, the crank, the flywheel, and the gov- ernor, which extended over the period from 1769 to 1785 — Watt's engine, beginning as a mining pump, became at last available for the most delicate as well as the most laborious form of industry : spinning the finest thread as surely as it forged a mass of iron. And to this must be added that Watt endowed it with the power of registering the precise amount of work done, not in every stroke merely, but in every part of the stroke. His steam indicator, an apparatus in which steam is admitted into a small cylinder, and presses against a spring attached to a pencil in con- tact with a moving roll of paper, has been found of use in recent investigations of heat as a motive power. In 1783 Watt discovered the chemical com- position of water, which is also claimed by some writers for Henry Cavendish, a noted English chemist and physicist. The terms which Watt applied to the chemical substances which unite to fomi water were phlogiston and dephlogisticated air; nevertheless, Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy did not hesitate to say that " the composition and decomposition of water were ascertained, the former by Watt and Cavendish, and the latter by Lavoisier and Meusnier." Many other chemi- cal authorities, besides, divided the honor of the discovery between Watt and Cavendish. After the formation of the partnership between Watt and Boulton, Watt removed to Soho, near Birmingham, where he was employed in the management of what is still one of the principal establishments in England for the construction of steam engines. The success of the engines, which were widely introduced, brought a like financial success to the works at Soho, and greatly enriched both partners. Watt remained an active partner with Boultop until the year 1800, and then gave up his extensive interest to his two sons. But his mind continued to be actively employed in scientific investigations for many years thereafter. He had been made a fellow of the royal society of Edin- burgh, and of the royal society of London, respectively, in 1784 and 1785, and now he was honored with the degree of doctor of laws by the university of Glasgow in 1806, and as a foreign member of the institute of France in 1808. At the age of eighty-three a tranquil death ended his career at his home in Heathfield, near Birmingham, on August 25, 1819. His statue in marble — considered the masterpiece of the noted English sculptor, Chantrey, now adorns Westminster abbey. Watt was twice married: first, in 1763, to his cousin, a Miss Miller, who died in 1773; and a few years later, soon after his removal to Birmingham, he married a Miss MacGregor IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY S?9 of Glasgow. At his death no issue was left to him except one son, long associated with him in his business and studies, and two grand- children by a daughter who predeceased him. This truly great man may justly be placed high on the roll of those creative minds who have improved the condition of mankind by the application of science to the practical pur- poses of life. The work done by Gutenberg and Columbus was the foundation of the great industrial impetus of the renaissance. The work done by Arkwright, Watt, and Stephenson forms the foundation of the still greater industrial impetus of our time. It is this last movement which, in the life of Eng- land, created America, revived France, Ger- many, Belgium, and Italy, and extended a new impelling force to the entire civilized world. But independent of his great attainments in mechanics. Watt was an extraordinary and in many respects a wonderful man. Perhaps no individual in his age possessed so much and such varied and exact information, had read so much, or remembered what he had read so accurately and well. He had infinite quickness of apprehension, a prodigious memory, and a certain rectifying and method- izing power of understanding, which extracted something precious out of all that was pre- sented to it. His stores of miscellaneous knowledge were immense, and yet less aston- ishing than the command he had at all times over them. It seemed as if every subject that was casually started in conversation with him was that which he had been last studying and exhausting; such was the copiousness, the precision, and the admirable clearness of the information which he poured out upon it without effort or hesitation. Nor was this promptitude and compass of knowl- edge confined, in any degree, to the studies connected with his ordinary pursuits. That he should have been minutely and extensively skilled in chemistry and the arts, and in most of the branches of physical science, might -perhaps have been conjec- tured. It could not have been inferred from his usual occupations, however, and probably is not generally known that he was curiously learned in many branches of antiquity, metaphysics, medicine, and etymology; and perfectly at home in all the details of archi- tecture, music, and law. He was well acquainted, too, with most of the modem languages, and familiar with their most recent ^ literature. Nor was it at all extraordinary! to hear the great mechanician and engineer detailing and expounding, for hours togethar, the metaphysical theories of the QennaD logicians, or criticising the measures or the matter of the German poetry. "It is needless to say," observes one of his biographers, " that with his vast intellcctuel resources, his conversation was at all times rich and instructive in no ordinary degree. But it was, if possible, still more pleasing then wise, and had all the charms of familiarity, with all the substantial treasures of knowl- edge. No man could be more social in his spirit, less assuming or fastidious in his man- ners, or more kind and indulgent toward all who approached him. His talk, too, though overflowing with information, had no sem- blance to lecturing, or solemn discoursing; but, on the contrary, was full of colloquial spirit and pleasantry. He had a certain quiet and grave humor, which ran through most of his conversation, and a vein of temperate jocularity, which gave infinite zest and effect to the condensed and inexhaustible informa- tion which formed its main staple and char- acteristic. "There was usually a little air of affected testiness, and a tone of pretended rebuke and contradiction, which he used toward his younger friends, that was always felt by them as an endearing mark of his kindness and familiarity, and prized accordingly far beyond all the solemn compliments that ever pro- ceeded from the lips of authority. His voice was deep and powerful ; though he commonly spoke in a low and somewhat monotonous tone, which harmonized admirably v^nth the weight and brevity of his obscr\'ation8, and set off to the greatest advantage the pleasant anecdotes which he delivered with the same grave tone, and the same calm smile plajring soberly on his lips. There was nothing of effort, indeed, or of impatience, any more than of pride or levity in his demeanor ; and there was a finer expression of reposing strength, and mild self-possession in his manner, than we ever recollect to have met with in any other person. He had in his character the utmost abhorrence for all sorts of forward- ness, parade, and pretension." Wordsworth, the English poet, referring to Watt, said : " I look upon him, when I con- sider both the magnitude and the universality of his genius, as perhaps the most extnk- ordinary man that this country ( Engl a nd ) ever produced." 380 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT LAVOISIER A. D. AQE A. D. AOE 1743 Born at Paris, France, 1776 Improved gunpowder; director of 1766 Received prize ofifered by French acad- government powder mills, .... 33 emy of sciences 23 1787 MHhode de Nomenclature Chimique. 1768 Associate of the academy, 25 "Metiyxl of Chemical Nomenclature,'' 44 1769 Farmer-general of revenue, 26 1789 TraiU El&mentaire de Chimie, "Ele- 1771 Married 28 mentary Treatise on Chemistry," . 46 1774 Opuscules Chitniques et Physiques, 1794 Guillotined at Paris, 61 "Physical and Chemical Essays," . 31 A NTOINE LAURENT LAVOISIER, a '^*- celebrated French chemist, and the chief founder of modem chemistry, was born at Paris, France, August 26, 1743. His parents were in affluent circumstances, and he was given a careful education under his father's direction at the College Mazarin, in Paris, which he left with high honors. He early showed a decided inclination for the physical sciences; and before he was twenty years old had made himself master of the principles of mathematics, botany, and espe- cially chemistry, under Lacaille, Jussieu, and Rouelle, respectively. In 1764 the French government, through the academy of sciences, proposed an extra- ordinary premium for the best and cheapest means of lighting the streets of Paris, and other large cities. To this subject, involving a knowledge of several branches of science, Lavoisier immediately devoted his attention. He produced so able a memoir, full of most masterly, accurate, and practical views, that he was awarded the gold medal in 1766. This production was the means of introducing him into the academy of sciences, to which, after a severe contest, he was admitted to membership May 13, 1768; and he proved himself through life one of its most useful and valuable associates. He was in the following year appointed farmer-general of revenue. Lavoisier began his scientific career by treating the whole subject of the sciences in the true spirit of the experimental method. First he clearly showed that the pretended conversion of water into earth was either a deposition of earthly particles, or a sediment arising from the action of the water on the internal surface of the retort. He also labored on the analysis of the gj^jsum found in the neighborhood of Paris, and on the crystallization of salts. He discussed the project of conveying water from L'Yvette to Paris, and the theory of congelation ; and to these researches added extensive observations on the phenomena of thunder and the aurora borealis. He next directed his attention more espe- cially to mineralogy; and made excursions, in conjunction with Guettard, into all parts of France, endeavoring to form from different districts a complete collection of their charac- teristic mineral productions. He made ad- vances toward a systematic classification of facts connected with the localities of fossils, which afterward served as the basis of his work on the revolutions of the globe and the formation of successive strata, of which two admirable abstracts were inserted in the memoirs of the academy of sciences for 1772 and 1787. Thus during the earlier part of his life Lavoisier does not seem to have devoted himself in particular to any one branch of science. At this time the whole range of chemical and physico-chemical science was in an extremely imperfect state ; and the first stops toward a more improved system involved the necessity of clearing away a vast mass of error which encumbered it. Particularly among the encumbrances was the great hypothesis of phlogiston. It was by overthrowing this, and putting in its place a new explanation of com- bustion, that he organized modem chemistry. Let us see how this hypothesis of phlogiston came about. The awakening in favor of inductive science, which gave rise to the physical discoveries of Galileo and the philosophy of Bacon, led, in the seventeenth century, to the first attempts to raise chemistry to the rank of a science. Before this time, for a thousand years, the alchemists had sought in vain for a method of converting the baser metals into gold and silver. But this search, commenced by the Arabians, and introduced by them into Europe, and which produced such men as Geber, RajTnond Lully, Roger Bacon, and Basil Valentine, gave to the world indirectly an immense nimiber of facts, the organization of which afterward made chemistry. Then there came a transition period in which chemistry was identified with medicine, such as it was under Paracelsus and the celebrated LAVOISIER AND HIS VIFE From a painting by David IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 88S Van Helmont, who, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, roughly anticipated much of the pneumatic chemistry of Black, Cavendish, and Priestley. But it was not until 1661, when Robert Boyle, the British chemist, published his Sceptical Chemist, that the science began. In this remarkable work he subjected to a rigid criticism the Aristotelian principles of earth, fire, air, and water, and the alchemical principles of salt, sulphur, and mercury, and showed that as ultimate elements they are entirely inadequate. He, at the same time, indicated indirectly what a chemical element should be. This put the science on a firm, independent basis, distinct from art of any kind and from biology. It led afterward to its final separation from physics. About this time the German physician and chemist, Becher, formulated the hypothesis of phlogis- ton, which was afterward applied and main- tained by his great fellow countryman, Stahl. According to Becher and Stahl, when, for example, iron is converted into rust, it loses something — phlogiston. If, by means of some substance, such as charcoal, rich in phlogiston, the phlogiston be again added to the rust, it becomes phlogisticated rust, or metallic iron. A metal was a compound of its earth or calyx (oxide) with phlogiston, and calcination or combustion (oxidation) was the evolution of phlogiston. The invaluable discoveries just alluded to — the existence of more than one species of gaseous matter — had opened a new world to the inquirer into nature; and the labors of those distinguished experimentalists had con- spired to commence a fresh era in science. Lavoisier was one of the first to appreciate at once the importance of the results they had arrived at, and the immense field of further research to which those results had opened the way. He perceived by a sort of instinct the glorious career which lay before him ; and the influence which this new science thus, as it were, created, njust have over every sort of physical research. Priestly possessed precisely those qualifications which are most available for striking out new and brilliant discoveries of facts; a boundless fertility of invention; a power of rapidly seizing remote analogies ; and an equal readiness in framing and in abandoning hypotheses, which have no value but as guides to experiment. Lavoisier, less eminent in these respects, possessed in a more peculiar degree the mental characteristics which enable their owner to advance to grand generalizations and scientifio principlet upon the sure basis of facts. He poenand, in ito fullest sense, the true spirit of inductive cau- tion, and even geometrical rigor; and hit observations, eminently precise and luminous, always pointed to more general views. Lavoisier turned his attention to the defects of the existing theory about 1770. He pur- sued his researches with unwearied industry ; and, by a long series of experiments of the most laborious and precise nature, he suc- ceeded in determining that, in all cases of combustion, the one substance which is the real combustible receives an addition, or enters into a new combination ; and the mat- ter with which it combines is in all cases that same substance which had been shown by Priestley to be one of the constituents of the atmosphere, then known by the name of vital air. In 1774 he published his Opuscules Chi- miques et Physiques, in which, after a full and truly philosophical examination of the labors of preceding experimenters in the discovery of the gases and their characteristic proper- ties, he proceeded to describe his own funda- mentally important researches into the true theory of combustion, which may be termed the very sun and center of the whole modem system of chemistry. It was, however, long before Lavoisier gained a single convert. At length Ber- thollet, at a meeting of the French academy of sciences in 1785, publicly renounced the old opinions and declared himself a convert. Fourcroy followed his example. In 1787 Morveau acquiesced, and all the younger chemists speedily embraced the new views, and their establishment was thus complete. These discoveries introduced Lavoisier to the notice of the most eminent persons in France; and in 1776 Tui^got, then minister of finance, engaged him to superintend the manufacture of gunpowder for the govern- ment. He introduced many valuable im- provements in the process of manufacture, and many judicious reforms into the adminis- tration of the establishment, and a couple of years later was appointed one of the trustees of the bank of discount of France. In 1778 Lavoisier, having been tpoes- santly engaged on the subject of gases and combustion, annoiulced the great discov- ery, "that the respirable portion of the atmosphere is the constituent principle of 384 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT acids," which he therefore denominated oxygen. The question as to "the acidifying prin- ciple " in chemistry had long formed the sub- ject of discussion. The prevalent theory was that of Becher with various modifications, which made the acid principle a compound of earth and water regarded as elements. Lavoisier found in the instance of a great number of acids that they consisted of a com- bustible principle united with oxygen, and upon these results he advanced the general theory that all compounds have a binary con- stitution. He showed this both analytically and synthetically, and hence proceeded to the conclusion that oxygen is the acidifying principle in all acids. BerthoUet opposed this doctrine, and con- tended that, in general, acidity depended on the manner and proportion in which the con- stituents are combined. The fact is, in this instance, Lavoisier had advanced a little too rapidly to his conclusion. Had he contented himself with stating that this principle applied to a great number of acids, it would have been strictly true; but he had certainly no proof of its being universally the case. Sir Hum- phry Davy, some years after, showed, in the course of his important alkaline discoveries, that one of the most powerful acids — the muriatic — does not contain a single particle of oxygen ; and when the researches of Gay- Lussac and others had exhibited other proofs of the same thing, it became evident that Lavoisier's assertion required considerable modification. Though nearly all acids have been since included under the general law of containing some supporter of combustion, modern chemistry now classifies them as mono-basic, di-basic, tri-basic, etc., according to the maximum number of their hydrogen atoms replaceable by metals; but a perfect theory of acidity is, perhaps, yet wanting. Lavoisier's discovery, however, was one of first rate magnitude and importance, and with this qualification certainly forms the basis of all our present knowledge of the subject. Another important research in which Lavoisier engaged, in conjunction with Laplace, was the determination of the specific heats of bodies by means of an ingenious apparatus, which they denominated the calorimeter. These were by far the most pre- cise experiments on the subject which had as yet been made, though some inaccuracies in the method have since been pointed out. Lavoisier owed much, it must be owned, to those external advantages of fortune, the absence of which, though it cannot confine the flights of real genius, yet may seriously impair the value and efficiency of its exertions ; and the presence of which, though it cannot confer the powers of intellect, may yet afford most invaluable aids to the prosecution of research, and the dissemination of knowledge. In the instance before us these advantages were enjoyed to the full extent, and turned to the best use. Lavoisier was enabled to conunand the most unlimited resources of instrumental aid ; he pursued his researches in a laboratory furnished with the most costly apparatus, and was able to put every suggestion to the test of experiment by the assistance of the most skillful artists, and instruments of the most perfect construction. But as he could thus command these essen- tial advantages for the prosecution of his own investigations, he was equally mindful of the extension of similar advantages to others. He always evinced himself ready to assist the inquiries of those who had not the same means at their disposal, and was no less liberal in aiding them by his stores of information and able advice. Indeed, no one could be more sensible of the mutual advantage to be derived from such intercourse between those engaged in the same scientific labors ; and this convic- tion, joined with a full perception of the im- mense benefits accruing from personal ac- quaintance among men of kindred pursuits, and the interchange of social good offices, led him to the regular practice of opening his house on two evenings in every week, for an assembly of all the scientific men of the French capital. His house very soon became a point of general resort and reunion to the philosophers of Europe. At these meetings general discourse and philosophic discussion were agreeably inter- mingled; the opinions of the most eminent philosophers were freely canvassed ; the most striking and novel passages in the publications of foreign countries were made known, recited, and commented upon; and the progress of experiment was assisted by candid criticism and comparison with theory. In these assemblies might be found, mingling in instructive and delightful conversation, all those whose names made the eighteenth cen- tury memorable in the annals of science. Priestley, Fontana, Landriani, Watt, Bolton, and Ingenhouz were associated with Laplace, IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY Lagrange, Borda, Cousin, Monge, Morveau, and BerthoUet. There was also an incalculable advantage in bringing into communication and intimacy men engaged in distinct branches of science. The intercourse of the mathematician with the geologist, of the astronomer with the chemist, of the computer with the experimenter, and of the artist with the theorist could not fail to be of mutual advantage. In no instance were the beneficial effects of such intercourse more strikingly displayed than in the chemical sciences, which, from this sort of comparison of ideas and methods, began now to assume a character of exactness from an infusion of the spirit of geometry. The science, in short, which had hitherto been abandoned to the wildest speculations, and encumbered with the most vague and undefined phraseology — derived from the jargon of the alchemists — began to assume something like arrangement and method in its ideas, and precision and order in its nomenclatiire. The direct result was Lavoisier's " Method of Chemical Nomen- clature " in 1787. Lavoisier individually profited greatly by the sources of improvement and information thus opened. Whenever any new result pre- sented itself to him, which perhaps, from con- tradicting all received theories, seemed para- doxical, or at variance with all principles hitherto recognized, it was fully laid before these select assemblies of philosophers. The experiment was exhibited in their presence, and they were invited with the utmost candor to offer their criticisms and objections. In perfect reliance on the mutual spirit of candor, they were not backward in urging whatever difficulties occurred to them, and the truth thus elicited acquired a firmness and stability in its public reception proportioned to the severity of the test it had imdergone. Lavoisier seldom announced any discovery until it had passed this ordeal. At length he combined his philosophical views into a connected system, which he pub- lished in 1789, under the title of Traile ^le- mentaire de Chimie. This was a beautiful model of scientific composition, clear and logical in its arrangement, perspicuous and even elegant in its style and manner. These perfections are rarely to be foimd in elemen- tary works written by original discoverers. The genius which qualifies a man for enlarging the boundaries of science by his own inven- tions and researches is of a very different class from that which confers the ability to dud- date, in a simple and systematic oourae, the order and connection of elementary truths. But in Lavoisier these different tpodm ol talent were most happily blended. He not only added profound truths to science, but succeeded in adapting them to the appidten- sion of students, and was able to render them attractive by his eloquence. In 1791 he entered upon extenave re- searches, having for their object the applicft* tion of pneumatic chemistry to the advance* ment of medicine, in reference to the prooesa of respiration. With this view he examined in great detail the changes which the air under- goes, and the products generated in that proc- ess of the animal economy. He had previ- ously, however, as far back as 1780, in the memoirs of the French academy, detailed a series of experiments to determine the quan- tity of oxygen consumed and carbonic acid generated by respiration, in a given time. In the twenty volumes of the academy of sciences, from 1772 to 1793, are not less than forty memoirs by Lavoisier, replete with all -the grand phenomena of the science: the doctrine of combustion in all its bearings ; the nature and analysis of atmospheric air; the generation and combinations of elastic fluids; the properties of heat; the composition of acids; the decomposition and recomposition of water; the solutions of metals; and the phenomena of vegetation, fermentation, and animalization. These are some of the most important subjects of his papers ; and during the whole of this period he advanced steadily in the course which was pointed out to him by the unerring rules of inductive inquiry, to which his original genius supplied the com- mentary. So well did he secure every point of the results to which he ascended that he never made a false step. It was only in one subject, before alluded to, that he may be said to have gone a few steps too far. Nor did he ever suffer himself to be discouraged, or his ardor to be lessened by the difficulties and obstacles which perpetually impeded his progress. He traced new paths for investigation, and founded a new school of science ; and his suc- cessors had ample employment in following out the inquiries which he had indicated, and exploring those recesses to which he had opened the way. Upon the basis thus estab- lished by Lavoisier, Davy and Berselius, Liebig and Dumas, and others more recently MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT have built the etructure of modern chemis- try. In the relations of social and civil life Lavoisier was exemplary; and he rendered essential service to the state in several capacities. He was treasurer to the academy, and introduced economy and order into its finances. He was also a member of the board of consultation, and took an active share in its business. As a member of the commis- sion of weights and measures, in 1790, he took an active part in the preparation of the metric system ; and, when it was proposed to determine a degree of the meridian, he made accurate experiments on the dilation of metals, in conjunction with Laplace in 1782, to ascer- tain the corrections due to change of tempera- ture in the substances used as measuring rods in those delicate operations. By the national convention he was con- sulted on the means of improving the manu- facture of assignats, and of increasing the difficulty of forgery. He also turned his attention to matters of rural economy, and, by improved methods of agriculture, on scientific principles, he increased the produc- tiveness of an experimental farm nearly one- half. In 1791 he was invited by the constit- uent assembly to digest a plan for simplifying the collection of taxes, and produced an excellent treatise on this subject under the title of "The Territorial Riches of France." He was Ukewise appointed a commissioner of the national treasury, in which he effected some beneficial reforms. Lavoisier had continuously held one of the posts of farmer-general of revenue for more than twenty years. Many of the farmers- general were men of eminent social position and wealth, and during the reign of terror in France, under the tyranny of Robespierre, Lavoisier foresaw that he would be stripped of all his property. He accordingly prepared to enter the profession of an apothecary so that he might be able to gain a livelihood. But in 1794 Dupin preferred charges of the most flimsy and absurd nature before the revolutionary tribunal against the entire number of farmers-general — twenty-seven in all — and they were condemned to the guillo- tine. On being seized, Lavoisier entreated at least to be allowed time to finish some experiments in which he was engaged, to com- plete his final work on chemical philosophy — Memoires de Chimie ; but Coffinhall, the presi- dent of the tribunal who condemned him, with characteristic brutality, replied: "The republic does not want savants or chemists, and the course of justice cannot be sus- pended." He was accordingly executed May 8, 1794. Lavoisier in person was tall and graceful, and of hvely manners and appearance. He was mild, sociable, and obliging; and in his habits unaffectedly plain and simple. He was liberal in pecuniary assistance to those in need of it ; and his hatred of all ostentation in doing good probably concealed greatly the real amount of his beneficence. He married, in 1771, Marie-Anne-Pierrette Paulze, a lady of great talents and accomplishments, who after his death became the wife of Count Rumford. A. D. 1769 Bom at Montbdliard, France, . . 1784 Entered Karlschule, Stuttgart, Wiirttemberg, 1788-94 Private tutor in family of Count d'H^ricy, in Normandy, . . . 1795 Assisted superintendent of botan- ical gardens, Paris, 1796 Member of the French national institute, 27 1798 Tableau Elimentaire de VHistoire Naturelle des Animaux, .... 29 1800 Professor in the College de France ; secretary of the French institute, 31 1803 Married, 34 CUVIER AOE A. D. 1812 15 19-25 26 1814 1815 1817 1818 1819 1822 1826 1831 1832 Reehereha aur lea Osaementa Foa- silea, 43 Councilor of state, 45 Chancellor of university of Paris, 46 Le Rigne AninuU, 48 Member of the French academy, 49 President of the committee of the interior; created baron, ... 50 Grand master of the faculties of Protestant theology, 53 Grand officer of the legion of honor, 57 Created a peer by Louis Philippe, 62 Died at Paris, 63 GEORGES CHRfiTIEN LEOPOLD FRfiDfiRIC DAGOBERT CUVIER, the greatest naturahst of his age, and f oimder of comparative anatomy, was born August 23, 1769, at what is now Montb^liard, France, but at the time of his birth was known as IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY m Mompelgard, Wiirttemberg. His parents were French Huguenots, who fled from France on account of the persecutions, and throughout life Cuvier was distinguished for his attach- ment to the Protestant cause. His father was an officer in a Swiss regiment, who married late in life, and his mother being young and accomplished, much of the early education of their son devolved on her. In 1784 the youth was admitted to Karl- schule in Stuttgart, Wiirttemberg, an institu- tion primarily designed for the education of young men desiring to enter the public serv- ice. Here he was distinguished for his great memory, and the avidity with which he studied Greek, Latin, and French. He also acquired marked skill in drawing, and culti- vated with unusual zeal the various branches of natural history. He is said, however, to have most distinguished himself in the depart- ment devoted to the study of the principles and science of government. While in the academy he obtained prizes in every depart- ment of study, and at the end of his course was one out of five or six who were presented with a medal for their general proficiency. In this academy he was the fellow student of Schiller, the great German dramatist, and of Sommering, the anatomist. Although thus early distinguished, he did not remain at Stuttgart long enough to enter upon any public employment, and perhaps to this cir- cumstance we may trace his illustrious career as a naturalist. At the age of nineteen he accepted the post of tutor to the only son of Count d'Hericy, in Normandy. The residence of the count was near the sea, a situation well adapted to foster Cuvier's love for the study of natural objects which he had acquired \mder the guidance of Professor Abel, at Stuttgart. The turmoil of the great French revolution, which soon stirred France to its very depths, did not reach him in his quiet residence, and he was enabled to lay the foundations of his exhaustive knowledge of natural history in seclusion and peace. But here an event occurred which quickly brought him to the sphere of his future activity. The abh6 Tessier, widely known for his articles on agriculture in the Encyclopidie Methodique, was obliged to flee from Paris, and, under the guise of a surgeon, sought refuge in Valmont, a small town near the residence of the count. One of the out- growths of Tessier's activity in this retreat was a society formed for the promotioo ol agriculture, and at one of its early meeUii^ young Cuvier detected, in the siufeoo of Valmont, the writer of the articles in the Encyclopidie. This incident led to a friend- ship between the two, which waa eventually attended by important results for Cuvier. Under this new stimulation in Normandy, Cuvier worked with so much diligence at the anatomy and forms of the lower ■w«f««iT that after Tessier's introduction he N>rf nnf a constant correspondent of Lac^pdde, Olivier, Geoffroy, and other eminent men in Paris. Of such far reaching results were his re- searches at this period that they enabled him to recognize the whole of the inverte- brate division of animals, which had been included by Linnaeus in his class vermu. Here he also diligently dissected the moUusca, which subsequently enabled him to follow with so much success the classification of the moUusca, pointed out by Adanson, and founded rather upon the structure of the animal than of its shell. In 1795, through the exertions of Tessier, Cuvier was invited to Paris as a member of the new commission of arts. He was also appointed assistant to Mertrud in the super- intendence of the Jardin des Plantes, or botanical gardens, and professor of natural history to the central school of the museum. In these positions he began that career through which he acquired the reputation of being the greatest teacher of his day, and the museum of the Jardin des Plantes became the most famous collection of comparative anat- omy in Europe. He now began to publish various papers, more especially on the structure of the lower animals, and, in 1798, produced his work entitled Tableau ^Umentaire de VHidoirt Naturelle des Animanx, or "Elementary View of the Natural History of Animals," in which he began his epoch-making classification of animals. In the same year he published his researches on fossil bones, by the publication of a paper on the "Bones Found in the Gypsum Quarries of Montmartre." In his earlier papers he had devoted considerable attention to the comparison of fossil and recent species of animals, and in the bones of Montmartre he foimd a rich depository for the exercise of his skill in comparing recent with extinct species. He early seized the idea that each group of animals was formed on a homogenous plan, and that the whole 388 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT structure of each species was adapted to its living requirements. He was thus enabled by small fragments of bone to reconstruct the whole fabric of an animal, and to give a living picture of the creatures that inhabited the earth in past times. It was by these researches that he was enabled subsequently to give to the world his great work, "Re- searches on Fossil Bones," in which numerous forms of animal life were presented which had long since been destroyed. In 1796 the national institute of France was formed, and Cuvier was made a member. In 1800 he became secretary. On the death of the naturalist, Daubenton, Cuvier, in 1800, was named his successor in the chair of the philosophy of natural history in the Coll(ige de France. He still, however, held his position of professor in the Jardin des Plantes. His lectures had been so successful there that they were published by his pupils, MM. Dumeril and Duvernoy, in five volumes. The first appeared in 1800, and the fifth in 1805. They were subsequently republished in 1839, in ten volumes, and contain a vast mass of interesting matter on the subject of zoology and comparative anatomy, and are written as they were delivered, in an eloquent and attractive style. Cuvier lectured from copious notes, and was remarkable for his accurate and fluent style, and the interest which he threw into the subject of discourses. But a new sphere of activity awaited him. Napoleon's great successes had placed him at the head of French affairs, and after the confusion of the revolution he began the legislative reconstruction of France. The first consul was not long in detecting the adminis- trative ability of the eloquent teacher of natural history; and, in 1802, Cuvier was appointed one of six inspectors, to establish lyceums or public schools in the principal towns of France. He established those of Marseilles, Nice, and Bordeaux. During his absence on this duty, in 1803, the French institute was remodeled, and Cuvier was made perpetual secretary of the section of natural sciences, with a salary of six thousand francs a year. Nothing gave a greater brilliancy to the conquests of Napoleon and the position he had thereby attained than his appreciation of the importance of scientific pursuits. With a much sounder estimate of the value of natural science as a branch of education than was exhibited by the other governments of Europe, he everywhere introduced into his new colleges the study of the natural history sciences, and in Cuvier he found a man pro- foundly convinced of the importance of these studies to the advancement of mankind. Discoverer as he was, he did not pursue science for his own self-elevation, but was supported in his labors by the thought that he was contributing to the working out of the great designs of providence, and the welfare of the human race. One of the most brilliant productions of his pen was a report called for by Napoleon on the history of the progress of science since the year 1789. This luminous composition was presented to Napoleon in the council of state. In this remarkable treatise, which was published in Paris in five volumes in 1829, he endeavored to show the connection between the advancement of knowledge and human happiness. He maintained that the object of science was "to lead the mind of man toward its noble destination — a knowledge of truth ; to spread sound and healthy ideas among the working classes of the community ; to draw human beings from the empire of prejudice and passion; to make reason the arbitrator and supreme guide of public opinion." From this passage it will be seen that Cuvier's pursuit of science was founded on no mere self-glorification, but that his heart was as large as his mind was great, and that he considered the highest destination of the achievements of his genius to be the advancement of his race. In 1809, 1810, and 1811 we find Cuvier still employed by the imperial government in reorganizing the educational institutions of the continent of Europe, The sword of the conqueror everywhere made way for the minister of education. In 1810 he organized the universities of Piedmont, Genoa, and Tuscany. In 1811 he was in Holland and the Hanseatic towns. His labors extended not alone to the higher classes in the univer- sities, but to schools for the mass of the people. He held that instruction led to civilization, and civilization to morality; that unless the education of the working classes was sound and extensive, they could I not appreciate the value of knowledge in I those who governed them and exercised pro- I fessions, and who had received their special ' education in the imiversities. Those only who are intimately acquainted with the I continent of Europe, at this time, can fully IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY appreciate the intelligent labors of this great man in behalf of its intellectual up- building. Successful as he had been in the other parts of Europe, he had a more delicate mission to perform when sent by the emperor to Rome to organize the university there. But such was his good sense and benignity of manner that, though a Protestant, he found no diffi- culty in acquitting himself of his diplomatic task, in a manner that gained for him the esteem and approbation of the Roman Cath- olic world, as well as of his sovereign. On his return Napoleon appointed him master of requests in the council of state, and in 1814, just before his abdication, he named him councilor of state, an appointment which was subsequently confirmed by Louis XVIII. The following year he was appointed chancellor of the university of Paris by the same monarch, and held that post until his death. In 1818 he was elected a member of the French academy, and in 1819 was appointed president of the committee of the interior in the council of state. In the same year Louis XVIil. created him a baron. The last ten years of Cuvier's life were equally crowded with honors. In 1822 he became grand master of the faculties of Protestant theology in the university of Paris; and under his mastership fifty new Protestant cures were established in France. Numerous professorships of natural history in the minor schools of France were estab- lished under his direction; and he became also, at this period, a vice-president of the French Bible society. In 1826 Charles X. bestowed upon him the decoration of grand officer of the legion of honor, and his former sovereign, the king of Wiirttemberg, made him a commander of the order of the crown. In 1830 he began a new course of lectures in the College de France on the progress of science in all ages. He opened the third part of his course with an introductory lecture on May 8, 1832, After an unusually eloquent survey, describing the objects of the course, he concluded : " These will be the objects of our future investigations, if time, health, and strength shall be given me to continue and finish them with you." But the health failed, the strength departed, and the time was shortened; for the next day he suffered a paralytic stroke, and expired on May 13, at the age of sixty-three years. In Cuvier's last year Louis Philippe had created him a peer of France, and contemplated makii^ him his minister of the interior. Cuvier married the widow of M. Duvauod, a former farmer-general of Fraooe, in 1808, and subsequently lived at the Jutlin det Plantes, in Paris, for nearly forty yean. Here, surrounded with the objecta whidi engrossed so great a portion of his thought*, he received every Satunlay the men of science of Paris, and all others who viaiied that capital from any part of the world. Professors and pupils met in his rooms to listen to his informal talks, for he waa aocaa- sible to all. Although compelled to be a very rigid economist of time, his dtspositton waa such that if any one who had bumneas to transact called at an unexpected hour, he was never sent away unheard. "One who lived so far off," Cuvier waa wont to say, "had no right to deny himself." Everything in his house was so arranged as to secure economy of time. His library con- sisted of several apartments, and each great subject that claimed his attention had a separate room allotted to it. He usually worked, too, it is said, in the apartment belonging to the subject with which he was momentarily engaged, so that he might be surrounded with his materials. His ordinary custom, when returning from public business in Paris, was to go at once to his study, after passing a few minutes by the way in the room with his family. He came back when dinner was announced, usually with a book in his hand, and returned soon after dinner to his study, where he remained until eleven. He then came to Madame Cuvier's room, and usually had some of the lighter literature of the day read aloud to him. Sometimes the book selected was of a more classic character; and during the last year of his life he had the greater part of Cicero read to him. His manner at all times was courteous, kind, and encourag- ing. Any one who manifested interest in the subject with which Cuvier was familiar might approach him without fear of meeting with a cold or formal reception. Cuvier had four children, none of whom survived him. He was a fond husband and father, and few men of his eminence have been more remarkable for the regularity and simplicity of their social life. One of hia children, a daughter, lived to be old eoou^ to be betrothed, but died within a few daya of her appointed marriage. She was eminent 890 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT for the beauty and piety of her character; and the affections of the great philosopher were so bound up with this amiable child that it is said her death hastened his own end. Cuvier's most important works are usually conceded to be those on comparative anatomy, "Researches on Fossil Bones," "Discourse on the Revolutions of the Globe," and "The Animal Kingdom," which was first published in 1817, and revised down to 1830. In the first, to the facts gathered by Claude Perrault and Daubenton, he added innumerable obser- vations of his own, and coordinated these elements into the form of a doctrine. In the second work, he founded a science entirely new, the science of lost species of fossils — in short, palaeontology. In the third, he embraced the entire animal creation, and established the classification which serves to-day for the basis of the science of zoology — a classification based upon comparative anatomy. Until this time comparative anatomy was only a collection of facts relative to the structure of animals. Cuvier concluded that anatomy and physiology should form the basis of zoology, and that the most general and constant fact in the organization should determine its grand divisions, and the least general and most variable facts the secondary divisions. He thus established a subordina- tion of character, which ought to be, and alone can be, the principle of a natural method ; that is to say, of such a method of arrangement of beings that the place occupied by each of them gives a general idea of its organization, and of the relations which con- nect it with all others — a method which he regarded as science itself reduced to its most simple expression. Thus, examining the modifications of the organs of circulation, respiration, and sensation throughout the animal kingdom, instead of the six classes of Linnaeus, Cuvier established four great types, vertebrates, moUusks, articulates, and radi- ates, which he called embranchments, and divided into classes of nearly equal value with those long established among the verte- brata. This tended very much to raise into importance the inferior animals. Cuvier's two laws, the law of the subordi- nation of the organs and the law of correla- tions, with some others, formed part of that science which permitted him methodically to reconstruct a great number of lost species by means of fossil debris. "Such was," says M. Flourens, "the vigor and infallibility of this method that Cuvier could recognize an animal by a single bone, or a single facette of a bone." As a naturaUst, Cuvier takes a permanent rank among the few great men who have ' effected great revolutions in the sciences which they have cultivated, and who have left ineffaceable traces of the influence of their discoveries. The whole animal kingdom has assumed under his hands a systematic arrangement, founded on a careful and labori- ous observation of the analogies of internal structure. He converted the science of natural history into a science of strict and severe induction, and conferred on it a dig- nity hitherto unpossessed by it. He recon- structed, as it were, the fossil remains of an antediluvian world, from imperfect fragments. STEPHENSON A. D. AQE 1781 Bom near Wylam, Northumberland, England, 1798 "Engineman" at Throckley Bridge, . 17 1802 Married, 21 1806 Death of wife, 25 1812 Enginewright at Killingworth, ... 31 1814 Constructed locomotive steam engine, 33 1815 Patented locomotive; invented safety lamp, 34 A. D. Aoa 1820 Second marriage, . 39 1821 Engineer, Stockton and Darlington railway, 40 1826 Engineer, Liverpool and Manches- ter, 45 1845 Visited Belgium and Spain 64 1848 Died at Tapton, England, 67 /^EORGE STEPHENSON, an illustrious ^^ English engineer and chief improver of the steam locomotive, was born of very hum- ble parentage, in a cottage on the Tyne, near Wylam, Northumberland, England, on June 9, 1781. The wages earned by his father. who worked in a colUery, were barely suflS- cient, even with the most rigid economy, for the sustenance of the household, and conse- quently none of the children were sent to school. The early life of Stephenson presents a IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 801 record, whose interest cannot be surpassed, of a contest between determined purpose, industry, and sagacity on the one hand, against poverty on the other. He began life by herding cows at twopence a day, but soon exchanged a pastoral for an agricultural sphere, doubling his wages by undertaking to hoe turnips. Then he was taken on at the colliery as a "corfbitter," or "picker," to clear the coal of stones, bats, and dross. His wages were advanced to sixpence a day, and to eightpence when he was allowed to draw the ginhorse. Great was his exultation when, at about fourteen years of age, he was ap- pointed fireman at a shilling a day. From this time his fortunes took him from one pit to another, and procured him rising wages with his rising stature. At Throckley Bridge, when advanced to twelve shillings a week, he joyfully exclaimed, "I am now a made man for life!" At seventeen he became engineman or plugman. He soon studied and mastered the working of his engine, and it became a sort of pet with him. He learned that the won- derful engines of Watt and Boulton were to be found described in books, and with the object of mastering these books, though a grown man, he went to a night school, at threepence a week, to learn his letters. He then studied the engine books at night by the light of his engine fire. For f ourpence a week he included "figuring," while at the pit he acquired the art of braking an engine. In 1802, when, as a brakesman, he made nearly one poimd a week, he married Fanny Henderson, a pretty farm servant, who made him an excellent wife, and brought comfort as her dowry to the cottage which he took for her on Willington Quay. At this time, during his leisure hours, he added to his income by making and mending the shoes of his fellow workmen. Next he took to making shoe lasts, in which he was expert, and acquired a good trade. From cleaning and repairing his own clock, he ,also became one of the most famous clock doctors in the neighborhood. He was thus prospering and happy until calamity overtook him and he lost his wife, who died in 1806, leaving to his care their only son, who lived to share the fame of his father as an engineer. Soon after the death of his wife, Stephenson removed for an interval near Montrose, Scotland, where he had charge of an engine in a large spinning mill. On his return he found his father reduced by an accident to blindoMt, and consequently to poverty, so he paid hit father's debts cheerfully, undertook to sup- port him and his mother, and diachaiged tUt filial duty toward them until their death. He was again given employment at Killing- worth, but his prospects in life about that time were far from hopeful. On one ooommd, indeed, so hard had the tide gone against K' m, that even he had nearly given way to despair. "I wept bitterly," he says in allusion to an intention he had formed of emigrating — " for I knew not where my lot in life might be cast." In 1812 he was appointed cnginewright at Killingworth, with a salary of one hundred poimds a year. Here he began his experi- ments with the locomotive. Wooden rails, it appears, were first laid down for the service of coalpits at an early period. The invention consisted of a double parallel line of wooden beams or trams fixed to the groimd, and furnished with flanges to prevent the whedt of vehicles from slipping aside. Along these flanged beams wagons were drawn by hones with such comparative ease that, instead of a load of seventeen hundredweight by a com- mon road, a load of forty-two hundredweight could now be drawn by a single horse. These new thoroughfares, called tramways, were made across fields, the proprietors of which received a certain rent for the way-leave or use made of them — which term, way- leave, is still employed in England for arrange* ments of this kind. To the coal districts of the north of England, therefore, is indisput- ably due the simple yet meritorious contriv- ance which, from less to more, led to the modern railway with all its wonderful machinery ; nor is it useless to note that the invention, in its early stages, owed nothing to men of education or high scientific attain- ments, but was mainly the work of obscure mechanics and illiterate enthusiasts. The date of the invention of tramways is uncertain, but by good authorities it is referred to the early part of the seventeenth century. From the northern coal districts it gradually came into use in other mining dis- tricts in England, as also in' the south of Scotland. The seventeenth century was not favorable to mechanical improvement. Not until about 1700 was there any marked advance on the original tramway. The first step was the clothing of the wooden beams with long slips of iron, to prevent exoessiva 802 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT tear and wear. This also being found defec- tive, a second and more complete improve- ment, about 1740, was the substitution of cast-iron rails fixed in parallel lines on cross wooden sleepers. This species of railway became pretty general in mining districts between 1745 and 1775. In the former of these years, one was in operation in Scotland — namely, a short coal line from Tranent to Cockenzie, which General Cope selected as a position at the battle of Prestonpans. Though now considerably improved, railways did not attract attention as being suitable for general traffic. The success of canals not only turned the public mind in that direction, but raised up a powerful canal interest, which viewed the progress of railways with extreme jealousy and ill will. The use of cast-iron rails led to an improved method of traction. Instead of employing a single large wagon, the plan of linking together a series of smaller wagons was adopted — the germ of the modern train. The next improve- ment consisted in putting flanges on the wheels instead of the rails, by which great facility of transit was afforded. The draught still continued to be executed by horses ; but, as the railway system seemed to possess immense capabilities of expansion, many minds labored in devising schemes to substi- tute steam apparatus. The invention of the locomotive, like that of railways, was the work of successive geniuses. Watt had shown the practica- bility of fixed steam engines ; what was now wanted was an engine that would travel by its own internal impulse. The merit of inventing a self-acting steam carriage is allowed to be due to Richard Trevithick, a clever but eccentric engineer. In 1802 he took out a patent for a steam carriage, and this novel machine he exhibited to large crowds of admiring spectators on a piece of ground near London. Immediately after- ward he adapted his carriage for the drawing of wagons on railways, a duty which it suc- cessfully executed on the Merthyr-Tydvil railway in 1804. This was the first locomo- tive; but it was far from perfect. It drew only ten tons of bar iron at the rate of five miles an hour. Trevithick did not remain in England to improve on his invention, nor did the modern achievements of his ma- chine inmaediately induce others to make any distinct advance on his ingenious con- trivance. For this lethargy there were various causes j but the principal consisted in a universal belief among engineers that the locomotive could not be expected to gain great speed, to ascend a moderate incline, or to draw a heavy load, unless the wheels were provided with a cogged rim to work on a corresponding rack along the rails. Numerous schemes were made the subject of patents to overcome this imaginary difficulty — a circumstance which gives one a poor opinion of the state of engi- neering knowledge at the beginning of the nineteenth century. That locomotives run- ning with smooth wheels on smooth rails, by mere weight and friction, as exemplified by Trevithick, could draw heavy loads up a moderate incline was at length, in 1811, established as a fact by Blackett, a coal proprietor, on the W'ylam railway, which Stephenson had often observed and studied. The means for imparting speed alone remained to be given. From an early period Stephenson was quite sanguine as to the "traveling engine." He had inspected " Black Billy " and Blenkinsop's Leeds engine, and at length he brought the subject before Lord Ravensworth, the princi- pal proprietor of the KillingA^orth colliery. His lordship advanced money, and an engine was made which was accordingly called " My Lord," and placed on Killingworth railway, July 25, 1814. It was the most successful working engine that had yet been constructed, and succeeded in drawing thirty tons weight at four miles an hour. Still its economy was questionable, for it proved only that steam power and horse power were on a par in point of cost, while the speed of the engine was not beyond that of a horse's walk. At this point, however, Stephenson's genius turned the decision of the issue. The happy thought came to him to utilize the escaping steam by making it blow his fire. This inven- tion of the steam blast in the smokestack imparted velocity to the smoke, and so in- creased the ascending current of air that the power of the engine became more than doubled. He determined to make another engine with an entire change in the construc- tion and mechanical arrangements of the machine. For this work Dodds provided the necessary fimds, and, in 1815, Stephen- son and Dodds conjointly took out a patent for this improved engine, which combined, in a remarkable degree, the essential requisites of an economical locomotive. Although many IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY improvements in detail were afterward intro- duced by George Stephenson himself, as well as by his equally distinguished son, Robert, it is perhaps not too much to say that this engine, as a mechanical contrivance, con- tained the germ of all that has since been effected. It may, in fact, be regarded as the type of the present locomotive engine. In 1815 the invention of a colliery safety lamp, the "Geordie," also brought Stephen- son's name before the public. The fact of his invention being almost simultaneous ^ith that of Sir Humphry Davy gave rise to a long controversy between their respective friends and supporters. In 1820 Stephenson married his second wife, Elizabeth Hindmarsh, the daughter of a farmer at Black Callerton. Stephenson was now regarded as an enthu- siast, and men shook their heads at his engine, predicting a "terrible blow up some day." He himself went so far as to say that it would supersede every other tractive power. At this period he began to direct his particular attention to the state of the roadbed, as he perceived that the extended use of the loco- motive must necessarily depend in a great measure upon the perfect solidity, continuity, and smoothness of the way along which the engine traveled. Even then he was in the habit of regarding the road and the locomo- tive as one machine, speaking of the rail and the wheel as "man and wife." Stephenson had no means of bringing his important invention prominently under the notice of the public. At length it attracted the attention of William James and Edward Pease. The former saw Stephenson's loco- motive at Killingworth in 1821, and declared that it would effect a revolution in society. He expressed his belief that Stephenson was the greatest practical genius of the age, and truly predicted that his fame in the world would rank equal to that of Watt. When the Stockton and Darlington railway was sanctioned by parliament in 1821, Stephenson was appointed constructing engi- neer for the company, at three hundred pounds per annum. The line was opened in 1825, proved a success financially, and was in great part supplied with Stephenson's engines. When the railway between Liverpool and Manchester was projected, following the rapid growth of the trade of South Lancashire, together with the unpopular management of the Bridgewater canal, Stephenson was also chosen engineer, with a salary of one thousand pounds a year. That he propoMd to work the line with an engine which was to go At the rate of twelve miles an hour wa« a fact held up aa of itself sufficient to stamp the project as a bubble. "Twelve miles an hour!" exclaimed the Quarterly Review — "as well trust ooe's self to be fired off on a Congreve rocket." Accordingly, Stephenson was called befof* a parliamentary committee and was obliged to undergo an examination into the project which lasted three days. One of the members asked whether, if a cow should stray od the line and get in front of the engine, that would not be a very awkward circumstance. "Yes," replied the witness, " very awkward indeed — for the coo!" At length, after many diffictil- ties had been settled, authorization was obtained, and the line was completed in 1820. There then ensued the memorable competi- tion of engines, resulting in the complete triumph of Stephenson's " Rocket," which, to the astonishment of every one except himself, was found capable of traveling at the unUl then undreamt-of rate of thirty-five miles an hour. " Now," exclaimed one of the directors, "George Stephenson has at last delivered himself." The problem of the locomotive engine was thus practically solved. The rail- way was opened in 1830, and the prosperity of the company proved the success of the new mode of traveling. The subsequent career of Stephenson was as rapid and smooth as the railway locomotion he had done so much to realize. He took the lead at once in railway engineering, became an extensive locomotive manufacturer at New- castle, and a railway contractor, a great colliery and iron-work owner, particularly at Claycross, and acquired great wealth. While occupied in carrying out the vast 83r8tem of railway which soon overspread the country, Stephenson's home was at Alton Grange, near Leicester. He saw but little of it, however, as he was often traveling on bustneas for weeks at a time. During the three years ending 1837, he was principal engineer on the NorUi Midland, York and North Midland, Manchester and Leeds, Birmingham and Derby, and Sheffield and Rotherham railways. In 1836 alone, two hundred and fourteen miles of railway were put under his direction, involving a capital of five million pounds. His office* in London were crowded every day with men of every rank and condition, eager to strengthen their prospectuses by the weight of his name. 394 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Where he disapproved — and at this time he almost always did disapprove — he invariably declined, though by acceding he might have made enormous gain; but to make money without labor or honor had no charm for Stephenson. In the autumn of 1845 he visited Belgium and Spain for professional purposes. At Brussels he was honored with a magnificent banquet, at which the most eminent scientific men of Belgium were present. A handsome marble pedestal, surmounted with the bust of the "father of railways," occupied one end of the city hall on that occasion and his reception was of the most enthusiastic description. He paid a second visit to Belgium in the same year, and shortly afterward proceeded to Spain for the purpose of examining and reporting upon a plan for constructing the Royal North Spanish railway, a concession for the construction of which had shortly before been made to Sir Joshua Walmsley. He made an adverse report on the entire project, and on his way home he was seized with pleurisy, from which attack he does not seem ever to have thoroughly recovered. He occupied his declining years with the quiet pursuits of a country gentleman, at Tapton, near Chesterfield, where he indulged the love of nature, which, through all his busy life, had never left him. Even in the midst of his immense business, his heart remained as youthful as ever. In spring he would snatch a day for bird-nesting or gardening; in autumn, nutting was still a favorite recrea- tion. We find him at this time writing a touching account to his son of a pair of robins. Strong as he had shown himself when the world was all against him, he was not less so in the midst of his success. His life at Tapton during his later years was occasionally diversi- fied with a visit to London, Newcastle, and other places, and by a limited indulgence in social and scientific diversions. He was created a knight of Leopold of Belgium; a fellow of the royal society ; and he was the founder and first president of the society of civil engineers. Both he and his son after him were offered knighthood at the hand of the English sovereign, but both declined. As late as July 26, 1848, Stephenson at- tended a meeting of the institute of mechani- cal engineers at Birmingham, and read a paper on the "Fallacies of the Rotary Engine." It was his last appearance of a public nature. Shortly after his return to Tapton he had an attack of intermittent fever, and a sudden effusion of blood from the lungs carried him to his death on August 12, 1848, in his sixty-eighth year. He was buried in Trinity church, Chesterfield, where a simple tablet marks the great engineer's last resting place. Statues have been erected to his memory and the honor of his achievements in St. George's hall, Liverpool, and Newcaatle- on-the-Tyne. Stephenson was a man of compact frame, well-knit, and rather spare. His hair became gray at an early age, and toward the close of his life it was of a pure silky whiteness. His face indicated a shrewd, kind, honest, manly nature. His complexion was fair and ruddy ; forehead large and high, projecting over the eyes; and there was that massive breadth across the lower part which is usually observed in men of eminent constructive skill. The mouth was firmly marked, and there were both shrewdness and humor in his keen gray eyes. The leading feature of his mind was honesty of purpose, and determination in carrying it out. "I have fought for the locomotive single-handed for nearly twenty years," he says; "I put up with every rebuff, deter- mined not to be put down." Toward trickery and affectation he never concealed his contempt, while honest merit never appealed to his liberality in vain. He had none of the indoor habits of a student. He read very little. Books wearied him, and sent him to sleep. He wrote very few letters, and avoided them whenever he could. His greatest pleasure was in conversation ; hence he was always glad of the society of intelligent, cultivated persons, though the conventional functions of society had little charm for him. It was only after repeated invitations from Sir Robert Peel, the celebrated English statesman, that Stephenson consented to visit the former at his house at Drayton. It was without the least hesitation, however, that he accepted an invitation to meet Emerson during his visit to England in 1848. Emerson subsequently said that " it was worth crossing the Atlantic to have seen Stephenson alone; he had such native force of character and vigor of intellect." In manner he was simple, modest, frank, and imassuming. When he rose to a place of eminence and influence, he took his place among men of the highest social position with perfect self-possession. On one occasion, it is SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE MORSE From a photograph IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERT 197 said, he incidentally met a gentleman and his wife at an inn in Derbyshire, whom he enter- tained for some time with his shrewd observa- tions and playful sallies. At length the lady, somewhat testily, requested to know the name of the remarkable stranger. "Why, madam," said he, "they used once to call me Georgie Stephenson; I'm now called George Stephenson, Esquire, of Tapton House, near Chesterfield. And further let me say, that I've dined with princes, and peers, and commoners — with persons of all classes, from the highest to the humblest ; I've made my dinner off a red herring in a hedge bottom, and gone through the meanest drudgery ; I've seen mankind in all its phases, and the con- clusion I have arrived at is — that if we're all stripped, there's not much difference." Though a thrifty and frugal man, he was far from sordid. His hand was open to his former fellow workmen whom old age had left in poverty; and he performed many generous acts in a noble and modest manner. Neither would he permit an attack to be made upon the absent or the weak. The whole secret of his success in life, he persisted in saying, was his careful improvement of time " which is the rock out of which fortunai an carved and great characters foniMd." He believed in genius to the extent that Buffoo did when he said that "patience is genius"; or as some other thinker put it, when he defined genius to be the power of !*»*lf!'^ efforts. But he would never have it be wm a genius, or that he had done anything which other men, equally laborious and p e r s e veri i^ as himself, could not have accomplished. He was a late learner ; but he went on learning to the end. "As respects the immense advantages of railways to mankind," says Smiles, "there cannot be two opinions. They exhibit, probably, the grandest organization of capital and labor that the world has yet seen. As tending to multiply and spread abroad the conveniences of life, opening up new fields oC industry, bringing nations nearer to each other, and thus promoting the great ends of civilization, the founding of the rtulway sys- tem by George Stephenson mxist be regarded as one of the most important events, if not the very greatest, in the first half of the nineteenth century." MORSE A. D. AGE A. D. 1791 Born at Charlestown, Mass., . . 1837 1810 Graduated from Yale college, . . 19 1810-15 Studied painting and sculpture, . 19-24 1838 1815 Settled in Boston, 24 1818 Married, 27 1843 1825 Death of his wife, 34 1844 1826 President of national academy of design, 35 1848 1829-32 Visited Europe, 38-41 1858 1835 Professor of designing, university of New York ; constructed elec- 1872 trie telegraph, 44 Applied to congress for aid; filed caveat at Washington, .... 46 Visited Europe in interest of hU invention, 47 Received congressional aid, ... M Telegraph line established between Washington and Baltimore, . 6S Second marriage, 07 Received $80,000 at Paria from nations of Europe, 67 Died at New York, 81 CAMUEL FINLEY BREESE MORSE, ^ artist and inventor, and foremost designer of the electric telegraph, was born at Charles- town, Massachusetts, April 27, 1791. He was the son of Rev. Jedediah Morse, D. D., well known in New England history as a very active religious worker and geographer, and Elizabeth Ann Breese. To the Morse family eleven children were born, only three of whom — Samuel and two brothers — sur- vived childhood. Samuel, at the age of seven, was sent to the school of Professor Foster at Andover, Mass., and passed from there to Phillips academy, where he was prepared for college. At four- teen he was admitted to Yale college, his father's alma mater. His first knowledge of electricity and natural philosophy he gained under Professor Jeremiah Day and Benjamin Silliman, and his letters home gave abundant evidence of his interest in his studies. While at college, too, his artistic talent was plainly manifest, and, although wholly untaught, he produced a number of miniature portraits of his fellow students. Morse was graduated from Yale in July, 1810. Immediately he decided to become a painter, and arrangements were made for him 398 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT to accompany Washington Allston, at that time one of the most promising of American painters, to England in the following year. His first letter home contained an ardent wish for that which years afterward his great invention made possible. His words were: " / wish that in an instant I could communicate the injorm/ition, but three thousand miles are not passed over in an instant, and we must wait four long weeks before we can hear from each other." Allston introduced Morse to Benjamin West, the famous American painter then settled in London, and president of the royal academy. West accepted him as a student, and showed him many favors because he was an American. Allston continued, also, to act the part of friend and critic. The young student remained in England four years, within which time the war of 1812 took place. The hostilities, however, created no enmity against him, and, in 1813, he won the gold medal of the society of arts for a figure representing the "Death of Hercules." A large painting which he subsequently made from the same subject was admitted to the exhibition of the royal academy. It was highly praised, and one of the British news- papers ranked it among the nine best paint- ings in a gallery of nearly a thousand. Morse returned home in the siunmer of 1815, and first opened a studio in Boston, where he exhibited a large- painting, "The Judgment of Jupiter," and waited for orders for historical pictures. After a year had passed with very indifferent success, he started out as a traveling portrait painter and achieved much better results. Within that year of waiting, however, his genius for inven- tion began to assert itself. In conjunction with his brother, Sidney, he invented a modification of the common suction pump, adapted to the use of fire engines, and secured a patent for it. In his travels as a portrait painter he met Miss Lucretia P. Walker, daughter of Charles Walker, of Concord, New Hampshire, and married her October 1, 1818. The winter before and that following his marriage he spent at Charlestown, South Carolina, in the pursuit of his profession. In the winter of 1819-20 he painted a portrait of President Monroe for the common council of Charles- town. His father having resigned his charge and removed to New Haven, Morse spent the following summer there with his wife and in- fant daughter. The next winter he executed a large picture of the house of representatives, in which were eighty portraits of members. Several years of struggle — in Albany, New York, and other places — followed. During this period his inventive faculty was not idle. He devised a machine for carving in marble copies of any model, and was revolving other ideas in his mind. In February, 1825, he was in Washington painting a full-length portrait of Lafayette for the city of New York, when his father wrote him that his beloved wife had died of heart disease on the 7th of that month. She was only twenty- five years of age, and a woman of great love- liness. After his wife's death Morse settled in New York and made gradual progress with his brush. He was one of the leading spirits in establishing, during the winter of 1825-26, the national academy of design, the prime object of which was to provide art students with the facilities that were then churlishly denied them by the American academy of arts. He was its first president, and was continued in the office until 1845, when he retired from it to give his attention to his telegraphic researches. In the early part of 1827 Morse attended a course of lectures on elcctromagnetism, de- livered before the New York Athenaeum by Professor James Freeman Dana, with whom he was well acquainted. At these lectures experiments were shown to illustrate the power of a straight wire carrying a current of electricity to induce magnetism, and the increased effect of such a wire bent into a ring, into a scries of rings forming a spiral, and into a flat spiral or volute. Professor Dana died soon after giving these lectures. Morse sailed for Italy in 1829 to execute a commission for some pictures, and the subject apparently passed out of his thoughts for a time. He was absent three years, during which he spent about two-thirds of his time in Rome, and a year in Paris. On the return voyage from Havre to New York, in 1832, in company with William C. Rives, American- minister to France, Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, and others, according to the best testimony on the subject, he first conceived the idea of a magnetic telegraph. The inci- dent which led up to the invention is thus described by Morse's biographer, Dr. S. Irenaeus Prime : IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY " In the early part of the voyage conversa- tion at the dinner table turned upon recent discoveries in electromagnetism, and the experiments of Ampere with the electro- magnet. Dr. Jackson spoke of the length of wire in the coil of a magnet, and the ques- tion was asked by some one of the company, if the velocity of electricity was retarded by the length of the wire. Dr. Jackson replied that electricity passes instantaneously over any known length of wire. He referred to experiments made by Dr. Franklin, with several miles of wire in circuit, to ascertain the velocity of electricity; the result being that he could observe no difference of time between the touch at one extremity and the spark at the other. At this point Morse interposed the remark, 'If the presence of electricity can be made visible in any part of the circuit, I see no reason why intelligence may not be transmitted instantaneously by electricity.' The conversation went on. But the one new idea had taken complete posses- sion of the mind of Morse. It was as sudden and pervading as if he had received at that moment an electric shock." The invention was already complete as to its main features — a current of electricity passing through a wire between two places, and signals to be made at one terminus by making and breaking the circuit at various intervals at the other. As soon as oppor- tunity offered, Morse set about sketching in his notebook details of the apparatus and a scheme of dot-and-dash signals for numbers and words. He showed his drawings to his fellow passengers and to the captain of the ship, and told them what he hoped to accom- plish. Having arrived in New York, Morse had before him the problem of devising an apparatus to embody his ideas. He could devote but little time or money to the task, for he was dependent on his painting and his pupils for a livelihood. Two or three years passed, during which he experimented as he had opportunity.. In 1835 he was appointed professor of the literature of the arts of design in the univer- sity of New York, and a studio was assigned to him on the third floor in the north wing of the original building in Washington square. Here he prosecuted his experiments, and here, in order to economize his scanty means, he slept and took his meals, prepared by him- self. In January, 1836, he gave one of his colleagues at the university. Professor Leonard D. Gale, a private view of his firat pracUoabU instrument. He worked on through 1836 and half of 1837, occupied mainly with trying various modifications of the marking apparatus and in devising the relay instrument. In thflSS experiments he was aaristed by Professor Gale. Having set up his telegraph so as to operate through about a third of a mile of wire stretched back and forth in the cabinet of the university, he showed it to Alfred Vail, among others, who soon entered into a partnership with Morse and received a 0D»> fourth interest in the patent to be secured^ in return for providing means and facilities for developing the invention. In 1837 Morse filed a caveat at the patent office, and, together with Vail and Pro fe ssor Gale, who were admitted to the partner* ship, enthusiastically renewed his exertions. Several valuable modifications of the inven* tion are due to the ingenuity of Vwl. He then took an improved instrvunent to Wash- ington, and exhibited the telegraph on a ten-mile circuit to President Van Buren and his cabinet, members of congress, foreign ministers, and men of science. His petition to congress for an appropriation of thirty thousand dollars to defray the expense of an experimental line of fifty miles was not acted upon when congress adjourned in March. The Hon. F. 0. J. Smith of Maine was now admitted to the partnership. He and Morse drew the specifications for the American patent and then both sailed for Europe to procure patents there in 1838. , In England, Morse met with the opposition of both Wheatstone and Cooke, who had recently patented a telegraph requiring six wires and making signals by deflecting five magnetic needles, but producing no record on paper. His application was rejected by the attorney-general of Great Britain, on the ground that an account of it had been published in England, although this account gave none of the essential details. He was further told by that oflScial that "America was a large countrj', and he ought to be satisfied vrith a patent there 1" Proceeding to Paris, he was cordially received by Hum- boldt, Arago, Gay-Lussac, and other dis- tinguished savants, and readily procured a French patent. Morse had met M. Daguerre, the inventor of the daguerreotype, in Paris, and each had shown the other his invention. As an artist 400 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Morse became very much interested in the daguerreotype process, and, after it was made public in the summer of 1839, obtained from the inventor instructions which enabled him to introduce it in America. In connection with Professor John W. Draper, he soon applied the process to the taking of portraits — for which its inventor had doubted its being applicable. The year 1839 was crowded with discourage- ments. A provisional arrangement to intro- duce the telegraph into Russia, which Morse had made with an agent of the Russian government while he was in Paris, failed to receive the approval of the czar. Meanwhile the rival schemes of Wheatstone, in England, and Steinheil, in Bavaria, were making progress. The years 1840 and 1841, too, dragged through without any improvement in Morse's prospects. In the spring of 1840 he completed the formalities required which had been interrupted by his departure for Europe in 1838, and received his patent. Wheatstone had actually secured an American patent for some of his devices at an earlier date, and was urging his scheme upon con- gress. Morse's partners had suffered financial reverses and were no longer able to help him. Almost despairing, he worked on constructing improved instruments with his own hands, and obtaining a precarious livehhood by giving lessons in painting. The long session of congress in 1841-42 wore away without any attention being secured for the telegraph. When the short session was within a fortnight of its close, in February, 1843, the bill passed the house. There was a great amount of business before the senate, and the telegraph bill had not been reached when the last day of the session opened. All that day and in the evening Morse sat in the gallery of the senate. Then, assured by his friends that there was no longer any hope, he left the capitol well-nigh broken-hearted. The next morning he was met at breakfast with congratulations. A few minutes before midnight the bill had been taken up and passed. Morse's suggestion that the trial line nm between Washington and Baltimore was accepted, and before the month was out preparations for its construction were actively imder way. On May 24, 1844, many of the highest officers of the government assembled with the personal friends of Morse, in Wash- ington, to witness the first operation of the telegraph over the completed line. To the daughter of Conunissioner Ellsworth, who had been the first to inform him of the passage of the appropriation for the telegraph, Morse had promised that she should give the first message to be sent over the finished hne. At the suggestion of her mother she chose the text, "What hath God wrought," which was transmitted by Morse to Vail in Baltimore, and by him instantly returned. The toil and struggles of twelve years were now crowned with success, and the inventor received the richly merited congratulations of the assembled company. The public test of the telegraph, the organi- zation of the Magnetic telegraph company to construct a line from Washington to New York, and the subsequent development of American hues are familiar history. Many violators of Morse's patents and the assump- tion of his rights by rival companies followed, £ind involved him in a long series of lawsuits ; but these were eventually decided in his favor, and he reaped the benefits to which his invention entitled him. Morse sailed from New York early in August, 1845, to present his telegraph again to European nations under much more favor- able auspices than before. Accomplishing nothing in England, he visited Hamburg, and afterward Paris, but returned to America in November, having received many honors, but nothing more substantial. Meanwhile numerous Unes were in construction at home, and in the next year the telegraph reached from Washington through Philadelphia and New York to Boston, from New York to Buffalo by way of Albany, and there were many branch lines in operation. Morse's system had been adopted by the Austrian government early in the year. In 1847 Morse bought a tract of two hun- dred acres on the Hudson river just below Poughkeepsie. He named his place "Locust Grove," and here he built a tasteful mansion, where he gathered his children and grand- children about him. He had never been able to enjoy a home since he left his father's roof up to this time. The next year he married Miss Sarah E. Griswold, a mute. Her mother was a cousin of his, and her father was an army officer. While Morse could now enjoy comfort and happiness he was by no means idle. The constant attempts to displace or infringe upon his invention entailed upon him a great IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY «n amount of labor in correspondence, and in collecting and arranging evidence to combat them. Yet he was able to enjoy considerable compensation for his many years of toil and privation. And his own invention ministered to his pleasure and comfort ; for, with a tele- graphic instrument on his library table, he would converse with friends and correspond- ents in every important place in his own land, and in later years could exchange messages with those on the opposite side of the Atlantic. Several years later he bought for a winter residence a beautiful house in New York, No. 5 West Twenty-second street. The building is now marked with a tablet bearing this inscription: "In this house S. F. B. Morse lived for many years and died." Morse was one of the few great inventors who received an adequate pecimiary reward for their services to the world, and to whom merited honors come while they are alive. He received the degree of doctor of laws from Yale college, and was elected to member- ship in learned societies of the United States, France, Belgium, Sweden, and Switzerland. Orders and decorations were bestowed upon him between 1848 and 1864 by the sovereigns of Turkey, Prussia, Wiirttemberg, Austria, France, Denmark, Spain, Portugal, and Italy. This list stands in chronological order. It will be observed that the sultan of Turkey took precedence in honoring the inventor of the telegraph over the rulers of many more pretentious nations, while England does not appear at all. We may well believe the statement of his biographer that "Professor Morse received a greater number of honorary distinctions than were ever bestowed upon any other private citizen." Submarine telegraphy also originated with Morse, who laid the first submarine lines in New York harbor in 1842. He was known to have considered it as early as 1837 and 1838 ; and in a letter from him to the secre- tary of the treasury, at Washington, dated August 10, 1843, it is believed occurs the first practical suggestion of the Atlantic telegraph. In 1856 he went to Europe to superintend some of the preparations for laying the Atlantic cable, and in connection with this trip made a tour through France, Germany, Denmark, and Russia. Presenta- tions at royal courts, and honors by men of science and affairs attended his whole prog- ress. Perhaps the greatest triumph was a public dinner given to him in London, where a very cold shoulder had been hit portioQ eighteen years before. W. F. Cooke, who had been the partner of hia chief Ei^^rii rival, presided at the dinner. In 1857, Morse, by the advice of frienda holding high official stations, iaaued a mano- rial asking for compensation for the uaa of his telegraph in the various countries of Europe. He had the best claim on France, for he had actually obtained a patent in that country, but the government, which had a monopoly of transmitting intelligence, had declined to use his invention for some jrean and had afterward adopted it without com- pensation to him. Negotiations followed which resulted, in 1858, in a sum equal to eighty thousand dollars being awarded to him by a conference of representatives of ten European governments — Austria, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Piedmont, Russia, Sweden, Tuscany, Turkey, and the holy see. Morse's telegraph had now come into use to the exclusion of its rivals ever)rwhere except to a limited extent in Great Britain. In 1869, following his last visit to Europe, a movement was started by the operators in Alleghany city, Pennsylvania, to bestow a testimonial upon the inventor of the tele- graph in our own country. A sum of money was raised, mostly in one-dollar subscriptions, sufficient to erect the bronze statue of Morse, which now stands in Central park. New York. It was unveiled on June 10, 1871, with inspiring and enthusiastic exercises. Throughout his long life Morse had suffered little from iUness. In his latter years he became subject to neuralgia, which, in the winter of 1871-72, concentrated its attacks in his head. After weeks of intense pain he fell into a stupor from which he partly aroused at times, and finally passed away April 2, 1872. At his funeral and afterward high honors were paid to his memory by the states of New York and Maasachuaetta, the congress of the United States, the great telegraphic companies, by many dtiea, by the societies of which he was a member, and by assemblages of individuals. "In person," says his biographer, Dr. Prime, "Professor Morse was tall, slender, graceful, and attractive. Six feet in stature, he stood erect and firm, even in old age. His blue eyes were expressive of genius and affection. His nature was a rare c om bin a t ioo of solid intellect and delicate aenaibility. Thoughtful, sober, and quiet, he readily 402 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT entered into the enjoyments of domestic and social life, indulging in sallies of humor, and readily appreciating and greatly enjoying the wit of others. Dignified in his intercourse with men, courteous and affable with the gentler sex, he was a good husband, a judi- cious father, a generous and faithful friend. He was as gentle as he was great. Many thought him weak because he was simple, childlike, and unworldly. Often he suffered wrong rather than resist, and this disposition to yield was frequently his loss." When wealth came to him, Morse was not backward in conferring benefactions upon worthy persons and institutions. He was a man of firm religious convictions, and gave many donations to churches, theological semi- naries, and missionary societies. A love for his early art clung to him throughout his life. The honors received for his artistic talent were especially prized by him, and in his later years he encouraged struggling artists of ability by purchasing their pictures, and gave aid to art societies and institu- tions. What Morse accomplished for the advance of civilization was due chiefly to an unbounded perseverance which enabled him to endure the grievous hardships and triumph over the enormous obstacles that lay in his path. It has been well said that " the genius and labor of such a man reflect glory upon his country, so that his name becomes part of the national heritage and treasure." DARWIN A. D. AQE A. D. 1809 Born at Shrewsbury, England, . . 1859 1826-27 Studied medicine at university of 1862 Edinburgh 16-18 1868 1828 Entered Christ's college, Cambridge, 19 1871 1831 B. A., Cambridge university, . . 22 1872 1831-36 Naturalist to IlT M. S. Beagle, . . 22-27 1878 1839 F. R. S. ; married, 30 1880 1842 Settled at Down, Kent, 33 1882 On the Oriiftn ^ Sffeim, .... 50 Fertilization o/Orikidt, .... 53 Variation of Plants and Animals, 59 The Deeeeni of Man, 62 Emotion in Man and Animals,. . 63 Foreign member French academy, 69 Movement in Plants 71 Died at Down, Kent, 73 /^HARLES ROBERT DARWIN, distin- ^-^ guished English naturalist and biologist, and the chief expositor of the theory of evo- lution, was born at Shrewsbury, England, February 12, 1809. He was the son of a physician. Dr. Robert Waring Darwin; a grandson of the naturalist and poet, Erasmus Darwin, on his father's side, and of Josiah Wedgwood, the famous English potter, on his mother's side. The laws of heredity would seem to destine him for a scientific career, but his taste for this pursuit was very slow of development. In the summer of 1818 Charles attended the school at Shrewsbury, of which Dr. Butler — afterward bishop of Litchfield — was head master, and left a very neutral impression as a student. So little zeal did he display both in outdoor and laboratory studies that, con- trary to general expectation, no legends of his early days have been handed down to his biographers. It was his father's wish that he should adopt his own profession, that of medicine, and accordingly he was sent, at the age of sixteen, to the university of Edinburgh. The pros- pect of living the hfe of a practitioner did not please his fancy ; but while at Edinburgh he began to evince considerable interest in natural history. The records of the Plinian society show that in 1826, and the year fol- lowing, he read two papers, one on the ova of Flustra, in which he stated that he had discovered organs of motion. Yielding to his repugnance toward the practice of medicine. Dr. Darwin sent his son to Christ's college, Cambridge, in 1828, with the expectation that divinity would prove more attractive to him and that he would enter the ministry ; but again his father was to be dis- appointed. At the university he met a strong and gentle man who was destined to exercise a controlling influence in forming his mind and moulding his destiny. This was Professor Henslow, who filled the chair of botany. Danvnn says that prior to meeting him the only objects of natural history for which he cared were foxes and partridges; but imder Henslow's leadership the young man became an ardent collector, especially in entomology, the capture of an insect in the fens furnishing the first occasion on which his IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 4M name appeared in print. He became so absorbed in the fundamental studies of natural science that he abandoned, if he ever seriously entertained, the intention of seeking ordination to the ministry ; and the charm of his intercourse with Professor Henslow seems to have acted profoundly upon him in settling his dominant qualities, mental and social, and in finally shaping his career. The grateful words which Darwin wrote of his friend and teacher have often been reiter- ated of Darwin by those who had close per- sonal intimacy with him. He writes of Pro- fessor Henslow, " I never once saw his temper even ruffled. He never took an ill-natured view of any one's character, though very far from blind to the foibles of others. It always struck me that his mind could not well be touched by any paltry feeling of envy, vanity, or jealousy. With all this equability of tem- per and remarkable benevolence, there was no insipidity of character. A man must have been blind not to have perceived that beneath this placid exterior there was a vigorous and determined will. Wlien principle came into play, no power on earth could have turned him a hair's breadth. In intellect, as far as I could judge, accurate powers of observation, sound sense, and cautious judgment seemed to predominate. Nothing seemed to give him so much enjoyment as drawing conclusions from minute observation." The zeal and proficiency which Darwin displayed in every department of natural science henceforward gradually won him such distinction that, when a naturalist was wanted to accompany Captain Fitzroy on the survey- ing voyage of the Beagle, the opportunity was offered Darwin through the friendship of Professor Henslow. At first his father ob- jected to his availing himself of it, fearing that so thorough a change of life would dissuade him from entering the church, but he at length consented and Darwin, after receiving his B. A., sailed in December, 1831, and did not return until October, 1836. Meanwhile he vis- ited Teneriffe, the Cape Verd islands, Brazil, Montevideo, Tierra del Fuego, Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso, Chili, the Galapagos, Tahiti, New Zealand, Tasmania, and the Keeling islands, in which last he started his famous theory of coral reefs. It was during this long expedi- tion that Darwin obtained that intimate knowledge of the fauna, flora, and geology of many climes which so admirably equipped him for the great task he was to perform. During the voyage he mffered lo mvmif from seasickness and encountoed such pio> longed hardship that his health wm penna- nently injured, chronic dyspepsia holdiof him a life-long victim. In resisting its effeete upon his temper it was fortunate that he was able to recall the gentle and amiable example of his university tutor. In 1839 Darwin married his couain, Pmrnit Wedgwood, and, subsequently — 1842 — selected a home at Down, in Kent, where he spent his entire life, away from the annoyanoea and distractions of great cities and surrounded by the physical and moral cnvironmenta which suited his scientific habits. In the same year he published his Journal of R^ searches, and was elected a fellow of the royal society. The Journal was a roodeit epitome of his obser^'ations made during the voyage of the Beagle. This voyage, in fact, laid the foundation of Darwin's scienti6c career, and pointed out its course. Well read in the Uterature of all branches of acienoe, animated by the "Personal Narrative" of Humboldt, and trained by Henslow to habits of cautious and acute observation of the minutest phenomena in the organic and in- organic world, he was led to seek for himself a key to the mystery which Lamarck had left unsolved when he affirmed that the similarity of organic forms was to be explained by their derivation, and their diversity by their adap- tation to the conditions of existence. His contemplation of what herein is left undefined — namely, the law by which both derivation and diversity may be accounted for — gradually cr}'stallized into a single inquiry, "How did species originate?" and it was as early as the year 1834, when he was twenty-five years old, being "much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the organic beings inhabiting South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent," he conceived that, "by patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facta that could possibly have any sort of bearing on the mat^ ter, some light might be thrown on the origin of species." He did not, however, at oooe disclose this object, which became from that time until 1859 ahnost the sole burden of his investigations. After five years' unremitting work be "allowed himself to speculate" on the sub- ject, and drew up some short reports which were pubUshed under the auspices of the 404 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT lords of the British treasury in three succes- sive parts: The StriuUure and Distrihviion of Coral Reefs, in 1842; Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands Visited during the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle, together with some Brief Notices of the Geology of AiLstralia and the Cape of Good Hope, in 1844 ; and Geological Observations on South America, in 1846. Of all his contributions to geology, Pro- fessor Geikie says that while they have not been epoch-making, "Every one of them bears the stamp of his marvelous acuteness in observation, his sagacity in grouping scat- tered facts and his unrivaled far-reaching vision that commanded all their mutual bearings as well as their place in the economy of things." The most important part of his geological work has dealt with the forces within and under the earth, those that are effective in earthquakes and volcanoes, in the elevation of mountains and the subsidence of extensive areas of the earth's surface. Out of his geological notes taken on the Beagle, he also contributed three papers to the Transac- tions of the Geological Society; one On the Connection of Volcanic Phenomena; a second On the Erratic Boulders of South America; and a third On the Geology of the Falkland Islands. Of the earliest of his geological papers, that on the Formation of Mould is especially curious as showing his unhmited patience and his painstaking habit of reaching conclusions by personal observation. This subject inter- ested him so much that, in 1842, he deposited a layer of chalk on a patch of ground, watched it constantly until 1881, and then wrote the results embodied in his last published work. Vegetable Mould. Indeed, so precise and unaffected were his methods of investigation that the passer-by, seeing the grounds and buildings around his home, would have taken him to be a gardener and cattle raiser. Occasionally he made short excursions for study and recreation, and always brought back substantial evidence of industry. In 1851 and 1854 the Ray society published Darwin's very important Monograph of the Cirripedia, two massive volumes, finely illus- trated, preserving the results of several years of close inquiry. All his works up to this point embodied in embryo the principle of natural selection, and he had also been assidu- ously accumvilating evidence for a period of twenty-five years in its direct support. With constitutional caution, however, he delayed publication of his h5T)othesis, which was pre- cipitated by accident. In 1858 Alfred Russel Wallace sent home from the Malay archipelago a memoir ad- dressed to Darwin; and this, to his surprise, Darwin found to contain in essence the main idea of his own theory of natural selec- tion. Lyell and Hooker persuaded him to read a letter of his own of the previous year simultaneously with Wallace's before the Linnaean society, which was accordingly done on July 1, 1858. Hereupon Darwin set to work seriously at once to condense his vast amount of notes, and put into shape his great work On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, published in November, 1859. The work created a profound sensation throughout the scientific and non-scientific world. The fact that the theory of evolution was an old one was forgotten; and Darwin was assailed as the inventor of that theory, while many of those who perceived that he merely suggested the method by which that theory might be brought within the page of speculative debate carried it far beyond the limits which he, with undeniable modesty and candor, had himself prescribed. That he feared and regretted the disturbance it would effect in the domain of rehgion is shown by the deprecatory extracts from Whewell, Bacon, and Butler, which precede the title- page, and by the delicacy and respect with which he met the attacks of those who accused him of promoting atheism. The Origin of Species was translated into most of the European languages; and the controversy it engendered continued with imabated vigor during the life of the naturalist, who never descended into the arena of the conflict except with a new collection of facts which seemed to sustain it. Upon the scientific doctrine laid down in The Origin of Species — particularly that of "natural selection," or the "survival of the fittest " — has been founded what is popularly known as Darwinism. The popular concep- tion, however, that Darwinism is simply the theory of evolution applied to the origin of man, is far from correct. Its novelty hes not in the conception of evolution, but in an exposition of a probable cause of evolution so clear and cogent as to remove the theory from the sphere of philosophical speculation to that of practical Ufe. The chief contents of The Origin of Species IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 40S may be briefly summed up in a few paragraphs. In this tour around the world, Darwin had been greatly struck by the many peculiarities in the geographical distribution of mammals, and the difficulty of explaining these on the hypothesis of special creation. He shows how largely these difficulties disappear if the theory of evolution is adopted. Similarly, he shows how the theory is supported by the evidence of the rocks; by the evidence derived from the structure of animals, from their life history, and from the occurrence of rudimentary organs — a characteristic other- wise so inexplicable. Subsequently the author collected a large number of facts showing the variability of domesticated and of wild animals, and in the first case emphasized the fact that man, by artificial selection, has produced new forms — for example among pigeons — which differ from one another so markedly that, if they were wild birds, they would undoubtedly be placed by ornithologists in separate species or even genera. In other words, man has, by artificial selection, produced new species. Can wild species be supposed to have arisen in a fashion at all analogous? Darwin an- swers this question in the affirmative by show- ing that organisms usually increase faster than their means of subsistence; that necessarily there must ensue a struggle for existence ; that those forms survive in which variations are in accord with the environment; that the sur- vivors transmit their characters to their de- scendants, and finally through such survivals extending over innumerable generations the characters of existing species have arisen. This is the Darwinian theory of natural selection. A point on which Darwin dwelt relatively Httle, but on which much stress has been laid in later years, is the question of the origin of the variations which form the raw material for the evolutionary process. Darwin, in The Origin of Species, accepted the Lamarckian view of the hereditary nature of the effects of use and disuse, one of the points about which fierce controversy has raged in later days ; but at first, certainly, he regarded these effects as subservient to natural selection. Speaking generally, we may say that Darwin was con- cerned with the existence, not with the cause, of variation, and with the endeavor to prove that " the same laws have acted in producing the lesser differences between species of the same genius." In other words, he strove primarily to break down the impassable bar- rier which the older lodlogbta had built up between varieties and speeifla. In apeakioc of the struggle for existence and the aunrival of the fittest, Darwin laid great streas on the organic environment of living beings, as in many cases the most important clement in deciding the result of the conflict between rival species of varieties. In the early statements of his theory, Dar- win emphasized natural selection as the chief, if not the only effective cause of the peculiari- ties, but as maintaining their efficiency in each successive generation. Subaequently, he put forward the hypothesis of sexual adeo> tion to account for certain characteristioa of the male sex, especially in birds, where the cocks have often a beauty of color and of plum- age and a power of song not apparently easy of explanation by the action of natural selec- tion alone. The hypothesis of sexual selection has been abandoned by a few avowed evolu- tionists, but is still maintained by others. Apart from the chapters in The Origin of Species bearing particularly on these biologi- cal principles, there are a nimiber of others which deal more with what may be described as the general evidences of evolution than with the theory of natural selection in par- ticular. In regard to these chapters, it can only be said that the progress of knowledge since Darwin first penned their contents has immeasurably strengthened his argiiments, and that much of this progress has been directly due to the inspiration of The Origin of Species. From the day of the publication of the latter work, Darwin continued to work on unremittingly at a great series of supple- mental treatises. The Fertilization of OrcMdt appeared in 1862, The Variation of PlanU and Animals under Domestication, in 1868, and The Descent of Man, in 1871 . The last-named work, hardly less famous than The Origin of Species, derives the human race from a hairy quadrumanous animal belonging to the great anthropoid group, and related to the progeni- tors of the orang-outang, chimpanzee, and gorilla. In it Darwin also developed his important supplementary theory of seztial selection. In addition to these volumes, his Emotion in Man and Animals was published in 1872; Insectivorous Plants, in 1875; Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom, in 1876; Forma of Flowers, in 1877; Movement in PUxnU, in 1880; and The Formation of Vegetable Mould, 406 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT in 1881. He wrote many papers, besides, on minor phases of the great scientific issues of the day. The Uterary style of his works is so simple and pleasing that he has been read with as lively interest by those who could not accept his conclusions as by his disciples; and the generosity with which he assisted all who sought his aid, his eagerness to acknowledge the merit of the work of others, his silence under personal attack, the universally ac- knowledged sincerity and love of truth in his character and in his writings, secured the esteem of his contemporaries of all schools of scientific opinion. To the end of his life he continued his painstaking researches and elaborate investigations of the facts of nature. Four years before his death, in 1878, he was accorded the honor of election to the French academy. He died at Down, near Orpington, Kent, April 19, 1882, and was honored with interment in Westminster abbey, London. Physically, Darwin presented a striking figure. Over six feet in height, with a slight stoop of his high shoulders, with a brow of unparalleled development overshadowing his merry blue eyes, and a long gray beard and moustache — he presented the ideal picture of a natural philosopher. His bearing was, however, free from all pose of superior wisdom or authority. The most charming and unaffected gayety, and an eager innate courtesy and goodness of heart were its dominant notes. His personality was no less fascinating and rare in quality than are the immortal products of his intellect. His life at Down — now a sacred shrine of naturahsts — was ideal from the point of view both of science and domesticity. In a letter to his friend. Captain Fitzroy of the Beagle, written in 1846, Darwin says, " My hfe goes on Uke clock-work, and I am fixed on the spot where I shall end it." Happily, he was pos- sessed of ample private fortune, and never imdertook any teaching work nor gave any strength to the making of money. He was able to devote himself entirely to the studies in which he took delight ; and, though suffer- ing from impaired health due to a form of dyspepsia, he presented the rare spectacle of a man of leismre more fully occupied, more absorbed in constant and exhausting labors than many a lawyer, doctor, professor, or man of letters. His voyage seems to have satisfied once for all his need for traveling, and his absences from Down were but few and brief during the rest of his hfe. Here most of his children were bom, five sons and three daughters. One Uttle girl died in childhood; the rest grew up around him and remained throughout his life in the closest terms of intimacy and affection with him and their mother. Here he carried on his experi- ments in greenhouse, garden, and paddock; here he collected his Ubrary and wrote his great books. He became a man of well- considered habits and method, carefully arranging his day's occupation so as to give so many hours to noting the results of experi- ments, so many to writing and reading, and an hour or two to exercise in his grounds or a ride, and to playing with his children. His house was large enough to accommodate several guests at a time; and it was his delight to receive here for a week's end not only his old friends and companions, but younger naturalists, and others, the com- panions of his sons and daughters. Haeckel, the noted German naturaUst, who visited him, has given this brief and vivid picture of his home and its master: "In Darwin's own carriage, which he had thought- fully sent for my convenience to the railway station, I drove one sunny morning in Octo- ber, through the graceful hilly landscape of Kent, with the chequered foliage of its woods, its stretches of purple heath, yellow broom, and evergreen oaks, arrayed in its fairest autmnnal dress. As the carriage drew up in front of Darwin's pleasant coimtry-house, clad in a vesture of ivy and embowered in elms, there stepped out to meet me from the shady porch, overgrown with creeping plants, the great naturaUst himself, a tall and vener- able figure with the broad shoulders of an Atlas supporting a world of thoughts, his Jupiter-like forehead highly and broadly arched, as in the case of Goethe, and deeply furrowed by the plow of mental labor; his kindly mild eyes looking forth imder the shadow of prominent brows; his amiable mouth surrounded by a copious silver-white beard. The cordial, prepossessing expression of the whole face, the gentle, mild voice, the slow, dehberate utterance, the natural and naive train of ideas which marked his conver- sation, captivated my whole heart in the first hour of our meeting, just as his great work had formerly, on my first reading it, taken my whole understanding by storm. I fancied a lofty world-sage out of Hellenic antiquity — HELMHOLTZ IN HIS LABORATORY From a painting IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 409 a Socrates or Aristotle — stood before me." Others have borne testimony, equally explicit, to the simple and engaging personality of the man. In later years his health became so precari- ous that he was obliged not only to suspend his work for days and even weeks, but also to limit his conversation with visitors, particu- larly if scientific topics were discussed. His wife, who, throughout their long and happy union devoted herself to the care of her hus- band so as to enable him to do a maximum amount of work with least suffering in health, would come and call him away after half an hour's talk, that he might lie down alone in a quiet room. Then after an hour or so he would return with a smile, like a boy released from punishment, and launch again with a merry laugh into talk. Never was there an invalid who bore his maladies so cheerfully, or who made so light of a terrible burden. During the hours passed in his study, even, he found it necessary to rest at intervals, and adopted regularly the plan of writing for an hour and then lying down for half an hour, while his wife and daughter read to him a novel. After half an hour he would again resume his work, and again after an hour, return to the novel. In this way he read the greater part of the circulating libraries' contents. He declared that he had no taste for literature, but liked a story, especially about a pretty girl ; and he would read only those in which all ended well. Authors of stories ending in death and failure ought, he declared, to be hung ! He rarely went to London, on accoimt of his health, and consequently kept up a vttrj large correspondence with adentifio frieodt, especiaUy with LyeU, Hooker, and Huzlqr. He made it a rule to preserve every letter he received, and his friends were earful to pre> serve his; so that in the Life and Letten, published after his death by his son Francis — who in later years lived with his father and assisted him in his work — we have a most interesting record of the progress of his speculations, as well as a delightful reveUtion of his beautiful character. " If the proper study of mankind is man," says Professor Romanes, "then Darwin has done more than any other human being to further the most desirable kind of learning, for it is through him that humanity in our generation has first been able to begin its response to the precept of antiquity — knew thyself." To this, Alfred Russel Wallace adds: "The Darwinian theory, even when carried out to its extreme logical conclunon, not only does not oppose, but lends a decided support to a belief in the spiritual nature of man. It shows us how man's body may have been developed from that of a lower animal form under the law of natural selection ; but it also teaches us that we possess intellectual and moral faculties which could not have been so developed, but must have had another origin; and for this origin we can only find an adequate cause in the unseen universe of spirit." Finally, Archdeacon Farrar says: "The glory of Charles Darwin, of which no change of view respecting his theories can rob him, is that he passed through the world with open eyes." 1821 1838 1843-48 1847 1849 1851 1855-58 1858-71 1861 HELMHOLTZ ■AGE A. D. *0* Bom at Potsdam, Prussia 1863 "SensatioM of Tom," . . ... 42 Entered the medical institute at 1867 " Physiological 0|jU» cotnpMcd. 40 Berlin 17 1871 Professor of physics at universitjr Surgeon'in the' German army, . . 22-27 of lierlin, . . . . •••••, f^ "Conservation of Force,". . . 26 1873 "Lecture* "n&icntific Subject^ M Professor of physiology at Konigs- 1883 Ennobled by the GcrmMcmneror. 62 berg- married ...... 28 1887 Director of the phvmico-technlcai Invented the ophthalmoscope,. . 30 ^ ,r.^ j*Vl^ m ?!!!f^.*!Sr*^ * ' n Professor at ui^versity of Bonn, . 34-37 1893 V"!i5«^, J;'?f V'^»^K7,!!^1!U,*IW«in « Professor at Heidelberg, .... 37-50 1894 Died at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, TO Second marriage, 40 HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON HELMHOLTZ, physiologist and physicist, and one of the most distinguished scientists of the nineteenth century, was born at Potsdam, near Berlin, Prussia, August 31, 182L His father was professor of literature in the gymnasium at Potsdam; and his mother, Caroline Penn, was the daughter of a 410 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Hanoverian artillery officer, and a lineal descendant of William Penn, the Quaker founder of Pennsylvania. His grandmother, on his mother's side, sprang from a family of French refugees. So that Helmholtz had German, English, and French blood in his veins. During the first seven years of his life he was a weakly boy, and frequently confined to his bed. When he was able to attend school he passed through the usual routine of the normal school of Potsdam, where he began the study of geometry in his eighth year, and astonished his teachers by his knowledge of many fundamental truths. A little later he acquired a great love of nature, and was especially attracted to physics. He confesses in his memoirs that while the class was read- ing Cicero or Vergil, he was often busy with illicit calculations under the desk. He had difficulty in acquiring languages, but, through the enthusiastic encouragement of his father, he became master not only of Greek, French, and English, but even of Arabic. But, though he describes his interest in the special line of study to which he subsequently adhered as "amounting even to a passion," it is evident that the passion was controlled by a strong vein of common sense. Neither at that time, nor for many years afterward, was a living to be made out of physics. The most influential member of the family was a military surgeon — Surgeon-general Mursinna — who obtained for young Helmholtz, in i 1838, admission to the royal medico-chirur- gical institute of Berlin, an academy for the medical education of youths of promise, on condition that they afterward become sur- geons in the Prussian army. The students of this institution also attended the usual course of instruction in the medical department of the university of Berlin, and were afterward attached for a time to the Charity hospital. It was not long before the characteristic bent of his mind displayed itself. He was the pupil of the distinguished physiologist, Johannes Miiller, from whose laboratory came many of the most distinguished German physiologists of the last generation; and of Gustav Magnus, the almost equally distin- guished physicist. Professor Miiller was the greatest living force in the university of Berlin, at that time, and, together with Magnus, represented a new school of thought which rebelled against the older metaphysical school. He it was, indeed, that laid the foundations of the modem school of experi- mental psychology through the publication of his great work on physiology. Under such personal stimulation, Helmholtz laid the foundation of his career. He long afterward wrote words that apply with striking force both to his great master and to himself. "When one comes into contact with a man of the first rank, his spiritual scale is changed for life. Such a contact is the most inter- esting event that life can offer." Helmholtz was graduated in medicine in 1842, at the age of twenty-one, and presented a thesis entitled De Fabrica Systematis Nervosi Evertebratorum, in which he already made an important contribution to the minute anatomy of nerve cells and fibers. From this date until 1849 he resided the greater part of the time in Berlin and vicinity. In 1843 he took up the active duties of assistant surgeon in the regiment of the Red Hussars, then stationed at Potsdam, but at the instance of Alexander von Humboldt he was relieved from military duties, and became assistant to the anatomical museum, at Berlin, lec- turer on anatomy to the academy of arts, and professor extraordinary of physiology at Albert university. The first of his scientific efforts which attracted general attention was his famous essay on the "Conservation of Force," pub- lished in 1847, when he was twenty-six years of age. This essay was first read to the physical society of Berlin, in July of that year, and it proved to be one of the epoch- making scientific contributions of the nine- teenth century. In it he enunciated — in brief — as a fundamental principle of physics, the conservation of force, just as Lavoisier, seventy years before, had made that of the persistence of matter the fundamental prin- ciple of chemistry. The line of thought which he had been following has been traced by his own hand. The study of medicine led to the problem of the nature of vital force. He convinced himself that if — as the cele- brated physiologist, Stahl, had suggested — an animal had the power now of restraining and now of liberating the activity of mechan- ical forces, it would be endowed with the power of perpetual motion. This led to the question whether perpetual motion was con- sistent with what was known of natural agencies. The essay on the " Consers'^ation of Force" was, according to Helmholtz him- self, intended to be a critical investigation IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 411 and arrangement of the facts which bear on this point, for the benefit of physiologists. In form, however, it was addressed to the physicists. It is very evident that the doctrine of the conservation of energy was of the highest importance in physiology, as it indicated the road to a thorough investigation of the nutri- tional changes occurring in living matter. These nutritional changes, if in the direction of the upbuilding of tissues, are also concerned in the storing up of energy, and if, on the contrary, they are associated with the tearing down of tissue, or, in other words, with chemical decompositions, then energy is set free as mechanical motion, heat, light, or electricity. This was only the third or fourth paper which Helmholtz had published, but his remarkable abilities were now fully rec- ognized. In 1848 the connection of Helmholtz with the army was permanently severed, and in the following year he was appointed to the chair of physiology and general pathology in the university of Konigsberg. Here he spent six busy years, fully engaged in teaching and investigation. Early in this year, also, he married Miss Olga von Velten of Potsdam, who died in 1859, leaving two children, a son and a daughter. From 1851 to 1856 his researches were mainly confined to physiological optics, with an occasional paper on electrical problems. These studies, which led to a systematic examination of the eye, resulted also in the invention of the myograph, the ophthal- mometer, and the ophthalmoscope ; and thus made it possible to investigate the inmost recesses of the living eye. The latter inven- tion has been of untold service, and its prin- ciple is something as follows : If the eye be illuminated, a portion of the light returns from the hinder surface, is brought to a focus by the lenses of the eye itself, and forms an image of the retina in external space. To see this was no easy matter. If the' patient's eye were focused on a Imninous object, the image would coin- cide with the source of light, and, even if otherwise visible, would be lost in the glare. If the patient looked elsewhere, the image would move, but, inasmuch as the lenses cannot be adjusted to the clear vision of any object nearer than about ten inches, that is the minimum distance from the eye at which it can form the image of its own retina. To sec this clearly an observer without appUanoee must place himself at least ten inchea from the image, that is, at twenty inchea from tlie patient. At that distance the view would be so limited that no result could be obtained. Helmholtz, however, convinced h im f ri f that, if these difficulties could be overcome, the image of a brightly illuminated letlna could be seen. He made the obaervatioot through a small hole in the center of a mirror, which reflected light into the eye under examination. Then by means of a lens he shifted the position of the image backward, until the relative positions of the observer and the patient were such that, according to calculation, the retina should be visible. Again and again he tried and failed, but he was convinced of the validity of the theory, and at last the experiment succeeded. From that time the oculist has been able to look into the darkness of the pupil, and see through the gloom the point of entry to the optic nerve, and the delicate network of blood vessels by which it is surrounded. Forced by his persistent work to seek com- parative rest, Helmholtz made his first visit to England in 1854, including Scotland, also, in his itinerary, and was greatly benefited in health. He confessed his disappointment in being able to meet but few scientific men during this visit ; but he fretjuently renewed his visits in subsequent years, and formed a large circle of acquaintances. There existed between him and Lord Kelvin, especially, the warmest friendship, and each had high admiration for the powers and achievementa of the other. Helmholtz was appointed professor of physiology at the university of Bonn in 1855, at thirty-five, and here he remained until 1858, when he accepted a similar chair at Heidelberg. The three years at Bonn were characterized by the same intellectual activi^ as his previous years at Konigsberg, but were devoted in the main to physiological acoustics. These investigations also extended into the period of his work at Heidelberg, and, bemdes many lesser monographs, resulted, in 1863, in his great work on the " Sensations of Tone as the Physiological Basis of Music" — Tonempfindungen ah physiologiache Grundlage fur die Theorie der Mutsik. It is almost impossible, within brief scope, to give an adequate notion of this oddi>rated physiological study. The theories advanced were novel, but, though some points are still 412 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT open to dispute, they have as a whole been generally accepted. The aim of the work was ambitious, being nothing less than the dis- covery of the physical basis of the sensations which affect us when listening to consonant and dissonant musical intervals, respectively. The general nature of the solution arrived at is now well known. If two notes, which differ but little from unison, are produced together, throbbing alternations in the intensity of the sound are heard as beats. If the interval is gradually increased, the beats become quicker, until at last they can no longer be distinguished separately. According to Helmholtz, how- ever, they produce the effect of dissonance. "The nerves of hearing," he says, "feel these rapid beats as rough and unpleasant, because every intermittent excitement of any nervous apparatus affects it more powerfully than one that lasts unaltered. Consonance is a con- tinuous, dissonance an intermittent sensation of tone." The disagreeable effect depends in part upon the number of beats, in part upon the interval between the notes which produce them, being greatest when the rapidity of the beats is neither very large nor very small, and when the interval between the two notes is not great. In applying this theory it is necessary to take into account not only the beats between the two fundamental notes, but also those due to two series of secondary sounds by which they may be accompanied. The pres- ence or absence of one of these — the so-called upper harmonic partials — depends upon the way in which the note has been obtained. They produce the differences of quality which distinguish one musical instrument from another. They are also the basis of our appreciation of the closeness of the relation- ship between the notes they accompany. The want of perfect consonance between com- pound notes is attributed to beats between those members of the two groups of sound which are not very far apart on the scale. The growing importance of these beats, as the intervals become less and less consonant, was traced with wonderful ingenuity. This theory alone would be insufficient to account for a perception of want of conso- nance between two pure notes unaccompanied by partials. To explain this, recourse was had to a second series of attendant sounds, the most important of which had been dis- covered in 1845, by Sorge, a German organist. and was well known as Tartini's tone. Helm- holtz proved that such notes would arise when the vibrating body was set in somewhat violent motion, provided that the resistances offered to equal displacements in opposite directions were unequal. Of course the air, which transmits the sounds to the ear, does not possess this property. On the other hand, the drumskin of the ear, to which the aerial vibrations are conununicated, is not sym- metrical, being bent inward by the little "hammer" bone. Helmholtz, therefore, con- cluded that it is probable that Tartini's tone is due to this membrane. From his point of view it is subjective, in the sense that it is produced within the organism, though it originates in the auditory apparatus, and not in the brain. It is, if one may use the phrase, the rattling of the machinery of the ear. Having thus accounted for the production of secondary sounds by tones which were themselves unaccompanied by partials, Helm- holtz explained our sense of the dissonance of imperfect intervals, when produced by such pure notes, by beats due to the combinational tones. But though he maintained that these theories explained the physical " reason of the melodic relationship of two tones," the author of the Toncmpfindungcn was careful to point out that the principles he enunciated had not always determined the construction of the scale, and do not determine it everywhere now. The selection of a scries of notes, which were from experience found to obey certain natural laws, was voluntary. The scale itself is not natural, in the sense that it is not a necessary consequence of the construction of the ear. On the contrary, it is the product of artistic invention. Music is thus not a mere branch of mechan- ics, but an art. The architect and the com- poser alike deal with materials which are subject to mechanical laws, but they are alike free to fashion from these, forms deter- mined, not by calculation, but by the sense of beauty. Helmholtz was at work on optics while still engaged in the study of sound. The " Hand- book of Physiological Optics " — Handbuch der Physiologischen Optik — appeared in sec- tions in 1856, 1860, and 1867. It is, as he himself has said, a complete survey of the whole field of that science. He also lectured before the royal society of Great Britain in 1864, and from 1865 to 1871 produced a series of "Lectures on Scientific Subjects" IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 41S that represent the highest class of that form of literature in any language. These were published in 1873. On the death of Professor Magnus, the physicist of the university of Berlin, it was felt that only one of two men could take his place — Kirchhoff, one of the founders of spec- trum analysis, or Helmholtz, both then at Heidelberg. The authorities would not allow Kirchhoff to leave, so the chair was offered to Helmholtz, He accepted with some reluc- tance, in 1871, for he loved the wooded hills around Heidelberg and the old romantic town as well, but he yielded to the entreaties of his friends with pride and satisfaction. He had now raised himself to the position of being the first physicist in Germany, and his fame extended throughout the entire scientific world. During the last twenty- three years of his life, he devoted his energies almost entirely to the investigation of physical problems. His contributions to the theory of electrodynamics are of the greatest impor- tance, and he carried the work begun by Clerk Maxwell to practical results equaled by no other physicist. It was through him that Hertz demonstrated the existence of the electromagnetic waves foreshadowed by Max- well. In his discussion of "monocycUc" systems and in other papers, he endeavored to find the real essence of the principle of least action, and was the first to work out explicitly the notion of the electric atom or electron. An account of these researches would far exceed the limits of this sketch, and we can only say that they may be summed up under the following heads: (1) On the conservation of energy; (2) On hydrodynamics; (3) On electrodynamics and theories of electricity; (4) On meteorological physics; (5) On optics; and (6) On the principles of dynamics. His last paper was given to the world in 1894, the year of his death, and gave an accurate expla- nation of " Sensory Impressions." From 1842 up to this year he published two hundred seventeen distinct papers and books, in which he demonstrated' a triple mastery over anat- omy, mathematics, and physics, equaled by few, and won a place on the borderland of physics, physiology, and psychology that is all his own. From 1887 until the close of his career, Helmholtz devoted much time and attention to the affairs of the Physikalisch-Technische Reichanstalt, or physico-technical institute, at Charlottenburg, near Berlin. This insti- tution — which baa since developed into cue of the most noted in the world — was pno- tically founded in 1884 by his Ufo-long friend, Werner von Siemens, the electrician and man-of-affairs, as a research laboratory^ and he was chosen its first director in the year mentioned. This did not neoeaaitate the resignation of his chair at Ikrlin, but added measurably to his administrative work to which he attached great importance bocaueo it was public work. In 1861 Helmholtz had entered upon a second marriage, when he wedded Miss Ann* von Mohl, the daughter of a Wiirttembeig family of high social position. This nuuTia({e resulted in a happy home life for him, as well as in the creation of a brilliant social, artistic, and intellectual circle. Two children were born of this union, a son and a daughter. The latter knit together the families of Siemens and Helmholtz by marrying the son of Werner von Siemens. The technical institute having become a Prussian state institution shortly after Helm- holtz assumed its direction, he was frequently brought into contact with the emperor, who received him in his domestic circle to discuss the advances of the arts and sciences. He was also warmly received by William I., during the latter years of his reign, by whom he was ennobled in 1883. Honors of all sorts, indeed, were showered upon him, and the celebration of his seventieth birthday became a national event. The tribute that was then paid to his eminence as a man of science and as an inspiring teacher was only equaled a few years ago by the ceremonies at the jubilee of his friend, Lord Kelvin. The emperor William II. sent him an autograph letter in acknowledgment of his great services to science, and conferred special honors Ujwn him. The kings of Sweden and Italy, Xhe grand duke of Baden, and the presid^t of France sent him the insignia of various orders. Representatives of academies, universitiea, and learned societies sent representativea and addresses. A Helmholtz gold medal waa struck in his honor, to be awarded from time to time for distinguished services to science, and was, at a banquet, handed to Helmholti himself as its first recipient, after a brilliant speech by his life-long friend, Du Bois Rcy- mond. At the same time a marble bust by Hildebrand was unveiled. At seventy his eye was imdimmed and his natural force was unabated, and it waa hoped 414 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT that he had yet many years before him to complete his life work by the publication of his later lectures. He attended the meeting of the British association for the advance- ment of science in Edinburgh, in 1892, in 1893 visited the World's Columbian exposition at Chicago, and afterward saw something of the grand scenery of North America and Canada. He then started on his homeward journey. Shortly before his steamer reached Ham- burg, Helmholtz had an attack of giddiness, and fell down the stair of the cabin. The injury was severe, and caused concussion of the brain, and great loss of blood from a scalp wound. He apparently recovered so far as external appearances were concerned, but those about him saw that his strength was failing. Now easily tired, work became more and more difl5cult. At last the brain that had worked so well gave way, and, in July, 1894, he had a stroke of apoplexy. He lingered for two months, patiently and calmly looking forward to the end. This came on September 8, 1894, when he had lived eight days beyond his seventy-third birthday. The personal appearance of Helmholtz was indicative of his own inner strength. Rather above the middle stature, he had a firm, erect frame. His splendid head was well thrown back, so that his posture was always sure to command attention. The shape of the head was perfect, broad between the eyes but not out of proportion. His eyes were full of intelligence, and not so brilliant as deep and reflective. They often had that far away look so conspicuous in thinkers, as if the soul were away on its own quest. His manner was dignified, almost to coldness, but it was at the same time courteous. It is said that he had occasionally a peculiar look that caused a shallow man to stop asking questions and to feel his own unworthiness. With those who were truly in earnest he would take infinite pains to explain, listen to suggestions, and remove difficulties. Reserve was his habitual attitude. To his favorite students, and in the circle of his own friends, there was always the charm of a great personality. He loved a quiet home life with the pleas- ures of congenial society and music, to which he was devoted. He was an accomplished pianist, and he sang a little, but his voice was not strong. He was also fond of moun- taineering and was an excellent swimmer. It is not necessary to define the position of Helmholtz among scientific thinkers. His works bear their own evidence. There is a general consensus of opinion that he was one of the greatest men of the nineteenth century. To find one like him in mental power and range we must go back to such intellectual giants as Descartes and Leibnitz, and, even when he is compared with them, it must not be forgotten how enormously broader was the field of science in the time of Helmholtz than in the seventeenth century. Of Helmholtz's opinions on religious ques- tions nothing can be stated with any degree of precision. Such topics were not with him subjects of conversation. But throughout his writings there breathes a spirit of rever- ence, while his noble and pure life is the highest testimony to his true worth. For such a man a time surely comes when "That in ub which thinks and that which feels Shall everlaatingly be rt'conciled, And that which questioneth with that which kneeU." The technical merits of his work will, of course, be appreciated chiefly by experts. Special knowledge is not necessary to under- stand its importance. He was one of the first to grasp the principle of the conservation of energy. He struck independently, and at a critical moment, a powerful blow in its defense. He penetrated further than any before him into the mystery of the mechanism which con- nects us with external nature through the eye and the ear. He discovered the fundamental properties of vortex motion in a perfect liquid, which have since not only been applied in the explanation of all sorts of physical phenomena, of ripple marks in the sand, and of cirrus clouds in the air, but have been the bases of some of the most advanced and preg- nant speculations as to the constitution of matter and of the luminiferous ether itself. These scientific achievements are not, per- haps, of the type which most easily conunands generation attention. They have not been utilized in theological warfare ; they have not revolutionized the daily business of the world. It will, however, be universally admitted that such tests do not supply a real measure of the greatness of a student of nature. That must finally be appraised by his power of detecting beneath the complication of things as they seem something of the order which rules things as they are. Judged by this standard, few names will take a higher place than that of Hermann von Helmholtz. IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY LORD KELVIN iU A. D. ^O, 1824 Born at Belfast, Ireland 1845 B. A., Cambridge university, . . 2i 1846-99 Professor of natural philosophy, university of Glasgow, .... 22-75 1857-58 Electrical engineer of Atlantic cables, 33-34 1865-66 Electrical engineer of Atlantic cables; knighted, 41-42 1867 Treatise on Natural Philosophy (with Professor Tait), .... 43 A. O. 1882-00 Mathematieal and Pk}fneal Paptn, 1884 ViaitcdAmcricm; lectured at JohiM Uoi)kinB univeraitv, 00 Jl^®* ^opM^^rturMOfulildirMeM, . 65-70 }f?X President of the royal aoelety, . . 66 1802 Raised to the peer^ ae thitim Lord Kelvin, .... 68 1897 and 1902 Revisited Amcricn, 73; 76 1907 Died at Largs, Scotland, 8S OIR WILLIAM THOMSON, first Lord ^ Kelvin, celebrated both as a physicist and mathematician, was born at Belfast, Ireland, June 26, 1824. His father, James Thomson, was a descendant of a Scottish farmer who had settled in County Down, Ulster, Ireland, and for many years was professor of mathematics at the royal academical institution in Belfast. William was one of seven children — four sons and three daughters. In 1832, when eight years of age, his father removed to Glasgow to accept a professorship in mathematics at the university there. He received his early education from his father, at the age of ten was sent to school, and a year or so later entered Glasgow university. Here he soon distinguished himself in mathematics, mental science, and the classics, and in 1841 he went to St. Peter's college, Cambridge. At Cambridge, as in Glasgow, he was noted for his remarkable enthusiasm and attain- ments, not in science alone, but in many other departments of scholarship. He was placed second among the wranglers, gained the highest of the mathematical honors, and received his degree of B. A. in 1845, at the age of twenty-one, and was elected fellow of his college. In social and physical recreations he participated enthusiastically, as well, and enjoyed to the full the many-sided life of the old English vmiversity. He was president of the university musical society, won the Colquhoun sculls, and rowed in his college boat when second in the Cambridge races. From Cambridge he went to Paris, studied for a time under the famous Regnault, and continued the valuable original contributions to science which he had begim at Cambridge. His early papers are remarkable and contain many germinal ideas developed in his later work. His first published paper, written at the age of sixteen and dated Frankfort, July, 1840, Glasgow, April, 1841, appeared in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal, May, 1841. It was a defense and elucidation of certain fundamental theorems in Fourier's work on harmonic analysis, the truth of which had been questioned by Kelland. This he fol- lowed up in 1842 by a paper On the Uniform Motion of Heat in Homogenous Solid Bodiu, and its Connection with the Mathematical Theory of Electricity. In this he displayed some of the spirit since recognized as characteristic of his work. Pointing out the analogy between the flow of heat in solid bodies and the theory of electric and magnetic attraction, he made use of known theorems in heat in order to obtain solutions of problems in electricity and magnetism. His results had, as he after- ward heard, been anticipated by others, but the method which he adopted was entirely original, and proved a fruitful conception in electric and magnetic problems. In 1846 he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in Glasgow university in succession to Dr. Meikleham. In the years which followed, during his early occupancy of this chair. Lord Kelvin was largely occupied, in constant association with Joule, with the development of thermodynamics, to which not his least contribution was the theory of the dissipation of energy. This was followed by investigations into electrostatics and the theory of magnetism, contact electricity, thermoelectricity, the mechanical energies of the solar system, the calculation of the tidfli, the size of atoms, and vortex motion. That which, however, directed popular attention to his scientific attainments was not so much these deep investigations as his con- nection with the more practical problems of ocean telegraphy. The possibiUty of an Atlantic cable was, in the early 'fifties of the nineteenth century, a much-discussed ques- tion ; and when the actual work of consUuo- tion began on the first cable, in 1857-58, Kelvin was given the most important post of electrical engineer to the cable company. His mathematical investigation, in fact, of the conditions governing the propagation of 416 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT signals in long submarine cables proved to be the most important contribution t^. the practi- cal solution of that problem. He showed that the retardation must be proportional to the square of the length of the cable ; and, further, he applied the theorems of Fourier to predict the degree of attenuation of the impulses on their arrival at the distant end. This was fol- lowed by his invention of the mirror galva- nometer^ and later by the siphon recorder, which he used to insure the final success of the Atlantic cables of 1865 and 1866, laid under his direction. These proved a triumph for his inventive ingenuity no less than for his mathematical skill and insight. During this momentous enterprise, his contact with nautical matters led him, also, to devise the method of taking flying soundings, and to publish a set of tables for facilitating the use of Sumner's method at sea. After the Atlantic cable, Lord Kelvin's most popular achievement was the invention of the present mariner's compass. In 1874 he began to contribute articles on the mariner's compass in Good Words, but the second article did not appear until five years later. In the interval he had been working at an improved compass of his own. He has told us how when writing the first paper he became alive to the faults of existing compasses, and set himself to produce one steadier at sea than the others, and to correct the error arising from the magnetism of the ship. "When there seemed a possibility of finding a compass which should fulfill the conditions of the problem," he writes, in his Popular Lectures and Addresses, "I felt it impossible to com- placently describe compasses which perform their duty ill, or less well than might be, through not fulfilling these conditions." He sent his compass, when completed, to Sir George Airy, the noted British astronomer, at the royal observatory, for his inspection, but Sir George, after examining it, shook his head and said, "It won't do." When Lord Kelvin heard of this he merely remarked, "So much for the astronomer-royal's opin- ion." The admiralty also rejected the inven- tion with the usual rigid intelligence of a government department ; but it was not long before his radical improvements established the superiority of his compass to all earlier forms. As early as 1842 Lord Kelvin had published the germ of his theories about the age of the earth. This was in a paper on the linear motion of heat which appeared in the Cam- bridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal. This same subject he had made the topic of his inaugural lecture in 1846, on taking up his professorship at Glasgow. He returned to it in 1876 as the theme of his address as presi- dent of the physical and mathematical section of the British association at Glasgow. To the geologists who demanded unhmited time for the operation of these formative actions, which, on the abandonment of catastrophic notions, they had assumed to proceed with constant uniformity, Lord Kelvin announced with the utmost confidence that they must hurry up their phenomena, since the age of the earth as a habitable planet, so far from being unlimited, could not possibly exceed four hundred millions of years, and was more probably within twenty millions of years. The proposition was supported by several converging lines of argument. The surface temperature could not be what it was, con- sidering the average conductivity of rocks and the gradient of temperatures found under- ground, if the cooling process had proceeded from an unlimitetlly long anterior date. The heat of the sun itself must be constantly dis- sipated, and its temperature drops ; and with the cooling of the sun the earth also cools. Its form, its relation to centrifugal forces, was incompatible with the hypothesis of an unlimited time since it was a fluid mass. The controversy which arose, as the biologists and geologists endeavored to combat these argu- ments, lasted for a quarter of a century ; and the end is indeed not yet. In 1851 Lord Kelvin, impelled by the characteristic precision of his scientific charac- ter, and urged by the needs of exact measure- ment in telegraphy, had already adopted the absolute system of measurement initiated by Gauss, and extended by Weber. In Lord Kelvin's hands the absolute system of meas- urement, and with it the adoption of the metric system of standards, became almost an article of creed. In season and out of season he urged the superiority of the decimal measures over the ordinary British ones ; and, consistently, he strove to bring all scientific measurements into terms of the fundamental metric units of length, mass and time. More- over, toward the end of the 'fifties, electric measurement, in the hands of the cable engineers, had become much developed, and instrmnents of a precision exceeding anything IN SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY 417 then known in the physical laboratory had been devised for practical use. In 1861 he secured the appointment by the British association of a committee on electri- cal standards, a committee of which Wheat- stone, Matthiessen, Fleeming Jenkin, and, later, Siemens, Clerk Maxwell, Joule, and Carey Foster were also members. Year after year this committee, with younger men added, produced its reports, with little intermission, and the system of units which it evolved is practically that which is internationally recognized and of legal force to-day. The acceptance and rapid development of the international system, based on the centimeter, the gram, and the second, is due to Lord Kelvin more than to any other man. After the adoption of the new units by the international congress at Paris in 1881, Lord Kelvin devoted much attention to the pro- duction of commercial instruments for the measurement of current, potential, and elec- tric power. Relying confidently on the right- ness of abstract principles, he produced a series of ampere balances for currents of dif- ferent strengths, thus putting into the hands of practical engineers a set of instruments of remarkably great accuracy and of remarkable range. When occupied with the tides, in the 'seventies, he had devised a machine for analyzing the harmonic components of the periodic tidal variations, the essential part of this harmonic analyzer being a mechanical integrating device of globe, disc, and cylinder, first suggested by his brother. Professor James Thomson. It seemed a bold thing to apply such mechanism to evaluate the integrals in- dicated by Fourier's analysis; but Kelvin's machine justified the hardihood of the con- ception. When in the 'eighties he had before him the problem of constructing an electricity meter which should continuously integrate the varying product of current and voltage of an electric supply, he again had recourse to the same integrating mechanism. And here it may be remarked that it is to Lord Kelvin's evidence before the British parliamentary committee, in 1879, that we owe the creation of the unit of electric energy — the value of one thousand volt-ampere-hours. It was once proposed to denominate this unit — now universally employed — by the name of one "kelvin." Lord Kelvin's innate modesty, however, caused him to reject the suggestion. But the time has since come when it is not at ] all neceasary to incorporate hia name in auch fashion into the international ^yatem. It ia already indissolubly linked with ihoae of Volta, Am|)^re, Ohm, (k)ulomb, Watt, Fara- day, Joule, Henr>', Gauss, and othen, aa the creator of the science of electricity. Of Lord Kelvin's lat«r work on molecular physics, the "tactics of a crystal," the problems of lEolotropic elaAticity in relation to optical as well as to magnetic and electric ph»> nomena, it is less easy to speak. The lecturea which he gave before the Johna Hopkina university at Baltimore in 1884 to "hia twenty-one coefficicnte " — the members of the group of accomplished physicists who then sat at his feet day after day — while he led them through the mazes of the elaatic-solid theory and the newly invented spring-shell molecule, remain a witness to his extraordi- nary fertility of intellectual resource. All hia life he had been endeavoring to discover a rational mechanical explanation for the most recondite phenomena — the mysteries of magnetism, the marvels of electricity, the difficulties of crystallography, the contradic- tory properties of ether, the anomalies of optics. And during the preceding decade he had been confronted with a great generaliza- tion which did not fit in with this method of intellectual apprehension, which had become to him instinctive. While Kelvin had been seeking to explain electricity and magnetism and light mechanic- ally, or as mechanical properties, if not of matter, at least of ether, the celebrated physicist. Clerk Maxwell, had boldly pro- pounded the electromagnetic theory of light, and had drawn all the younger men after him in acceptance of the wave theory. Lord Kelvin had never accepted Maxwell's theory; and his Baltimore Lectures, ranging from the most recondite problems of optics to specular tions on crystal rigidity and molecular dynamics, were both a criticism and a proteet regarding the ultimate dynamics of phjnrical nature. During the last few years of his Ufe Lord Kelvin himself revised theae lectures, enrich- ing them with a variety of new materials, and coordinating the old. He was intensely interested in the new problems raised by the discovery of radium; and in its astonishing property of continuously emitting heat. He combated strenuously the hypotheaia that this was to be explained by a spontaneous decomposition of the atom ; and to the 418 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT last he was seeking for other explanations. He brought to bear on these things the same illumi- nating genius,the same keen analytical instincts, that he had shown throughout his long career. The laboratory which the great professor created in Glasgow university (begun in a wine cellar) is described as the finest of its kind in existence and certainly unique. " It is a repository of the most accurate and delicate instruments of his own invention — electro- meters, compasses, sounding machines, watt- meters, and other apparatus embodying the perfection of mechanical and geometrical adjustment." The Kelvin patents are said to number upward of fifty ; and a large work- shop in Glasgow, with several hundred work- men and a staff of electricians, is still employed in their manufacture. From these, long before the end of his long life, he reaped an independent fortune, which enabled him to surround himself with all the luxury that wealth and culture, supplemented by extraor- dinary art and scientific instincts, could devise. His house adjoining the Glasgow university buildings was one of the first to be lighted in Great Britain with incandescent electric lights, if not indeed the very first, and in contradis- tinction to his private seat, "Netherhall," at Largs, used to be a verit^able home of scientific curiosities. During the latter part of his life Lord Kelvin lived much in London, where his amiable personality, as well as his scientific position, made him a very well-known figure. He was knighted in 1866, after the comple- tion of the Atlantic cable. The peerage — an unusual honor in the annals of science — was conferred on him in 1892, following his election to the presidency of the royal society in 1890; and in 1902 he was made a member of the British privy covmcil. Previously he cele- brated the jubilee of his professorship at Glas- gow, in 1896, after a magnificent service of half a century, and received from the French academy of sciences the Arago gold medal. This jubilee was perhaps the most memor- able tribute ever paid to the scientific achieve- ments of one man, and also the most singular testimony to the cohesion of men of science all over the world. Three years later he severed his long connection with the university and retired to his splendid country seat, " Nether- hall," at Largs, in Ayrshire, on the river Kelvin, from which he took his title. I Lord Kelvin paid his first visit to the United States in 1884. He attended the meeting of the British association at Montreal, Canada, in that year, and subsequently delivered a course of lectures before the Johns Hopkins university, Baltimore, which were published under the title of the BaUimore Lectures. In 1897 he again visited both Canada and the United States, and several of the leading universities of both countries. His last visit to this country was in 1902, five years before his death at Largs, on December 17, 1907. He was honored with burial at Westminster abbey, London. In 1852 he married Margaret, daughter of Walter Crum, Esquire, F. R. S. She died in 1870. Subsequently, he married a daughter of C. R. Blandy of Madeira, who shared the many scientific and social honors which his later career brought, and survived him at his death. His chief publications were a Treatise on Natural Philosophy, which he wrote in conjunction with Professor P. G. Tait, and issued in 1867 ; Mathematical and Physical Papers, published 1882-90; Popular Lectures and Addresses, 1889-94 ; Molecular Tactics of a Crystal, 1894; and the BaUimore Lectures, delivered in 1884, in the later revision of which he practically abandoned his famous vortex theory of atoms. The judgment of the future will probably rank Lord Kelvin, with Helmholtz, as one of the greatest scientific intellects of the latter half of the nineteenth century. Indeed, to two generations, if not three, of scientific men his work, his presence, his mathematical genius, his enthusiastic faith in first principles, and his unfailing gentle courtesy were an inspiration and a perpetual stimulus. For nearly sixty years he strove earnestly, patiently, incessantly and successfully to extend our knowledge of nature, and to apply it in the service of man. Besides having the power to apply theory, he had the instinct to make the application commercially practi- cable. Thus one could always see in his case a three-fold process at work ; brilliant theory, application of theory, and the business-Hke capacity to secure that the invention should be of some use to "the man in the street." There was, possibly, no one in whom these qualities were more manifestly mingled than in Lord Kelvin. ALEXANDER B. C. 356 342 338 336 335 334 333 Bom at Pella, Macedonia, ... Placed under Aristotle, .... 14 In battle of Chseronea, 18 Succeeded his father as king of Macedon 20 Subdued the Greek states; de- stroyed Thebes, 21 Led the Greeks against Persia, . 22 Defeated Darius at Issus, ... 23 THE GREAT B. C. ^Q, 332 Captured Tyre; conquered Egrpt; foundiHl Alexandria M 331 Defeated Dariua 2S 330-329 Conquered Media, ParthU, mad Bactria, 90-37 327-324 Invaded India, »-n 323 Returned to Babylon; projected fresh conquests, SS 323 Died at Babylon St ALEXANDER THE GREAT, or Alex- "**• ANDER III., of Macedon, one of the greatest military commanders of history, was born at Pella, the capital of Macedonia, in the autumn of 356 B. C. He was the son of King Phihp of Macedon, and Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus of Epirus, who claimed descent from Achilles. Endowed by nature with a happy genius, he early dis- played his great character. Philip's tri- lunphs saddened him. On one occasion he exclaimed : "My father will leave nothing for me to do." His education was committed first to Leonidas, a maternal relation, then to Lysim- achus, and, about 342 B. C, to Aristotle, This great philosopher withdrew him to a distance from the court, and instructed him in every branch of human learning, especially in what relates to the art of government, while at the same time he disciplined and invigorated his body by g3annastic exercises. As Macedon was surrounded by dangerous neighbors, Aristotle was anxious to inspire his pupil with military ardor, and with this in view recommended him to study Homer's Iliad, a revision of which he himself under- took for his use. Alexander was very fond of the Iliad, and especially of the good char- acter of Achilles. He always remained a lover of books and of knowledge, and in the course of his conquests, even, he is said to have made collections of natural history for the studies of Aristotle. Alexander was sixteen years old when his father marched against Byzantium, and left I the government in his son's hands during his absence. Two years afterward Alexander displayed singular courage at the battle of Chaeronea, 338 B. C, where he overthrew the sacred band of the Thebans, and the Mace- donian supremacy in Greece was thereby established. "My son," said Philip, as he embraced him after the conflict, "seek for thyself another kingdom, for that which I leave is too small for thee." The father and son quarreled, however, when the former repu- diated GljTnpias. Alexander took part with his mother, and fled, to escape his father's vengeance, to Epirus; but receiving his pardon soon afterward, he returned, and accompanied him in an expedition against the Triballi, when he saved his life on the field. The greatest design of Philip was to conduct an expedition of all the Greeks, under his own leadership, against the luxurious deqx)tism of Persia, which had thrown ita portentout shadow over Hellas. His ambition was to avenge the invasion of the famous Persua leaders, Darius and Xerxes — the victories of Marathon and Salamis and Mycale must be followed by Greek victories in the very heart of the invaders' own empire, so that the culture and civilization of the Greeks might thus be made safe from the fear and repetition of like perils. Accordingly, Philip was appointed com- mander-in-chief of all the Greek, or Hdlenic, forces, and had completed his preparatioiM for the Persian invasion, when he was anaM- nated. Alexander ascended the throne in 336 B. C, and immediately punished his 420 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT father's murderers. He then went into the Peloponnesus, and, in a general assembly of the Greeks, was appointed to succeed his father in command of the forces against Persia. On his return to Macedon, he found the lUyrians and TribaUi up in arms, whereupon he marched against them, forced his way through Thrace, and was everywhere vic- torious. But now the Thebans had been induced, by a report of his death, to take up arms, and the Athenians, stimulated by the eloquence of Demosthenes, were preparing to join them. To prevent this coalition, Alex- ander marched against Thebes in 335 B. C, which, refusing to surrender, was conquered, and razed to the ground ; six thousand of the inhabitants were slain, and thirty thousand sold into slavery, the house and family of the poet, Pindar, alone being spared. This; severity struck terror into all Greece. The ' Athenians were treated with more leniency, Alexander only requiring of them the banish- \ ment of Charidemus, who had been most bitter in his invectives against him. Alexander, having appointed Antipater his deputy in Europe, now prepared to prosecute the war with Persia. He crossed the Helles- pont in the spring of 334 B. C, with thirty thousand foot and five thousand horse, attacked the Persian satraps at the river Granicus, and gained a complete victory, overthrowing the son-in-law of Darius with his own lance. The only real resistance the Macedonians met with was from the Greek auxiliaries of the Persians, who were mar- shaled in phalanxes under the command of Memnon of Rhodes, but finally they were all slain except two thousand, who were taken prisoners. Alexander celebrated the obse- quies of his fallen warriors in a splendid manner, and bestowed many privileges on their relations. Most of the cities of Asia Minor, Sardis not excepted, opened their gates to the conqueror, nor did Miletus or Halicarnassus offer longer resistance. Alexander now restored democracy in all the Greek cities, and proceeded to the con- quest of Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cappadocia, cutting the Gordian knot with his sword as he passed through Gordiimi. His career was checked for a time by a dan- gerous illness, brought on by bathing in the Cydnus. On this occasion he received a letter from Parmenio, insinuating that Philip, his physician, intended to poison him, having been bribed by Darius. Alexander handed the letter to Philip, and at the same time swallowed the draught which had been pre- pared for him. As soon as he recovered and had been joined by reinforcements from Macedon, he advanced toward the defiles of Cilicia, in which Darius had stationed himself with an army of six hundred thousand men. He arrived in November, 333 B. C, in the neighborhood of Lssus, where a famous battle took place between the Greeks and the Persians. The disorderly masses of the Persians were thrown into confusion by the charge of the Macedonians, and fled in terror. On the left wing, thirty thousand Greeks in the pay of the Persian king held out longer, but they, too, were at length compelled to yield. All the treasures as well as the family of Darius fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treated the latter with the greatest mag- nanimity. The king, who fled toward the Euphrates, twice made overtures of peace, which Alex- ander haughtily refused, saying that Darius must regard him as the ruler of Asia, and the lord of all his people. One of the conditions of the second overture was that Alexander should possess all Asia west of the Euphrates. On hearing this his general, Parmenio, exclaimed: "I would do it, if I were Alex- ander." "So would I," repUed the monarch, "if I were Parmenio." The victory at lssus opened the whole country to the Macedonians, and decided the fate of the Persian empire. Alexander now turned toward Syria and Phoenicia, to cut off Darius' escape by sea. He occupied Damascus, where he found princely treasures, and secured to himself all the cities along the shores of the Mediterranean. Tyre, con- fident in its strong position, resisted him, but was conquered and destroyed, after seven months of incredible exertion, in 332 B. C. Thence Alexander marched victoriously through Palestine, where all the cities sub- mitted to him except Gaza, which shared the same fate as Tyre. The story told by Josephus that, on his way to Egypt, he visited Jerusalem is not confirmed by other historians. Egypt, weary of the Persian yoke, welcomed him as a deliverer. In order to strengthen his dominion here, he restored all the old customs and religious institutions of the country, and in the 5'^ear 332 B. C. founded Alexandria, which became IN POLITICS m. one of the first cities of ancient times. Thence he marched through the Libyan desert, in order to consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, whose priest saluted him as a son of Jove. Meanwhile, Darius had assembled another army, and at the return of spring Alexander went against him in Assyria. A battle ensued in October, 331 B. C, on the plains of Arbela, or rather Gaugamela, for Arbela, the point to which Alexander pursued the Persians, is fifty miles from the scene of the fight. Notwithstanding the immense superi- ority of his adversary, who had an army said to have amounted to more than one million men, Alexander was not for a moment doubt- ful of victory. Heading the cavalry himself, he rushed on the Persians, and put them to flight; but, as soon as he had entirely dis- persed them, he hastened to the assistance of his left wing, which, in the meantime, had been sorely pressed. He was anxious to make a prisoner of the Persian king himself, but the latter escaped by flight on horseback to Ecbatana (Hamadan), in Media, leaving his baggage and all his treasures a prey to the conqueror. During the following two years Media, Parthia, and Bactria had fallen before him. Alexander, as the conqueror of Asia, now assumed the pomp and splendor of an Eastern despot, and, proceeding to Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, was received by the inhabit- ants as their undoubted sovereign. His marvelous successes began to dazzle his own judgment, and to inflame his passions. He became a slave to debauchery, and his caprices were as cruel as they were ungrateful. In a fit of drimkenness, and at the instigation of Thais, an Athenian courtesan, he set fire to Persepolis, the wonder of the world, and reduced it to a heap of ashes ; then, ashamed of his deed, he set out with his cavalry to pursue Darius. Learning that Bessus, the satrap of Bactriana, held the king a prisoner, he hastened his march in the hope of saving him, but he foutfd him mortally wounded on the frontiers of that country, 330 B. C. He mourned over his unfortunate enemy, and caused his body to be buried with all the usual rites observed in Persia ; but he pursued Bessus, who himself aspired to the throne, through Hyrcania, Iran, Bactriana, over the Oxus to Sogdiana (now Bokhara), whose satrap, Spitamenes, surrendered Bessus to him. Having discovered a conspiracy in which the son of Pannenio wu implicated, he put both father and son to death, thm^ Pannenio himself was innooeat of all knowl- edge of the affair. This cruel injuitiee excited universal displeasure. In 329 B. C. he penetrated to the furtheek known limits of northern Asia, and over- threw the Scythians on the banks of the Jaxartes. In the following year he subdued the whole of Sogdiana, and married Ronon, whom he had taken prisoner. She wmm the daughter of Oxyartes, one of the enemy's captains, and was said to be the handsomest of the virgins of Asia. A new conspinejr broke out against Alexander, at the head of which were Hermolaus and Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, which occasioned the death of many of the culprits ; while Oallie- thenes himself was mutilated, and carried about in an iron cage through the army, until some one put an end to his sufferings by poison. In the year 327 B. C. Alexander proceeded to the conquest of India, then known only by name. He crossed the Indus near to the modern Attock, and pursued his way under the guidance of a native prince to the Hydas- pes (modern Jhelum), where he was opposed by Porus, another native prince, whom he overthrew after a bloody contest. Thenoe he marched as lord of the country throu^ that part of India which is now called the Punjab, establishing Greek colonies. He then wished to advance to the Ganges and conquer the whole of India, but the general murmuring of his troops obliged him, at the Hyphasis (modem Sutlej), to commence hie retreat. Returning to the Hydaspes, he there built a fleet and sailed down the river, receiving, as he proceeded, the submission of the inhab- itants on either side. He then marched through the deserts of Gedroeia into Persia, the hardships of this march costing him enormous losses. Meanwhile, his friend, Nearchus, who was made admiral of the fleet, had successfully accomplished the hazardous voyage from the Indus up the Persian gulf to the Euphrates. They met again at Susa, where rest was to be taken, and some important measures to be adopted with a view to as complete a union as possible of the Greek and Asiatic races. One of these measures was the inter- marriage of the Macedonian soldiers with Asiatic women. A great festival was held, 422 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT in which Alexander set the example by marrying Statira, daughter of Darius, his principal officers taking as their wives noble Persian and Median ladies. Ten thousand private soldiers followed these high examples. Susa witnessed, also, another astonishing spectacle of a very different kind — the volun- tary death of the Indian philosopher, Calanus, by burning on a funeral pile. He was past seventy, and, being seized with illness for the first time, chose to die rather than prolong a useless life by artificial means. Alexander had now shortly to deal with serious discontents among his troops. A mutiny broke out, which by remorseless resolution he quelled, and ten thousand veterans were discharged. After this he marched to Ecbatana, where his special friend, Hephaestion, died; and in the spring of 323 B. C. he returned to Babylon, which was to be the capital of his vast empire. He had now attained the climax of his glory; but there were signs that he had not passed unharmed through the ordeal of success. His grief over the death of Hephaestion was carried to a wild excess; and the mourning and funeral ceremonies were on a scale of stupendous extravagance. For himself he now claimed divine honors, and they were conceded. But energy and activity did not fail. His imagination was busy with vast new projects, and his subjects were prepar- ing to carry them out. He was contem- plating, and would doubtless have effected, the conquest of Carthage and of Italy, where Rome had just entered on the Samnite war. He was gay at banquets and drank to excess. Meanwhile, there were fluttering about him presages and omens that gave him pause; fever laid its hand upon him. On the twentieth day of his illness he ordered his bed to be moved near the great bath. Here he talked to his generals about vacan- cies in the armies, desiring them to be filled with experienced officers. On the twenty- fourth day he was much worse, but was carried to assist at the sacrifice. On the twenty-eighth, in the year 323 B. C, he died ; and shortly thereafter his body was deposited in a golden coffin at Alexandria, by Ptolemaeus. The life of Alexander forms an important epoch in the history of mankind, and marks the zenith of Macedonian power. His life reached scarcely thirty-three years. His reign was less than thirteen. Such achievements as his in so brief a space are unparalleled. Before the Macedonian era, Greece, so far from doing anything toward incorporating the ancient world, had utterly failed in the necessary preliminary of unifying herself. Nay, she had become more and more incap- able of it ; for if it had ever been possible it was at the moment of the repulse of Xerxes. After Epaminondas, every Greek community was stale and used up. Yet never was Greece more military. Only, instead of serving as citizen soldiers, the warlike spirits were mercenaries roaming over Greece and Asia, and ready to fight for any one who would pay them. It was time that the task of incorporation should be taken up from without. The Macedonians were of the same stock as the Greeks. Their language probably did not differ from Greek more than French does from Italian. Their manners and institutions were simply those of the Homeric age. In short, they were just backward Greeks. Yet in the eyes of their vain and arrogant kins- men they were foreigners speaking an out- ! landish jargon, and therefore to be classed i with Persians and Thracians as outside the pale of civilization. But they only needed access to the sea, from which they had been j at first cut off by a coast-fringe of Greek settlements, to make a rapid rise in civiliza- tion; moreover, they had two qualifications for empire which no Greek state possessed — incontestable superiority in strength and stable political institutions. If the Greeks could have purged themselves of their paltry conceit and dropped their petty conception of nationality, they might have settled down into a confederacy under the leadership of Macedon, perhaps have escaped the more alien domination of Rome later, and thereby have changed the entire course of European history. Alexander, both by arms and policy, brought for the first time the East and the West into close contact. He acted on the only principle by which races can be moulded together, and in the perception of harmony in diversity he showed that he had not sat I at the feet of Aristotle in vain. Unlike other Asiatic conquerors, his progress was marked by much more than devastation and ruin; at every step of his coxirse the Greek language and civilization took root and flourished. His empire, it is true, was broken up. It was divided by his generals into several kingdoms, the chief of which, Macedon, Syria, 426 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT married Caius Marius, the celebrated Roman consul. At an early age Caesar entered upon the active duties of a Roman citizen. The two circumstances which are said to have brought him early into sympathy with the Roman democracy, and against a republican oli- garchy, were, first, the marriage of his aunt to Marius, and, second, his own marriage — when but seventeen — to Cornelia, daughter of Lucius Cinna, leader of the people. This connection exposed him to the greatest danger. His father-in-law was the deadly enemy of Sulla, and the latter wreaked on the head of Caesar the vengeance which circum- stances prevented him from inflicting upon the heads of the opposing faction. When ordered to put away his wife, Caesar refused to obey. His wife's fortune was confiscated, he was deprived of the office of priest in the temple of Jupiter Flamens, and escaped death only through what Sulla deemed the weak intercession of his enemies. That relentless despot saw and foretold the greatness which was destined to overshadow many nations, and one day to become fatal to its possessor. The overthrow of the aristocratic party seems from the first to have been the settled purpose of Caesar. He saw that no permanent government was possible while the rule of Rome was in the hands of alternate factions, whose equal atrocities more than compen- sated for the absence of the foreign invader. The existing virtue was in all cases sought to be corrupted or destroyed; the genius of youth was either won over to the fidvocacy of party, or ruthlessly trodden out of sight. Patriotism was unknown, purity of soul impossible, except in the instances of lowly men. If not beyond the province of human inquiry, it is yet beyond its reach to ascer- tain how far Caesar was guided by loftier motives, and what portion of his conduct was owing to the baser impulses of selfish ambition. The interference of Sulla w^as of much advantage to Caesar, as it removed him from the sphere of action at a time when his exer- tions would have been fruitless, and gave him leisure for cultivating those powers of mind which he brought into effective play in subse- quent years. With the exception of a single campaign against the king of Bithynia in 81 B. C. — in which he took part — Caesar had no opportunity to distinguish himself in arms during the flower of his youth. On his return to Rome on the death of Sulla, 78 B. C, he found the popular party in a state of great ferment, and anxious to regain what it had lost under the vigorous despotism of the aristocratic dictator. Caesar, however, took no part in the attempts of Lepidus to overthrow the oligarchy; but he showed his political leanings by prosecuting, in 77 B. C, Cornelius Dolabella — son-in-law of Cicero, and a great partisan of Sulla — for extortion in his province of Macedonia. To improve his eloquence, he went to Rhodes to study under the rhetorician, Apollonius Molo. In 74 B. C. Caesar returned to Rome, where he had been elected pontifex, and for the first time threw himself earnestly into public life. In the year 70 B. C. he first attached himself to Pompey, whose political actions at this time were of a decidedly democratic character. In 68 B. C. he obtained a quaes- torship in Spain, and during the same year his wife CorneUa died. On his return to Rome in 67 B. C. he married Pompeia, a relative of Pompey, with whom he was daily becoming more intimate. In 65 B. C. he entered ujxjn the office of curile aedile, and lavished vast sums of money on games and public build- ings, by which he increased his already great popularity. For the next few years Ca;sar is found steadily skirmishing on the popular side. In 63 B. C. he was elected pontifex maximus, and shortly after, praetor. During the same year occurred the famous debate on the CatiUne conspiracy, in which the aristo- cratic party vainly endeavored to persuade the consul, Cicero, to include Caesar in the list of conspirators. In 62 B. C. Pompey returned from the East, and disbanded his army. Next year Caesar obtained the prov- ince of Hispania Ulterior. His career in Spain was brilliant and deci- sive, and on his return he was elected consul, along with M. Calpurnius Bibulus. Shortly before the passing of the agrarian law — in 59 B. C. — Caesar, with rare tact and sagacity, had reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome, Pompey and Crassus, who were then at variance, and had formed an alliance with them, known in history as the first triumvirate, 60 B. C. Both of these distinguished men aided him in carrying his agrarian law; and to strengthen still further the imion which had been formed, he gave Pompey his daughter Julia in marriage, though she had been promised to Marcus Brutus, while he himself married Calpumia, daughter of L. Piso, his successor in the consulship. IN POLITICS 127 On the expiration of his term of office Caesar then obtained for himself, by the popu- lar vote, the province of Gallia Cisalpina and lllyricum for five years, to which the senate added — to prevent the popular assembly from doing so — the province of Gallia Trans- alpina. Nothing could have been more favorable for CjEsar's aims. He had now an opportunity of developing his extraordinary military genius, and of gathering round him an army of veterans, whom perpetual victory should inspire with thorough soldierly fidelity and devotion to his person. This was the very thing he wanted to give him a reputation equal to that of his coadjutors, Pompey and Crassus, whom, in genius, he far surpassed. Leaving, therefore, the political factions at Rome to exhaust themselves in petty strifes, in 58 B. C, after the banishment of Cicero, he repaired to his provinces, and during the next nine years conducted those splendid cam- paigns in Gaul, by which, had he done nothing else, he would have "built himself an ever- lasting name." Ceesar's first campaign was against the Helvetii, whom he totally defeated near Bibracte. Out of three hundred sixty-eight thousand only one hundred ten thousand remained. These were commanded by Caesar to return home and cultivate their lands. The eyes of the Gauls were now turned upon the new conqueror. His help was solicited, and this involved Csesar in a second war with a German prince, named Ariovistus, who was utterly overthrown. Having in the course of one campaign successfully concluded two important wars, he led his troops into winter quarters. Next year — 57 B. C. — occurred the Belgic war, in which Caesar successively routed the Suessiones, Bellovaci, Ambiani, and Nervii, who, alarmed at the progress of the Roman arms, had entered into an alliance with each other against the invaders. When the senate received Caesar's official despatches, it decreed a thanksgiving qf fifteen days — an honor never previously granted to any other general. During the winter and the spring following, Caesar stayed at Lucca ; and, after spending large sums of money in hospitality, and in other less praiseworthy purposes, he departed for Gaul, where the flames of war had burst out in the northwest. The Veneti, a mari- time people of Brittany, were the chief insti- gators of the insurrection. Caesar's plans were laid with consunmiate skill, and were crowned with the most spiendid succeas. The Veneti were totally defeated, and most of the other Gallic tribes were either diecked or sulxlued. Casar wintered in the country of the Aulerci and Lexovii (Normandy), hav- ing, in the course of three campaigns, con- quered the whole of Gaul. In the year 55 B. C. Crassus went to Syria, and Pompey to Spain, while Caisar's pro- vincial government was prolonged for five years. He now imdertook a fourth campaign against two German tribes which were about to enter Gaul. He was again successful ; and, pursuing the fleeing enemy across the Rhine, spent eighteen days in plundering the district. He next invaded Britain, about the autumn ; but, after a brief stay in the island, returned to Gaul. The Roman senate, astonished at his hardihood and his successes in regions where no Roman army had ever been before, accorded him a public thank^ving of twenty days. In 54 B. C. Ca»sar opened his fifth campaign by a second invasion of Britain. On his return to Gaul, he was compelled — on account of the scarcity of corn, arising from drought — to winter his army in divi- sions. This naturally aroused the hopes of the Gauls, who thought the time had come for recovering their independence. An insur- rection broke out in the northeast of Gaul, which was at first partially successful, but was ultimately crushed. Caesar resolved to winter at Samarobriva (Amiens), in the vicinity of the malcontents. In 53 B. C. Caesar commenced his sixth campaign. It was chiefly occupied in crush- ing a second insurrection of the Gauls. He now returned to northern Italy, that he might be able to communicate more easily and securely with his friends at Rome. That city was gradually becoming more anarchic, the evils of weak government more apparent ; the hour for decisive action seemed to be approaching, and doubtless Ca»ar's heart beat with expectation of the mighty future, when all at once the plot that fate was weaving in his favor appeared to be completely marred by a tremendous rebellion over the whole of Gaul, headed by a young warrior named Vercingetorix. It was in the dead of winter when the news came to Caesar, who instantly saw that at all hazards he must preserve his fame and his army. Leaving Pompey to succeed at Rome, he hurried, therefore, to meet the insur- gent hordes. His great diflficulty was to 428 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT collect his scattered legions. First crossing, with some Cisalpine and provincial troops, the mountains of Auvergne, though they lay six feet in snow, he suddenly appeared among the Arvemi, who, terrified at his unexpected approach, sent for their chief, Vercingetorix, to come to their assistance. This was what Caesar wished. After some wonderful exhi- bitions of military skill, and numerous suc- cesses, Vercingetorix was shut up in Alesia (Alise in Burgundy) with all his infantry. Caesar besieged him, and, though harassed by nearly three hundred thousand Gauls with- out, who attempted, but in vain, to break through the well-defended Roman Unes, forced Vercingetorix to capitulate. Many of the tribes now hastened to submit to Caesar, who prudently determined to winter among the vanquished. The senate voted him another public thanksgiving. In the year 51 B. C. Caesar proceeded to quell the tribes who still held out. This he successfully accomplished, and, having in addition reduced the whole of Aquitania, passed the winter of his eighth campaign in Belgium, where he spent the time both in a magnanimous and politic manner. The GaUic princes were courteously and generously treated ; the common people were spared the imposition of further taxes, and everything was done to render it possible for him to visit Italy with safety in the spring. On his return he took up his residence at Ravenna, where he was informed of everything that was going on by the tribune, C. Curio. There can be no doubt that at this moment he was the most popular man in the state, while his soldiery were devoted to him with a loyalty as enthu- siastic as that which Bonaparte inspired when fresh from his Italian victories. Meanwhile, Pompey, whose vanity could not endure the greatness of Caesar, had been gradually veering round again to the aristoc- racy, whose dread of the new conqueror was hourly increasing. After much futile diplo- matic finessing on all sides, the senate carried a motion that Caesar disband his army by a certain day, and that if he did not do so, he should be regarded as an enemy of the state. The tribunes, Mark Antony and Q. Cassius, put their veto on this motion ; but they were violently driven out of the senate chamber, and, fearing for their lives, they fled to Caesar's camp. The senate, in the madness of their terror, now declared war, and intrusted the conduct of it to Pompey, whose pride in the invinci- bihty of his military prowess hindered him from taking the necessary measures for the defense of the state. He fancied that his name would bring thousands to his standard, and he was even led to believe that Caesar's troops were willing to desert their general. The result of this delusion was, that when hos- tilities formally commenced, Pompey had hardly any soldiers except two legions, which had recently been in the service of his rival. Caesar, on the other hand, perceiving that the time for decisive action had at length come, harangued his victorious troops, who were willing to follow him anywhere, crossed the Rubicon (a small stream which separated his province from Italy proper), and moved swiftly, amid the acclamations of the people, toward Rome. Pompey fled to Bnmdisium, pursued by Caesar, but contrived to reach Greece in safety, March 17, 49 B. C. The Italian cities had everywhere gladly opened their gates to the conqueror as a deliverer. In three months Caesar was maater of all Italy. Caesar next subdued Pompey's I^ates in Spain, who were at the head of considerable forces. On his return he took Maasilia, where he learned that he had been appointed dictator of the republic — an office which at this time he retained for only eleven days, but these were honorably distinguished by the passing of several humane enactments. Pompey, now thoroughly aUve to the magni- tude of his danger, had gathered a powerful army in Egypt, Greece, and the East, while his fleet swept the sea. Caesar, however, crossing the Adriatic at an unexpected season, made a rush for Dyrrhachium, where he be- seiged Pompey, who had intrenched his army on some high ground near the city. The first encounter was favorable to Pompey, who drove back Caesar's legions with much loss. The latter now retreated to Thessaly, followed by his exulting enemies. A second battle ensued on the plains of Pharsalia on August 9, 48 B. C. Pompey's army was utterly routed, and he himself fled to Egypt, where he was murdered. No sooner had the news reached Rome than Caesar was again appointed dictator for a year, and consul for five years. He was invested with the power of a tribune for hfe, and with the right of holding all the magisterial assem- blies except those for the election of the plebeian tribimes. He did not, however, IN POLITICS 420 return to Rome after the battle of Pharsalia, but went to Egypt, then in a distracted con- dition on account of the disputes regarding the succession. Here, out of love for Cleo- patra, he entered upon the Alexandrine war, in which he waa successful, and which he brought to a close in March, 47 B. C. Subsequently he overthrew a son of Mith- ridates, near Zela, in Pontus, August 2d of the same year, and arrived in Rome in September. He was once more appointed dictator, and the property of Pompey was confiscated and sold. Before the close of the year he had set out for Africa, where his campaign against the Pompeian generals, Scipio and Cato, was crowned with victory at the battle of Thapsus, on April 6, 46 B. C. Cato committed suicide at Utica. With such irresistible celerity was the work of subjugation carried on that by the end of the summer Csesar was again in Rome. He was not a man that could stoop to the vulgar atrocities of Marius or Sulla, so he majestically declared that henceforth he had no enemies, and that he would make no difference between Pom- peians and Caesarians. His victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa were celebrated by four great trimnphs, during which the whole Roman populace was feasted and feted by the magnificent liberality of the dictator. He had now demolished the government of the nobles, and he proceeded to check by wholesome enactments, as far as in him lay, the social evils which had long flourished in the city. During the year 46 B. C, also, he conferred a benefit on Rome and on the world by the reformation of the calendar, which had been greatly abused by the pontifical college for political purposes. After quelling an insurrection which now broke out in Spain, where Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus, had collected an army, he received the title of "father of his coimtry," and also of impera- tor, was made dictator and prcefectiis morum for life, and consul for ten years ; his person was declared sacred, and even divine ; he obtained a bodyguard of knights and senators; his statue was placed in the temples ; his portrait was struck on coins ; the month Quintilis was called Julius in his honor; and on all public occasions he was permitted to wear the triumphal robe. At the festival of Lupercalia, Mark Antony, his devoted adherent, even publicly offered him a regal crown, but Csesar, noting that the name of king was odioua lo the multitude, refused it. Caesar now proposed to make a digatt of Um whole Roman law for public use, to found libraries for the same purpose, to drain tha Pontine marshes, to enlan?e the harbor of Ostia, to dig a canal through the isthmus of Corinth, and to quell the inroads of the bar> barians on the eastern frontiera; but in the midst of these vast designs he was cut off by assassination on the Ides (15th) of Maroh. 44 B.C. The details of the crime — the greatest disaster that could have befallen the Roman world, as subsequent events showed — are too familiar to require narration. It is suf- ficient to say that, of the sixty aristocrats who were in the conspiracy, many had partaken of Caesar's generosity, and all of his clemency. A few, like Brutus, out of a weak and formal conscientiousness, based on theory rather than insight, were probably offended by Caesar's desire to change the form of govern- ment into a hereditary monarchy; but the most, like Cassius, were inspired by a spleenful hatred of the dictator, and the base ambition of regaining power at all hazards. Caesar, who was about fifty-six years of age when he was murdered, was of noble and kingly presence, tall of stature, and possessed a countenance, which, though pale and thin with thought, was always animated by the light of his black eyes. He was bald-headed (at least in the latter part of his life), wore do beard, and, though of a rather delicate con- stitution naturally, he ultimately attained to the most vigorous health. His besetting sin was sensuality ; but, without detracting from the criminality of his conduct in this reqwct, it may be said that it was as much the sin of the times in which he lived as his own, and that the superlative grandeur of his position gave a prominence to his irregularities which a more humble lot would have escaped. The military fame of Cosar, thou^ the greatest of Roman generals, would hardly have procured for his memory the honors which have been awarded to it by posterity, had not the skill of the warrior been united in his person with the genius of the writer and the sagacity of the statesman. His intellect was marvelously versatile. He excelled in everything. He was not only the first general and statesman of his age, but he was — eac- cepting Cicero — its grei^est orator. As a historian, he has never been muptmed nnd 428 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT collect his scattered legions. First crossing, with some Cisalpine and provincial troops, the mountains of Auvergne, though they lay six feet in snow, he suddenly appeared among the Arverni, who, terrified at his unexpected approach, sent for their chief, Vercingetorix, to come to their assistance. This was what Csesar wished. After some wonderful exhi- bitions of mihtary skill, and numerous suc- cesses, Vercingetorix was shut up in Alesia (Alise in Burgundy) with all his infantry. Csesar besieged him, and, though harassed by nearly three hundred thousand Gauls with- out, who attempted, but in vain, to break through the well-defended Roman Unes, forced Vercingetorix to capitulate. Many of the tribes now hastened to submit to Caesar, who prudently determined to winter among the vanquished. The senate voted him another public thanksgiving. In the year 51 B. C. Caesar proceeded to quell the tribes who still held out. This he successfully accomplished, and, having in addition reduced the whole of Aquitania, passed the winter of his eighth campaign in Belgium, where he spent the time both in a magnanimous and politic manner. The Gallic princes were courteously and generously treated ; the common people were spared the imposition of further taxes, and everything was done to render it possible for him to visit Italy with safety in the spring. On his return he took up his residence at Ravenna, where he was informed of everything that was going on by the tribune, C. Curio. There can be no doubt that at this moment he was the most popular man in the state, while his soldiery were devoted to him with a loyalty as enthu- siastic as that which Bonaparte inspired when fresh from his Italian victories. Meanwhile, Pompey, whose vanity could not endure the greatness of Caesar, had been gradually veering round again to the aristoc- racy, whose dread of the new conqueror was hourly increasing. After much futile diplo- matic finessing on all sides, the senate carried a motion that Csesar disband his army by a certain day, and that if he did not do so, he should be regarded as an enemy of the state. The tribunes, Mark Antony and Q. Cassius, put their veto on this motion ; but they were violently driven out of the senate chamber, and, fearing for their lives, they fled to Caesar's camp. The senate, in the madness of their terror, now declared war, and intrusted the conduct of it to Pompey, whose pride in the invinci- bility of his military prowess hindered him from taking the necessary measures for the defense of the state. He fancied that his name would bring thousands to his standard, and he was even led to believe that Caesar's troops were willing to desert their general. The result of this delusion was, that when hos- tilities formally commenced, Pompey had hardly any soldiers except two legions, which had recently been in the service of his rival. Caesar, on the other hand, perceiving that the time for decisive action had at length come, harangued his victorious troops, who were willing to follow him anywhere, crossed the Rubicon (a small stream which separated his province from Italy proper), and moved swiftly, amid the acclamations of the people, toward Rome. Pompey fled to Brundisium, pursued by Caesar, but contrived to reach Greece in safety, March 17, 49 B. C. The Italian cities had everywhere gladly opened their gates to the conqueror as a deliverer. In three months Caesar was master of all Italy. Caesar next subdued Pompey's legates in Spain, who were at the head of considerable forces. On his return he took Massilia, where he learned that he had been appointed dictator of the republic — an office which at this time he retained for only eleven days, but these were honorably distinguished by the passing of several humane enactments. Pompey, now thoroughly ahve to the magni- tude of his danger, had gathered a powerful army in Egypt, Greece, and the East, while his fleet swept the sea. Caesar, however, crossing the Adriatic at an tmexpected season, made a rush for Dyrrhachium, where he be- seiged Pompey, who had intrenched his army on some high ground near the city. The first encounter was favorable to Pompey, who drove back Caesar's legions with much loss. The latter now retreated to Thessaly, followed by his exulting enemies. A second battle ensued on the plains of Pharsalia on August 9, 48 B. C. Pompey's army was utterly routed, and he himself fled to Egypt, where he was murdered. No sooner had the news reached Rome than Csesar was again appointed dictator for a year, and consul for five years. He was invested with the power of a tribtme for life, and vnih the right of holding all the magisterial assem- blies except those for the election of the plebeian tribunes. He did not, however, IN POLITICS 4» return to Rome after the battle of Pharsalia, but went to Egypt, then in a distracted con- dition on account of the disputes regarding the succession. Here, out of love for Cleo- patra, he entered upon the Alexandrine war, in which he was successful, and which he brought to a close in March, 47 B, C. Subsequently he overthrew a son of Mith- ridates, near Zela, in Pontus, August 2d of the same year, and arrived in Rome in September. He was once more appointed dictator, and the property of Pompey was confiscated and sold. Before the close of the year he had set out for Africa, where his campaign against the Pompeian generals, Scipio and Cato, was crowned with victory at the battle of Thapsus, on April 6, 46 B. C. Cato committed suicide at Utica. With such irresistible celerity was the work of subjugation carried on that by the end of the summer Caesar was again in Rome. He was not a man that could stoop to the vulgar atrocities of Marius or Sulla, so he majestically declared that henceforth he had no enemies, and that he would make no difference between Pom- peians and Csesarians. His victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa were celebrated by four great triumphs, during which the whole Roman populace was feasted and feted by the magnificent liberality of the dictator. He had now demolished the government of the nobles, and he proceeded to check by wholesome enactments, as far as in him lay, the social evils which had long flourished in the city. During the year 46 B. C, also, he conferred a benefit on Rome and on the world by the reformation of the calendar, which had been greatly abused by the pontifical college for pohtical purposes. After quelling an insurrection which now broke out in Spain, where Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus, had collected an army, he received the title of "father of his country," and also of impera- tor, was made dicjtator and prcefedus morum for life, and consul for ten years ; his person was declared sacred, and even divine ; he obtained a bodyguard of knights and senators; his statue was placed in the temples ; his portrait was struck on coins ; the month Quintilis was called Julius in his honor; and on all pubhc occasions he was permitted to wear the triumphal robe. At the festival of Lupercalia, Mark Antony, his devoted adherent, even publicly o£Fered him a regal crown, but Caesar, noting that the name of king was odious to the multitude, refused it. Caesar now proposed to make a digest of the whole Roman law for public use, to found Ubraries for the same purpose, to drain the Pontine marshes, to enlarge the hariwr of Ostia, to dig a canal through the istlmius of Corinth, and to quell the inroads of the bar- barians on the eastern frontiers; but in the midst of these vast designs he was cut off by assassination on the Ides (15th) of March, 44 B.C. The details of the crime — the greatest disaster that could have befallen the R(muui world, as subsequent events showed — are too familiar to require narration. It is suf- ficient to say that, of the sixty aristocrats who were in the conspiracy, many had partaken of Caesar's generosity, and all of his clemency. A few, like Brutus, out of a weak and formal conscientiousness, based on theory rather than insight, were probably offended by Caesar's desire to change the form of govern- ment into a hereditary monarchy; but the most, like Cassius, were inspired by a spleenful hatred of the dictator, and the base ambition of regaining power at all hazards. Caesar, who was about fifty-six years of age when he was murdered, was of noble and kingly presence, tall of stature, and possessed a countenance, which, though pale and thin with thought, was always animated by the light of his black eyes. He was bald-headed (at least in the latter part of his life), wore no beard, and, though of a rather delicate con- stitution naturally, he ultimately attained to the most vigorous health. His besetting sin was sensuality ; but, without detracting from the criminality of his conduct in this respect, it may be said that it was as much the sin of the times in which he lived as his own, and that the superlative grandeur of his position gave a prominence to his irregularities which a more humble lot would have escaped. The military fame of Caesar, though the greatest of Roman generals, would hardly have procured for his memory the honors which have been awarded to it by posterity, had not the skill of the warrior been united in his person with the genius of the writer and the sagacity of the statesman. His intellect was marvelously versatile. He excelled in everything. He was not only the first general and statesman of his age, but he was — ex- cepting Cicero — its greatest orator. As a historian, he has never been surpassed and 430 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT rarely equaled in simplicity and vigor of style, and in the truthfulness with which he narrates events of which he was an eyewitness. He was, in addition, a mathematician, philologist, jurist, and architect, and always took great pleasure in literary society. Most of his writings have been lost, though their titles are preserved ; but we still possess his invaluable "Commentaries," with which almost every schoolboy and schoolgirl is familiar. Though he did not hve to accomplish his great work, the stamp which his commanding genius left upon it never was obliterated as long as Roman Casars wore the imperial purple; and even now a breath of his spirit pervades the world, and a faint echo of his name. Rome in him produced her greatest man. Intellect and will were justly balanced in his great soul. No illusion, no enthusiasm, no ideals clouded his perception or perverted his judgment. A cool, calm, reflecting, prosaic Roman, he saw things as they were, not as he wished them to be. He accepted the facts of his position, and shaped his course of action accordingly. He judged men and institutions for what they were worth, and, by the irresistible force of his will, pressed them into his service. He never wavered or hesi- tated in his whole hfe, and never lost sight of his final aim. What he had undertaken he carried out — not with the obstinacy of a narrow and stubborn mind, but without pas- sion, with caution and courage combined. In war he was bold and daring, relying more upon rapidity of movement than upon numbers, and trusting much also to that good fortune which always favors the brave. He relied not upon rules and established usage, but upon the intuition of genius. He had no system, and no school; but, as if by inspiration, he always adopted the means which led to success. Such was the great Roman Cajsar, by nature fitted to accomplish a work which, in the development of human affairs, had become imperative. "Within the short space of fourteen years," says Miiller, "he subdued Gaul, thickly inhabited by warlike nations; twice conquered Spain ; entered Germany and Britain ; marched through Italy at the head of a victorious army; destroyed the power of Pompey the Great; reduced Egypt to obedi- ence; saw and defeated Pharnaces; over- powered, in Africa, the great name of Cato and the arms of Juba; fought fifty battles, in which 1,192,000 men fell; was the greatest orator in the world, next to Cicero; set a pattern to all historians, which has never been excelled; wrote learnedly on the sciences of grammar and augury ; and, falling by a pre- mature death, left memorials of his great plans for the extension of the empire and the legislation of the world." He perceived his duty, he undertook and accomplished it; and if anything is wanted to engage our sympathies, not less than our admiration, for the greatest son of Rome, it is that he died a victim on her altar. CHARLEMAGNE 742 768 771 772 774 Bom, probably at Aix-la-Chapelle, or Ingelheim, Germany, Joint ruler of the Franks with Carloman, 26 Sole king, 29 Made war on the Saxons, 30 Visited Rome, 32 A. D. 778 780 788 800 814 Subdued northern Spain, 36 Defeated Saxons under Wittekind, . . 38 Conquered Bavaria, 46 Crowned emperor of the West by Leo III., 58 Died at Aix-l&^hapelle, 72 r^HARLES THE GREAT, now ahnost uni- ^^ versally called by the French name Charlemagne, king of the Franks, and Roman emperor, was the greatest conqueror and ruler of his age. He was born in the year 742, but the place of his birth is in dis- pute. Salzburg, in modern Aiistria, Aix-la- Chapelle, in Belgium, and Ingelheim, near Mainz, Germany, have all claimed the honor of his birth. The best evidence favors one of the two latter. He was the son of Pepin the Short, first Carolingian king of the Franks, and grandson of Charles Martel, the hero whose victory near Tours in 732 saved Europe from subjugation by the Saracens. On the death of Pepin in 768, his dominions were divided between his sons, Charles and Carloman, the former taking Austrasia and Neustria. The duchy of Aquitaine which he had recently conquered he divided between them. In 770 Charles married the daughter of IN POLITICS «U Desiderius, king of the Lombards, but repu- diated her in the following year, and married Hildegarde, a German princess. At the close of 771, by the death of Carloman, Charles became sole king of the Franks, his kingdom, Francia, extending from the English channel to the Mediterranean. Hence it is that he has been styled Charles I. in the enumeration both of the French kings, and of the German or Roman emperors. In 772 he made war on the Saxons ; and this was the beginning of a conflict which was not really ended until more than thirty years hence. Under the name of Saxons were included the non-Christian German tribes which inhabited the country between the Rhine and the Elbe in modern Westphalia, Hanover, Brvmswick, Oldenburg, Holstein, Mecklenburg, and north Saxony. These tribes, more or less allied with the Northmen, remained attached to the old religion of Odin; they maintained a strictly tribal system in scattered centers of ill-defined extent : they were still in the partly nomadic stage, and without any regular political organization, A race of hardy soldiers, in so backward and inorganic a state, formed a standing menace to the settled Christian populations of the Frankish dominion, very much as did the Teutonic and Gothic tribes to the Roman empire. The absence of central authority and of town life made any effective conquest of them very tedious, and even a permanent peace impossible. The one means of their real incorporation with western Europe was their adoption of the civilization and religion of the Franks. The security of the Frankish dominions rested on the incorporation of their barbarian kinsmen on their northeastern frontier. It is highly characteristic of the genius of the young king of the Franks that he at once recognized this, and from the first set himself to a terrible task, where neither wealth nor glory could be ^on. Charles's Saxon wars, the first and most continuous effort of his reign, like the wars waged by every civilized conqueror against a race of brave and stub- bom nomads, were neither marked by great victories nor by very definite campaigns. In the long course of them he tried every policy in turn: severity, concihation, exhortation, and negotiation. From time to time his measures are marked by dreadful bloodshed and destruction ; and, throughout, his war- fare has much of the character and not a Uttlo of the ferocity of a war of religion. In the spring of 772 Charles crossed the Rhine at Worms and opened the campaign in Westphalia. He destroyed, at Eresbuig, the stronghold of the Saxons, and the war was prolonged in a succession of risings and desul- tory victories. Immediately at the close of his first Saxon campaign, Charles turned his arms against Lombardy in 773. Crossing the Alps in two columns, one by the Valais, and one through Savoy, in two brief and brilliant campaigns he completely subdued northern Italy as far as the Neapolitan duchy, and was acknowledged as king of Lombardy in 774. The pope, welcoming the Frankidi king as the deliverer of the church from the hated Lombard, received Charles at Rome, Easter, 774, conferred on him the title of "patrician of Rome," and entered into a close alliance. It was then Charles endowed the church with inmaense possessions — the modem states of the church; and this conquest of northern Italy was the commencement of the long dependence of Italy on the empire. It was really only a political conquest of the country, not a displacement or spoliation of the native Lombards. Charles, in this deci- sive and characteristic conquest, was but fol- lowing the policy of Pepin and Charles Martel, and was laying the foundation of the Frankish king as the friend and protector of the church. Charles's next expedition was into Spain, whither he was called by the offer of an alliance with a Saracen emir, who revolted from the caliph of Cordova, in 778. Though his campaign was without brilliant results, he advanced to the Ebro and effected a aatirfao- tory peace. It was on the return of his army through the valley of Roncesvalles, near Pam- plona, that the Gascons fell upon his rear guard, and killed Roland and many of his peers. The defeat, which afflicted the king more than it weakened him, was the basis of the poetic legend known in the middle ages as the " Ballad of Roland." From 778 to 812 the Franks made six other expeditions into Spain, the main result of which was finally to deliver France from any further fear of Saracen inva- sion, and to establish as a bulwark two small border counties — the marches of Gascony and of Spain on the south of the Pyrenees. Further conquests awaited the king on the east. The incessant wars with the Saxons compelled Charles to foUow the turbulent 432 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT races lying east and south of them. These wars are said to have cost Charles more than twenty armies. Time after time the Saxons, compelled to accept baptism and to submit to the king, broke out into rebellion and re- nounced Christianity. Their national leader and hero was Wittekind, who was severely defeated in 780. In the campaign of 782 Charles massacred in cold blood forty-five hundred Saxon prisoners ; and, by an order in 784, he made baptism compulsory under pain of death. He crossed the Elbe in 788, and advanced to the Oder. There he established a tributary district extending to the Eider, the border of Denmark. Southward he carried his arms into Bohemia, Bavaria, and Hungary, as far as the Theiss, and in a series of campaigns subdued the main part of the modern empire of Austria. Thirty years of almost incessant war and conquest under Charlemagne had vastly extended the kingdom of Pepin, and had converted the Prankish dominion into an empire that comprised the main part of western Europe. Taking it in its greatest limits, it extended from the bay of Biscay to the river Theiss, and thence to the Adriatic on the south, and the mouth of the Oder on the Baltic ; and from the northern sea across all Italy, down to the duchy of Benevento. It thus comprised the whole of France ; Germany and Austria, except East Prussia, eastern Hungary, and Croatia; the northwest comer of Spain ; and all Italy, except the kingdom of Naples. The great position of Charles now called for formal consecration. Acknowledged as the greatest ruler since the Roman emperors, manifestly the superior in power of the Greek emperor at Byzantium, supported by the entire influence of the church, he resolved to revive in western Europe the conception of the empire under Catholic forms. On Christmas day, 800, the king in great state attended mass in St. Peter's at Rome, where Pope Leo III., placing an imperial crown on his head, thrice hailed him as "Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor of the Romans." The pope, anointing his head with the sacred oil, pros- trated himself at the feet of the emperor, and the entire assembly of priests, soldiers, and people ratified the act with their acclama- tions. Thus began the revived Roman empire of the West, and with it the formation of the common life of western Europe. The barbarian or mediaeval world was formally linked to the Roman. The church, and the papacy as its organ, became the spiritual guide of the empire, and the Frankish sover- eign became the right hand of the church. Great as a warrior, Charles was even greater as administrator and civil ruler. The whole empire was divided into counties, the count residing in each being charged with authority, civil, judicial, and military. Under each count was a vicar, or, as he was finally called, a viscount, who held three courts yearly, the more serious causes being reserved for the count's court. The imperial authority was specially exercised by the missi dominici, or royal delegates, who heard appeals, reported to the emperor, and generally maintained the unity of the empire. In spring and autumn two great assemblies were held for ratifying the legislation proposed by the emperor. These assemblies consisted entirely of the principal officials, lay or clerical, and they usually sat in two distinct bodies, one spiritual, the other temporal. We still possess upward of eleven hundred articles, in sixty-five capitularies, or codes, and some forty other rescripts, regulating in the minutest detail the whole political and economical system of the empire. Especially noteworthy is the capit- ulary of the year 787, which provided for a higher standard of education, and is called by Ampere "the charter of modern thought." The emperor now still more largely endowed the church, insisting on the payment of tithes in full; he also founded numerous churches, schools, monasteries, and bishoprics. He was passionately devoted to the revival of learning, of music, and the other arts, and built sumptu- ous palaces, particularly at Aix-la-Chapelle and Ingelheim — for he had no fixed capital. He gathered round him learned men from every country, the chief of whom were the Saxon, Alcuin, the Lombard, Paul the Deacon, Peter of Pisa, and Clement of Ireland, and above all his secretar}% Einhard, or Eginhard, who has left us an admirable fife of his chief. With the aid of these men, the best intellects of their age, inspired by the intense zeal of the emperor for all forms of culture, a real but short renascence of learning took place in the Frankish kingdom. Architectxire, music, grammar, the languages of Greece and Rome, their literature and art, the art of illumination, even science, received a new impulse. From this reign we find the church an independent, vast, and coordinate authority in government. IN POLITICS 4SS Systematic education, eleemosynary institu- tions, regular taxation, and periodical assizes begin to be a part of the ordinary civilization of Europe. Charlemagne's scheme for the union of the newly revived western empire with the empire of the East, by his marriage with Irene, the Byzantine empress, failed by reason of Irene's overthrow. After this he still extended and confirmed his conquests both in Spain and in Germany. He labored to bring the Saxons to a general reception of Christianity, and founded bishoprics for this purpose. To the end of his reign he was incessantly engaged in wars, and insurrections were always apt to break out in the frontier parts of his dominions, which he endeavored to secure, however, not only by military power and arrangements, but by continued improvements in political and social institu- tions. In this period of his active life he pro- jected a canal to join the North sea and the Euxine. His power was felt in the English kingdoms. Just before Offa of Mercia ex- tended his sway in all directions, Boniface had been preaching to the pagans in Germany, and English affairs began to interest the Franks. The policy of Charles led him to receive at his court the enemies of Offa, and among the refugees was Egbert, afterward king of the English. It seemed likely that war might break out between Offa and Charles, but this was happily averted by the influence of Alcuin, who still continued at the latter's court. But the sun of Charlemagne went down among clouds. The wide empire which he had pieced together by the labor of a lifetime was threatened with ruin. Already he could point out the foes which would overthrow it. On one occasion he was sojourning on the southern coast of Gaul. Looking out one day upon the blue waters of the Mediterra- nean, he descried some long low galleys crawling along the line of the horizon, and wondered what they were. "These," said his attendants, " must be ships from the coast of Africa, Jewish merchantmen or British traders." "No!" replied he, "they are not the ships of commerce ; I know by their light- ness of movement. They are the galleys of the Norsemen; and though I know such miserable pirates can do me no harm, I cannot help weeping when I think of the miseries they will inflict on my descendants, and the lands they shall rule." And it was remarked that his eyes were filled with tears. Another cauae of grief to Charlemagne wm the state of his family. He had divided his empire among his full-grown sons, and had trusted that they would keep what he had won. Death, however, cut off two of them; and it was one of the last acta of the broken- hearted father to install the sole survivor, Louis, as his successor. Placing the imperial crown upon the altar, he ordered Loub to take it with his own hands, that he might under- stand he wore it in his own right, under no authority but that of God. He then tendered these words of advice to his son and sucoeasor : " Love your people as your children," said he, " choose your magistrates and governors from those whose belief in God will preserve them from corruption, and see that your own life be blameless." The emperor died on January 28, 814, after a reign of more than forty-five years. He was buried with great pomp at Aix-lft- Chapelle in a sarcophagus which, it is believed, may still be seen there. His tomb and his remains were long the object of veneration and mystical legend. In 1000 the emperor Otho III. visited the tomb and opened the vault, as did Frederick Barbarossa again in 1166, when Charlemagne was duly canonized as a confessor. His faithful secretary, Einhard, has left us a splendid picture of Charlemagne personally, which almost presents him as the ideal hero of mediaeval legend. He was of great stature and noble mien, with immense strength, energy, and activity ; a powerful orator, with a clear voice ; simple in his habits, temperate, and frugal; affable, courteous, delighting in music, in conversation, and in books ; he was just, patient, magnanimous, warm in his friendships, incapable of jealousy, and sincerely pious. The one defect of his character, one that he shared with nearly all the chieftains of his race, was sexual lawlessness, and even a cynical indifference to the marriage contract. Five wives, of whom he repudiated two after a short cohabitation, numerous concubines, and eighteen children are mentioned. And he was careless of the profligacy of his daughters, whom he loved extravagantly, and kept at his side immarried. In nature, as in nearly all his great qualities, he singularly resembled Julius Caesar, although what was supreme culture in the Roman waa the passion for supreme culture in the Frank. The emperor himself studied astronomy, 434 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT music and physics; he read Greek, and was an enthusiastic promoter of architecture, engineering, and the arts. He used by prefer- ence his mother tongue, German, Latin being only a written language. He made many efiforts to learn to write, but never succeeded. At his court he had fixed hours for study, in which he took care to engage his courtiers by forming them into an academy. He was sober and abstemious in his food, and simple to an extreme in the matter of raiment. " For shame ! " he exclaimed, to one who came before him attired more elegantly than the occasion demanded, "Dress yourself like a man; and if you would be distinguished, let it be by your merits, not by your garments." Charlemagne was indefatigable in all the duties of government, and was not only by title, but in the most important sense, emperor of the West — the first Germanic king to create an empire on the ruins of Rome. His whole reign was a supreme effort to recast the world shattered by successive invasions of barbarians, and to unite it under one vast imperial organization. The Romans had come into hostile contact with German tribes as far back as Csesar's campaigns in Gaul in 55 B. C. In 9 A. D. the German hero, Arminius (Hermann), at the head of his confederate countrymen, had encountered the Roman commander, Varus, at the head of three legions, and in a three days' fight in a region of wooded hills defeated and destroyed the whole army. The centuries of imperial Rome were full of the din of conflict between the forces of the two peoples, the one declining, the other waxing mightier. Rome at length ceased to be a seat of empire, and for three centuries was subject to the emperors of the East. A new religion had superseded the old pagan- ism, and on the seven hills was throned a new power, claiming to be its representative and chief. And now, at length, in the eighth century, under Charlemagne, the new empire of the West was reestablished with a German king at its head. At the time of his advent the Gallo- Frankish nation, vast and without cohesion, brutish and ignorant, was incapable of bring- ing forth with the aid of its own wisdom and virtue a stable government. Hosts of dif- ferent forces, without enlightenment and without restraint, were everywhere and incessantly struggling for dominion, or were ever troubling and endangering the social condition. In the midst of this chaos of unruly forces and selfish passions, Charle- magne alone understood the essential needs of the age; and he seized and exercised the personal power almost of a despot, but a beneficent one. Such was the empire of Charlemagne. Among annalists and historians, some, treating him as a mere conqueror and despot, have ignored his merits and his glory ; others, admiring him without scruple, have made him a founder of free institutions — a constitu- tional monarch. Both are equally mistaken : Charlemagne was indeed both a conqueror and a despot; but by his conquests and personal power he saved Gallo-Frankish society from barbaric invasion without and anarchy within. The empire he created and organized by his genius, it is true, gradually fell to pieces after his death. His endeavor to resuscitate an old civilization, to engraft the Christian Roman culture on the vigorous stem of the Teutonic races, and to unite all the Germanic tribes in one empire, before the long action of historic influences had stamped upon them a distinct national character — this was to a great extent a failure, because one lifetime was too short for its accomplish- • ment. His greatness lies in the nobility of his aim, in the energy and wisdom with which he carried it out during his life, and also in the enduring traces of valuable work which remained notwithstanding the general wreck of his empire ; for, though the central organi- zation was swept away, the provincial authori- ties remained, to be transformed into the new feudal organization of western Europe, while the idea of the revival of the Christian Roman empire was to be taken up by other sections of the Germanic race. Though the circum- stances of his time prevented him from being the founder of a new epoch in history, like Caesar or Alexander, yet, in the greatness of his character, in his marvelous many-sided activity, and [in the magic influence of his name on subsequent generations, he was equal to either. It has been intimated that Charlemagne was personally almost the equal of Caesar, and occupied an even superior position. The enormous advantage given to a man of supreme genius, who is placed by birth on a throne of undoubted legitimacy, enabled him to dispense with the struggles which cost Caesar forty years of life. Of all the mighty IN POLITICS 4U chiefs who have formed the course of human civilization, Charlemagne yields only to Caesar in greatness, and in moral elevation of nature is surpassed by Alfred the Great alone. The instinct of mankind for one thousand years has marked him out as the great hero of the modern world, and has indelibly stamped his supremacy on his very name. No man that ever hved combined, in so high a degree, those qualities which rule men and direct events with those which endear the possessor and attach his contemporaries. No man was ever more trusted and loved by his people, more respected and feared by other kings, more esteemed in his lifetime, or more regretted at his death. And we end by saying with Gibbon: "The appellation of great has been often bestowed, and sometimes deserved ; but Charlemagne is the only prince in whose favor the title has been indiaeolubly bleoded with the name. That name, with the addi- tion of saint, is inserted in the Roman calen- dar; and the saint, by a rare felicity, is crowned with the praises of the historians and philosophers of an enlightened age. His real merit is doubtless enhanced by the barbarism of the nation and the times from which he emerged. The dignity of his person, the length of his reign, the prosperity of his aims, the vigor of his government, and the revermoe of distant nations distinguish him from the royal crowd; and Europe dates a new era from his restoration of the western empire. That empire was not unworthy of its title; and some of the fairest kingdoms of Europe were the patrimony or conquest of a prince who reigned at the same time in France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and Hungary." ALFRED THE GREAT 849 868 871 875 878 Bom at Wantage, England, . . . Assisted in repelling the Danes; married, Succeeded to the crown, Defeated Danes at sea, Dispossessed of kingdom by Danes under Guthrum; restored to throne by peace of Wedmore, . 19 22 26 29 886 Sovereign of all England; began to rebuild London 37 888 Began his Anglo-Saxon transla- tions, 39 893-97 Wars against Northmen, under Hastings, 44-48 897 Final defeat of Danw, 48 901 Died, and buried at Winchester, . 62 A LFRED THE GREAT, the most illustrious '^*- of all the British rulers, was born in Wantage, Berkshire, England, in the year 849. He was the grandson of the great Egbert, who had before his death been rec- ognized as over-lord of all the English king- doms, and the fourth and youngest son of Ethelwulf by his wife Osbtu-ga, of the race of Cerdic. Alfred was the favorite son, and in his fifth year was sent to Rome, and there presented as the future king to Pope Leo IV. Two years later he was again at Rome with his father and remained there a year. Egbert, Alfred's grandfather and predecessor, spent two years at the court of Charles. Alfred was brought up in part by his step- mother, Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, grandson of Charlemagne. He was thus essentially Europeanized, with all the knowledge, culture, and traditions of the great Frank courts.. In his twentieth year he married. Whatever may have been his father's intention, Alfred saw his three brothers successively crowned before him- self; but on the death of Ethelred, last of the three, he was declared king in 871. It was a rough and troublous time. The events of three centuries earlier were repeat- ing themselves. The Northmen, now called the Danes, had for thirty or forty years been again making descents upon the English coasts, and renewing all the old horrors ward four frigates of four guns each on the lake of Pereslave. He then brought them to combat one another. He passed two sum- mers successively on board English or Dutch ships, which set out from Archangel, in order to instruct himself in naval affairs. In 1696 Czar Ivan died, and Peter was now sole master of the empire. He began his reign with the siege of Azof, then in the hands of the Turks, but did not take it until the following year. He had already sent for Venetians to build galleys, which might shut up the mouth of the river Don, and prevent the Turks from rdieving the place. This gave him a stronger idea than ever of the importance and neces- sity of a naval force ; yet he could have none but foreign ships, none, at least, except those which he would be obliged to employ for- eigners in building. He was desirous of sur- moimting these disadvantages, but the affairs he projected were of too new and singular a nature to be so much as considered in his coimcil; indeed, they were not proper to be communicated. He resolved, therefore, to manage the bold undertaking himself. With this in view, he, in 1697, sent an embassy to Holland, and went himself incognito in the retinue. Enter- ing the India admiralty office at Amsterdam, he enrolled in the list of ship carpenters, and worked in the yard with greater assiduity than anybody there. His quality was known to all, and they pointed to him with a sort of veneration. King William, of England, who was then in Holland, paid him all the respect that was due to his uncommon qualities; and the czar's disguise freed him from that which was merely ceremonious and troublesome. He worked with such success that in a short time he passed for a good carpenter, and afterward studied the proportions of a ship. From Holland Peter went to England, where, in four months, he made himself a complete master in the art of shipbuilding by studying the principles of it mathemati- cally, which he had no opportunity of learning in Holland. In England he was accorded a second reception by King William, who, to make him a gift agreeable to his taste, and which might at the same time serve as a model 458 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT of the art he was so very desirous to learn, had previously given him a magnificent yacht. On leaving England he took with him a number of English shipbuilders and artificers, among whom was one Noy, one of the most celebrated ship craftsmen of his time. Peter took upon himself the title of a master-builder, but was pleased to submit to the superior knowledge of others. Consequently the czar and Noy received orders from the lord high admiral of Russia, to build each of them a man-of-war; and, in compliance with that order, the czar gave the first proof of his art. He never ceased to pursue it, but had always a ship upon the stocks ; and at his death left half built one of the largest ships in Europe. During the czar's absence, the princess Sophia, uneasy under her confinement, was devising means to regain that liberty which she had forfeited by former insurrections. She found an opportunity to correspond with the strelitz, who were now quartered at some distance from Moscow, and to instigate them to a third rebellion in her favor. The news of this disturbance obliged Peter to hasten home, and, arriving at Moscow about the end of 1698, he executed terrible vengeance upon the ringleaders, and hanged the priest, who had carried his sister's letters, on a gallows before her window. In the early part of 1700 he got together a body of standing forces, consisting of thirty thousand troops. And now the vast project which he had formed began to display itself in all parts. He first sent the chief nobility of his empire into foreign countries, to improve themselves in knowledge and learning; he opened his dominions, which until then had been shut up; he invited all strangers who were capable of instructing his subjects ; and he gave the kindest reception to all land and sea officers, sailors, mathematicians, archi- tects, miners, workers in metals, physicians, surgeons, and, indeed, operators and artificers of every kind, who would settle in his domin- ions. In the meantime he had to do with a dull, heavy, untoward people; hence it is little wonder that proceedings so new and strange should cause many uprisings and tumults. Many such took place ; and it was sometimes as much as the czar could do to stifle and suppress them. Peter was now desirous of gaining possession of Carelia and Ingria, provinces of Sweden, which had formerly belonged to Russia, and entered into an aJlianoe with the kings of Poland and Denmark to make a combined attack on Sweden, taking advantage of the tender age of its monarch, Charles XII. He was shamefully defeated at Narva, his raw troops being wholly unable to cope with the Swedish veterans. But Peter was by no means disheartened. Taking advantage of the Swedish troops being employed elsewhere, he quietly appropriated a portion of Ingria, in which he laid the foundation of the new capital, St. Petersburg, May 27, 1703. Great inducements were then held out to those who would reside in it, and in a few years it became the Russian commercial depot for the Baltic. In the long contest with Sweden, the Rus- sians were almost always defeated ; but Peter rather rejoiced at this, as he saw that these reverses were administering to his troops a more lasting and effective discipline than he could have hoped to give them in any other way. He had his revenge at last, in totally routing the Swedish king, Charles XII., at Pultowa in July, 1709, and in seizing the whole of the Baltic provinces and a portion of Finland in the following year. His suc- cess against Sweden helped much to consoli- date his empire, and to render his subjects more favorably disposed toward the new order of things. After reorganizing his army he prepared for strife with the Turks, who at the instigation of Charles XII. — then residing at Bender — had declared war against him. In this con- test Peter was reduced to such straits that he despaired of escape, and, looking forward to death or captivity, wrote a letter to his chief nobles, cautioning them against obeying any orders he might give them while a cap>- tive, and advising them regarding a successor to the throne in case of his death. But the finesse and ability of Catharine Alexievna, afterward his wife and successor, extricated him from his difficulties; and a treaty was concluded in 1711, by which Peter lost only his previous conquest — the port of Azof and the territory belonging to it. Shut out from the Black sea, the possession of a good sea- board on the Baltic became the more neces- sary to him, and the war against Sweden in Pomerania was accordingly pushed on with the utmost vigor. On March 2, 1712, his marriage with Catha- rine was celebrated at St. Petersburg; and two months afterward the offices of the central government were transferred to the new capital. His arms in Pomerania and IN POLITICS Finland were crowned with success, and in 1713 the latter province was completely sub- dued. Neither did Peter neglect any oppor- tunity to develop the naval power of the empire; and the strictness with which he enforced the discharge of their duties on his ministers and officers appears from the refusal by the court of admiralty of the czar's own application for the grade of vice- admiral, until by defeating the Swedish fleet at Hangoudd, and taking the Aland isles, and several coast forts in Finland, he had merited the honor. All this time his pursuits after all kinds of knowledge were unceasingly continued. He caused his engineers to draw plans for cities, and to make designs of the different machines which he did not have in his own country. He instructed himself in husbandry, and in all sorts of trade, wherever he went. He paid a visit with his consort to the king of Denmark at Copenhagen, where he spent three months. He visited there every school of the univer- ity, and all the men of letters; for, regard- less of ceremony and pageantry, which he hated, it was indifferent to him whether they waited on him or he went to them. He coasted the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden, attended by two engineers; sur- veyed the windings, sounded the straits, and afterward had the whole so exactly described in charts that not so much as the smallest shelf or bank of sand escaped his observation. From Copenhagen he went to Hamburg, Hanover, Wolfenbiittel, and from thence to Holland. During the years 1716 and 1717, in company with the czarina, he made another tour of Europe, this time visiting the city of Paris, where he was re- ceived with great attention. He returned to Russia in October, 1717, carrying with him books, paintings, statues, and other evidences of culture and art. In 1722 Peter commenced a war with Persia, in order to open up the Caspian sea to Russian commerce. The internal troubles of Persia compelled the shah to yield to the demands of his formidable opponent, and to give up the three Caspian provinces along with the towns of Derbend and Baku. On Peter's return to his capital, he inquired into the conduct of his finance ministers, and punished with fines, imprisonment, and even death those whom he detected in fraudulent acts. To save the empire which he had estab- lished and constituted from being abandoned to the weak government of a minor, he promulgated in February, 1722/ his celebrated law of succession. During the latter years of his life he waa engaged chiefly in beautifying and improving his new capital, and carrying out plana. for the more general diffusion of knowledge and education among his subjects. In the autumn of 1724 he was seized with a serioua iUneat; and, when all hope of recovery had fled, he appointed his wife, Catharine, his successor, and had her crowned a few months before his death, which occurred on February 8, 172.S, in the fifty-third year of his age. It would be a great task to enumerate all the various establishments for which the Russians are indebted to this great monarch. Fontenelle has recorded some of the principal ones, and they must also have a place here. His first accomplishments were military. He established a body of one hundred thousand troops, under as regular a discipline as any in Europe ; and a navy of forty ships of the line, and two hundred galleys. He fortified all the chief cities, which had been as dangerous in the night as the most unfrequented deserts, and installed an effective government therein. Then he built an academy for naval affairs and navigation, where all the nobility were obliged to send some of their children. He also built colleges at Moscow, Petersburg, and Kiev, for languages, polite literature, and mathematics; schools in the villages, where the children of the peasants were taught to read and write ; a college of physicians, and a noble dispensary at Moscow, which furnished medicines to the great cities, and to the armies; whereas before, there was no phyw- cian but the czar's, and no apothecary in all his dominions. Voltaire relates that the czar had studied this branch of knowledge under the celebrated Ruysch at Amsterdam, and made such prog- ress under this master as to enable him to perform minor sui^icai operations himself. He afterward purchased the cabinet of that anatomist, which contained an immense collection of the most curious, instructive, and uncommon preparations. In addition to the foregoing he established an observatory, not only for the use of astrono- mers, but as a repository for natural curiosi- ties ; a botanical garden stocked with plants, not only from all parts of Europe, but from Asia, Persia, and even the distant parts of China; printing houses, where the old bar- 460 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT barous characters were abolished, which, through the great number of abbreviations, were almost unintelligible; interpreters for all the languages of Europe, and likewise for the Latin, Greek, Turkish, Calmuck, Mogul, and Chinese; and a royal library, composed of three very large subsidiary ones, which the czar purchased in England, Holstein, and Germany. These and many more were particular institutions and establishments ; but the caar made many general reformations, to which, indeed, the others were only subservient. He changed the architecture, which was ugly and deformed; or, to speak more properly, he first introduced that science into his dominion. He sent for a great number of pictures from Italy and France, and by this means instructed in the art of painting a people, who knew no more of it than what they could collect from the wretched daubing of their painters of saints. He sent ships laden with merchandise to Genoa and Leghorn, which returned freighted with marble and statues ; and Pope Clement XL, pleased with his taste, presented him with a fine antique, which the czar, not caring to trust by sea, ordered to be brought to St. Petersburg by land. Religion was not neglected in this general reform ; ignorance and superstition had over- run it so much that it scarcely merited the name of Christian. The czar introduced knowledge where it was urgently needed, and this knowledge enabled him to abolish fasts, miracles, and saint- worship, in a good degree, at least. But he ventured further than the mere correction of rites ; and by this means got rid of a power which was always interrupting and disconcerting his measures. He took away part of the revenues of those churches and monasteries which he thought too wealthy; and, leaving only what was necessary for their subsistence, added the sur- plus to his own demesnes. He made many judicious and useful ecclesiastical canons, and ordered preaching in the Russian language. Lastly, he established a general liberty of conscience throughout his dominions; and if we had no other proof of his civilized spirit, this would be sufficient. There is one more reformation, perhaps as necessary and useful as any of the former, which he made even in his last illness, though it was exceedingly painful. When the senators and great personages, then about him, mentioned the various obligations which Russia lay under to him, for abolishing ignorance and barba- rism, and introducing arts and sciences, he told them that he had forgotten to reform one of the most important points of all ; namely, the administration of justice, occasioned by the tedious and litigious chicanery of the lawyers; and he signed an order from his bed Umiting the determination of all causes to eleven days, which was immediately sent to all the courts of his empire. He had a son who lived to be a man ; but this son engaged with his mother, whom Peter had divorced, and other malcontents in a conspiracy against his father in 1717, and was condemned to die. He saved the executioners the trouble, however, by dying a natural death. An account of this unfortu- nate prince, with original papers, was pub- lished by the czar himself, the title of which, as it stands in the second volume of the "Present State of Russia," translated from the High Dutch, runs thus : " A manifesto of the Criminal Process of the Czarwitz Alexei Petrowitz, judged and published at St. Peters- burg, the 25th of June, 1718, translated from the Russian original, and printed by the order of his czarish majesty at The Hague, 1718." The czar also comp>o8ed several works upon naval affairs ; and his name must be added to the short catalogue of sovereigns who have honored the public with their writings. The personal appearance of Peter was imposing. He was tall and robust, active, nimble of foot, quick and impatient in his gestures, and rapid in all his movements. His face was plump and round, his hair brown and curly. His featur&s were regular ; but their general expression was severe, and at times even ferocious. He was lively and sociable, however, in his manners, and very accessible. He possessed a sound judgment which, as Voltaire has observed, may justly be deemed the foundation of all real abilities ; and to this sohdity was joined an active dis- position, which instigated him to the most arduous undertakings. Whoever reflects upon the interruptions, difficulties, and oppo- sitions, that must unavoidably occur in civilizing and reforming a large and barbarous empire, must suppose the czar to have been, as indeed he really was, a person of the great- est firnmess and perseverance. He was undoubtedly a man of powerful and original genius, and rendered services of inestimable value to his ignorant and barbarous subjects. But great vices as well as great virtues were IN POLITICS 461 combined in his character. At one time he exhibited the most marked benevolence and humanity, at another a total disregard of human life. He was at once kind-hearted and cruel, and often gave way to violent pas- sions and indulged in the grossest sensualities — the fruits, in part at least, of the barbarism of his country and his own imperfect educa- tion, which was far from being worthy of his genius; it had been spoiled by the princess Sophia, whose interest it was that he should be immersed in licentious excesses. However, in spite of bad example, and even his own strong propensity to pleasure, his natural desire of knowledge and magnanimity of soul broke through all habits, nay, they broke through something even greater than habits. "He gave a polish," says Voltaire, "to his people, and was himself a savage; he taught them the art of war, of which he was himself ignorant; from the sight of a small boat on the river Moskwa, he erected a powerful fleet; made himself an expert shipwright, sailor, pilot, and commander; he changed Um man- ners, customs, and laws of the Ruastans, and lives in their memory as the father of his country." Perhaps Peter has never been more truth- fully characterized than by one of his greatest biographers, Waliszewski. "Peter," this writer says, " is Russia — her flesh and blood, her temperament and genius, her virtues and her vices. With his various aptitudes, his multiplicity of effort, his tumultuous passions, he rises up before us, a collective being. This makes his greatness. This raises him far above the pale shadows which our feeble historical evocation strives to snatch out of oblivion. There is no need to call his figure up. He stands before us, surviving his own existence, perpetuating himself — a continual actual fact." FRANKLIN A. D. 1706 Bom at Boston, Massachusetts, 1717 Apprentice in printing office, . 1723 Settled in Philadelphia, .... 1724 Went to England, 1730 Married at Philadelphia, . . . 1732-57 VnhUshed Poor Richard's Almanac, 26-51 1743 Proposed establishing academy — afterward university of Penn- sylvania, 1746 Began experiments in electricity, 1752 Discovered identity of electricity and lightning, "DENJAMIN FRANKLIN, celebrated as •*-' statesman, diplomatist, author, and phi- losopher, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, January 17, 1706, where his father, an English non-conformist, had settled twenty-five years before. He was the youngest son of a family of seventeen children, and at an early age showed such a fondness for books that it was determined to educate him for the ministry. After two years ^.t school, however, he was obliged to leave and assist his father, who with his trade of dyer combined that of tallow chandler and soap boiler. Benjamin, though disliking this kind of occupation, worked at it two years, and in his twelfth year thought himself decidedly fortunate in being appren- ticed to his brother, a printer, a business which promised to afford better opportunities to get at books, his one special desire. Still he was more and more puzzled how 1753 11 1757-62 17 1764-75 18 1776 24 ,26-51 1776-85 1785 1787 37 40 1788 1790 46 AQB Deputy postmaater-general, . . ' 47 Envoy to England, 61-66 Again envoy to England, Signed declaration of independ- ence, Ambassador to France Governor of Pennsylvania, . . . Delegate to constitutional con- vention, Retired from active public life, . Died at Philadelphia, Pa., ... 68-69 70 70-79 79 81 82 84 to gratify his love of knowledge. One day he hit upon an expedient that brought in a little cash. By reading a vegetarian book, the Yankee lad had been led to think that people could live better without meat than with it, and that killing innocent animals for food was cruel and wicked. So he abstained from meat altogether for about two years. As this led to some inconvenience at his boarding house, he made this cunning propo- sition to his master: "Give me one-half the money you pay for my board, and I will board myself." The master consenting, the apprentice lived entirely upon such things as hominy, bread, rice, and potatoes, and found that he could actually live upon half of the half. The money he thus was able to save he expended in the improvement of his mind. Among all the books he had read, voyages 482 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT and history charmed him most; but he tells us in his autobiography that the two works which exercised the greatest influence on his career were the Lives of Plutarch and the Essay on Projects by Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe, which he read about this time. In the business of printing he soon became an expert, read with avidity all the books that came within his reach, and tried his hand at verse-making. But, falling in with some old volumes of the Spectator, he became more interested in forming his prose style on the model of its articles, and, as he says, was thus prevented from becoming a bad poet. At the age of sixteen he had read Locke's treatise On the Understanding, the Port- Royal Art of Thinking, and Xenophon's Memoirs of Socrates. Every new faculty which in turn developed itself in him was almost always worked to extremes as the result of having no guide to direct its devel- opment. The study of metaphysics made him sceptical, and to defend his new prin- ciples he adopted the Socratic method of reasoning, in which he became an adept. About this time his relations with his brother became unpleasant. Franklin was evidently too studious and ambitious. Origi- nal articles written by him were accepted for publication in his brother's paper, the editor not knowing their source. The brother be- came jealous, and, although his indentures were not out, Franklin determined to leave him and start in the world for himself. He consequently sold some of his books and quietly left Boston in October, 1723. He went to New York, but finding no work there set out for Philadelphia. When at the age of seventeen he landed at Philadelphia, a runaway apprentice, he had one silver dollar and one shilling in copper coin. He asked the boatmen, upon whose boat he had come down the Delaware, how much he had to pay. They answered that it would be nothing, because he had helped them row. Franklin, however, insisted upon their taking his shilling's worth of coppers, and forced the money upon them. An hour after, having bought three rolls for his breakfast, he ate one, and gave the other two to a poor woman and her child, who had been his fellow passengers. These were small things, you may say ; but remem- ber, he was a poor, ragged rimaway in a strange town, four hundred miles from a friend, with three pence gone out of the only dollar he had in the world. Franklin soon found employment with a printer, named Keimer, a Jew, to whom he rendered himself invaluable by his skill, energy, and fruitful resources for obtaining orders. He received flattering attentions from some of the prominent citizens in Phila- delphia, and attracted the notice of Sir William Keith, the governor of the province, who greatly patronized him, and proposed to set him up in business for himself. Franklin embarked for London in 1724 to buy the necessary type. On arriving there he found he had relied too confidently on promises which could not be fulfilled, and must depend on his own exertions to gain even his daily bread. He found employment at a famous printing house — Palmer's — and afterward at another. He made friends among his fellow workmen, set them an excellent example of temperance and good work, and astonished them by his feats of swimming. He wrote at this time some essays — the Dissertation on Liberty, Neces- sity, Pleasure and Pain — which were printed and circulated. After spending about eighteen months in London, a Mr. Denham, whom he had met, informed him that he was going to return to Philadelphia to open a store, and offered him a situation as clerk, at a salary of fifty pounds. The money was less than he was now making as a compositor, but he longed to see his native country again, and accepted the proposal. Accordingly the two set sail together, and after a long voyage arrived in Philadelphia in October, 1726. A few months after their arrival, Denham died, and Franklin was once more left on the world. He then engaged again with his master, Keimer, the printer, with whom he remained but a short time. Shortly after- ward he joined one of his fellow workmen, named Meredith, and began business with him, type having been procured from Eng- land. He now established a newspaper, the Pennsylvania Gazette, which met with great success, and the observations which he \\Tote for its columns on colonial subjects obtained for him many friends in the house of assem- bly, so that he and his partner were appointed printers to the house. Meredith's father having subsequently failed to advance the capital which had been agreed upon, Meredith proposed to Frankhn IN POLITICS to relinquish the partnership, and leave the whole in Franklin's hands, if he would take upon him the debts of the concern, return to his father what he had advanced on their commencing business, pay ileredith's little personal debts, and give him thirty pounds and a new saddle. By the kindness of two friends, who, unknown to each other, came forward un- asked to tender their assistance, Franklin was enabled to accept this proposal; and thus, about the year 1729, when he was only in his twenty-fourth year, he found himself, after all his disappointments and vicissitudes, with nothing, indeed, to depend upon but his skill and industry for gaining a livelihood, and for extricating himself from debt. Still he was, in one sense, fairly established in life, and with at least a bright prospect before him. In the following year he married Miss Deborah Read, daughter of the man with whom he had lodged on his first arrival at Philadelphia. His subsequent efforts in pm^uit of fortune and independence were eminently successful. The first circulating library in America was established by him. A publication, in recom- mendation of a paper currency, obtained for him at the time much popularity. In 1732 he first published his celebrated almanac, under the name of Richard Saunders, but which was commonly known by the name of Poor Richard's Almanac. He continued this publication annually for twenty-five years. The proverbs and pithy sentences scattered throughout its various n\unbers were after- ward thrown together in a connected dis- course, under the title of The Way to Wealth. This publication at once became one of wide popularity, and probably there are but few literally educated persons who are not familiar with it. It has also been translated into many foreign languages. Franklin says that in 1733 he began to study languages, and soon became familiar with Ff-ench, Italian, Spanish, and Latin, In 1736 he was chosen clerk of the general assembly of Pennsylvania, and in the follow- ing year became postmaster of Philadelphia. These preferments induced him to give much thought to statecraft, and to take a more active part in public affairs than he had hitherto done. He first turned his attention to the con- dition of the city police, which was then in a shameful condition, and he soon effected a reformation in the whole 8>'8tem. He after- ward suggested and promoted the establiab- ment of a fire company, the first projected in America; he also organized a militia for tbe defense of the province. In 1743 he proposed establishing an academy for the education of youth, which became the germ of the great university of Pennsylvania. In short, every department of the civil government, as be tells us, and almost at the same time, impoeed some duty upon him. "The governor," he says, "put me into the commission of the peace; the corporation of the city choee me one of the common council ; and the dttiena at large elected me a burgess to r ep r e s e nt them in assembly." Notwithstanding the multipHcity of his public duties, he found leisure to pursue his familiar scientific investigations in electricity, which he began in 1746. These were attended with such success as to gain for him a lasting name in the world of science. In 1752 he discovered the identity of electricity and lightning, and turned the discovery to account by publishing a plan for defending houses from lightning by the use of pointed con- ductors. He likewise made important dis- coveries with regard to the laws that regulate the electric fluid, a subject hitherto very imperfectly understood. His renown had spread over the whole civilized world, and honors were heaped upon him by the various learned societies of Europe. The Godfrey Copley gold medal was bestowed upon him by the royal society of London, which also nominated him one of its members. The universities of Oxford, St. Andrews, and Edinburgh, respectively, conferred upon him the doctorate of laws. He was made an associate of the academy of sciences at Paris, as Leibnitz and Newton had been b^ore him. In 1753 Franklin was made deputy post- master-general for the British colonies in America, and in the same year he projected and established the academy of sciences in Philadelphia, In 1754 he was one of the colonial delegates who met in oongress at Albany to devise means of defense sgatnst the French; and there he submitted a plan of imion, similar in many respects to our federal constitution, but it was rejected by the British government and the colonial assemblies for widely different reasons. Three years afterward Franklin was sent to England as the agent for Pennsylvania, and 464 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT was employed in the same capacity by three other colonies. There he associated with the greatest men of the time, and the poor journeyman printer of a few years before "stood before kings," and was honored by men of learning. He returned to America in 1762, and took his seat in the colonial assembly; but two years afterward, the dispute between the colonies and the government having com- menced in earnest, he was again sent as an agent for Pennsylvania to England. He remained abroad until 1775, during which time he visited the continent, and became acquainted with the most learned men in Europe. On the day of liis arrival in Amer- ica, he was elected a member of the conti- nental congress; and he was one of the signers of the declaration of independence the following year. During the whole period of the revolution he was continually active in a civil capacity at home or abroad. No man did more for the establishment of American independence than Franklin. Congress sent him as a commissioner to the French court in 1776. At the time the ocean swarmed with British cruisers. General Washington had lost New York, and the prospects of the revolution were gloomy in the extreme. Franklin was an old man of seventy, and might justly have asked to be excused from a service so perilous and fatiguing. But he did not. He went. And, just before he sailed, he got together all the money he could raise — about three thousand pounds — and invested it in the loan recently announced by congress. This he did at a moment when few men had a hearty faith in the success of the revolution. This he did when he was going to a foreign country that might not receive him, from which he might be expelled, and he have no country to which to return. There never was a more gallant and generous act done by au old man. In France he was as much the mainstay of the cause of his country as General Washing- ton was at home. He was one of the most accomplished and adroit diplomats at Ver- sailles, where he was received with extra- ordinary enthusiasm both as a savant and as a patriot. While in Paris he wrote much for the press, and " kept the world constantly talking of him, and wondering at the inex- haustible variety and unconventional novelty of his resources." His meeting with Voltaire at the academy of sciences, where the two illustrious old men publicly embraced each other, is really a great historic scene; and everj'one knows the epigram of Turgot — " He wrested from heaven its thunderbolt and from tyrants their sceptre." But it was not until 1778 that he induced the French govern- ment to form the alliance with the revolted colonies which eventually comi>elled England to concede their independence. In 1783 the definite treaty of peace was signed; and in 1785 Franklin solicited per- mission to return home, which was granted. His reception in Philadelphia, where sixty-two years before he had landed a penniless, run- away apprentice of seventeen, almost ex- ceeded the bounds of enthusiasm. The appre- ciation of a grateful people was still further expressed when a month later he was elected governor of Pennsylvania for three successive years, at a salary of two thousand pounds a year. But by this time he had become con- vinced that offices of honor, such as the governorship of a state, ought not to have any salary attached to them. He thought they should be filled by persons of inde- pendent income, willing to serve their fellow citizens from benevolence, or for the honor of it. So thinking, at first, he determined not to receive any salary ; but this being objected to, he devoted the whole of the salary for three years — six thousand pounds — to the furtherance of public objects. Part of it he gave to a college, and part was set aside for the improvement of the Schuylkill river. In 1787 he was a delegate to the federal constitutional convention, and in 1788 he retired from active public life, using his pen, however, as vigorously as ever. His last act — and it was one in beautiful accordance with the whole tenor of his Ufe — was putting his signature as president of the antislavery society to a memorial presented to the house of representatives, praying them to exert the full powers intrusted to them to discourage the revolting traffic in human lives. On April 17, 1790, in his eighty-fifth year, I he died in Philadelphia. He was interred in the burial ground of Christ church, Phila- delphia, and numerous statues have been erected to his memory throughout the country. The following epitaph was written by Franklin j.many years previous to his death, but was never inscribed on his tombstone : "The body of Benjamin Franklin, Printer, j — Uke the cover of an old book ; its contents IN POLITICS 165 torn out, and stript of its lettering and gild- ing — lies here food for worms ; yet the work itself shall not be lost; for it will, as he believed, appear once more in a new and more beautiful edition, corrected and amended by the Author." In person, Franklin was about five feet nine or ten inches in height, and well and strongly made. He had a fair complexion and grey eyes; his manners were extremely winning and afTable. None of his descend- ants bear his name, the last who did so being his grandson, William Temple Frank- lin, who died in 1823. There are many de- scendants of his daughter, who married a Mr. Bache. No man of the age stood on a prouder eminence than this extraordinary commoner, who had originally been one of the most obscure of people, and had raised himself to all this distinction almost without the aid of any education except such as he had acquired himself. Who will say, after reading his story, that anything more is necessary for the attainment of knowledge, than the deter- mination to attain it? The secret of Frank- lin's success in the cultivation of his mental powers was that he was ever awake and active; that he suffered no opportunity of forwarding it to escape him unimproved; that, however poor, he found at least a few pence, were it even by diminishing his scanty meals, to pay for the loan of the books he could not buy ; that however hard he worked, he found a few hours in the week to read and study them. Others may not have his presence of mind; but his industry, his per- severance, his self-command, are for the imitation of all mankind. "America," says Bigelow, "owes much to him for his services in various public capac- ities ; the world owes much to the fruits of his pen ; but his greatest contribution to the wel- fare of mankind, probably, was what he did by his example and life to dignify manual labor." Never was an, eminent man more thoughtful of the lowly people who were the companions of his poverty. Franklin, from the midst of the splendors of the French court, and when he was the most famous and admired person in Europe, forgot not his poor old sister, Jane, who was, in part, dependent upon his bounty. He gave her a house in Boston, and sent her, every September, the money to lay in her winter's fuel and provisions. He wrote her the kindest, wittiest, pleasantest letters. " Believe me, dear brother," Ae wtiim, "your writing to me gives me so mudi plouRire, that the great, the very great prenntf you hav* sent me give me but a secondary joy." "FrankHn is, indeed," says Lecky, "one of the very small class of men who can be said to have added something of real value to the art of living." Upon receiving a letter once from a friend, who apologized for his bad spelling, Franklin, in replying to it, comforts him in the following humorous manner : "You need not be concerned in writing to me about your bad spelling; for in my opinion, what is called bad spelling is generally the best, as conforming to the sound of the letters. To give you an instance, a gentleman received a letter in which were these words: 'Not finding Brown at horn I delivered your messeg to his yf.' The gentleman called his wife to help him to read it. Between them they picked out all but the yf, which they could not understand. The lady proposed calling her chamber-maid, 'because Betty,' says she, 'has the best knack of reading bad spelling of any one I know.' Betty came, and was surprised that neither of them could tell what yf was. 'Why,' she replied, 'yf spells wife — what else can it spell? ' And, indeed, it is a much better, as well as shorter method than doubleyou, i, f, e, which, in reality, spells doublewife." Franklin left an interesting and highly instructive autobiography of the earlier part of his life, a continuation of which has been added by Jared Sparks, prefixed to an edition of Franklin's entire works, in ten volumes, and more recently edited by John Bigelow. He was never deliberately an author. All his writing was done with a practical aim, and derives its value largely from the accuracy with which it reflects his character. He was quite deficient in poetic imagination and in ability to appreciate the spiritual side of human nature. His newspaper and his Al- manac were the organs through which be spread his views on practical morality and his wisdom, while his numerous letters reflect hia distinctive humor. His greatest service was undoubtedly due to his skill in diplomacy. The great French orator, Mirabeau, once said : " Antiquity would have raised altars to this mighty genius, who, to the advantage of mankind, compassing in his mind the heavens and the earth, was able to restrain alike thunderbolts and tyrants." 466 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT FREDERICK THE GREAT A. D. AGE A. D. AQB 1712 Bom at Berlin, Prussia, .... . . 1750 Induces Voltaire to reside at Pots- 1730 Attempted to leave Prussia,. . . 18 dam, 38 1733 Married, 21 1756 Began seven years' war, .... 44 1740 Became king 28 1763 Signed peace of Hubertsburg, . . 51 1740-42 War with Austria; treaty of 1772 Participated in partition of Poland, 60 Breslau, 28-30 1778 Prevented partition of Bavaria, . 66 1744 Invaded Bohemia, 32 1785 Formed the Fiirstenbund,. ... 73 1745 Treaty of Dresden, 33 1786 Died at Sans Souci, near Potsdam, 74 PREDERICK THE GREAT, otherwise | Frederick II., of Prussia, one of the most j celebrated of German sovereigns, born Janu- ary 24, 1712, at Berlin, was the son of Fred- erick William I. and the princess Sophia Dorothea, daughter of George I., of Great Britain. He was very little indebted for his personal greatness to the virtues or example of his immediate progenitors. His grandfather, Frederick I., the first of the house of Brandenburg who assumed the title of king, was a weak and empty prince, whose character was taken by his own wife to exemplify the idea of infinite littleness. His father, Frederick William, was a man of a violent and brutal disposition, eccentric and intemperate, whose principal and almost sole pleasure and pursuit was the training and daily superintendence of an army dispropor- tionately greater than the extent of his dominions seemed to warrant. It is, however, to the credit of Frederick William as a ruler, that, notwithstanding this expensive taste, his finances on the whole were well and economically administered; so that on his death he left a quiet and happy, though not wealthy, country, a treasure of nine millions of crowns, amounting to more than a year's revenue, and a well-disciplined army of seventy-six thousand men. Thus on his accession, Frederick II. found ready pre- pared men and money, the instruments of war; and for this alone was he indebted to his father. From Frederick William parental tender- ness was not to be expected. His treatment of his whole family, wife and children, was brutal ; but he showed a particular antipathy to his eldest son, from the age of fourteen upward, for which no reason can be assigned except that the young prince manifested a taste for literature, and preferred books and music to the routine of military exercises. From this age Frederick's life was embittered by continual contradiction, insult, and even personal violence. In 1730 he endeavored to escape by flight from his father's control ; but this intention being revealed, he was arrested, tried as a deserter, and condemned to death by an obedient court-martial. The sentence, to all appearance, would have been carried into effect, had it not been for the interference of the emperor of Germany, Charles VI. of Austria. The king yielded to his urgent entreaties, but with much reluctance, saying, "Austria will some day perceive what a ser- pent she warms in her bosom." In 1732 Frederick procured a remission of this ill treatment by contracting, against his will, a marriage with Elizabeth Christina, of Brunswick. The marriage took place in 1733. Domestic happiness he neither sought nor found ; for it appears that he never lived with his wife. Her endowments, mental and personal, were not such as to win the affec- tions of so fastidious a man, but her moral qualities and conduct are highly commended ; and, except in the resolute avoidance of her society, her husband through life treated her with high esteem. From the time of his mar- riage to his accession, Frederick resided at Rheinsberg, a village some distance north- east of Berlin. In 1734 Frederick made his first campaign with Prince Eugene, but without displaying, or finding opportunity to display, the military talents by which he was distinguished in after Ufe. From 1732 to 1740 his time was principally devoted to literary amusements and society. Several of his published works were written during this period, among them the Anti-M achiavel and "Considerations on the Character of Charles XII." He also devoted some portion of his time to the study of military tactics. His favorite com- panions were chiefly Frenchmen; and for French manners, language, cookery, and philosophy, he displayed through life a very decided preference. The early part of Frederick's life gave little .promise of his future energy as a soldier and statesman. The flute, embroidered clothes, and the composition of indifferent French verses seemed to occupy the attention of the IN POLITICS m young dilettante. His accession to the throne, on May 31, 1740, called his dormant energies at once into action. Fully conscious of his immense dut'ies and cares, he assumed the entire direction of government, charging himself with those minute and daily duties which princes generally commit to their ministers. To discharge the multiplicity of business which thus devolved on him, he laid down strict rules for the regulation of his time and employments, to which, except when on active service, he scrupulously adhered. He always wore the uniform of his guards ; he bestowed but a few minutes on his dress, in respect to which he was care- less, even to slovenliness. Peaceful employments did not long satisfy his active mind. His father, content with the possession of a powerful army, had never used it as an instrument of conquest; but Frederick, in the first year of his reign, under- took to wrest from Austria the province of Silesia. It appears that he had some heredi- tary claim on that country, which, from its adjoining situation, was a most desirable acquisition to the Prussian dominions, and to the assertion of this claim he deemed the time in question favorable. At the death of Charles VI. in October, 1740, the hereditary dominions of Austria developed on a young princess, afterward the celebrated Maria Theresa. Trusting to her weakness, Frederick at once marched an army into Silesia. The people, being chiefly Prot- estants, were not well disposed toward their Austrian rulers, and the greater part of the country, except the fortresses, fell without a battle into the king of Prussia's possession. In the following campaign, April 10, 1741, the battle of MoUwitz was fought, which requires mention, because in this engagement, the first in which he commanded, Frederick dis- played neither the skill nor the courage which the whole of his subsequent life proved him really to possess. It was said that he took shelter in a windmill, and this gave rise to the sarcasm that at MoUwitz the king of Prussia had covered himself with glory and with flour. The Prussians, however, remained masters of the field. In the autumn of the same year they advanced within two days' march of Vienna ; it was in this extremity of distress that Maria Theresa made her celebrated and affecting appeal to the diet of Hungary. A train of reverses, summed up by the decisive battle of Czaslau, fought May 17, 1742, in which Frederick displayed both fine courage and good conduct, induced Austria to oonaeot to the treaty of Brcslau, concluded in theMme summer, by which Silesia, with the exception of a small district, was ceded to Prussia, of which kingdom it has ever since continued to form a part. But though Prussia for a time enjoyed peace, the state of European politics wu far from settled, and Frederick's time was much occupied by foreign diplomacy, as well as by the internal improvements which always were the favorite objects of his solicitude. The rapid rise of Prussia was not regarded with indifference by other powers. The Austrian government was inveterately hostile, from offended pride, as well as from a sense of injury. Saxony took part with Austria. Russia, if not an open enemy, was always a suspicious and unfriendly neighbor; and George II. of England, the king of Prussia's uncle, both feared and disliked his nephew. Under these circumstances, upon the forma- tion of the triple alliance made by Austria, England, and Sardinia, Frederick concluded a treaty with France and the elector of Bavaria, who had succeeded Charles VI. as emperor of Germany. Frederick anticipated the designs of Austria upon Silesia, by march- ing into Bohemia in August, 1744. During two campaigns the war was con- tinued to the advantage of the Prussians, who, under the command of Frederick in per- son, gained two signal victories with inferior numbers, at Hohenfriedberg and Soor. At the end of December, 1745, he found himself in possession of Dresden, the capital of Saxony, and in condition to dictate terms of peace to Austria and Saxony, by which Silesia was again recognized as part of the Prussian dominions. Five years were thus spent in acquiring and maintaining possession of this important province. The next ten years of Frederick's life were passed in profound peace. Diuing this period he applied himself diligently and successfully to the recruiting of his army, and to building up the resources of Prussia. His habits of life were singularly uniform. He resided chiefly at Potsdam, apportioning his time and his employment with methodical exactness; and, by this strict attention to method, he was enabled to exercise a minute superintendence over every branch of govern- ment without estranging himself from social pleasures, or abandoning his literary pursuits. 468 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT After the peace of Dresden in 1745, he com- menced his Histoire de mon Temps, which, in addition to the history of his own wars in Silesia, contains a general account of European politics. About the same period he wrote his "Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg," the best of his historical works. He maintained an active correspondence with Voltaire, and others of the most distinguished men of Europe. He established, or rather restored, the academy of sciences of Berlin, and was eager to enroll eminent foreigners among its members, and to induce them to resort to his capital. The names of Voltaire, Euler, Maupertuis, La Grange, and others of less note testify to his success. But his avowed contempt for the German, and admiration of the French literature and language, in which all the transactions of the society were carried on, gave an exotic character to the institution, and crippled the national benefits which might have been expected to arise from it. In 1750, after a considerable expenditure of flattery, Frederick induced Voltaire to take up his residence at Potsdam. From this step he anticipated much pleasure and advantage, and for a time everything appeared to proceed according to his wishes. The social suppers in which he loved to indulge after the labors of the day were enlivened by the poet's brilliant talents ; and the poet's gratitude for the royal friendship and condescension was manifested in his assiduous correction of the royal writings. For a time each was delighted with the other ; but the mutual regard which these two singular characters had conceived was soon dissipated upon closer acquaintance, and after many undignified quarrels they parted in the spring of 1753, in a manner discreditable to both. In 1756 Frederick learned that a new coali- tion, including Russia and his former ally France, was forming against him. The united continental powers were determined to crush him. England was his only ally. Having detected their secret intrigues, he resolved to strike the first blow, and in August, 1756, he entered Saxony with seventy thousand men, and thus began the seven years' war. The Austrian general, Browne, was defeated at Lobositz, October 1st. The Saxon army under Rutowski surrendered soon after; all Saxony was speedily reduced, and her resources turned against the confederacy. At the great battle of Prague, May 6, 1757, the Prussians were victorious; but after the defeat at Kolin in June, the occupation of his territory by the French, Swedes, and Rus- sians made Frederick's affairs seem so desper- ate that he became very despondent. En- couraged by his victory over the French at Rossbach in November, and a victory at Leu- then in December, he soon regained Breslau. In August, 1758, he defeated the Russians at Zorndorf, the bloodiest battle of the war. Defeated by Daun at Hochkirch in October, he went into winter quarters at Breslau. The year 1759 saw the allies closing round Frederick; he was defeated at Kunersdorf, and Berlin was saved only by his mireiculous energy. The fifth year saw Berlin in the hands of the Russians, while Frederick won ! great battles at Liegnitz in August, 1760, land at Torgau in November, the one over : Laudon, and the other over Daun. The sixth year promised ill, but still he fought jon. England deserted him on the death of I George II. ; but Russia, on the death of Elizabeth in 1762, withdrew from the coali- tion. France also declared future neutrality ; the Austrians and Prussians stood alone against each other. The empress now gave way, and the peace of Hubertsburg, signed Februarj' 15, 1763, again left Frederick in possession of Silesia. The brilliant military reputation which Frederick had acquired in this arduous con- test did not tempt him to pursue the career of a conqueror. He had risked everything I to maintain possession of Silesia; but, if his ] writings speak the real feelings of his mind, I he was deeply sensible to the sufferings and I evils which attended upon war. "The state ' of Prussia," he himself says, in the Histoire de mon Temps, " can only be compared to that I of a man riddled with wounds, weakened by loss of blood, and ready to sink under the i wfeight of his misfortunes. The nobility I was exhausted, the commons ruined, num- ! bers of villages were burned, the towns ruined. Civil order was lost in a total anarchy : in a word, the desolation was universal." To cure these evils Frederick applied his earnest attention; by grants of money to those towns which had suffered most, by the commencement and continuation of various great works on public utility, by I attention to agriculture, by draining marshes, ! and settling colonists in the barren, or ruined portions of his country, and by cherishing manufactures — though not always with a I useful or judicious zeal — he succeeded in IN POLITICS vitalizing the exhausted population and re- sources of Prussia. It was with a wonderful rapidity, because his military establishment was at the same time recruited and main- tained at the enormous number, considering the size and wealth of the kingdom, of two hundred thousand men. One of his measures deserves especial notice, the emancipation of the peasants from hereditary servitude. This great undertaking he commenced at an early period of his reign, by giving up his own seignorial rights over the serfs on the crown domains. He com- pleted it in the year 1766 by an edict abolish- ing servitude throughout his dominions. He then commenced a gradual alteration in the fiscal system of Prussia, suggested in part by the celebrated Helvetius. In the department of finance, though all his experiments did not succeed, he was very successful. He is said, in the course of his reign, to have raised the annual revenue to nearly double what it had been in his father's time, and that without increasing the pres- sure of the people; from his last biogra- pher he has obtained the praise of having "arrived, as far as any sovereign ever did, at perfection in that part of finance, which con- sists in extracting as much as possible from the people, without overburdening or im- poverishing them; and receiving into the royal coffers the sums so extracted, with the least possible deductions." In such cares and in his literary pursuits, among which we may especially mention his "History of the Seven Years' War," passed the time of Fred- erick for ten years. In 1772 he engaged in the nefarious project for the first partition of Poland. Of the iniquity of that project it is not necessary to speak; the universal voice of Europe has condemned it. It does not seem, however, that the scheme originated with Frederick. On the contrary, it appears to have been con- ceived by Catherine II., of Russia, and matured in conyersations with Prince Henry, the king of Prussia's brother, during a visit to St. Petersburg. By the treaty of parti- tion, which was not finally arranged until 1776, Prussia gained a territory of no great extent, but of importance from its connecting Prussia proper with the electoral dominions of Brandenburg and Silesia, and giving a com- pactness to the kingdom, of which it stood greatly in need. Frederick made some amends for his con- duct in this matter, by the diligence with which he labored to improve hia Aoquiaition. In this, as in most circumstances of intenud administration, he was very succenful; and the country, ruined by war, miigovemment, and the brutal sloth of its inhabitants, soon assumed the aspect of cheerful industry. The king of Prussia once more led an army into the field, when, on the death of the elector of Bavaria, childless, in 1777, Joseph II. of Austria conceived the plan of reannex- ing to his own crown, under the plea of various antiquated feudal rights, the greater part of the Bavarian territories. Stimulated quite as much by jealousy of Austria, as by a sense of the injustice of this act, Frederick stood out as the assertor of the liberties of Germany, and, proceeding with the utmost politeness from explanation to explanation, he marched an army into Bohemia in July, 1778. The war, however, which was terminated in the following spring, was one of maneuvers, and partial engagements, in which Frederick's skill in strategy shone with its usual luster, and success, on the whole, rested with the Prussians. By the terms of the treaty of Teschen, May, 1779, the Bavarian dominions were secured, nearly entire, to the rightful collateral heirs, whose several claims were settled, while certain minor stipulations were made in favor of Prussia. In 1785 Frederick again found occasion to oppose Austria, in defense of the int^rity of the Germanic constitution. The emperor Joseph, in prosecution of his designs on Bavaria, had formed a contract with the reigning elector to exchange the Austrian provinces in the Netherlands for the elector- ate. Dissenting from this arrangement, the heir to the succession intrusted the advocacy of his rights to Frederick, who lost no time in negotiating a confederation among the chief powers of Germany — known as the Fiirsten- bund, or Germanic league — to support the constitution of the empire, and the rights of its several princes. By this timely step Austria was compelled to forego the desired acquisition. At this time Frederick's constitution had begun to weaken. He had long been a suf- ferer from gout, the natural consequence of indulgence in good eating and rich cookery, to which throughout his life he was addicted. Toward the end of the year he began to experience great difficulty in breathing. His complaints, aggravated by total neglect of 470 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT medical advice, and an extravagant appetite, which he gratified by eating to excess of the most highly seasoned and unwholesome food, terminated in confirmed dropsy. During the latter months of his life he suffered grievously from a complication of disorders; through this period he displayed remarkable patience, and considerations for the feelings of those around him. No expression of suffering was allowed to pass his lips; up to the last day of his life he continued to discharge with punctuality those political duties which he had imposed upon himself in youth and strength. Strange to say, while he exhibited this extraordinary self-control in some re- spects, he would not abstain from the most extravagant excesses in diet, though they were almost always followed by a severe aggravation of his sufferings. Up to August 15, 1786, he continued, as usual, to receive and answer all communications, and to despatch the usual routine of civil and mili- tary business. On the following day he fell into a lethargy, from which he only partially recovered. He died in the course of the night at Sans Souci, on August 17, 1786, in the seventy-fifth year of his age, and the forty- seventh of his reign. At his death he be- queathed to his nephew and successor, Frederick William, about ten millions sterling, an army of two hundred thousand men, and a kingdom nearly double its former size. Frederick was rather below the middle size, in youth inclined to stoutness, lean in old age, but of vigorous and active habits. An expres- sion of keen intelligence Hghted up his features, and his large, sparkling, grey eyes darted pene- trating glances at every one who approached him. In his later years he is described by Carlyle as a singular little figure that "used to be seen sauntering on the terraces of Sans Souci for a short time in the after- noon. His body was worn and bent by age and toil. He wore a battered cocked hat, a faded blue coat with red facings, a yellow waistcoat soiled with snuff, and long miUtary boots unblackened and unbrushed ; and in his hand he swung about a stick, rough from the woods. Yet, in spite of all this, his counte- nance had a right royal air. His mouth was firm ; his nose was prominent, and rather flung into the air under its old cocked hat ; and his grey eye had the penetrating, steadfast look of one who had been born to command." His conversation was lively and his manners pleasing, and, when he wished it, captivating. He was fond of literature and of literary society, but his own attainments were hmited to belles-lettres and moral sciences. He knew almost nothing of the classics, or, indeed, of any foreign language except the French, to which he was so partial that it was constantly spoken at his table, and all his works, both in prose and verse, were composed in that tongue. He wrote an immense num- ber of poor verses; even the best of his poetical effusions seldom rise above medioc- rity. His prose works are greatly superior to his poetry, though probably few even of them would have survived apart from his character and position. Frederick was never at rest. He was an active spirit, constantly moving about and touching the springs of government with his own hand. Until an advanced period of life, he always rose at four o'clock in the morning. A basket filled with letters, despatches, and reports of every kind was then placed before him. Patiently he opened and read them all, and marked emphatically on the back of each what answer he wanted to be given. When he was done, it was about eight o'clock ; the adjutant general was admitted, and received his orders in a few words. Frederick then went out and reviewed his guards, prying into every particular of their accouterments and discipline. By the time he returned, his four secretaries had written out in an official form the answers to the letters and despatches. Snatching up some of them at random, he ran his eye over them ; and woe to the writer if he hit upon any blunders ! In this manner he bustled about all day, meddling with agriculture, commerce, educa- tion, and everj'thing connected with the wel- fare of his subjects. When evening came, he usually abandoned himself to liter£iry plea- sures. For that purpose he had allured to his court a company of authors; among others came the great Voltaire, already mentioned. He entertained them at supper, threw aside his dignity, and called upon them to forget that he was a king. Literature and religion were discussed, compliments were paid and jests were bandied. One of the liveliest and the wittiest was the king himself. Frederick was essentially a just, if some- what austere, man, and the administration of justice tmder his rule was pure, though he himself had his usual cynical distrust of hia judges' integrity. The press enjoyed com- parative freedom ; and freedom of conscience s s IN POLITICS 47t was promoted. Though Frederick was him- self a voluminous wTiter on political, historical, and military subjects, he had no sympathy with the nascent German hterature, a fact on which the latter is perhaps to be con- gratulated. The spirit of the century went faster than Frederick ; had he lived he would ' not have understood the logical outcome of his philosophic doctrines in the French lution. His subjects long remembered him m " Father Fritz," and historians have genefalljr regarded him as the founder of the PnioiMi monarchy. WASHINGTON A. D. 1732 1751 1755 1759 1774 1775 Bom in Westmoreland county, Vir- ginia, Adjutant general in Virginia, .... 19 Placed at the head of the Virginia forces, 23 Married, 27 Delegate to the continental congress, at Philadelphia, 42 Appointed commander-in-chief of the continental army, 43 A. D. 1781 Received surrender of ComwklUa at Yorktown 40 Resigned command of army, .... 61 Elected first president of the UDit«d States, 67 Reelected president 61 Refused a third term, 64 1797 Retired from public affairs 66 1799 Died at Mt. Vernon, Virginia, .... 67 1783 1789 1793 1796 /^EORGE WASHINGTON, first president ^^ of the United States, and illustrious as a military commander, patriot, and statesman, was born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, February 22, 1732. He was the son of Augustine Washington, a planter, and Mary Ball, his second wife. His ancestors belonged to an old English family, and the name of Washington is traceable as far back as the thirteenth century. About 1657 two brothers, John and Lawrence Washington, emigrated to Virginia, and settled near the confluence of Bridges creek and the Potomac river, in the county of Westmoreland. The brothers bought lands and became successful planters. Not long after, John Washington was employed in a military command against the Indians; and he rose to the rank of colonel. He married Anne Pope, by whom he had two sons, Lawrence and John, and a daughter. The elder son, Lawrence, married Mildred Warner, of Gloucester county, by whom he had three children, John, Augustine, and Mildred. Augustine, the second, was twice married. By his first wife he had four children, two of whom died in infancy. By his second wife, Mary Ball, he had six children, George, Betty, Samuel, John Augustine, Charles, and Mildred. Each of the sons of Augustine Washington inherited from him a separate plantation. To the eldest, Lawrence, he bequeathed an estate near Hunting creek, afterward called Mount Vernon. The second son had for his part an estate in Westmoreland. To George were left the lands and mansion in Stafford county, on the Rappahannock river, where his father had died. All the children were left in a good condition of independence. Mrs. Washington, a woman of strong sense, pru- dence, and industry, had control of all the estates until their owners came of age. She performed the difficult task allotted to her with entire success — and the world should give her the same tribute of respect and veneration which has been awarded to the mothers of all truly great men. The province of Virginia offered but scanty opportunities for education. Enough knowl- edge for a practical business life was the most that could be obtained. Reading, writing, arithmetic, and some other branches of mathematics were alone within the reach of Washington. It is said that he was a diligent student, but that his passion for active sports and military exercise was displayed at a very early age. He delighted in running, jumping, wrestling, tossing bars, and other feats of strength and agility. Another tradition is preserved which is quite as probable, and is important as illus- trating the growth of two of his greatest qualities. It is said that while at school lus reputation for truth and judgment was so well established that his fellow pupils were accustomed to make him the arbiter of their disputes, and never failed to be satisfied with his decision. Besides performing what was required o( him in the usual routine of study, young 474 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Washington compiled a system of maxims and regulations, and arranged them under the head of Rules for Behavior in Company and Conversation. His temper was ardent and his passion powerful. The great object of his little code was to teach himself perfect self-control, which, according to the passion- ate Burns, is "wisdom's root." In the con- quest of himself, Washington perfectly suc- ceeded, and throughout his career he retained absolute command of his propensities. Washington left school in the autumn preceding his sixteenth birthday. The last two years had been devoted to the study of geometry, trigonometry, and surveying. Dur- ing the last summer he was at school, he surveyed the fields and plantations around the schoolhouse, and, with great skill and precision, entered the measurements and calculations in his books. He seems to have possessed a natural bent for the exact sciences. While he was at school, his eldest brother, Lawrence, seeing Washington's military in- clination, procured a midshipman's warrant for him. Washington prepared with a buoy- ant spirit to enter the British navy ; but the earnest persuasion of his mother induced him to abandon the project and continue at school. He afterward went to reside with his brother, LawTence, at Mount Vernon. There he be- came acquainted with the Fairfax family from whom he obtained his first regular employment as a surveyor. The eccentric Lord Fairfax had purchased immense tracts of wild lands in the rich valley of the Alleghany mountains. These were to be measured and divided into lots. The service was difficult and dangerous. The country swarmed with Indians, with whom peace was always a disagreeable truce, and the hardships of a wilderness were to be endured. Washington, accompanied by George Fairfax, surmounted all obstacles, and performed the service required with skill and accuracy. His reputation as a surveyor was established. The knowledge of the wilderness and its inhabitants which he acquired was of great use to him in subsequent surveying and mihtary expeditions. Receiving a commis- sion as public surveyor, he was engaged almost uninterruptedly in the business of that office during the following three years. In 1751 Washington entered the mili- tary service. The frontiers were then threat- ened by the French and Indians, and as a precautionary measure it was resolved to put the militia in a condition for defense. The province was divided into districts, in each of which was placed an adjutant general, with the rank of major, whose duty it was to muster and maintain discipline among the militia. Washington received charge of one of these districts. He now studied tactics, and entered upon his congenial service with zeal and alacrity. But the ill-health of his brother, Lawrence, called him away to Barbados, and it was four months before he returned to Virginia. Lawrence returned a few months later and died at Mount Vernon. Washington was left executor and his time and thoughts were occu- pied for several months with the business which thus devolved upon him. Yet the duties of his military office were not neglected. Governor Dinwiddie, in 1752, divided Vir- ginia into four grand military departments, and Washington, much to his gratification, received the command in the northern depart- ment. This was a post of great responsibility ; the fact that it was conferred upon so young a man proves that the governor had confidence in his talents and energy. At the outbreak of the French and Indian war in 1753, Washington was the agent sent by Governor Dinwiddie to warn the French away from their new forts in western Penn- sylvania. The command of the Virginia troops who began hostilities fell to him, and his vigorous defense of Fort Necessity imme- diately made him so prominent a figure th»at in 1755, at the age of twenty- three, he was commissioned commander-in-chief of all the Virginia forces. He now served in Braddock's campaign, and in the final defeat showed for the first time that fiery energy which always lay hidden beneath his calm and unruffled ex- terior. He ranged the whole field on horse- back, making himself the most conspicuous mark for Indian bullets, and, in spite of what he called the "dastardly behavior" of the regular troops, brought the little remnant of his Virginians out of action in fair order. In spite of this reckless exposure, he was one of the few unwounded officers. For a year or two his task was that of "defending a frontier of more than three hundred fifty miles with seven hundred men"; but in 1758 he had the pleasure of commanding the advance guard of the expedition which captured Fort Du Quesne and renamed it Fort Pitt. IN POLITICS 476 The war in Virginia being then at an end, Washington resigned his post. In 1759 he married Mrs. Martha Custis, widow of Daniel Parke Ciistis, whose maiden name was Dand- ridge, and settled at Mount Vernon. By his marriage he added about one hundred thou- sand dollars to his fortune, which was already considerable. He then began the purchase of adjacent plantations until the Mount Vernon estate amounted finally to eight thousand acres. Washington's life for the next twenty years was merely that of a typical Virginia planter, a consistent member of the established (Episcopal) church, a large slaveholder, a strict but considerate master, and a widely trusted man of affairs. His extraordinary escape in Braddock's defeat had led a colonial minister to declare in a sermon his belief that the young man had been preserved to be "the savior of his country." If there was any such impression, it soon died away, and Washington gave none of his associates reason to consider him an uncommonly endowed man. Like others of the dominant caste in Vir- ginia, he was repeatedly elected to the legis- lature, but he is not known to have made any set speeches in that body, or to have said anything beyond a statement of his opinion and the reasons for it. That he thought a great deal and took full advantage of his legislative experiences as a political education is shown by his letter of April 5, 1769, to his neighbor, George Mason, communicating the Philadelphia non-importation resolutions, which had just reached him. Without speech-making he took a prominent part in the struggles of his legislature against Gover- nor Dunmore, and his position was always a radical one. He even opposed petitions to the king and parliament, on the ground that the question had been put by the ministry on the basis of right, not of expediency, that the ministry could not abandon the right and the colonists could not admit it, and that petitions must be, as they had been, rejected. In 1774 the Virginia convention, appointing seven of its members as delegates to the continental congress, named Washington as one of them ; and with this appointment his national career began. Washington's letters during his service in congress show that he was under no delu- sions as to the outcome of the taxation struggle, and that he expected war. His associates in congress recognized his military ability at once, and most of the details of work looking toward preparationa for armed resistance were by common consent left to him. Even in the intervaU of his congres- sional service he was occupied in urging on the formation, equipment, and training of Virginia troops, and it was generally under> stood that, in case of war, Virginia would expect him to act as her commander-in-chief. History was not to be cheated in that fashion. The two most powerful colonies were Virginia and Massachusetts. War began in Massachusetts; New England troops poured in almost spontaneously ; it was neces- sary to insure the support of the colonies to the southward ; and the Virginia colonel who was at the head of all the military committees was just the man whom the New England delegates desired. When congress, after the fights at Lexington and Concord, resolved to put the colonies into a state of defense, the first practical step was the unanimous selec- tion, on motion of John Adams of Massa- chusetts, of Washington as commander-in- chief of the armed forces of the united colonies. Refusing any salary, he accepted the position, asking "every gentleman in the room," however, to remember his declaration that he did not believe himself to be equal to the command, and that he accepted it only as a duty made imperative by the unanimity of the call. He reiterated this belief in private letters, even to his wife; and there seems to be no doubt that, to the day of his death, he was the most determined skeptic as to his fitness for the positions to which he was called in succession. He was commissioned June 15, 1775, and reached Cambridge, Mass., July 2d, taking command of the levies there assembled for action against the British garrison of Boston. The battle of Bunker Hill, however, had taken place before he could take command of the army, and Washington's work until the following spring was to bring about some semblance of military discipline, to obtain ammunition and military stores, to corre- spond with congress and the colonial gov- ernors, to guide militar>' operations in the widely separated parts of a great continent, to create a military system and organization for a people who were entirely unaccustomed to such a thing and impatient under it, and to bend the course of events steadily toward driving the British out of Boston. 476 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT It is not easy to see how Washington survived the year 1775 ; the colonial poverty, the exasperating annoyances, the selfishness or stupidity which cropped out again and again from the most patriotic of his coad- jutors, were enough to have broken down most men. They completed his training. If he was not a great man when he went to Cambridge, he was a general and a statesman in the best sense when he drove the British out of Boston in March, 1776. From that time until his death he was the foremost man of the continent. The military operations of the remainder of the war are too well known to be rehearsed here. Washington's retreat through the Jer- seys, the manner in which he turned and struck his pursuers at Trenton and Princeton, and then established himself at Morristown so as to make the way to Philadelphia im- passable, the vigor with which he handled his army at Chad's Ford and Germantown, the persistence with which he held the strategic position of Valley Forge through the dreadful winter of 1777-78, in spite of the misery of his men, the clamors of the people, and the impotence of the fugitive congress — all went to show that the fiber of his public character had been hardened to its perma- nent quality. It was a serious addition to his burdens that the spirit which culminated in Benedict Arnold chose this moment to make its appearance. Many of the American officers had been affronted by the close personal friendship which had sprung up between Lafayette and Washington, and by the diplomatic deference which the commander-in-chief felt compelled to show to other foreign officers. Some of the latter showed no gratitude. The name of one of them, Conway, an Irish soldier of fortune from the French service, is attached to what is called "Conway's cabal." He formed a scheme for replacing Washington in the coramand by Gates, who had just suc- ceeded in forcing Burgoyne to surrender at Saratoga; and a number of officers and men in civil Ufe were mixed up in it. The treaty of 1778 with France put an end to every such plan. It was a flat absurdity to expect foreign nations to deal with a second-rate man as commander-in-chief while Washington was in existence ; Washington seems to have had no more trouble of this kind. The prompt and vigorous pursuit of Clinton across the Jerseys toward New York, and the battle of Monmouth, in which the plan of battle was thwarted by Charles Lee, another of the foreign officers, closed the direct military record of Washington until the end of the war. The enemy confined their move- ments to other parts of the continent, and Washington did little more than watch their headquarters in New York city. It was more than appropriate, however, that he, who had been the mainspring of the war, and had borne far more than his share of its burdens and discouragements, should end it with his well-planned campaign of Yorktown, and the surrender of Cornwallis, in 1781. The war was then really over, but the com- mander-in-chief retained his commission until December 23, 1783, when he returned it to congress, then in session at Annapolis, Md., and again retired to Mount Vernon. By this time the canonization of Washing- ton had fairly begun. He occupied such a position in the American political system as no man can possibly hold again. He be- came a political element, quite apart from the Union, the states, or the people of either. In a country where communication was still slow and difficult, the general knowledge that Washington favored anything superseded argument and the necessity of information with very many men. The army at the end of the war was justly dissatisfied with its treatment. The officers were called to meet at Newburgh, New York, and it was the avowed purpose of the leaders of the move- ment that the army should march westward, appropriate vacant lands, leave congress to negotiate for peace without an army, and "mock at their calamity and laugh when their fear cometh." It was the less publicly avowed purpose to make their commander- in-chief king, if he could be persuaded to aid in estabhshing a monarchy. Washington put a simamary stop to the whole proceeding. Their letter to him de- tailed the weakness of a republican form of government as they had experienced it, their desire for a "mixed government," with him at its head, and their belief that "the title of king" would be objectionable to few and of material advantage to the coimtry. His reply was peremptory and even angry. He stated in plain terms his abhorrence of the proposal; he was at a loss to conceive what part of his conduct could have encouraged their address; they could not have found "a person to whom their schemes were more IN POLITICS in disagreeable " ; and he threatened them with exposure unless the affair was stopped at once. His influence, and that alone, secured the disbanding of the discontented army. This influence still remained as powerful after he had retired to Mount Vernon as before his resignation. When the federal convention met at Philadelphia in May, 1787, to frame the present constitution, Washington was present as a delegate from Virginia, though much against his will ; a unanimous vote soon made him its presiding officer. He took no part in the debates, however, beyond such sug- gestive hints as his proposal to amend a restriction of the standing army to five thousand men by forbidding any enemy to invade the United States with more than three thousand. He approved the constitu- tion which was decided upon, believing, as he said, "that it was the best constitution which could be obtained at that epoch, and that this or a dissolution awaits our choice, and is the only alternative." All his great prestige was given to secure its ratification, and his influence was probably decisive. When the constitution had been ratified and the time came to elect a president, in 1789, there was no more hesitation than if the coun- try had been a theocracy. The office of presi- dent had been "cut to fit the measure of George Washington"; no one thought of any other person for it. The unanimous vote of the electors made him the first presi- dent of the United States; their unanimous vote reelected him in 1793; and, even after he had positively refused a third term, two electors obstinately voted for him in 1797. One can hardly follow the public events of his presidency without receiving the convic- tion that the sudden success of the new system was due mainly to the existence at that time of such a character as Washington. He held the two national parties apart, and prevented party contest until the new form of government had been firmly established. It seems hardly possible that the final result should have been balked, even if " blood and iron" had been necessary to bring it about. It would be unwise to attribute the quiet attainment of the result to the political sense of the American people alone, or to use it as a historical precedent for the volimtary assumption of such a risk again, without the advantage of such a political factor as Wash- ington. The unconscious drift of Waahingtoo'i mind was toward the federal party; his letters to Lafayette and Henry in Deoember, 1798, and January, 1799, are enough to make that evident. W hen the republican party was formed, about 1793, it could not have been expected that its leaders would long submit with patience to the continual interpoaitiao of Washington's name and influence betwen themselves and their opponents; but they maintained a calm exterior. Some of their followers were less discreet. The presideiit's proclamation of neutrality between France and Great Britain excited them to anger; his support of Jay's treaty with Great Britain roused them to fury. Forged letters, pur- porting to show his desire to abandon the revolutionary struggle, were published; he was accused of drawing more than his salary ; hints of the propriety of a guillotine for his benefit began to appear; some spoke of him as the "stepfather of his country." The attacks embittered the close of his term of service; he declared, in a cabinet meeting in 1793 that "he had never repented but once having slipped the moment of resigning his office, and that was every moment since." Indeed, the most unpleasant portions of Jefferson's annals are those in which, with an air of psychological dissection, he details the storms of passion into which the president was hurried by the newspaper attacks upon him. These attacks, however, came from a very small fraction of the politicians; the people never wavered in their devotion to the president, and his elec- tion would have been unanimous in 1797, as in 1789 and 1793, if he had been willing to serve. Washington retired from the presidency in 1797, and resumed the plantation life, which he most loved, the society of his family, and the care of his slaves. He had resolved some time before never to obtain another slave, and "wished from his soul" that hi« state could be persuaded to abolish slavery ; "it might prevent much future mischief." He was too old, however, to attempt further innovations. In 1798 he was made com- mander-in-chief of the provisional army raised in expectation of open war with France, and was fretted almost beyond endurance by the quarrels of federalist politicians about the distribution of commissions. In the midst of his military preparations, on Decem- ber 12, 1799, he was expoeed in the saddle 478 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT for several hours to cold and snow and was attacked with acute laryngitis, for which he was repeatedly and largely bled ; but he sank rapidly, and died December 14th. His last words were characteristic. He said: "I die hard ; but I am not afraid to go. I beUeved from my first attack that I should not sur- vive it. My breath cannot last long." A little later he said: "I feel myself going. I thank you for your attentions; but I pray you to take no more trouble about me. Let me go off quietly. I cannot last long." After some instructions to his secretary about his burial, he became easier, felt his own pulse, and died without a struggle. His remains were laid in a private vault at Mount Vernon, where his tomb has been since con- verted into a veritable shrine for all patriotic and liberty-loving Americans. The third of the series of resolutions intro- duced in the house of representatives five days after his death by John Marshall, and passed unanimously, states exactly, if a trifle rhetorically, the position of Washington in American history: "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his country- men." Washington was of imposing presence. He was six feet two inches in height, and weighed about two hundred twenty pounds. His hair was brown, eyes blue, head large, and arms strong. He was a bold and graceful rider and hunter, attentive to his personal appearance and dignity, gracious and gentle, though at times cold and reserved. Although childless, he was very happy with his wife and his adopted children — nephews and nieces. His best portraits are those by Stuart, and the statue by Houdon at Richmond. Washington's manners were those of the old school of English gentlemen. Although mild and humane, he was stern in the per- formance of duty, and never upon such occasions yielded to softness or compassion. His speeches and official letters were simple and earnest, but wanting perhaps in that conciseness which marks vigor of thought. On his decease his worth was justly appre- ciated, and the sorrow at his loss was uni- versal and sincere. He was distinguished less by the brilliancy of his talents than by his moral goodness, sound judgment, and plain but excellent understanding. Of all the great men in his- tory he was the most invariably judicious and evenly poised. His admirable use of those sterling, though homely, qualities has gained a rank for him among the greatest and best of men; and his name will be coexistent, as it was coeval, with that of the great republic of which, no less by his rare civil wisdom than by his eminent military talents, he may be considered the founder. The virtues which distinguish him from all others, who have united the fame of statesman and captain, were twofold, and they are as great as they are rare. He refused power which his own merit had placed within his reach, constantly persisting in the preference of a republican to a monarchical form of government, as the most congenial to liberty when it is not incompatible with the habits of the people and the circumstances of society ; he even declined to continue longer than his years seemed to jjermit at the head of the commonwealth which he had founded. This subjugation of all ambitious feelings to the paramount sense of duty is his first excellence ; it is the sacrifice of his own aggrandizement to his country's freedom. The next is like unto it — his constant love of peace when placed at the head of affairs. This was the sacrifice of the worthless glory, which ordinary men prize the most, to the tranquillity and happiness of mankind. ^^'herefore to all ages and in all chmes, they who most love public virtue will hold in eternal remembrance the name of George Washington, never pronouncing it but with gratitude and awe, as designating a mortal removed above the ordinary lot of human frailty. The words of his last will in bequeathing his sword to his nephews — the sword which he had worn in the sacred war of Hberty — ought to be graven in letters of gold over every palace in the world: "This sword they shall never draw but in defense of freedom, or of their country, or of their kindred ; and when thus drawn, they shall prefer falling with it in their hands to the reUnquishment thereof." Gladstone declared that Washington "is the purest figure in history." Lecky found in him "a leader who could be induced by no earthly motive to tell a falsehood, or to break an engagement, or to commit any dishonorable act." Lord Brougham char- acterized him as " the greatest man that ever hved in this world uninspired by divine wisdom and imsustained by supernatural virtue." IN POLITICS 479 JEFFERSON A. D. 1743 1760 1767 1769 1772 1775 1776 1779 1782 AOE A. D. Born at Shadwell, Virginia, 1783 Entered William and Mary college, . 17 1785 Began practice of law, 24 1790 Member Virginia legislature, .... 26 Married 29 1796 Delegate to the continental congress, 32 1800 Drafted the declaration of independ- 1803 ence 33 1804 Elected governor of Virginia, .... 36 1819 Plenipotentiary to England, 39 1826 Member of congress, 40 Minister to France, 42 Secretary of state in Washington's cabinet, 47 Vice-president of the United States, . 53 Elected president, 67 Louisiana purchased from France, . . 60 Reelected president, 61 Rector of the university of Virginia, . 76 Died at Monticello, Virginia, .... 83 'pHOMAS JEFFERSON, one of the most * illustrious of American statesmen, and third president of the United States, was born at Shadwell, Albemarle county, Vir- ginia, on April 13, 1743. Peter Jefferson, his father, was a man of some distinction in the colony, and his mother, Jane Randolph, was descended from an English family of good station. His father died in 1757, leaving a widow and eight children — Thomas being the eldest son. The children were all left in fair circumstances — Thomas receiving the lands which he called Monticello, and on which he afterward resided, when not engaged in public duties. At the age of five he was sent to an ele- mentary school; four years afterward he commenced the study of Latin, Greek, and French. In the spring of 1760 he entered an advanced class at William and Mary college, at Williamsburg, Virginia, where he prosecuted his studies for two years and was graduated. He there acquired the friendship of the professor of mathematics. Dr. William Small, who introduced him to George Wythe, under whose instruction he commenced the study of the law. In 1767, when twenty-four years old, Jefferson was admitted to the bar. He continued the practice of law until the revolution closed the courts of justice. Several written arguments upon intricate law questions have been preserved, which prove that Jefferson would have attained a first rank in his profession. But he possessed no talent for oratory, and never made a con- spicuous figure in debate. While he was a student at law in Williams- burg, Jefferson heard the famous speech of Patrick Henry, in the Virginia house of delegates, against the stamp act. Animated by the spirit of that great orator, he from that time stood forth as a champion for his country. In 1769 he was chosen by the people of his county to represent them in the legislature of the province. In that capacity, which he maintained up to the period of the revolution, Jefferson made an unsuccessful attempt to procure the emanci- pation of slaves in Virginia. Thus his first important movement was in behalf of human liberty. In January, 1772, Jefferson married Mrs. Martha Skelton, daughter of John Wayles, a distinguished Virginia lawyer. She was pos- sessed of considerable property, and brought him a large dowry in lands and slaves, about equal in value to his own property. But his liberality and generous living left him insol- vent at his death. In the spring of 1773 he was appointed by the house of burgesses a member of the "committee of correspondence and inquiry for the dissemination of intelligence between the colonies," the plan of which he had aided in devising. After a second dissolution of the house in the spring of 1774, the members met privately, and recommended the election of deputies to a convention to meet on August 1st. Jefferson was chosen a member of this convention, but was prevented by illness from attending. He had, however, drawn up a paper to serve for instructions to the delegates to the general congress which the committee of correspondence had been di- rected to propose to all the colonies, and this he sent to Peyton Randolph, president of the convention. It was a bold, elaborate, and eloquent exposition of the right of the colonies to resist taxation, and contained the germ of the subsequent declaration of independence. The paper was offered, but not adopted, being regarded as too much in advance of public sentiment. It was printed in England as well as in Virginia, under the title of A Summary View of the Rights of British America, and extensively made use of by opposition speakers in parliament. Jefferson attended the second convention, which met in March, 1775, and was placed upon the committee to report a plan of 480 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT defense. The convention then elected dele- gates to the continental congress, and Jeffer- son was chosen as the alternate of Peyton Randolph. He took his seat there in June, 1775, after drawing up the reply of the Vir- ginia assembly to the "conciliatory propo- sition" of Lord North. He was at once placed upon the committee to draw up the declaration .of the cause of taking up arms, and was aided by John Dickinson in drafting the paper, of which congress approved. His answer to Lord North's proposition was adopted by congress with little alteration. Early in June, 1776, a committee to draw up a declaration of independence was ap- pointed, with Jefferson for its chairman. The instrument was drafted by Jefferson, and with certain amendments was adopted, July 4th; the declaration still remains his noblest monument. Jefferson was rechosen a delegate to con- gress, but resigned the appointment, his aim now being to carry out radical changes in the laws of his native state. He had drawn up a preamble and outline sketch of a new constitution for Virginia, and sent it to Edmund Randolph, president of the conven- tion then sitting. His draft was not proposed, but his preamble was prefixed to the consti- tution framed by George Mason. The great reforms in the organic laws were still unat- tained, and to these Jefferson ardently ad- dressed himself. He took his seat in the Virginia house in October, 1776, and was placed at the head of a committee of revision, the work of which continued for more than two years. Jefferson prepared bills for the repeal of the law of entail, for the abolition of primogeniture, and for establishing reli- gious freedom. The opposition to these measures among the aristocratic classes was determined, and the contest was prolonged for years. The bills were all finally passed, and the reor- ganization was complete. In addition to these radical measures Jefferson was the author of others of importance for the establishment of courts of law, and for a complete system of elementary and collegiate education. He strongly opposed the alleged scheme for appointing Patrick Henry dictator, and proposed and procured the passage of a bill forbidding the future importation of slaves. In 1779 Jefferson exercised a wise benevo- lence in alleviating the condition of the British prisoners, who had been captured at Saratoga, and sent to Charlottesville, Vir- ginia, to await the action of the British government. When the time came for their leaving Virginia, the officers addressed many letters of thanks to him for his kindness and hospitality. On June 1st, in the same year, he was elected by the legislature to succeed Patrick Henry, as governor of Virginia. He held that office two years, and then retired to private Hfe. Soon afterward he was nearly captured by a party of British cavalry, sent to surprise the members of the assembly at Charlottesville. When pursued, Jefferson es- caped on his horse, through the woods at Carter's Mountain. M. De Marbois, the secretary of legation from France to the United States, wishing to obtain a general view of the geography, productions, statistics, government, history, and laws of the country, applied to Jefferson, who, in answer, wrote his famous Notes on Virginia, which work was soon after published both in French and English. The veracity and accuracy of its matter, and the simple beauty of its style excited general admiration. The work was written in 1781. In 1782 Jefferson was appointed plenipo- tentiary by congress to join the able Ameri- can negotiators then in Europe, but intelligence having been received that the preliminaries of a treaty of peace had been signed, his services were dispensed with. He was then elected a delegate to congress in 1783, and in the next year wrote notes on the establishment of a coinage for the United States. To him we are indebted for the dollar as a unit, and for our present system of coins and decimals. In May, 1784, congress joined Jefferson with John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, as ministers plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties of commerce with foreign nations. In 1785 Jefferson succeeded Franklin as minister at the French court. Here he combated the intrigues of Vergennes and Calonne, the French ministers, in opposition to the desired treaties of commerce, and obtained the aboli- tion of a number of monopolies, and the admission into France of tobacco, rice, whale oil, salted fish, and flour. The society of Paris seemed admirably suited to the taste of Jefferson, and he was combed by the witty, learned, and scientific. His sociable disposition, winning manners, and brilliant conversation found full appre- IN POLITICS 481 ciation. He remained in Paris until the latter part of 1789, when he obtained leave of absence, and returned to the United States. Soon after his arrival, he received from President Washington the offer of a seat in his cabinet as secretary of state, which he ac- cepted, though he was inclined to return to France. He entered the cabinet in March, 1790. While in the cabinet under Washington, Jefferson made many able reports, and skill- fully conducted the correspondence with foreign governments. But his partiality for France, and his disapproval of the chief measures proposed by Hamilton, caused con- stant bickering and contention. A strong opposition to the government was therefore formed, under the wing of Jefferson; then began the struggle between the federalists, headed by Alexander Hamilton, at that time secretary of the treasury, and the republicans under the lead of Jefferson. Jefferson was a democrat by nature and training, strongly opposed to England and the English system, a friend to the revolu- tionary cause in France, and an unyielding advocate of state sovereignty and decentral- ization. In all the great measures Hamilton defeated his rival. In the spring of 1793 the paramount question of the neutral policy and rights of the United States arose, in view of the declaration of war just made by France against Holland and Great Britain. Upon this question was put forth the entire strength of the two great leaders of the federal and republican parties in the cabinet. The republican party was enthusiastic in its sympathy for France, and a disposition was shown to fit out privateers in American ports to cruise against English vessels. This was energetically opposed by the federal leaders. Jefferson advocated the propriety of receiving a minister from the French republic, which was determined upon. This was followed by the appearance of Genet as minister, who authorized the fitting out and arming of privateers. The president ©rdered that Genet's privateers should leave the ports immediately, notwithstanding which he armed a prize and ordered her to sail as a privateer. A violent debate took place in the cabinet in Washington's absence. Ham- ilton advocated the erection of a battery to prevent the vessel from sailing. Jefferson opposed the scheme of a battery, on the ground that the vessel would not sail. Wash- ington arrived and addressed a heated note to Jefferson; but explanations were made. In spite of all, the vessel sailed. Genet WM finally recalled, and this affair terminated. It had aroused to the utmost extent all the bitterness in the hearts of the two greftt rivals, and the meetings of the cabinet were stormy. On December 31, 1793, Jefferaon resigned his place in the cabinet, and retired to Monticello. In 1796 the republican party supported Jefferson for the presidency ; but John Adams received the highest number of votes, and Jefferson then became vice-president. Dur- ing the time he held this office, he compoeed a manual for the senate, which for a long time held its place as the guide for congress and most other political bodies in the states, and which is still often appealed to in the transaction of business. In 1800 Jefferson was again nominated for the presidency. This time he received a higher number of electoral votes than Adams ; but Colonel Aaron Burr received the same number, and, therefore, the election devolved upon the house of representatives. Upon the thirty-sixth ballot, Jefferson received a majority, and became president. Colonel Burr, of course, became vice-president. Both entered upon the duties of their respective offices March 4, 1801. The inaugural address of Jefferson was a lucid and forcible production, explaining his ideas of good government, and conciliating all parties. From its declarations, the fed- eralists in office inferred that they would be allowed to remain at their posts. But Jeffer- son soon indicated his determination to reward his friends and remove his foes. This policy caused a considerable outcry at first, and the result was that a great many federal- ists, eager for oflBce, joined the ranks of the republican party. On May 14, 1801, the president wrote to Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina, a mem- ber of congress, giving information in regard to some of his projects, as follows: "Levees are to be done away with. The first com- munication to the next congress will be, like all subsequent ones, by message, to which no answer will be expected. The diplomatic establishments in Europe will be reduced to three ministers. The army is imdergoing a chaste reformation. The navy will be re- duced to the l^al establishment by the last of this month. Agencies in every department 482 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT will be revised. We shall push you to the utmost in economizing. A very early recom- mendation had been given to the postmaster- general, to employ no printer, foreigner, or revolutionary tory, in any of his oflBces. This department is still untouched." Majorities in both houses of the seventh congress enabled the president to carry through many measures not otherwise prac- ticable. Many acts obnoxious to the majority of the people were repealed; a uniform system of naturalization, which established the necessary residence of aliens to five years, was adopted at the suggestion of the president. The foreign relations of the United States were managed with consummate skill. Diffi- culties occurred with Spain concerning the southern boundary. That monarchy ceded Louisiana to France, the government of which refused to allow the people of the United States to use New Orleans as a place of deposit. War was anticipated. The oppo- sition in congress proposed hostile measures. But the president resolved to pursue a pacific policy. On January 11, 1803, he appointed James Monroe minister plenipotentiary to France to act with the regular minister, Robert R. Livingston, for the purchase of Louisiana. The commission was entirely suc- cessful ; Napoleon, the first consul, sold the important territory for fifteen million dollars. This great acquisition was a deep gratifica- tion to the friends of the president. Jefferson was of the opinion that an amendment to the constitution would be necessary to legalize the territory to the United States; but as congress and the people appeared satisfied no amendment was made. The repeal of the bankrupt law, an amendment of the constitu- tion, changing the mode of electing the presi- dent and vice-president, and the sending out of the northwestern exploring expedition, under Lewis and Clarke, were the chief measures consummated during the remainder of Jefferson's first presidential term. At the election in 1804 Jefferson and George Clinton were the candidates for the republican party, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Rufus King were brought forward by the federalists. The result was the triumph of Jefferson and Clinton, by a vote of one hundred sixty-two to fourteen. In his second inaugural address, delivered March 4, 1805, Jefferson exulted in the success which had attended his reform measures. But the gunboat system, which he had reconmiended instead of a navy, had entirely failed when put into practice, and upon this his political foes seized to found their attacks upon his new administration. Difficulties with Spain, France, and Great Britain, concerning boundaries and depreda- tions upon commerce, furnished them with material, and for a long period their orators were active and violent in assailing the policy of the government. In conformity with the recommendation of the president, congress passed an act pro- hibiting the importation of slaves after January 1, 1808. James Monroe and Charles C. Pinckney negotiated a treaty with the British government, which they considered highly favorable to the United States. But the president rejected it, and even refused to send it to the senate. This course excited much clamor among the federalists, and alienated a few republicans; but the sanc- tion of the majority was given to it. The refusal to accept this treaty was a primary cause of the embargo and other restrictive measures, and tended to produce that bitter hostile feeling which led to the war of 1812. However, the British government had, from the time of the revolution, pursued a policy calculated to irritate the people of the United States. The gross outrage upon the frigate Chesapeake, the continued impressment of the American seamen, and the seizure of American vessels were hostile movements not quietly to be borne. The embargo act, which was passed by congress on December 22, 1807, was the first movement of the United States toward retaliation. But it weighed heavily upon the American commercial community, and therefore excited violent denunciation. The ranks of the federalists were much strengthened. But a majority in and out of congress sustained the measures of the president. The election of successors to Jefferson and Clinton terminated in the complete triumph of the republican party. James Madison was elected to the presidential chair, and George Clinton was reelected to the vice- presidency. On November 8th Jefferson sent to both houses his last annual message. The foreign affairs of the country were in a critical state, and at home the embargo pressed heavily upon the trading community. But when Jefferson resigned the reins of govern- ment, he was assured that his successor would cany out his doctrine and policy. IN POLITICS 488 After waiting to witness Madison's inaugu- ration, Jefferson retired to his favorite Monti- cello on March 5, 1S09. Here he lived a life of literary, scientific, and agricultural delight, surrounded by affectionate friends, and occa- sionally visited by learned sojourners from abroad. The principal object in which he took an interest, in his latter days, was the establishment of a system of education in Virginia. The university of Virginia was founded through his instrumentality in 1818, and chartered in the following year. He acted as rector from that time until his death. In his old age his pecuniary circumstances became very embarrassing. Congress pur- chased his library for twenty-three thousand nine hundred fifty dollars. Still he remained deeply in debt. In 1825 he asked the legisla- ture for permission to dispose of Monticello by lottery to prevent its being sacrificed to his creditors. The request was granted. But before Jefferson could take advantage of it, death overtook him. After a short illness he died on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniver- sary of the declaration of independence, at the age of eighty-three years. One daughter and ten grandchildren survived him. In accordance with his own request, a granite obelisk was erected over his remains, bearing the inscription : Here was buried THOMAS JEFFERSON, Author of the Declaration of American Inde- pendence, of the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, and Father of the University of Virginia. The inscription shows the pvu-e and noble character of the fame which Jefferson desired. In 1848 his manuscripts were purchased by congress, and published as The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, in nine volumes. Jefferson, in his prime, was six feet two and a half inches in height, with a sinewy, well-developed frame. Although his face was angular, his countenance was amiable. He had deep-set, light hazel eyes, ruddy com- plexion, and hair of a reddish chestnut color in great profusion. With manners eminently winning, sprightly, graceful, gay, he had a readiness and a fund of conversational talent rarely equaled. There was a charm about it which was scarcely possible to resist. He possessed in an eminent degree that instinctive perception of what is proper to be said, and what will please the hearer, which is embodied in the expressive word, tact. As a skillful and quick-sighted pilot perceives at a glance the rock to be avoided, the current to be availed of, and the precise moment at which to change the direction of his bark, and is able by an imperceptible pressure on the helm to evade each new danger, and pass unharmed through the narrowest strait and in the most threat- ening rapids, Jefferson could, in an instant, and with a wonderful ease and grace, turn the course of conversation, even with the most wary and inveterate enemy, so as to avoid irritation, touch his weak points, and all but make a captive of him against his own fixed purpose. In this, the most useful of talents to a politician, he was all French; there was none of the straightforward, blundering honesty of John Bull about him. He knew exactly what to say, and how m say it ; and he said it. Jefferson's voice was peculiar, very pleas- ant, seldom raised to a loud tone, and his words came "trippingly off his tongue." His step was light and elastic, and very rapid for a man of his gaunt form and elongated proportions. He affected republican sim- plicity of dress, though he was always neat and gentlemanly. His carriage presented the very curious and unusual contrast of a rapid, graceful movement with a long, awk- ward, bony frame. He received company as if their visit was a gratification to him, and strangers always left him with the most grateful recollections of the man. Affecting popularity, he lost no opportunity of making an impression, espe- cially on the common people. In this he was like Jackson, and the success of both was astonishing. Jefferson, it is true, was, in knowledge and mental cultivation, immeasur- ably the superior; but the means pursued by both were the same, and it was the same class in society whose indomitable attachment made both so mighty at the polls. His mingling much with this portion of the community, especially with mechanics, had, however, a double object ; it was not merely, though mainly, for the sake of popularity; it was in part for the sake of knowledge. Few men possessed a more inquiring mind, or a greater mass of various information, and Jefferson sought, in all who approached him, the means of increasing it. He would talk with a sea captain about navigation, and ; would, by a few words adroitly spoken, set 484 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT him ofif upon his hobby and learn, meanwhile, some new fact or facts which had fallen under the mariner's observation in his voyages. He would talk with an astronomer about astron- omy, and draw from him, in a short conversa- tion, what it might have taken long to dig out of books. He was not profound, prob- ably, in any department of human science, though he had a smattering of all. He used often, while president, to walk down to the navy yard, early in a summer's morning, and, sitting down upon an anchor or a spar, enter into a familiar conversation with the surprised and delighted shipwrights, who would take the utmost pains to satisfy his inquiries. "There! " would cry one of his political opponents, as he passed by and noticed the group, "see the demagogue! There's Long Tom, sinking the dignity of his station, to get votes, and court the mob." But this was unfair; Jefferson was a phi- losopher of investigating mind, gratifying its leading prosperity in the acquisition of knowl- edge. A man of such a cast would naturally be captivated by whatever was ingenious and new. Had he been less ambitious, a berth in the patent office would have placed him in his element. You could in no way more certainly fix his attention than by exhibiting and explaining a new machine, especially if connected with a scientific purpose. As the author of the declaration of inde- pendence, of the statute of religious freedom in the constitution of Virginia, and as the founder of the democratic party, Jefferson has probably exerted a greater influence on the institutions of this country than any other American except Washington. He was regarded as the very embodiment of democracy — that movement which dates from the American revolution of 1776, and still agitates all civilized nations. By what- ever words the character of the struggle may be expressed — whether under the name of popular rights against exclusive privileges; or self-government, the government of the people, against absolute government, the government of a few ; or by any other terms more or less appropriate — the contest is still going on, openly and actively in those so- called free governments, and silently and languidly in those where the sovereign power is opposed to the extension or introduction of new doctrines. The contest is between progress — right or wrong — and standing still; between change, without which there can be no improvement, and a desire to resist all change, which can hardly end in keeping things stationary, but almost necessarily leads to a backward movement. The contest is not only for the practical application of principles in government, which are vigor- ously maintained by the one party, and either not denied or faintly opposed by the arguments of the other, but also for the free expression and publication of all opinions on all subjects affecting the moral and political condition of society. There is no individual, either in America or in Europe, who by his actions and opinions has had a greater influence on this contest than Thomas Jefferson. During a long and laborious life, both in official situations which gave him opportunities that his activity never let slip, and in private life in his extensive correspondence and intercourse with persons of all countries, he constantly, perse veringly, and honestly maintained what he conceived to be the principle of pure republican institu- tions. In the ardor of youth, his zeal and energy mainly contributed to animate his countrymen to declare their independence of a foreign power. In his maturer age, when a member of the general administration, he struggled, and he struggled at one time almost alone, against a monarchical and aristocratic faction, to maintain the great principles of the revolution, and develop the doctrines of a pure unmixed popular govern- ment. His influence gave to these doctrines a consistency, a form, and a distinctness which the mass of the nation could easily seize and retain. He thus became the head of a party in the United States, which, whether always rightly appealing to his doo- trines or not for the vindication of their acts, still regards him as the father of their school and the expounder of their principles. By his plain and unaffected manners and the freedom with which he expressed his opinions on all subjects, he gave a practical example of that republican simplicity which he cultivated, and of that free inquiry which he urged upon all. Such a man must always have many friends and many enemies. From his friends and admirers he has received, perhaps, not more praise than those who believe in the truth of his doctrines and the purity of his conduct are bound to bestow ; by his enemies, both at home and abroad, he I has been blackened by every term of abuse I that bigotry, maUce, and falsehood can invent. IN POLITICS 485 The life of Jefferson, therefore, was a per- petual devotion, not to his own purposes, but to the pure and noble cause of public freedom. From the first dawning of his youth, his undivided heart was given to the establishment of free principles — free insti- tutions — freedom in all ita varieties of untrammeled thought and independent action. His whole life was consecrated to the improve- ment and happiness of his fellow men ; and his intense enthusiasm for knowledge and freedom was sustained to his dying hour. NAPOLEON I. A. D. 1769 Bom at Ajaccio, Corsica, . . 1779-85 Pupil at the military schools at Brienne £ind Paris, France, . 1785 Lieutenant in French army, . . 1793 Siege of Toulon, 1796 Commanded the army of Italy; married Josephine Beauhamais, 1798 Turko-Egyptian campaign, , 1799 First consul of France, . . , 1802 Consul for life, 1804 Emperor of the French, . 1806 Victor at Austerlitz over Austrians and Russians, "M"APOLEON BONAPARTE, or Napoleon •^^ I., emperor of the French, and the greatest general of modern times, was born at Ajaccio, in the island of Corsica, August 15, 1769. He was the son of Charles Marie Bonaparte, an officer under General Paoli, and Letitia RamoUno, a young woman of great beauty and courage. His family was eminently respectable but not illustrious, and he always disdained to take advantage of the adventitious luster of events. Napoleon received the rudiments of his education at Ajaccio, where, by a curious coincidence. Count Pozzo de Borgo, after- ward his persevering and bitter opponent through Ufe, was also instructed. Having early evinced a decided taste for military life, he was, at the age of ten, sent to the military school at Brienne, France, and subsequently to Paris, where he remained until he obtained his commission in the artillery in 1785. Pichegru, afterward so famous, and whom Napoleon in the end destroyed, left the academy soon after young Napoleon. At this academy, where he remained several years, his talents, especially for mathematics and the exact sciences, attracted the attention of his preceptors. He received his first commission in the artillery at the age of sixteen; but his first employment in real service was at the siege of Toulon in December, 1793, when it was ob- served "that a yoimg heutenant of artillery was very busy about a gun." Even in that AOE A. D. 1806 1 1807 10-16 16 1809 24 1810 27 1812 29 1813 30 33 1814 35 1815 36 1821 AOB Victor at Jena over Pniadans, 87 Victor over Runaiana at Fried- land, 88 War with Austria; separated from his wife Josephine, ... 40 Married Maria Louisa of Austria, 41 Entered Moscow, 43 Defeated at Leipzig by Prussians and Russians. 44 Dethroned; exiled to Elba, ... 45 Returned to France; defeated at Waterloo ; exiled to St. Helena, 46 Died at St. Helena, 62 subordinate situation, however, his talents made themselves felt, for it was by his advice that the operations were directed against an outwork on Mount Faron, which, when taken, by commanding the ships in the harbor, ren- dered the place no longer tenable. When dictating a despatch there on the head of a drum to an obscure sergeant of artillery, a cannon ball fell close to them and threw a quantity of dust on the paper. "That is lucky," exclaimed the sergeant, "we shall not require sand for this paper." "What can I do for you," said Napoleon, "to evince my regard? " " Everything," said the sergeant, "you can convert my worsted shoulder knot into an epaulette." Napoleon recommended him for promotion and he got his commission. His name was Junot, and he afterward be- came duke of Abrantes, and one of the most distinguished marshals of France. Napoleon acquired no little celebrity among the officers in the army by the energy and skill he had manifested at Toulon. The following report was sent to Carnot : " I send you a young man who distinguished himself very much during the siege, and earnestly recommend to you to advance him speedily. If you do not, he will most assuredly advance himself." After the fall of Toulon, Napoleon was suspected, not without reason, of being im- plicated with the government of Robespierre, and shared in the disgrace of its fall. He remained in consequence for some time at Paris without any occupation, and in a state 486 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT of extreme poverty. So low indeed were the fortunes of the future emperor fallen at this period, that, as he himself said, he never got his boots blackened, and never wore gloves, for they were a useless expense. His imagi- nation, however, abated nothing of its vigor by the decline of his fortunes, and, despairing of effecting anything in Europe, he dreamed of the East, and entertained serious thoughts of offering his services to the grand seignior, with a view to pushing his fortunes in Asia. "Asia," said he, "contains six hundred millions of men; it is there alone that any- thing is to be done! Europe is worn out, there is nothing practicable here." He responded, however, to important duties in his own country. Though sus- pected and, therefore, unemployed by the government of the directory, his abilities were well known. When the directors were reduced to extremities by the insurrection of the sections in October, 1795, the first great reaction against the crown and the honor of the revolution, they cast their eyes upon Napoleon as the only man who could resusci- tate their tottering fortunes. The first day's conflict turned out entirely to the advantage of the insurgents, who were thirty thousand strong, all national guards, and comprised the whole flower and educated classes of Paris. In great agitation the directors sent for Napoleon in the evening, and gave him the command of their forces, which were only five thousand, shut up in the squares of the Carrousel and the Louvre. Napoleon in- stantly took his line. In the night he des- patched an officer, Murat, destined for future greatness, to Sablons, a camp in the neigh- borhood of Paris, where a park of fifty pieces of artillery was placed, which the chiefs of the national guard with inconceivable infatuation had neglected to seize. Murat got possession of the guns and brought them to the Tuileries. This decided the affair. Next day the insur- gents conmaenced their attack from the church of St. Roche, in the Rue d'Honor^, and at the same time from the opposite side of the river. But they were received with so terrible a discharge of grape shot that after standing several rounds they broke and fled, leaving the victory to the regular troops and the government of the directory firmly established. Napoleon was rewarded, as well he might be, for this important victory, by the command of the army of Italy. About this time he made the acquaintance of Josephine Beauharnais, whom he frequently met at the house of Madame Tallien. Capti- vated by her elegant manners and amiable disposition, he proposed marriage to the graceful widow, and was accepted. The ceremony took place March 9, 1796. But the events of a few days before, and his appoint- ment to the supreme command of the army in Italy obliged him to leave his bride almost at the altar. When young Napoleon took the command of the army in Italy he was only twenty- seven years of age, and wholly unaccustomed to high command. He found the troops in the most miserable condition, in want of everything. They were perched on the shining summits of the Maritime Alps, whither they had been driven by the united arms of the Austrians and the Piedmontese, in the preceding campaign. From their long sufferings he predicted a speedy change of their fortunes. "Famine, cold, and misery," said he, in his first proclamation, "are the school of good soldiers. Here on the plains of Italy you will conquer them, and then you will find comfort and riches and glory." He was as good as his word. Descending like a torrent from the summit of the Alps, he soon carried everything before him. Having defeated the combined armies in several bat- tles, he appeared before the walls of Turin and forced the Piedmontese government to con- clude a separate peace with France, the con- dition of which was the cession of all their fortresses to the conquering republic, which at once gave him a solid footing in Italy, and a secure basis for ulterior operations against the Austrians. Napoleon was not long in turning this basis to the best account. By forcing the " terrible bridge of Lodi," as he himself called it, although it was defended by twenty-five thousand Austrians, he gained the confidence of the entire French army. It was then, as he has told us in his memoirs, that high ambition took possession of his soul ; he be- came impressed with the idea that he was destined to do great things. On May 15, 1796, he entered Milan where he was received by the revolutionary party with a transport, which was soon cooled by the imposition of a contribution of eight hundred thousand pounds on its inhabitants. He then suppressed, with dreadful severity, an insurrection in Pavia. Following up his career of success, he defeated the Austrians IN POLITICS 487 in several encounters and compelled their commanders to shut themselves up in Mantua, a strong fortress in the center of the plain of Lombardy. Now began that system of enormous and unscrupulous plunder in northern and central Italy which gives something of a barbaric character to the conquests of the French. The directory gave orders that Napoleon should levy contributions from all the states which he had gratuitously freed, and, accord- ing to his own account, he sent to France not less than fifty million francs. His officers and commissaries actually seized whatever they wished, provisions, horses, and ^1 manner of stores ; and because Pa via ventured to make some slight resistance to the shameful extor- tions of the republicans. Napoleon gave it up to havoc for twenty-four hours! A body of savants — including Monge, BerthoUet, and others — was despatched to Italy to superintend the spoUation of its artistic treasures; both now and in the subsequent Italian campaigns, pictures, statues, vases, and MSS. were carried off in great num- bers to gratify the vanity of the Parisians. In this way Lombardy, Parma, Modena, Bologna, and the states of the church were savagely harried before the end of June — Pope Pius VI., in particular, being forced to submit to conditions of extreme rigor. Meanwhile, Austria had resolved to make another effort for the recovery of Lombardy. That power successively collected three powerful armies to relieve it, one of which, after a series of desperate actions, succeeded under the veteran. Marshal Wurmser, in penetrating to the fortress and reinforcing the garrison. But this advantage was gained only by incurring defeats in other quarters; for Napoleon, raising the siege, concentrated his forces and severely defeated the Austrians, who were incautiously advancing in two columns separated from each other by the lake of Garda. The blockade of Mantua, encum- bered with ten thousand additional troops, was now resumed, and the Austrians assem- bled a second army for its relief, but it was defeated by Napoleon with desperate loss on the dikes of Areola. A third body in the Tyrol, composed of the best troops in the monarchy, shared the same fate on the plateau of Rivoli, on the banks of the Adige, between Verona and Trent. Despairing now of being reheved, and having exhausted all his means of subsistence, Wurmser was obliged to capitulate. Nap>oleon, respecting his age and valor, granted him honorable terms, and this campaign closed with the French flag flying on Mantua and all the fortresses of the Adige, the barrier of the Austrian monarchy in that quarter. Seriously alarmed now for the very existence of the monarchy, the cabinet of Vienna with- drew the archduke Charles, who in the pre- ceding campaign had gained successes nearly aa great in Germany as Napoleon had in Italy, to oppose the redoubtable conqueror on the Venetian plains. Charles brought with him thirty thousand of his best troops, flushed with victory on the Bavarian plains, and the two youthful conquerors were arrayed against each other on the banks of the Tagliamento. But the star of Napoleon prevailed. With equal skill and daring he forced the passage of the Tagliamento, and drove the archduke out of the Venetian plains into the passes of the Alps. Following him up. Napoleon drove him from one pass and one position to another, until he had placed the French standards on the Semmering, the last ridge of the Alps, before they melt away into the valley of the Danube, and from whence the steeples of Vienna are visible. Driven now to their last shifts, the Aus- trians sued for peace, which Napoleon willingly accorded, for in truth his position, however brilliant, was full of peril from being too far advanced, with only thirty-five thousand men, into the Austrian dominions. On this occa- sion Austria and France adjusted their differ- ences without difficulty; for, in return for large concessions to the conquering republic, the French handed over to them the whole dominions of the republic of Venice, a state which at first had been neutral, and had, in the close of the contest, effected a revolution in favor of France. This is one of the blackest instances of national ingratitude recorded in history. After this peace Napoleon remained inac- tive for about a year, an object of the utmost jealousy and terror to the French government, to whom his unbending disposition, his ambi- tion, and fame rendered him an object of the utmost apprehension. To get rid of so for- midable a rival, they fell upon the experi- ment of offering him the command of a great expedition they were preparing against Egypt. As this promised to bring Napoleon into the theater of his early and favorite dreams of ambition, and as he conceived matters were 488 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT not ripe for the revolution he meditated in Europe, he acceded to their offer. The expe- dition, the greatest that ever set out in modern times from the shores of Europe, accordingly sailed in 1798, having thirty-five thousand soldiers on board, conveyed by fourteen ships of the line and above three hundred transports. Though the British admiral, Nelson, was in the Mediterranean straining every nerve to intercept the expedition, it arrived in safety before Malta, which at once capitulated to the French arms, and then steering for Alexandria disembarked the whole of the troops there in safety July 1, 1798. Napoleon, overjoyed with his good fortune in having escaped the English fleet, pursued his advantage with the utmost alacrity. Advancing from Alexandria toward Cairo, his army, after undergoing incredible hardships in the desert, arrived in sight of the Pyramids, where they beheld the Turkish army thirty thousand strong, of which fifteen thousand were splendid Mame- luke cavalry, ready to receive them. Impressed but not daunted by the noble spectacle. Napoleon said to his men, "From the summit of these monuments forty centu- ries are gazing upon you." They were not unworthy of their mission. Drawn up in squares, a deadly rolling fire as from so many flaming citadels issued from their ranks, a charge of cavalry completed the rout of the Turks, Cairo opened its gates, and the French dominion was established over the whole of Egypt. Meanwhile, a dreadful reverse, apparently fatal to Napoleon's prospects in Europe, had occurred at sea. Nelson, having at length discovered the whereabouts of the French fleet, had sailed into the bay of Aboukir, where it lay moored imder the protection of the land batteries, and totally destroyed it, one sail only having escaped to carry the mournful tidings to France. This catastrophe seemed fatal to the French army, for it cut them off from any commimication with their country. Napoleon, however, was not discouraged. "We must remain here," said he, "or emerge from it great hke the ancients"; and he immediately set about preparing for an expedition into Syria. His plan was to rouse the Christian popu- lation of Lebanon and Asia Minor, and, rein- forcing by their aid his French troops, to approach Constantinople from the Asiatic side, and place himself on the throne of the East. Surprising success in the first instance attended his efforts. He crossed the desert which separates Asia and Africa, stormed Jaffa, and cruelly massacred about three thousand prisoners taken in cold blood, laid siege to Acre, pushed on to Nazareth, and « defeated forty thousand Ottomans with great m slaughter, at Mount Tabor. But this was the summit of his succeas. Sir Sidney Smith landed with a party of marines from the British ships at Acre, placed himself with his brave followers in the breach, when the place was on the point of falling, and infused such vigor into the de- fenses that all the assaults of the French were repulsed, and Napoleon, abandoning all his ideas of oriental conquest, was obliged to wend his way back with disgrace to Egypt. During the retreat he is said to have poisoned a number of his wounded soldiers, to prevent them from faUing into the hands of the Turks, by whom they would have been barbarously massacred. Soon afterward he was consoled for his reverses by a victory over twenty thousand Janizaries, whom the English landed in the bay of Aboukir. Yet though so great a career awaited him in Europe, Napoleon never ceased lamenting his check at Acre, and repeatedly said, when revolving his eventful career in the solitude of St. Helena, when speaking of Sir Sidney Smith, " That man made me miss my destiny." But another fate awaited the young general. France speedily felt the want of his tutelary arm when it was withdrawn. "The sun of Bonaparte," as Pitt expressed it, "was falling before the rising star of Suvaroff." That daring and celebrated general, at the head of a combined Austrian and Russian army, had defeated the French in several pitched battles on the plains of Lombard/, regained all the fortresses, surmounted the Maritime Alps, and appeared on the shores of the Var, on the frontiers of Provence. The repubUcans had been entirely driven out of Germany, and Mass^na, shut up in France with fifty thousand men, with difficulty main- tained himself against the superior army ol the archduke Charles. In these circumstances all eyes were turned to Napoleon as the only man capable of saving the country. He now felt, in his own words, that "the pear was ripe," and he resolved to return to Em-ope. His usual good fortune did not desert him on this occasion. Setting sail in a single frigate from Alexandria, he eluded the EngUsh cruisers who were anxiously IN POLITICS 4m looking out to intercept his return, and landed safe at Cannes, in southern France, in October, 1799. From thence he proceeded to Paris, where, finding the government of the direc- tory utterly discredited, and in the last stage of decrepitude, he ventured a bold coup d'etat, expelled the legislatives from their halls by means of fixed bayonets, and under the name of "first consul" seated himself on the throne of France. His first care after this great success was to expel the Austrians from Italy, the scene of his earliest triumphs and of such obstinate conflicts between them and the French. His plan for this purpose was laid with equal skill and secrecy. Assembling an army, styled "the army of reserve," at Dijon, in the heart of France, he suddenly led them across the St. Bernard, a pass eight thousand feet high, deemed impassable for artillery or car- riages, overcame the resistance of the fort of Bard, in the southern declivity of the moun- tain, entered Milan in triumph, defeated the Austrian advanced guard, ten thousand strong, at Stradella, and encountered their main body thirty thousand strong returning from the Var, at Marengo. After an obstinate conflict, on which he was on the point of being destroyed, he defeated them with great slaughter. The peculiar position of the two armies ren- dered this victory decisive, and demonstrated the strategical skill with which Napoleon's plan and campaign of the march across the St. Bernard had been laid. The Austrians, returning from the Var, fought with their faces toward Vienna, and their backs toward the Maritime Alps and the bay of Genoa. Defeat in such circumstances was ruin; and Melas, the Austrian commander, was too happy to conclude a convention, in virtue of which he was allowed to retire to Mantua, after delivering up the whole of the fortresses of Piedmont to the victorious French. Securely seated by this great triumph on the consular throne. Napoleon shortly forced the Austrians to make peace at Lun^ville, and thereby pacified the whole continent. Soon after he underwent a deep humiliation, however, by the successful result of the English expedition, under Sir Ralph Aber- crombie, to Egypt, and the wresting from his grasp of his whole conquests on the banks of the Nile. His projects for the destruction of Great Britain, also the great object of his life, were blasted about the same time by Nelson's victory at Copenhagen, which destroyed the northern coalition, and the death of the emperor Paul, which withdrew Russia from that formidable alliance. England and France now had no longer the means of fight- ing. They could not reach each other, for they were both victorious in their respective elements, and like monsters of the land and deep their hostility could not be exerted against each other. Sensible of this they concluded peace in March, 1802, which put the first period to the dreadful hostilities of the revolutionary war. The peace, however, proved only an armed truce. Both parties were only gaining breath for a renewal of the fight. In August, 1802, Napoleon was made consul for life, and did great things at home during its continuance. He was busy superintending the drawing up of a code of civil laws for France. He assembled the first lawyers in the nation, under the presidency of Cambac^r^, and frequently took part in their deliberations; the results of their labors were the Code Civil des Fran- gais, Code de Procedure, Code Pinal, and Code d' Instruction Criminelle, besides com- mercial and military codes, all of which often go loosely under the name of the Code Napo- leon. The first of these is an admirable pro- duction, and is in force to the present day. Considerable attention was also paid to such branches of education as were likely to promote efficiency in the public service. Mathematics, physical science in all its departments, engineering, etc., were as vig- orously encouraged as philosophy, ethics, aiui political speculation were discouraged. The best proof that Napoleon wanted not an educated people, but only active and expert tools and agents, was the indifference that he manifested to primary and elementary education. In a population of thirty-two million, the number of pupils under ten years is given by Fourcroy at only seventy-five thousand I The internal government was the acme of despotic centralization. Napoleon appointed all prefects of departments, and all mayors of cities, so that not a vestige of provincial or municipal freedom remained. He ruled France as he ruled the army of France. In May, 1804, he was proclaimed hereditary emperor of the French, and the year after king of Italy. Peace between France and England did not last long. Napoleon's policy in Italy irritated 490 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the British government, and, as remonstrances were ineffectual, war was declared against France. First, Napoleon formed a gigantic fleet for the subjugation of England, which very nearly proved successful. Having suc- ceeded in forcing Spain to his alliance, he had a project for assembling in the channel seventy sail of the line, who were to transport one hundred thirty thousand men into Eng- land, and thirty thousand into Ireland, on board two thousand gunboats, which he had prepared at Boulogne for their conveyance across the channel. Vast as the plan was, it was on the very verge of proving successful. The Toulon fleet set sail from Cadiz, and decoyed Nelson into the West Indies; speedily returning it encountered Sir R. Calder off Finisterre, who, with fifteen sail of the line, defeated twenty- seven French craft and took two sail of the line. This action proved fatal to the whole design. Villeneuve, who commanded the combined squadron, retreated to Ferrol. Front Ferrol, instead of proceeding to Brest, where Admiral Gantheaume was ready with twenty-one sail of the line to join him, he went to Cadiz, where he was soon blockaded by Nelson, and totally defeated by him with the loss of twenty sail of the line, October 21, 1805. Thenceforward the maritime war was at an end, and Napoleon had to trust solely to con- tinental victories for the destruction of the English. Instantly taking his line, he ex- tracted out of his maritime defeat the means of achieving his greatest land triumphs. Russia had joined Austria, and the army of the latter, eighty thousand strong, had advanced to Ulm, in Bavaria. Crossing France and the north of Germany with incredible rapidity. Napoleon defeated the Austrians in several actions, and at length shut up thirty thousand in Ulm, where they were forced to capitulate the very day before the battle of Trafalgar. Advancing then, at the head of one hundred eighty thousand men, down the valley of the Danube, he captured Vienna, and, on December 2, 1805, totally defeated the com- bined Austrian and Russian armies at Aus- terlitz, under their respective emperors. This catastrophe drove Austria to a separate peace, that of Presburg, by which Austria ceded to France all her Italian and Adriatic provinces. The Russians, weakened by the loss of thirty thousand men, in mourning wended their way back to their own dominions. Next year the Prussians with infatuated hardihood rushed into the field. Napoleon encountered them at Jena and Auerstadt, and defeated them with such loss that in a few weeks one hundred thousand men had disap- peared out of one hundred twenty thou- sand, with which they had commenced the conflict. Prussia was speedily overrun, Berlin taken, and the remnant of their armies driven back to the Vistula, where they were supported by the Russians, who now came up in great strength. Several bloody actions took place during the depth of winter, in which the French discovered the sturdy nature of the new antagonists with whom they had to deal, and in a pitched battle fought at Eylau, on February 8, 1807, the French emperor was defeated with the loss of thirty thousand men. But in due time he had his revenge. Having gathered up all his reserves, and collected one hundred fifty thousand men round his standard, he attacked the Russians in June, and after several bloody actions defeated them in a pitched battle at Friedland, on June 14th of the same year. The result of this triimaph was the treaty of Tilsit, which, virtually destroying all lesser powers, in effect divided the whole continent of Europe be- tween Napoleon and Alexander. Insatiable in ambition. Napoleon had no sooner achieved this great victory over his northern enemies than he turned his eyes to the Spanish peninsula, seized on Portugal, without a shadow of a pretext, and decoyed the king, queen, and heir apparent of Spain to Bayonne, where, with threats, treachery, and cajolery, he succeeded in extracting from them all a renunciation of the throne of Spain, upon which he immediately placed his own brother, Joseph, and at the same time gave the throne of Naples to his brother-in-law, Murat. About the same time he put in force the famous Berlin and Milan decrees, intended to exclude the English permanently from the whole trade of continental Europe. His abominable treachery to the Spanish royal family incited a frightful war in the penin- sula, which at first was attended with sur- prising success. Dupont surrendered with twenty-five thousand men to Castanos, in Andalusia. Portugal was recovered by Wel- lington, and the French were obliged to retire behind the Ebro. But Napoleon was at hand to repair the disaster. Directing his whole reserves from Germany to Spain, he entered Navarre at the IN POLITICS 491 head of two hundred thousand men, defeated the Spaniards in several battles, retook Madrid, and pursued the English under Sir John Moore into Galicia, where, though they gained at the eleventh hour a glorious victory at Corunna over Soult and Ney, they were forced to embark and return to England, weakened by a third of their numbers, hav- ing lost the whole objects of the campaign. Austria deemed the moment favorable, when the chief forces of Napoleon were immersed in the peninsula, to endeavor to regain some of her lost provinces. She declared war accordingly in April, 1809, and advanced with one hundred thousand men into Bavaria, where the archduke Charles at first gained considerable success. But Napoleon fled to the spot, defeated the Austrians in three pitched battles, and, treacherously gaining possession of the bridge of Vienna, made himself master of the capital. Napoleon sustained, however, at the battle of Aspern, a severe check from the archduke Charles, who defeated him with the loss of thirty thousand men, and brought him to the very verge of ruin. He recovered himself, however, and, having collected one hundred fifty thousand men in Vienna, threw six bridges in one night over the Danube, and on the field of Wagram defeated the Aus- trians in a pitched battle which lasted two days. This triumph for France deprived Austria of a fourth of her dominions. Napoleon appears to have now come to the conclusion that he could only put a stop to the hostile machinations of the old legitimate dynasties by intermarrying with some one of them. Besides, his wife Josephine had no children — and he was ambitious of perpetu- ating his power in his family. With that callousness to everything except his own interests, which was a prominent feature of his character, he immediately proceeded to divorce her. The act of divorcement was solemnly registered on December 16, 1809. Less than three months afterward he mar- ried Maria Louisa, archduchess and daughter of the emperor of Austria. He was now at the zenith of his power, and so, according to the old Greek belief, Nemesis was on his track. What caused his ruin was really that out- rage on civilization — the Berlin decree. Russia found it impossible to carry it out, without permanent injury to her great land- owners ; Sweden and other countries were in a similar predicament. This led to evasions of the decree, and these, again, involved Russia particularly in further complications, until finally, in May, 1812, Napoleon declared war against that country. In spite of the advice of his most prudent advisers, he re- solved to invade the countrj' ; he accordingly crossed the Niemen at the head of five hundred thousand men, the greatest military armament of real soldiers ever seen since the beginning of the world. The Russians had not half the force to resist this crusade, and the consequence was they were driven back into the very heart of their territories. Smolensk was stormed by Napo- leon in person, and in a desperate battle fought at Borodino, on September 6th, when thirty thousand men fell on both sides, the Russians were so far worsted that they were obliged to abandon Moscow to the conquerors. But this was the extreme point of the French emperor's success. The Russians burned their ancient capital to prevent it from affording shelter to the enemy. The French, reduced now by the sword, fatigue, and sickness to one hundred thousand men, were obliged to retreat on the wasted line of their former advance; and, the cold having set in with great severity, they were attacked by the Russians on several occa- sions with such success that not twenty thousand escaped across the Niemen, nearly all in the last stage of exhaustion and misery. Napoleon himself abandoned his troops in the midst of their sufferings, and made his escape to Paris on a sledge accompanied by a single attendant. This terrible and unexampled reverse, coupled with the victorious career of Welling- ton in the same year in Spain, who had defeated the French in a pitched battle at Salamanca, recovered Madrid, and liberated all the southern provinces of Spain from their oppressors, produced a general insurrec- tion in Europe. Prussia took up arms ; des- perate battles were fought at Liitzen, Bautzen, Dresden, and other places ; at length. Napo- leon having made a last stand at Leipzig, the "battle of nations " began on October 16, 1813. Three hundred thousand Germans and Russians commenced the attack, which two hundred thousand French resisted. Twenty- five hundred pieces of cannon spread destruc- tion around, and after a bloody conflict of two days' duration Napoleon was totally defeated with the loss of forty thousand men and two hundred fifty guns, and with diflSculty 492 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT brought back sixty thousand of his vast army behind the Rhine. At the same time Wellington, who had totally defeated King Joseph in person at Vittoria, had crossed the Pyrenees and was threatening Bayonne. The French empire on all sides was crumbling into ruins. Early in the following spring the allies invaded France along the whole course of the Rhine, while Wellington pursued his career of success in the south of France. Driven to extremities, Napoleon exerted himself to the utmost, and exhibited the most splendid military abilities. But although he gained, with forces greatly inferior, several important victories over the allies, he was at length overpowered. Paris was taken by the em- peror of Russia and king of Prussia in person, at the head of two hundred thousand men. The Bourbons were restored to the French throne; Napoleon, dethroned, was banished to the isle of Elba, where a mimic sovereignty was permitted him to console his mind after such a dreadful series of reverses. But the restless mind and ambitious spirit of Napoleon could not long rest in this state of forced seclusion. Having ascertained that discontent was universal in the French army, the natural result of their misfortune, he set out from Elba, in 1815, accompanied by six hundred of the old guard who had shared his exile, and landing at Cannes, marched to Paris without opposition, dethroned Louis XVIII., and reestablished himself on the throne of France. He was then immediately denounced by the allied sovereigns, who set about collecting forces on his frontiers. Despairing of averting a war by negotiation. Napoleon resolved, with his usual vigor and decision, to anticipate the allies and strike the first blow. He all but succeeded. Having crossed the frontier of Flanders, Napoleon, on June 16, 1815, attacked and defeated the Prussians, eighty thousand strong, under Bliicher, at Ligny, and the same day sustained a bloody conflict with Welling- ton's advance guard, in which the French were at length routed at Quatre-Bras. Two days after Napoleon met the stroke of fate. Wellington retired to and stood firm at Waterloo, where on the 18th he gave battle to the French, with an army nearly equal numerically, but greatly inferior in artillery and the quality of his troops. A desperate battle ensued, in which both parties displayed prodigies of valor, and victory long seemed doubtful. At length the Prussians came up late in the evening, and Napoleon was by the united allied force totally defeated with the loss of forty thousand men and one hundred fifty pieces of cannon. The victory was decisive, and Napoleon fled to Paris. The national assembly fiercely insisted on his abdication. He did so, June 22d, in favor of his son. Napoleon II. They further demanded that he should leave the country forever, and he retired to Rochefort, with the design of embarking for the United States. On July 7th the allies again entered Paris, and refused to acknowledge the acts of the French pro- visional government. Napoleon, who saw that he could not escape either by sea or land, voluntarily surrendered, July 15th, to Captain Maitland, of the Bellerophon, claiming the protection of British laws. However, it was resolved by the British gov- ernment to confine him for life on the isle of St. Helena, a lonely rock in the southern Atlantic, one thousand miles from the coast of Africa. He was therefore conveyed thither by Admiral Cockburn, and landed at St. Helena, October 16, 1815. The remainder of Napoleon's life was politically insignificant ; but he wrote several most able and interesting works, chiefly relat- ing to his eventful career, which, with his long series of victories, have contributed to his colossal fame. At the same time he fretted beyond measure at being denied the title of emperor, and at being attended even at a distance by an English escort in his rides. He was magnificently treated by the English government, who expended twelve thousand pounds a year on his private estab- lishment, and four hundred thousand pounds yearly on the island; but his ardent spirit could not brook even supposed indignity and real inaction. His imaginary grievances, coupled with a hereditary malady, cancer of the stomach, of which his father had died, brought on a mortal disorder, which led to his death, on May 5, 1821. He quitted this life during a terrible storm of wind and rain, which recalled to his mind the roar of battle. His last words were Tete d'armee — "head of the army." He was first interred in Slane's valley, in the island of St. Helena, from whence his remains were, in December, 1841, with the consent of the English government, transferred to Paris, where on the 15th of that month they were IN POLITICS 4M interred in a mausoleum under the dome of the Hotel des Invalides, and now repose beside the bones of Turenne and Vauban, the paladins of France. It is upon a military foundation that Napo- leon's fame must rest. Although his stature was small, his appearance was most imposing. He had a lofty forehead, a quick and piercing eye, a firm mouth, and a strong chin. His whole countenance was expressive of deep thought, rapid insight, an iron force of will, and a daring ambition. Amid the noise of battle all these qualities came into active play. To scan the enemy's army, to detect the weak point, and to hurl masses of troops against that point was the work of an instant. If his soldiers failed in the attack, he was irrunediately among them, driving them to a fresh onset. If they were again unsuc- cessful, he had a battalion of picked men, who charged, and rarely failed to throw the foe into hopeless rout. There has probably never been in the his- tory of the world any man who has combined like attributes of intellect and will in so high a degree as Napoleon. It has been said, not without reason, that as a general Caesar gave proof of greater originality of genius, inas- much as he never repeated the same strata- gem or mode of warfare, but always had a fresh invention for every new emergency. But, even if it be admitted that in fertility of invention Napoleon was inferior to Caesar, it may, on the other hand, be safely affirmed that not only in his power of combination — of embracing in one harmonious plan a great ntmiber of distinct and independent elements — but also in watching over and directing at one and the same time the complicated movements of mighty armies, the tone of the public press, the operations of foreign and domestic commerce, in addition to the endless intricacies and details of his system of police, and the great measiu-e of his government, not merely in France, but through the whole extent of his vast empire — he was unequaled by any commaiider or sovereign that ever lived. But, whatever may be thought of the genius of Napoleon as compared with that of other great commanders, it cannot be denied that in some respects his career was the most extraordinary, and his destiny the most won- derful, of any recorded in the annals of man- kind. Other rulers may have wielded a power as extensive and even more absolute; but they cannot, like Napoleon, boast of having been the sole architects of their own fortunes — of having risen, like him, from an absolutely private station to the highest pinnacle of greatness. Cynis and Alexander inherited each, as his birthright, a powerful kingdom; Hannibal and Csesar were respec- tively the recognized representatives of high and influential families. Napoleon, on the contrary, besides his energy and his genius, possessed not a single advantage that might not have fallen to the lot of the humblest citizen of France. No other sovereign of whom history makes mention ever maintained himself, even for a single day, against such a combination of gigantic powers; yet Napoleon not only maintained himself, but for twelve years was constantly adding to his dominions in the face of an opposition such as was never before or since arrayed against any single ruler. And he fell at last, so to speak, by his own hand. He seems to have possessed every intellectual endowment except wisdom, and every form of power except moral power. His ambition, and the desire to exert his imperious will, often led him to embrace measures which his cooler judgment disapproved. His invasion of Spain was a remarkable instance of this. No one saw more clearly than he the difficulties and dangers to be encountered in such a war. In a letter ad- dressed to Murat, in 1808, he says: "Do not imagine that you have only to make a dis- play of your troops in order to conquer Spain. They may raise levies against us en masse which will render the war eternal. I have at present partisans, but if I show myself in the character of a conqueror I cannot retain one of them." Again, with prophetic forecast, he says : " If war once break out, all is lost." Yet, in spite of what he so clearly foresaw, he adopted a course which rendered war inevita- ble. He afterward said, bitterly, "That wretched war was my ruin: it divided my forces, multiplied the necessity of my efforts, and injured my character for morality." Having lost his reputation for morality, his subjects and allies ceased to have any con- fidence in his words, and his vast empire, no longer cemented by "that faith which binds the moral elements of the world together," was already beginning to crumble, when his fatal campaign in Russia annihilated his grand army and involved him in irretrievable ruin. With all his sagacity, he committed 494 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the stupendpus error of supposing that he could, in the nineteenth century, hold Europe in subjection by the mere force of his intellect and will, without the exercise of any strictly moral attributes, and without laying the foundation of his power in the affections of the people. "That Napoleon," says Channing, "pos- sessed greatness of action, we need not prove, and none will be hardy enough to deny. A man who raised himself from obscurity to a throne; who changed the face of the world; who made himself felt through powerful and civilized nations; who sent the terror of his name across seas and oceans ; whose will was feared as destiny; whose donatives were crowns ; whose antechamber was thronged by submissive princes; who broke down the barrier of the Alps, and made them a highway ; and whose fame has spread beyond the boun- daries of ciulization to the steppes of the Cossack and the deserts of the Arab — a man who had left this record of himself in history has taken out of our hands the question whether he shall be called great. Ail must concede to him a sublime power of action — an energy equal to great effects." WEBSTER A. D. 1782 1797 1805 1808 1812 1816 1822 1827 1830 AGE A. D. Born at Salisbury, New Hampshire, . . . 1834 Entered Dartmouth college, .... 15 Admitted to the bar, 23 1839 Married 26 Elected to lower house of con- 1841 gresa, 30 1844 Settled in Boston and practiced 1848 law, 34 Member of congress from Boston, . . 40 1850 United States senator from Massachu- 1852 setts, 45 Celebrated reply to Hayne, 48 Nominated for the presidency by the whigs of Massachusetts, 52 Visited Europe; reelected to tlie United States senate, 57 Secretary of state 59 Again eicotod United States senator, . 62 Again candidate for presidential nomination, 66 Secretary of state under Fillmore, . . 68 Renewed his efforts for the presi- dential nomination ; died at Marsh- field, Massachusetts, 70 "PJANIEL WEBSTER, distinguished as '*-^ statesman, lawyer, orator, and pub- licist, was born at Salisbury, New Hampshire, January 18, 1782. He was the second son of Ebenezer Webster, a farmer, and his second wife, Abigail Eastman, both persons of vig- orous intellect and uncompromising morality. On account of the delicacy of his constitu- tion, Daniel was permitted to pass a large part of his childhood in play, which he dearly loved. He also loved books, among which Addison's Spectator was an especial favorite with him. Having gained the rudiments of education at home, and in the common schools of the vicinity, he was sent, in May, 1796, to Phillips Exeter academy, of which Benjamin Abbot was then the principal. Young Webster was at that time so diffident, as he himself tells us, that he could not be induced to declaim before the school. "The kind and excellent Buckminster," he tells us in his autobiography, "sought to persuade me to perform the exercise of declamation like other boys, but I could not do it." He remained at Exeter about nine months. In February, 1797, he began his studies under Rev. Samuel Wood, of Boscawen. His father. although burdened with a large family and hardly able to defray the expense, had re- solved to send Daniel to college. After he had read six books of Vergil's /Eneid, and some of Cicero's orations, and had obtained a little knowledge of the Greek grammar, he entered Dartmouth college in August, 1797. According to his own statement, he was "miserably prepared both in Latin and Greek," and he had little taste or genius for mathematics. But his habits at college were studious and regular; and "by the close of his first year," says Edward Everett, "young Webster had shown himself decidedly the foremost man of his class; and that position he held through his whole college course." He was also the best writer and public speaker in the college. By teaching school during vacations he earned money, which he gave to aid his elder brother, Ezekiel, whom the family also sent to college, entailing great sacrifices and privations. Daniel graduated in August, 1801, and began to study law in the office of Thomas W. Thompson of Salisbury, who was elected to the senate of the United States in 1814, In order to further help his brother, DANIEL WEBSTER From a phtlograph IN POLITICS 497 who was still in college, he took charge of an academy at Fryeburg, Maine, at a salary of three hundred fifty dollars per annum. Here he remained about eight months, returning to Thompson's office in the autumn of the year 1802. To perfect his legal education he went to Boston in July, 1804, and had the good for- tune to be received as a clerk in the office of Christopher Gore, an eminent lawyer and statesman. Here he read the classic legal works of Vattel and Puffendorf, but devoted himself chiefly to the study of the common law, and was admitted to the bar in March, 1805. He practiced nearly two years at Boscawen, and in 1807 removed to Ports- mouth, New Hampshire, where in June, 1808, he married Grace Fletcher, of Hopkinton, New Hampshire. He rose rapidly in his pro- fession and was soon regarded as a fit antag- onist for Jeremiah Mason, who was the great- est lawyer in the state, and many years older than Webster. In November, 1812, he was elected as a federalist to the national house of repre- sentatives, in which he took his seat in May, 1813. He opposed the war against Great Britain, took active part in the debates which that war occasioned, and advocated an increase of the navy. His speeches on these subjects placed him in the first rank as a debater. He was reelected to the four- teenth congress, which met in December, 1815, when the violence of party spirit had greatly abated, and the return of peace had directed the attention of the national legis- lature to new and important questions. Among these was the charter of the bank of the United States, to which he moved an amendment requiring the bank to pay de- posits in specie. He also rendered an impor- tant service by a resolution presented in 1816, requiring that all payments to the public treasxiry be made in specie or its equivalents — which resolution was adopted and greatly improved the ciurency of the country. Webster now resolved to retire from public life and devote himself to his profession. He therefore moved in 1816 from Ports- mouth to Boston. In this wider arena his professional reputation was greatly increased and he became in a few years the foremost lawyer in New England. His argument! before the supreme court of the United i States in the Dartmouth college case, in 1818, i raised him to the highest rank as a constitu- tional lawyer. The case was decided in favor of his clients and by this decision the law of the land in reference to collegiate charters was firmly established. Thenceforth Webster was retained in many important cases that were argued before the supreme court at Washington. He exhibited great skill as a criminal lawyer, in cross- examining witnesses, and in baffling the deepest plans of perjury and fraud. The effect of his arguments was enhanced by a deep-toned, musical, and powerful voice, and by the magnetism of his imposing presence and personal qualities. "His influence over juries," said a contemporary authority, "was due chiefly to a combination of the power of lucid statement with his extraordinary ora- torical force. His power of setting forth truth was magnificent." In 1820 Webster was a member of the con- vention which met to revise the constitution of Massachusetts. Of his services in this convention, Judge Story expressed a high opinion in a letter to a friend, saying, "The whole force of his great mind was brought out, and in several speeches he commanded imiversal admiration." In December of the same year he pronounced at Plymouth his celebrated oration on the anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrim fathers. "This," says Edward Everett, " was the first of a series of performances, aside from the efforts of the senate and the bar, by which Mr. Webster placed himself at the head of American orators." After the delivery of the Plymouth oration, the whole of the year 1821 was filled with private and professional pursuits. In 1822 he was elected by the voters of Boston a member of the congress which met in December, 1823. In this body, in January, 1824, he made a famous speech on the subject of the Greek revolution, in which he denounced the principles of the holy alliance with powerful effect. The subject of the tariff was discussed at this session, and Webster opposed an extravagant increase of protec- tive duties. As chairman of the judiciary committee he reported a complete revision of the criminal law of the United States, which was approved by the house. In the autumn of 1824 he was reelected by a nearly unanimous vote, and supported John Quincy Adams in the ensuing election for president. In Jime, 1825, Webster dehvered an oration 498 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT on laying the corner stone of the Bunker Hill monument. To the same class of orations belongs his admirable eulogy on Adams and Jefferson, pronounced in Faneuil hall, Boston, in August, 1826. "His consummate skill of composition and delivery," says George Ticknor Curtis, "gave to a supposititious speech of John Adams all the effect of a real utterance of that patriot." George Ticknor, who heard the eulogy, says, "His bearing, as he stood before the vast multitude, was that of absolute dignity and power." He continued to serve in the house of representatives until 1827, when he was transferred to the senate of the United States. As a senator he voted for the tariff bill of 1828. Though not deeply interested in the presidential election of 1828, he supported John Quincy Adams in preference to General Jackson. Having lost his first wife in Jan- uary, 1828, he married Caroline Le Roy of New York city in December, 1829. His most admirable parliamentary effort was his eloquent reply to Hayne, of South Carolina, who had affirmed the right of a state to nullify the acts of congress, had assailed New England, and had provoked Webster by caustic personalities. It was on January 26, 1830, that Webster began this great argument in defense of the Union and the constitution, which was probably the most remarkable speech ever made in the American congress. His peroration ends with the fol- lowing magnificent passage : "When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonored fragments of a once glorious Union ; on states dissevered, discordant, belligerent ; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood! Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold the gor- geous ensign of the republic, now known and honored throughout the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and trophies streaming in their original lustre, not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star obscured — bearing for its motto no such miserable interrogatory as, What is all this worth? nor those other words of delusion and folly, Liberty first, and Union afterward — but everywhere, spread all over in characters of living light, blazing on all its ample folds as they float over the sea and over the land, that other sentiment, dear to every true American heart — Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable !" "Webster had," says Curtis, "but a single night in which to make preparation to answer the really important parts of the preceding speech of his opponent." In May, 1832, he made an important speech for the renewal of the charter of the bank of the United States. This bill passed both houses of congress, but was vetoed by Presi- dent Jackson. About this date he purchased an estate at Marshfield, Massachusetts, on the seashore, which was his usual summer resi- dence. He supported Clay for president in the election of 1832, but in the great crisis of the nullification question, in 1833, he opposed Clay's compromise tariff bill, and voted for the "force bill" of the adminis- tration. On these subjects Webster and Calhoun were adversaries in debate. Webster became one of the most popular leaders of the whig party, which was organized about 1834, and he was nominated for the presidency by the whigs of Massachusetts. In September, 1837, as a member of the senate, he opposed the subtreasury bill in an elaborate speech, said to have been the most effective of all his arguments on the subjects of currency and finance. He visited England, Scotland, and France in 1839, and particularly attracted the admiration of Car- lyle, who met him at a dinner, and afterward wrote this estimate of him: "He is a mag- nificent specimen. As a logic-fencer, advo- cate, or parliamentary Hercules, one would incline to back him, at first sight, against all the extant world." Webster was reelected to the senate in Jan- uary, 1839, and actively promoted the election of General Harrison to the presidency in 1840, by public speeches in various states. In March, 1841, he was appointed secretary of state by President Harrison, after whose death he was retained in that office by Presi- dent Tyler. In that capacity he negotiated with the English ambassador. Lord Ashburton, a treaty which settled the long and serious dispute about the northeastern boundary of the United States. This important treaty was signed August 9, 1842. In compliance with the general desire of the whigs, whose interests President Tyler had be- trayed, Webster resigned office in May, 1843. He was now xirged to return to the United States senate; but he hesitated on account of his private interest and duties. In a letter dated February 5, 1844, he says, "I am now earning and receiving fifteen thousand dollars IN POLITICS 4M a year from my profession, which must be almost entirely sacrificed by a return to the senate." In the campaign of 1844 he earnestly advocated the election of Henry Clay, who was his chief rival in the favor and leadership of the whig party. He opposed the annexa- tion of Texas, for the reason that it would involve the extension of slavery. And largely upon this issue he was again elected a senator of the United States in the winter of 1844-45, as the successor of Choate. In December, 1845, he made a speech in the senate against the admission of Texas as a slave state, and in February, 1847, he declared that he was opposed to the prosecution of the Mexican war for the conquest of territory to form new states of our Union. Although Webster and his friends were disappointed by the nomination of General Taylor, in 1848, Webster voted for him in preference to General Cass. In consequence of the acquisition of Mexican territory by con- quest, the sectional conflict relative to slavery became more and more violent and irre- pressible, with an alarming proclivity toward disunion. The houses of congress became, in 1850, the scene of intense excitement about the admission of California and the organiza- tion of the new territories. The imminent danger of this crisis was averted or postponed by Clay's "compromise measures," which Webster supported in an elaborate speech on March 7, 1850, with the result of bringing about some very caustic criticism. This compromise consisted of a mmaber of resolutions, one of which declared that the new territories should be organized without the adoption of any restriction or condition on the subject of slavery; and another, that more effectual provision ought to be made by law for the restitution of fugitive slaves. On the first of these points he argued that he would not reenact by human law what was already settled by a law of God ; that slavery could not be introduced into those territories, because of their natural unfitness for slave labor. His support of these measures gave great offense to many of his admirers, and to the opponents of slavery, who accused him of sacrificing an important principle to a sup- posed political expediency. Even Seward spoke of Webster as " a great statesman, who for a large portion of his life led the vanguard of the army of freedom, and who, when the test came, surrendered that great cause, and derided the proviso of freedom, the principle of the ordinance of 1787." In July, 1850, before the final vote on the compromise bill. President Taylor died and was succeeded by Vice-president Fillmore, who appointed Webster secretary of state. On July 17 Webster addressed the senate on the subjects connected with the compromise bill and the Wilmot proviso. This was his laat speech in the senate. He delivered an eloquent address on July 4, 1851, at the laying of the corner stone of the extension of the capitol at Washington. His last important forensic argument was on the india rubber patent cause, at Trenton, N. J., in January, 1852. Among his later official acts was a celebrated despatch to Hiilsemann, the Austrian charge d'affaires, occasioned by the revolt of the Hungarian patriots. Thds docvmient was dated 1851. In May, 1852, he was thrown from his carriage, and seriously injured, near Ply- mouth, Massachusetts, but he was afterward able to revisit Washington. After all his sacrifices and concessions to the proslavery party, he received in the national whig convention of 1852 only thirty-two votes, and those from northern men, although it was known that he wished to be nominated for the presidency. He died at Marshfield, Massachusetts, October 24, 1852, leaving one son, Fletcher. His other sons and daughters died before their father. In stature Webster was tall, his head and brain were of great size, his eyes large, black, and lustrous. He was greatly distinguished for his conversational powers and genial temper in society. "To those," says Curtis, "who have known Mr. Webster only in public, it is difficult to give an idea of the genial affections which at every period of his life flowed out from him in the domestic circle, and still more difficult to paunt the abounding gayety and humor and fascination of his early days." "He was," says another contemporary, in 1870, "the greatest orator that has ever lived in the western hemisphere. Less vehement than Calhoun, less persuasive than Clay, he was yet more grand and power- ful than either." "Mr. Webster," says Hallam, the great historian, " approaches as nearly to the beau- ideal of a republican senator as any man that I have ever seen in the course of my life ; worthy of Rome or Venice, rather than of our noisy and wrangling generation." 500 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT LINCOLN A.'D. AGE 1809 Bom in Hardin county, Kentuclcy, 1830 Removed with father's family near Decatur, Illinois, 21 1831 Boatman on the Mississippi, . . 22 1882 Enlisted in Black Hawk war; made captain; began studying law, 23 1833-36 Postmaster at New Salem, Illinois, 24-27 1834-40 Member of Illinois legislature, as a whig, 25-31 1837 Admitted to the bar, 28 1842 Married, 33 AOX con- A. D. 1846 Elected to lower house of gress, 37 1849 Introduced a bill to abolish slavery, 40 1858 Joint debate with Douglas, ... 49 1860 Elected president of the United States, 51 1861-65 Civil war, 62-66 1863 Emancipation proclamation; Get- tysburg speech, 54 1864 Reelected president, 56 1865 Assassinated at Ford's theater, Washington, 66 ABRAHAM LINCOLN, American states- ■^^ man, and sixteenth president of the United States, was born in a log cabin, in Hardin county, Kentucky, February 12, 1809. His father, Thomas Lincoln, was a Virginian, and married Nancy Hanks. While Abraham was yet an infant, the family removed to another log cabin not far distant, and in these two he spent the first seven years of his life. Lincoln's mother was a woman of great force of character, and passionately fond of reading. President Lincoln often said that his earliest recollections of his mother were of sitting at her feet, and listening to the tales and legends that she read. She was also a skillful hunter ; with her rifle more than once she brought down the bear and the deer; with her hands she dressed the flesh and prepared it for the family table, and made garments for the family with the skins. When Abraham Lincoln was in his seventh year, Zachariah Riney moved into the neigh- borhood and the lad was sent to school to him. Riney was a Catholic, however, and the Protestant children attending his humble school were withdrawn whenever any religious exercises were held. A little later he had the opportunity of being taught by Caleb Hazel for three months. Lincoln was a full-grown lad when he first saw a church ; and his first notion of public speaking was taken from the itinerant preacher, Parson Elkin, who now and then passed their way. Thomas Lincoln was of a somewhat un- settled nature, 'and, like many another pioneer, thought he saw better advantages further west. He listened to the wonderful tales of rich soil, abundant game, fine timber, and good pasturage, in Indiana, and he resolved to remove there. He foimd a newcomer who was wiUing to take his partly improved farm and log cabin in Kentucky for ten barrels of whiskey and twenty dollars in cash. Aided by some boys he built a flatboat and launched it upon Rolling Fork, which empties into the Ohio, loaded his ten barrels of whiskey, and heavier articles of furniture upon it, and floated off down the Ohio. But the frail craft upset, and with what little could be saved from the wreck Thomas Lincoln landed at Thompson's Ferry, and there found an oxcart to transport him with his slender stock of valuables to Spencer county, Indiana, about eighteen miles from the river. The children, left at home with their mother, attended school and snared game for the family table. One bedticking filled with dried forest leaves sufficed for their rest at night, and early in the morning the future president was out chopping wood for the day's fire. At last the father returned, and the long journey to Indiana was undertaken. At night they slept on the fragrant pine twigs, and by day they plodded on their way toward the Ohio river. By all sorts of expedients the little family contrived to get from one home to the other, where on a grassy knoll, in the heart of the untrodden forest, they fixed upon the site of their future dwelling. A hunter's camp was all that could be built to shelter them during their first winter. One side was entirely open except as it was screened with the half-dressed skins of wild animals. Thorns were used for pins in his home; bits of bone with cloth did duty for buttons; crusts of rye bread, well burned, were substituted for coffee; the dried leaves of sundry native herbs took the place of tea. Corn whiskey tempered with water was a common drink of the country, and one of the readiest forms of business currency. There were no neighbors to drop in with friendly gossip, no boats to vex the waters of the western rivers. Even when one of the settlers of that region knew how to write, it would ABRAHAM LINCOLN From a fainting IN POLITICS require months, sometimes, for his letter to reach the eastern world ; and only as a faint echo now and then came a whisper of politics and national affairs. James Madison was at this time president of the United States, and the country was greatly disturbed over the admission of Mis- souri, the extension of slavery, and other mat- ters of great moment; but little or none of the excitement ever reached the log cabin. Through the winter Abraham Lincoln aided his father in felling logs for a more substantial cabin; and in the spring all the available neighbors were convened, the logs were rolled out of the woods, and one by one fitted into their places in the shape of four walls. Gables were fixed in position with wooden pins, and the log cabin was completed. The floor was the solid ground and the cracks between the logs were "chinked" with thin strips of wood. Little wonder that young "Abe" mastered the art of splitting rails, and imbibed a knowledge of woodcraft which clung to him forever! During their first year in Indiana his mother was stricken down by hard work, exposure, and continual anxiety, and died on October 5, 1818. There were no funeral ceremonies, for there was no one to conduct them; but long afterward, when the spot where she lay was covered with the wreck of the forest, and almost hidden, her son was wont to say, "All that I am or hope to be, I owe to my mother." Boys of the present age, turning languidly over the piles of books at their command, would wonder at the little stock that made Abraham Lincoln's heart glad in those times. His hbrary consisted of the Bible, jEsop's Fables, and Pilgrim's Progress. On these three his literary tastes were formed. He read the books until he could repeat from memory many chapters of the Bible, the most striking passages of Bunyan's story, and every one of iEsop's fables. Then he secured a copy of the lives and characters of eminent men, and from the day when he first read the biography of the great Kentuckian, Lincoln dated his undying admiration for Henry Clay. Then he obtained Ramsay's Life of Washington, and hearing of another Life of Washington, written by Weems, he made a long journey to borrow it, and joyfully carried it home in the bosom of his hunting shirt. A storm at night washed through the chinks of the logs in the cabin, and damaged the book. With a heavy heart Lincoln carried the book back to Mr. Crawford, who had loaned it to him. He offered to do anything in settlement which Crawford might think fair and just, and it was finally agreed that "Abe" should "pull fodder" for three days. "Does that pay for the book, or for the damage done to it?" asked the boy, taking his first lesson in worldly wisdom. Crawford " allowed " that he had considered the book practically worthless, and that the work paid for it, so that it became the first book that Abraham Lincoln purchased; and dis- colored and blistered though it was, it was to him of incalculable value. In the autumn of 1819 Thomas Lincofai went off into Kentucky, leaving the children to take care of themselves ; but in December he retiu-ned, bringing a new mother for them, and a store of what to the children of the wilderness seemed a gorgeous array of house- keeping utensils: a table, a bureau, chairs, crockery, knives, forks, and other incidentals which to-day are considered the necessaries of life, but which, until then, the Lincoln family lived without. The new mother and her stepson became fast friends from the start, and she said of him afterward, "He never gave me a cross word or look, and never refused in act or appearance to do anything that I requested of him." From this time matters began to look brighter for the Lincoln family. Neighbors became more abundant, and the school, with its coveted facilities for obtaining knowledge, was within reach. At the age of seventeen an accident led Lincoln into the vicinity of Booneville. There, hearing that one of the famous Breck- enridges of Kentucky was to speak for the defense in a murder trial, he went to Boone- ville, and in dumb wonder listened to the first important speech which he had ever heard. Lincoln could not restrain himself; and as the eminent lawyer passed out of the courthouse, he found himself interrupted by a tall, ovej^rown youth, awkward, homy- handed, and evidently of the poorer class, who timidly held out his hand to him. But the aristocratic Breckenridge stared in sur- prise at the intrusive stranger, and hastily passed without further notice the futiire president of the United States. The boy had learned a grand lesson in oratory, however, and he was as grateful to 504 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Breckenridge for it as he would have been had the great man been as gracious to him then as he was years afterward, when he was reminded by the president in Washington of the httle incident in Booneville. From that moment Lincoln's enthusiasm for speech- making knew no bounds. His father was at last obliged to interfere, and forbid his making speeches during work hours. The old man grumbled, "When Abe begins to speak, all hands stop work to hear him." In every sense of the word, at twenty years of age, Abraham Lincoln was a self-made man. What he had learned he had learned by himself; what he knew he knew with abso- lute accuracy. He was self-taught, self- dependent, self-reliant. In the spring of 1830 the entire family made another move west, across the prairies to Illinois, near to the village of Decatur. The entire outfit consisted of one wagon drawn by four oxen and driven by Abraham Lincoln. When at last the family were well settled down upon the new ground, young Lincoln determined that it was time for him to strike out for himself. He was twenty-one years old and able and anxious to earn his own living. He therefore, about 1831, engaged himself with a party that was taking a flatboat loaded with produce down the river to New Orleans. Thus he visited the land of slavery, and saw its peculiar institu- tions, and thus he formed his first opinions of slavery. He succeeded so well with the cargo that the owner employed him to take charge of a country store at New Salem, Illinois, where he at once established himself as a great favorite. Up to this time Lincoln had never held any office except that of an occasional clerk at an election ; but in the spring of 1832 he found himself out of business, the store at New Salem having been closed, and he resolved to become a candidate for representative to the legislature. He was then a pronounced whig, following in the footsteps of his idol, Henry Clay. Before the election, however, there was a call for volunteers to repel the hostile Indians, during the Black Hawk war, and Lincoln was among the first to volunteer. At the head of a party of Sangamon county men, he made his way to General Atkinson's headquarters, where he was appointed captain of a company. The campaign was short and decisive. Lincoln reached his home again with only ten days remaining in which to make hia canvass for the seat in the legislature to which he aspired. He received a majority of the votes in his own precinct, but he lost the election. Having now no occupation, he borrowed every book on law that he could find, and began the study of law. He also amused himself and his neighbors by drawing up imaginary deeds, wills, and conveyances; and the neighbors soon began applying to him for advice and assistance in selling and mortgaging real estate. His fees were usually the necessities of life, turned over to the family with whom he boarded. Soon he was undertaking small cases for trial before the justices of the peace. An old judge said of him, that "When Lincoln argued, he inevi- tably gave the impression that he sincerely believed every word that he said." Survey- ing, too, occupied his leisure moments, and maps of land surveyed by Lincoln still show a neatness and semblance of accuracy that testified to the rigid care he exercised in all his work. In 1833 Lincoln was appointed postmaster at New Salem. The revenues were small; and, as the popular saying ran, "Lincoln carried the post office in his hat." He said himself that he took the office on account of the weekly papers coming through the mail, which he scrupulously read before they were called for. In 1834 he again became a candidate for the legislature. This time he was elected. He was now twenty-five years old. The capital was then at Vandalia. Clad in a suit of not especially elegant blue jeans, Lincoln, with his commanding height, was a marked figure in the legislature. During the first session he introduced few bills, but he nar- rowly observed what other men were doing in this direction ; while he said little, he took in everything and thought a great deal. In 1836 he was reelected. In his appeal to his constituents he said, "I go for all sharing the privileges of the government who assist in bearing its burdens. I go for admitting all whites to the right of suffrage who pay taxes or bear arms, by no means excluding females." At this second session of the legislature he put himself on record for the first time as opposed to the further extension of the system of American slavery. In 1837 Lincoln went to Springfield, the new capital of the state, where he established himself in the practice of law, and there he IN POLITICS 008 remained until his election to the presidency. He rode into town on a borrowed horse, all his earthly possessions packed in a pair of saddlebags fastened to the crupper of his saddle. He wanted to hire a room, and furnish it with the barest necessities, but found that the aggregate cost of these was seventeen dollars. To the storekeeper Lincoln sadly said, " It is cheap enough, but cheap as it is, I have not the money to pay for it. If you will give me credit until Christmas, and my experiment here is a success, I will pay you then. If I fail, I shall probably never be able to pay you." The storekeeper, somewhat impressed, replied that he had a large double bed in his own room, which Lincoln was welcome to share with him if he chose ; and thus he settled in his new quarters at the capital of Illinois. In April, 1837, Lincoln formed a partnership with John T. Stuart, of Springfield, which continued until 1841, when he associated himself with Stephen T. Logan. In Novem- ber, 1842, he married Miss Mary Todd, daughter of Robert S. Todd, Esq., of Lexing- ton, Kentucky. In 184.3 the law firm of Abraham Lincoln and William H. Herndon was formed, and the copartnership was not dissolved until the death of Lincoln in 1865. As a lawyer, Lincoln proved the value of those qualities which had won for him the title of " Honest Abe " when he was a store- keeper. In 1839 there was a remarkable debate in the Illinois legislature in which Stephen A. Douglas, John Calhoun, Josiah Lamborn, and Jesse B. Thomas were upon one side, and Stephen T. Logan, Edward D. Barker, Orville H. Browning, and Abraham Lincoln upon the other side. During the debate one of the speakers taunted the other side upon the hopelessness of its case and the fewness of its numbers. In replying Lincoln said, " Address that argument to cowards and knaves. It may be true; if it is, let it be. Many free countries have lost their liberties, and ours may lose hers. But if she shall, let it be my proudest plume not that I was the last to desert her, but that I never de- serted her." Lincoln had long desired to go to congress ; but it so happened that all his best friends | were equally anxious to go, and from the j same district. On one occasion, having him- self been a candidate for nomination, Lincoln | was elected as a delegate to the nominating convention, and was instructed to vote for I Baker. Of the predicament he good-natur- edly said, "I am fi.xed like the fellow who was made groomsman to the man who cut him out and was marrying the girl." The greatest political disappointment of his life, however, was when his idol, Henry Clay, waa defeated, and James K. Polk was elected in 1844. For once, Lincoln's political expecta- tions were overwhelmed. In 1846 Lincoln was at last nominated for congress, and carried the election by a most unusual majority. He took his seat Decem- ber 6, 1847. One of his first acts in congrees was a masterly speech reviewing the causes of the Mexican war, and severely arraigning the administration for its persistence in the matter of annexing Texas, and thus involving the country. On January 16, 1849, he intro- duced a bill for abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia and compensating the slave owners, provided a majority of the citizens should vote in favor of it. He declined to be a candidate for reelection. The repeal of the Missouri compromise brought him again into the political arena, and he became the acknowledged leader of his party in Illinois. In 1854 he several times met Douglas in debate, and on one of these occasions — Springfield, October 4th — he made one of the most successful speeches of his whole life; the fallacy of Douglas's "great principle" was effectually exp)osed in a single sentence : " I admit that the emigrant to Kansas and Nebraska is competent to govern himself, but I deny his right to govern any other person without that person's consent." In June, 1858, the republican convention at Springfield nominated Lincoln for United States senator in place of Stephen A. Douglas, who was a candidate for reelection. In accepting the nomination he delivered a carefully prepared speech, in which he said: " ' A house divided against itself cannot stand.' I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved, I do not expect the house to fall, but I do expect it will cease to be di\ided." This became famous as the " house-di vided-against- itself speech." He and Douglas canvassed the state together, speaking in joint debate seven times. The main question under discussion was whether Kansas should be admitted to the Union as a free state or as a slave state ; 606 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the struggle was at its height, the Dred Scott decision had intensified pubhc interest, and the debate drew the attention of the whole country. Douglas's continual assumptions of superiority and sneers at his antagonist's early poverty and occupations were met with humorous retorts and sharp exposures of soph- istry; and Lincoln finally drove him to the necessity of taking ground against the Dred Scott decision, which ultimately prevented his harmonious nomination by the democratic party, and consequently his elevation to the presidency. On the popular vote Lincoln had a plu- rality of more than four thousand over Douglas ; but the legislative districts were so arranged that the democrats returned a majority of eight members, and Douglas was reelected. The republican national conven- tion met in Chicago on May 16, 1860, how- ever, adopted a platform on the 17th, which denied "the authority of congress, of a territorial legislature, or of any individuals to give legal existence to slavery in any terri- tory of the United States," and on the 18th, on the third ballot, nominated Lincoln for president. His chief competitor in the con- vention was William H. Seward. Hannibal Hamhn was nominated for vice-president. The election resulted in the success of Lincoln and Hamlin. Before Lincoln's inauguration seven states formally seceded from the Union, and there was danger that seven others would follow them, four of which ultimately did. He was inaugurated on March 4, 1861, and delivered a long address, in which he said : • " I hold that, in contemplation of universal law and of the constitution, the union of these states is perpetual. * * * The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the government, and to collect the duties and imposts ; but beyond what may be necessary for these objects there will be no invasion. * * * In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war." During the preceding administration large quantities of arms and ammunition had been removed from the national arsenals in the north to those in the south; the army, only sixteen thousand strong, had been sent to remote parts of the country; the navy had been scattered in distant seas; the treasury was empty; and the border states, heartily s)Tnpathizing with the southern, but unwilling to stand between two hostile powers, consti- tuted the most uncertain element in the novel problem. On March 13th Messrs. Forsyth and Crawford, as " conunissioners from a government composed of seven states which had withdrawn from the American Union," signified their desire to enter upon negotia^ tions for the adjustment of questions growing out of the separation; but the secretary of state, Seward, by direction of the president, declined to receive them, as "it could not be admitted that the states referred to had, in law or fact, withdrawn from the federal Union, or that they could do so in any other manner than with the consent and concert of the people of the United States, to be given through a national convention." The deUvery of this communication was withheld, by consent of the commissioners, until April 8th, when it was speedily followed by the bombardment of Fort Sumter, which precipitated the civil war. On April 15th Presi- dent Lincoln called out the militia of the sev- eral states to the number of seventy-five thou- sand ; on the 19th he proclaimed a blockade of the ports in all the seceded states ; on May 3d he called for forty-two thousand three-years' volunteers. An extra session of congress was called to meet on July 4th. On account of the withdrawal of the southern members, the republicans had a large majority in each house. Congress promptly passed bills rati- fying the acts of the president, authorizing him to accept five hundred thousand volun- teers, placing five hundred milhon dollars at the disposal of the administration, and confiscating all slaves used in mihtary opera- tions against the government. The president had suspended the writ of ha^ beas corpus on May 3, 1861, in an order ad- dressed to the commander of the forces on the Florida coast. On the 27th of the same month. General Cadwalader, being authorized by the president, refused to obey a writ issued by Chief Justice Taney for the release of a Maryland secessionist imprisoned in Fort McHenry. The chief justice then read an I opinion that the president could not suspend ; the writ, and most of the journals opposed I to the administration violently assailed its j action ; whereupon some of them were re- fused transmission in the mails, and at the same time restrictions were placed upon the j use of the telegraph. Congress passed an act I — December, 1861 — approving the action IN POLITICS 607 of the president, and authorizing the suspen- sion of the writ so long as he should deem it necessary. To prevent the border states from joining tJie confederacy was still the most difficult portion of the president's task, and in pur- suance of this object he steadily resisted appeals for a general emancipation. On August 22, 1862, in reply to an open letter addressed to him by Horace Greeley, Lincoln wrote : " My paramount object is to save the Union, and not either to save or destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it ; and if I could do it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that." Mean- while he prepared a declaration that on January 1, 1863, the slaves in all states or parts of states which should then be in rebellion would be proclaimed free. This was put forth September 22, 1862, five days after the battle of Antietam, and the promised proclamation was published on January 1, 1863. After General McClellan assumed command of the army of the Potomac, six months passed and no active operations had been set on foot. The president then -— January, 1862 — ordered a general movement of the land and naval forces against the enemy, to begin on February 22d, and specifically ordered General McClellan to organize an expedition for seizing a point on the railroad southwest of Manassas Junction. The general protested, had several conferences with the president, and urged his own plan of a movement against Richmond up the peninsula, to which Lincoln finally assented after a council of twelve general officers had decided, eight to four, in favor of it; and during the months of delay which followed he constantly urged a rapid forward movement. This did not take place, and the campaign failed. After the battle of Antietam — September 16-17, 1862 — Lincoln again urged McClellan to follow the retreating confederates across the Potomac and advance upon Richmond. A most extraordinary correspondence ensued, in which the president set forth with great clearness the conditions of the military prob- lem and the advantages that would attend a prompt movement by interior lines toward the confederate capital. Tired at length of McClellan's varied excuses for delay, he removed him from command on November 7, 1862, and appointed General Burnsido in his place. The military operations of 1862 elsewhere than in Virginia were nearly all successfxil. Charies Francis Adams, United States min- ister at London, found it impossible to induce the British government to stop the fitting out of confederate prh-ateers in English i>ort8. When the No. 290, afterward famous as the Alabama, escaped from the yard of the Messrs. Laird at Birkenhead — July, 1862 — the British government was notified that the United States would hold it responsible for whatever damage the vessel might inflict on American commerce. The battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, was the turning point of the war. At the dedication of the cemetery in which the slain of this battle were buried — November 19, 1863 — President Lincoln made the brief address which has become famous. In the autumn elections of 1862, many states had given majorities for the party opposed tc the administration ; in those of 1863, every state except New Jersey was carried by its friends. The request of the French government that the United States would recognize the gov- ernment of Maximilian in Mexico was steadily refused. On October 16, 1863, the president had called for three hundred thousand volun- teers, to take the place of those whose term was about to expire ; on March 15, 1864, he called for two hundred thousand more, to supply the navy and provide a reserve for contingencies. In April the governors of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin offered the government a force of one hundred thousand men for one hundred days' service ; this offer was accepted. The national republican convention, June 8, 1864, renominated Lincoln, with Andrew Johnson for vice-president. The democratic convention, August 29, nominated General McClellan for president and George H. Pendleton for vice-president. The essential portion of the platform was the following resolution : "That this convention does explicitly declare, as the sense of the American people, that, after four years of failure to restore the Union by the experiment of war, during which, under the pretense of a military necessity, of a war power higher than the constitution, the constitution itself has been disregarded in every part, and public liberty and private rights alike trodden down, and 508 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the material prosperity of the country essen- tially impaired, justice, humanity, liberty, and the public welfare demand that im- mediate efforts be made for a cessation of hostilities, with a view to an ultimate convention of all the states, or other peace- able means to the end that at the earliest practicable moment peace may be restored on the basis of the federal union of the states." The issue thus squarely presented was maintained throughout the canvass, and the election was looked to for a popular verdict whether the war should be continued. Sher- man captured Atlanta on September 1st. During September and October General Sheridan, by several brilliant victories, swept the Shenandoah valley clean of the confed- erate forces that had occupied it under Early. Hood was defeated in all his operations against Sherman's communications, and finally dashed himself to pieces against the defenses of Nashville. The early state elec- tions in Maine, Vermont, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana were carried by the republicans, and Maryland, by a close vote, adopted a new constitution forbidding slavery. The presidential election was the quietest ever known. The total number of electoral votes counted was two hundred thirty-three, of which Lincoln and Johnson received two hundred twelve, McClellan and Pendleton twenty-one. As the call of July 18th had been largely filled by the application of credits for men previously enlisted, the president on Decem- ber 19th called for two hundred thousand more. Sherman completed his grand march through Georgia in time to present the gov- ernment with the city of Savannah "as a Christmas gift " ; Grant's lines were extended further around Petersburg, cutting off the Weldon railroad ; and in January, 1865, Fort Fisher, conamanding the harbor of Wilming- ton, where blockade-running had been most successful, was captured. On February 3d, President Lincoln and Secretary Seward held an informal conference with Alexander H. Stephens, R. M. T. Hunter, and J. A. Camp- bell, on a gunboat in Hampton Roads; but no result was reached, as the president insisted upon three things: (1) restoration of the national authority throughout all the states; (2) no receding from the position of the national executive on the subject of slavery; (3) no cessation of hostilities short of an end of the war and the disbanding of the forces hostile to the government. Lincoln's second inaugural address closed with this now famous passage : " With maUce toward none, with charity for all, with firm- ness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphans, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and a lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." The confederates having attempted on March 3d to open peace negotiations with General Grant, the president instructed him to have no conference with General Lee unless it should be for the capitulation of Lee's army, forbidding him to decide, discuss, or confer upon any political question. On the day after the evacuation of Richmond the president entered it, accompanied only by hia son and Admiral Porter and a few sailors. On the evening of Good Friday, April 14, 1865, he visited Ford's theater, accompanied by Mrs. Lincoln and two or three personal friends. A few minutes past ten o'clock an obscure actor, John Wilkes Booth, entered the box, having first barred the passage leading to it, approached the president from behind, placed a pistol close to his head, and fired. He then leaped from the front of the box upon the stage, brandishing a dagger, and shouted, "sic semper t>Tannis! The South is avenged!" He then disappeared behind the scenes, passed out at the stage door, and escaped. The president was re- moved to a private house on the opposite side of the street, where he died at twenty- two minutes past seven o'clock the next morning. At the same hour when the president was shot. Secretary Seward was attacked in his house; and it became known that an elabo- rate plot had been formed for murdering simultaneously nearly all the chief civil officers of the government. For this con- spiracy eight persons were tried by a mihtary commission, and four of them — including a woman — were executed, while three were sentenced to hard labor on the Dry Tortugas for life, and one for six years ; one died there, and the other three were pardoned by Presi- dent Johnson. Lincoln's remains were buried at Oak Ridge cemetery, near Springfield, Illinois, on May 4th. On October 15, 1874, they were removed to an elaborate tomb IN POLITICS 611 stirmounted by a statue of Lincoln, an obelisk, and four symbolical figures. A colossal bronze statue, erected by contributions of colored people, waa unveiled in Lincoln park, Washington, in 1876. At the funeral services held in honor of Lincoln at Concord, Massachusetts, Emerson spoke of him as follows : "A plain man of the people, an extra- ordinary fortune attended him. Lord Bacon says, 'Manifest virtues procure reputation; occult ones, fortune.' He offered no shining qualities at the first encounter; he did not offend by superiority. He had a face and manner which disarmed suspicion, which inspired confidence, which confirmed good will. He was a man without vices. He had a strong sense of duty, which it was very easy for him to obey. Then he had what farmers call a ' long head ' ; was excellent in working out the sum for himself — in arguing his case and convincing you fairly and firmly. * * * He had a vast good nature, which made him tolerant and accessible to all. * * * Then his broad good humor, running easily into jocular talk, in which he delighted and in which he excelled, was a rich gift to this wise man. It enabled him to keep his secret, to meet every kind of man, and every rank in society, * * * to mask his own pur- pose and sound his companion, and to catch with true instinct the temper of every com- pany he addressed. Hit occupying the chair of state was a triumph of the good »ense of mankind and of the public corucience. This middle-claas country had a middle-claai president at last. Yes, in manners and sym- pathies, but not in powers; for his powers were superior. This man grew according to the need; his mind mastered the problem of the day ; and as the problem grew, so did his comprehension of it. llarely was a man so fitted to the event. It cannot be said that there is any exaggeration of his worth. If ever a man was fairly tested, he was. There was no lack of resistance, nor of slander, nor of ridicule. Then what an occasion was the whirlwind of the war! Here was place for no holiday magis- trate, no fair-weather sailor; the new pilot was hurried to the helm in a tornado. In four years — four years of battle-days — his endurance, his fertility of resources, his magnanimity, were sorely tried and never found wanting. There, by his courage, his justice, his even temper, his fertile counsel, his humanity, he stood a heroic figure in the center of a heroic epoch. He is the true history of the American people in his time — the true representative of this continent — father of his country, the pulse of twenty millions throbbing in his heart, the thought of their minds articulated by his tongue." BISMARCK A. D. 1815 1832- 1835 1836 1847 1849 1851 Bom at Schonhausen, Prussia, . 35 Studied at university of Gottingen and Berlin, 17-20 Admitted to the bar, 20 Entered the army, 21 Married; member of Prussian diet, 32 Elected to second chamber of Prussian diet, • 34 Prussian ambassador to Germanic diet at Frankfort, 36 A. D. AO" 1859 Minister to St. Petersburg, ... 44 1862 Ambassador to Paris; Pruaslan premier, 47 1866 War with Austria, 51 1867 Chancellor of North German con- federation, S2 1870-71 Franco-German war, 66-66 1871 First chancellor of German em- pire, ^ 1890 Resigned the chancellorship, . . 76 1898 Died at Friedrichsruh, 83 OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON BIS- MARCK-SCHONHAUSEN, familiarly known as Prince Bismarck, famous Prussian statesman, and the creator of German unity, was born at Schonhausen, Prussia, April 1, 1815. He was descended from a noble Brandenburg family, whose members had aided the fortunes of the house of Hohenzollern as soldiers and diplomatists. His own father lived quietly on the hereditary estates at Schonhausen and in Pomerania; the force and genius of the son seemed to come from his mother, Luise von Menken, an earnestly religious and highly educated daughter of a statesman. Otto was placed at the age of six in a private school in Berlin, and at twelve entered the Friedrich WilheUn gymnasium there. His mother looked after his early education, and had him learn French and 512 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT English well, having already marked him for a diplomatist. His father inured him to hardy field sports and stimulated a vigorous and healthy physical development and a love of nature. As a schoolboy. he was dutiful and studious. The hardest lessons cost him no great effort, and in no degree damped his redundant vitality. From the Berlin gymnasium he went to the university of Gottingen in 1832, where his exuberant animal spirits flourished in the congenial nidus of the aristocratic student corps. Tall and powerfully built, with a con- stitution of iron, he plunged gayly and reck- lessly into the excesses of student life, and became the deepest drinker, the readiest swordsman, so wild in his behavior, the author of such extravagant pranks, that he earned for himself the sobriquet of "mad Bismarck." This rollicking, carousing, fighting manner of living did not, however, half fill up the measure of his academic existence at Gottin- gen and afterward at Berlin. He was a com- panion of the serious and intellectual students as well as of the careless spendthrifts of the nobility. With John Lothrop Motley, then a student at Gottingen and afterward the famous American historian of the Dutch republic, for instance, he formed a lifelong friendship. He attended lectures and applied himself to the routine studies well enough to pass a creditable examination; he delved deep in the study of history and developed into a political thinker of independent views strongly held. At the age of twenty he obtained his degree in jurisprudence and was sworn in as auscul- tator, or examiner, in the Berlin law courts. The next year he entered the army. The future German emperor, then Prince Wilhelm, remarked his stalwart form, the picture of a guardsman, when he was presented at the palace. An example of his audacious wit was relished by other young subordinates of the judicial hierarchy. When the trial judge rebuked him for infringing on his own author- ity by threatening to pitch out a recalcitrant witness, he retorted a few minutes later by telling the same witness that if he did not answer properly he would have the judge pitch him out. The wearisome drudgery and routine, the rigid formalities and humble subservience of Prussian officialism, could not fetter long his restless spirit. He learned to detest the town-j- and all the conditions of official hfe. In the barracks of the Jager guards, with whom he performed his military duties, he was more at home, and most of all among the hunting, fighting, drinking nobility of the Alt Mark and Pomerania, who at least led a fresh, untranMneled existence. In sportsmanship and daring and in dissipation and wild esca- pades he outlived them all, and he was glad enough to quit his petty office in 1839 and take up the free and unsophisticated life of a country nobleman and agriculturist. His help was needed at home, as his father had been a careless financier and a poor farmer, and was in sadly embarrassed circumstances. Young Bismarck, applying himself faithfully to the task before him, developed the shrewd business tact and knowledge of men that worked his success later as a diplomatist, the provident calculation and discriminating enterprise that enabled him to control the finances of a nation, the habit of organizing, schooling, and commanding others that gave him his unquestioned and self-reliant author- ity as the chief of a government. Withal, he acquired a practical knowledge of farming, of soils and crops, planting, fertilizing, draining, which in time, after the Schonhausen property had fallen to his share by inheritance, in 1845, freed the estate from debt and gave him a comfortable income. When his cares were lifted and the people whom he had trained could manage without his watchful supervision, his restless spirit once more preyed upon itself, and to escape weariness he plunged into dissipation, sought an anodyne in deep potations of brown beer and champagne, tried violent athletic exer- cises as a relief from ennui, and indulged to the full in the pleasures and society of the roistering young nobles of the Mark, galloping from castle to castle in tumult of mind like the "Wild Huntsman." His torrential passions suddenly turned into their right channel again, and his impetu- ous yearnings found a rightful object when he fell in love with the accomplished and pious Johanna von Puttkamer. Her parents had no intention or desire to bestow her on the " mad Bismarck," but when he had wrung from her a confession of love he went to them with dauntless assurance, and, clasping his beloved in his arms, announced solemnly that whom God had joined no man should put asun- der. ' Journeying through Switzerland and Italy on the wedding trip, in the autumn of 1847, IN POLITICS S18 the young Brandenburger happened in Venice at the same time as his hereditary Hege, Friedrich Wilhelm IV., who asked him to din- ner, and was much impressed with the poUti- cal views and theories that Bismarck boldly and wittily expounded. The young officers and squires, his former boon companions, had been dreadfully bored by such political monologues over the bottle, but the king of Prussia formed a high opinion of the talents revealed in Bismarck's conversation, and thus by haphazard he was a man marked out for his sovereign's favor before he had set his foot on the political ladder. Before 1847 Bismarck was little heard of politically; but about that time be began to attract attention in the new Prussian diet, to which he had been elected, as an ultra-royalist, and a fierce but unsuccessful opponent of the constitutional demands resulting from the March revolution of 1848. In 1849 he was elected to the second chamber of the diet. He opposed the scheme of a German empire as proposed by the Frankfort parliament of that year, for the reason that the title to the imperial dignity offered to the king of Prus- sia was based merely on the popular will and not on the concurrent assent of the German sovereigns as well. His diplomatic career commenced in 1851, when he was appointed Prussian member of the resuscitated Germanic diet at Frankfort. Here he began to manifest that zeal for the interests and aggrandizement of Prussia, which undeviatingly guided him afterward, often regardless of means. In the diet he gave open expression to the long-felt discon- tent with the predominance of Austria, and demanded equal rights for Prussia. At Frankfort he remained until 1859, when he beheld in the approach of the Italian war an opportunity of freeing Prussia and Germany from the injurious dominance of Austria. His views of energetic action, however, were not yet shared by the cautious and pacific prince regent, and Bismarck was recalled in that year from the diet and sent as minister to St. Petersburg. In the spring of 1862 King William, on the urgent advice of the prince of HohenzoUern, transferred Bismarck as ambassador to Paris, in order to give him an insight into the poli- tics of the Tuileries before intrusting him with the direction of affairs at home. During his short stay at Paris, Bismarck visited London, and had interviews with the lead- ing politicians of the time, including Lord Palmerston and Disraeli. In autumn, when the king's government could not obtain the consent of the lower house to the new military organization, Bis- marck was recalled to take the portfolio of the ministry for foreign affairs, and the presi- dency of the cabinet. Not being able to paas the reorganization bill and the budget, he closed the chambers in October, 1862, and announced to the deputies that the king's government would be obliged to do without their sanction. Accordingly, the army reor- ganization went on; and the next four ses- sions of the diet were closed or dissolved in the same way, without the government obtaining, or even caring to obtain, the sanction of the house. When the "conflict era," as it was called, approached a crisis, the death of the king of Denmark reopened the Schleswig-Holstein question, and excited a fever of national Ger- man feeling, which Bismarck was adroit enough to work so as to aggrandize Prussia by the acquisition of the Elba duchies, and reconcile his opponents to his high-handed policy by pointing to the success of the newly- modeled army. Throughout the events which ended in the humiliation of Austria at the battle of Koniggratz in 1866, and the reor- ganization of Germany under the leadership of Prussia — under the name of the North German confederation — Bismarck was the guiding spirit and logically became chancellor in 1867. Such was the magic of his success, that, from being universally disliked, he now became the most popular man in Germany. It was Bismarck, indeed, who negotiated the neutralization of the Luxemburg territory in 1867. The action of France in regard to the can- didature of Prince Leopold of HohenzoUern for the throne of Spain gave Bismarck the opportunity of carrying into action the intensified feeling of unity among the Ger- mans. During the Franco-German war of 1870-71, Bismarck was the spokesman of Germany ; he it was that in February, 1871, dictated the terms of peace to France. Hav- ing been made a count in 1866, he was now created a prince. Following the peace of Frankfort, May 10, 1871, Bismarck became the first chancellor of the imited German empire. The sole aim of his poUcy, domestic and foreign, was to con- solidate the young empire of his own creating, 514 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT by rendering its institutions more beneficent, authoritative, homogeneous, and stable, and again by securing it, through alliances and political combinations, against attack from without. Thus, conceiving the unity of the nation and the authority of its government to be endangered by the church of Rome, and its doctrines of papal infallibility, he em- barked on a long and bitter struggle with the Vatican, in the course of which the imperial and Prussian parliaments passed a series of most stringent measures — known as the Falk or May laws — against the Catholic hierarchy. But Bismarck had underrated the resisting power of the Roman church, and motives of political expediency gradually led him to modify or repeal the most oppressive of the antipapal edicts, leaving the Catholics virtual masters of the field. Otherwise his domestic policy was marked, among other things, by a reformed coinage, a codification of law, a nationalization of the Prussian railways — as a preliminary step to imperial state lines — fiscal reform in the direction of making the empire self-supporting, repeated increase of the army and the regular voting of its esti- mates for seven years at a time, or the military septennate, the introduction of a protective tariff, in 1879, and the attempt to combat social democracy and its attendant evils by means at once repressive and reme- dial — among the latter being a lightening of the burden of direct taxation, the insurance of working men against suffering from acci- dents, indigence, and old age, with other economic experiments, which have caused Bismarck to be called the greatest state socialist of his age. With a view to improve the finances of the empire, Bismarck repeat- edly tried to establish various government monopolies, but without success. Bismarck also inaugurated the career of Germany as a colonizing power, a new depar- ture which brought him into sharp but tem- porary conflict with the English of Glad- stone. For the rest, his foreign policy mainly aimed at isolating France and rendering her incapable of forming anti-German alliances. On the other hand, he gradually combined the central powers of Europe into a peace-league — known as the triple alliance — whose purpose was to counteract the aggressiveness of Russia and France, separately or com- bined, on the Danube or the Rhine. The nucleus of this peace league was formed in 1879 by the Austro-German treaty of alliance — published February, 1888 — which Italy formally called the "peace-maker," and the "peace-keeper" of Europe, a character Bis- marck first publicly acquired when, as " honest broker " between Austria and Russia, he presided over the Berlin congress in 1878. The phrase, "man of blood and iron," is based on "the iron chancellor's" own use of the words in a speech in 1862. Bismarck's life was often threatened, and twice actually attempted — once in Berlin in 1866, just before the Bohemian campaign, by Ferdinand Cohen (or Blind), a crazy youth who aimed at making himself the instrument of popular dissatisfaction with Bismarck, as the champion of absolutism and the fancied apostle of a fratricidal war; and again in 1874, at Kissingen, by a tinsmith named KuUmann, who was unquestionably a product of ultramontane fury engendered by the May laws. When in 1885 Bismarck's seventieth birthday was celebrated as a great national event, he was still a marvel of mental vigor and bodily strength — the recipient of all the honors which his sovereign could bestow. As a statesman he was imperious yet pru- dent, jealous, vindictive, and even unscru- pulous — faults that sprang from his fervid patriotism; but in private life he could be genial, witty, and entertaining. In his public speeches he wielded the mother tongue with trenchant vigor. Disapproving, in some respects, the policy adopted by Emperor Wilhelm II., Bismarck resigned the chancellorship in March, 1890. When his resignation was announced, many persons hastily assimied that it was the out- come of a serious misunderstanding with his sovereign on economic and socialist questions. Those who came to that conclusion had not followed with any care his attitude to the pressing problem of the hour. Had he been seriously opposed to the action of the em- peror in calling together the labor conference, he would, of course, have resigned when his imperial master decided to summon it. The truth is that very soon after the acces- sion of W'ilhelm II., differences arose between the young monarch and the chancellor. The leading idea of Bismarck always was to main- tain thoroughly good relations with Russia. This was one of his chief differences with the emperor Frederick and also with the most powerful members of the Prussian staff. The present emperor was a warm partisan of the IN POLITICS fflfi triple alliance, but Bismarck, while equally anxious to preserve that .combination, at- tached more importance than his sovereign to the necessity of bringing about an arrange- ment between Austria and Russia on such a basis as would secure the interests of each power in the Balkan peninsula. Moreover, the chancellor always looked with cold sus- picion on the colonial policy which had the sympathy of the emperor. Although Wilhelm I. did not always take the same view of things as his great minister, he never took any important step without telling Prince Bismarck beforehand. Wilhelm II. did not observe this rule so punctiliously. Prince Bismarck thought he had some right to complain of the action of his sovereign in this respect. Considering the services, expe- rience, and fame of the great minister, it was not to be expected that he would consent to be responsible for acts about which he had not been previously consulted, and the conse- quences of which might be most momentous. So the rupture came. Subsequently, Bismarck spent the remain- ing years of his life at Friedrichsruh and Varzin, not in dignified quiet, but in a state of anger toward the emperor and his new chancellor. He endeavored to inflame the country, which was indignant at his siunmary dismissal. He denounced the policy of the government to the thousands who flocked to pay him homage wherever he went. In his organ, the Hamburger Nachrichten, and in other newspapers inspired by him, he criti- cised and belittled the new government and the men who composed it, and published the secret treaty with Russia at the risk of being prosecuted for revealing state secrets. He constantly dwelt on the necessity of a good understanding with Russia for the future security of Germany. He lent his name and influence to agrarian agitators and other malcontents. When he went to Vienna in 1892 to attend his son's wedding, the emperor Franz Josef denied him an audience, and the German ambassador ignored him. However, in 1894 a formal reconciliation took place between him and Wilhelm II. His death occurred at Friedrichsruh, July 30, 1898. After his death Dr. Moritz Busch published a volume of his table talk containing many frank disclosures. Bismarck also left manu- script memoirs of his life. In stature Bismarck was tall and of an imposing presence. He had a piercing eye. and his countenance was expressive of great energy. He was always a lover of nature, delighting in agriculture, and, until prevented by failing health in his latter years, he was a bold rider and huntsman. The letters which were written at various times to mem- bers of his family reveal a nature of the most extraordinary richness. His marvelous de- scriptions of landscapes in Sweden, in Hun- gary, in France, in Spain, show him to be a nature enthusiast and he speaks of the sea in language which recalls some of the finest passages in Victor Hugo. But the strongest of all Bismarck's personal characteristics was his firm, unshaken, and deep sense of his duty to the Almighty. At the height of the Franco-German war he said : "Did I not believe in a divine ordinance which has destined this German nation for good and great things, I would have never taken up my calling. To my steadfast fsuth alone I owe the power of resisting all manner of absurdities which I have shown during the past ten years. Rob me of my faith and you rob me of my country. Find me a successor animated by similar principles and I will resign on the spot." Bismarck's greatness lies not only in his diplomatic genius and his energy, but in his moderation. He created the new Germany; he knew how to preserve it, and how to secure its future by antagonizing that domestic enemy, destructive liberalism. He had many admirers, but possessed very few intimate friends, though he could be very amiable. Like other great men, of similar temperament, he stood alone. "To the posterity of a hundred years hence," says Charles Lowe, "Martin Luther and Prince Bismarck will undoubtedly be regarded as the Castor and Pollux of German history; and it is a remarkable coincidence that each of these greatest heroes of the Ger- man nation made his d^but, so to speak, as European actors on the very same obscure provincial stage. It was in the imiversity library of Erfurt that Luther first discovered the Bible, while it was in the church of the Augustines that he was consecrated and read his first mass; and it was in this identical church of the Augiistines that Herr von Bismarck, as a member of the futile union parliament of 1850, first gave indication to his countrymen of how national unity could, or rather could not, be attained." INDEX TO ONE HUNDRED GREAT MASTERS ^schylus, (ia'-kUiia), 12 Alexander the Great, (Ol'-ig-zdn'-dir), . . 419 Alfred the Great, (a/ V^'i), 435 Aristotle, (dr'-ia-tdt-'l), 266 Ark Wright, (ark'-ru), 372 Bach, {bdK), 159 Bacon, (ba'-k'n), 278 Balzac, {bdi'-zdk'), 98 Beethoven, (b&'-to-ven), 175 Bismarck, (bu'-m&rk), 511 Browning, (broun'-lng), 118 Buddha, {bd6d'-d), 201 Caesar, (ae'-zdr), 425 Calvin, (kdl'-vin), 241 Carlyle, {kar4U'), 103 Cervantes, (sir-van' -tez), 43 Charlemagne, (shar'-le-nuin), 430 Charies V., (ch&rU), 438 Cicero, (sis'sr-d), 22 Columbus, (kd-liim'-bus), 329 Confucius, (kdn-fu'-shl-iis), 198 Copernicus, (ko-plr'-ni-kiis), 337 Cromwell, (krdm'-wil), 449 Cuvier, (,ku'-vya'), 386 B&nte, (d&n'-U; It&l, dan' -ta), 32 Darwin, (dar'-win), 402 Demosthenes, (de-mds'-the-nez), 19 Descartes, {da'-k&rt'), 285 Emerson, (im'-er-sun), 112 Franklin, (fr&ngk'4in), 461 Frederick the Great, (JrM'-er-ik), .... 466 Galileo, {gdl'-l-U'-o; Ital., g-ten-birK), 324 Handel, (h&n'-dsi), 164 Harvey, (har'-vl), 354 Hegel, {hd'-gd), 313 Helmholtz, {hUm'-hMts), 409 Herodotus, (he-rdd'-d-tua), 16 Homer, (hd'-msr), 9 Hugo, (hii'-go) 108 Hume, (hum), 302 Jefferson, (jif'-ir-sun), 479 K&nt, (k&nt; Angl.,kant), 306 Kelvin, (kH'-vin), 415 Kepler, (iap'4sr), 351 Lavoisier, (Id'-vwd'-zya'), 380 Leibnitz, (lij/-nit«), 298 Leonardo da Vinci, (Za'-s-ndr'-dd da vin'-ehe) , 1 24 Lessing, (lis'-ing), 71 Lincoln, (llng'-kun), 500 Linnaeus, (li-ne'-ua), 367 Locke, (Idk), 295 Loyola, (l6-y6'4a), 237 Luther, (Uf^'-thsr), 230 Michaelangelo, imi'-k&-an'-]e46; Ital., mi'- kd-an'-id4o), 128 Milton, {mU'4un), 53 Mohammed, (md-ham'-fd), 218 Moli6re, {md'4y&r'), 57 Montaigne, {man4an'; F., mdN'4dn'-y'), . . 39 Montesquieu, (m6n'4l8-ku'; F., mdN'-at'- ki'-endence, in which, as chairman of the board of war, he took an active part. He was commissioner to the court of France, 1778, and was sent on an embassy to England, 1779. He was elected vice-president of the United States in 1789, and succeeded Washington as president in 1797, but in 1801 failed to gain reelection, and then retired from pubUc affairs. Died, 1826. Adams, John Couch, astronomer, was bom at Laneast, near Launceston, England, in 1819. He entered St. John's college, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1843 ; became fellow and mathe- matical tutor after graduation, and in 1858 Lowdean professor of astronomy. Soon after taking his degree, he undertook to find out the cause of the irregularities in the motion of Uranus, and made valuable accessions to our knowledge of the planets. He also made important researches as to the secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion, and on the November meteors. He died in 1892. Adams, John Quincy, sixth president of the United States and son of the second president, was born in Quincy, Mass., in 1767. In iiis boy- hood he accompanied his father on an embassy to Eiurope, and passed a considerable part of his youth in Paris, at The Hague, and, lastly, in London. When his father was elected president, the younger Adams was sent on an embassy to Berlm, and traveled through Silesia. On his return to America he was engaged as professor of rhetoric at Harvard university, and chosen United States senator for Massachusetts. By President Madison he was sent as pleni{>otentiary to Russia, and afterward to England. On this embassy he took part in the negotiation of peace with England, and assisted witn his counsel the deputies sent from America to Ghent. When Monroe was elected president, he recalled Adams from Europe, and made him secretary of state. On the retirement of Monroe from office Ad-inis gained the presidency after a hard contest against Jackson, in 1825, and on the expiration of his term of office retired to Quinoy, near Bos- ton, but in 1830 was chosen as representative of his district. He now joined the party of aboli- tionists, and frequently raised the whole house of representatives against lumself by his inces- sant petitions on the slavery' question. On one occasion, in 1842, in order to assert strongly in the abstract the right to petition, he went so far as to present a petition for the dissolution of the Union. This wss misunderstood, and turned against him. He died at Wasliington during the session of congress 184S. Adams, Maude, actress, was bom at Salt Lake City in 1872; her family name was Kiskadden, but she adopted her mother's maiden name, Adams. She appeared on the stage in child's parts; went to school; joined E. U. Sothem's company. New York, at sixteen; played an inp^nue rdle in the Midnight Bell; afterward joined Charles Frolmian's stock company; later supported John Drew for five years; starred as Lady Babbie in The Little Minister, 1897-98; as Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, 1900; in L'Aialon, 1900-01; in Quality Street, 1902; in The Little Minister, and Hop o' My Thumb, 1905; Ptier Pan, 1906-07 ; What Every Woman Knows, 1908- 09; Joan of Arc, 1909; Chantecler, 1910-11; etc. Adams, Samuel, one of the American revolutionary leaders, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1722. He displayed on all occasions an unflinching zeal for p>opular rights, and was, by the patriotic party, placed in the legislature in 1766. Adams was a member of the first congress, and signed the declaration of independence in 1776; took an active part in framing the constitution of Massachusetts, and was for several years president of the senate of that 'state. He held the office of lieutenant-governor from 1789 to 1794, and of govemor from that time until 1797. Died, 1803. Adams, Susanne, op>eratic singer, was bom at Cambridge, Mass., in 1873. She received her musical education in Paris, and made her oper- atic d^but as Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, in Paris, 1894, with the Maurice Grau opera com- pany; at Co vent Garden, London, 1898 and 1901; sang at state concerts, Buckingham palace and Windsor castle, and was presented by Queen Victoria with valuable brooches and bracelets as souvenirs; sang at Covent Garden opera and with the Maurice Grau opera com- pany for five successive seasons, and as star in concert tours in America. Adams, William T. See "Oliver Optic." Addams, Jane, social reformer, h^id resident of Hull House, Chicago, was bom at Cedarville, III., in 1860; graduated from Rockford college, 1881; spent two years in Europe, 1883-85; studied in Philadelphia, 1888; in 1889 opened, with Miss Ellen Gates Starr, social settlement of Hull House; inspector of streets and alleys in neighborhood of Hull House three years. Writer and lecturer on social and political THROUGHOUT THE WORLD reform. Author: Democracy and Social Ethics; Nevoer Ideals of Peace; A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil. Addison, Joseph, English essayist, was bom at Milston, England, in 1672, graduated at Oxford, and held for some years a fellowship at the university. Here some of his early writings brought him into notice and secured him a pension of $1,500 a year. Gaining this, he traveled on the continent, observing, studying, and writing. In the winter of 1701, amid the stoppages and discomforts of a journey across Mont Cenis, he composed his Letter from Italy, which contains many fine touches of description and is by far the best of his poems. At the death of King William his pension was stopped, and having no means of his own his prospects were gloomy indeed, imtil a lucky chance put him on his feet again. The ministry desired a poem written in praise of Marlborough, who had just won the battle of Blenheim. Addison wrote the poem, The Campaign, and was rewarded with the office of excise comnussioner. He held other public offices, which kept him from writing much for the next six years. In 1710 he began to bring out his famous essays. These he con- tributed to the Tatler, next to the Spectator, and afterward to the Guardian, which he pub- lished in conjunction with his friend, Richard Steele. The most successful of these periodicaJs was the Spectator. It was a daily paper, but with- out any news. It took the fancy of Londoners at the time, and though it ran only a few months has been renowned ever since. Died, 1719. Ade (ad), George, author and dramatist, was bom at Kentland, Ind., 1866; graduated from Purdue university, 1887; in newspaper work in Lafay- ette, Ind., 1887-90; on Chicago Record, 1890- 1900. Author : Artie; Pink Marsh; Doc Home; Fables in Slang; The Girl Proposition; People You Knew; Breaking Into Society; True Bills, and The Slim Princess. Plays: Tfie Sxdtan of Sxdu; Peggy from Paris; The County Chairman; The Sho-Gun; The College Widow; The Bad Samaritan; Mrs. Peckham's Carouse ; Father and the Boys; The Fair Co-Ed.; etc. Adler, Cyrus, orientalist and archaeologist, was bom at Van Buren, Ark., 1863; graduated from university of Pennsylvania, 1883; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins, 1887; consecutively fellow, instructor, and associate professor of Semitic languages, Johns Hopkins, 1884-93; librarian Smithsonian institution, 1892-1905, assistant secretary of same, 1905-08; curator of historic archaeology and historic relipons, United States national museum, 1889-1908. He has written many articles on Semitic philology, Assyriologv, oriental archaeology, comparative religion, bibli- ography, American Jewish history, etc. Author: Told in the Coffee House, a book of Turkish tales (with Allan Plamsay). Adler, Felix, educator, lecturer; bom in Alzey, Germany, 1851. Studied under Hebrew rabbi; graduated at Columbia; studied at Berlin and Heidelberg (Ph. D.); professor of Hebrew and oriental literature" at Cornell, 1874-76; estab- lished in 1876 New York society for ethical culture, to which he gives regular Sunday dis- courses. Professor of political and social ethics, Columbia university; member of editorial board of International Journal of Ethics. Author: Creed and Deed; The Moral Instruction of Chil- dren; Life and Destiny; Marriage and Divorce; Religion of Duty. Adrian IV. (d'-drl-on), named Nicholas Break- speare, the only English pope, was bom about 1100. He left England a poor man, went to Paris, became an ardent student, and was soon ' known for his learning and zeal. He was chosen ; abbot, then cardinal, and lastly pope, in 1154. I He WM vigorous in maintaining his authority at Rome and throughout Europe. He died in I tidy in 1159. Aerenthal (d'-rJIn-Mi), Alois Leopold Baptlct, Baron von, Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs, was bom in 1864. Hia family is of German origin, but has long been eeiUed in Bohemia. He was educated at Prague and Bonn universities, and as a boy learned both Czech and German. He entered the diplomatie service in 1877, and served in Paris and St. Petersburg J became secretary to Count Kalnoky in the foreign office in 1883, councillor of lega- tion at St. Petersburg in 1888. minister to Rumania in 1895, and ambaasaoor to Huaeia in 1899. In October, 1906. he was appointed to succeed Count Goluchowski. Died. 1912. iCschines (8«'-A;t-n^z), an Athenian orator, Moond only to Demosthenes, was bom 389 B. C. Demos- thenes aoets chiefly to his Pleasures of the Imagination, a poem which at once became famous. Alarc6n y Mendoza (d4ar-kdn' e mSn-do'-thd), Don Juan Ruiz de, one of the most distinguished dramatic poets of Spain, bom in Mexico about the beginning of the seventeenth century. He went to Europe about 1622, and in 1628 pub- lished a volume containing eight comedies, and in 1634 another containing twelve. One of them, called La Verdad Sosjtechosa, "The Truth Suspected," furnished Comeille with the ground- work and greater part of the substance of his Menteur. His Tejedor de Segovia, "Weaver of Segovia," and Las Paredes Oyen, "Walls have Ears," are still performed on the Spanish stage. He died in 1639. Alaric L (ai'-d-rVc), king of the Visigoths, wm born about the middle of the fourth c«ntury, and is first mentioned in history in 304 A. U., when Theodosius the Great gave him th* oom- mand of his Gothic auxiliaries. The riisMnrinns between Arcadius and Honorius, ths sons of Theodosius, inspired Alario with the intention of attacking the Roman empire. In 396 he ravaged Greece, from which ho was driven by the Roman general, Stiliclio, but made a mas- terlv retreat to lllyria, of which Arcadius, frightened at his successes, appointed him governor. In 400 he invaded Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho at Potleutia in 403, and induced to transfer his services from Arcadius to Honorius on condition of receiving 4,000 pounds of ^old. Honorius having failed to fulfill this condition, Alaric made a second invasion of Italy, during which he besieged llokie thrice. The first time, 408, the city was saved by payinx a heavy ransom; the second, 409, it capitulated, and Honorius was deposed, but shortly after- ward restored. His sanction of a truiichcrouji attack on the forces of Alaric brought about the third siege, and the city was taken in 410, and sacked for six days, Alaric, however, doing everything in his power to restrain the violence of his followers. He quitted Rome with the intention of reducing Sicily and Africa, but died at Cosenza in 410. Albanl {dl-b&'-ne), Madame (n6e Emma La Jean- esse), vocalist, was born in 1852, at Chambly, Canada, and was trained in music by her father. At twelve she made her d6but at Albany, N. Y., whence she assumed the professional name of Albani. She studied at Paris and Milan, and in 1870 sang at Messina with a success that attended her subsequently at London and Paris, the United States, St. Petersburg, Berlin, etc. In 1878 she married Ernest Gye, eldest son of the director of the royal Italian opera, London, and heis since resided in that city. Alberonl (al-bd-ro'^ne), Giullo, cardinal and states- man, was bom at Firenzuola, near Piacenza^ 1664. In 1713 the duke of Parma employed him as his agent in Madrid. Quickly gaining the favor of Philip V., in 1714 he became prime- minister of Spain, and in 1717 was made a cardinal. His internal administration was liberal and wise, and he did much to develop the re- sources of Spain, while he remodeled the army and fleet, and increased the foreign commerce. To gratify the queen, he suddenly invaded Sar- dinia, in violation of the peace of Utrecht — a step which made England, France, Austria, and Holland form, in 1719, the "quadmple alliance." He sought to unite Peter of Russia and Charles XII. -mth him, to plunge Austria into a war with the Turks, to stir up an insurrection in Hungary, and to bring about the downfall of the regent in France. But Philip lost courage, and concluded a treaty, its chief condition being the dismissal of the cardinal. He waa ordered to leave Spain without delay, and fled to a monastery at Bologna. On the death of the pope in 1721, he repaired to Rome, and took part in the election of Innocent XIII., who, like his two successors, befriended the great exile. Alberoni, however, soon retired to Piacenza, where he died in 1752. Albert, prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and husband of Queen Victoria of England, was bora near Coburg, Germany, in 1819. He married Queen Victona in 1840 ; soon after he was made field- marshal in the British army, and in 1857^ re- ceived the title of prince consort. He acquired great influence in public affairs as the prudent and trusted adviser of the queen, and became popular throughout England. He died In 1861. £20 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT ▲Ibcrtl (6l-btr'-U% Loon BatUsta, an Italian architect, and writer on art and poetry, was bom at Florence, Italy, in 1404- died at Rome in 1472. He waa much employed by Pope Nicholas V. He completed the Pitti palace at Florence, and designea the church of St. Frances at Rimini. His chief book, De Re JEdificatoria, is highly valued. Albertus Magnus (al-bir'-tiis m&g^-^us), count of Bollstadt, the Doctor Universalis of the school- men, was born at Lauingen, in Swabia, about 1193, studied at Padua, and, entering the newly founded Dominican oraer, taught in the schools of Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne. In 1246-54 he lectured at Paris, in 1254 became provincial of the Dominicans in Germany, and in 1260 was named bishop of Ratisbon. But in 1262 he retired to his convent at Cologne to devote himself to literary pursuits, and there he died in 1280. Of his works the most notable are the Summa Theologice and the Summa de Creaturis. Albertus excelled all his contem- poraries in the wideness of his learning, and in legend appears as a magician. ▲Iboln {Ol'-boin), kin^ of the Lombards from about 661 to 673, died in Verona in the latter year. In 6G6 he destroyed the kingdom of the Gepidoe. In 568 he conquered Italy as far south as the Tiber, and established the kingdom of the Lom- bards, with Pavia as its capital. He was mur- dered during a carousal at the instigation of his wife, Rosamunda, whom he had commanded to drink from her father's skull. Albuquerque (ul-bdo-kir' -kt,), Alfonso de, an emi- nent Portuguese admiral, born in 1453, died in 1615. Portugal having subjected to its power a large part of the western coast of Africa, and begun to extend its sway in the East Indies, Albuquerque was appointed viceroy of the Portuguese acquisitions in this quarter, and arrived in 1503 with a fleet on the coast of Mala- bar. His career here was extremely successful, he having extended the Portuguese power over Malabar, Ceylon, the Sunda islands, and the peninsula of Malacca, and made the Portuguese name respected by all the nations and princes of India. Alcteus (dZ-se'-fis), of Mitylene, one of the greatest lyric j)oets of Greece, flourished about the end of the seventh or the beginning of the sixth century B. C. He was the inventor of the form of verse which after him is called the Alcaic, and which Horace, the happiest of his imitators, trans- planted into the Latin language. ▲Iciblades {dl-s^l'-d-dez), Athenian general, was born at Athens 450 B. C. He lost his father in the battle of Chseronea, and was educated in the house of Pericles, his uncle. In his youth he gave evidence of his future greatness, excelling both in mental and bodily exercises. His hand- some person, his distinguished parentage, and the high position of Pericles procured him a mul- titude of friends and admirers. Socrates was one of the former, and gained considerable influence over him, but was unable to restrain his love of luxury and dissipation, which found ample means of gratification in the wealth that accrued to him by his union with Hipparete, the daughter of Hipponicus. After a distinguished career in military life in Greece and Persia he was put to death 404 B. C. Alcott {6l'-kiit), Amos Branson, American philoso- pher, was bom at Wolcott, Conn., in 1799; died in 1888. In 1834-37 he conducted a school in Boston. His system was denounced, however, by the press, and he left Boston for Concord, Mass., where he gave his attention to natural theology and reform in education, diet, and social institutions. Returning from a visit to England in 1842, he brought with him two friends, one of whom, Charles Lane, bought a farm near Harvard, Mass., and proceeded to found a new community, since called transcen- dentalists. The scheme failed, and Alcott thenceforward devoted himself to lecturing, or rather conversing, on a wide range of subjects. theoretical and practical. He published several books, of which Concord Days, the latest, con- tains his personal reminiscences. Alcott, Louisa May, daughter of Amos Bronson Alcott, a justly famous American authoress, was bom in Germantown, Pa., in 1832. Her first volume was Flower Fables, pubUshed in 1855. During the civil war she was a volunteer nurse in the South, and wrote Hospital Sketches in 1863. Litde Women was published in 1868, and was followed at short intervals by Little Men, Work, Rose in Bloom, Jo's Boys, etc. She died in 1888 at Boston, Mass. Alculn {fil'-kxcin\ or Flaccus Alblnus, the most dis- tinguished scuolar of the eighth century, the confidant and adviser of Charlemagne, was bom at York about 735. At his death in 804 he left, besides numerous theological writings, a number of elementary works on philosophy, mathematics, rhetoric, and philology; also poems and a great number of letters. Alden, Henry Mills, author and classical scholar, editor Harper's Magazine since 1869, was bom at Mount Tabor, near Danby, Vt., 1836; graduated from Williams college in 1867, Andover theolc^- cal seminary in 1860; L. H. D., 1890, LL. D., 1907, Williams. Lecturer 1863-64, before Lowell institute, Boston, subject, "Structure of Paganism": managing editor Harper's Weekly, 1863-69. Author: 6W in His World; A Study of Death; Harper's Pictorial History of the Great Rebellion (with A. H. Guernsey), etc. Alden, John, one of the pilgrims to Plymouth, Mass., was bom in England in 1599, died at Duxbury, Mass., in 1687. He was one of the signers of the compact in the cabin of the Mayflower. Aides married Priscilla Mullens, to whom his first proposal was in behalf of Miles Standish, but who indicated her preference for Alden over the soldier. A poem by Longfellow has this incident for its theme. He was a magistrate for more than fifty years^ and greatly assisted in the gov- ernment of the infant colony. Alderman, Edwin Anderson, educator, president of the university of Virginia since 1904, was bom at Wilmington, N. C, in 1861; graduated from the university of North Carolina, 1882; D. C. L., university of the South, 1896; LL. D., Tulane, 1898, Johns Hopkins, 1902, Columbia, 1905, Yale, 1905, university of North Carolina, 1906; assistant state superintendent of schools. North Carolina, 1889-92; professor of English, state normal college, 1892; professor pedagogy, university of North Carolina, 1892-96; president of same 1896-99; president Tulane university, 1899-1904. He is well known as a speaker and lecturer. Author: LAfe of William Hooper, signer of the Declaration; School History of North Carolina; Life of J. L. M. Curry. Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth, l^blator, ex-United States senator, was bom at Foster, R. I., in 1841 ; received an academic education ; president of the Providence common council, 1872-73; member of the Rhode Island general assembly, 1875-77, serving in 1876-77 as speaker of the house of representatives; elected to the hoxise of repre- sentatives of the forty-sixth congress and reelected to the forty-seventh congress; elected, 1881, to the United States senate to succeed Ambrose E. Bumside, and was reelected in 1886, in 1892, 1898, and in 1905. For many years he was the republican leader of the senate, luod was co-author of the Payne-Aldrich tariff bill. He retired from the senate, 1911. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 887 Aldiich, Thomas Bailey, poet and editor, was bom in Portsmouth, N. H., in 1836. While engaged in the office of a New York merchant he began to write verses, the success of which soon induced him to enter on a Uterary career. His first volume, miscellaneous poems, was published in 1855, and was called The Bells; afterward he published Babie Bell, several other volumes of poems, and The Story of a Bad Boy. Aldrich was an industrious contributor to our best periodicals, and was also on the editorial stafi of the Home Journal, 1856-59, and Every Saturday. In 1881 he became editor of the Atlantic Monthly, but resigned in 1890. Died at Boston, Mass.. 1907. Alembert (d'-/ delphia in 1816, and died in 1880. AUison, William Boyd, lawyer, American Ugl»> lator, was bom in Ohio, 1820; educated at Western Reserve college and practiced law until 1857; emigrated to Iowa; served in the dvil war; was sent to congress while that struggU was going on, and remained in congress as representative and senator from that time until his death in 1908. save in 1872-73. His influence was marked and salutary on the legislation of his day. Allston, Washinicton, American painter, was bom in South Carolina, in 1779; graduated at Har- vard in 1800, and went the next year to Londoa to study art. In 1804 he went to Paris, and ia 1805 to Rome, where he formed a close intimacy with Thorwaldsen and Coleridge. Elected aa A. R. A. in 1819, he had the year before returned finally to America, and fixed his residence at Cambridge, Mass., where he died in 1843. EUa pictures are very numerous, the best being scriptural subjects. He is author of a poem. The Sylphs of the Seasons, the art-novel, Monaldi, and Lectures on Art. Alma-Tadema {dl'-md-td'-di-md). Sir Laarencct painter of classical subjects, bom in Dronrj'p, Friesland, in 1836; studied at the royal acad- emy of Antwerp, and was afterward pupil and assistant of Baron Henry Leys. He settled in England in 1873, where his pictures found a ready welcome. He was elected A. R. A. in 1876, and R. A. in 1879. Among his numerous works are "Phidias and the Elgin Marbles," "A Roman Emperor," "The Sculpture Gallery," "The Roses of Heliogabalus," "Clothilde at the Tomb of her Grandchildren," "The Education of the Children of Clovis," "How the Ep-ptians Amused Themselves 3.000 Years Ago, ' "Tar- quinius Superbus," Pyrrhic Dance," "The Vintage," "The Wom«m of Amphiasa," "The Conversion of Paula," and "Thernue Antoni- nianae." Died. 1912. Alraqvlst {alm'-kvUt\ Karl Jonas Ladvlg, Swedish author, was bom at Stockholm in 1793, and dieid at Bremen in 1866. He had a very erratic career; was once convicted of forgery and charged with murder; fled from Sweden to the United States, becoming for a time private secretary of President Lincoln. His romances, as a whole, are considered the best in the Swedish language. The Book of the Thorn-Rom is r»- garded as the beat. Alstroemer (Ol'-airt-mir), Jonas. Swedish industrial reformer, was bom in 1685, and ia noted for the great commercial improvements which he intro- duced into his native country. Of very humble origin, he was for a time unable to surmount the obstacles which poverty placed in his path. He visited England, and, ha\-ing minutely noticed the sources of its manufacturing prosperity, retumed to Sweden, and obtained permissioa to establish a manufactory at AUngsaes, in West Gothland, his birthplace. 8o extenair* and successful were the manufacturing and agricultural resources which he introduosd thai the state conferred on him a patent of nobiUtT. made him chancellor of commerce, and erected a statue to his honor on the Stockholm exchanffe. Died, 1761 Alva. Fernando Alvares de Toledo, Duke oC, Spanish governor of the Netheriands under £30 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Philip II. of Spain, was bom in 1508. He was notorious for tne merciless nianner in which he exercised his dictatorial power. Under his rule more than 18,000 persons were sent to the scaffold, and a revolt, headed by the prince of Orange, broke out, which, after nearly forty years of war, resulted in the independence of the provinces. Alva was recalled in 1573, but he was soon given the command of Portugal, which he quickly conquered. Though his pride and cruelty were excessive, he was undoubtedly one of the greatest generals of his age. Died, 1682. JJvarado (al-v&-r&'-dd), Alonzo, one of the Spanish conquerors of Mexico under Cortez and of Peru under Pizarro, was bom at Burgos about 1490; he was defeated and made prisoner by the Incan leader, Almagro. He afterward joined De Castro, and was Ueutenant-general of the armed force which suppressed the rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548. Died, 1554. ▲Ivarado, Pedro d*, Spanish cavalier, was bom in Badajoz, 1485. He took part in the expedition and victories of Ck>rtez, and was intrusted with the command of the city of Mexico, and after- ward made governor of Guatemala and Hon- duras. He explored California, and was killed soon after his return in an expedition against Jalisco. Died, 1541. Al version e. First Baron, Sir Richard Everard Webster, lord chief-justice of England since 1900, was bom in 1842. He was educated at King's College school; Charterhouse; Trinity colUfge, Cambridge, and holds the degrees M. A., LL. D., D. C. L. He became a barrister in 1868, and joined the southeastern circuit; appointed tubman and subsequently postman of court of exchequer; Q. C, 1878; Attomey- general, 1885-86, 1886-92, and 1895-1900; M. P. Isle of Wight, 1885-1900; master of the rolls, 1900. He was knighted in 1885, and created a baronet in 1899 and baron in 1900. Altog ial'-tsoK), Johann Baptist, Roman Catholic historian, v/na born at Ohlau, Silesia, 1808. He was profes-sor of church historv in the university of Freiburg, and wrote a Manual of General Church History, which is known in many languages. He was also the author of an OvUine of Patrology, and in 1869 was a member of the commission on dogma which prepared the work for the Vatican council. Died at Freiburg, Baden, 1878. Ambrose {Sm'-broz), 8t^ a doctor in the Latin church of the fourth century, was bom at Treves, Gaul, 340. Consecrated archbishop of Milan, 374. Ambrose was repeatedly, in the discharge of his duty to the Church, brought into direct conflict with the highest secmar authority. He rebuked Valentinian, defied Maximus, and, after the massacre of Thessalonica, compelled tlie great Theodosius to a humiliating penance before admitting him to Christian com- munion. To him we owe the noble hymn, "Te Deum Laudamus." No father of the church has a wider fame. Died at Milan in 397. Amerieo Vespucci {H-ma-re'-gd vis-jHSdf-che). See Vespucci. Ames (amz), Fisher, American lawyer and poli- tician, was bom at Dedliam, Mass., 1758. He was graduated from Harvard in 1774; began the practice of law in 1781; sat in the Massa- chusetts convention, and was afterward a member of congress, and famed for his eloquence. He retired from public life with Wa.shmgton, and devoted himself to Uterary pursuits; was elected president of Harvard college in 1804, which he declined. Died, 1808. Ames, James Barr, dean Harvard law school 1895-1910; bom at Boston, Mass., 1846; grad- uate of Harvard, 1868; Harvard law school. 1872; LL. D., university of the city of New York, university of Wisconsin, 1898; univer- sity of Pennsylvania, 1899; Northwestern, 1903; Williams, Harvard, 1904. Taught in private school, Boston, 1868-69; tutor in French and German, Harvard, 1871-72; instructor in his- tory, 1872-73; associate professor of law, 1873- 77, professor of law after 1877, Harvard. Com- Eiled collections of cases on torts, pleading, ills and notes, partnership, trusts, suretyship, admiralty and equity jurisdiction; author of numerous articles in Harvard Law Review and other law reviews. Died, 1910. Ames, Joseph 8weetman, physicist, professor of physics and director physical laboratory at Johns Hopkins; was bom at Manchester, Vt., 1864; graduated from Johns Hopkins in 1886; Ph. D., 1890. Author: T?ieory of Physiee; Manual of ExperimerUa in Physics; Elements of Physics; Free Expansion of Gases; Prismatic and Dif- fraction Spectra; Induction of Electric Currents; Text Book of General Physics. Editor-in-chief, Scientific Memoir series; assistant editor Astro- physical Journal; associate editor American Journal of Science. Amherst (am'-*r«/), Jeffrey, Lord, British general, was bom at Kiverhead, England, 1717. As major-general he served on the continent and in America, where he succeeded Abercrombie as commander-in-chief. Here he was remark- ably successful, and, after many victories, Mon- treal surrendered and Newfoundland was recov- ered from the French. He was raised to the peerage in 1776, and was appointed field marshal in 1796. Died, 1797. Ami, Henry M,. assistant palaeontologist, geological Bur\'ey of Canada since 1882, was bom at Belle Riviere, near Montreal, 1858; graduated from McGill univenuty, B. A., 1882; M. A., 1885: 1). Sc., Oueen's, 1892; McGill, 1907; awarded the Bigsby medal by council of geological societv of London, 1903 ; fellow of the geological societies of London, Switzerland, and America. Amiel {d-myll'), Henri Fr^d^rlr, scholar and poet, was bom at Geneva, Switzerland, 1821, studiea at Berlin, 1844-^8, and from 1849 until his death in 1881, was professor at the academy (university) of Geneva. He published sonoe essays and poems; but his wide culture, critical pKiwer, and profound but melancholy speculation were first made known after his death by a selection from his Journal Intime. Ampere (fiN'-pdr'), Andr6 Marie, a distinguished mathematician and naturalist, was bom at Lyons in 1775. In 1805, after he had been engaged for some time as private mathematical tutor at Lyons, he was called to Paris, where he distinguished himself as an able teacher in the polytechnic school, and began his career as an author by his essay on the Mathematical Theory of Chances. In 1814 he was elected a member of the academy of sciences; and in 1824 was appointed professor of experimental physics in the Collie de France. Died, 1836. Amundsen (d'-munsSn), Boald, explorer, discoverer of the South Pole, was bom in Borge, Norway, 1872. In 1897 became mate with Belgica antarctic expedition. In June, 1903, he sailed in the Gjoa and after two years located the North magnetic pole and the Northwest passage. In June, 1910, in Nansen's famous ship, the Fram, he led the Norwegian antarctic expedition which resulted in the discovery of the South Pole, December 14, 1911. Made a member of the French legion of honor in 1912. Received gold medal from the national geographic society in 1913. Has annoimced arctic cruise in 1914. Author: The Northwest Passage, The South Pole. Amurath (d-vioo^af), or Murad L, sultan of Turkey, was bom about 1319. He succeeded THROUGHOUT THE WORLD Ol his father, Orkhan, in 1360. He was the first I An>ii>p».t. m.^ q„ w to lead Turkish ar^ into Europe, «^d in 1361 ' ~*i'"*">' ^*^- ^ Bf«T»rro, WUrf Aiid«o. d*. took Adrianople, fixed there his residence, built *"„«**"«'»• Mrl^lU*-. B«it. profcwor of UtarmUu* at a splendid mosque, and further adorned the 2n*„ ,m;''"''"™L^>'^**>V'«*"- Prof-^wremwttu. city. Urban V. preached a cnwade against him, but the venture was disaatroua to the Chris- tians. He lost his life in the battle of Kossovo 1389. ' Amurath, or Murad 11^ sultan of Turkey, was bom about 1403. He succeeded Mohammed I. in 1422; took Salonika from the Venetians and opened the way for subjugating Greece, but was defeated by Hunniades in 1442, and obliged to make peace. The Hungarians renewed the war, and hastening from retirement he defeated them in the important battle of Varna, 1444, where Ladislas, king of Hungary, fell. He invaded Albania and the Peloponnesus, where George Castriot (Scanderbeg) defeated him, but re- treated only to gain a ^reat victory over his former adversary, Hunniades, at Kossovo, in 1448; was the first Ottoman emperor who caused bridges of ^reat length to be built; in his reign poetry, jurisprudence, and theology began to flourish. Died of apoplexy at Adrian- ople, 1451. Anacreon (d-nAk'^e-dn), celebrated Greek lyric poet, was born at Teos in Ionia, about 563 B. C. He was patronized by Polycrates, the tyrant of Samoa, and Hipparchus, the tyrant of Athens. He died at Abdera, about 478 B. C, suffocated by a grape-stone while in the act of drinking. His poems are chiefly devoted to the praises of love, pleasure, and wine. Anastaslus I. (&n-ds-td'-shi-iis), emperor of the East, was bom 430 at Dyrrachium, in Epims, and proclaimed emperor at the age of sixty. He owed his elevation to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he married. He suppressed the cruel and degrading spectacles where men fought with wild beasts, abolished the sale of offices, the tax on domestic animals, built a wall on the west side of Constantinople to defend it from the incursions of the barbarians, constructed aqueducts in the city of Hierapohs, made a harbor at Caesarea, and restored the light-house at Alexandria. Died, 518. Anaxagoras (dn-dks-dg'-d-rds), Greek philosopher of the Ionian school, was bom at Clazomenae about 500 B. C. He studied under Anaximenes. and, after traveling through all the known parts of the globe in search of knowledge, estabhshed himself at Athens, where he opened the first school of philosophy. Pericles, Socrates, and Euripides were among his pupils. He was con- demned to die for alleged impiety, a sentence which was changed to exile, when he retired to Lampsacus, and there continued to teach philosophy until his death about 428 B. C. Andersen, Hans Christian, novelist, poet, and writer of fairy tales, was bom at Odense, in Funen, 1805. He early displayed a talent for poetry, and was known in his native place as "the comedy- writer." He was placed at an advanced school at the public expense, and b^an his academic education in 1828. He completed his Agnes and the Merman in Switzer- land; one of his best works. The Impro- visatore, a series of scenes depicted in a glowing style and full of poetic interest, was the fruit of a visit to Italy. In the end of 1840 he com- menced a somewhat lengthened tour in Italy and the East, of which he gave an account in A Poefs Bazaar, 1842. In 1844 he visited the court of Denmark by special invitation, and in the following year received an annuity, which placed him in comfortable circumstances. His works have all been translated into German and English. His Dying Child has been translated into the language of Greenland. He died in 1875. since 1910. was bom at KalamMOo, Mich.. ISM- »'"^ied at Cornell unive«ity, 1870-7^; uniVinrfty' of Gottingen. 1875-76, an(f at Pari, 1876^ was consecutively profwuor at Butler univendty! lUiox college, Purdue univemity, ttUlb univ«raitv <^,,y*rginxa (with introductory mmy); Hugo's WxUxam Shakespeare: Bolasler'. Vm«. d, SMSni; Caros George Sand; Simon's Ktctor CoZin: Sorela Montesquieu; Say's Turgot; RteliiMt's y Atera; Joutel's Journal o/ La Saliva Laat Voyaot: Tonty's Relation. Editor: Baetm't KSm. Author: Repretentative PO0U of tkt YiniiiintJi Century. Anderaon, Rasmus BJSm. author, diplomat; bom at Albion, Wisconsin, of Norwegian parentace 1846; graduate of Luther coRege, DeoorTb' Iowa, 1866; A. B., university of Wiaconain, 1886* LL. D., 1888; professor of Greek and modem languages, Albion academy, 1866; instructor in languages, 1869-75. professor of Scandinavian languages and literature, 1875-83. university of Wisconsin; United States minister to Denmark, 1885-89. Editor and pubUsher of Amerikm since 1898. Author: Norae Mythology; Viking Talea of the North; America Not Diacovered by Columbtis; The Younger Edda; First Chapter of Norwegian Immigration, 1821-1840; also many translations of Norse books, and author of several works in Norwegian. Andr&ssy (dn'-drH-ahl), Count Oynlft, Hungarian statesman, was bom 1823, of an ancient and noble family; espoused the popular cause in the revolution of 1848; was condemned to death in 1849, but escaped and went into exile. In 1867, when the right of self-government was conceded to Hungary, he was appointed premier of the new Hungarian ministry. He filled many di»- tinguished and important posts and positions. He was member of the Presburg diet in 1847-48: lord-lieutenant of the county of Zemplin, ana Hungarian ambassador to Constantinople. He was member of the diet of 1861, and vice-presi- dent of the diet of 1865-66 ; minister of foreign affairs, 1871-79. Died, 1890. Andr£ (dn'-drd or dn'-dri), John, British soldier, bom in London, England, 1751; served in the war with America, and rose to the rank of maior. He conducted the negotiations with Benedict Arnold for the betrayal of West Point, but, being discovered in disguise, was arrested and put to death as a spy. His remains lie in Westminster abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. Executed, 1780. Andrew, John Albion, statesman, "war governor," was bom in Maine, 1818; died at Borton, 1867: graduate of Bowdoin in 1837. He was admittea to the Boston bar in 1840; practiced than twenty years, and was conspicuous in OMW arising under the fugitive slave law. In 1860 h* was a delegate in the national convention whltdi nominated Lincoln for president, and was him- self elected governor of MasMchusetts. H* foresaw the danger of civil war and took imiii»> diate steps to periect the organisation of ths militia of^ his state. In 1861, and yeariy until he insisted on retiring in 1866, he was reelected governor, and was conspicuous for his friendlr care of soldiers. He declined the offered praM- dency of Antioch college. Andrews, Charles McLean, educator, historian, professor of American history, Yale, since 1910, bom at Wethersfield, Conn., 1863; graduated at Trinity college. Conn., 1884, A. M., 1890; Ph. D. Johns Hopkins. 1889; professor of history, Bryn Mawr college, 1880-1907, Johns Hopkins £32 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT univereity, 1907-10. Author: The Historical Development of Modem Europe; Contemporary Europe, Asia, and Africa; A History of England; Colonial Self -Government. Andrewst Ellsha Benjamin, educator, author; born at Hinsdale, N. H., 1844; served private to second lieutenant of Union arnay in civil war; wounded at Petersburg, losing an eye; graduate of Brown university, 1870- Newton theological institution, 1874; principal Connecticut literary institution, Suffield, Conn., 1870-72; pastor First Baptist church, Beverly, Mass., 1874-75; president Denison university, Granville, Ohio, 1875-79; professor homiletics, Newton theologi- cal institution, 1879-82; professor history and political economy. Brown university, 1882-88; professor political economy and 6nance, Cornell, 1888-89; president Brown university, 1889-98; Buperintendent schools, Chicago, 1898-1900; chancellor university of Nebraska, 1900-09, chancellor emeritus since 1909. Author: iTitti- tutca of Constitutional History, English and Ameri- can; Institutes of General History; Institutes of Economics; An Honest Dollar; Wealth and Moral Law; History of the United States; History of the Last Quarter Century in the United States, etc. Andres (dn'-drds). Sir Edmund, was born at Lon- don, England, in 1637; died, 1714. He was governor of the colony of New York for eight years, beginning in 1674; subsequently he was governor of New England for three years. He was deposed by the colonies and then was made covernor of Virginia for six years, where he founded William and Mary college. He was harsh, and ruled without any regard to the wishes of the colonists. This made him disliketl, in spite of his acknowledged honesty and upright- ness. His demand for the charter of Connecticut is famous. To get it, he went to Hartford with s band of soldiers. The general assembly kept bim talking in their hall until night, when candles were lighted and the charter brought in a box and laid on the table. Suddenly the lights were blown out. They were quickly lighted again, but the charter was gone. For three years no one knew where it was, but, in 1789, when the new king, William III., had recalled Andros, the charter was carefully taken from the hollow of an oak tree, where it had been hastily put on the night it disappeared. This tree was Known as the "charter oak." Angellco {Hn-jW-e-ko), Fra, the name by which we best know the great friar-painter, Guido di Pietri, whose monastic name was Giovanni. He was born in 1387 at Vecchio in Tuscany. In 1407 he entered the Dominican monastery at Fiesole, in 1436 was transferred to Florence, and in 1445 was sununoned by the pope to Rome, where he afterward chiefly resided until his death in 1455. His most important frescoes are those in the Florentine convent of San Marco (now a museum), at Orvieto, and in the Nicholas chapel of the Vatican. Others were painted at Cortona and Fiesole. Of his easel pictures, the Louvre possesses a splendid example, "The Coronation of the Virgin," and the London national gallery a "Glory, or Christ," with 265 saints — both of which were originally at Fiesole. There are fine examples of his art in the Uffizi at Florence. Angell (dn'-yjSi), James Burrill, educator, diplomat ; born at Scituate, R. I., 1829; graduate of Brown university, 1849; professor modern languages and literature, Brown, 1853-60; editor Provi- dence Journal, 1860-66; president university of Vermont, 1866-71 ; president universitjr of Michigan, 1871-1909, president emeritus since 1909; United States minister to China, 1880-81, member Anglo-American international com- mission on Canadian fisheries, 1887; chairman Canadian-American commission on deep water- ways from lakes tb sea, 1896; appointed min- ister to Turkey, 1897, but resigned August, 1898. Author: Progress in International Law, The Higher Education. Angelo {&n'-je-lo), Michael de Buonarott«. See MIchaelangelo, page 128. Anglln {dng'-glln), Margaret Mary, actress, was bom at Ottawa, Canada, 1876; educated at Loretto abbey, Toronto, and convent of the Sacred Heart, Montreal; graduated from the Empire school of dramatic acting, New York, 1894. Made professional d^but m Shenandoah, New York, 1904; leading lady with James O'Neil, playing in The Courier of Lyons, Virginius, Hamlet, Monte Cristo, 1896-97; leading woman with E. H. Sothern, 1897-98, Richard Mansfield, 1898-99, and in P^mpire Theater stock com- pany; starred in Zira, 1905 06; co-star with Henry Miller, in The Great Divide, 1906-07. AnKOulftme (dN'-otJB'-Mm'), Louis Antolne de Boor- bon. Due d% eldest son of Charles X. of France, was bom at Versailles, France, 1775. He retired from France along with his father after the revolution, and lived in various places, including Holyrood. In 1799 he married his cousin, Marie Therese, only daughter of Louis XVI., "the onlv man in the family," in the words of Napofeon. After the restoration, he made a feeble effort, as lieutenant-general of France, to oppose Napoleon on his return from Elba; in 1823 be led the French array of invasion into Spain. During the revolution of 1830 he accompanied his father into exile, and died at Gdrs in 1844. Anna Comnena {kdm-nt'-nd), a learned Byzantine princess, author of one of the most valuable works to be found in the collection of the Byzan- tine historians, was the daughter of the emperor Alexius I. (Comnenus). and was bom 1083. She early displayed a fondness for literary pursuits, but was also habituated from her childhood to the intrigues of the court; during the last illneas of her father she entered into a scheme, which her mother, the empress Irene, also favored, to induce him to disinherit his eldest surviving son, John, and to bestow the diadem on her. Failing in this she framed a conspiracy against the life of her brother in 1118. Her brother spared her life, but punished her by confiscation of her property, which, however, he soon afterward generously restored. Disappointed and ashamed, she withdrew from the court and sought enjoy- ment in literature. Died, 1148. Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain, was bom at Madrid in 1601, and in 1615 became the wife of Louis XIII. of France. The marriage was so far from being a happy one that the royal pair lived for twenty-three years in a state of virtual separation, a result due chiefly to the influence of Cardinal Richelieu, whose fixed determination to humble the house of Austria led him to spare no means for alienating the affections of Louis from his queen. On the death of the king, in 1643, Anne became queen- regent, and evinced her discernment by choosing as her minister Cardinal Mazarin, by whose able management the young king, Louis XIV., came, on attaining his majority, into possession of a throne firmly established on the ruins of con- tending parties. She died in 1666. Anne of Beaujeu, daughter of Louis XL, was bom about 1462; married Peter Beaujeu, duke of Bourbon, and constable of France. She acted as regent of the kingdom during the minority of her brother, Charies VIII. Died in 1522. Anne of Brittany, daughter and heiress of Duke Francis II., was bom at Nantes, France, in 1476. In 1491 she was united to Charles VIII , king of France, and governed the kingdom during the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 58S expedition of that prince to Italy. After his death she married Louis XII. in 1499. over whom she exercised great influence. She aied at Blois in 1514. Anne of Cleves, the fourth wife of Henry VIII., to whom she was married in 1540, was born at Cleves, Germanv, 1515. She was the daughter of John, third duke of Cleves. The match was projected by Cromwell, and was partly the cause of that minister's ruin. Henry put her aside, settled on her a liberal annuity, with which she was well satisfied, and she spent the remainder of her days in England, where she died in 1557. Anne, Qneen of England, was the second daughter of King James II., by his first wife, Anne Hyde, and was bom in London, England, in 1665. In 1683 she married Prince George, brother to the king of Denmark, by whom she had a numerous family of children, all of whom died young. Anne ascended the throne on March 8, 1702. She established a fund, known as "Queen Anne's bounty," for the augmentation of the livings of the poor clergy. During her reign, which was made illustrious by the military triumphs of the duke of Marlborough, Sir George Rooke and Sir Cloudesley Shovel conquered the fortress of Gibraltar, a possession which Spain has never been able to regain ; and the legislative union of Scotland with England was effected. The glorious galaxy of writers, in almost every branch of learning, who flourished in her time, has caused it to be considered the Augustan age of British literature. She died in 1714. Annunzlo, Gabrlele d*. See D'Annunzio, Gabriele. Anselm of Canterbury, a scholastic philosopher, bom at Piedmont, 1033, and died in 1109. He led at first a dissipated life, and wandered through France, disputing wherever he could find an adversary. Attracted by the reputation of Lafranc, he went in 1060 to study at the monas- tery of Bee, in Normandy. Three years later he became prior, and in 1078 abbot of this monas- tery, the most famous school of the eleventh century. Lafranc, who in the meantime had gone to England and become archbishop of Canterbury, died in 1089, and in 1093 Anselm was appointed his successor. He was distinguished both as a churchman and a philosopher. His numerous embroilments with William Rufus and Henry I., and the unbending spirit which he dis- played in these, even when subjected to banish- ment, indicate the vigor and resoluteness of his character as much as his writings exhibit the depth and acuteness of his intellect. Anson, Sir William Beynell, English jurist, was born at Walberton, Sussex, 1843; M. P. for Oxford university since 1899; trustee of the national portrait gallery since 1904; chancellor of the diocese of Oxford since 1899 ; warden of All Souls' college, Oxford, since 1881. He was educated at Eton and Balliol college, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls', 1867; barrister, 1869; bencher. Inner Temple, 1900; Vinerian reader in English law, 1874-81 ; unsuccessful candidate for West Staffordshire, 1880; warden of All Souls', 1881; fellow of Eton college, 1883; alderman, city of Oxford, 1892-96; chairman of quarter sessions for Oxfordshire, 1894; vice- chancellor of the university of Oxford, 1898-99; parliamentary secretary to the board of educa- tion, 1902-05. Publications: Principles of the English Law of Contract, Law and Custom of the Constitution. Anthony of Padua, St^ bom at Lisbon^ 1195, was at first an Augustinian monk, but m 1220 he entered the Franciscan order, and became one of the most active propagators. He preached in the south of France and upper Italy, and died at Padua in 1231. He waa canonized by Gregory IX. in the following year. Aooordiac to l«f«xl, he preached to the QahM whan mtn rafuMd to hear him ; heno« be ia the pataon of tlM km«r animals, and ia often repra— itwi M Moom* panied by a pig. Anthony the Great, 8i„ the founder of mooaatlc institutions, was bom, 251, near Heraeleay in upper Egypt. In 285, having aold all hia property and given the proceeda to the poor, he withdrew into the dencrt whither a numbar of disciples were attracted by hia reputation for sanctity; and thus was formed the firat eom- munity of monks. He afterward went to Alexandria to seek the honor of martyrdom amid the persecutions there raging againat the Christians; but as his life was apared, ha again returned to the desert, and died at the great age of 105. Anthony, Susan Brownell, reformer: bom at Adams, Mass., 1820; educated at BattenviUe, N. Y., and 1837-38 at Friends' boarding school. West Philadelphia. Taught school from age of fifteen to thirty; aided in 1852 in organizing the first state woman's temperance society; active in anti-slavery and woman's rights work; organ- izer and secretary of women's national loyal lea^e during civil war. After the war, waa entirely devoted to the woman's suffrage move- ment; founded in 18C8 The Revolution, exclu- sively woman's rights {laper; managed it several years; in 1869 organized, with Mrs. Stanton, national woman suffrage association; joint author with Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Mrs. Matilda Joslyn Gage of The History of Woman Suffrage (3 vols.), and of volume iv. with Mrs. Ida Husted Harper; contributed^ to leading magazines and lectured in England and throughout the United States. Died. 1906. Antlgonus {dn-tlg'-6-niis\ Cyclops, or ''one-eyed," a distinguished general of Alexander the Great, on whose death he became governor of Phrygia. Lycia, and Pamphylia, and, after defeating and slaying Eumenes, and waging other successful wars, assumed the title of King. His ambitious schemes united his rivals, and he was slain in battle of Ipsus. Died, 301 B. C. Antlochus i&n-tl'-d-kiis) IIL, sumamed the Great* was bom about 238 B. C. ; succeeded his father, Seleucus Callinicus, as kinfj of Syria in 223 B. C, and was the most distinguished of the Scleucida. He failed to recover Parthia and Bactria, but waged war with success against Ptolemy Philo- pator, and though defeated at Raphia near Gasa. 217, he afterward obtained entire posdeasion of Palestine and Coele-Syria, dowering therewith his daughter Cleopatra on her betrothal to the young king, Ptolemy of Egypt. He afterward became involved in war with the Romana, who had conquered Macedonia; but declined to invade Italy at the instigation of HannibaljWho had come to his court of refuge. He croaaed over into Greece, but was defeated in 101 at Thermopylae, and in 190 by Scipio at Magnesia. Peace was granted him only on condition of hia jrielding all his dominions east of Mount Taurua, and pajfing a heavy tribute. To raise the money, he attack^ a rich temple in Elymais, when the people rose against him, and killed him in 187 Antlochus IVm sumamed Epipbanes, became king of Syria in 175 B. C. He fought against Egypt and conquered a great part of it. He twice took Jerusalem; and, endeavoring there to establiah the worship of Greek gods, excited the Jews to • successful insurrection under Mattathiaa and hia heroic sons, the Maccabees. Died, 164 B. C. Antipater {&n-tlj/-d-Ur). Of the many peraooa who bore this name in antiquity the most cele- brated was one of the generals of King PhiHp of Macedon, bom about 400 B. C. When 034 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Alexander led his troops into Asia he left Antip- ater, who, along with Parmenion, had endeavored to dissuade him from the expedition, as governor of Macedon. Antipater discharged the duties of this office with great ability, suppressing the Insurrections in Thrace and Sparta; but Ol^m- pias, the mother of Alexander, who entertained a dialike to Antipater, prevailed on her son to appoint Craterus as regent of Macedonia. Alex- ander, prompted also, it is supposed, by his own jealousy of Antipater, consented, but died before the change was carried into effect, and, in spite of his enemies, Antipater was left to share with Craterus the government of Alexander's terri- tories in ?]urope. He died 319 B. C. Antipater of Idumea, father of Herod the Great; took part in the disputes between Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus II. He assisted in placing Hyrcanus on the throne of Judica 63 B. €., and contrived to get the power in his own hands. He was afterward appointed procurator of all Jud»a. Died, 43 B. C. Antoinette, Marie. See Marie Antoinette, JosApbe Jeanne. Antonelll (dn-td^nil'-le). Cardinal Glacomo, Roman prelate and statesman, was bom in Italy in 1806, and died at Home in 1876. He was raised to the cardinalate in 1847, and was for a time secretary of foreign affairs for the papal states. As a champion of the papal interest, he stren- uously opposed the union of Italy, under Victor Emmanuel. He was chief adviser and prime minister of Pope Pius IX. and during the Italian revolution of 1848 he accompanied his holiness in his flight to the seaport of Gaeta. Antoninus {&n-tt>-nl'-niui\ Marcus Aurellus. See Marcus Aurellus Antoninus. Antoninus Plus (Titus Aurellus Fulvus), Roman emperor, was bom 86 A. D. The family of Antoninus was originally from Nemausus, now Nimcs, in Gaul. He inlierited great wealth, and early gave proof of excellent qualities. In 120 he was made consul; afterward was sent by Hadrian as proconsul into Asia, where the wisdom and gentleness of his rule won for him a higher reputation than had been enjoyed by any of his predecessors. In 138 he was adopted by the emperor Hadrian, in consequence of merit alone, and came to the throne in the same year. The reign of Antoninus was proverbially peaceful and happy. The persecution of Chris- tians, which was continura during his reign, was partly stayed by his mild measures. He died at Lorium. Italy, in 161. Antony, Mark, celebrated Roman general, was bom at Rome in 83 B. C. He fought bravely as a soldier in Syria, Egypt, and in Gaul under Caesar, whose firm friend he became. He took part in Caesar's great victory of Pharsalia, and with him was made consul in 44 B. C. After Csesar was killed, Antony, with Augustus and Lcpidus, formed a government called the triumvirate, which defeated the republican army of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. Some time after, Antony visited Greece and Asia, and met the fascinating Cleopatra, queen of Egjrpt. His love for her made him forget the provinces he was to govern. When at last he turned his attention to them, his rule was so despotic that Augustus sent a force against him, and defeated him in the naval battle of Actium, during the progress of which he was deserted by the Egyptian fleet. He took his own life in 30 B. C. Aold (&'-6-ke)f Tlscount Sluxo, diplomatist; was bom at Choshu, Japan, 1844; studied in Berlin university, Germany, 1869-73 ; secretary Japan^ ese legation at Berlin, 1873-74; Japanese min- ister to Germany, 1874-75 and 1892-96; minister to Great Britain, 1894 ; vice-minister for foreign a£fairs, Japan, ^, 1886-89 ; minister for foreig^n affairs, 188^91, 1898-1900; privy councillor 1900-O6; ambassador to United States, 1906-08. Decorated with first-class order of the rising sun. Apelles (d-pil'-Uz), the most celebrated painter in ancient times, the son of Pythias, and probably bom at Colophon, Asia Minor. He m>urished in the latter part of the fourth century B. C, and he united the fine coloring of the Ionian with the accurate drawing of the Sicyonic schooL During the time of Phihp, Apelles \dsit^ Mace- don, where he became the intimate friend of Alexander the Great. It was probably at the Macedonian court that the best days of ApeUes were spent. The period of liis aeath is not known. The most celebrated of his paintings were "Anadyomene," or "Venus Rising from the Sea," and similar subjects; but he cultivated the heroic as well as the graceful style. Hi* ideal portrait of Alexander wielding a thunder- bolt was highly esteemed, and preserved in the temple of Diana at Ephesus. Apollodoms id-pOl-^^-dd'-rCui), a great architect of the second century, was bom at Damascus. He worked at Rome for the em{>eror Trajan, and built the forum and column which bear that monarch's name, but his greatest work was a huge bridge over the Danube at its confluence with the Alt. He was banished and put to death by Hadrian. Apollonlus (&p-6l-l0'^nl-ii») of Perga, in Asi» Minor, called "the great geometer," lived in the second half of the third century, B. C. He was educated at Alexandria, and wrote a treatise on Conic Sectiona in eight books. He is generally considered one of the founders of the mathe- matical sciences. Apolkmlas, called the Rhodian (Apollonlus Rho- dius^, was bom in Alexandria 230 B. C. He presided over an academy at Rhodes, was an eminent rhetorician, and wrote a poem, in four books, on the expedition of the Argonauts, and other poems. Apollonlus of Tyana, in Cappadocia, bom about 3 B. C, was a cealous neo-Pythagorean teacher, who collected many disciples, traveled through a great part of Asia Minor, and ultimately made his way to India. On this journey he was introduced to the Magi at Babylon, and at the court of King Phraortee, in India, made the acquaintance of the notable Brahmins. When he returned his fame as a wise man was greatly increased; the people regarded him as a worker of miracles and a divine being, and princes were glad to entertain him. He was patronized by Vespasian, and followed him to Egypt. After travels in Spain, Italy, and Greece, he was accused of coiwpiring with Nerva against Domi- tian; ultimately he appears to have settled in Ephesus, where he taught until he died, neariy one hundred years old. Apponyi (dp'-po-nye). Count Albert, royal Hun- garian nunister of pubhc education since 1906, was bom 1846, son of Count George Apponyi, late chief-justice of the kingdom of Hungary. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits at Ralksburg, and the universities of Vienna and Budapest. Member of the house of commons since 1872; speaker in the same, 1902-04; has spent almost nis whole parliamentary career in opposition. He has written many articles on questions of Hungarian public law in Hungarian, French, German, English, and American maga- zines. He visited the United States in 1911. Apponyi, Count George, Hungarian statesman, was bom 1808. He was a member of the Presburg diet of 1843, and chancellor of Hungary in 1847, when he opposed the revolutionary movements then brealung out, and which caused his retire- ment. In 1859 he was made a member of the imp>erial council in Vienna, and was instrumental THROUGHOUT THE WORLD W ia briaging about the reconciliation between Austria and Hungary. He is classed among the ablest of European statesmen. Died, 1899. Apuleius (&p-u-li'-yus), a satirical writer of the second century, bom at Numidia, Africa; studied at Carthage. He went to Athens, where he entered keenly upon the study of philosophy, displaying a special predilection for tne Platonic school. He visited Italy, Asia, etc., and was initiated into numerous religious mysteries. The knowledge of the priestly fraternities which he thus acquired he made abundant use of afterward in his Golden Ass. He was so ex- tremely popular that the senate of Carthage and other states erected statues in his honor. Aquinas (d-kivi'-nds), St. Thomas. See page 274. Arab! Ahmed (d-ra'-he) ("Arabi Pasha ), leader of the military insurrection in Egypt in 1882, was bom in Egypt about 1841. He was for twelve years a private soldier in the Egyptian army, then rose to be colonel, minister of war, and pasha. He proclaimed to his troops that he was inspired by the prophet to undertake a holy mission, the motto of which was, "Egvpt for the Egyptians," and he thus became the leader of a great rebellion. A massacre by his forces at Alexandria followed. The English came to the help of the khedive, and their fleet bombarded and dismantled the forts at Alexandria. The war lasted but a few months, Arabi's army being entirely defeated at Tel-el-kebir, in 1882, by the English under General Wolseley. After his de- feat Arabi was banished to Ceylon, but was permitted to return in 1901. Died, 1911. Arago i&r'-d-go), Dominique, celebrated French philosopher, was bom at Estagel, France, 1786. In 1806 he was engaged with Biot in measuring an arc of meridian. His subsequent life was distinguished by an ardent and successful devo- tion to science. In 1816, with Gay-Lussac, he established the Annates de Chimie et de Physique, and confirmed the truth of the undulatory theory of light. In the same year he visited England. In 1818 appeared his Recueil d' Observations gSodisiques, astronomiques, et phy- siques. In 1820 he made several important discoveries in electro-magnetism. He was also eminent as a liberal politician. He died in 1853. Aratus {d-ra'-tHs) of Sicyon, Greek statesman, bom at Sicyon, Greece, 271 B. C. ; died 213 B. C. He Hberated Sicyon from the tyrant Nicocles in 251. His great object was to unite the Greek states, and so form an independent nation. He is said to have been poisoned by Philip of Macedon. Arbaces (dr-bd'-sez), one of the generals of Sardana- palus, and the founder in 876 B. C. of the Median empire. In conspiracy with a Chaldean priest who commanded the troops from Babylon, he revolted, gained the assistance of several promi- nent officers, and defeated Sardanapalus, who conunitted suicide. The dynasty of Arbaces lasted until 559 B. C, when Cvrus overthrew it. Arbutlinot {ar-biUh'^ndt or dr-bHth^ndt), John, British physician and wit, the much-loved friend of Swift and Pope, was bom at Arbuthnot, Scotland, 1667i He studied at Aberdeen and University college, Oxford, but took his M. D. degree at St. Andrews, 1696. Settling in Lon- don, where before this he had taught mathe- matics, in 1697 he attracted notice by his exami- nation of Dr. Woodward's account of the deluge. Accident called him into attendance on Prince George of Denmark; in 1705 he was appointed physician to the queen, and her death in 1714 was a severe blow to his prosperity. In 1715, along with Pope, he assisted Gay in Three Hours after Marriage, a farce. He pronounced the Harveian oration in 1727, and died 1735. Utterly ceu^less of Uterary fame, Arbuthnot was the chief if not the sole author of the brilliant Memoirs of Martinua SeribUrus, firat pubUahwl in Pope's works. He wrote, also, th* paUbratod History of John Bull. Arc Joan of. See Joan of Are. ArchlmedM (ar-M-m4'-dte), the moat eelabratod mechanician of antiquity, was bom in Syraeuaa^ Sicily, about 287 B. C, and died 212 B. C. H« is said to have visited Egypt in early life, and (o have invented there several hydraulic machlnaa, including the Archimedean screw, which he applied to drainage and irrigation. V'itruvius relates that he discovered the principle of specific gravity while pondering the means of detecting a supposed fraud in the debasenient of a golden crown of King Hiero with silver, by observing that his body would displace its own bulk of water in a full bath tub, and ran home naked exclaiming. Eureka, eureka, "I have found it. I have found it." In his old age he defended Syracuse against the Romans under Marcellus with great mechanical skill, and wius killed at its capture. His purely mathematical works show that he far excelled all who preceded him. The most celebrated are on the ratio of the sphere and cylinder, on the ratio of the circumference to a diameter, on spiral lines, and on the parabola. AretKUS {&r-e-te'-iis), a famous Greek physician of Cappadocia, flourished in the latter half of the first and in the beginning of the second century after Christ. He is considered to rank next to Hippocrates in the skill with which he treated diseases. His great work is divided into two parts. The first four books treat of the causes and symptoms of acute and chronic diaeaaes, and the second of their cure. Argand {dr'-gds', Eng. dr'-g&nd),Kiml, Swiss physi- cian and chemist, was bom in Geneva al>out the middle of the eighteenth century. He invented the "Argand lamp," which was brought out in England in 1782. The patent was also claimed by a Frenchman, Ambroise Lange, and finally taken out in France in their joint names, the priority of invention being conceded to Argand. The French revolution, however, deprived him of all profit from his patent. Died in Switserland in 1803. ArgyU {dr-gil'), Archibald Campbell, Marquis of, was the descendant of Sir Colin Campbell of Lochow or Loch Awe, who was knighted in 1286. Archibald was bom in 1598, and in 1619, his father having turned Catholic and quitted Scot- land, became the sole potentate of all the broad lands of his line. In the general assembly at Glasgow in 1638 he openly took the side of the covenanters, and next year joined Leslie's encampment on Duns Law. In 1640 he marched with 4,000 men through Badenoch, Athole, Mar, and Angus, enforcing subjection to the Scottish parliament. Charles, on his visit to Scotland in 1641, created him marquis. In 1644 he di»- Sersed the royalist forces under Huntly; but [ontrose in 1645 annihilated his army at Inverlochy. He was strongly opposed to the king's execution; In 1651 he crowned Charles II. at Scone. After the defeat of Worcester be defended himself for nearly a year in his castle of Inverarav against Cromwell s troops; but in 1652 he submitted to the protector. At the restoration he was committed to the Tower, from there taken by sea to Leith in 1661, and beheaded. A gorgeous monument was ereetad to him in 1895 in St. Giles's cathedral. Argyll. Geonte John DouKlas, eighth duke of, was bom in 1823, and died in 1900. He held impor- tant offices in the English government, and was a liberal in politics. He also wrote valuable religious and scientific works, among them Th« Reign of Law, and Primeval Man. His eldest son, the marquis of Lome, married Princess Louise, the fourth daughter of Queen Victori*. 536 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT This is the first instance of the marriage of a daughter of a reigning sovereign of England to a subject. The marquis succeeded to the dukedom on the death of his father. Ariosto (ii-ri-ds'-ld), Ludovico, one of the greatest of Italian poets, born at lieg^o 1474, died at Ferrara 1533. His imaginative powers were developed in early life. In 1603 he was intro- duced to the court of the cardinal Ippolito d'Este. who employed him in many negotiations. Here ne produced his poem Orlando Furioso, which was published in Ferrara in 1516. Arlovlstus {iX-ri-d-vls'-tiis), a chief of the Marco- manui, a German tribe, who crossed the Rhine to aid the Scouani against the ^Edui, and occupied a considerable territory in Gaul, but was finally defeated by Caesar at Vcsontium (Besan^on), in 68 B. C. Arlstarchus (dr-ia-tar'-k'iia) of Samos, an Alex- andrian astronomer, flourished 280-264 B. C. He seems to have anticipated Copernicus, main- taining that the earth moves round the sun. He wrote a treatise on the magnitude and distance of the sun and moon. Arlstldea (dr-la-ti'-dez), surnamed "the just," was the son of Lysimachus. He was one of the ten leaders of the Athenians against the Persians at the battle of Marathon, 490 B. C. It had been arranged that each leader, or atraUgos, should hold the supreme command for one day; but Aristides, who saw the folly of this want of unity, induced his companions to give up their claims and make Miltiades commander-in-chief, which S roved the means of winning the battle. In 477 . C. he introduced a change of the constitution by which all citizens, without distinction of rank, were admitted to political offices. Died, 468 B. C. ArtstippuB (dr-la-tlji'-piis), the founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy among the Greeks, was tlie son of Artiades, a wealthy gentleman of Cyrene, in Africa, and was born in that city about 426 B. C. He was a pupil of Socrates. Aristophanes (dr-la-td/'-d-nez), the most celebrated of tlie ancient Athenian writers of comedy, was contemporary with Socrates and Plato. He was bom at Athens, probably about 444 B. C. He began writing when very young, and his first plays were brought out under another name, Decause he was not old enough to contend for the prize. He wrote, in all, fifty-four comedies, but only eleven have come down to us. The Knights and The Clouds are among his most admired pieces. Others are The Wasps, The Birds, ana Ttie Frogs. Aristophanes laughed at everything and everybody, especialljr at every- thing new. He liked old Athens, "as it had been in the days of the Persian wars," and thus failed to see the good in men Uke Socrates. One of his finest plays, The Clouds, is a satire against Socrates. His plays have in them specimens of the most beautiful and finished poetry. He died about 380 B. C. ArlstoUe i&r'-is-tdt-'l). See page 266. Arisugawa {&-resdi>-g&'-wd). Prince Takehlto, mem- ber of Japanese supreme council of war, was bom in 1862. He belongs to one of the four imperial families of Japan. Visited England when a naval cadet ; was a midshipman for two years on H. M. S. Iron Duke; served in channel sc^uadron; studied at naval college, Green- wich; commanded cruiser Matsushima through- out war, 1894-95; admiral superintendent of Yokosuka; represented Japan at diamond jubilee of Queen Victoria, of England, and again visited England in 1905. Arius {a'-rl-us or d-ri'-iis), fb\inder of Arianism, was bom in Libya about 256 A. D., was trained in Antioch, and became a presbyter in Alexandria. Here about 318 he maintained, against his bishop, that the Son was not co-equal or co-eternal with the Father, but only the first and highest of all finite beings, created out of notlxing by an act of God's free-will. He secured the adherence of clergy and laity in Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, but was deposed and excomxuunicated in 321 by a synod oi bishops at Alexandria. Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, absolved him, and in 323 convened another synod in Bithynia, which pronounced in his favor. He defended his views before the council of Nicaea, 325, but they were condemned. Died at Constantinople, 336. Arkwright, Richard, Sir. See page 372. Anninius {Qr-min'-i-^ds), a German chieftain, prince of the Cherusci, was bom about 18 B. C, and died by assassination in 21 A. D. He became a Roman citizen and served as a soldier in the Roman army. Coming home, be found the whole country stirred up by the cruelties of Varus, the Roman governor, and became the head of a con- spiracy. He induced the Roman general to scatter his troops in small detachments, saying that it would keep better order among the Ger- mans. News of the conspiracy caused Varus to march into the interior, but the scattered Roman troops were murdered, the main body was sur- rounded and killed almost to a man. Varus taking his own life. Rome was filled with shame. The emperor Augustus kept crying for days: "Varus, give me oack my legions! Germani- cus marched against the Cherusci, but accom- plished nothing. The next year he marched again with 80,000 men and a fleet; Arminius artfully led him into narrow passes, then, falling upon him, cut off his cavalry, almost destroyed four legions and forced him to retreat. The next year the undaunted Germanicus came with 100,000 men and 1,000 ships. On a plain, called "no-man's meadow," a great battle was fought. The Germans were beaten, but the next morning they compelled the Romans to retreat. From this time no Roman army ever marched beyond the Rhine, and Arminius is, therefore, justly called the "German liberator." Arminius, Jacob, teacher of the system of Armini- anism, bom 1660, at Oudewater, a small town in Holland. He studied at the university of Leyden, attended the school of theology in Geneva, and later studied at Basel. He was ordained at Amsterdam in 1688, and soon became distinguished as a preacher. In 1589 he con- sented to answer a book which attacked the doctrine of Calvinism, and while preparing to do so embraced the doctrine which he was trj-ing to refute. In 1603 he became professor in the university of Leyden, and received the degree of D. D., the first ever conferred by that institution. He was one of the most learned men of his age, a preacher of great jxtpular power and an author of rare ability. He died in 1609. Armour, Philip D., merchant, capitalist, head for many years of the great firm of Armour & Com- pany, pork packers and dealers in dressed meats and provisions, was bom at Stockbridge, N. Y., 1832, and died at Chicago in 1901. His fortune was largely made in the inomense commission business he conducted in Chicago and elsewhere, and in railways. His wealth was estimated at his death at about forty millions. The chief object of his benevolence was the Armour insti- tute of technology in Chicago, which was opened in 1893. Armstrong, John, American soldier and writer, was born at Carlisle, Pa., 1758; died. 1843. He served in the revolutionary war, leaving the service with the rank of major. He wrote the Newburgh Letters, setting forth the hardship® of the revolutionary soldiers in respect to pay. He was attorney-general of Pennsylvania; United States senator from New York ,1800-04; minis- ter to France, 1804—10; brigadier-general in the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 687 war of 1812; and secretary of war, 1813-14. He was charged with inefficiency in consequence of the capture of WasiiinRtun, and resigned in September, 1814. He published a History of the War of 1812, Memoirs of Montgomery and nayru. a Review of Oen. Wilkinson's Memoirs, ana partially prepared a history of the revolution. Armstrong, 8ir William George, noted for various mechanical inventions, especially in artillery «uid in water-power machinery, was born in 1810 at Newcastle, England. In 1840 he produced a much improved hydraulic engine, in 1842 an apparatus for producing electricity from steam, and in 1845 the hydraulic crane. He was elected an F. R. S. in 1846, and shortly afterward com- menced the Elswick engine-works, Newcastle. This large establishment at first chiefly produced hydraulic cranes, engines, accumulators, and bridges, but was soon to be famous for its ord- nance, and especially the Armstrong gun, whose essential feature is that the barrel is built up of successive coils of wrought-iron, and which in 1859 was recommended by the rifle-cannon committee. Armstrong offered to his govern- ment all his inventions. He was knighted in 1859, and in 1887 was created Baron Armstrong; in 1894 he purchased Bamborough castle, to convert it into a retreat for cultured poverty. He wrote Electric Movement. Died, 1900. Amauld {dr'-no'), Antoine, known as " the great Arnauld," French philosopher and Jansenist theologian, was bom at Paris in 1612. Entering the Sorbonne he became a pupil of Lescot, the confessor of Cardinal Richelieu, and afterward bishop of Chartres. His published works num- ber 100. He died at Brussels in 1694. In 1643 he published a work entitled De la Friquente Communion, which was received in the most favorable manner. Amdt (arnt), Ernst Moritz, German poet and patriot, was born in the then Swedish island of Rvigen, 1769. He received an excellent educa- tion at Stralsund, Greifswald, and Jena, with a view to the ministry ; but in 1805, after traveling over a great part of Europe, he became professor of history at Greifswald. His Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft in Pommern und Riigen led to the abolition of serfdom; in his Geist der Zeit he attacked Napoleon with such boldness that, after Jena, he had to take refuge in Stockholm. Was ist des Deutschen Vaterlandf and others of his fiery songs, did not a little to rouse the spirit of Germany. In 1818 he became professor of history in the new university of Bonn; but, aiming steadily at constitutional reforms, he was suspended in 1820 for participation in so-called "demagogic movements," and was not restored until 1840. He was elected a member of the German national assembly in 1848, but retired from it in 1849. Vigorous in mind and body, beloved and revered by the whole German people as "Father Amdt," he died at Bonn in 1860. Ame (arn), Thomas Augustine, composer, was born in London in 1710, and educated at Eton. His father, an upholsterer, intended him for the bar, but young Arne became skillful as a violinist, forming his style chiefly after Corelli; his zeal in the study of music induced his sister, Mrs. Gibber, to cultivate her excellent voice. He wrote for her a part in his first opera, Rosa- mond, which was performed with great success in 1733. Next followed his comic operetta, Tom Thumb, and afterward his Comus. He married a singer, Cecilia Young; after a suc- cessful visit to Ireland was engaged as composer to Drury Lane theater, and wrote many vocal pieces for the Vauxhall concerts. Rule Britannia, originally given in Tfie Masque of Alfred, is his, as well as two oratorios and two operas, Eliza and Artaxerxes. He died in London in 1778. Arnold. Benedict, an American general and traitor, was bora in Connecticut, 1741. Joined Ethan Alien against Ticondcroga, and later suooeeded Montgomery after the capture of Ouebee, 1776, becoming a brigadier^eneral. Reiuaed promo* tion by congreaa, and oonaented to remain in the army only at Washington's requect. la oom- mand of rhiladclphiu, 1778-79, hie aettona wera severely criticised and he waa courtmartialed and reprimanded. He secured oommaod of West Point and entered into treasonable nefotiatioM with Sir Henry Clinton for its betrayal. Tba capture of Major Andrd exposed the plot, and Arnold fled at once. He became a brigadier* general in the British army and oommanded several minor attacks during the last months of the war. He was pensioned by the English gov- ernment, but despised and ncclected bv the English people, except the royal Umily. He was a soldier of remarkable danng and ability, but unscrupulous from his boyhood. Died in Lon- don, 1801. Arnold, Bion Joseph, electrical engineer, inventor, was born at Casnovia, Mich., 1861 - graduatexl from Hillsdale college, B. S., 1884, M. 8., 1887; post-graduate course at Cornell, 1888-89: E. E., university of Nebraska, 1897. Chief designer, Iowa iron works, Dubuque, Iowa; later con- sulting engineer for Chicago office of the Ueowal electric company; since 1893 independent con- sulting engineer. Designer and builder intra- mural railway. World's Columbian exposition; consulting electrical engineer Chicago dc Mil- waukee electric railway; Chicago board of trade; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy rail- road; Grand Trunk railway on electrification of St. Clair tunnel since 1905; consulting engineer Wisconsin state railway commission, 1905-07; devised plan for electrically operating trains of New York Central railroad in and out of New York, and member electric traction commissioners engaged in carrying on the work ; member electric traction committee, Erie rail- road, 1900-04; consulting engineer for city of Chicago to revise street railway systems of city, 1902; chief engineer rebuilding Chicago traction system at cost of $60,000,000. 1907, and chair- man of board of supervising engineers of the same. President of the Ara«jld company. Inventor of combined direct-connected machines, a magnetic clutch, storage battery improvements, and new systems and devices for electric railways. President of American institution of electrical engineers, 1903-04. Arnold, Sir Edwin, English author and ioun^list, was bora in 1832; educated at Kings coUeg^ London, and at Oxford; was appointed secpod master at King Edward VI. 's school at Birming- ham; resigned this for position of principal in the Sanskrit college of Poona, British In^a. In 1861 he became connected with the London Telegraph; noted as the author of several booju, among them Poets of Greece, etc., and lUer bis well-known poem, The Light of Asia. Died, 1904. Arnold, Matthew. English poet and critic, eldest son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, was bom in Middle- sex, England, 1822; was educated at Win- chester, Rugby, and Balliol college, Oxford. He was elected fellow of Oriel college in 1845, and in 1851, after having been for some time private secretary to Lord Lanadowne, he was appointed lay inspector of schools under the committee of council on education. His poetic activity was manifested in eariy life; for ten years, 1857-67, he held the chair of poetry at Oxford; among his productions may be noted his Newdigate prise poem CnmwU, The Strayed ReveOer and a volume of A «w Poems published in 1809. As a critic he hoWs a very high place. His later woriu were chistly 638 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT theological, being attempts to grapple with the supernatural aspects of Christiamty from a rationalistic standpoint. St. Faid and Protest- antism, Literature and Dogma, and God and the Bible are among his writings. Died, 1888. Arnold, Sarah Louise, educator, bom at North Abington, Mass., 1859; graduated state normal school, Bridgewater, Mass., 1878; A. M., Tufts, 1902; taught in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and New Hampshire; principal train- ing school, Saratoga, N. Y., two years; super- visor schools. Minneapolis, seven years; super- visor of schools, Boston, 1895-1902; dean Sinunons college since 1902. Author: Way- marks for Teachers; Stepping Stones to Literature; Reading: How to Teach It; Ttie Mother Tongue. Arnold, Thomas, educator and historian, was bom in 1795, in the isle of Wight, and educated at Winchester, and Corpus Christi college, Oxford. In 1815 he became fellow of Oriel, obtaining in that year the chancellor's prize for the Latin and in 1817 for the English essay. After taking holy orders, he passed nine years at Laleham, near Staines, in literary occupations, and in preparing young men for the universities. Appointed head master of Rugby school in 1828, he raised that institution beyond all precedent, both by the remarkable success of his pupils and by the introduction of new branches of study into the Rugby course. He was of the Broad church school of thought, and a vigorous opponent of the tractarian movement. In 1841 he was appointed professor of modem history at Oxford. The best known of Dr. Arnold s works are his edition of Thucydidea, his History of Rome (unfinished), and his sermons delivered in the chapel of Rugby school. Died, 1842. Arnold of Wlnkelried, a Swiss of Unterwalden, who, according to tradition, made a way for his com^ rades into the enemies' ranks at Sempach, in 1386, by grasping an armful of Austrian spearheads and plunging them into his own bosom. Arrhenlus (6r^d'^ni-ila), Svante August, Swedish chemist, director of physico-chemical departs ment, Nobel institute, since 1905, was bom in 1859. In 1884 he received the degree of doctor of philosophy from the university of Upsala. In 1895 he was appointed professor of physics in Stockholm. His most important contributions are in physical chemistry, more particularly in the theory of solutions, although his study of comets has added greatly to our knowledge of that subject. Received Nobel prize for chemis- tr>', 1903. Arrian (Hr'-i-an), or Flavlus Arrlanus, Greek historian, was bom in Nicomedia, Bithynia, about 100 A. D. He is best known by his history of the campaigns of Alexander the Great, which, in imitation of Xenophon, he called the Ana- basis of Alexander. The emperor Hadrian made him a Roman citizen and governor of Cappadocia in 136. When fifty years old he settled in his native city. Besicles the Arwbasis he wrote an account of a voyage in the Black sea, an account of India, and other works. Artaxerxes I. {ar-tdks-inrk'-sez), king of Persia, sumamed Longimanus, the second son of Xerxes, escaped from the conspiracy of Artaban and others, and ascended the throne in 465 B. C. His long reign, extending to 425, was marked by a decline of i>ower. Died, 425 B. C. Artaxerxes II., sumamed Mnemon, succeeded his father, Darius II., in 405 B. C. After gaining the victory over his brother, Cyrus, he became involved in a war with Sparta, which ended with Antalcidean treaty of peace. Died, 361 B. C. Artaxerxes III^ sumamed Ochus, was the son and successor of Artaxerxes II., and reigned in the true style of oriental despotism until 338 B. C. One of his most daring exploits took place in Egypt, where he caused the divine bull Apis to be slaughtered and cooked as ordinary beef. He was poisoned in 338 by his eunuch, Bagoas. Artevelde {br-d-vH' -di), Jacob van, popular Flemish leader of the fourteenth century, was a brewer in Ghent. His wealth, eloquence, and talents made him the most prominent man on the side of the citizens in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. The people of Ghent made him commander of their forces, and he banished from the town all the nobles and friends of the count. His power was secure for ten years, but in 1335 he made a treaty with Edward III. of England, persuading him to assume the title of king of France. To strengthen this alliance, he tried to make Edward, the black prince, count of Flanders, when the people rose in rebellion and Artevelde waa slain, 1345. Arthur, Chester Alan, twenty-first president of the United States, son of a Baptist minister, waa bom in Franklin county, Vt., 1830; graduated from Union college in 1848; was admitted to the bar; in 1861 appointed inspector-general of New York state national guard, and later quartermaster-general of New York state; appointed United States collector of the port of ^Iew York, 1871, served until 1878; was elected vice-president of the United States in 1880, and on the death of President Garfield, September 19, 1881, he became president. Died, 1886. Arthur, Julia, actress, was bom in Hamilton, Ontario, 1869, of Irish and Welsh parentage; real name, Ida Lewis; at eleven played in amateur dramatic club, taking part of Gamora in The Honeymoon, and of Portia in The Mer- chant of Venice; three years later made profes- sional d^but as the prince of Wales in Daniel Bandmann's presentation of Richard III.; remained three seasons with that company; studied violin music and dramatic art in Eng- land; first New York success at Union Square theater in The Black Masque: later in A. M. Palmer's company in several r61es, notably in Mercedes, 1893; London d^but, 1895, in Henry Irving's company, playing rdles next to Miss Terry; very successful as Rosamond in A'Becket, with Ir\'ing and Terrv in the United States, 1896. Married, 1898, B. P. Cheney, Jr. Asakawa {&-sa,-k&'-wQ,), Kwan-Ichl, educator, author, was bom at Nihonmatsu, Japan, 1873; educated at Waseda university, Tokio, Japan, Dartmouth college, and Yale university; Ph. D., Yale, 1902. Lecturer on history and civilisation of East Asia at Dartmouth college, 1902; pro- fessor of English at Wasinla university, 1906-07; instructor history of Japanese civilization, 1907- 10, assistant professor since 1910, Yale. Author: The Early Institutional Life ofja-pan; The Russo- Japanese Conflict — Its Causes ana Issues. Eklitor of Japan in the History of Nations series. Asbury (iz'-ber-i), Francis, the first bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church ordained in America, was bom in Staffordshire, England, 1745. At the age of fourteen, he was apprenticed to a mechanic; two years later he began work as a local preacher. Later he joined the itinerant ministry, and after three years of service waa sent to America as a missionary. In 1772 he was appointed general assistant by John Wesley. He brought new life into the work, and at the outbreak of the revolution, when many other ministers returned to England, he kept on in his labors. At the end of the war, it was decided to found an independent Methodist Episcopal church for America, and he was oraained in 1784 as bishop by his colleagues who had already been ordained by Wesley in England For more than thirty years he worked earnestly THROUGHOUT THE WORLD &90 and successfully, and the wonderful progress of Methodism in America was largely due to his efforts and ability. He helped to lay the founda- tion of the first Methodist college in America, in 1785. He died in Virginia in 1816. Ascham (As'-kam), Roger, English writer and classical scholar, was born in 1515 at Kirby Wiske, in Yorkshire. His reputation as a classi- ^ cal scholar brought him numerous pupils, and, there being at that time no Greek chair, he was appointed by Cambridge university to read lec- tures in the public schools. He wrote, in 1545, a treatise entitled Toxophilus, the pure English style of which, independently of its other merits, rajiks it among the classical pieces of English literature. For this treatise, which was dedi- cated to Henry VIII., he was awarded a pension. In 1548 he became master of languages to Lady Elizabeth, afterward queen, and was subse- quently appKjinted Latin secretary to Edward VI. and Queen Mary. After the death of Mary, Elizabeth retained him at court as. secretary and tutor. Died, 1568. Asbburton, Lord, Alexander Baring, English diplomat, was born in 1774, second son of the eminent merchant. Sir Francis Baring. Having been employed as special ambassador from Eng- land to the United States to settle the Northeast- em boundary question that then threatened to involve the two countries in war, in August, 1842, he concluded the famous treaty called the Ashburton treaty, by which the frontier line between the state of Maine and Canada was definitely settled. He was created Baron Ash- burton in 1835. Died, 1848. Ashburst, John, Jr., American surgeon, educator, and author, was born at Philadelphia, Pa., 1839; acting assistant surgeon of United States army, 1862-65 ; professor of clinical surgery in univer- sity of Pennsylvania, elected in 1877. His two principal works are Injuries to the Spine, and Principles and Practice of Surgery. Died, 1900. Ashley, William James, English educator, econo- mist; professor of commerce since 1901, and dean since 1902 of the faculty of commerce, in the university of Birmingham, England; bom at London in 1860; educated at Oxford univer- sity; professor of political economy, Toronto university, 1888-92; professor of economic history, Harvard, 1892-1901. Author: Iniro- duction to English Economic History and Theory; Surveys, Historic and Economic; Adjustment of Wages; The Tariff Problem; Progress of the German Working Classes. Editor: Economic Classics, and translated therein Turgot's Reflec- tions, and SchmoUer's Mercantile System. Asbmole, Elias, British antiquary, bora at Lichfield, England, 1617; held appointment of Windsor herald, and published the History of the Order of the Garter. He left many works, and presented to the university of Oxford his valuable collection of coins, specimens, and manuscripts. Died, 1692. Aspasia (ds-pa'-shl^), a beautiful Athenian woman, said to have been a native of Miletus in Asia Minor. Socrates is said to have been one of her admirers. Tn order to marry her, Pericles repu- diated his wife. An affront offered to Aspasia is said to have caused the Peloponnesian war. Asquith (ds'-kwUh), Rt. Hon. Herbert Henry, prime minister of England, was bom in 1852, and entered the British parliament in 1886. He was educated at Balliol college, Oxford, and was admitted to the bar, Lincoln's Inn, 1876. D. C. L., Oxford; LL. D., Edinburgh, Glasgow and Cambridge. In the course of the home rule debates, he rose rapidly to the first rank m the house. He was intrusted with the conduct of the disestablishment of the church of Wales bill in 1894. On the defeat of the Rosebery mimstry in 1895, he resumed practice at the bar. He was one of the most efTeoUve «pc«ken on the liberal side during 1903 on the education question and the war comminion's report, and auring 1008, 1904, and 1905, in opposition to Chamber- lain's fiscal policy. Chancellor of the ezebequer, 1905-08. On the death of Sir Heniy Cbmpbell- Bannerman, 1908, he became prime '»»«»««tt tr and first lord of the treasury. Introduced mintmum wage bill passed by British house of oommona. 1912. Astor, John Jacob, American merchant, founder of the American fur company, waa bom near Heidelberg, Germany, 1763. After spending some years in London he sailed to America in 1783, and soon invested his small capital in furs. By economy and industry he so increased his means that after six years he had acquired a fortune of $200,000. Although the increasing influence of the English fur companies in NortE America was unfavorable to his plans, he vei^ tured to fit out two expeditions to Oregon, one by land and one by sea, the purpose of which was to open up regular commercial intercourse with the natives. After manv mishaps his object was achieved in 1811, and the fur-trading station of Astoria was established. From this period, in spite of the war of 1812 and other temporary obstacles, his commercial connections extended over the entire globe, and his ships were found in every sea. He died in 1848, leaving property amounting to $20,000,000. Astor, John Jacob, capitalist, great-grandson of John Jacob Astor, was bom at Khinebeck, N. Y., 1864; graduated at Harvard in 1888; traveled abroad, 1888-91 ; manager of the family estates, 1891-1912; in 1897 he built the Astoria hotel. New York, adjoining the Waldorf hotel, which was built by William Waldorf Astor, his cousin, the two now forming one building under the name of Waldorf-Astoria hotel, one of the largest and probably most costly hotels in the world. Was colonel, staff of Governor Levi P. Morton, and in May, 1898, commissioned lieutenant- colonel of United States volunteers ; presented to the government a mountain battery for use in war against Spain, said to have cost over $100,000. After assisting Major-General Breckin- ridge, inspector-general of the United States army, in inspection of camp and troops at Chickamauga Park, Ga., assigned to duty on staff of Major-General Shafter, and served in Cuba in operations ending in surrender of Santiago. Invented a bicycle brake, a pneu- matic road improver, and an improved turbine engine. Author: A Journey in Other Worlds, etc. Died, 1912. , „ Astor, William Waldorf, capitalist, author, was born in New York, 1848; son. of John Jacob, second, and Charlotte Aiigusta (Oibbes) Astor; great-grandson of John Jacob, founder of the Astor fortune. Educated by private tutors, finishing in Europe; entered office of the Astor estate, 1871; succeeded his father, 1890, as head of the Astor family, with personal fortune estimated at about $100,000,000. Member of New York legislature, 1878-81; United SUtes minister to Italy, 1882-85; removed to Englwid, 1890- became owner Pall Mall GaxeUe, and Pall Mall 'Magazine, 1893. Author : Valentino, a Story of Rome; Sforta, an historical romance of the sixteenth century in Italy, etc. Has for many years lived in England. Astyages (&s-t\'-A-iii), last king of Media, eon and successor of Cvaxares, bora 695 B.C. According to Herodotus, Astyages gave his daughter, Mandane, in marriage to Cambysee, an eminent Persian. Led by a dream which gave him alarm, be sent Harpagus to destroy the child which was the fmit of the marriage. But the child was hidden away by a diepherd, and it was after many 540 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT yean that his existence was brought to the notice of Astyagea, who easily discovered the boy's parentage. Astyages punished Harpagus for deceiving him, and Harpagus instigated Cyrus, the cliild now grown up, to lead a revolt, through which Astyages was made prisoner, and Cyrus took the scepter 549 B. C. Astyages was treated mildly, but kept a prisoner until his death. ▲tahualpa (it-ta-wQl'-pa), the last of the Incas of Peru, succeeded his father, Huayna Capac, in 1525, on the throne of Quito while his half- brother, Huascar, although the rightful heir, obtained only the kingdom of Peru. The two brothers engaged in a struggle for supremacv, in which Huascar was defeated. The Spaniard under Pizarro, taking advantage of these internal dissensions, invaded Peru, and by an act of deliberate perfidy obtained possession of the person of Atahualpa, and attempted to compel nim to acknowledge the kin^ of Spain as master, and to embrace the Christian religion. His refusal was made a pretext for a massacre, and the imprisonment of their king, whom the Spaniards induced to raise an enormous treasure in the hope of regaining his throne. After a mock trial, however, he was condemned and strangled in 1533. Athanaslus i&th-d-nd'-ahl-Ha), Saint, was bom in Egypt about the year 29G, entered the church at an early ago, and was chosen bishop of Alex- andria m 326. He is esteemed one of the most eminent among the ancient fathers of the church. He was a violent opponent of Arius; and his earnest advocacy oi the Catholic faith, more particularly of the doctrine of the Trinity, subjected him to much persecution from the emperors Constantine ana Julian, by both of whom he was several times exiled, but he finally closed his days in tranquillity in 373, in the forty-eighth year of his prelacy. His works are numerous, but consist chiefly of invectives against his enemies, and controversial treatises against Arianism. The more important of his writings are his Apologies; Two Books on the Incarnation; Conference with the Avians; The Id/e of St. Anthony; The Abridgment of the Holy Scriptures; Letters to Those that Lead a Monastic Life, and Letters to Serapion. Athenagoras {&th-^^n6g'-6-rds), a Christian philoso- pher, born at Athens, who lived toward the close of the second century. His conversion to Christianity has been hkenod to that of St. Paul. Writing against the Chri.stians, in order to render his attacks more formidable, he referred to the scriptures, and by reading them was converted to the true faith. His Discourse on the Resurrection of the Dead and his Apology for Christians were much admired. Atherton, Gertrude Franklin, novelist, was bom at San Francisco, California, 1858, the daughter of Thomas L. Horn. She was educated at St. Mary's Hall, Benicia, California ; SajTC institute at Lexington, Kentucky; married George H. Bowen Atherton, deceased. Author: The Dooms- woman; Before the Gringo Came; A Whirl Asunder; Patience Spar hawk and Her Times; His Fortunate Grace; American Wives and English Husbands; The Califomians; A Daughter of the Vine; The Valiant Runaways; Senator North; The Aristocrats; The Conqueror; The Splendid Idle Forties, being a revised and en- larged edition of Before the Gringo Came; A Few of Hamilton's Letters; Mrs. Pendleton's Four-in- Hand; Rulers of Kings; The Bell in the Fog; The Traveling Thirds; Rezanov; Ancestors. Atticus (d.f-ti-kiis) Herodes, Tiberius Claudius, a rich Athenian, born about 104 A. D. To a vast sum of money left him by his father, he added much more by marriage. He was educated by the best masters, devoting special attention to oratory, in which he greatly excelled. He was also a noted teacher of rhetoric, havine for pupils Marcus AureUus and Lucius Verus. From Aurelius he received the archonship of Athens and the consulate of Rome. His fame rests mainly upon immense expenditures for public purposes. In Athens he built a race- course of Pentelic marble, and a splendid theater. In Corinth he built a theater; in Delphi, • stadium; at Thermopylae, hot-baths; at Canu- sium, in Italy, an aqueduct. He contemplated a canal across the bthmus of Corinth, but gave it up because Nero had tried and failed. He restored several of the partially ruined cities of Greece, where inscriptions testified the public gratitude to him. For some reasons the Athe- nians became his enemies, and he left the city for his villa near Marathon, where he died, 180 A. D. Atticua, Titiia Pomponlua, bom at Rome 109 B. C, was educated with Cicero and the younger Marius. In 85 B. C. he withdrew to Athens; and, after 65 B. C, when Sulla induced him to return to Rome, he still devoted himself chiefly to study and the pleasures of friendship. In 32 B. C. he was informed that a disorder from which he suffered was mortal, and died after Ave days of voluntarv starvation. A man of large wealth, and an Epicurean in philosophy, he was intimately acquainted with both Gr(H.>k and Roman literature, and his taste was so good that Cicero used to send him his works for revision. None of his own writings have been preserved, but we have 396 epistles addressed to him by Cicero, ranging from 68 to 44 B. C. AttUa (Of-Ud), king of the Huns, who lived in the fifth century. He styled himself "the scourge of God, and devastated Lombardy. The city of Venice was founded by those who fled before him. On his death, in 453, his body was buried in three cofhns, made of gold, silver, and iron. The captives who dug his grave were put to death. Atwood, George, British mathematician, was bom in 1746; died in London, 1807. He was educated at Cambridge university, became tutor of Trinity college, Cambridge, and invented a machine to illustrate the relations of time, space, and velocity in the motion of a body falling under the action of gravity. It is now known as "Atwood's machine." Atwood, Thomas, British composer, was bom in 1765. He commenced his musical education in the choir of the Chapel Royal xuider Dr. Nares, and later studied under Mozart. In 1795 he was appointed organist of St. Paul's. He wrote coronation anthems for George IV. and William IV., and died in 1838. Aul>er (o'-Mr'), Daniel Francis Esprit, French composer of operas, was bom at Caen, in Nor- mandy, 1782. His father was a print-seller in Paris, and, being desirous that his son should devote himself to business, he sent him to London to acquire a knowledge of the trade. But his irresistible passion for music obtained the upper hand, and he became a pupil of Cherubini. His opera Masaniello is considered his best. Among his works are the well-known operas, Fra Diavolo, Le Domino Noir, Manon Lescaut, etc. In 1842. after the death of Cherubini, he was appointed director of the conservatory of music, Paris. Died, 1871. Aubign£ {o'-ben'-ya'), Jean Henri Merie d*. See Merie d*Aublgn£. Audnl>on {d'-dob-b&n), John James, celebrated American naturalist of French descent, was bom near New Orleans, La., in 1780; from childhood devoted to natural history, but it was not until 1830 that the first of the four volumes of his THROUGHOUT THE WORLD Ml sreat work, The Birds of America, appeared. This magnificent collection of plates, which was sold for $1,000 a copy, was quickly followed by explanatory letterpress under the title of Amerx- can Ornithological Biography. Audubon also projected a similar work on the Quadrupeds of America, but much of this work was done by his sons, John and Victor. Died in New York, 1851. AuenbruKger von Auenbrug (ou'-en-brd^-g^ f6n ou'-en-brooK), Leopold, Austrian physician, was born in 1722. He originated the method of ex- amining the lungs by percussion of the chest, and published the results of his investigations in a treatise which marks an ep>och in the nistory of medicine. The work has been frequently trans- lated. He also wrote on various forms of insan- ity. He died, 1809. Auerbach (ou'-ir-baK), Berthold, German author, was born at Nordstetten in 1812. Having abandoned the study of Jewish theology, he devoted his attention to literature. His first publications were Judaism and Modern Litera- ture, and a translation of the works of Spinoza. In his Educated Citizen and Village Tales of the Black Forest he applied himself to the portraiture of real life, and succeeded well. By some his Auf der Hohe, "On the Heights," is regarded as his best novel. Many of his works have been translated into English, Swedish, and Dutch. Das Landhaus am Rhein, is known by the English title. The Castle on the Rhine. Died at Cannes, France, 1882. Auersperg {ou'-&rs-p$rK.), yon* Anton Alexander, famous Austrian statesman and poet, whose pen- name was "Ahastasius Griin, ' was born at Laibach, Austria, in 1806. He was a member of the Frankfort parliament of 1848, and later of the Austrian Reichsrath. Among his works are Th^ Last Knight, Ruins, Promenades of a Viennese Poet, Robin Hood, etc. Died at Gratz, 1876. Augereau (o zh'-ro'), Pierre Francois Charles, duke of Castiglione, marshal and peer of France, one of the most brilliant and intrepid of that band of general officers whom Napoleon gathered around himself, was born in 1757. In 1792 he volunteered in the French revolutionary army intended for the repulsion of the Spaniards. His services were so conspicuous that in less than three years he was made general of a (Uvision. He took an active part and gained much glory in the battles of Millesimo, Ceva, Lodi, Cfistiglione, Roveredo, Bassano. In 1797 he was appointed to the command of the army of the Rhine; but after a few months the directory made him commander of the 10th division at Perpignan. This post he resigned in 1799, when he was elected as deputy to the council of the five hundred. In 1800 he received the command of the army in Holland, and was active in several engagements. In 1804 he was made a marshal, and in the following year he commanded a division of the army which reduced the Vorarlberg. He was after- ward engaged at Wetzlar, Jena, Eylau; also m Italy, Spain, Berlin, Bavaria, and Saxony. Died in La Houssaye, 1816. Augustine (^d'-giis-tln or S-giis'-tln), Saint. See page 212. Augustus, Calus Julius C«sar Octavlanus, Roman emperor, born 63 B. C, was the son of Cams Octavius and Atia, niece of Julius Caesar, by whom he was adopted when but four years of age. He was in Epirus when Julius Caesar was assassinated, but speedily returned to claim his inheritance. Connected with Antony and Lepi- dus, Octavianus shared the guilt which stains the name of the triumvirate. His colleagues put aside, at the age of thirty-six he became em- peror, with the title of Augustus. Hla raign wm fortunate, good laws were framed in it, and the arts fiourisliod under hie protection. He died 14 A. D. His death threw a shade of aonow over the wholo Roman world ; the bereawd people erected temples and altars to his memory. Aurellanus (<)-r^-/l-dn'-u«), Claodliu or Lactae Domitlus, emperor of Rome, was bom in Pannonia. 212 A. D., the eon of a peaaaat; entered the Roman army, his exploits m whieh attracted the notice of the emperors Valerian and Claudius, and on the death of the latter in 270 he was proclaimed emperor. His short reign was a series of brilliant victories: the Qoths and Vandals were subdued, the Alemanni, who threatened Rome itself, were extenninatad. Palmyra was sacked, and Tetricus, the ss- emperor of Gaul, Britain and Spain, and Zenobia, the renowned queen of the East, led captive in the splendid triumph of Aurelian. A formidable rebellion at home was crushed with terrible sternness, and the emperor's severity made him feared even by his friends, who, as they deemed in pure self-defense, con.spired against him and put him to death 275 A. D. Aurungzebe (6'-r&ng-zib'), emperor of India, known as the Great Mogul, was born in 1618. The third son of Shah Jehan, he affected devotion in early life but subsequently, at the call of ambition, he deposed his father ana put to death his two brothers and nephew. As emperor, his career was brilliant. He conquered Golconda, Visa- pour, and Bengal, and posed as "conqueror of the world." His sons disturbed his latter days by attempting to depose him. He died in 1707. Ausonlus ((5-so'-nl-us), Declraus Magnus, foremoat Latin poet of the fourth century, was bom at Bor- deaux, Gaul, about 310 A. D. He was appointed by Valentinian tutor to his son Gratian ; and he afterward held the offices of quaestor, prefect of Latium, and consul of Gaul. On the death of Gratian, Ausonius retired to his estate at Bor- deaux, where he occupied himself with literature and rural pursuits until his death, 394. It is most probable that he was a Christian. His works include epigrams, poems on his deceased relatives and on his colleagues, epistles In vera* and prose, and idylls. Austen, Jane, English novelist; bom in 1775, at Steventon, Hampshire, England, of which parish her father was rector. Her principal productions are Pride and Prejudice; Sense and Sensibility; Emma; Mansfield Park; Northanger Abbey; and Persuasion. They are distinguished for origi- nality, naturalness, and fidelity of delineation, qualities in which the literature of her time was most deficient. Her family moved succesrively to Bath and Chawton. She died at Win- chester in 1817, and was buried in the cathedral. Austin, Alfred, English poet, novelist, and jour- nalist; bom at Headingley, near Leeds, 1836; took his degree at the university of London, 1853; admitted to the bar, 1857; has publia^ The Season, a Satire; The Human Tro^ed^: Interludes; Savonarola; English Lyrics, and many other poems, playB, and various poUtl(Mt papers; was special correspondent of Ths Standard in Franco-German war, and editor of The National Review, 18*3-93; was made fifteenth poet laureate of England, succeeding Tennyson, 1896. ^ .. . , j i i Austin, John, eminent English lawver SJid lent writer, was bom at Creeling Mill, Suffolk, England, 1790. He was professor of jurispmdence at ^e university of London from 1826 to 1832. He wrote Province of Jvaxrprudenee Determined jaa Lectures on Jurisprudence. Died at Weybrtdje, Surrey, 1859. u i- Austln, Oscar Phelps, statistician, was bora m Illinois. Has been reporter, editor, Washin«toa M2 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT correspondent for metropolitan dailies; professor commerce and statistics, George Washington university; made chief bureau of statistics, department of commerce and labor, May, 1898. Author: Unde Sam's Secrets; Uncle Sam's Soldiers; Unde Sam's Children; Steps in Our Territorial Expansion; Colonial Systems of the World; Colonial Administration; Commercial China; Commercial Japan; Commercial Philip- pines; Commercial India; Commercial Africa; Commercial South and Central America; Com- mercial Orient; Submarine Telegraphs of the World; Great Canals of the World; etc. Avebury (&'-bir-1,). Lord. See Lubbock, Sir John. AverroSs (d-vir'-d-iz), originally Ibn Roshd, or, more fuUv, Mohammed-Ibn-Roshd, the most famous of Arabian philosophers, was bom at Cordova, Spain, 1126, He was appointed suc- cessor to his father as chief mufti, and afterward chief judge in the province of Mauritania. Accuse*! oT a departure from the orthodox doc- trines of Mohammedanism, he was dismissed from his office, and condemned by the ecclesias- tical tribunal of Morocco to recant his heretical opinions and do penance. After this he returned to his native place, and lived in great poverty until the caliph Almansor reinstated him in his offices. Died about 1198. Avery, EIroy McKendree, author, historian, bom at Erie, Monroe county, Mich., 1844; gradu- ate of university of Michigan, Ph. B., 1871; served in civil war; mustered out at close as sergeant-major of 11th Michigan volunteer cavalry. Principal of high school. Battle Creek, Mich., 1869, and high and normal schools, Cleve- land, Ohio, 1871-79. Member of Cleveland city council, 1891-92 ; of Ohio senate, 1893-97 ; mem- ber of many historical and economic societies. Author : Elementary Physics; Elements of Natural Philosophy; Physical Technics; Teachers' Hand Book of l^atural Philosophy; Elements of Chemis- try; Teachers' Hand Book of Chemistry; Complete Chemistry; First Principles of Natural Philoso- phy; Words Correctly Spoken; Columbus and the Columbia Brigade; School Physics; First Lessons in Physical Science; School Chemistry; The Toum Meeting; History of the United States and Its People, 16 vols. ATlcenna {&v-i-shn'-dY properly Ibn Sina or, more fully, Abu Ah Al-Hossein Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina, a famous Arabian philosopher and physician, whose authority for many centuries passed for indisputable; bom 980, at Charma- tain, a village near Bokhara. He was physician to several of the Samanide and Dilemite sover- eigns, and also for some time vizier in Hamadan. Died, 1037. ATogadro {d,-v6-gd.'-dro), Amadeo, Italian chemist and physicist, was bom at Turin, Italy, 1776; died there, 1856. Professor of physics at Turin; formulated his celebrated law concerning the atomic theory in 1811. Ayeshah {V-i-shd or a'-i-shd), the favorite wife of Mohanuned, was bom at Medina in 610 or 611 A. D. She was only nine years of age when she married the prophet. Although she bore no children to Mohammed she was so tenderly be- loved by him that he was wont to say that she would be the first of his wives to whom the gates of paradise would be opened. It is stated by Mohanunedan historians that to the charms of her beauty she added a knowledge of mathe- matics, rhetoric, and music. In his last illness Mohammed, by his request, was carried to her house and expired in her arms. After the prophet's death Ayeshah took active part in the plot which deprived Caliph Othman of his power and life, and headed a force to resist the acces- sion of All. Died, 678. Baber (bd'-Mr) (Zehir-Eddin Mohammed), the first of the Great Mo^ls in India, a descendant of Timur, was bom m 1483, and was barely twelve when he succeeded his father in the sovereignty of the countries l^ng between Samarkand and the Indus. Having made himself master of Kashgar, Kunduz, Kandahar, and Kabul, in 1526 ne routed at Panipat the vast army of the Afghan emperor of Delhi, and entered the capital. Agra shortly after surrendered. Baber died in 1530. Babeuf (bd'-bif), Francois Noel, French com- munist, was bom about 1760 at St. Quentin, France ; was a land surveyor at Rove in Picardy, when on the outbreak of the revolution in 1789 he attached himself to the most extreme party. As "Gracchus BaAieuI," in his Tribun du Peupte, he advocated a rigorous system of communisin ; a secret conspiracy was formed, its aim the destruction of the directory and the establish- ment of an extreme democratic and communistic system. The plot was discovered, and Babeuf guillotined in 1797. Bacclo della Porta. See Bartolommeo, Fra. Bach (6dK), Jobann Sebastian. See page 159. Bach, Karl Phlllpp Enimnuel, German com- poser, second son of Johann Sebastian, was bora at Weimar in 1714: died at Hamburg in 1788. He was probably the most highly gifted of the eleven brothers, and his influence on the develop- ment of certain musical forms gives him a prominent place in the history of the art. He studied in tne Thomas school, and afterward in the university of Leipzig, where jurisprudence was his preference. In 1738 he went to Berlin, and soon afterward was appointed chamber- musician to Frederick the Great. In 1767 he became chapel master at Hamburg, where he passed the remainder of his life. His most ambitious composition is the oratorio Israel in the Wilderness. His essay on The True Method of Harpsichord Playing was long a standard work. Bacbe (bach), Alexander Dallas, physicist, great- frandson of Benjamin Franklin, was bom at 'hiladelphia, 180G. He was president of Girard college 1836-42, where he established a meteoro- logical and magnetic observatory; superin- tendent of United States coast survey, 1843, regent of Smithsonian institution, 1846; presi- dent of the national academy of sciences, 1863. Died at Newport, R. I., 1867. Bache, Franklin, physician and chemist, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1792; he published System of Medicine in 1819; was professor of chemistry in the Philadelphia collie of pharmacy, 1831 ; held same chair in Jefferson medical college, Philadelphia, in 1841 ; one of the authors of Wood and Bache's United States Dispensatory. Died, 1864. Bacbeller, Irving, novelist, was bom at Pierrepont, N. Y., 1859; graduated from St. Lawrence university, B. S., 1882, M. S., 1892, A. M., 1901 ; actively connected with press of New York for years; one of the editors of the New York IWorld, 1898-1900. Author: The Master of Silence; The StUl House of O'Darrow; Eben Holden; D'ri and I; Darrd of the Blessed Ides; Vergilius; Silas Strong. Backbuysen (Mk'-lioi-zen), or Bakhulzen, Ladolf, a famous marine painter of the Dutch school, was bom at Emden in Hanover in 1631, and died at Amsterdam in 1708. Bacon, Alice Mabel, author, educator, was bom at New Haven, Conn., 1858; educated in private schools, and took the Harvard examinations in 1881; taught at Hampton institution, 188^-88 and 1889, at Tokyo, Japan, 1888-89 and 1900-02 • founded Dixie hospital for training colorea nurses, 1890. Author: Japanese Girls and Women; Japanese Interior; In the Land of the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 643 Gods; also editor Human BuUeta, a Soldier's Story of Port Arthur. Lecturer on Japanese his- tory, character, and domestic life. Bacon, Augustus OctaTlns, lawyer, United States senator from Georgia; born in Bryan county, Georgia, 1839 ; graduate of university of Georgia. 1859; law department of same, 1860. Served a£ regimental adjutant and staff captain in Confederate States army; in law practice in Macon, Georgia, since 1866; member several state democratic conventions (president, 1880); delegate national democratic convention, 1884; several times candidate for democratic nomina- tion for governor of Georgia; presidential elector, 1868; member, 1870-82, 1892, and 1893, speaker, 1873-74 and 1877-81, Georgia house of representatives. United States senator from 1894 to 1913; reelected for term, 1913-19. He is and for many years has been a trustee of the university of Georgia, and one of the regents of the Smithsonian institution. Bacon, Benjamin Wisner, biblical writer and critic; professor new testament criticism and exegesis in Yale university since 1897; was bom at Litch- field, Conn., 1860; graduated from Yale, 1881; B D , Yale, 1884. Pastor Congregational church in Old Lyme, Conn., 1884-89; Oswego, N. Y., 1889-96; director of the American school of oriental research in Jerusalem, Syria, 1905-06. Author: The Genesis of Genesis; Triple Tradition of the Exodus; Introdttction to the New Testament; The Sermon on the Mount; Story of St. Paul. Translator of Wildeboer's Kanon des Ouden Verbonds, and contributor to theological reviews. Bacon, Francis. See page 278. Bacon, Nathaniel, lawyer and member of Governor Berkeley's council in Virginia, leader of an al- leged insurrection against the colonial govern- ment under pretense of resisting aggressions of the Indians, was born in England about 1642. Berkeley was forced to make many concessions to demands for better government; but he broke his promises, and a brief civil war followed, in which Jamestown was burned, 1676, and the governor took shelter in an English vessel. Be- fore Bacon completed plans for reestablishing the government, he died from disease taken in an Indian campaign, and the rebellion soon came to an end. Died in Virginia, 1676. Bacon, Roger, English scientist and publicist, was bom about 1214. The most learned man of his day, he is reputed to have advocated the change since made in the calendar, to have invented gunpowder, and is known to have manufactured magnifying glasses. His great work, Opus Maius, urges philosophical reform, and is a marvel of learning and prophecy. Died, 1294. Baden-Powell {ba'-den-po'-el or pou'el), Robert Stephenson Smyth, British general and inspector- general of cavalry, was born, 1857, and educated at Charterhouse, London. In 1876 he joined the 13th English hussars, and served as adjutant of that regiment in India, Afghanistan, and South Africa. In 1887-89 he served in South Africa as assistant military secretary on the staff; took part in the operations in Zululand; staff officer in the Matabele war. In the Boer war he was given command of the 5th dragoon guards, and with a force of 1,200 men was besi^ed in Maf eking, which he held agamst the Boers from a few davs following the outbreak of the war until May 'l8, 1900, the longest siege recorded in modem warfare; afterward organ- ized the South African constabulary. Founded the organization of Boy Scouts to promote good citizenship in rising generation, 1908. He is the author of a work on Reconnaissance and bctnmng, Vedette Duty, Cavalry Instruction, The Downfall oj Prempeh, The Matabele Campaign, and Prg- Sticking or Hog-Hunting. Baedeker (b&'-d»-k»r), Karl, Q«nn«a pubUiri>«r at Cobleiitz, the oristnator of a aerie* it adinirabl* guidebooks, pubUBhed sinoe 1873 at Laipiig. Born, 1801 ; died, 1859. Baer, George F^ railway ofllicial, lawyer; bom in Somerset county. Pa., 1842; educated at Frank- lin and Marshall college. At thirteen entered office of Somerset Democrat; worked at printing trade over two ycare, and with hb orotber became owner of that paper in 1 80 1 . Hia brother went to the war and he conducted the paper: also studied law, principally at night. Raieea volunteer company in I8(Vi; elected captain. joined army of Potomac at second battle of Bull Run and took part in all engagements up to and including ChanccUorsville, when be waa detailed as adjutant-general second brigade; resumed legal studies and was admitted to bar, 1864. Removed to Reading, 1868; gainredition against the Dutch settlements at the cape of Good Hope. In 1807 he conunanded the first division at the bom- bardment of Copenhagen, and in 1808 was sent to Spain with 10,000 men to assist Sir John Moore. In the battle of Corunna, 1809, his left arm was shattered, and had to be amputated. Created a baronet, he retired from active service in 1810, and in 1820 was made conunander of the forces in Ireland. He died at Fern-Tower, Crieff, 1829. Baird, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist, waa bom at Reading, Pa., 1823. He was educated at Dickinson college, Carlisle, Pa., and was afterward professor of natural science in that institution. He was secretary of the Smithson- ian institution, at Washington, and afterward commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote many papers on birds, reptiles, fishes, etc., and under his direction the national museum waa begun in 1850. In connection with other editors, he published The Birds of North America, The THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 545 Mammals of North America, and a Hiatory of the Birds of North America, in five volumes. He died at Wood's Holl, Mass., 1887. Bajazet I. (b&j-d-zif), sultan of the Turks, was born in 1347. In 1389 he succeedetl his father, Murad I., who fell in battle near Kossovo, fighting against the Servians. In three years he con- quered Bulgaria, a part of Servia, Macedonia, and Thessaly ; he also subdued most of the states of Asia Minor. From the rapidity with which these extraordinary conauests were effected he received the name of llderim, i. e., lightning. He even blockaded Constantinople for ten years, thinking to subdue it by famine. Died, 1403. Baker, Alfred, scientist, educator, professor of mathematics at the university of Toronto since 1887 ; was born at Toronto ; graduated from the university of Toronto, B A., with gold medal in mathematics. After being principal of several high schools in Ontario he was appointed mathe- matical master in Upper Canada college, and became mathematical tutor in University college, Toronto, 1875 ; registrar, 1880; dean of residence, 1884; elected by graduates a member of senate of university of Toronto, 1887-1906; retired from queen s own rifles, 1883, with rank of captain; F. R. S. Canada; a member of the Soci6t6 Math6matique de France, and of the American mathematical society; president of the Ontario educational association, 1895 ; presi- dent of section III. royal society of Canada, 1905; in conjunction with Dr. John Seath re- organized geometrical teaching in schools of Ontario, 1904. Author of articles relating to quaternions, geometry of position, and founda- tions of geometry (translated into Japanese) in the proceedings of the royal society of Canada; also elementary treatises on synthetic and analyti- cal geometry; has edited elementary treatises on trigonometry and on mechanics. Baker, James H., educator, president of the uni- versity of Colorado since 1892; was bom at Harmony, Maine, 1848; educated at Bates col- lege, Lewiston, Maine. Principal of Yarmouth high school, 1873-75; principal of Denver high school, 1875-92; president national coun- cil of education, 1892; president national associatic>i of state universities, 1907 ; author of movement that resulted in national investiga- tion of "committee of ten" on secondary schools. Author of Elementary Psychology, Edu- cation and Life, and American Problems. Baker, Ray Stannard, author, was born at Lansing, Mich., 1870; graduated at Michigan agricultural college, B. S., 1889; took partial law course and studies in literature at university of Michigan. Has traveled extensively. Member national geographical society. Contributor of many articles and stories to American and English magazines. Was associate editor of McClure's Magazine, now of American Magazine. Author: Boys' Book of Inventions; Our New Prosperity; Seen in Germany; SecoTid Boys' Book of Inventions. Baker, Sir Samuel White, British African explorer, was born at London, 1821. He explored the western arm of the Nile and discovered the Albert Nyanza lake; organized an extensive agricul- tural colony in Ceylon; made a successful ex- pedition 1869-73, in company with his wife and 100 picked men, for the purpose of suppressing the slave-trade and extending the Egyptian boundaries. He wrote Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon; The Albert Nyanza; The Nile Tribu- taries; Ismailia, etc. Died at Newton Abbot, England, 1893. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, Spanish conqueror, was bom at Xeres-de-los-Caballeros in 1475. After leading rather a dissolute life in his youth, he took part in the great mercantile expedition of Rodrigo de Bastidas to the new world. He established himself in Saoto Domingo, Mid bc^aa to cultivate the soil; but fortune proving ad- verse, in order to escape from his crwliton, h» had hiniHelf smugglml on board a nhip, and Jouied the e.\pc templated revolt. Baldung {bOl'-ddtmg), Hans, called also Hans Griin, German painter and wood-engraver, con- temporary of Alorecht Diirer, was boni in Gmiind, Swabia, 1476; died at Strassburg, l.')45. His masterpiece, a painting of the crucifixion, is in the cathedral ot Freiburg; his wood-engravings are numerous. Baldwin I,, first Latin emperor of Constantinople, was bom at Valenciennes in 1171. In 1200 he appointed his brother, Philip, and others to the regency of Hainault and Flanders, and joined the fourth crusade. Part of the crusaders — Baldwin among others — were induced to assist the Venetians in reconquering Zara, in Dalmatia, from the king of Hungary. While at Zara the young Alexis, son of Isaac II., emperor of Con- stantinople, asked the assistance of the crusaders against nis uncle, Alexis Angelus, who, having deposed and blinded Isaac IL, had usurped the throne. The crusaders soon defeated the usurper's forces and restored the rightful em- peror; but Alexis having some difficulty in carrying out his promises, they turned their arms against him. Alexis Ducas Murzuphlua then usurped the throne, but was defeated by the cmsaders and the city was sacked — the crusaders and Venetians sharing the booty. Baldwin was chosen emperor, and crowned in 1204; but he received only a fourth part of the empire — Constantinople and Thrace. He died in 1206. Baldwin, James Hark, psychologist; bom in Columbia, S. C, 1861; graduate of Princeton, 1884; A. M., 1887; Ph. D., 1889; 8c. D., Oxford university, England, 1900; studied in Ldptig. Berlin and Tiibingen; instructor of French and German at Princeton, 1886; professor of phi- losophy. Lake Forest university, III., 1887-W same, Toronto university, Canada, 1889-M professor psychology, Princeton, 1893-1903 professor philosophy and psychology, Johns Hop- kins, 1903-09, National university of llezioo since 1909. Author: German Paychology of To-doff (translated); Hand Book of Payehclouy; EUmmOB of Psychology; Mental Development \n the Child and the Race; Social and Ethical Intervrelatiane in Mental DevdopmerU; Story of the Min d; Fragments in Philosophy and Science; DetMlopmetU and Evolution. Editor-in-chief: Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. His various books have been translated Into French, German. Italian, and Spanish. Editor: PtyeholoaiaU Review, Princeton Contribution* to Ptychoiogy, and the Library of Hittorieed Ptyehology. Baldwin, Simeon Eben, jurist, governor, was bora at New Haven, Conn., 1840: graduated from Yale, 1861; studied law at Yale and Harvard; LL. D., Harvard, 1891 ; admitted to bar, 1863. Became member faculty, Yale law school, In 1869, and later professor of constitutional and private international law; aasodate justioa, M6 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 189S-1907, chief-justice, 1907-10, eupreme court of errors, Ck)imecticut. President American bar association, 1890, American social science associ- ation, 1897, International law association, 1899- 1901, American historical association, 1905. Elected governor of Connecticut, 1910; reelected, 1912. Author: Baldwin's Connecticut Digest; Bctldwin'e Cases on Railroad Law; Modem Political Institutions; (co-author) Two Centuries Growth of American Law; American Railroad Law, and American Judiciary. Balfe ih&lf), MJcbael William, British composer, bom at DubUn, Ireland, 1808; as a boy showed great musical talent; at the age of sixteen was engaged in the Drury Lane orchestra in London. While there he attracted the attention of an Italian nobleman. Count Mazzara, who took him to Italy to study music. After singing at Paris in the Italian opera under Rossini, Balfe returned to Italy and produced in 1830 several operas. In 1835 he went to England as a vocalist and composer of opera, and after five years of suc- cessful composition he produced two operas in Paris. In 1844 his most popular work, The Bohemian Girl, appeared at Drury Lane, and was followed by several other operas. Died, 1870. Balfour (MH'-fdbr), Arthur James, British states- man and author, was bom in Scotland in 1848; educated at Eton, and Trinity college, Cam- bridge; was private secretary to Lord Salisbury 1878-80, and went with him to Berlin in 1878; member of the so-called "fourth party;" presi- dent local government board 1885-86- secretary for Scotland, with a seat in the cabinet, and vice-president committee of council on education for Scotland, 1886-87; chief secretary for Ire- land, 1887-91, and carried the crimes act through parUament ; created the congested districts board for Ireland, 1890; first lord of the treasury and leader of the house on the death of W. H. Smith, 1891, and again in 1895-1906. On the retire- ment of Lord Salisbury in 1902, he became prime minister and lord privy seal, retaining the office of first lord of the treasurv. He introduced the education act, 1902. When Chamberlain made his fiscal proposals, 1903, Balfour, hold- ing that the country was not ripe for the taxation of food, committed himself and the government only to a policy of retaliation. At the end of 1905 he and his cabinet resigned. Author of A Defense of Philosophic Doubt; Essays and Addresses; The Foundations of Belief, being Notes Introductory to the Study of Theology; Economic Notes on Insular Free Trade; Reflections Suggested by the New Theory of Matter. Balfour, Francis Maitland, British biologist, bom at Edinburgh, 1851 ; educated at Trinitv college, Cambridge. His investigations, especially in the line of embryology, were of great importance. Between 1879 and 1882 he brought together all that was known about the developmental stages of animals in his Comparative Embryology, a work of the greatest value to students of embry- ology. In 1882 he and his single guide were killecl on the Alps by slipping, while attempting to cUmb one of the spurs of Mont Blanc. Baliol {bal'-yOl or bdl'-yid), Edward, son of John Baliol, went to Scotland in 1332, and tried to win the kingdom from King David II., the son of Robert Bruce. With the aid of Edward III. of England, he defeated the Scotch, and was crowned king September 24, 1332. But most of the people did not want him, and after a reign of. only three months he fled to England and died there in 1363. Ballot, John, king of Scotland, was bom in 1249. Through his mother he was connected with the royal family, and on the death of the heir to the throne, the "maid of Norway," he became a competitor for the throne with Robert Bruce. The question was left to Ekiward I. of England to decide. He chose John Baiiol, who swore obedience to him as his feudal lord. In conse- quence of his oath, he soon found he had no real power. In 1295 he made a treaty with France, which was then at war with England. Immedi- ately Edward invaded Scotland, and, taking Bahol prisoner, compelled him to give up his crown. In 1302 he was allowed to settle on bis Norman estates, where he died in 1315. Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, British scientist, Lowndean professor of astronomy and geometry, Cam- bridge, director of the Cambridge observatory since 1892, was bom in Dublin, Ireland, 1840; graduated from Trinity college, Dublin. Hon. M. A., Cambridge, 1892; LL. D., DubUn. Royal astronomer of Ireland, 1874-92; ex- president of the royal astronomical society; ex-president of the mathematical association ; ex-president of the royal zoological society of Ireland. Author: A Treatise on the Theory of Screws; many memoirs on mathematical, astronomical, and physical subjects; and the following works on astronomy: The Story of the Heavens; Starland; In Starry Realms; In the High Heavens; Time and Tide; The Cause of an Ice Age; Atlas of Astronomy; The Story of the Sun; Great Astronomers; The Earth's Beginning; Popular Guide to the Heavens. Ballantine {bal'4an-an), Wiliiam, British lawyer, was bom in London, 1812; admitted to the bar in 1834^ and soon obtained a large practice, chiefly in criminal cases. Among the famous trials with which he was associated were tlie Miiller murder trial, Tichbome case, and the defense of the Guicowar of Baroda. From the latter he is said to have received a fee of 20,000 guineas to induce him to visit India. He wrote Experiences of a Barrister's Life, and Old World and the New. Died, 1887. Balllet, Thomas M^ educator, was bom in 1852; was educated at Franklin and Marshall college and Yale; superintendent of pubUc schools, Springfield, Mass., 1887-1904; now dean school of pedagogy. New York university. Associate editor of f'edagogical Seminary. Has written several monograph.s, and delivered many lectures and addresses on education. Balllnger, Richard Achilles, lawyer, ex-secretary of the interior, was born at Boonesboro, Iowa, 1858; was graduated from WilUams college, Mass., 1884 ; admitted to the bar at Springfield, 111., in 1886. Served as city attorney of Kan- kakee, 111., and was appomted to a similar position at New Decatur, Ala. In 1889 he moved to Port Townsend, Wash. Engaged in the practice of law; elected superior court judge in 1894, serving four years. In 1897 moved to Seattle, Wash., becoming the senior member of the law firm of Ballinger, Ronald & Battle; engaged in active practice until 1904, when he was elected mayor of Seattle, serving until February, 1906. In March, 1907, appointed commissioner of the general land office, serving one year, when he resigned to return to Seattle to resume the practice of law. Appointed secre- tary of the interior, assuming office March, 1909. Resigned from cabinet, 1911. Ballou {bdl-lod'), Hosea, American preacher and one of the founders of the Universalists, was bom in New Hampshire, 1771. He was self-educated; was expelled from his father's church on declaring his behef in the final salvation of all men ; began to preach at twenty-one, and became minister of the Second Universalist church in Boston, in which he preached thirty-five years. He started the Universalist Magazine in 1819, and in 1831, with his grandnephew, began the Universalist THROUGHOUT THE WORLD M7 Expositor, a quarterly publication. It is said that he preached over 10,000 sermons, none of which were written before delivery. He attained wide celebrity both as a preacher and as a theo- logian. Died, 1852. Balmaeeda {bdl'-ma-sd'-rad), Jos6 Manuel, Chilean statesman, was born in 1840; president of the republic of Chili 1880-91. In the civil war between the congressional party and himself, he was defeated and committed suicide in 1891. Baltimore {bSl'-tl-mdr), George Calvert, first Lord, bom at Kipling, in Yorkshire, about 1580, entered parliament in 1609, was knighted in 1617, and in 1619 became secretary of state. In 1625 he declared himself a Catholic, and, resigning office, was created Baron Baltimore in the Irish peerage, and retired to his Irish estates. As early as 1621 he had despatched colonists to a small settlement in Newfoundland, and in 1627 he visited the place. Next spring he returned with his family, and stayed until the autumn of 1629. The severe winter induced him to sail southward in search of a more genial country; but his attempts to settle in Virginia led to dis- putes, and he returned home to obtain a fresh charter. He died in 1632, and the patent was granted in June of the same year to his son, Cecil, second Lord Baltimore. Balzac (Fr. bdl'-zdk'), (Eng. bdl'-zdk), Honort de. See page 98. Bancroft, Frederick, historian, bom at Galesburg, III., 1860; graduated from Amherst, 1882; Ph.D., Columbia, 1885; LL. D., Knox college, 1900; studied law and political science at Columbia; history, political economy, and diplomacy at Gottingen, Berlin, Freiburg (Baden) and in Ecole des Science Politiques, Paris; lectured on political history of civil war and reconstruction, Amherst, 1888; 1888-92, chief of bureau of rolls and library, department of state; has also lectured on diplomatic and political history at Columbia, Johns Hopkins, and Chicago universi- ties, and has contributed to most of the leading reviews and magazines. Delegate to Paris con- gress of historians, 1900. Gave course of lectures at Lowell institute, Boston, 1902-03, on "Life in the South, 1860-65." Author: Life of William H. Seward, The Negro in Politica, A History of the Confederates. Bancroft, George, American historian, was bom in 1800, at Worcester, Mass.; graduated from Harvard college in 1817; proceeded in 1818 to Gottingen, where he studied history and philology under Heeren, Plank, and Eichhom, and in 1820 obtained the degree of doctor. At Berlin he attended the lectures of Hegel, and had frequent intercourse with Schleiermacher, W. von Hum- boldt, Savigny, Vamhagen von Ense, and other literary men of note. Subsequently he traveled through Germany, and formed an acquaintance with Goethe and Schlosser. Having visited Paris, London, and Italy, he returned to the United States, and, after some time spent in teaching, devoted himself to politics. He soon became celebrated as a democratic politician, and was made collector of customs at Boston. He still continued his literary labors, especially in lectures upon German literature, philosophy, etc. When Polk was elected president, in 1845, he appointed Bancroft secretary of the navy. While in this office he established an observatory at Washington and a naval school at Annapolis. In the autunm of 1846 he was sent by Polk as ambassador to England, where he remained until 1849, carefully collecting materials for his His- tory of the United States. He published the result of his labors in his History of the Revolution in North America. He had already published his History of the Colonization of the United States of i North America. The whole of these wriUofi mw mcludod in the author'a History of Amtnea, m work of solid excellence, the tenth •aid last volume of which appeared in 1874. In 1860 Bsaeroft delivered an oration in honor of Abfttbam Lincoln. From 1867-74 he was minister to Ger- many. For some years he was a l»»Al nm goo* tributor to the North Anurican tUvim. Died. 1891. ^ Bancroft, Hubert Howe, historian; born at Qran- villc. Ohio, 1832. Entered bookstore of hie brother-in-law, George H. Derby, Buffalo, N. Y., 1848, and in 1852 went to establish a branch in San Francisco, Cal.; collected as materials for Pacific coast history a library of 60,(XX) volumes, and with aid of a staff of collaboratora has writ- ten and published a historical series of M volumes, covering the western part of North America; also The Book of the Fair, Th» Book of Wealth, The New Pacific, etc. Bancroft, William Amos, president Beaton el»> vated railway company since 1899, was bom at Groton, Mass.. 1855; graduated from Harvard, 1878; studied at Harvard law school, 187»-€1; admitted to Suffolk bar, 1881; member Cam- bridge common council, 1882; Massachusetta legislature, 1883-85; alderman, Cambridge, 1891-92: mayor of Cambridge, 1893-96; overseer. Harvard, 1893-1905; Massachusetts volunteer militia since 1875; private to major-general; appointed brigadier-general United States vol- unteers during war with Spain. Director United States trust company, Puritan trust company, Chelsea trust company; trustee Norwich univer- sity, Vt., Lawrence academy, Groton, Mass., and Phillips academy, Exeter, N. H. Bandinelli {bdn'-de-ruU'-le), Baccio, Italian sculptor, was born 1488, at Florence, the son of a famous goldsmith. He was a jealous rival of Michael- angelo, who is said to have repaid his enmity with contempt. His talent, however, secured him many patrons, and Pope Clement VII. be- stowed on him an estate. Among his works are his colossal " Hercules and CaciiS," his "Adam and Eve," his copy of the " Laocoon," and the exquisite bassi-rUtevi in the duomo of Florence. He died in 1560. Ban£r {bd'-n&r'), Johan, Swedish commander, of a distinguished family, born in 1596. Ue was so much addicted to hterary studies that Gustaviia Adolphus styled him his "learned general." He gained many victories; was revered for his humanity, and, having acquired a high reputa- tion, died at Halberstadt in 1641. Bangs {b&ngz), John Kendricic, author, humorist, was bom at Yonkers, N. Y., 1862; graduated from Columbia, 1883; studied Uw, 1883-84; associate editor Life, 1884-88; editor of Litera- ture, 1898-99; Harper's Weekly, 1898-1900; Metropolitan Magazine, 1902-03; Pvck, 1904-05. Democratic candidate for mayor of Yonlters, 1894, defeated ; vice-president Yonkers board of education, 1897; president Halsted school, Yonkers, 1896-1904. Author: Roger Camenien; Katharine; The New Wagqings of Old Tales; Coffee and Repartee; The Water Ghost; Thret Weeks in Polities; The Idiot; Mr. BonaparU. of Corsica; A House Boat on the Styx; The Pur- suit of the House Boat; GhosU I Have Met; Peeps at People; The Enchanted Type Writer; Cabvebe from a Library Comer; Mr. Munchausen; Olym- pian NighU; Unde Sam, Trustee; Alice in Municipaland, etc. ; also many stories contributed to syndicates and magazines. Bankbead, John HoUls, United States senator, was bora at Moscow, Ala., 1842; was aelf- educated; serv-ed four years in the eonfederat« army, being wounded three times ; member of thm state senate 1876-77, and of the house of repre- senUtives 1880-81 ; was warden of the Alabama M8 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT penitentiary from 1881 until 1885; elected to the national house of representatives ten terms; appointed member of the inland waterways commission, 1907. In June, 1907, he was appointed United States senator to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Hon. John T. Morgan, and in July, 1907, was elected by the legislature. Reelected for term 1913-19. Banks, Sir Joseph, English naturalist, bom, accord- ing to some accounts, at Reversby abbey, in Lincolnshire; according to others, in London, in 1743: died, 1820. In 1766 he made a voyage to Newfoundland and Labrador, collecting plants; from 1768-71 he sailed with Cook around the world in the capacity of naturalist. He wrote a work on the diseases of plants. Banks, Louis Albert, clergyman, author, was bom at Corvallis, Ore., 1855; educated at Philomath college and Boston university; D. D., Mt. Union college, Ohio. Entered Methodist Episcopal ministry^; prohibition candidate for governor of Massachusetts in 1893. Pastor Independence Avenue church, Kansas City, 1909-11. Mem- ber society of American authors. He has written a long list of inspirational and religious books. Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, s[>eaker of the house of representatives, 1835-37; governor of Mas- sachusetts, 1858-61 ; major-general of the United States volunteers, 1861-64; bom at Waltham, Mass., 1816. Distinguished as a soldier during the civil war, he became an influential legislator during the stormy con- gressional discussions which followed the close of the great struggle. Died, 1894. Banks, Thomas, the first eminent English sculptor, was born at Lambeth, England, 1735. The monuments of Sir Eyre CJoote in Westminster abbey, and of Captains Burgess and Westcott in St. Paul's cathedral were among his last works. Died at London, 1805. Barbarossa (b&r'-M-rda'-d). See Frederick I. Barbauld {bar'-bdld), Anna Letltla, English author, was born at Kibworth-Harcourt, in Leices- tershire, 1743. In 1795 she edited Akenside's Pleasures of Imagination and Collins's Odes, and prefixed to each a critical essay. In 1804 she Degan to etlit a selection from the Spectator, Guardian, Toiler, etc.^ and in 1810 published a collection of the British novelists. Her last poetical effort was an ode entitled Eighteen Hundred and Eleven. Died, 1825. Barbour (6dr'-6«r), John, father of Scottish poetry and history, was born about 1316; paid several visits to England and France; was arch- deacon of Aberdeen from 1357, or earlier, until his death in 1395. His national epic. The Brus, was first printed at Edinburgh in 1571. Barclay de Tolly {h&r'-kla' di to'-le'). Prince Michael, one of the most distinguished Russian generals, was bom in Livonia, 1761. He fought with great bravery in the Turkish war of 1788-89, in the campaign against Sweden in 1790, and in those against Poland in 1792-94. In the year 1806, at Pultusk, as major-general he commanded Benningsen's advanced guard. He lost an arm at the battle of Eylau. Although hated by the Russian national party, because regarded as a German, he was appointed minister of war by the emperor Alexander in 1810 — an office which he held until 1813. He died in 1818. Barham (bdr'-am), Richard Harris, English poet and humorist, was bom at Canterbury, 1788; died in London, 1845. He was a clergyman of the church of England, and in the latter part of his life rector of St. Augustine's, in the city of London. The Ingoldsby Legends constitute his chief claim to fame, and were first contributed to Bentley's Miscellany. Some of Barham's previously uncollected writings were published under the title of the Ingoldsby Lyrics. Baring-Gould (Jba' -ring-gddld' or Mr'-lnp), Sabine, English clergyman and writer, was born at Exeter, England, 1834; graduated from Clare college, Cambridge; M. A., 1860; traveled in Iceland, 1861 ; various parts of Europe; curate, Horburv, Yorksiiire, 1864; vicar, Dalton, Yorkshire, 1866- rector of East Mersea, Essex, 1871; inherited family estates, Lew-Trenchard, 1872, on death of father; succeeded to rectory of Lew-Trench- ard on death of his uncle, 1881. Owns 3,000 acres. His works cover a wide range of subjects, mythical, legendary', imaginative, historical, religious, and descriptive. Barker, Georjg^e Frederick, phjnsicist, professor of physics university of Pennsylvania, 1873-1900, was bom at Charfestown^ Mass., 1835 ; graduated from Sheffield scientific school, Ywe, 1858; M. D., Albany, 1863; hon. Sc. D., university of Pennsylvania, 1898; LL. D., Allegheny col- lege, 1898; LL. D., McGill university, Montreal, 1900. Was assistant in chemistry and later professor of physiology, chemistry, and toxi- colog^, Yale; United States commissioner Paris electrical exhibition, 1881 ; delegate to electoral consrees and vice-president jury of awards; received decoration commander legion of honor of France; United States commissioner electri- cal exhibition, Philadelphia, 1884; on jury of awards World's Columbian exposition, 1893. Expert in poisons, criminal cases; expert in Edison, Berliner, and other patent suits. Mem- ber national academy of sciences: president of the American association for the advance- ment of science, 1879; American chemical so- ciety, 1891 ; hon. member royal institution of Great Britain, 1899. For several years asso- ciate editor of the American Journal of Science. He wrote textbooks on both chemistry and physics. Died, 1910. Barker, Wbartoo, politician and financier, presi- dential nominee, 1900, of antifusion populists, was born at Philatlelphia, 1846; graduated from the university of Pennsylvania in 1866; A. M.. 1869; in 1863 commanded a company of colored soldiers and helped to enlist and organize 3d United States colored troops; became member of the banking firm of Barker Bros. A Co. ; ap- pointed financial agent in United States of Rus- sian government in 1878, and intrusted with the building of four cruisers for its navy; made knight of St. Stanislaus by Alexsmder II. of Russia, 1879; was called to Russia to advise on development of coal mines north of the Azof: in 1887 obtained valuable railroad, telegraph, and telephone concessions from China. Founded Investment company of Philadelphia, and the Finance company of Pennsylvania. Founded Penn Monthly, 1869, and in 1880 merged it into The American, a weekly published 1880-1900. Prominent republican until 1896; since then pK>pulist. Member American philosophical society and academy of natural sciences. Trustee of the university of Pennsylvania. Barlow, Joel, American ix>et and politician, was bom at Connecticut in 1754. He serv'ed as a military chaplain during the war of independ- ence. . In 1787 he published a poem called The Vision of Columbus, which in 1807 appeared anew in an enlarged form as The Columbiad. He spent some years in Europ>e in political, literary, and mercantile pursuits, and was for a short time American consul at Algiers. He returned to America in 1805, and was api>ointed ambassador to France in 1811; died 1812 at Zamawiczc, near Cracow, when on his way to a conference with the emperor Napoleon at Vilna. Barnabas (bar'-nar-bas). Saint, a disciple of Jesus, whose name was Joses or Joseph, but received from the apostles the surname of Barnabas, THROUGHOUT THE WORLD M» which is diversely interpreted as "son of conso lation," and "son of prophecjy." He accom- panied St. Paul on a religious mission to Antioch, and afterward visited Cyprus with St. Mark. His festival is celebrated in the Roman Catholic church on June 11th. Barnard (bdr'-nUrd), Edward Emerson, scientist, professor of astronomy, university of Chicago, and astronomer Yerkes observatory* bom at Nashville, Tenn., 1857 ; graduate of Vanderbilt university, 1887; astronomer Lick observatory, California, 1887-95. His principal discoveries are the fifth satellite of Jupiter and sixteen comets; has also made many other discoveries and done much work in celestial photography, making photographs of the milky way, the comets, nebulae, etc. Received Lalande gold medal. PVench academy of sciences, 1892; Arago gold medal, same, 1893; gold medal royal astronomi- cal society of Great Britain, 1897 ; Janssen gold medal, French academy of sciences, 1900; elected foreign associate royal astronomers society, 1898; member many American and foreign societies. Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter, American mathematician, physicist, and educator, was bom at Sheffield, Mass., 1809; graduated at Yale in 1828; professor in the university of Alabama, 1837-54; professor, president, and chancellor, 1854-61, university of Mississippi; member of eclipse expedition to Labrador; one of the original corporators of the national academy of science. In 1864 was elected presi- dent of Columbia college. New York; resigned in 1888. One of the United States commissioners to the Paris exposition, and a member of numer- ous societies of art, science, and literature. His publications are mostly scientific and educa- tional. Died, 1889. Barnard, George Grey, American sculptor ; bom at Belief onte, Pa., 1863; educated at Chicago art institute, and at Paris. His style is distinctly emotional. His statue, the "Two Natures," is in the Metropolitan museum. New York, and his "God Pan" in Central park. Barnard, John Gross, military engineer, was born at Sheffield, Mass., 1815, died 1882. He gradu- ated at West Point 1833; served for seventeen years on the gulf coast, then in the war with Mexico; was director of a survey of the isthmus of Tehuantepec, of the construction of San Francisco fortifications; superintendent of United States military academy, and then of fortifica- tions of the harbor of New York. In the civil war served at Bull Run, in the army of the Potomac, as chief engineer of the defenses of Washington, and on General Grant's staff until Lee's surrender; received the rank of major- general in the United States army. Bamby, Sir Joseph, English composer and organist; born at York, England, 1838; chorister in York Doinster; organist St. Andrew's, Wells street, London, 1863-71; precentor and director of musical instruction in Eton college, 1875. His Rebekah, a sacred idyll, and The Lord is King, both with orchestra, ^ numerous highly interesting "services" and anthems, such as King AU Glorious, for the church, as well as several secular choruses and songs, have rendered him famous both in England and America. He is, perhaps, most widely and affectionately known by his Original Tunes to Popular Hymns. Knighted 1892. Died, 1896. Baraeveldt (bar'-nf-vSlt), John van Olden, grand pensionary of Holland, was born in 1547. Chosen pensionary of Rotterdam in 1576, at a time when the Spanish arms were victorious everywhere in the united provinces, he was sent at the head of an embassy to offer the sovereignty of the Netherlands to Queen Elizabeth of England, 1585. On his return he wm appointed gnod pensionary of Holland, and, after a aevere oon- test with the stadtholdcr Maurio* of NaHau and his party, obtained from the Spaniaitla the recognition of the independence of ^«ll fi f Mi ^ tatd in 1609 concluded a truce for twelve yean. He then courageously oppoeed the *»»«t ft mf n of Maurice, who aimed at the aupreme power, and supported Arminius agidnst tne Oalvlniete, the sect to which Maurice beionfed. Arrwrted !• 1618, he was tried by a irprailiii fMininilMliin and condemned to death ; this rmtTinm hnth lllega 1 and unjust, being confirmed by the lynod of Dort, the venerable and patriotic etatcemao waa beheaded, 1619. Bamum, Phlneas Taylor, American showman. born in Betiicl, Conn., 1810. At the ace ol thirteen he was employed in a country store, and about five vears afterward went into the lottery business. When only nineteen he m&rriod and moved to Danbury, Conn., where he edited 7*^4 Herald of Freedom. In 1834 he removed to New York, where, hearing of Joyce Ileth. nurse oif General Washington, he bought her for $1,000 and exhibited her to considerable profit. He bought the American museum in New York, which he raised at once to prosperitv by exhibit- ing a Japanese mermaid, made of a fish and a monkey ; a white negress, a woolly horse, and finally a noted dwarlj styled "General Tom Thumb," whom he exliibited in Europe and elsewhere. He introduced Jenny Lind to the American public, then became proprietor of "the greatest show on earth." He made and lost several fortunes, and his show was twice destroyed by fire. He twice visited Europe, the second time in 1889. Died, 1891. Barr, Amelia Edith, Anglo-American novelist, was born at Ulverston, Lancashire, England, 1831; daughter of William Henry Huddleston; was educated at the high school, Glasgow, Scot- land. In 1850 she married Robert Barr, subse- quently came to this country and settled in Texas, where her husband and three children died of yellow fever at Galveston in 1807; removed to New York, where she began to write for the religious periodicals, and to publish a series of semi-historical tales and novels. The more popular are: Jan Vedder'a Wife; Bow of Orange Ribbon; Friend Olivia; A Daughter of Fife; The Squire of Sandal-Side; A Border Shepherdess; Paul and Christina; The HaUam Succession; A Sister to Esau; Remember the Alamo; Prisoners of Conscience; The Lion'a Whelp; I, Thou, and the Other One; Trimtjf Bells; The Maid of Maiden Lane; A Song of a Single Note; Thyra Varrick. Barr, James (Angus Evan Abbot), Ca n a di a n author, was bora at Waliacetown, Ontario, Canada, 1862; educated in the Canadian public schools. From sixteen to twenty-one devoted himself to newspaper work in America, since then a jour- nalist in London. Author: The Ooda Oiv My Donkey Wings; The Gods Gave Mfi DonUy Wings; Under the Eaves of Night; Th* Great Frozen North; The Witchery of the Serpent; Laughing through a Wilderness; The Grey Bat, Barr, Robert, novelist, editor of the /«fl«r, 1895-1912, was born at Glasgow, Scotland, 1850. He was educated at the normal school, Toronto, Canada: school teacher in Canada until 1876; then joined editorial staff of the Detroit Free Press; went to England in 1881. Founded the Idler magadne with Jerome K. Jerome in 1892, of which he was co-editor until 1896. Author: In a Steamer Chair; From whose Bourn; The Face and the Mask; Revenge; In the MidM of Alarms; A Woman Intervenes; The MtUabU Many; The Countess TeUa; The Strong Arm; 650 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT The Unchanging East; The Tempeatuoua Petti- coat; A Rock in the Baltic. Died, 1912. Barms (bd'-rd'). Count Paul Francois Jean Nicolas, French revolutionist, was bom 1755. at Fos-Emphoux in Var. In his youth he served against the English in India; then returned home and plunged into reckless dissipation at Paris. An original member of the Jacobin club, he rei>- resented Var in the national convention, voted for the king's execution, and had a share in the Girondists' downfall. He conducted the siege of Toulon, and suppressed, with great cruelty, the revolt in the south of France. Hated by Robespierre, he played the chief part in the tyrant 8 overthrow, and by the terrified conven- tion was ap|>ointed virtual dictator; as such he crushed the intrigues of the terrorists. On sub- sequent occasions he acted with decision against both roj''ali8t8 and Jacobins; and in 1795, being again appointed dictator, he called his ^'oung fnend Bonaparte to his aid, who assured his own future with the historical "whiff of grape-shot." The directory being appointed, Barras was nominated one of the five members. Once more dictator in 1797, he guided the state almost alone, until his covetousness and love of pleasure haa rendered him so unpopular that Bonaparte, with Sieyfes's help, overthrew him, 1799. Compelled to remove from Paris, he resided in Bru-ssels, Marseilles, Rome, and Montpellier; in 1815 he returned, and purchased an estate near Paris with part of the great fortune acquired in the revolution. He died in 1829. Barrett, John, diplomatist, was bom at Grafton, Vt., 1866; graduated from Dartmouth college, 1889. Taught Hopkins academy, Oakland, Cal. ; assistant editor of the Statistician, San Francisco; on editorial staff newspapers San Francisco, Tacoma, Seattle; associate editor of the Tdegram, Portland, Ore., 1891-94; American minister to Siam, 1894-98, settling by arbitra- tion claims involving $3,000,000; undertook special diplomatic and commercial investigations in Japan, Siam, Korea, Siberia, and India; war correspondent in Philippines, 1898-99; Ameri- can plenipotentiary to the international con- ference American republics, Mexico, 1901-02; commissioner-general of foreign affairs for St. Louis exposition, 1902-03; American minister to Argentina, 1903-04, to Panama, 1904-05, to Colombia, 1905-06; director general, Pan- American Union, since December, 1906. Author: Admiral George Dewey, and books on Asia and South America. Barrett, Lawrence, American actor, was bom at Paterson, N. J., 1838; first appearance at Detroit, 1853; leading actor Boston museum, 1858; served as captain of Massachusetts volun- teers in civil war; from 1864 until his death in 1891 continued as star actor and manager; from 1886 closely associated with Edwin Booth. Wrote Life of Edwin Forrest, and life of Booth in Actors and Actresses of the Time. Barrett, Wilson, English actor and manager, was bom in Essex, England, 1846; in 1879 became manager of the Court theater, London, and in 1881 of the Princess's. The Silver King; Clau- dian; Hamlet; Hoodman Blind, and his own Christian melodrama. The Sign of the Cross, are among the best plays in which he acted. He died in 1904. Barrle (b&r'-l), James Matthew, novelist, dram- atist, was bom at Kirriemuir, Scotland, 1860; educated at Edinburgh university, taking his M. A. degree in 1882. After a year and a half as a journalist in Nottingham, he settled in Lon- don, and became a regular contributor to the St. James's Gazette, British Weekly, National Observer, Speaker, etc. His first volume. Better Dead, was largely a satire on London life; in Auld lAcht Idylls he opened a new and rich vein, the humor and the pathos of his native village. "Thrums," that village, still furnishes the keynote to When a Man's Single, nominally a tale of literary life in London, and still more to A Window vn Thrums. The Little Minister, his first novel, came out in Good Words, in 1891 ; it was dramatized in 1897. Walker, London, a farcical comedy, had a prodigious run at Toole's theater in 1892; Jane Annie was written with Sir Conan Doyle. Other successful pieces have been The Professor's Love Story, his own setting of the Little Minister; The Wedding Guest; The Admirable Crichton; Little Mary; Peter Pan; Alice-sit-by-the-fire; Quality Street; What Every Woman Krunos and Peter and Wendy. Barrtnger, Paul Brandon, educator, president Virginia polytechnic institute, was bom at Concord, N. C, 1857; attended university of Virginia, M. D., 1877; university of New York, LL. D., 1878; hon. LL. D., Davidson college, N. C. In 1888 became professor of physiology and materia medica, and 1896-1903, chairman of faculty, university of Virginia. Has written: The American Nearo, His Past and Future; Textr-book of Physiology; Brochure on Venemoua Serpents, and other articles on the race problem. Pr«iident medical society of Virginia. Barrow, Isaac, English theologian, scholar, mathe- matician, was bom at London, 1630; educated at Cambridge, M. A., 1652. He was ordained in the ministry in 1660, and chosen professor of Greek at Cambridge; professor of geometry, Greoham college, 1662; Lucasian professor of mathematics, 1663-69; master of Trinity col- lege, 1672. Published Elements of Eudid, Treatise on the Pope's Supremacy, Lectures on Mathematics, etc. Died in London, 1677. Barrows, John Henrj, educator. Presbyterian clergyman, president Oberlin college, Ohio, was bom at Medina, Mich., 1847; graduated from OHvet college, Mich., 1867; subsetiuently studied at Yale, Union, and Andover theological semi- naries, and from 1881 to 1896 was pastor of the First Presbyterian church, Chicago. During the World's Columbian exposition he was chair- man of the general committee on religious con- gresses. In 1896 he resigned his pastoral charge m Chicago and proceeded to India, to lecture on religious subjects, under the auspices of the Haskell endowment of the university of Chicago. On his return he became lecturer at the latter on comparative religions, and was also lecturer at the Union theological seminary. New York. In 1898 he became president of Oberlin college. Author of History of the Parliament of Religions; Life of Henry Ward Beecher; Christianity, the World Religion; and of a work entitled The World Pilgrimage. Died, 1902. Barrows, Samuel June, legislator, author, clergy- man, bom at New York, 1845 ; graduated Harvard divinity school, 1875; D. D., Howard university, Washington, 1897. Before graduation was ste- nographer and journalist; pastor First church (Unitarian), Dorchester, Boston, 1876-80; editor Chri.ttian Register, 1881-97; member of congress, 10th district, Massachusetts, 1897-99; represented the United States on international prison commis- sion, 1896 ; president of international prison con- gress, 1905. Author: Shaybocks in (Jamp; Isles and Shrines of Greece; A Baptist Meeting House; The Doom of the Majority of Mankind; Crimes and Misdemeanors in the United States; etc. Died, 1909. Banr, Sir Charles, English architect; designed the two houses of parliament, the Mancheaeter Athenaeum, and the grammar school of King Edward VI., at Birmingham. In London he also designed the Travelers' club and the Re- form club, both in Pall Mall, and tihe college THROUGHOUT THE WORLD S51 of surgeons, Lincoln's Inn Fields; bom at West- minster, 1795, died at Clapham, 1860. Barry, James, historical painter, was bom at Cork. Ireland, 1741. A prot6g6 of Burke, he studied in Italy, 17G6-70, and m 1782 was appointed professor of painting to the royal academy, from which his irritable temper brought about his expulsion, 1799. Painted "Death of General Wolfe," "Victors at Olympia," etc. He died in poverty in 1806. ••Barry Cornwall". See Procter, Bryan Waller. Barrymore, Ethel, actress, born at Philadelphia, Pa., 1879; daughter of Maurice and Georgi- ana (Drew) Barrymore; niece of John Drew; educated at convent of Notre Dame, Philadel- phia. Made d^but in John Drew's company, 1896 ; played Priscilla in Secret Service, London ; later appeared in leading r61es with Henry Irving; first starred in Captain Jinks, 1900 • later starred in Cousin Kate; Sunday; A Doll's House; Aliee-Sit-by-the-Fire, and Lady Frederick. Barth£lemy Saint-Hilaire (bar'-tdl'-vte' s&tt'-te'- l&r'), Jiiles de, French philosopher, and member of the institute, bom at Paris, 1805. His pub- lished works are: La Politique d' Aristotle, Du Bouddhisme, and Le Bouddha et sa Religion. He was an intimate friend and confidential secretary of Thiers, president of the third French repubhc. Died, 1895. Barthec (bar'-td'), Paul Joseph, French physician and physiologist; born at Montpellier, 1734; professor of medicine at Montpellier, 1759; con- sulting physician to the king, 1780. Author of Functions of the Human Body, New Elements of the Science of Man, Discourse on the Genius of Hippocrates, etc. Died, 1806. Bartholdi (bdr'-tol'-de')^ Fr6d€rlc Auguste, sculptor, was born at Cobnar, Alsace, of Italian ancestry on his father's side, in 1834. His best-known work is the colossal bronze "Liberty Enlighten- ing the World," which was unveiled on Bedloe's island. New York harbor, in 1886 ; the statue itself is 151 feet high, and the top of the torch rises over 305 feet above low-water mark. He received the cross of the legion of honor in 1887. Died, 1904. Bartholdt (bar'-tolt), Richard, congressman; editor St. Louis Tribune, 1885-92; bom in Germany, 1855 ; came to United States in boyhood ; classical education; learned printing trade; since then in journalism. Was member board of public schools, St. Louis, and its president, 1891; member con- gress, tenth Missouri district, since 1893 ; presi- dent interparUamentary union for promotion of international arbitration. Bartlett, Paul Wayland, American sculptor; bom at New Haven, Conn., 1865; studied at Boston under Fr^miet and in Paris under Cavelier. Has produced statues of General McClellan, General Joseph Warren, Columbus, and Michaelaneelo in this country, Lafaj^ette in Paris, as well as many other works m the art collections of Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, and Paris. Bartolommeo (bdr'-to-ldm-mi'-o), Fra (properly Baccio della Porta), one of the most distinguished masters of the Tlorentine school of painting, was bom near Florence in 1475. His first teacher was Cosimo Rosselli; but he owed his higher cultivation to the study of the works of Leonardo da Vinci. His subjects are mostly all religious, and by far the greater part of his pictures belong to the later years of his life. He was a warm adherent of Savonarola, after whose tragical end he in 1500 assumed the Dominican habit. The visit of the young Raphael to Florence in 1504 seems to have been instrumental in stimulating i him to resume his art. He imparted to Raphael | his knowledge of coloring, and acquired from j him a more perfect knowledge of perspective. | The two remained constant friends — Barto- ! lommeo on one ooeaalon fint^mn y eertein of Raphael's unfiniahed works, Raphad pacfonning a like kindne«s for him at another tima. Barto- lonuneo died at Florence in 1517. Barton, Clara, philanthropist, founder and Ofnaiaar iBtatea. of national rtni cruiw society in the United 1 president 1881-1904; bom in Oxford, 1821; graduate of Clinton liberal inatitutal New York. Taught school ten yean; oq^aalaea system of public schools, Bordentown, N. J. During civil war did relief work on baUlafielda and organized search for miming men, for the carrying on of which work oongreaa voted 115,- 000; laid out grounds for national oemetery, Andersonville, 1865; aaeoeiated with Inter- national red cross of Geneva and worked through entire Franco-Pruaaian war, 1870; distributed relief in Strassburg, Itelfort, Mont- pellier, Paris, 1871; secured adoption of treaty of Geneva, 1882; first president American red cross- appointed to represent United Statea in all international conferences, Geneva, 1884; Carbmhe, 1887; Rome, 1892; Vienna, 1807; St. Petersburg, 1903; inaugurated American amendment of red cross, to provide relief for great calamities; distributed relief Johnstown Mood, 1889; Russian famine, 1892; Armenian massacre, 1896; at request of president of United States carried relief to Cuba, 1898; did personal field work, Spanish-American war; conducted red cross reUef at Galveston, Texas, after great disaster, August, 1900; president national first aid association, 1905-12. Held decorations or diplomas of honor from Germany, Baden, Austria, Servia, Turkey, Armenia, Switzerland, Spain, Russia. Author: Hxatary of the Red Cross; America's Relief Expedition to Asia Minor; History of the Red CrosM in Peace and War, and &tory of the Red Croat. Died, 1912. Barton, William Paul CriUon, American botanist; born at Philadelphia, Pa., 1786; died there in 1856. His Flora of North America, Lectures on Materia Medica and Botany, Medical Botany, etc.. contain valuable contributions to the science oi botany. Bartsch (b&rtsh), Karl Frledrtch, German philol- ogist; bom at Sprottau, Silesia, 1832; studied at Breslau, Berlin, Halle, Paris, and Oxford; grofessor of philology at Ro.stock, 1868-71, at [eidelberg, 1871-88. He published many works on German, French, and romance language and Uterature. Died, 1888. Barye (bd'-re'), Antoine Louis, French sculptor, bom at Paris, in 1795. He was at first an en- graver and metal-worker. His famous bronze of a Uon struggling with a snake secured for him the cross of the legion of honor. Died, 1875. Bascom, John, American educator, former president of the university of Wisconsin, was bom at Genoa, N. Y., 1827; graduated in 1849 from WilUanu college, and six years later from Andover theo- logical seminary ; was for twenty years profeesor of rhetoric at Williams, and for thirteen years president of Wisconsin university. He retired from Wisconsin, 1887, and accepted the chair of political science at Williams from which he resigned, 1901. Author: Political Economy; Esthetics; Philosophy of Rhetoric;; Pnw ctge t of Psychology; Philosophy of Religion; Compara- tive Psychology; Htstorieal JnUrpretation of Philosophy; Social Theory; Evolution and Religion; Growth of Nationality in the United States; God and His Goodneee, etc. Died. 1911. Bashford. James Whitford, bishop of Methodiat Episcopal church since 1904; wa« bom at Favette, Wis., 1849; graduate from univenrfty of Wisconsin, 1873, A. M., 1876: theological school, Boston university, 8. T. B., 1878; Ph. D., 1881; LL. D., Wealeyan university, 1W3 582 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Tutor Greek, tmiversity of Wisconsin, 1874 ; from 1876-89 pastor M. E. churches in Boston and Auburndale, Mass.; Portland, Maine; Buffalo, N. Y. President Ohio Wesleyan university, I889-I994. Author: Science of Religion; The Awakening of China; China and Methodism; God's Missionary Plan for the World. Basil {b&zf-iL or ba -zU), Balnt, sumamed the Great, bishop of Csesarea, where he was bom about 329, is one of the most eminent of the Christian fathers. He succeeded Eusebius in the see of Csesarea, in 370, and by his opposition to Arian doctrines greatly offended the emperor V'alens. The attempts which St. Basil made to reunite the two hostile churches of the East and West were unsuccessful. Died, 379. Baskervllle, Charles, chemist; bom in Noxubee county, Miss., 1870; graduated from university of Virginia, 1890; studied at Vanderbilt univer- sity, 1891; university of Berlin, Germany, 1893; Ph. D., university of North Carolina; instructor, 1891-94, assistant professor of chemistry, 1894-1900, professor of chemistry and director of chemical laboratory, 1900-04, university of North Carolina; professor of chemistry, college of the city of New York since 1904. Author: School Chemistry, Key to School Chemistry, Radium and Its Applications in Medicine; also numerous scientific, educational, and techno- logical articles; discoverer of the chemical ele- ments, carolinium and berzelium. Baskervllle, John, English printer and letter- founder, bom 1706 in Worcestershire; began about 1750 to make experiments in letter- founding, and succeeded in making types which have scarcely yet been excelled. He printed an edition of Vergil at Birmingham in 1757, fol- lowed by other Latin classics, a few English and Italian authors, and a new testament at Oxtord, 1763, much aamired as specimens of printing, although not otherwise possessing high merit. Died, 1775. Bassett, John Spencer, educator; bom at Tarboro, N. C, 1867; graduated from Trinity college, N. C, 1888; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins, 1894; professor of history, Trinitv college, N. C, 1893-1906, Smith college, Mass., smce 1906. Author: ConstittUional Beginnings of North Carolina; Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina; Anti-Slavery Lenders of North Carolina; Slavery in the State of North Carolina; The Regulators of North Carolina; The Federalist System. Editor of the South Atlantic Quarterly, 1902-05. Baatable, C. F„ economist, professor of political economy, Dublin university, since 1882; pro- fessor of jurisprudence and international law, Dublin umversitv, since 1902; bom at Charle- ville. County Cork, 1855; graduated from Trinity college, Dublin. Professor of juris- prudence and political economy, Queen's college, Galway, 1883-1903; examiner, uni- versity of London, 1888-93, 1897-1903, 1904-06; university of Wales, 1898-1902; royal univer- sity of Ireland, 1888-91, 1895-99; university of Manchester, 1905-07; George Rae lecturer. University college of North Wales, 1905. Author : Theory of International Trade, Commerce of Nations, Public Finance; contributor to Ency- dopadia Britannica; Harmsworth Encydo- pcedia; The Encydopcedia of Accounting; Dic- tionary of PoliHcal Economy, and Economic Journal. Bastian (bds'-te-&n), Adolf, German traveler and anthropologist, author of nearly sixty works, was bom at Bremen, 1826. He studied at Berlin, Heidelbere, Prague, Jena, and Wiirsburg, and in 1851 sailed for Australia as a ship s doctor, thereafter traveling in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. In 1866 be became professor of ethnology at Berlin and curator of the ethnological museum; was one of the founders of the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic, and published numerous books on racial science. Died, 1905. Bastian {h&slf^an), Henry Charlton, English physi- ologist, was bom at Truro, Cornwall, 1837, and from a private school at Falmouth proceeded to University college, London, where he became professor of pathological anatomy, 1867, hospital physician. 1871, professor of chnical medicine, 1878, and from 1887 to 1895 professor of the principles and practice of medicine. He is the champion of the doctrine of spontaneous genera- tion. Author: Evolution and the Origin of Life; The Brain as an Organ of Mind; Parcuyses: Cers- bral, Bulbar, and Spinal; A Treatise on Aphasia and other'Speech defects; many articles on diaeaaes of the nervous system in Quoin's Dictionary of Medicine; The Nature and Origin of Living Matter, Evolution of Life and The Origin of lAfe. Bates, Blanche, actress; bom in Portland, Ore., 1873; removed to San Francisco with parents, 1876; educated in San Francisco public schools: married Lieutenant Milton F. Davis, United States army; in 1912 married George Creel. First appearance on stage at Stockwell's theater, San Francisco, 1894; starred as Mrs. Hillary,, in The Senator, 1895; played leading parts in various comedies, 1896-98; appeared in Shakespearian rdles, Augustin Daly's company, 1898; later starred in The Great Ruby, "The Musketeers, Madame Butterfly; created title r61e of Cigarette, in Under Tu>o Flags; Princess Yo-San, in The Darling of^ th« Qods; The Girt, in The Girl of the Golden West. Bates, Henry Walter, British naturalist and traveler, was bom at Leicester, England, 1825. During his apprenticeship to a manufacturing hosier he formed a friendship with Alfred R. Wallace, and in 1848 the two left to explore the Amasons, where Bates remained until 1859. In 1864 he became assistant-secretary of the royal geographical society of England, which post he held until his death, 1892. He wrote Naturalist on the River Amazon, and also a handbook to South and Central America. Bates, John Lewis, ex-govemor, lawyer; bom at North Easton, Mass., 1859; graduated from Boston university, 1882, law department of same in 1885; LL. D., Wesleyan university, Connecticut, 1903; taught private school in Jamestown, N. Y., 1882-83; admitted to bar, Boston, 1885; member law firm of Bates, Nay and Abbott since 1906. Member Boston com- mon council,' 1891-92; member Massachusetts house of representatives, 1894-99, speaker, 1897-99; lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, 1900-02- ^ovemor of Massachusetts, 1903-04; director Umted States trust company, Columbia trust company, Chelsea trust company, trustee Wildey savings bank. President board of trustees Boston university. Bates, Katharine I^ee, author, educator- bom Falmouth, Mass., 1859; graduated Wellesley college, 1880. Taught mathematics, classics and English, Natick high school; later taught Latin in Dana Hall; 1885-88 instructor English literature; 1888-91 associate prof essor, and in 1891 professor in charge, Wellesley college. Author: Rose and Thorn; English Rdigiou* Drama (lectures) ; American Literature; Spanish Highways and By-ways; and editor of numerous English classics. Bauer (bou'-ir), Bruno, German philosophical and historical writer, and biblical expositor of the Hegelian school, was bom at Eisenberg, Germany, 1809, and died near Berlin, 1882. His writings embrace a number of critiques on the gospels and Pauline epistles; one on Strauss's Life of THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 668 Jesus; an Exposition of the Religion of the Old Testament; besides a History of the French Revo- lution to the Establishment of the Republic, and a History of Germany during the French Reix)lution and the Ride of Napoleon. He also published Philo, Strauss, Renan, and Primitive Christianity, and a work entitled Disraeli's Romantic and Bis- marck's Socialistic Imperialism. On theological subjects Bauer has been called the "Voltaire of Germany." Bauer, Louis Aericola, scientist, magnetician; bom in Cincinnati^ Ohio, 18G5; graduated from university of Cincinnati; astronomer and mag- netic computer. United States coast and geodetic survey, 1887-92; docent in mathematical physics, university of Chicago, 1895-96; in- structor in geophysics, 1896-97, assistant pro- fessor mathematics and mathematical physics, university of Cincinnati, 1897-99: inspector magnetic work and chief terrestrial magnetism division, United States coast and geodetic survey, 1899-1906; director department terres- trial magnetism, Carnegie institution since 1904 ; lecturer on terrestrial magnetism^ Johns Hop- kins, since 1899; editor Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity. Frequent con- tributor to scientific press on terrestrial mag- netism. Baumgarten (bourn' -g&r-ten), Alexander Gottlieb, the founder of the science of aesthetics, or the philosophy of the beautiful, was born at Berlin, 1714, studied at Halle under Wolf, and was appointed professor of philosophy at Frankfort- on-the-Oder, where he died, 1762. His ^sthet- ica, the work in which his special philosophy is developed, was published in two volumes, 1750- 58. His Metaphysica is still highly esteemed. Baumgfirtner {bourn' -ghrt-rier), Karl Helnrich, German physiologist, was bom in Baden, 179&, and died at Baden-Baden. 1886. From 1824 to 1862 he was professor of clinical medicine at Freiburg. He made important discoveries in embryology and physiology, and published works on the blood and nerves. Baur (bour), Ferdinand Christian von, German theologian, bom 1792, at Schmiden, near Stutt- gart, was the founder of the Tubingen school of theology. His first important work was Symbolik und mythologie, oder die N aturreligion des Alter- thums. In 1826 he was called to the chair of Protestant theology at Tubingen, which he held until his death in 1860. The task he set before himself, and to which he devoted his life, was to supply, in a thoroughly free spirit, what was yet wanting for the comprehension of early Christian literature. Strauss had previously sought to show only what the gospels are not; Baur sought to discover what they are — to disclose the peculiarities of their structure, and to show how all the new testament writings grew out of contemporary circumstances. Bax, Ernest Belfort, barrister-at-law. Middle Temple; author; bom at Leamingjtom Eng- land, 1854; was educated privately in London and Germany; studied music, especially theory and composition; also later, philosophy, more particularly the German movement from Kant to Hegel; returning to England, was one of the founders of the English socialist movement. In 1885 helped to start the socialist lea^e in conjunction with the late William Moms, and for some time co-edited with him the weekly journal Commonweal; subsequently resigned from league, and again became connected with the social democratic federation, cooperating on, and for a time editing, its organ Justice. Author: Jean-Paxd Marat; Kant's Prolegomena, etc., with biography and introduction; Hand- book to the History of Philosophy; Rdigion of Socialism; Ethics of Socialism; French Revalu- tion; Tha Problem of Reality; Seeialiein, Itt Growth and Outcome (in oonjunetioQ with Um late William Morria); Outepoken Eeeayt on Social Subjects; The PeaaanU' War in Germany; Essays in Soeialiem, Nero and (Md; The Roots of Reality; also edited the monthlies Time and To-day. Bayard (bd'-ydr*), Pterre Du TerraU Chevalter D*. French knight, was born near Grenoble, In 1476. He served under Charles VIII., in an expedition against Naples^ and in the wars acainat the Eng* lish and Spaniards he distlngulmed himself by his bravery and nobleness of character. In the reign of Prancis I., he gained a great victory for the kin^ of Marignano, amd defended we city of M6zi%res against Charles V., for which he was called the "saviour of his country." He was killed in a battle at the river Scuia, Italy, in 1524. He is known as "the knight without fear and without reproach." Bayard, Thomas Francis, American statesman, was born at Wilmington, Del.. 1828; died, 1898. He was privately educated ana began the practice of law m his native city in 1851. In 1860 he succeeded his father as senator from Delaware. when he served continuously until 18H5; enterea Cleveland's cabinet as secretary of state in the latter year. In 1880 and 1884 he was candidate on the democratic ticket for the presidential nomination. In 1893 was appointed ambassador to England, the first to hold that rank as a repre- sentative of the United States. Bayle (bil), Pierre, French skeptic and critic, was bom at Carlat, 1647. He studied philosophy under the Jesuits at Toulouse, and lor a year and a half turned Catholic. To escape ecclesi- astical censure he withdrew to Geneva, and from there to Coppet, on the lake of Geneva, where he studied the philosophy of Descartes. After a few years he returned to France, and in 1675 was elected to the chair of philoeophy at Sedan; in 1681 at Rotterdam. In 1684 he started Nouvelles de la RipuUique des Ltttree, one of the most successful attempts at a popular journal of Uterary criticism. The revocation of the edict of Nantes letl Bayle to write a strong defense of toleration. Bayle devotwl his leisure to the Dictionnaire Histonque et Critique. This, the first work published under his own name, exercised an immense influence over literature and philosophy, and was the dawn of scej^cism of the eighteenth centurv. He died in 1706. Basaine (bd'-zin'), Francois Achllle, a marshal of France; bom at Versailles, 1811; distinguished himself in Algiers, the Crimea, and Mexico; did good service as commander of the army of the Rhine, in the Franco-German war, but after the surrender at Sedan was shut up in Meti, surrounded by the Germans, and obliged to sur- render, with all his generals, officers, and men; was tried by court-martial, and condemned to death, but was imprisoned instead; made good his escape one evening to Madrid, where he lived to write a justification of his conduct, the sale of the book being prohibited in France. Died at Madrid 1888. ^ r. . ,,^ Basard (bd'-zdr'). Saint Amand, French soclaltot, bora at Paris, 1791 : in 1820 founded an associa- tion of French Carbonari, and in 1825 attached himself to the school of Saint Simon, he and Enfantin becoming its "pliTea supr*mes." But they quarreled over "free love,' and during a heated discussion Bacard was struck with apoplexy. He died in 1832. Beach, Bex EIHngwood, author, playwright: bom at Atwood, Mich., 1877: educated at Rollins college, Winter Park, Fla., 1891-96, Chicago college of law, 1896-97, Kent college of law, Chicago, 1899-1900. Author: Pardnert, The Spoilers, The Barrier, and The Silver Horde. 554 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Contributor to McClure'a, Ledie's, Aindie's, Metropolitan, Lipjnncott'8, Red Book, Saturday Evening Post, New York World, Pearson' e. Beaconsfleld, Eari of. See Disraeli, Benjamin. Beale {bel), Joseph Henry, Jr., lawyer, educator; bom in Dorchester, Mans., 1861: graduated from Harvard, 1882, A.M., 1887, LL. B., 1887; LL.D., university of Wiaconain, university of Chicago, 1904. Waa a teacher at St. Paul's school, Con- cord, Mass., one year; practiced law, Boston, 1888-92; assistant professor law, 1892-97, pro- fessor, 1897-1908, Carter professor general juris- prudence since 1908, Harvard; professor of law and dean of law school, university of Chicago, 1902-04. Author: Casea on Crimirud Law; Cases on Damages; Case* on Carriers; Criminal Pleadings and Practice; Cases on the Conflict of Laws; Cases on Public Service Corporations; i Foreign Corporations; Innkeepers; Railroad Rate \ Regulation (with Bruce Wvman) ; and various i legal articles and monographs. I Beatrice Portlnarl (b^-d-tres, or trU, pdr'-ti-nA'^l), ' Dante's poetical idol, daughter of a Florentine noble, remarkably graceful and accomplished. Dante first saw her when she was but nine years old, and but seldom afterward ; but in his vivid imagination she grew to be the personification of divine truth, and so appears in the Divine Comedy. In 1287 she married a citizen of Florence. Bom in 1206; died, 1290. Seattle {bi'-tl), James, Scottish poet and writer on philosophy, bom at Laurencekirk. Scotland, 1735: died, 1803. Professor of moral philosophy in Marischal college, Aberdeen, 1760-97. His writings include an Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth; The Elements of Moral Science; Dissertations, Moral and Critical; and j Essays on Poetry arid Music. His fame now | rests almost wholly on The Minstrel, a descriptive poem on the progress of ,Tenius, written in the | Spenserian stanza, and marked by great harmonj- ; of style, rich imagery, and delicate sentiment. Beatty, John W., director of fine arts, Carnegie institute, Pittsburg, Pa., bom at Pittsburg, 1851; student of Munich acaclemy of fine arts; A. M., Western university of Pennsylvania, 1900: member iurv on painting for Pennsylvania ana New York, World s Columbian exposition, 1893 ; member national advisory board, Paris expo- sition, 1900, fine arts committee, Pan-American exposition, Buffalo, 1901, national advisorj' committee, Louisiana Purchase exposition, St. Louis, 1904; member of many art societies. Executeoleon Bonaparte, from whom she separated in 1810, after he waa driven from the throne of Hol- land. Her son by him waa Napoleon III. Died, 1837. Beaumarchais {bd'^mQr'-sht'), Pierre Augustla Caron de, French dramatist and lK>et, was the son of a watchmaker named Caron, and waa bora at Paris, 1732; married a widow, Madame Franquet in 1757, and from a little property of hers took the aristocratic name of Beaumarchais. In 1768 be married a second time, obtaining on thia occaaion a splendid fortune with his wife. Meanwhile devoting himself to literature, he produced Eug&nie, a drama in five acta; Les Deux Amis, ou Le Nigociant de Lyon; Le Barbier de Siville; and Le Mariage de Figaro. On these last two well-known productions his fame now rests. He lost largely by the publica- tion of a complete edition of the worka of Vol- taire, for whose manuscripts he had paid 200,000 francs. He died in 1799. Beaumont {bo'-mdnt), Francis, English poet and dramatist, best known by his literary partner- ship with John Fletcher, waa bom at Grace Dieu, Leicestershire, in 1584; died 1616. About 1607 he became acquainted with Fletcher, and ao friendly did thev become that they lived in the same house until Beaumont's marriage in 1613. A vague belief long prevailed that Beaumont wrote the graver and tragic, Fletcher the lighter and comic portions of their collaborated works. It seems, however, to be the general opinion that Beaumont's chief share lay in correcting the exuberance of Fletcher. Beauregard {bd'-ri-gQrd), Pierre Gustave Toutant, gene^ of the army of the Confederate States during the civil war, was bom near Orleans, La., 1818. At the secession of Louisiana he resigned his commission in the regular armj'; in 1861 he waa appointed bv the confederate gov- ernment to the command at Charleston, S. C, where, on April 12-13th, he commenced the war by the bombardment of Fort Sumter; July 21st he won the battle of Bull Run; March 5, 1862, took command of the army of the Mississippi; was defeated April 7th at Pittsburg Landing; in 1863 defended Charleston, and aided in defense of Richmond; after the war he became a railroad president, and in 1878 adjutant general of Louisiana. Died, 1893. Bebel {ba'-bU), Ferdinand Aufnist, German social democrat, was born at Cologne, 1840, and in 1860 removed to Leipzig, where in 1864 he established himself as a master turner. Entered politics in 1862; since 1871 has been a leader of the social- democratic movement in the Reichstag and in the press. He is an effective speaker and writer. Among his works are Dcr Deutsche Bauemkrieg; Die Frau und der Socialismtis; Die Socialde- mokratie; Charles Fourier; etc. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 666 Beecaria (Mfc'-fcd-r«'-a), Cesare, Marchrsc dl, Italian economist ancl jurist, was born at Milan, 1735. Having formed his opinions by study of the French encyclopaedists and Montesquieu, in 1764 he published anonymously his work on Crimea and Punishments, in which he argued against capital punishment and torture. The work was hailed with enthusiasni by the French school; commentaries were published by Vol- taire and Diderot; and subsequent reforms have generally taken the direction it pointed out. Beecaria was among the first to advocate the beneficial influence of education in lessening crime. In 1768 he was appointed professor of poUtical philosophy at Muan; in 1791 he was made a member of the board for the reform of the judicial code. He died of apoplexy in 1793. Becher (b^K'-er), Johann Joachim, German chemist, was bom at Speyer in 1635, and lived successively at Mainz, Vienna, Munich, Wiirzbut-g, Haarlem, London, where he died in 1682. His Physica Subterranea was the first attempt made to bring physics and chemistry into close relation. Beck, James M,, lawyer, bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1861 ; graduate of Moravian college, Bethlehem, Pa., 1880; LL. D., Muhlenberg college, 1902; studied law and was admitted to bar, 1884- United States attorney for eastern district of Pennsylvania, 1896—1900; assistant attorney- general of United States, 1900-03. He has argued many important cases in United States supreme court, including the Neely case, and the lottery cases; argued the Northern Securi- ties merger case before circuit judges. Spoke for the Americap bar at dinner given in the Temple, London, by the bench and bar of Eng- land. As master appointed by United States court sold, 1902, the Philadelphia Record for $3,000,000 — highest price ever brought by an American newspaper at pubUc sale. In 1902 negotiated purchase of Philadelphia Ledger and the merging of it with Philadelphia Times; entered law firm of Shearman & Sterling, New York, 1903, and removed to that city; also member law firm of Beck & Robinson, Philadelphia. Becker, Wilhelm Adolf, German author and philolopst, was born at Dresden in 1796, died 1846. In 1837 was appointed professor of archse- ology at the university of Leipzig; in 1840 he travel«i through Italy. His lively fancy, aided by a thorough knowledge of the classic lan^ages, enabled him to make a novel use of antiquity. In his CharicLes he ventured to reproduce the social life of old Greece, and in his Oallus to give sketches of the Augustan age at Rome. The learning which he has contrived to weave into his picturesque sentences is mar- velous. Becket, Thomas k, celebrated English prelate, the son of a merchant, was bom at London in 1118; studied at Oxford, Paris, and Bologna, and on his return home entered the church. Henry II. made him high chancellor and pre- ceptor to Prince Henry in 1155, admitted him to the closest intimacy and coniidenee, and in 1162 raised him to the archbishopric of Canter- bury. Becket now entirely gave up his courtier habits, assumed a rigid austerity of manner, and became a stubborn champion of the exorbitant privileges of the clergy. A violent contest ensued between the sovereign and the prelate, | and the latter was at length obliged to flee from j the kingdom. In 1170, however, he was restored, j and he instantly recommenced his resistance to the monarch. Irritated by this fresh dis- j obedience, Henry uttered a hasty speech, which four of his knights not unnaturally construed , into a command to rid him of the pertinacious j archbishop. They accordingly hastened to Eng- I land, and murdered Becket in C«ot«rbury cathedral in 1 170. He wm eanonlMd io 1772. Beckford, WlUlain« tax eccentric man of cenius, was bom at Fonthlll, England, 17«>. When he was about »l<«veu years of age him father died, and he inherited estates in Jamaica, and Fonthiil, in Wiltshire. His annual revenue is said to have excwHled $500,000. In 1783 he married Lady Margaret Gordon, daughter of Charles, fourth earl of Aboyne, and in the following year entered parliament. In the year 1787 be published VcUhek in French. He infomu ua that he wrote this tale at twenty-two yean of age, and that it was composed at one (ritiing. During all his life he was a hard-working student, but was of a most erratic disposition. Died. 1844. Becqner (bd-kAr'), Gustavo Adolfo. Spanish poet and novelist, was bom at Seville, 1836, Ilia weird and fantastic tales are written after the manner of Poe and Heine, and have proved very popular. He left three volumes of poems and legends of which the best known is LeyendoM eapafUdas. Died at Madrid in 1870. Becquerel (bik'-rW), Antotne C^sar, French physicist, bom at Loiret, France, 1788. While studying the physical properties of yellow amber he had occasion to make experiments on the liberation of electricity by pressure; the result of his inquiries was the overthrow of Volta's theory of contact, and the construction by him of the first constant pile. He next discovered a method of determining the internal temperature of human and animal bodies, and by physiologi- cal applications demonstrated that when a muscle contracts there is a development of heat. He is, besides, one of the creators of electro- chemistry, and invented a method of electro- typing. Died, 1878. Beddoe, John, physician, anthropologist, bom at Bewdley, England, 1826; was educated at Bridgnorth, University college, London, and Edinburgh university, graduating B. A., Lon- don, in 1851, and M. 1)., Edinburgh, in 1853. He served as a surgeon during the Crimean war, and afterward practiced at Clifton, 1857-91. He is the author of Stature and Bulk of Man; The Races of Britain; Anthropological History of Europe; Color and Race, etc. Died, 1911. Bedc {bed), or B«eda {bi'-di), sumamed "the venerable," English monk, scholar, and church historian, was bom, 673, in the coimty of Dur- ham, and died at Jarrow, at the monastery of St. Paul, in 735. He is said to have been the most learned Englishman of his day, and in the seclusion of his cell he wrote, besides his impor- tant Ecclesiastical History of England, which was translated from the Latin by King Alfred into Anglo-Saxon, a number of commentaries, homilies, hymns, and lives of the saints. Bedford, John, Duke of, third eon of Henry IV., was bom 1389, died 1435; in 1403 was made governor of Berwick-upon-Tweed and warden of the west marches. In 1414 his brother, Henry v., created him duke of Bwlford ; and during the war with France he was appointed lieutenant of the kingdom. After Henry's death in 1422. Bedford became guardian of the kingdom, and regent also of France; and, Charles VI. dying two months afterward, he had his nmhew proclaimed king of France and England as Menrv VI. In the wars with the dauphin which fol- lowed, Bedford displayed great generalship and defeated the French at Vemeuil in 1424. The appearance of Joan of Arc was followed by dis- aster to his arms; and in 1436 a treaty was negotiated at Rouen between Charles VIL and the duke of Burgundy, which ruined F . n g H s h interests in France. Bedford's death at Rooen was mainly occasioned by anxiety and vezatioo. 566 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT B«echer, Catherine Esther, eldest child of Lyman Beecher, was born at East Hampton, L. I., 1800. In 1822 she opened a school at Hartford, Conn., and ten years later a seminary for young women in Cincinnati, but was compelled to give it up on account of ill health two years afterwara. She made it the business of her life to improve and advance the intellectual, physical, and practical education of women. She organized societies and schools for training teachers and sending them to new states and territories. In pursuit of this object she published DometHc Service, Duty of American Women to their Coun- try, Domestic Receipt Book, True Remedy for the Wrongs of Women, Letters to the People on Health and Happiness, Physiolo^ and Calisthenics, Religious Training of ChUdren, The American Woman's Home, etc. She also published Com- mon Sense applied to Religion, Truth Stranger than Fiction, a memoir of her brother George, and Appeal to the People a« the Authorized Inter- preters of the Bible. Died, 1878. Beecher, Henry Ward, preacher, theologian, lec- turer, orator, was born at Litchfield, Conn., 1813 : graduated at Amherst college in 1834, studied theology under his father at Lane seminary, Cincinnati. After a pastorate of ten years in two churches in Indiana, he removed to Brooklyn and assumed charge of Plymouth church, "an organization of orthodox Congregational be- lievers." He for many years drew one of the largest and most influential regular congrega- tions in the United States, and his published sermons soon became a power in this and other countries. Owing to his rich fund of illustra- tion, his impressive manner, and his keen sense of humor, his popularity as a pulpit orator and as a lecturer soon became recognized. His attitude during the agitation on the slavery question was emphatically that of an abolitionist: he visited Great Britain in 18G3 with the avowed object of enlisting sympathy for the people of the North; and, although very unfavorably received at first, such was the force of his elo- quence that he caused no inconsiderable change In public opinion. His reputation as a writer is second only to his celeority as a preacher. For nearly twenty years he was editor of the New York Independent, and in 1870 he became editor of the Christian Union, also a religious weekly. His most important works are: Lec- tures to Young Men, Industry and Idleness, Life Thoughts, being selections from his extemporane- ous sermons, revised by himself; The Star Papers, these last being composed of articles contributed to the New York Independent, and the Life of Christ. He also edited the Plymouth Collection of Hymns. Died at Brooklyn, N. Y., 1887. Beecher, Lyman, preacher and theologian, was bom at New Haven, Conn., 1775; graduated from Yale college, studied theology for a year, and began preaching at East Hampton, L. I., where he remained until 1810. He then went to Litchfield, Conn., where were bom his two most famous children, Henry Ward and Harriet (Mrs. Stowe), though nearly all of his thirteen children are well known. He was one of the first pulpit orators of the time. After sixteen years he was called to Hanover Street church, Boston, and during his six years of hard work there enga^ged in a theological discussion with Dr. Channing. He spent twenty years at the head of Lane theological seminary, Cincinnati. Died at Brooklyn, N. Y., 1863. Beers (bSrz), Henry Aufnistln, author, professor of English literature at Yale since 1880; was born at Buffalo, N. Y., 1847; graduated from Yale, 1869. Author: A Century of American Litera- ture; Odds and Ends (verse); Nathaniel Parker Willis; The Thankless Muse (verse); From Chaucer to Tennyson; Initial Studies in American Letters; A Suburban Pastoral and Other Tales; The Ways of Yale; A History of English Roman- ticism in the Eighteenth Century; A History of English Romanticism in the Nineteenth Century; Points at Issue; contributor to leading maga- zines. Beethoven, van (vdn ba'-to-ven), Ludwlg. See page 175. Begas (M'-gas), Karl, German painter, bom at Heinsberg, near Aix-la-Chapelle, 1794 ; became a pupil of Gros at Paris in 1813; studied after- ward at Rome, and was a member of the academy and court painter at Berlin from 1825 until his death in 1854. His pictures are partly biblical, partly romantic, and partly genre pieces. Of the first may be mentioned his " Baptism of Christ." in the style of the old Florentines, which was placed in the garrison church at Potsdam, and nis fine fresco of Christ and the four evan- gelists surrounded by a choir of angels in the churoh of Cracow. Specimens of the other classes are the "Lorelei, "Girls under the Oak Tree," "The Vine Dressers" etc. He is chiefiy memorable as a master of light and shade. Begas, Bctnbold, German sculptor, was bom in BerUn, 1831; son of Karl Begas. Educated under Ranch and Wichmann, 1846-51; studied in Italy, 1850-58. Principal works: statue of BorusBia for hall of glory ; Neptune fountain on Schlossplatz : statue of Alexander von Humboldt, statue of Schiller for Gendarmen market, all in Berlin; sarcophagus of Emperor Frederick III. in Friedenskirche, Potsdam, and sarcophagus of Empress Frederick; national monument to Emperor William; statue of Bismarck before the Reichstag Gebaiide; several statues in the Siegflsalle, Berlin. Died, 1911. Behaim (bd'-him), or Behem (,b&'-him), Martin, German na^•igator and geographer, was bom at Nuremberg about 1459, di«i about 1506; prob- ably a pupil of Regiomontanus ; visited Portugal about 1480, and in 1484 was made geographer of an expedition for the exploration of western Africa; knighted by John II. of Portugal. In 1492 he ma^e a terrestrial globe, a gift to his native city, where it is still preserved. Bekker (MJf-*-), Immanuel, German scholar and philologist, was bom at Berlin, 1785; died there, 1871. He became professor of philology at Berlin, and edited critical editions of Plato, the Attic orators, Aristotle, Thucydides, Aristoph- anes, Herodotus, Livy, Tacitus, and otner classic writers. His chief independent work was Anecdota Orceca. Belasco (bi-lAs'-kd), David, dramatic author, was born at San Francisco, 1859 ; educated at Lincoln college, California. Author: (plays) Zata; The Heart of Maryland; The Wife; The Charity Ball; Lord Chunuey; May Blossom; Men and Women; La Belle Russe; The Girl I Left Behind Me; Valerie; Hearts of Oak; The Darling of the Gods; Du Barry; Sweet Kitty BcUairs; Adrea; The Return of Peter Grimm. Manager of Mrs. Leslie Carter, David Warfield, and Blanche Bates. Bellsarlus {bH'-i-sa'-ri-iis). the great general of Jusunian, was born in lllyria about 505. After commanding an expedition against the king of Persia about 530, he suppressed an insurrection at Constantinople, conquered Gelimer, kin^ of the Vandals, and put an end to their dominion in Africa. In 535 he was sent to Italy to carry on war with the Goths, and took Rome in 536. He was afterward sent against the Persians and Huns, and in 563 was charged with conspiracy against Justinian, but was acquitted. That he was deprived of sight and reduced to beggary appears to be a fable of late invention. Died, 565. Ctfyright, iqOQt hj Uarrii-Eviiing ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL From a photograph THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 659 B«ll« Alexander Graham, scientist, inventor, born in Edinburgh, Scotland, 1847; educatea at Edinburgh and in London university; LL. D., Ph. D., M. D., receiving many degrees from American and European universities; 8c. D., Oxford university, 1907 ; went to Canada, 1870. and to Boston, 1871, becoming professor of vocal physiology, Boston university; invented tele- phone, for which patent was granted February 14, 1876; also invented photophone, induction balance, and telephone probe for painless detec- tion of bullets in the human body, for which he was awarded hon. M. D. by the university of Heidelberg, Germany, at its five hundredth anniversary ; with C. A. Bell and Sumner Taintor invented the graphophone, 1883. Regent Smith- sonian institution. Officer French legion of honor; founder of Volta bureau. Member national academy of sciences and other scientific organizations. Author of many scientific and educational monographs, including Memoir on the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the HuTnan Race. Bell, Sir Charles, British physician and anatomist, famous for his discoveries in the nervous system, was bom at Edinburgh, Scotland, 1774. In 1804 he proceeded to London, where he lectured with great success on anatomy and surgery. In 1807 he distinguished between the sensory and motor nerves in the brain. In 1812 he was appointed surgeon to the Middlesex hospital, wnich his climcal lectures raised to the highest repute. To study gunshot wounds, he went to Haslar hospital after Corunna in 1809, and after Water- loo took charge of a hospital at Brussels. In 1824 he became senior professor of anatomy and surgery to the royal college of surgeons. London, and in 1826 head of the new medical school. University college, but soon resigned. Knighted in 1831, and elected professor of surgery at university of Edinburgh in 1836; he died in 1842. His works include Anatomy of Exjrres- sion in Painting; Anatomy of the Brain; Animal Mechanics; Nervous System of the Human Body, and The Hand. Bell, Henry, who introduced steam-navigation into Europe, was bom at Torphichen, Linlithgow- shire, 1767. After acquiring a knowledge of mechanics in Scotland, he went to London and worked with the famous engineer, Rennie. In 1790 he returned to Scotland, and conmienced business as a carpenter at Glasgow; removed to Helensburgh in 1808, and kept the principal inn there, but occupied himself with experiments in mechanics. In 1812 he launched the Comet on the Clyde, the first steam-vessel on European waters. The engine, at first of three-horse power, was afterward increased to six. He died at Helensburgh, 1830. At Dunelass, on the Clyde, a monument has been erected to his memory. Bell, James Franklin, army officer, was bom at Shelbyville, Ky., 1856; graduated from United states military academy, 1878; served on plains in 7th United States cavalry, 1878-94; cap- tured band of half-breed Cree Indians near Ft. Buford, S. D., 1883; in Sioux campaign. Pine Ridge, S. D., 1891; adjutant of regiment and secretary cavalry and light artillery school, 1891-94; aide to General J. W. Forsyth, Cali- fornia, Arizona, and state of Washington. Served in Spanish-American campaign in Philippine islands, and in Philippine insurrection ; organized 36th infantry United States volunteers in is- lands, 1899; appointed brigadier general of United States army, 1901; commanded 1st district department North Luzon to November, 1901, and 3d brigade department of South Luzon to December, 1902; returned to United States in 1903; commandant of infantry and cavalrv school, signal school and stafif college to April, 1906; major general, 1907. Bell, John, EnglUh sculptor, bom in 1811, Orat exhibited in 1832, and has produced nunwroiw admirable works In monumentaL rvUcioiw, and imaginative art. His " Babes inttM Wootb'' aod "Andromeda" were the chief aUrMtioos in the 1851 exhibition at London ; while among his beat- known statues arc "Sir Hobort WalpoGu" "WeU lington," and the Guards' niemortal. UlelMt grant work was tlie group "The United States DiraeUng the Progress of America." for the bese of the Prince Consort memorial, in London. Died, 1805. Bell, John, American politician, was bom nenr Nashville, Tenn., 1797; wiw admitted to the bar, 1816; member of congress from Tenneesse, 1827-41; speaker of the house of representa- tives, 1834-35; secretary of war, 1841; United States senator, 1847-59; nominated by the constitutional union party for presideat, i860, and received the electoral vote of Tennessee, Ken- tucky, and Virginia. He opposed Calhoun's project of nullification. Died, 1869. Bell, Robert, chief geologist geological survey of Canada; acting director, 1901-06; was bora at Toronto, Ontario, 1841 ; was educated at McOiU and Edinburgh universitiea; D. 8c., McGiU; LL. D., Queen's; F. R. 8., 1897. Joined geo- logical survey of Canada, 1857; has made very extensive topographical and geological surveys in nearly all parts of the Dominion idnoe 1857. The Bell river or west branch of the Nottaway, which he surveyed in 1895^ is officially named after him; was medical officer, naturalist, and geologist of Neptune expedition in 1884, and of Alert expedition in 1885 to Hudson's strait and bay; was also on the Diana exi>edition in 1897, when he surveyed the south coast of Baffinland and penetrated to the great lakes of the interior; has surveyed many Canadian rivers, and also made the first surveys of some of the largest lakes of Canada, including Great Slave, Nipigon, Seul, Osnaburgh, and parts of Athabasca, Win- nipeg, and lake of the Woods; has been Cana- dian correspondent of the royal Scottish geo- graphical society ever since its foundation, and a member of many scientific societies; was a royal commissioner on the mineral resourcee of Ontario, 1888-89; has published over 200 reports and papers, mostly on geolon^, biology, geography, and folk-lore; professor of chemistry and natural science in Queen's university, Kings- ton, 1863-67. Bell, Thomas, naturalist, was bom at Poole, Dor- setshire, England, 1792, and in 1813 entered Guy's hospital, where from 1817 imtil 1861 he held the post of dental surgeon and leetursd on comparative anatomy. In 1836 he beoame professor of zoology in King's college, London; elected in 1828 a fellow of the royal society, and from 1848 to 1853 its secretary; also presi- dent of the Linnaean society, and first prendent of the Ray society. He wrote BritiiK Quad" rupeda, British Reptiles, etc. Retiring from prac- tice about 1860 to the wakes of Selbome, which he had purchased from Gilbert White's grand- nieces, he died there in 1880. BeUamy (bH'-d-mi), Edward, American novelist and economist, bom at Chicopee Fails, Mass.. 1850. He was educated in Germany; admitted to the bar; was on the staff of the New York Evening Post in 1871-72; and on his return from the Sandwich islands in 1877 founded the Spring- field News. He is best Icnown by his noveU Loot' ing Backward, and Equality, both socialistic works. Died, 1898. BeUarmine {]bH'-lar-m\n or tn»n\ Bobsti. oMbniM Roman Catholic theologian; was bom at Monte Pulciano, in Tuscany, 1642. He entered the order of Jesuits in 1560, and in his twenty- seventh year, when he went to Louvain as pro- fessor of theology, began that long controversy MO MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT with "heretics" which formed the main business of his life. In 1599 he was made a cardinal against his own inclination. In 1602 he was appointed archbishop of Capua; after the death of Clement VIII., contrived to escape promotion to the papal chair, but was induced by Pius V. to take an important place in the Vatican, where he remained until the time of his death, which took place in the novitiate-house of the Jesuits in 1621. Bellew (bil'-a), Harold Kyrle-Money, English actor; was bom in Calcutta, 1857- son of Rev. J. C. M. Bellew, chaplain cathedral at Calcutta; was cadet in English navy, serving seven years, then went to Australian gold fields; worked on Melbourne newspapers; returned to England; made stage ddbut at Theater Royal, Brighton; became leading man and star in London; came to United States as leading man in Wallack's theater, New York, October, 1885; subsequently starred jointly with Mrs. James Brown Potter, taking leading r6les with her in legitimate drama in all English-speaking countries. Headed ex- ploration expeaition in northern Queensland, 1900-02, returning to stage at head of own com- pany in United States, October, 1902. Author: Yvonne; lolande; Hero and Leander; Charlotte Corday; and several adaptations. Died, 1911. BelUnl {bU4e'-ni), Gentile, Venetian painter, was born about 1427, died 1507. He was employed with his brother, Giovanni, to decorate the great council-chamber of the Venetian senate-house. His most admired work is "The Preaching of St. Mark," in the college of that saint in Venice. Bellini, Giovanni, Venetian painter, brother to Gentile Bellini, and with him the founder of the Venetian school of painting, was bom 1426; died 1516. His best works are altar pieces. Among his more famous pictures are his Infant Jesus, "Holy Virgin," and "Christ and the Woman of Samaria." There is a well-known picture of Bel- lini's, "Christ on the Mount," in the national gal- lery, London, and another, "The Circumcision," at Castle Howard. Among BelUni's many pupils the most distinguished were Giorgione and Titian. Bellini* Vtncenxo, Italian composer of op>eras, was bom at Catania, in Sicily, in 1802. He was sent to the conservatoire of Naples, where he studied composition. After a number of early operas had made him known in Italy, he wrote, in 1827, the opera II Pirata, which pave him a name in the musical world. He visited Paris and London, and died near Paris in 1835. Among his best works are Norma, I Ptirxtani, and La Sonnambida. Bellman (bil'-nUin), Karl Mikael, Swedish poet, was bom at Stockholm, 1740; became court- secretary in 1775, and died in 1795. His later and more brilliant pieces are chiefly bacchanalia n , idyllic, or humorous songs, for which he also furnished original melodies. The best specimens of his genius, which is of a rare order, are to be found in the collections prepared by himself: Baehanaliake OrdtnskapHleta HaruUnbliothek, Fred- mans Efiadar, and Fredmans Sanger. A monu- xnent was erected to his memory at Stockholm in 1829, and ever since the anniversary of its erection has been kept as a popular holiday. Belloc (bi4dk'), HUalre Joseph Peter, English writer and politician, was bom in 1870; gradu- ated from Balliol college, Oxford, 1895. Author: Verses and Sonnets; The Bad Child's Book of Beasts; More Beasts for Worse Children; The Modem Traveler; The Moral Alphabet; Danton; Lambkins Remains; Paris; Robespierre; Path to Rome; Caliban's Guide to Letters; AvrU; Mr. Burden; The Old Road; Esto Perpetua; Hills and the Sea; The Historic Thames; Cautionary Tales; On Nothing; Mr. Clutterbuck's Election. He was member of the house of commons, 1906 10. Bellows, Henry Whitney, Unitarian divine and writer, was bom at Boston, Mass., 1814; gradu- ate of Harvard and of Cambridge divinity school ; in 1838 became pastor of All Souls church, New York; was instrumental in establishing the Christian Enquirer in 1846; pubUshed a number of lectures and pamphlets, among the more notable his Phi Beta Kappa Oration, a Defense of the Drama, Treatment of Social Diseases, Christian Doctrine, The Old World in its New Face, etc. With an excellent literary taste and skill he combined practical and administrative ability. He did excellent service as presiding officer of the sanitary commission during the war of the rebellion. Died, 1882. Bell-Smith, Frederic Marlett, artist; president of the Ontario society of artists; bom at London, 1846: studied drawing at South Kensington, London; went to Canada, 1867; charter mem- ber society of Canadian artists, 1867; served in volunteers in suppressing Fenian invasion, 1870; director of fine arts, Alina college, since 1881 ; teacher of drawing, public schools, London, Ontario, 1882-89; director Toronto art school, 1889-91: lecturer and writer on art subjects. Principal pictures: "Queen Victoria's Tribute to Canada," "Landing of the Blenheim," "Lights of a City Street " ; has exhibited at royal academy and other principal exhibitions. Belmont, Aufcnst, Danker, was bom at New York, 1853 ; son of prominent banker of the same name, now deceasea; graduate of Harvard. 1874, ana at once entered the bank; now heaa of August Belmont & Company, American representatives of European banking firm of Rothschilds; is officer and director of many large railway, bank- ing, manufacturing, and other corporations: chairman l)oard of directors, Interborough rapid transit company. Belmont, Auinist, American politician and financier, was bom at Altey, Germany. 1816; was repre- sentative of the Rothschilos in the Umted States : Austrian consul at New York, 1844-50 ; Unitea States minister to the Netherlands. 1854-^; chairman of the democratic national committee, 1860-72. Dietl, 1890. Belmont, Perry, lawyer; was bom at New York. 1851: graduated from Harvard in 1872 ; studied civil law, university of BerUn: LL. B., Columbia law school, 1876; practiced law until 1881; member of congress, 1881-89; chairman com- mittee on foreign affairs, 1885-87; United States minister to Spain, 1887-88 ; delegate to the national democratic convention in 1896; still active in politics. Vice-president United States casualty company; trustee Colonial trust com- pany, and National surety company; director Consolidated national bank, etc. Insp>ector gen- ei»l with rank of major Ist division 2d army corps. United States volunteers, 1898. Member New York chamber of commerce. Belshascar (bSl-shAz'-ar), last king of Babylon of the Chaldean dynasty, began to reign about 554 B. C. The hand--writing on the walls of his palace, its interpretation by Daniel, the taking of Baby- lon by Cyrus the Great, and Belshazzar's death in 538 B. C. are familiar to all Bible readere. Bern (bhn\ Joseph, Polish general, bom in Galicia in 1795; served in the French campaign against Russia, 1812; took part in the Polish insurrection of 1830; joined the Hungarian army in 1848, defeated the Austrians in several battles, and after the defeat of Temesvar took refuge in Turke}% became a Mohammedan, and was made a pasha. Died, 1850. Bembo (bim'-bd), Pletro, Italian scholar, was bom at Venice, 1470, and died at Rome, 1547, having in 1513 been made secretary to Leo X., and in 1539 a cardinal by Paul III., who afterward appointed him to the dioceses of Gubbio and THROUGHOUT THE WORLD Ml Bergamo. Bembo was the restorer of good style in both Latin and Italian literature. Among his works ma^ be mentioned the Rerum Venetica- rum Libri XII.; this little treatise on Italian prose marked an era in Italian grammar. Bemls, Edward Webster, educator, economist, was born at Springfield, Mass., 18G0; graduated from Amherst, 1880; A. M., 1884; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins, 1885; professor of history and political economy, Vanderbilt university, 1881)-92; asso- ciate professor political economy, university of Chicago, 1892-95; assistant statistician Illinois bureau of labor statistics, 1896; professor economic science, Kansas state agricultural college, 1897-99; later director department municipal monopolies, bureau of economic research. New York; deputy commissioner water supplv. New York; member committee of national civic federation investigating municipal ownership. Author: Municipjems contributed in no small degree to the revolution of 1830. In 1833 a fifth series of his lyrics appeared, and in 1848 he was elected to the constituent asMinbly, but decUned to serve. Died in 1857. / Beresford {bir'-is-f6rd). Lord Charies WlUlam de la Poer, British admiral, was born in Ireland, 1846; educated at Bayford school, Rev. Mr. Foster's, Stubbington, Fareham, Hants. Entered Britannia as cadet, 1859; sub-lieutenant, 1866; lieutenant, 1868; commander, 1875; captain, 1882; rear-admiral, 1897; naval A. D. C. to the queen 1896-97; naval A. D. C. to the prince of Wales on his visit to India, 1875-76: M. P. Waterford, 1874-80- east division of Marylebone, 1885-89; M. P. York, 1897-1900; commanded Condor, bombardment Alexan- dria. 1882; landed at Alexandria after bom- bardment and instituted regular police system; served on Lord Wolseley's staff Nile expedi- tion, 1884-85 ;• and subsequently in conunand of naval brieade at battles of Abu Klea, Abu Km. and Hetemmeh; a lord commissioner of the admiralty, 1886; resijped 1888, on ques- tion of strength of fleet; visited China on a special mission, at request of associated cham- bers of commerce of Great Britain, 1898-09; rear-admiral, Mediterranean, 1900-02; M. P. Woolwich, 1902; commanded channel squadron, 1903-05; admiral, 1906; visited Canada, 1900. Author: Life o^ Nelson and his Times; numerous essays and articles on naval matters and Egypt ; The Break-up of China. Bergman {bin. -m&n), Torbem Olof , Swedish chemist and naturalist, was bom at Katharinbcrg, Swe- den, 1735; studied at Upsala, and in 1761 was appointed adjunct in mathematics and natural pmloeophy; professor of chemistry, 1766; wrote Physical Description of the Earth, On the Aerial And, and laid the basis of crystallography. Died, 1784. B«rlot (6a'-r«-d'), Charles Aa^st« de, Belgian composer and violinist, bom in Louvain, 1802. He was a precocious and original musician, remarkable tor pure tone and refined taste. In 1836 he became the husband of the famous singer, Malibran. In 1842 he was made pro- fessor in the Brussels conssrvatoire, but resided ten years after in consequence of failing eyesight. He was the author of a complete manual for the violin, and of a great number of popular compo- sitions for that instrument. Diea, 1870. Berkeley, George, British divine and philosopher, and bishop of Cloyne, was bom in Ireland in 1685. On his return from a visit to America he was raised to the episcopate. In philosophy he is an idealist, and his doctrines are the natural reaction against the prevalent materialism of his age. His most important works are the Principles of Human Knowledge, MinxUe Philosopher, and Theory of Vision. Died, 1753. Berkeley, Sir William, governor of the colony of V'irginia, was born at London, England, 1610. He was appointed governor of Virginia in 1641, but resiened in 1651, upon the accession of Cromwell. He remained in the colony, however, and in 1660 was chosen governor by the general assembly. Years later he lost the favor of the people by faiUng to protect them from the Indians^ and a rebellion against him led by Nathamel Bacon almost succeeded, but failed in consequence of the sudden death of the leader. Berkeley was recalled in 1676. He was the author of A Discourse and View of Virginia, and a drama called The Lost Lady. Died, 1677. Berlicbingen {hir'-liK.-lng-en), G5ts or Gottfried Ton, German knight, was bom in 1480. He took part in the war of the peasants against the nobles, and was sentenced by Maximilian I. to pay a heavy fine. He was afterward mortally wounded in defending his castle against imperial troops. He wore an artificial hand which re- placed one lost in battle, and was sumamed the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD Mt "Iron Hand." Goethe made his achievements the subject of one of his best dramas. He died in 1562. Berliner {bir-le'-nir), Emile, inventor, was bom at Hanover, Germany, 1851; educated public school, Hanover; bamson school, Wolfenbiittel. He came to the United States 1870, and pursued a mercantile career until 1878; began scientific experimental work, 1876; invented the loose contact telephone transmitter and use of induction coil connected therewith, 1877; dis- covered receiving action of loose contacts, 1877: the first 20,000 telephone transmitters ever usea passed through his hands while chief instrument insj)ector of the Bell telephone company in Boston, 1879; invented the gramophone, 1887, the first talking-machine which utilized a groove of even depth and varying direction, and in which the record groove not only vibrates but also propels the reproducing stylus; also invented and perfected the present method of duplicating disc records; planned the milk conference of 1907 at Washington. He has published Conclusions dealing with philosophical and reUgious problems; also a number of scientific papers before societies and in litera- ture. Serlioz {b&r'-le-ds'). Hector, French composer, of remarkable but eccentric genius, was born at La C6te St. Andr6, 1803. and died in 1869. His best productions are the symphonies Harold and Romeo and Jvliet. He was chief of the romantic •school of music. Bernard {Jbh^-ndr'\ Claude, French physiologist, bom near Villefranche, 1813; studied medicine at Paris, and in 1841 became assistant at the College de France to Magendie, with whom he worked until his own appointment in 1854 to the chair of general physiology, and whom he suc- ceeded in 1855 as professor of experimental physiology. He was elected to the academy in 1869, and died at Paris, 1878. His earliest researches were on the action of the secretions of the alimentary canal, the pancreatic juice, the connection between the liver and the nervous sys- tem, etc., for which he received prizes from the acaaemy. Later researches were on the changes of temperature of the blood, the oxygen in arterial and in venous blood, the opium alka- loids, curarine, and the sympathetic nerves. His Lemons de Physiologie Exptrimentale is still a standard work. Bernard (ber'-ndrd or . bSr-nard'), Saint, of Clair- vaux, was born of a noble family at Fontaines, near Dijon, in Burgundy, 1091; in 1113 entered the Cistercian monastery of Citeaux, and in 1115 became the first abbot of the newly-founded monastery of Clairvaux, in Champagne, where he died, 1153. He was canonized m 1174. His studious, ascetic life and stirring eloquence made him the oracle of Christendom ; he founded more than seventy monasteries; and the "mellifluous doctor" is regarded by the Catholic church as the last of the fathers. He drew up the statutes of the Knights Templars in 1128; secured the recognition of Pope Innocent II. ; and it was his glowing eloquence at the council of Vezelay in 1146 that kindled the enthusiasm of France for the second crusade. The influence of St. Ber- nard as a spiritual teacher through his fervid piety and living grasp of Christian doctrine was a wholesome antidote to the dry and cold scholas- ticism of the age. Yet he showed a harsh severity toward Abdlard and others whose views he disapproved. His writings consist of more than 400 epistles, 340 sermons, and twelve distinct theological treatises. He was one of the greatest of the Latin hymn-writers, many modem hymns being based on his Jesu Dvlcxt Memoria. Bemardln de St. Plem (Mr'-n^lr'>- fcssor of nioruls at the normal school and a OMin* ber of the institute. Died. 1814. Bernhardt, Boslne Sarah, lamoua French trafie actress, was born at Paris In 1845. Her parante were Jews, but slic was educated in Grandchamp convent at Versailles. She made her first ap- pearance on the stage in 1862, at the Th^Atre Frangais, but at first attracted little notice. In 1867 her playing the part Mario de Ncuberg in Victor Hugo s Tiuy lilas made her famouji. The war of 1870-71 interrupted her career, and for a while she became a nurae. She then woo a position in the ThdAtre Frangais, the troupe of which she accompanied in 1879 to London, where her triumphs were repeated in succeeding years, and where she married M. Damala, who died in 1889. She broke her contract with the Frangais in 1880, and has since been touring with great success in America, and in all the principal countries of Europe. She now directs ls'-e-mir), Sir Henry, English engi- neer and inventor, bom at Charlton, England, in 1813; of his many inventions the chief is the process named after him, of converting pig-iron into steel at once by blowing a blast of air through the iron while in fusion until everything extrane- ous is expelled, and only a definite quantity of THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 505 carbon is left in combination, a process which has revolutionized the iron and steel trade all over the world, leading, as has been calculated, to the production of thirty times as much steel as before and at one-fifth of the cost per ton. He was knighted in 1879, and died in 1898. Bessey, Charles Edwin, scientist, professor of botany in the university of Nebraska since 1884 ; bom on a farm in Milton, Ohio, 1845; graduate of Michigan agricultural college, 1869; studied with Dr. Asa Gray at Harvard, 1872-73 and 1875-76; Ph. D., university of Iowa; LL. D., Iowa college; professor of botany in Iowa agricultural college, 1870-84; acting president, 1882 ; acting chancellor of university of Nebraska, 1888-91, 1899-1900 and 1907. Botanical editor of American Naturalist, 1880-97, of Science since 1897. Author: Tfie Essentials of Botany; Botany for High Schools and Colleges; Elemen- tary Botanical Exercises; Elementary Botany; Plant Migration Stiuiies, and many scientific papers and reviews. Edited McNab's Mor- phology, Physiology, and Classification of Plants. Bethmann-HoUweg (bdf-m&n hM'-van.), Dr. Theo- bald von, statesman, philosopher, imperial chancellor of the German empire, was bom at Hohenfinow, near Berlin, Prussia, in 1856; of Jewish lineage; educated at the university of Bonn; elected to the Reichstag in 1890; president of the province of Brandenburg, 1901 ; named imperial chancellor in succession to Prince von Bulow, 1909. Beast {hoist), Frederick Ferdinand, Count, German statesman, was bom at Dresden in 1809. He devoted himself to poUtics and was employed by his government in different services in Berlin, Paris, and London. In 1849 he was made minister of foreign affairs in Saxony. He opposed Prussia, and after the battle of Sadowa entered the service of Austria, where he was made chancellor in 1867. He completely reor- ganized the Austrian empire, and the present constitution was his work. He was Austrian ambassador at London, 1871—78, and acted in the same capacity at Paris, 1878-82. He died in 1886. Beveridge, Albert Jeremiah, lawyer, writer, United States senator from Indiana, 1899-1911: bom on a farm on border of Adams and Highland counties, Ohio, 1862; family moved to Illinois after war; from age of twelve led a life of privations; plowboy at twelve, railroad laborer at fourteen, logger and teamster at fifteen, then attended high school; graduated from De Pauw university, Indiana, 1885; read law in oflBce of Senator McDonald, became managing clerk; admitted to bar and was associated with McDonald & Butler until he began practice for himself ; identified with many important cases; elected to the United States senate, 1899; reelected in 1905; well known as orator and republican campaign speaker. Author: The Russian Advance, The Young Man and the World. Beza (fte'-zd), Th£odore, Genevese reformer, was bom at Vezelay, Burgundy, 1519, and studied Greek and law" at Orleans. He first became known as a writer of witty verses, settled with brilliant prospects at Paris, and lived for a time in fashionable dissipation. In 1549-59 was Greek professor at Lausanne, published a drama on the Sacrifice of Abraham, and lectured on the Bible. In 1559 he was appointed a theological professor and president of the college at Geneva, and became Calvin's ablest coadjutor. During the French civil war he was chaplain to Cond6, and after his capture attached himself to Coligny. In 1563 he once more returned to Geneva, and on Calvin's death the care of the Genevese church fell upon his shoulders. He presided over the synods of French reformers held at La Rochelle in 1571 and at Nimes In 1572. In 1574 h* wm sent by Cond6 on • miarion to th* eoart of tbo palatinate; and in 1586 maaaured hlmaalf wttb the WiirttoinhiTg divines. He died In 1005. BIchat (he'-ahd'), Marlr Fr»n«oU XaTl•^ oeiebntod French physician and anatomist, was bocn at Thoirette (Jura), 1771. He passed the fiist veara of his medical study under the diraetlon of his father, who was also a physioian. Altar spending two years at Lyons, be repaired to Paris in 1793, and attended at the H6tel-Dieu the clinical lectures of Desault, who, l>eing soon attracted by the superior intelligence evinced by Bichat, took him as his assistant in hia surgical practice and in preparing his lectures and works. After the death of his patron in 1705, Bichat showed his gratitude by uuhlishins in 1707 two volumes entitled (Euvrca C hirurgicaie* dt DtaauU. setting forth the great surgeon's doctrines and methods of treatment. He then devoted liimsslf to lecturing on anatomy, physiology, and surgefT; and established with several of his friends La Sociite Midicale d' Emulation, through the medium of which he gave to the world many highly origi- nal and important memoirs, notably tliono on tna tissues of the human body. He was nominated physician of the H6tel-Dieu in 1700, and died in 1802, his premature death being hastened in great part by his incessant labors. His three great works are the Traiti dea Membranea, in which he classifies the different kinds of tissues. maintaining that all are merely differential forms of the same elementary tissue; the Recherches Physiologiquea aur la Vie rf la Mart, a work rich in new discoveries and original ideas, in which he defines life to be the "sum-total of the functions which resist death " ; and the Traiti d'Anatomie Ginirale, in which he sum- marizes his now generally received principles, applying them in the same systematic manner to the various departments of biology. Biddle, A. J. Drexel, author, explorer, and lecturer; bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1874. He was edu- cated at Heidelberg, Germany. Lived in Madeira islands, studying conditions there; returned to the United States in 1891; joined staff of PhiU- delphia Public Ledger; two years later he severed connection with the Ledger, and contributed to magazines and humorous joumab; revived Philadelphia Sunday Graphic in 1895 anti became its editor; head of publishing house of Drexel Biddle, in New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco, 189&-1904. Author: A Dual MU; All Around Athletics; An Allegory and Three Essays; The Froagy Fairy Book; The SMond Froggy Fairy Book; SharUytown SkHehee; Word for Word and Letter for Letter; The Flowera of Life; The Madeira lalanda; The Land of the Wine. * Biddle, John, the founder of English Unitarianlsm, bom in 1615, at Wotton-under-Edge, in Gloueea- tershire. Having embraced certain opinions in regard to the personality of the Holy Spirit at variance with those held by the majority of Christians, he was thrown into jail in 1646. Twice during the commonwealth he suffered for his creed, and even the protector himself, in ordCT to save Biddle's life, was compelled to banish him to one of the Scilly isles. Three years of imprisonment having elapsed, he was pwrmlttad to return, and continued to preach In London until 1662, when he was again committed to jail, where he died in September of the sama year. l,^__ Biddle, Nicholas, American oommander, was born at Philadelphia, Pa., 1750, and took a conspicu- ous part m the revolutionary war. th"^°* the action of his ship, the Rarvdd,jh, with the British ship, YarmotUh, in 1778, the former waa blown up and he was killed. o6o MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Blela (be'-lA), WUhelm von, German astronomer and military officer, was bom near Stolber^, Germany, 1782. He i8 chiefly noted for his discovery, in 1826, of the comet named for him. Died, 1856. Blerce, Ambrose, author, journalist; bom in Ohio in 1842; served as line officer during civil war; brevetted major for distinguished services ; went to California, 1866; went to London, 1872, con- tributing to Fun fables, purporting to be trans- lations from Zambri, the Parsee, tSterward pub- lished in volume Cobwebs from an Empty Skull; returned to California and contributed to Over- land Monthly, edited Argonaut and Wasp; for many years contributed to "Prattle" columns in San Francisco Examiner. Author: Cobwebs from an Empty SktiU; The Monk and the Hang- man's Daughter (with Dr. A. Danziger); Black Beetles in Amber; Can Such Things Bet In the Midst of Life; Fantastic Fables; Shapes of Clay, and The Cynic's Word Book. Blerstadt (ber'-stiU), Albert, landscape painter; bom near Diisseldorf. Germany, 1830. Came in infancy to New Betiford, Mass.; studied four years in Europe, 1853-57; made repeated visits to the West and to Europe; specialty is pictures of scenes in Rocky mountains, Sierras, and Switzerland ; was member of national academy ; was awarded many foreign medals and the crosses of the legion of honor and St. Stanislaus. Died, 1902. Blgelow, John, author and diplomat, was bom at Maiden, N. Y., 1817; graduated from Union college, 1835; LL. D., Umon and Racine colleges, 1886, college of city of New York, 1889; admitted to bar; one of the editors New York Evening Post, 1849-61 ; consul at Paris, France, 1861-64; United States minister to France, 1864-67 ; secretary of state. New York, 1875-77. Was executor and trustee of Samuel J. Tilden, president board of trustees New York public library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden foundations, trustee Metropolitan museum of art. Author: France and Hereditary Monarchy; Wrings and Speeches of Samuel J. Tilden; The Life of Ben- jamin Franklin; Life of WiUiam Cullen Bryant; The Supreme Court of the United States and the Electoral Commission; and The Useful Life, a Crown to the Simple Life. Died, 1911. BiKelow, Melville Madison, lawyer, author, some time dean Boston university law school; bom at Eaton Rapids, Mich., 1846; graduated from university of Michigan, A. B., 1866, LL. B., 1868; Harvard, Ph. D., 1879; LL. D., Northwestem universitjr, 1896. Author: The Law of Estoppel; Leading Case* in the Law of Torts; The Law of Torts; History of English Procedure; The Law of Fraud on its Civil Side; The Law of Bills, Notes and Cheques; The Law of Wills; Central- itctiion and the Law. Blgelow, Poultney, author, journalist; bom in New York, 1855; graduated from Yale, 1879; Colum- bia law school, 1882; admitted to New York bar, 1882, but after a few years gave up law practice for journalism. Went around the world in sailing ship, 1875-76; visited shores of New Guinea; wrecked on Japan coast; has three times circumnavigated the world and studied tropical colonization in nearly every colony of the world; has lectured at principal universities on modem history and colonial administration; was correspondent for London Times during Spanish- American war. Author: The German Emperor and his Eastern Neighbors; Paddles and Politics Down the Danube; The Borderland of Czar and Kaiser; History of the German Struggle for Liberty, 4 vols. ; White Man's Africa; Children of the Nations. Most of these have been trans- lated into German or French. BUUhks, John Shaw, surgeon, librarian; was bom in Switzerland county, Indiana, 1839 ; graduated from Miami university, 1857: M. D., Ohlo^ medical college; LL. D., Edinburgh, 1884, Harvard, 1886, Budapest 1896, Yale, 1901, Johns Hopkins, 1902; M. D., Munich, 1889, Dublin, 1892; D. C. L., Oxford, 1889. Demon- strator anatomy, medical college of Ohio, 1860-61 ; served in army as assistant surgeon and major surgeon, reaching rank of lieutenant-colonel and deputy surgeon; later medical insf)ector army of^ Potomac ; after war in various branches of service, taking charge of surgeon-general's library. Charge of vit^ and social statistics, 11th census; director of hygiene, university of Pennsylvania, 1893-^; director New York public hbrary, 1896-1913, Astor, Lenox and Tilden foundations. Was menilxjr many Ameri- can and foreign scientific societies; exteunive writer on medical and sanitary subjects. Author : Principle* of Ventilation and Heating; Index Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General'* Office, Uniied States Army, 16 vols.; National Medvcal Dictionary; and many other works. Died, 1913. **BIUlncs, Josh." See Shaw, Henry W. BillincB, WllUam, American composer, was bom at Boston, Mass., 1746; died there in 1800. H& gave up the trade of a tanner to teach music, and did much to introduce into New Englana the spiritual style of church music. So far as known, he was the first American composer of music. He published The Singing-Master's Assistant, etc. Blnet (bi'-ni'), Alfred, French psychologist; bom at Nice, France, 1857. He was one of the editors of L'Annie Psychologique, and director of the eiychological laboratory at the Sorbonne, Paris. 18 works include many themes in physiological psychology. Died, 1911. Blnney, Horftc«, distinguished lawj'er, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1780; for many years he was at the head of the Pennsylvania bar; director in the United States bank, and trustee to wind up its affairs. He was a member of congress in 1833-35, but held no other political office One of his great cases was the defense of the city of Philadelphia against the suit of certain heirs of Stephen Girard. He wrote The Leaders of th* Old Bar of PhUadelphia, The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus Under the Constitution, and many valuable unpublished papers. Died, 1875. Blot (W-d' or b'yd'), Jean BapUste, French astrono- mer, optician, and natural philosopher, was bom at Pans, 1774. He is especially celebrated for his researches in the circular polarization of Ught. Died, 1862. Blrrell (bir'-il), Rt. Hon. Augustine, chief secre- tary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland since 1907; M. P. North Bristol since 1906; chancery barrister and author; was bom near Liverpool, 1850; graduated at Cambridge, 1872; LL. D. St. Andrews; barrister, 1875; bencher Inner Temple, 1903; Quain professor of law, Uni- versity college, London, 1896-99; M. P. Fife- shire W., 1889-1900. Author: Obiter Dicta; Lt/e of Charlotte Bronti; Res Judicatae; Men, Women, and Books; Lectures on the DiUie* and Liabiline* of Trustees; editor of Boswdl's Life of Johnson; CMecUd Essays; Miscellanies; William Haditt; In the Name of the Bodleian, etc. Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, English composer, was bom at London, 1786; early devoted nimself to the composition of dramatic music, and in 1809 produced his Circassian Bride, which was a great success. In 1810 he became director of music at Covent Garden theater, and produced many operas during this time, including The Lady of the Lake, Guy Mannering, and The Slave. In 1825 he broke his connection with Covent Garden to go to Drury Lane, and he was succeeded at the former theater by Weber. It was in rivalry THROUGHOUT THE WORLD M7 with Weber's Oberon that Bishop produced the unsuccessful Aladdin. In 1840 his last dramatic piece, The Fortunate Isles, was produced at Covent Garden in honor of the queen's wedding ; in 1842 he was knighted; and in 1848 became professor of music at Oxford. He wrote the familiar melodv to John Howard Payne's "Home, Sweet Home." Died, 1855. BIsmarck-ScIiSnhausen, von (fon bW-mitrkshen'- hou'-zen). Otto Eduard Leopold. See page 611. Blspham (bls'-pam), David S., operatic baritone, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1857; educated at Haverford college, Pa.; made d^but as the Due de Longueville in T?ie Basoche, given by the royal English opera, 1891 ; since then with the royal opera, Covent Garden, and Metropoli- tan opera company, New York, singing principal r61es in German, French, and ItaUan. Bispham, George Tucker, lawyer, author; bom at Philadelphia, 1838; graduate of university of Pennsylvania, 1858; law department, same, 1862; admitted to bar, 1861; later admitted to bar of United States supreme court. One of solicitors of Pennsylvania railroad company; sohcitor of Philadelphia saving fund society, Girard trust company, and other corporations; professor of ec^uity, jurisprudence, law depart- ment, university of Pennsylvania. Author: Principles of Equity, and other books on law. Died, 1906. Blssell, George Edwin, sculptor; bom at New Preston, Conn., 1839; educated at Northville, Conn., academy, and the "Gunnery," Washing- ton, Conn.; taught school; clerked in store at Waterbury, Comi. ; served private, 1862-63, in 23d Connecticut volunteers, 19th corps, de- partment of the gulf; acting assistant pay- master. United States navy, 1863-65; attached to United States ship Mary Sanford, South Atlantic squadron. In marble business with father and brother at Poughkeepsie, New York, 1866; began career as sculptor there; studied art, Paris, Rome, and Florence, 1875-76; had studio in Paris at different times, for about six years, between 1884-96; executed portrait statue of General Horatio Gates on Saratoga battle monument ; Chancellor John Watts and Colonel Abraham de Peyster, New York; Abra- ham Lincoln, Edinburgh, Scotland; relief, Burns and Highland Mary, Ayr, Scotland; Chancellor James Kent, congressional library, Washington; President Arthur, New York; group " The Navy," colonnade navy arch. New York ; statue " Hospitality," Pan-American ex- position, Buffalo, N. Y. ; bronze statues, " Science and Music," St. Louis exposition; statue of Lin- coln, Clermont, Iowa, etc. Bitter, Karl Theodore Francis, sculptor, was bom at Vienna, Austria, 1867 ; educated in gymnasium there; came to United States, 1889; won prize in competition for Astor memorial gates, Tnnity church, New York; executed sculpture on administration and manufactures buildings, ' World's Columbian exposition; residences of C. P. Huntington " and Cornelius Vanderbilt^ etc.; silver medal, Paris exposition, 1900. Director of sculpture at the Pan-American exposition, Buffalo, 1901; gold medal Pan-American expo- sition, 1901, Philadelphia, 1902, St. Louis exposition, 1904 ; chief of department of sculp- ture, St. Louis exposition, 1904. Bizet (be'-zS'), Georges, French composer, was bom at Paris, 1838, died in 1875; studied at the conservatoire under Hal^vy, and in Italy. His best-known works are Les Pecheurs de Perles, La Jolie Fille de Perth, L'Arlisienne, DjamUeh, the overture Patrie, and Carmen. Much was expected from this highly gifted musician when l his untimely death occurred. I BJOmaon Oyytrn'tikn), BJOmstjmM. Nonf«giM poet, novelist, dnunatiat,WM bom in OstofdaUo In ^^^j In. early Ufe an historical dnma of his called Valborg, was accepted by tha royal theater, but ito author withdrew the piece. In 1856 the international studente* reunion at Upsala stimulated him again to »n effort (o produce a national poetry, free from foreign influences. He began with 5ynn4M &)(baMm, a story of peasant life, which wee followed by Apie and many other pieces. In 1868 he K*«^»»«« director of the theater at Bergen, and produced quickly two dramas, McUrm Slaaen* and HalU Hulda, both treating of national Bubjecte. Mttrit Stuart and Sigurd SUnU>e are both weU-kaown plays, and he wrote, besides his dramas, a series of folk plays, an epic, and much beautiful lyric poetry. After 1882 he lived for many years In Paris, Tyrol, and Rome, spending most of bis summers on his fann in Norway. Received Nobel prize for literature in 1903. Died, 1910. Black, Frank Swett, lawyer, governor; was bom in Limington, Maine, 1853 ; graduated at Dartmouth, 1875; LL. D.. 1898; admitted to bar. 1879; was editor Johnstown, N. Y., Journal; later reporter Troy^ N. Y., Whig; clerk In registry department, Troy post office; admitted to bar, 1879; member of congress, 1895-97; governor of New York, 1897-99; practiced law. New York city, 1898-1912. Died, 1913. Black Hawk, American Indian, chief of the Sacs and Foxes, who waged war tor the recovery of the tribal lands 1832, occasioning what is known as the "Black Hawk war"; bom in 1767, died in 1838. Black, John Charles, lawyer, was bom at Lexing- ton, Miss., 1839; educated in common schools, Danville, 111., and at Wabash college, Crawforda- ville, Ind.; M. A., Wabash; LL. D., Knox col- lege. Served in civil war, 1861-65; private to colonel and brevetted brigadier-general United States volunteers; commissioner pensions. United States, 1885-89; member of congress at large from IlUnois, 1893-95; United States attorney, northern district, 1895-99; commander-in-chief, G. A. R., 1903-04; commander Illinois cnni- mandery, military order loyal legion; president United States civil service commission since 1904. Black, Joseph, eminent British chemist, was bom in 1728 at Bordeaux, France. Between 1760 and 1763 he evolved the theory of "latent heat" on which his scientific fame chiefly rests, and which formal the immediate preliminary to the next great stride in discovery by his pupil and assistant, James Watt. Died, 1799. Black, William, British novelist, was bom at Olas- gow, 1841; studied art with the view of beoocn- ing a landscape-painter. Instead, howevw, he adopted journalism, having written for the GIos- gow Weekly Citizen prior to his removal to Lon- don in 1864. During the Prusso-Austrian war of 1866 he was war correspondent for the Mom' ing Star; and in a novel, Love or Marriage, he utilized some of his experiences, /n SUk Attir* and Kilmeny were fairlv successful: but it was A Daughter of Heth that eetablished his reputa- tion. Later novels were The Strange Adwen- tures of a Phaeton; A Prineeea of ThvU, best per- haps of all his many romances; Madcap VtaUl, Madeod of Dare, Briteia, Wild Edin, etc. In 1870-74 he was assistant-editor of the DaUg News. He died at Brighton in 1806. Blackburn, Joseph CUy Styles, lawyer, legislator, was bom in Woodford countjr, Ky.. 1838; graduated from Centre college, Danville, Ky., 1857; admitted to bar, 1868; practiced In Chicago until civil war broke out; served in confederate army; after war practiced law In Kentucky; member Kentucky legislature, MS MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 1871-76; member of congress, 1876-85; United States senator, 1885-97; reelected, 1901-07; member of the isthmian canal commission, 1907-10. Blackie, John Stuart, Scotch philosopher, was bom at Glasgow in 1809; studicKl to be a lawyer, but devoted himself largely to Uterary pursuits. He studied German, executed a metncal transla- tion of Goethe's Faust, part I.; filled the chair of humanity in Aberdeen, and afterward, 1852-82, that of Greek in Edinburgh; was a zealous educational reformer; took an active interest in everything affecting the welfare and honor of Scotland; founded a Celtic chair in Edinburgh university; spoke and wrote much in his day on manifold subjects. Among his works, which are numerous, are Sdf-CuUxtre, Four Phases of Morals, Lays of the Highlands, and a translation of iiOschylus. He died m 1895. Blackmore, Richard DoddrldRe, British novelist.was born at Loiigworth, Berkshire, in 1825, and edu- cated at Exeter college, Oxford. He graduated in 1847, afterward studied law, was admitted to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1852, and prac- ticed for a time as a conveyancer. Poems by Melanter was the first of several volumes of verse ; of his novels the earliest were Clara Vattghan and Cradock NoweU, but his first distinct success was Lorna Doone, a Romance of Exmoor, which reached many editions. Blackmore's other novels, several of which reveal his love of garden- ing, are : The Maid of Sker, perhaps his second- best story; Alice Lorraine; Cripps the Carrier; Erema; Mary Anerley; Christowal, A Dartmoor Tale; Tommy Upmore; Springhaven; Perlycross, and Dariel. He died in 1900. Blackstone, Sir William, celebrated English jurist, was bom at London, in 1723. He was a judge, a member of parliament, and author of the well- known Commentaries on the Laws of England. At the bar, after seven years' practice, his pros- pects were so indifferent that he retired to Oxford on his fellowship, and there gave public lectures on English law. Their succe^js is supposed to have suggested to Viner the propriety of estab- lishing a professorship of law in the univer- sity, to which office Blackstone was elected, bemg the first Vinerian lecturer, in 1758. Subse- ouently, having married, he vacated his fellow- snip and was appointed principal of New-Inn hall. That oflQce, with his Vinerian professor- ship, he resigned in 1766. In 1770 he became one of the judges of the common pleas. Died, 1780. Blackwell, Elizabeth, physician, writer; was bom in Bristol, England, 1821 ; emigrated to the United States in 1832; educated in private schools in Bristol and New York; taught school in Kentucky and the Carolinaa; sought admis- sion to several medical colleges, but was refused until she entered the medical school at Geneva, N. Y., 1847. First woman in the United States to receive the degree of M. D. Established practice in New York, 1851; founded a hos- pital and in 1867, with her sister, Dr. Emily Blackwell, organized Woman's medical college of New York infirmary; lectured in England, 1858-59; registered as a physician in England, 1859, and after 1869 practiced in London and Hastings. Author: Pnysical Education of Girls; Religion of Health; Counsel to Parents on Moral Education; Pioneer Work in Opening the Medical Profession to Women; The Human Element in Sex; Decay of Municipal Representative Institutions; Scientific Method m Biology, etc. Died, 1910. Blaine, James Gillespie, American statesman, was bom at Brownsville, Pa., 1830. At seventeen he entered Washington college. Pa., and after graduating taught school at Blue Lick Springs, Ky. In 1854 he went to Maine to engage in journalism, which he relinquished four years later for a seat in the legislature. He served there until 1862, when he was elected to con gr e ss and remained there eighteen years. He was balloted on for the presidency at the convention of 1876, and received 351 votes out of a total of 754. He was then appointed United States senator to fill an unexpired term, and four years later was again a candidate for the presidency. President Garfield appointed him secretary of state, which office he held until after the deatk of the president. He resigned from the cabinet in 1881. In 1884 he received the republican nomination for president, and was defeated by Grover Cleveland. In 1889 he again became secretary of state, in the cabinet of President Harrison. He is the author of Twenty Years of Congress and Political Discussions. He died in 1893. Blake., liUie Devereux, lecturer, author; was bora at Ilahigh, N. C. 1835; educated at Miss Apthorp's school, New Haven, Conn.; after- ward took Yale course with tutors at home; married first in 1855 to Frank G. Q. Umsted. who died in 1859; second, 1866, to Grenfill Blake, who died in 1896. Active in woman sufiTrage movement since 1869; for eleven years president of New York state woman suffrage association ; founded, 1900, and ever since presi- dent of national legislative league. Author: Southwold; Rockford; Fettered for Life; Woman's Place To-day and A Daring Experiment. Blake, Robert, English admiral, who. more than any other, contributed to render England mis- tress of tne sea, was born at Bridgewater, in Somersetshire, 1599. In 1649, in conjunction with two other officers of equal rank, he was appointed "general of the sea." This was Blake's true sphere, and in it he soon exhibited transcendent ability. After destroying, with the exception of two vessels, the sauadron of Prince Rupert, which had sought safety in the Tagus in 1651, Blake forced the royalists to sur- render Guernsey, Jersey, and the Scilly isles. In 1652 he was made sole admiral of the fleet for nine months, and during this year he fought four engagements with Dutch fleets under Tromp, Ruyter, and DeWitt. In the first, on May 19tL, the Dutch retreated under cover of darkness, with the loss of one man-of-war captured and another sunk. In the next engagement a squadron of twelve ships was captured; and in the third, on September 28th, three Dutch ves- sels were destroyed, and the rear-admiral taken. In 1654 Blake was apf>ointed by Cromwell to command an English fleet in the Mediterranean, where he soon made the British flag respected by Dutch, Spanish, and French alike. He next sailed to Algiers and Tripoli, landed, and set free all the English who were detained as slaves. He concluded alliances highly favorable to England with Venice and Tuscany. In 1657 he defeated the Spaniards at Santa Cruz, one of the most daring actions in his memorable career. Died, 1657. Blake, William, English artist and poet, was bom at London, 1757. After studying art for some years, he began to paint in water colors and to engrave illustrations for magazines. At the same time he wrote poetry which showed great power and beauty. Poetical Sketches, Songs of Experience, and Songs of Innocence, are among his best works. Most of his other poems are valuable chiefly because of the wonaerful way he had of illustrating and printing them in vari- ous colors, which he said had been revealed to him. Among these quaint and now rare editions are Books of Prophecies, Gates of Paradise, Vision of the Daughters of Albion, and America. During his life his genius was little recognized, but many THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 861 now believe that England has not produced his 8up>erior in force and originality. Ue died at London in 1827. Blanc (bl&Ji), Jean Joseph Louis, French historian and socialist writer, was born at Madrid, 1811, started as a journalist; founded the Revxie du Prodis, and published separately in 1840, Organ- ization of L(A>or, which had already appeared in the Revue, a work which gained the favor of the working classes; was member of the provis- ional government of 1848, and eventually of the national assembly; threatened with im- peachment, fled to England; returned to France on the fall of the empire, and was elected to the chamber of deputies in 1871. Blanc wrote an elaborate and well-written history of the French revolution. Died at Cannes, 1882. Blanche of Castile, queen of Louis VIII. of France, and daughter of Alphonso IX., king of Castile, was bom about 1187. On the death of her hus- band, in 1226, she was declared regent of France, in which capacity she displayed great energy and address. After carrying on the government during the absence of her son, Louis IX., in the holy land, she died in 1252. Blanchet {hl&^'-sha'), Hon. Jean, jurist, puisne- judge of the court of king's bench, the highest court of the province of Quebec, since 1891; was bom in 1843; educated at seminary of Nicolet, near Three Rivers; LL. D., Laval university, Quebec, 1891 ; admitted to the bar, 1863; made a Q. C. by the provincial govern- ment, 1876 ; and by the marquis of Lome, 1880 ; elected batonnier of the Quebec section of the bar, 1889; reelected, 1890-91; elected batonnier general of the province, 1891; elected M. P. for the county of Beance, in the Quebec assem- bly, 1881, 1882, 1886, 1890; provincial secretary in the Mousseau and Ross administration; leader of the opposition to Mercier, 1890-91 ; was one of the commissioners selected in 1887 to revise the statute law of the province; was for many years president of the Asbestos mining and manufacturing company of Canada, and of the Artisans' permanent building society. Blanqui (Jbl&^'-ke'), ImvAs Auguste, French socialist, was bom at Pug6t-Th6niers, France, 1805, and made himself conspicuous by his passionate advo- cacy of the most extreme political opinions. He was one of the foremost fighters in all the French revolutions of the century, and for his share in the commune was sentenced in 1872 to transpor- tation to New Caledonia, a sentence commuted to hfe imprisonment, from which he was released in 1879. He died in 1881, having spent thirty- seven years of his life in prison. Blashfleld, Edwin Rowland, artist, was bom in New York, 1848; educated in Boston Latin school; studied at Paris^ 1867, under L6on Bonnat, also receiving advice from G6r6me and Chapu; exhibited at Paris salon, yearly, 1874- 79, 1881, 1891, 1892; also several years at royal academy, London; returned to United States in 1881 ; has exhibited genre picture«, portraits, and decorations. Among his paintings are "Christmas Bells," and "Angel with the Flam- ing Sword." Decorated one of the domes of the manufactures building. World's Columbian ex- position; ColUs P. Huntington's drawing room, and great central dome, library of congress. Has lectured on art at Columbia, Harvard, Yale, etc. Co-author: lUdian Cities; co-editor: Va- sari's Lives of the Painters. Blauvelt Q)l6'-vUt'\ Ulllan Evans, prima donna soprano; was bom at Brooklyn, N. Y., 1874; educated in public schools ; began musical educa- tion at five, violin study at seven; played violin in public seven years, while attending school: at fifteen began vocal education at National conservatory of music. New York; studied under M. JaoquM Bouhy In New York. Mkd Paris. Sang in concert* in France and Belgium, later lo Moscow, with philharmonic society ; made dAbut in opera at Th^&tre de la Monnale, BruMels, in Mirelle; returned to the Uniti'^l State*, da0am in concerts, oratorios, and recitals under SSldC Thomas, Damroech, etc.: sans before Quae* Margherita in Italy, 1898; before Queen VIo. tona in 1899; sang at Handel festival, CryMal Palace, London, 1900; annual toura in Europe and America since 1898; received decoration of order of St. CeciUa at Rome, 1901 (only woman ever so honoretl) ; marriexl William F. Pendleton, of New York, 1899. In 1903 appearad at royal Covent Garden, London, in r6lee Mar* guerite, in Faiut; Micaela, In Carmen; Ju- Uette, in Romeo and JulietU; Zcrlino, in Dr'-ha-ve), (Eng., fcfcj'-Mr). Hermann, the most celebrated physician of the eighteenth century, was bom near Leyden, Holland, 1668. In 1689 he was made doctor of philosophy, and in 1690 began the study of medicine, reading carefully Hippocrates among the ancients, and Sydenham among the moderns. He gained his doctor's degree at Harderwijk, 1693, and retumed to Leyden, where in 1<01 he was appointed lecturer on the theory of medicine. To combine practice with theory, he caused a hospital to be opened, where he gave clinical instructions to his pupils. Though 572 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT so industrious in his own profession, he under- took in 1718, after Lemort's deatii, the pro- fessorship of chemistry, and published in 1724 his ElemerUa Chemiae, a work which did much to render this science clear and intelligible, and although now entirely superseded by more advanced researches, one that will always occupy a high place in the history of chemistry. Peter the Great of Russia visited him at Leyden, and it is even said that a Chinese mandarin sent him a letter, addressed "Herr Jioerhaave, Celebrated Physician, Europe." His fame rests principally on his Institutionea Medica, and Aphoriami ae Cognoacendis et Curandia Morbia. He was a member of many learned academies. Died at ' Leyden, 1738. Boethlus (bo-e'-thl-ua), Aniclus Manilas Torquatus Severtnus, Roman philosopher, bom about 475, was profoundly learned, and filled the highest offices under the government of Theodoric the Goth. Three times consul, he was long the oracle of his sovereign and the idol of the people ; but his strict integrity and inflexible justice incited enemies to whose machinations be at last fell a victim. Falsely accused of a treason- able correspondence with the court of Constanti- nople, he was executed about 525, after a long and rigorous imprisonment. His Conaolationa of Philosophy, written in prison, abounds in the loftiest sentiments clothed in the most fascinating language. Bolleau-Desprtaux (hwQ,'46'-d&'-pra'-6'), Nicholas, French poet and critic, was bom at Paris in 1036. His first work was a satire. Adieu of a Poet to the city of Paria. He was a friend of Molifere, LaFontaine, and Racine, and was pensioned by the king. His Art of Poetry is considered very fine. He did much as a critic to purify and refine the French lan^age, and has had a great influence on French literature. He was mae and the United States. When the revolt against the Spanish yoke broke out in Venezuela, he joined it, but had to fly. In 1813 he returned, and, gather- ing a force together, defeated General Monte- verde at Cartlcas. The tide then turned and Bolivar fled to Jamaica, but he shortly returned, and after varying fortune in 1819 won the battle of Boiaca, resulting in the inauguration of the republic of Venezuela in the same year, to which was afterward united New Granada. In 1822 Bolivar went to help the Peruvians in their struggle for liberty, and was given the chief command. After a long campaign he won the great battle of Ayacucho. Upper Peru was constituted a separate republic with the title of Bolivia. As president of Colombia he had to endure much factious hostility; but though he tendered his resignation more than once it was never accepted, the supreme power being con- firmed in him in 1828. Died, 1830. BoUes ibdlz), Albert Sidney, author, econombt, was bom at Montville, Conn., 1846; admitted to Connecticut bar and engaged in practice; elected judge of the probate court for district of Norwich, Conn., 1870; editor Norwich Btdletin, and later editor Banker^ Magazine; was professor of mercantile law and banking, Wharton school of finance and economy, university of Pennsyl- vania, four and one-half years; chief bureau industrial statistics. Pa., eight years; was lecturer, university of Pennsylvania, now at Haverford college. Author: Financial History of the United Staiea; Practical Banking; Barm Officera; Bank Collectiona; The Judicial Inter- pretation of the National Bank Act; Industrial History of the United States; The Conflict Be- tween Labor and Capital; The Hiatory of Penn- sylvania; Money, Bankirig, and Finance. Bolton, Sarah Knowles, author; bom at Farming- ton, Conn., 1841; daughter of John Segar and Mary Elizabeth (Miller) Knowles; spent two years in Europe studying literary and educational matters, and what employers are doing to help their workmen- married Charles E. Bolton in 1866, who diea in 1901. Was for three years associate editor The Congregationalist. Author: Orlean Lamar and Other Poema; The Preaent Problem (a short novel); How Succesa is Won; Poor Boya Who Became Famous; Girla Who Became Famoua; Social Studiea in England; Storiea from Life (fiction); From Heart and Nature, poems (with her son, Charles K. Bolton) ; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 673 A Country Idyl and Other Stories (fiction); Every Day Living; Our Devoted Friend^ the Dog, and many biographical books dealing with famous men and women. Bonaparte, Charles Joseph, lawyer, ex-eecretary of the navy, and ex-attorney general, United States, was born in Baltimore, 1851- grandson of Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia; graduate of Harvard in 1871, Harvard law school in 1874; since then in law practice in Baltimore; prominent in reform movements; republican presidential elector from Maryland, 1904; memoer council of national civil service reform league; president of national munici- ?al league; member United States board of ndian commissioners, 1902-04 ; overseer at Har- vard, 1891-1903, trustee Catholic university of America since 1904; awarded Laetare medal by university of Notre Dame, 1903; was secre- tary of the navy, 1905-06; attorney-general of United States, 1906-09. Bonaparte, Charles Lucien Jules Laurent, prince of Canino and Musignano, Lucien's eldest son by his second marriage, was bom at Paris in 1803. He never exhibited any inclination for political life, preferring the more quiet pursuits of literature and science. He acquired a con- siderable reputation as a naturalist, and espe- cially as a writer on ornithology. Died, 1857. Bonaparte, J6r6me, youngest brother of Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio in 1784. He served as naval lieutenant in the expedition to Hayti. When war broke out between France and Eng- land in 1803, J6r6me was cruising off the West Indies, but he was soon compelled to take refuge in the port of New York. While in the United States he married, in 1803, Elizabeth Patterson, of Baltimore, who died in 1879. Subsequently he was employed by Napoleon in the liberation of Genoese prisoners who had been captured by the dey of Algiers. In the war with Prussia he commanded, in concert with General Van- damme, the 10th corps in Silesia, and in 1807 was made king cf Westphalia. After his brother's abdication he left Paris, 1814, and visited Switzer- land and Austria, but ultimately settled in Florence. His request to be allowed to return to France was rejected, but was afterward f ranted. He was appointed governor of the nvalides in 1848, and in 1850 was made a French marshal. In 1852 provision was made by the French chambers, in default of issue of Napoleon III., by which the right of succession was confirmed to J6r6me and his heirs. Died, 1860. Bonaparte, Joseph, eldest brother of Napoleon I., was born at Corte, in Corsica, 1768, and was educated at Autun. On the death of his father he returned to Corsica, exerted himself to sup- port the younger members of the family, and removed with them to Marseilles in 1793. In 1797 he was elected a member of the council of five hundred, and in the same year was sent as ambassador from the republic to Rome. In 1800, having proved his ability in several oflBces of state, he was chosen by the first consul as plenipotentiary to conclude a treaty of friend- ship with the United States. After the corona- tion of Napoleon, Joseph was made commander- in-chief of the army of Naples; in 1805, ruler of the Two Sicilies; and in 1806, king of Naples. In 1808 he was summarily transferred by his brother to the throne of Spain, and Murat took his place as king of Naples. For Joseph this was no favorable change; he found himself unprepared to cope with the Spanish insurgents, and after the defeat of the French at Vittoria he returned to his estate at Morfontaine, in France. After the battle of Waterloo he accom- panied Napoleon to Rochefort, whence they intended to nail separately for the United Stat«*. He died in Flon-nce in 1844. Bonaparte, Josephine (wife of Napoleon I.). 8m Josephine. Bonaparte, Louis, brother of Napoleon I.. wa« born in 1778. After riains from nonur to Doaor he was nominally made king of Holland, being little more than a governor subordinate tohS brother. Whatever may have been the fault* of his reign, it is liiphly to his credit that although a foreigner he administered the affairs of to* kingdom in the interest of his people. He re- fused to accept the tendered crown of Spain, and did not enrich himself by his reign. After the restoration of the house of Orange, Louis con- sidered himself free from all responsibility. and returned to Paris, 1814. On the escape of his Son, Louis Napoleon, from the prison of Ilam, Louis was removed as an invidid to Leghorn. Died, 1846. Bonaparte, Lucien, brother of Napoleon, and Erince of Canino, was bom in 1775; received is education in the college of Autun. Rising gradually from one oflice to another, he waa elected deputy for the department of Liamone, and in the council of five nundred Bp>oke against the squandering of state property, and formed a party favorable to the views of his brotiier Napoleon. Shortly before the 18th Brumaire he was elected president of the council of five hundred, and was the hero of that day. A* ambassador to Madrid, 1800, he contrived to gain the confidence of King Charles ly. and bis favorite, Godoy. It is said that for his service* in the treaty of peace concludetl between Spain and Portugal, 1801, he received 5,000,000 franc*. His opposition to Napoleon's progress toward monarchy involved the brothers in many ouarreU. In 1810 he sailed for America, but fell into the hands of the English, was taken to England, and after a debate in parliament was declared a Erisoner, but treated with distinction. After is brother's downfall he returned to Rome. Died, 1840. Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I., page 485. Bonaparte, Napoleon Eugtoe Louis Jean Joseph* son of Napoleon III. and of the empress Eugenie, born in 1856; was educated under his father** care at Paris and Versailles. On the outbreak of war with Prussia, 1870, he went with th* emperor to the front, and was present at th* battle of Gravelotte. On the abdication of Napoleon III., and on the declaration cf a repub- lic in France, the youth and his mother took refuge at Chiselhurst, England. Soon after be entered the military school at Woolwich arsenal to complete his studies, and was graduated with high honors. When the Zulu war in South Africa commenced, the young man volunteered his services to the British government and wa* killed in 1879. Bonaparte, Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul, nick- named Plon-Plon, son of Jdr6me Bonaparte and Sophia Dorothea, was bom in 1822; married, 1859, Princess Clotilde of Sardinia. Bv virtu* of the decree of the French senate. 1852, Na^ poleon Joseph became in 1879, on the death of Prince Napoleon, son of the emperor, the repre- sentative of the Uonapartist claim to the French throne. From early manhood be wa* an advo- cate of a popular form of government. Died, 1891. Bonar {b6n'-ar), Horatius, hymn-writer, wa* bom at Edinburgh in 1808; from the high school paa*ed to the university, and became minister at Kel*o Free church, 1837-66, and then at Edinbuijrii. He edited the Christian Treasury and other magazines, and published some forty religloa* works, but is bwt known as the author of Hymns of Faith and Hope. He died in 1889. 574 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Bonar, James, author, economist, was bora at Collace, Perthshire, Scotland, 1852; educated at Glasgow university; Leipzig and Tubingen; Balliol college, Oxford. Lecturer in east Lon- don, 1877-8W; junior examiner in H. M. civil service commission, 1881 ; senior examiner, 1895; deputy master of Canadian branch of royal mint, 1907. Author: Beck's Biblical Psychologi/; Parson Malthua; Malthus and his Work; liicardo's Letters to Malthus; Philoso- phy and Political Economy; Political Economy; contributions to Craik's Prose Authors, Pal- grave's Dictionary of Political Economy, Conrad's Handwdrttrbuch der Staataivissenschaften, and Encyclopcedia Britannica. Bonaventura (bd'-7ui-v^n-M0'-rd), Saint, cardinal, surnained the "seraphic doctor," his real name John of P'idenza, was born in Tuscany in 1221: entered Franciscan order; was chosen general of the order and papal legate at the council of Lyons in 1274, during the session of which he died; was a mystic in theology; ascribed knowl- | edge of the truth to union with God, such as I existed between man and his Maker prior to the | fall, a state which could be removed only by a life of purity and prayer; his writings were : admired by Luther. I Bond, Ut. Hon. Sir Robert, premier and colonial j secretary of Newfoundland since 1900, was bom in 1857; was educated for the bar but entered I politics before being admitted ; entered the | legislature, 1882; elected speaker of the assem- I blv, 1884; an executive councillor, with port-: folio of colonial secretary, 1889-97: appointed , a delegate to British government dv the gov- | emment of Newfoundland on the French j treaties question, 1890 ; in the same year the j British government app>ointed him to assist | Lord Pauncefote in negotiating a reciprocity treaty with the United States, and he was mainly instrumental in completing what is known as the Bond-Blaine convention; ap- pointed chairman of the deputation sent by the government to the "Ottawa conference," 1895 j special delegate to conference on French treaties in Downing street, 1901; recipient of the freedom of the city of Edinburgh, 1902; in the same year was authorized by British government to reopen negotiations with the United States for reciprocal trade between that country and Newfoundland, and succeeded in concluding the treaty known as the Hay-Bond treaty; assisted in drafting regulations for carrying out Anglo-French convention, 1904; hon. LL. D., Edinburgh. Bonet-Maury (bo'-nd' mo^-re'), Amy-Gaston, theologian, author, educator, vice-dean of Protestant school of divinitv of Paris; was born 1842; educated Lyc6e ilenry IV., Paris; schools of divinity Geneva and Strassburg; served as Presbyterian minister in the Walloon churches of Netherland, 1868-72; called back to France after the disasters of his country in 1870-71, he served as Protestant minister at Beauvais, where he erected the first church, and at St. Denis ; lecturer in church history at Prot- estant school of divinity of Paris, 1879; for twenty years took a large share in aJl endeavors made to improve in France primary education as librarian of the Mus^e Pedagogique, and to advance the knowledge of the history of the Huguenots. French delegate at congress of health and education, London, 1884; the parliament of religions, Chicago, 1893; the congress of religious sciences at Stockholm, 1897, and of free religious thinkers at Paris, 1900, London 1901, Basel 1903, and Boston 1907; corresponding member of the Institut de France, 1908. He has written many books on religion and education. Bonheur (bo'-nir'), Marie Bosalle (more commonly called Rosa), French artist, was born in Bordeaux in 1822. Her first master was her own father. Raymond Bonheur, an artist of merit, who died in 1853. In 1841 she contributed for the first time two small pictures to the French exhibition, "Two Rabbits," and "Goats and Sheep," fol- lowed by a succession of highly finished compo- sitions, the year 1849 producing what some consider her finest picture, "Tillage in Nivemais," which has been placed in the collection of the Luxembourg. In 1853 her famous "Horse Fair" was the principal attraction of the Paris exhibition, and m 18G5 she sent to the Universal exhibition at Paris a new landscape of large dimensions, "Hay-making Season in Auvergne." From 1849 she directed the gratuitous school of desi^ for young girls. During the siege of Pans, 1870-71, ner studio and residence at Fontainebleau were spared and respected by special order of the crown prince of Prussia. Her picture of the "Horse Fair" came into the possession of the late A. T. Stewart, of New York, and at the sale of his pictures in 1887 was bought for $55,500 by Cornelius Vanderbilt, and by bum presented to the Metropolitan museum, New York. Died, 1899. Boniface (bdn'-^/da). Saint, was bom at Crediton, in Devonshire, 680. He was one of the most noted saints of the Roman Catholic church, generally styled "the apostle of Germany." His real name was Winfrid, and he devoted himself early to the monastic life. For many years he en^a^ed with much success in preaching and establishing churches in Germany, but was finally killed by a mob of armed pagans at Dokkum, in West Friesland. He was appointed archbishop of Mainz by Pope Gregory II., and held the arch- bishopric until 754. Died, 755. Boniface VIII^ previously Benedetto Gaetano, a native of Ana!gni, was born about 1228, and elected pope in 1294. He failed in his attempts to assert a feudal superiority over Sicily, and to exercise his papal authority in the disputes between France and England. Philip "the fair" of France, maintained the independence of the kingdom, disregarding even the sentence of excommunication to which the pope proceeded. Philip, at last, with the aid of Italian enemies of Boniface, maide him prisoner at Anagni, to which he had fied ; and, although he was hberated by the people of Anagni after two days' imprison- ment, he daed within about a month, 1303. Bonnat (bo'-nd'), L6on Joseph Florentln, French painter, was born at Bayonne, 1833, and studied at Madrid, in Paris, and in Italy. He became famous for religious pictures, and latterly is best known as a great portrait painter. His portraits of Thiers and Victor Hugo are much esteemed. He is a member of the institute. Bonner, Edmund, English prelate, bishop of Lon- don, was bom about 1500. The reputation he gained at Oxford by his knowledge of the canon law recommended him to the notice of Wolsey, who promoted him to several offices in the church. After the fall of Wolsey, Bonner took an active share in the work of the reforma- tion, and received due promotion from Henry VIII. In 1533 he was deputed to appear before the pope at Marseilles, to appeal for the excom- municated monarch to a general council. In 1540 he was made bishop of London. The death of Henry cooled his Protestant zealj and having given proofs of his lukewarmness in the cause of the reformation, he was at length, in 1549, committed to the Marshalsea, and deprived of his bishopric. The accession of Queen Mary restored him to office, and gave him the oppor- t\mity of revenge. As vicegerent and presiaent of the convocation he was the principal agent in THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 676 that bloody persecution which has made the reign of Mary infamous. After the accession of Elizabeth he refused to take the oath of suprem- acy. He was accordingly deposed from his bishopric and shut up in the Marshalsea, where he died in 1569. Bonnet (bo'-nS'), Charles, French naturalist and philosopher, was born at Geneva, 1720. His Recherches sur I' Usage dea FeuUles dea Plantea, published in 1754, contained the result of much observation on important points of vegetable physiology. He published several works on psychology, in which materialistic views decid- edly prevail ; but in his Id6es sur I'Etai Futur de^ Etres Vivants, ou Paling&nisie Philosophique, he endeavored to demonstrate the reasonableness of the Christian revelation, and maintained the future life of all living creatures, and the perfec- tion of their faculties in a future state. His Considerations sur les Corps Organises is devoted to an examination of the theories of generation. He was for some years a member of the great council of his native city. Died, 1793. Bonntvard, de (di bo'-ne'-v&r'), Francois, French historian and hero of Byron's Prisoner of Chillon; was born near Geneva, 1496; educated at Turin, and became prior of St. Victor, near Geneva, 1510, at the age of fourteen years. An ardent republican, he took sides with the Genevese against Duke Charles III. of Savoy. Having fallen into the hands of robbers who delivered him into the power of the duke of Savoy, he was imprisoned in 1530 in the castle of Chillon. The Genevese aided by the Bernese effected his liberation in 1536. The last four years he had spent in horrid dungeons, where, by his monoto- nous and perpetual walking, he had worn a deep channel into the rock that formed the floor of his wretched abode. On his return to Geneva he enjoyed the honors due to his patriotism, and was made one of the council of two hundred. He wrote a history of Geneva and other works, and has sometimes been called the "Rabelais of Geneva." He died about 1570. Boone, Daniel, American hunter and pioneer, was born in Bucks county. Pa., 1735. His father, a farmer, moved to North Carolina when Daniel was eighteen years old. The boy had but little education, but he knew the woods and Indian life. When thirty-four years old he went with five others into the wilds of Kentucky. He had many adventures and fights with the savages, and was captured by them, but escaped; in 1775 he moved his own and five other families there from North Carolina. He built a fort on the Kentucky river which he named Boones- borough. The Indians attacked the fort several times, but were driven off. In 1778 they caught Boone while away from the fort and carried him to Detroit, where one of them adopted him as a son. Hearing of a plan to attack Boonesbor- ough he ran away, and, reaching his fort, made ready and defended it with about fifty men against a large force of Canadians and Indians. He lived there until 1792. In 1795 he went to Missouri, where he died in 1820. Booth, Ballington, general-in-chief and president Volunteers of America, was bom at Brighouse, England, 1859 ; son of Rev. William and Catherine Booth. Commander Salvation Army, Australia, 1885-87; United States, 1887-96; founded, 1896, the Volunteers of America (incorporated November 6, 1896), a religious philanthropic organization. Ordained presbyter, Chicago, 1896 ; married Sept., 1886, Maud Charlesworth, who is also active in Volunteers of America. Writer, public speaker, philanthropist. Booth, Edwin Thomas, American actor, son of Junius Brutus Booth, was bom in Baltimore, Md., 1833; appeared first on the stage in 1849, in I Rtehard III. He speedily roM in hk nrofwiiuii, visited England and the continent of Buropo in 1861, 1880, and 1883, and met with enthuai- astic receptions. From 1886 to 1891 be appeared with Lawrence Barrett. Hie laat appearance was in Hamlet in 1891. He opened Booth's theater in New York, 1869, and did more than any other individual to keep the tone of dramatic art up to a moral and literary standard. Died, 1893. Booth, Junius Brutus, actor, was bom in F-nglmd in 1796; first appeared on the stage in 1813, in the Honeymoon, and within four yean became famous in London as Richard III. Hie Amerleaa career was a triumph, yet marred by intemper- ance. He died in 1852. Booth, Maud Balllngton (nie Charlesworth), wife of Ballington Booth, general-in-clilef. Volunteer* of America, was born in 1865. Author: Branded; Look Up and Hope; Sleepy Time Storiea; LiahU o/Childland; After Prison— What t The Curat of Septic Soul Treatment; Wanted — Antiaeptie Christians; Twilight Fairy Tales. Booth-Tucker, Frederic St. GeorKe de Lautour, commander of Salvation Army in the United States; was bom at Monghyr, Bengal, India, 1853 ; educated at Cheltenham college, England ; passed Indian civil service examinations, 1874; studied in London until 1876; appointed to Punjab and held positions of assistant commis- sioner, magistrate, and treasury officer ; resigned to join Salvation Army, 1881 ; inaugurated Salva- tion Army work in India, 1882; had charge there until 1891; secretary for international work. Salvation Army, London, 1891-96; from 1896 to 1904 in charge of Unitetl States ; married in 1888 Emma Moss, daughter of General William Booth, of Salvation Army; she died in railway accident in 1903. Adopted name of Booth- Tucker. Author: The Life of Catherine Booth; Life of General William Booth; In Darkest India and the Way Out; Favorite Songs of the Salvation Army; Monograph for the Paria Expoaition on the Work of the Salvation Army in the United States, etc. Booth, William, general and commander-in-chief of Salvation Army, and director of its social institutions for destitute, vicious, and criminal classes, was bom in Nottingham, England, 1829. He was converted among the Wesleyans, became a miiuster of the Methodist New Connection in 1852; resigned in 1861; began evangelistic work, and in 1865 organized the Christian mission in the densely ixjpulated east end of London. Out of this grew the Salvation Army, whose ramifications spread throughout the world. He is the author of Orders and Regulations for Oflicera and Soldiers; Letters to my Soldiers; Religion for Every Day; Salvation Soldiery Visions; In Darkest England and tha Way Out, and numerous other books and pam- phlets. Publications: newsjiapors entitled War Cry, Young Soldier, Social Gazette, and Bands- man and Songster, with a joint weekly circulation of nearly a million copies in twenty-one languages ; monthhes with a circulation of 140,000. He five times visited the Uniteance, he was created duke of Valentinois and married the daughter of Jean d'Albret, king of Navarre. After accompanying Louis XII. 's Italian cam- paign, he conceived the idea of a kingdom in central Italy, and by force, treachery, and mur- der he had nearly succeeded in obtaining ascend- ancy throughout the Roman states, when the death of his father deprived him of his great source of power. He was sent in 1504 a prisoner to Spain by Pope Julius II., but escaped and joincKl the king of Navarre's army against Castile. In this campaign he was killed in 1507. Boncla, Lucresla, sister of the preceding, and like him the poasessor of an infamous reputation, was bom in 1480. Her father compelled her twice to marriage and divorce before sne became the wife of the duke of Bisceglia. After her third husband had been murdered by Cesare Borgia, she married Alfonso of Este, and passed her life in the court of Ferrara, cultivating literature and art. Died, 1519. Borgiom, John Gutson de la Mothe ("Gutzon Borglum"), sculptor, painter, bom in Idaho. 1867; educated at public schools, Fremont and Omaha, Neb., and St. Mary's college, Kansas; studied art in San Francisco; went to Paris, 1890, worked and studied in Acaddmie Julien and Ecole des Beaux Arts. Exhibited as painter and sculptor in Paris salon ; in Spain, 1892 ; in Cali- fornia, 1893-94 ; retumed East, and in 1896 went to London, remaining there and in Paris until 1901 ; in New York since 1902. Exhibited in London and Paris, 1896-1901; held successful "one-man" exhibition in London; received gold medal sculpture at Louisiana Purchase exposition; sculptor for work on cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York. Work includes, in painting, figures and animals, portraits and mural painting; in sculpture figures and horses and groups in bronze ; executed the gargoyles on the Princeton dormitory, class of 1879. Borglum, Solon Hannibal, sculptor, was bom at Ogden, Utah, 1868; pupil in Cincinnati art scnool and under I^ouis Rebisso and Fr6miet, Paris. Has made special study of western life, living among cowboys and Indians; special prize and home scholarship, Cincinnati art school, 1897; honorable mention, Paris salon, 1899; silver medal. Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1900; silver medal, Buffalo exposition, 1901; gold medal, St. Louis exposition, 1904; member national sculpture society. Borromeo (bor-ro-mi'-d). Carlo, Count, cardinal and archbishop of the Roman Catholic church, who exercised great influence during the pontifi- cate of Pope Pius IV., was bom at the castle of Arona, on the Lago Maggiore, northern Italy, 1538. His energy was especially displayed dur- ing the famine of 1570, and during the plague in Milan in 1576. Many supposed miracles at nis tomb led to his being canonized in 1610 by Poj>e Paul V. Several memoirs of him have been published. Died, 1584. Borrow, George, English author and traveler, was bom in Norfolk in 1803. His travels, as agent for the British and Foreign Bible society, through almost all countries of Europe and a part of Africa, made him familiar with many modem languages, even to their dialectic pecu- liarities. He made the gypsies one of the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 677 principal subjects of his study. His first Im- portant work, The Zincali, or An Account of the Gypsies in Spain, made a favorable impres- sion. It was followed by The Bible in Spain. Died, 1881. Bory de Saint Vincent (&d'-r^ dS ada v&s'-aits'), Jean Baptlste George Marie, French traveler and naturalist, was born in 1780 at Agen, Lot-et- Garonne. In 1798 he proceeded, along with Captain Baudin, in a scientific mission to New Holland, but separated from him before they reached their destination. On his return he wrote his Essai sur les lies Fortuniea de I'antique Atlantide, and his Voyage dans les quaire prin- cipales lies des Mers d' Afrique. Having Joined the army, he served at Ulm and Austerfitz, and on Soult's staff in Spain. He served as colonel at Waterloo, and afterward had to retire to Belgium. At Brussels he edited, together with Van Mons, the Annales des Sciences Physiques. He returned to France in 1820, wrote for liberal i'oumals, and for Courtin's Encydopidie, etc. n 1827 appeared his U Homme, Essai ZoSlogique sur le Genre humain. He rendered an important service to science by editing the Dictionnaire Classique de I'Histoire Naiurdle. In 1839 he undertook the principal charge of the scientific commission which the French government sent to Algeria. He died in 1846. Bosanquet (jbd'-saa'-ka'), Bernard, educator, author formerly fellow of University college, Oxford; M. A.. Oxford; LL. D., Glasgow; past president of Aristotelian society; fellow of British acad- emy ; bom at Alnwick, England, 1848 ; educated at Harrow; Balliol college, Oxford; lecturer University college, Oxford, 1871-81 ; in London occupied with authorship and university exten- sion lecturing and social work, especially in con- nection with charity organization society, 1881- 97; then went to live in country; professor of moral philosophy, St. Andrews, 1903-08. Author: Logic, or Morphology of Knowledge; History of Aesthetic; Knowledge and Reality; Essays and Addresses; Civilization of Christen- dom.; Essentials of Logic; Aspects of Social Prob- lem.; Psychology of Moral Self; Companion to Pl(Uo's Republic for English Readers; Education of the Young in Plato's Republic; Philosophical Theory of the State; edited translation of Lotze's System of Philosophy; translation of Hegel^s Aesthetic (Introduction); translation of Scho- mann's Constitutional History of Athens. BoBcawen (bds'-kd-wSn), Edward, the admiral "Old Dreadnought," was bom in Cornwall, Eng- land, 1711, the son of Viscount Falmouth. He highly distinguished himself at the taking of Porto Bello, 1739, at the siege of Carthagena, 1741, and in command of the Dreadnought, in 1744, captured the French M6dSe, with 800 prisoners. He had an important share in the victory of Cape Finisterre, 1747, where he was wounded in the shoulder; and in command of the East Indian expedition displayed high military skill in the retreat from Pondicherry. He returned to England in 1750. In 1755 he intercepted the French fleet off Newfoundland, capturing two 64-gun ships and 1,500 men; in 1758 he was commander-in-chief of the successful expedition against Cape Breton. Boscawen crowned his career by his signal victory over the French Toulon fleet in Lagos bay, 1759. He received the thanks of parliament, a pension of 3,000 pounds a year, a seat in the privy council, and the command of the marines. He died at his Surrey seat, Hatchlands Park, 1761. Bossnet {bo'-su'-i'), Jacques B^nlgne, a distin- fuished orator and prelate of the Roman Catho- c church, was bom in Dijon, France, 1627; bishop of Condom and of Meaux, and tutor to the dauphin, the son of Louis XlV. He was the author of aeveral oontrovenial worlu, all in dcfen.se of the Roman Catholic doctrine; but his fame reata chiefly on his Sermon*, which, of their kind, are of unrivaled eloquwuM, thou|^ they are too dramatic for the majority Of F- m"«h readers. Several of his compodtioiMi, writt«n la the first instance for the um of tha dauphin, and csrM'cially his Diacourae on Vnivaraal Hittory, Srintcd in 1G81, long retained a hisb reputatioo. •led, 1704. ^^ Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Samual Johnson, was bom in Eklinburgh, 1740. He showed early a penchant for wrilins and an admiration for literary men. He fell in with Johnson on a visit to London in 1703, and con- ceived for him the most devoted regara : made a tour with him to the Hebrides In 1773, the Journal of which he afterward published: Milled in London, and was admitted to the English l>ar; succeeded, in 1782, to his father's estate, Auchin- leck, in Ayrshire, with an income of 1,600 pounda a year. J^ohnson dying in 1784, BosweU'a Ltf* of him appeared seven years after, a work unique in biography, and such as no man oould have written who was not a hcro-worBhipcr to the backbone. He died in 1795. Bosworth, Joseph, Anglo-Saxon scholar, was bom in Derbyshire in 1789, and died at Oxford In 1876, having been professor of Anglo-Saxon there from 1858, and having in 1807 given 10,000 pounds toward the establishment of a professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Ceunbridge. His chief works were Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Botha (bo'-ta), Rt. Hon. Louis, Boer soldier, statesman, bora in 1863 at Greytown In Natal, was a member of the Transvaal Volksraad, succeeded Joubert as commander-in-chief of the Boer forces during the war, and in 1907 became prime minister of the Transvaal colony under the new constitution. In the same year he visited England, attended the British colonial conference, and received the Edinburgh LL. D. and other nonors. Botta (bSf-ta), Carlo Giuseppe Gufcllelmo, Italian historian, was bom in 1766; studied medicine, and was imprisoned in 1792 as a revolution- ary. He took an active part in the govern- ment of Piedmont, set up by Napoleon, but after the emperor's overthrow he devoted him- self entirely to literature. He wrote The Hia- tory of Italy between 1789 and 1814, and a History of the American War of JndeperuUnea. Died, 1837. _, , Botta, Paul Emlle, French archaeologist and traveler, son of preceding, was bom in 1802. In 1830 he went to Egypt, where he entered into the service of Mehemet AU as a physician. The Frrach government about 18.33 appointed him consul in Alexandria, from which place he undertook a journey to Arabia, the results of which he gave to the world in a work entitled Relation d'unVoyoffa dana I'Yhnen, entrepria 1837, potxr la MuUum «r Hiatoire NaturMa da Porta. From Alexandria he was sent as consular agent to Mosul, where he commenced a series of discoveriea which form an epoch in archaeological science. In 1846 Botta was appointed consul at Jerusalem, and in 1857 at Tripoli. He returned to France in 1868, and died at Achfercs in 1870. , ,, BottlceUI (bdf-U-cha'-U), Alessaadro, Italian painter, was bom in 1447. In response to the invitation of Pope Sixtus IV., he went to Rome and executed some fine paintings for the chapel of the Vatican. On returning to Florence ne became a devoted follower of Savonarola. Died, 1515. BouKalnville (IxSd'-gdti'-vel'), Louis Antolne de, French navigator, was bom in Paris, 1729. In 1764 he went as secretary ol the French enbassy 678 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT to London. In 1756 he acted as aide-de-camp to the marquis of Montcalm, to whom the defense of Canada was intnisted. He took a voyage round the world with a frigate and a St. Malo transport, the first which the PVench ever accom- plished, which he described in his Voyage aiUour du monde. Died, J814. Boughton {b6'-tii,n), George Henry, artist, was bom in England, 1834, and brought to the United States when three years old. He studied in New York, Paris, and London, and was a mem- ber of the National academy of New York, and an associate of the royal academy after 1879. Among his paintings are "The Return of the Mayflower"; "Evangeline"; "Milton visited by Andrew Marvell"; "Passing into Shade"; "Coming from Church"; "Cold Without"; "Morning Prayer"; "The Scarlet Letter"; "The Idyl of the Birds"; "Puritans Goine to Church"; "Clarissa Harlowe"; etc. "The Idyl of the Birds" is generally considered his best achievement. Died, 1905. Bouguereau {h^'-gi^o'), William Adolphe, French painter, was born at La Rochelle in 1825. After a youth of hardship he succeeded in reaching Paris, where he obtained admission to the studio of Picot, and later to the Beaux Arts. In 185U he gained the prix de Rome, and went to Italy to studv. His first success was "The Body of St. Cecilia Borne to the Catacombs" in the salon of 1854. From that time his reputation was made. He painted some portraits, but his sub- jects are chiefly ideal, idyllic, and religious. He was made a member of the institute in 1876. Died, 1905. Bouillon (b(}6'-ydN'), Godfrey de, duke of lower Lorraine, "a worthy representative of Charle- magne, from whom he was descended in the female line," was born about 1061. He gained distinction in the armies of the emperor Henry IV., and was the great leader of the first cnisade. According to the chroniclers, he performed prod- igies of strength and valor against the infidels, and was unanimously proclaimed king of Jerusalem on its capture in 1099, but declined the title. At Ascalon, with 20,000 men, he defeated the sultan of Egypt with 400,000. He then devoted himself to organize his government, and drew up, for his courts of justice, the assizes of Jerusalem, a code of laws which was the fullest embodiment of feudal jurisprudence. He died in 1100, and was buried on Mount Calvary. His many virtues are justly extolled in Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. Boulanger (IxSb'-laji'-zhQ'), George Ernest Jean Marie, French general and politician, was bom in 1837; made colonel during the siege of Paris, general of brigade in 1880, and minister of war in 1886. He achieved great popularity, and was elected in 1889 deputy to the national as- sembly. A threat of prosecution drove him into exile, and he committed suicide at Brussels in 1891. Boulger (bol'-jer), Demetrius Charles, British his- torian and writer, was bom in London, 1853; educated at Kensington grammar school and private tuition. Has contributed to all the leading journals on questions connected with the Indian empire, China, Egypt, and Turkey since 1876; has also closely studied military questions, especially those connected with the French frontiers and the position of Belgium; founded, in conjunction with Sir Lepel Griffin, the Asiatic Quarterly Review, 1885, and edited it during the first four and a half vears of its exist- ence. Author: England and Russia in Central Asia; The History of China; General Gordon's Letters from the Crimea; Central Asian Questions; Life of Gordon; Story of India; The Congo State; The Belgians at Waterloo; India in the 19th Century; History of Belgium; Belgian Life in Town and Country; Belgium of the Belgians. Boulton {hol'-tun), Matthew, English mechanician, bom in 1728 at Birmingham. He founded the famous Soho iron and steel plant near Birming- ham. One of his first inventions was a new mode of inlaying steel. He entered into part- nership with James Watt, who had obtained a patent for the great improvements in the steam engine which have immortalized his name, and they established a manufactory of steam engines in 1769. They jointly contributed also to the improvement of coining machinery, and so to the perfection of the coinage itself. Died, 1809. Bourbald {IxJirr'-bd'-ki'), Charles Denis Sauter. French general, bom at Pau, 1816, fought in the Crimea and Italy. In 1870 he commanded the imperial guard at Metz; and under Gambetta organized the army of the North, and commanded the army of the Loire. His attempt to break the Prussian line at Belfort, though ably con- ceived, ended in disaster* in a series of desul- tory attacks on a much inferior force, 1871, he lost 10,000 men. In the wretched retreat to Switzerland that followed he attempted to commit suicide. He retired in 1881 and died in 1897. Bourbon ({NS>r'-b4$N'), Charles, French general, known as "the constable de Bourbon," was bom 1490 ; for his bravery at the battle of Marignano in 1515 he was nuule constable of France. But powerful enemies strove to undermine him in the favor of Francis I. ; and, threatened with the loss of some of his lands and dignities, he re- nounced the service of France, and concluded a private alliance with the emperor Charles V., and with Henry VIII. of England. At the head of a force of German mercenaries he joined the Spanish army in Lombardy in 1523, ancf, invading France in 1524, failern or 6 matics, in which he attained great proficiengr, without ever attending a university. His wonc. The New American Practical Aavigatar, was received with great favor. He also published an admirable translation of La Place's Mieamq%i» Cdeste, to which he added valuable annotations. He was later chosen professor of mathematics and astronomy in Harvard college, but declined to enter the executive council of the state. After- ward became manager of the Massachusetts life insurance association, president of the mechanics' institute, and president of the academy of arts and sciences in Boston. Died, 1838. Bowell {bou'-et), Hon. Sir Mackentle, Canadian statesman; premier of Cana6f-sBHres) (often, bo-z&r'-ls), Marcos, Greek patriot who distinguished himself in the early part of the struggle for Greek independence, was bom at Suli, in the mountains of Epirus, toward the close of the eighteenth century. He died in battle while successfully leading a body of 1200 men against the Turco-Albanian army, 4,000 strong, in 1823. He was honored with the title of the "Leonidas-of modem Greece." Bracton, Henry de, British ecclesiastic and jurist, was a "justice itinerant"; in 1264 he became archdeacon of Barnstaple and chancellor of Exeter cathedral, and died in 1268. His De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Anglice was the earliest attempt at a systematic treatment of the body of English law. Braddock, Edward, British major-general, was born in 1695; conmiander against the French in America in 1755; with a force of 2,000 British regulars and provincials, he moved forward to invest Fort du Quesne, now Pittsburg, Pa.; his troops, in passing through the deep forest ravine, fell into an ambuscade of Indians, while they were attacked in the front by the French, and half of them slain. The rest effected a hasty retreat under Colonel, afterward General, Wash- ington, Braddock's aide-de-camp. Braddock, mortally wounded, was carried forty miles to where the baggage had been left, and there died. Braddon, Mary Elisabeth (Mrs. Maxwell), popular English novelist, was born in London in 1837. In 1800 she wrote a comedietta called The Loves of Arcadia, which was brought out at the Strand theater. Her first success came with the publication, in 1862, of Lady Audley's Secret, which instantly attained popularity, and has been followed by niunerous works of the same order, such as Aurora Floyd; Eleanor's Victory; Lovds of Arden; Dead Sea Fruit; Weavers and Weft; The Cloven Foot; Mount Royal; Her Convict; During Her Maj'estt/s Pleasure, etc. Bradford, William, one of the Pilgrims, and second fovcrnor of Plymouth colony, was bom in Ingland in 1590, died at Plymouth, Mass., 1657. He sailed from Leyden, Iiolland, in the May- fUnoer. One of his first acts, as the successor of Governor Carver, was to confirm the treaty with Maasaeoit, just in time to suppress a danserous Indian conspiracy. Bradford's name is m the second patent, which conferred upon him. his "heirs, associates, and assigns," the territory named. He was governor, with some brief inter- ruptions, for thirty-one years, but declined to serve further. He was the author of a History of Plymouth Colony from 1602 to 1647. BradlauKh (brdd'-U), Charles, English politician, was born in London in 1833; in 1853 he enterea a solicitor's office: he then achieved a great influence with working men as a radical, and an antagonist of the Christian religion. His lecturer in the hall of science, London, on social, political, and religious questions, were very popular; and in 1860 he started the National Reformer^ against which a futile government prosecution was instituted. In 1872 he published his Impeach- ment of the House of Brunswick. In 1880 he was elected to parliament for Northampton, but refusing to take the oath, he was not allowed to take his seat until after the general election of 1885, although he was repeatedly returned by the constituency. Afterward he earned a high reputation in the house of commons, and though a radical, opposed the advocates of socialism. In 1889 he visited India, his interest in Indian affairs having always heea pronounced. Died, 1891. Bradley, James, distinguished astronomer, was born in Gloucestershire, England, in 1693. About the time of his election as member of the royal society he became, in his twenty-ninth year, Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford; in 1727 he published his theory of the aberration of the fixed stars, containing the important discov- ery of the aberration of light. His next discovery was that the inclination of the earth's axis to the ecliptic is not constant, a fact includinjg the explanation of the precession of the equinoxes and the nutation of the earth's axis, which dis- covery constitutes a great epoch in astronomy. Latterly he became astronomer-royal at Green- wich, and laid the foundations of modem astron- omy. He died in 1762. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 561 Bradley, WUllam O'Connell, legislator, United States senator, was bom in Garrard county, Ky., 1847; admitted to the bar, 18C5, by special act of the legislature, being under twenty-one years of age: in 1872 presidential elector and candi- date for congress, and again candidate for congress, 1870; defeated; delegate at large republican national conventions, 1880, 84, 88, 92, 1900, 04. Four times nominated United States senator; unsuccessful candidate for governor, 1887; appointed minister to Corea, 1889, and declined ; first republican governor of Kentucky, 1895-99; elected to United States senate for term, 1909-15. Brady, Cyrus Townsend, Protestant Episcopal clergyman, author- born at Allegheny, Pa., 1861 ; graduate of United States naval academy, 1883. Railroad service with the Missouri Pacific and Union Pacific roads for several years; studied theology; ordained deacon, 1889; priest. 1890. Was rector of Protestant Episcopal churches in Missouri and Colorado and arch- deacon of Kansas until 1895, and archdeacon of Pennsylvania until 1899; rector of St. Paul's church, Overbrook, Philadelphia, 1899-1902, resigning to engage in literaiy work; chaplain of 1st Pennsylvania volunteer infantry in Spanish- American war. Author: For Love of Country; For the Freedom of the Sea; The Grip of Honor; Stephen Decatur; Recollections of a Missionary in the Great West; American Fights and Fighters; Commodore Paid Jones; Reuben James; When Blades are Oxii and Love's Afield; Under Tops' Is and Tents; Colonial Fights and Fighters; Hohen- zoUem; Woven With the Ship; In the Wasp's Nest; The Conquest of the Soxiihwest; The Two Captains; etc. Brady, Mrs. W. A. See George, Grace. Bragg, Braxton, American general, bom in Warren county, N. C., 1817, served with distinction under General Taylor in the Mexican war, and retired to private life in 1859. He became a brigadier-general in the confederate army in 1861, and succeeded General Beauregard in command of the army in Mississippi, with the rank of general, May, 1862. He fought against General Buell a severe and indecisive battle at Perryville; against General Rosecrans the sanguinary battle of Stone river; inflicted a defeat on the army of Rosecrans at Chicka- mauga; was defeated by General Grant at Chattanooga, and, at his own request, was relieved of his command and appointed chief- of-staff to Jefferson Davis. Died, 1876. Brahe Qara; Dan. br&'-i\ Tycho, Danish astrono- mer, was bom at Knudstrup, 1546; studied at Copenhagen, was sent by his uncle to Leipzig in 1562 to attend the law classes; but astronomy had greater attractions for him, and on his uncle's death he devoted himself wholly to this science. After spending some years in travel, he returned to nis native country, and soon obtained the patronage of the king, who subse- quently built for his use a commodious observa- tory called Uraniborg on the island of Hven, in the sound. On the death of the king in 1588, Brahe's position was changed, and in 1597 he was forced to leave the country. Having ob- tained the protection of Emperor Rudolph II., he settled at Prague, where he died in 1601. The great merit of Brahe as an astronomer lies in the rare industry and assiduity with which he observed and recorded the position of stars and planets, and it was partlv due to these observations that Kepler was led to the con- ception of his three famous laws. Brahms (br&ms), Johannes, German musical com- poser, was bom at Hamburg, 1833. Schumann early expressed the highest opinion of Brahms's genius, but for many years he was not appre- ciated in Oermanj. In IMl b* w«nt to VtoDM, where he acquired a high rapuUtlon, and held several imiwrtant musical posts. In 1868 ha composed the Deuttchea lUqySmn, which, after th* Franco-German war, wm perfonned khroui^iout Germany. Uia cotnpositlona hav* bean Tsnr highly valued. Died, 1897. Bramante {brii-m&n' -ti) the auumed «y»ni f of Donato Lazzari, celebrated Italian arohltoot. born near Urbino in 1444. He wm employwl at Rome by Popes Alexander VI. and Julius 11., for the latter of whom he planneoems, and published an autobiography. Breton de los Herreros (br&-t6n' da Ids Sr^a'-rOs), Don Manuel, the most popular of modem Spanish poets, bom 1796 at Quel, in the province of Logrono. As early as his seventeenth year he wrote a comedy entitled A la Vej'ez Viruelas, which in 1824 was staged with great success. Henceforward he furnished theatncal managers with over 150 pieces, partly original, partly adaptations from the older Spanish classics, and partly translations from the Italian and French, most of which have been highly j>opular. Died, 1873. Brett, George Piatt, publisher; president and director of the Macmillan company. New York; director of the Macmillan company of Canada, ltd.; bom at London in 1858; educated at schools in London and at college of the city of New York. Of the Macmillan company, publishers, since 1879. Member of New York chamber of commerce, American institute of THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 668 archreology, etc. ; occasional contributor to mag- azines, chiefly on professional topics. Brewer, David Joslah, jurist, associate justice of the United States supreme court, 1889-1910, was bom at Smyrna, Asia Minor, 1837; was the son of Rev. Josiah Brewer and Emilia A. l<^eld, sister of David Dudley, Cyrus W., and Justice Stephen J. Field. He was graduated from Yale coUege in 1856 and from the Albany law school in 1858; established himself in his profession at Leaven- worth, Kansas, in 1859, where he resided until he removed to Washington to enter upon his duties; in 1861 was appointed United States commissioner; during 1863 and 1864 was judge of the probate and criminal courts of Leaven- worth county; from 1865 to 1869 was judge of the district court; in 1869 and 1870 was county attorney of Leavenworth; in 1870 was elected a justice of the supreme court of his state, and reelected in 1876 and 1882; in 1884 was appointed judge of the circuit court of the United States for the eighth district; was appointed associate justice of the United States supreme court, 1889; was president of the Venezuelan boundary commission, appointed by President Cleveland, and member of arbi- tration tribunal to settle boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela; orator at bicen- tennial, Yale university, 1901; president inter- national congress of lawyers and jurists, St. Louis, 1904; received degree of LL. D. from Iowa college, Washburn college, Yale univer- sity, university of Wisconsin, Wesleyan univer- sity, Middletown, Conn., university of Vermont, and Bowdoin college. Author: The Pew to the Pulpit; The Twentieth Century from Another View Point; American Citizenship; The United States a Christian Nation. Died, 1910. Brewer, WUllam Henry, scientist, professor of agriculture, Sheffield scientific school, Yale, 1864-1903; born at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1828; graduated at Yale (now Sheffield) scientific school, 1852; studied at Heidelberg, Munich, and Paris; professor of chemistry and geology, Washington college. Pa., 1858-60 ; first assistant on geological survey of California, 1860-64; member national academy of sciences since 1880; president Arctic club of America. He served important government commissions, such as topographical survey of Connecticut, on cereal production in the United States (10th census); United States forestry commission, 1896 ; scientific survey of the Philippine islands, 1903; etc. Author: Botany of California. Died, 1910. Brewster, Sir David, British natural philosopher bom at Jedburgh, Scotland, 1781. He was educated for the church of Scotland, but under- took the editorship of the Edinburgh Encyclo- pcedia. He invented the kaleidoscope in 1816. In 1817, in conjunction with Professor Jameson, he estabfished the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal; and in 1831 he was one of the chief originators of the British association for the advancement of science. In 1819 the royal society awarded him the Rumford gold and silver medals for his discoveries on the p>olariza^ tion of Ught ; in 1832 he was knighted, and had a pension conferred upon him; in 1849 he was elected one of the eight foreign associates of the French institute, the highest scientific distinc- tion in Europe. He was also a member of the imperial anci royal academies of St. Petersburg, Berlin, Copenhagen, and Stockholm; pre- sided over the British association, and in 1851 over the peace congress held in London. In 1859 he was chosen vice-chancellor of Edin- burgh university. Died, 1868. Brian Borolhme (bri'-an bo-rotm'), or Brian Boru (ftd-r'), king of Ireland, was born 926 ; ascended the throne of both muaslOTi — aivwwlaf to Tipperary and Clare — In 078. Soma Mmm afterward he became supreme nilcr of IraUnd. King Brian supiKtrtod a rude but princely wtata at Kincora, and he had also aeata at Tarm *»»^ Cashel. The vigor of his reign brought pros- perity to his country. He d«fl«(«d tEe Utxtm m upward of twenty pitched batUfla, rastrioUng their influence to the four citiea of Dublin, Wex- ford, Waterford, and Limerick. In the battle of Clontarf, 1014, in which he was killed, he gained a signal victory over a united army of revolted natives and Danes, the power of the latter receiving a shock from which it never recovered. Brldgewater, Duke of (Francis Egerton), styled the "father of British inland navigation/' was bom in 1736, died in 1803. In 175^-00 he obtained acts of parliament for making a navigable canal from Worsley to Salford, Lancashire, ai»d carrying it over the Mersey and Irwell navigation at Barton by an aqueduct thirty-nine ft?et above the surface of the water, and 200 yards long, thus forming a communication between his coal mines at Worsley and Manchester on one level. In this undertaking he was aided by the skill of James Brindley, the celebrated engineer. He was also a liberal promoter of the grand trunk navigation; and the impulse he thus gave to the internal navigation of England led to the exten- sion of the canal system throughout the king- dom. Brldgman, Frederic Arthur, artist; was bom at Tuskegee, Ala., 1847; apprentice in engraving department, American bank note company. New York, 1864-65; meanwhile studicxl in Brooklyn art school and National academy of design; pupil under J. L. Gdr6me and at Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, 1866-71; since 1871 has had his studio in Paris; knight legion of honor, 1878; officer order of St. Michael of Bavaria. Author: Winters in Algeria; also, in French, Anarchy in Art; The Idol and the Ideal. Brlggs, Charles Augustus, clergyman, theologian, was bom in New York in 1841- studied in uni- versity of Virginia, 1857-60 ; Union theological seminary, 1861-63; university of lierlin, 1866-69. Pastor of Presbyterian church, Roselle, N. J., 1870-74; professor of Hebrew, 1875-1900, biblical theology, 1890-1904, theologi- cal encyclopedia and symbolics since 1904, Union theological seminary. Editor Praby- terian Review, 1880-90; was tried for heresy and acquitted by presbytery of New York, 1892, but suspended by general assembly, 1893, ordained priest by Protestant Episcopal bishop of New York, 1900. Author: Biblical Study; Amtriean Presbyterianism; Meaaianic Propkeey; Whitiurt A Theological Question for the Time*; The Authority of Holy Scripture; The Bible, the Church, and the Reason; The Meeeiah of the Apostles; The Messiah of the OosptU; Oenerol Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture; The Incarnation of the Lord; New Ltght on the Life of Jesus; Ethical Teachings of Jeaua. Eklltor: International Theological Library, Intematumal Critical Commentary. Bilggs, Frank Obadlah, United SUtes senator, was born at Concord, N. H., 1851: graduated from United States military academy, 1872; served in United States army, 1872-77; began service with John A. Roebliur's Sons company. 1877, assistant treasurer, 188^1913; mayor of Trenton, 1899-1902; state treasurer of New Jersey, 1902-07; chairman republican state committee, 1904-1913; elected United States sen- ator, 1907, for term 1907-13; was secretanr New Jersey wire cloth company and official of other Roebling alUed companies; was first vice-presi- dent Norfolk A Portsmouth traction company, directorTrenton savings fund society. Died. 1013. 88i MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Brlsffs, Le Baron Bussell, educator; was bom at Salem, Masa., 1855; graduated from Harvard, 1875; A. M., 1882; hon. LL. D., Harvard, 1900, Western Reserve, 1906; assistant professor English, 1886-90, professor English since 1890, dean of college, 1891-1902, dean faculty of arts and sciences since 1902, Boylston professor rhetoric and oratory since 1904, Harvard; presi- dent Radcliffe college since 1903. Has ^ted and annotated a number of English classics. Bright, John, eminent orator and radical states- man, was born of Quaker parentage, 1811; he entered his father's business at the age of sixteen. Though he had taken part in the reform move- ment, he first became prominent along with his friend' Cobden in the anti-corn law agitation; entered parliament for Durham, being after- ward returned from Manchester, ancf losing that seat through his opposition to the Crimean war. In 1857 he was returned for Birmingham, holding that seat until his death. He joined Gladstone's government which disestablished the Irish church, but opposed his home rule policy in 1880, dying in the unshaken conviction that it was a fatal error. As a master of really Sure Saxon English, in all its power and pathoa, right was never surpassed, and his Bpeeohes are worthy of attentive study on that account alone. Died, 1889. Bright, Richard, English physician, was bom 1789, died 1858; educated at Edinburgh; practiced with ^reat success in London. His specialty was morbid anatomy and the connection between morbid symptoms and alterations of structure of the internal organs. He discovered that an albuminous condition of the urine, accompanied with dropsical effusions, is often dependent on a peculiar defeneration of the kidneys, whence the disease in which these conditions occur was called "Bright's disease." His publications on this topic were made in 1835-40. Brinton, Daniel Garrison, American ethnologist, was born at Thornbury, Pa., 1837, and died at Atlantic City, N. J., 1899. He graduated from Yale in 1858, and from Jefferson medical college in 1861, after which he studied in Germany. He entered the Union army as a surgeon and rose to the medical directorship of the 11th army corps. In 1865 he settled in Philadelphia. There he undertook for a time the professorship of ethnol- ogy in the academy of natural sciences, and in 1886 was professor of American linguistics and archceology in the university of Pennsyl- vania. He wrote extensively on the ethnology and antiquities of the Indian tribes of America; on the myths of the new world, etc. Brisbane, Arthur, editor and writer on present day topics, was bom at Buffalo, N. Y., 1864; edu- cated American public schools, and five years in France and Germany. B^an newspaper work in 1882, as reporter on New York Sun; later, London correspondent for the Sun and editor of the Evening Sun; seven years on New York World as managing editor of different editions; since 1897 editor New York Evening Journal. Bristol, Frank MUton, Methodist Episcopal bishop, was bom in Orleans county, N.Y.,1851 ; graduated Northwestern university. Ph. B., 1877; A. M. ; D. D. ; pastor leading churches in Chicago, including Trinity, Grace, Wabash Av., and First church, Evanston, 111.; subse sey in 1709. In the war of 1812. when an American army, under General Hull, invaded Canada, the measures adopted by Brock were so effectual that the Americans surrendered without striking a blow. He did not long enjoy the fame he had won. He was killed in the battle of Queenstown, Canada, 1812. There is a monu- ment to his memory on the western bank of the Niagara river. Brockhaus {brdk'-houa), Frledrlch Arnold, founder of the famous publisliing firm of Brockhaus in Lelpsig, and original publisher of the Conversa- tiona-Cexikon, was born at Dortmund in 1772; from 1811 to 1817 he carried on business in Altenburg, and finally moved to Leipzig, where he died, 1823. The business was afterward carried on by his sons, Friedrich and Heinrich; from 1850 by the latter alone, and until 1895 by Hcinrich-Eduard and Hcinrich-Rudolf, his sons. Brodear, Hon. Louis Philippe, Canadian statesman, minister of marine and fisheries in the Dominion government since 1906; was born at Beloeil, in the province of Quebec, 1862; educated at the college of St. Hyacinth and Laval university; LL. D., Laval; admitted to the bar, 1884: K. C, 1899; editor of Le Soir, 1896; elected to house of commons for Rouville, 1891, 1896, 1900, 1904, 1908; deputy-speaker of the house of commons, 1896-1900, speaker, 1900-04- min- ister of inland revenue, 1904-06; at his first session as minister of inland revenue he intro- duced a bill against the American tobacco trust, and this legislation had the desired effect of putting an end to the methods which the tobacco company wanted to establish in Canada ; member of the imperial conferences of 1907 and 1911; one of the ministers who negotiated the Franco-Canadian treaty of 1907. Brontt (brdn'-M), Charlotte, English authoress, was bom at Thornton, 1816, died 1855; she was the eldest of the three Bronte sisters. After some experience as a governess she engaged with her sisters in the writing of novels, and in 1846 published with them a small volume of poems under the names of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. In 1847 she published the well-known story. Jane Eyre. Its success was instantaneous ana complete. Although adversely and severely criticised, it was and is admitted to be one of the most remarkable of English novels. Her second story, Shirley, was published in 1849, and her third and last, Villette, in 1853. Another story. The Professor, which had been refused by the publisher before Jan« Eyre had made its author famous, was published after her death. In 1854 she married Rev. Mr. Nicholls, but soon after her marriage died of consumption in her fortieth year. Brooke, John Butter, army officer, was bom in Montgomery county, Pa., 1838; served in the United States army, 1861-1902, from captain to major-general; retired by operation of law; was head of military commission and governor- general Porto Rico; governor-general of Cuba commanding division of Cuba; later command- ing department of the East. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD Mi Brooke, Stopford Augustus, British Unitarian Treacher and man of letters, was born near tubUn, 1832; educated at Trinity college and received degrees M. A. and LL. D. At various times was curate of St. Matthew's, Marylebone, and of Kensington; minister of St. James's chapel, York street, and minister of Bedford chapel, Bloomsbury. In 1872 appointed chaplain in ordinary to the queen. Has published Life and Letters of Frederick W. Robertson; Theology in the English Poets; Spirit of the Christian Life; Unity of God and Man; The Early Life of Jesus; History of English Literature; Study of Tennyson; God and Christ; Jesus and Modem Thouaht; Old Testament and Modem Life; Life and Writ- ings of Milton; The Gospel of Joy; Poetry of Robert Browning. Brooks, Phillips, preacher and orator, was bom at Boston, Mass., 1835; graduate of Harvard. 1855; from 1859 to 1869 rector of Episcopal churches in Philadelphia; 1809-91 rector of Trinity church, Boston; from 1891 to 1893, bishop of the diocese of Massachusetts. He was celebrated as a pulpit orator, and as a vigorous and independent thinker. His freedom from the ordinary sectarian trammels, his liberal views of doctrine, with his profound convictions as to vital Christian truths, and his deeply spiritual, yet intenselj' practical preaching gave him great popular power. He died in 1893. Brougham (br^'-am or hrSbm), Henry Peter, Lord Brougham and Vaux, British jurist, philosopher, and statesman, was bom at Edinburgh, 1778. After graduating at Edinburgh university he was called to the Scottish bar, and became one of the editors of the Edinburgh Review. In 1808 he joined the English bar, and speedily acquired high reputation as an advocate. In 1810 he entered parliament, where he became a chief of the liberal party. In 1820-21 he was engaged as attorney-general for Queen Caroline, and succeeded in obtaining her acquittal. In 1830 he became the acknowledged champion of parliamentary reform, was called to the house of peers, and appointed lord high chancellor of England, which office he resigned in 1834. He devoted the remainder of his life almost exclusively to science and literature at his chateau at Cannes, France. He was one of the foremost men of his age and country, and his fame rests principally upon his exertions and achievements in the cause of popular education and political and legal reform. Died, 1868. Brown, Charles Brockden, early American novelist, much prized in his day, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1771, and died there in 1810. His two best known stories are Wieland, or the Transformation, and Arthur Mervyn. His other stories are Ormond, Edgar Huntley, Jane Talbot, and Philip Stanley. Early in the last century he brought out semi-annually for a time The American Register, a useful work of literary and historic reference. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth, educator, chancellor of New York university since 1911; was born at Kiantone, Chautauqua county, N. Y., 1861 ; grad- uated from the Illinois state normal university, 1881; university of Michigan, 1889. Studied in German universities, 1889-90; Ph. D., uni- versity of Halle-Wittenberg, Prussia; principal public schools, Belvidere, 111., 1881-84 ; assistant state secretary Y. M. C. A., Illinois, 1884-87; principal high school, Jackson, Mich., 1890-91 ; acting assistant professor of science and art of teaching, university of Michigan, 1891-92; associate professor, university of California, 1892-93, professor same, 1893-1906, hon. professor same since 1906; United States com- missioner of education, 1906-11. Author: The Making of Our Middle Schools, Origin of American Slate UnivernttM; hmt written mono- graphs, papers, and reviews on eduontion. Brown, Ernest William, eduoator, pfrfuwoi of mathematics, Yale university, aino* 1007; wm born at Hull, England, 1866; (nuluntod from Christ's college, Cainbrid«o; acboUr, 1884: fellow, 1889; Sc. D.. F. R. 8.; profUwr o^ mathematics, H»verlord ooUege, 1801-1007; Adama prise, Cambridge, 1007. Author: 7r«a. Use on the Lunar T/iairy; New Theory of Ut« Motion of the Moon; InsfualtHat in tin Moan'* Motxon Due to the Direct Action of the Planete; and various papers on the lunar theory and on celestial mechanics during the last fourtecQ years, chiefly in memoirs and proceedlngi of royal astronomical society, London mstho matical society, and American mathemationl society, and in American Journal of MathomaHee. Brown, Ford Madox, Kngli.sh artist, was bom in 1821 at Calais, France, where his parents were tempo> rarily residing. In 1835 he was plaoed in (be academy at Bruges, studied also at Ghent and Antwerp, and later in Paris; settled in London in 184&-46. He was associated with Roasetti, Millais, and the rest of the pre-Raphaalite brotherhood. Among his beat pictures are the famous "King Lear," "The Last of Ehig- land," and "Work," an aggregation of pictures illustrating the general subject of labor. He died in 1893. Brown, Francis, educator, was bom in 1849; Davenport professor of Hebrew and the cognate languages, Union theological seminary. New York, since 1890; president of the faculty, Union theological seminary, since 1908; grad- uated from Dartmouth collie, Union theological seminary, university of Berlin, Germany. Assistant-master, Ayers' Latin school, Pitts- burg, Pa., 1870-72; tutor in Greek, Dartmouth college, 1872-74; fellow of Union theological seminary, 1877-79; instructor in biblical philology, Union theological seminary, 1879-81; associate professor of biblical philology. Union theological seminary, 1881-90. Editor of L«ior> mant's Beginnings of History. Author of Atevri' ology: Its Use and Abuse; co-author of The Christian Point of View, and A Hdirew and English Lexicon of the Old Tettament; also manjr articles and reviews. Brown, Henry Billings, jurist, associate justice of the United States supreme court, 1890-1906: bom at South Lee, Mass., 1836; graduate of Yale, 1856; studied law in private office; at- tended lectures at Yale and Harvard law schools; LL. D., Yale, 1891; deputy United States marshal, 1861-63; assistant United States attorney for eastern district of Michigan, 1863- 68; then for a few months, to fill a vacancy, judge state circuit court of Wavne county: practiced law in Detroit until 1876; United States judge for eastern district of Michigan, 1875-90; resigned from United States suprsms court bench, 1906. Compiler of Brown's Ad- miralty Reports. Brown, Henry Kirke, American sculptor and painter of great versatility; author of ths colossal statue of General Washington in Union square. New York; "The Angel of the Resur- rection," in Greenwood cemetery, Brooklyn; of Govemor Clinton, at Washington. He was bom in 1814, died 1886. Brown, John, leader of the Harper's Ferrv insur- rection, 1859, designed to incite the slaves of the southem states to rebellion, was desc en d e d from a Puritan carpenter, one o€ the AfovAnMr emigrants, and was bom at Torrington, Uonn., in 1800. In 1855 he went to Kansas. After the slavery agitation in that state was srttted by a genieral vote, he traveled throu^ ths southem and eastern states, declaiming ' ' £86 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT slavery, and endeavoring to organize an armed attack upon it. In 1859, at the head of seven- teen white men and five blacks, he commenced active hostilities by a descent upon Harper's Ferry, where an arsenal was located contaming from 100,000 to 200,000 stand of arms. The arsenal was easily captured, and forty or fifty of the principal inhabitants were made prisoners; but instead of retreating to the mountains with arms and hostages, as his original design had been, Brown lingered in the town until evening, by which time 1,600 militiamen had arrived, lie was captured, tried for treason, and executed in 1859. Brown, Norrls, lawyer, United States senator, was bom in 1863, at Maquoketa, Iowa; graduated from Iowa state university, 1883, and two years later received the degree of M. A. ; admitted to practice law in Iowa, 1884; moved to Kearney, Neb., 1888, and later to Omaha, Neb. ; served as county attorney of Buffalo county from 1892 to 1896; deputy attorney - general. 1900-04; attorney-general, 1904-06; was elected to the United States senate for the term 1907-13. Browne, Charles Farrar, American humorist and satirist, known by the pseudonym of "Artemus Warch" was born at Waterford, Maine, 1834. His first literary effort was as showman to an imaginary traveling menagerie. He traveled over America lecturing, carrying with him a whimsical panorama as affording texts for his numerous jokes, which he took with him to London, and exhibited with the same accom- paniment with unbounded success. He spent some time among the Mormons, and denned their religion as singular, but their wives plural. He died in England in 1807. Browne, Sir Thomas, English physician and author, was born at London in 1605. After studying at Winchester, Oxford, and on the continent, he settled as a physician at Norwich, where he spent the rest of his life. During the civil wars and the protectorate he remained in learned seclusion, indifferent to either party. He was knighted in 1671, and died on his oirthday in 1682. His chief works are Rdigio Medici; Pscudodoxia Epidemica, or Inquiry into Vulaar and Common Errors; Hydriotaphia, or the Urn Burial, emd Tlie Garden of Cyrus. De Quincey ranks Browne with Jeremy Taylor as the richest and most dazzling of rhetoricians. Browning, EUsabeth Barrett, English poet, was born at Durham in 1806, died at Florence, Italy, 1861. Her first important essay in authorship was a translation of the Prometheus of ^iischylus in 1833. In 1838 appeared the Seraphim, and Other Poems. In 1846 she married Robert Browning. In 1850 Mrs. Browning published her collected works, together with several new poems. In 1851 appeared the Casa Guidi Windows, a poem wliose theme was the struggle made by the Tuscans for freedom in 1849. Aurora Leigh, her longest production, was pub- lished in 1856. Poems Be/ore Congress appeared in 1860. Her poetry is distinguished by its depth of feeling and generous sentiment. Browning, Oscar, English historian and critic, was born at London, 1837; educated at Eton, and King's college, Cambridge; master at Eton, 1860-75; college and umversity work at Cam- bridge since 1876. Author and editor: Modem England; Modem France; History of Educational Theories; England and Napoleon in 1803; History of England, in 4 vols.; Life of George Eliot; Dante: Ldfe and Works; Goethe: Life and Works; Milton's Tractate on EdtuxUion; The, Citizen: His Rights and Responsibilities; Gudphs and Ghibellines; Life of Peter the Great; Charles XII. of Sweden; Wars of the Nineteenth Century; History of Europe, 1814-1843; Napoleon: the First Phase; The Fall of Napoleon; many con- tributions to Quarterly, Edinburgh, and other reviews. Browning, Bobert. See page 118. Brown -8£quard (sd'-kar'), Edouard, physiologist, was born at Port Louis, Mauritius, 1818, the son of a Philadelphia sea-captain and a lady called S^uard. He studied at Paris, graduated M. D. in 1840, devoted himself to physiological research, and received many prizes for his experiment* on blood, muscular irritability, animal heat, the spinal cord, and the nervous system. In 1864 he became professor of physiology at Harvard; in 1869 returned to Paris as professor of pathology in the school of medicine; in 1873 became a medical practitioner in New York, and in 1878 succeeded Claude Bernard as professor of experi- mental medicine at the College de France. He repeatedly lectured in England also. He pub- lished lectures on Physiology and Pathology of the Nervous System; Paralysis of the Lower Extrem- ities; Nervous Affections; Dual Character of the Brain, etc. He died in Paris in 1894. Bruce, Bobert, king of Scotland, bom 1274, did homage for a time to Edward, but joined the national party and became one of a regency of four, with Comyn for rival; stabbed Comyn in a quarrel at Dumfries, 1306, and was that same year crowned king at Scone; was defeated by an army sent against him, and obliged to flee to Rathlin, Ireland; returned and landed in Car- rick; cleared the English out of all the fortresses except Stirling, and in 1314 defeated the English under Eklward II. at Bannockburn, after which, in 1328, the independence of Scotland wa« acknowledged as well as Bruce's right to the crown. Suffering from leprosy, Bruce spent his last two years at Cardross castle, on the Clyde, where he died in 1329, in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. Bruce-Joy, Albert, British sculptor, was bom in Dublin, 1842; was educated at King's college, London; South Kensington and roy^ academy schools of art. Pupil of Foley; studied in Rome three years; twice visited America. Executed public statues, chiefly colossal, of Gladstone. Jolm Bright, Harvey, Bishop Berke- ley, Matthew Arnold, and the archbishop of Canterbury; busts of Lord Salisbury and Mary Anderson, and the following ideal works: "The Young Apollo"; "The Forsaken"; "The First Flight"; "The Little Visitor"; "The Fairy Tale"; "Moses and Brazen Serpent"; "Thetis and Achillea"; "The Pets"; Beatrice" and "Sunshine." Brugsch (brdbKsh)^ Helnrlcb Karl, German Eg>'p- tologist, Prussian consul to Cairo, was bom m 1827. He organized the first Egyptian univer- sity, was an eminent authority on EgA'ptian archaeology, and wrote many works covering many phases of that subject. He was later known oy his title of Brugsch Bev. Died, 1894. Brummel, George Bryan, Beau Brummel," wa» born at London in 1778; in his day the prince of dandies, was patronized by the prince of Wales, afterward George IV.; quarreled with the prince; fled from his creditors to Calais, where, reduced to destitution, he lived some years in the same reckless fashion. He settled at length in Caen, where he died insane in 1840. Brunelleschl {br6!>'-nU-Vts'-ke\ Flllppo, great Italian architect, was bom at Florence m 1377, is reckoned the first who established on a sound basis the theory of perspective. When still a young man he went to Rome, where he acquired a profound knowledge of ancient architecture. In 1407 he returned to Florence. In 1420 it was proposed to complete the structure of the cathedral of St. Maria del Fiore, founded in 1296, and then only wanting a dome. The work WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN From a fhotografh THROUGHOUT THE WORLD MO waa intrusted to him, and finished, with the exception of the lantern, with which he intended to crown the whole, but was prevented by his death in 1446. Brunelleschi's dome, measured diametrically, is the largest in the world, and served as a model to Michaelangelo for that of St. Peter's. Brunhllde {briin'-held') (Brunehaut), daughter of the Visigothic king, Athanagild; married King Sigebert of Austrasia in 561, and was afterward regent for her two grandsons, Theodebert II., king of Austrasia, and Theodoric II., king of Burgundy; divided the government of the whole Frankish world with her rival Fredegond, who governed Neustria for the youthful Clotaire II. On Fredegond's death in 598 she seized Neustria, and for a while united under her rule the whole Merovingian dominions, but was overthrown in 613 by the Austrasian nobles under Clotaire II., and put to death by being dragged at the heels of a wild horse. Bruno ijbr^b'-nd), Giordano, a restless speculative thinker, was born at Nola, near Naples, in 1548, was trained a Dominican, but doubting the dogmas, fled to Geneva, whence Calvinist suspi- cion of his scepticism drove him to Paris, where he lectured. Bere the zeal of the orthodox Aristotelians forced him to withdraw to London in 1583, and Oxford, where he repeatedly gave lectures. In 1585 he was in Paris again, in 1586 in Wittenberg, in 1588 in Prague, then in Helm- stedt, Frankfort, Padua; and in 1592 in Venice he was arrested by the officers of the inquisition and conveyed to Rome in 1593. There, in 1600, he was burned as an obstinate heretic. Of his works (mostly written in Italian), the most famous is the Spaccio della Bestia Trion- fante. Bruno, Saints founder of the Carthusian order, was born at Cologne about 1040; became rector of the cathedral school at Rheims, but, oppressed by the wickedness of his time, withdrew m 1084 to the wild mountain of Chartreuse, near Gren- oble. Here with six friends he founded the austere Carthusians. In 1094 he established a second Carthusian monastery at Delia Torre in Calabria, where he died, 1101. Brush, George Jarvls, mineralogist; bom in Brooklyn, 1831; private school education; studied chemistry and mineralogy at New Haven; in 1850, went to Louisville as assistant to Prof. Silliman in university there; received after examination newly created degree of Ph. B., Yale, 1852; LL. D., Harvard, 1886. Assistant in chemistry, university of Virginia, 1852-53; studied in Europe, 1853-56; professor metallurgy, 1855-71, Yale (now Sheffield) scientific school; professor mineralogy same 1864-98; director Sheffield scientific school, 1872-98; was member of many scientific societies at home and abroad. Wrote extensively on mineral topics. Died, 1912. Bratus, Lucius Junius, figures in the history of early Rome as the hero who overturned the monarchial, and established the republican form of government. ' That his character as a stem old Roman hero might be complete, the legend adds that he sacrificed to the new republic his own sons, detected in a conspiracy to restore the monarchy. He fell in mortal combat against the Tarquins about 507 B. C. n j Brutus, Marcus Junius, was bom in 85 B. C, and died 42 B. C. He joined Pompey in his war against Caesar; but after Pompey's defeat he was kindly treated by Caesar, and made governor of Cisalpine Gaul. In 44 B. C, in his eagerness to preserve the liberty of the republic against Caesar's apparent purpose of being made emperor, he was persuaded by Caius Cassius to join a con- spiracy, and helped in his assassination, although Ca»ar had given him many honor* And promlwd him others. The people, instead of rejoidnc at Ca^sar'ft death, were enraged, and Bnitua fled from Rome. Soon after, he and Caaaiua were defeated at Philippi by Antony and Octaviua. Feeling their cause was lout, Hrutua flung himiielf upon his sword and died. He waa an earnest student, and something of a philoeopher. Bryan, WiUiam JenninKa, cabinet officer, editor, orator; bom in Salem, III., I860: earlv education in public schools and Whipple aeao- emy; graduate of Illinois college, J*olcaoiiviU«, 1881; Union college of law, Chicago, 1888. Practiced at Jacksonville, III., 1883-87, then a* Lincoln, Neb. ; member of congraaa, 1891-M; received democratic vote for iJnited States senator in Nebraska legislature, 1893; nomi* nated in democratic convention for United States senator, 1894, but was defeated in legis- lature by John M. Thurston; editor of Omaha World-Herald, 1894-96; delegate to national democratic convention, 189<5; wrote the "silver plank" in its platform, made a notable ■peeoh. and was nominated (or president of Unitea States; traveled over 18,000 miles during cam- paign, speaking at almost every stopping place; received 176 electoral votes against 271 for William McKinley. In 1897-98 he lectured on bimetallism; raised in May, 1898, the 3d regi- ment of Nebraska volunteer infantry for war against Spain, becoming its colonel. Nominated for president in 1900 by democratic, populist, and silver republican conventions; he made an active canvass, but was again defeated by William McKinley; after the election he estab- lished a weekly political magazine. The Com' moner. He was again nominated for president in 1908, and, after a notable campaign, was defeated by W. H. Taft. Was appointed secretary of state, 1913. Author: The Firat BcMle, Under Other Flags, The Old World and JU Ways, and many articles in magazines and newspapers. Bryan, William Lowe, educator; bom near Bloomington, Ind., 1860; graduated from Indiana university, 1884; A. M. 1886; Ph. D., Clark university, 1892; LL. D., Illinois college, 1904; student universities Berlin, 1886-87, Paris and Wiirzburg, 1900-01. Instructor Greek, 1884-85, professor philosophy, 1885- 1902, vice-president 1893-1902, president since 1902, university of Indiana. President Ameri- can psychological association, 1903. Author (with his wife): Plato the Teacher: SeUetion* from Plato, edited with notes and introduetioa; The Republic of Plato, with Studies for Teaehert; and many contributions on psychological sub- jects in current periodicals. Bryant, WlHIam Cullen, poet and journalist, bom at Cumraington, Hampshire county, Mass., 1794. At the age of ten he published translations from the Latin poets; at thirteen he wrote a terse and vigorous political px>em entitled The Embargo; and at eighteen he composed his Thanatoptia. He established The New York Review, to which he contributed many of his best poems. In 1826 he became principal editor of The Evening Post, a leading paper of New York, which he conducted with manliness and purity of tone. The first collected edition of his poems appeared in 1832. They were soon after republished in England, and were regarded as the highert effort, up to that time, of the American muse. In 1842 he published The Fountain, and Other Poems. He visited Europe in 1834, and several times afterward, and records his obaervations in Letters of a Traveler in Europe and America. In 1858 appeared a new edition of his poetical works ana in 1870 a metrical translation of the Iliad, followed in 1871 by that of the Odyuey. 090 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT He afterward collaborated in writing the History of the United States. Died, 1878. Bryce (bris), Bt. Hon. James, British historian, diplomat, statesman, was bom at Belfast, Ireland, in 1838; educated at Glasgow univer- sity and Trinity college, Oxford; D. C. L., LL. D., F. R. S.; D. L. city of Aberdeen: member of institute of France and of the royal academies of Turin, Stockholm, Naples, and Brussels, and of the royal Accademia of the Lincei at Rome, etc. He was admitted to the bar, Lincoln's Inn, 1867; regius professor of civil law at Oxford university, 1870-93; member of parliament for Tower hamlets, 1880-85, and for South Aberdeen, 1885-1907; under-secretary for foreign affairs for five months in 1886; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 1892-94; president of the board of trade, 1894-95; chief secretary for Ireland, 1905-07. He was appointed ambassador to the United States, 1906, and reaigned. 1912. Appointed, 1913, member of permanent court of arbitration at The Hague. He has taken a deep interest in the condition of the eastern Christians and their emancipation from Turkish misrule. He strongly opposed the war in South Africa, and the education act of 1902. Author of The Holy Roman Empire; Transcaucasia and Ararat; The American Commonwealth; Impressions of South Africa; Studies in History and Jurisprudence; Studies in Contemporary Biography; etc. Bucer (IxSdf-sSr or bu'-ser), or ButEer, Martin, German reformer, was born in 1491 at Schlett- stadt, in Alsace; at fourteen entered the Domini- can order, and went to Heidelberg to study theology, Greek, and Hebrew. In 1521 he quitted the order, and was appointed chaplain to the elector-palatine. He married a former nun in 1522, and next year settled in Strassburg. In the disputes between Luther and Zwingli, Bucer adopted a middle course. At the diet of Augsburg he declined to subscribe to the pro- posed confession of faith. He was professor of theologv at Cambridge, England, after 1549, where he died, 1551. Buchanan (,bu-k&n'-an or bH-kSn'-an), James, fifteenth president of the United States, was bom in Pennsylvania, 1791 ; admitted to the bar, 1812; member of congress, 1821-31; minister to Russia, 1831-33; United States senator, 1834-45; secretary of state, 1845-49; minister to England, 1853-56; signed Ostend manifesto, 1854; president, 1857-^51. In his last message. President Buchanan censured the northern people for the imminent disruption of the Union, holding that neither the executive nor congress had power to coerce a state. He spent the remainder of his life at his home in Lancaster, Pa. In 1866 he wrote a book to defend his administration. He died in 1868. Buchanan, Robert, British poet and critic, was bom in England, 1841 ; educated at Glasgow university. In 1860 he published Undertones, a volume of verses: in 1865 Idylls and London Poems. In 1866 he edited Wai/side Posies, and translated ballads from the Danish. Among later works are Napoleon Fallen — a lyrical drama; God and the Man; The Wandering Jew; The City of Dreams; The Shadow of the Sword; Woman ana the Man; Master Spirits; A Mad Prince; St. Abe and His Seven Wives. Died, 1901. Buck, Dudley, organist, composer; bom Hartford, Conn., 1839; studied at Trinity college, then Leipzig conservatory of music, and at Dresden and Paris; for several years organist. Music hall, Boston; was organist Holy Trinity church, Brooklyn, and director and organist Apollo club, twenty-five years; retired, 1903. Composer of orchestral, organ, and vocal music. Among his compositions are the Centennial Cantata, Golden Legend, Voyage of Columbus, and Light of Atia. Died, 1909. Buckingham (bUk'-lng-am), George Villiera, Duke of, the favorite of James I. and Charles I. of England, bom at Brooksby, Leicestershire, 1592. In 1623, while negotiations were in Erogress with the Spanish court for a marriage etween the infanta and the prince of Wales, afterward Charles I., Buckingham persuaded the latter to go himself to Madrid and prosecute his suit in person. By his advice James declared war against Spain. On the accession of Charles I., in 1625, Buckingham nmintained his ascend- ency at court, but after the ill-fated expedition against Cadiz he became odious to the nation. He was assassinated by a discontented subaltern officer named Felton, 1628. Buckle, Henry Thomas, English historian, was bom at Lee, Kent, 1821, the son of a London shipowner. A sickly child, he was for a very short time at an academy in Kentish-Town; no other school and no university claims credit for his education, which yet was liberal in the highest d^ree. In 1840 he found himself master of 1,500 pounds a year; bv 1850 he knew eighteen foreign languages, and nad amassed a library of 22,000 volumes, chosen mostly to help him in a magnum onus, of which all that was ever published was but a fragment. An Intro- duction to the History of Civilization in England. His health was shattered by the loss of an idolized mother: and in 1862, after six months' wandering in Elgypt and Palestine, he died of typhoid fever at Damascus. Buckley, James Monroe, clergyman, editor New York Christian AdvocaU, 1880-1912; bom in Rahway, N. J., 1836; educated at Pennington, N. J., seminary, and one year at Wesleyaa university: M. A., D. D. ; LL. D., Emory and Henry coliege; studied theolo^ at Exeter, N. H.; joined New Hampshire conference, Methodist Episcopal church, 1859; went to Detroit, 1863, Brooklyn, 1866; pastor in vicinity of New York until 1880. Author: OaU or wad Oats; Faith Healing; Christian Seitnce and Kindred Phenomena; Christians and the Theater; The Land of the Czar and the Nihil- ist; Travels in Three Continents — Europe, Asia, Africa; History of Methodism in the United States; Extemporaneous Oratory for Professional and Amateur Speakers; Supposed Miracles; The Fundamentals and Their Contrasts; etc. Budde (bd'-de), Karl, theologian, professor of old testament theology, university of Marburg; bom Bensberg, near Cologne, 1850; educated at Bensberg, in the military' school to 1863; at Essen gymnasium to 1867; in the universities of Bonn, Berlin, Utrecht to 1873 ; D. D., Giessen, 1883. He served as volunteer in the 74th regiment of infantry in the Franco-German war of 1870 during the siege of Metz; passed the two examinations for church service at Coblenz in 1871 and 1874; became privat-docent of old testament theology in the university of Bonn in 1873; was inspector of the Evangelisch- theologisches Stift at Bonn, 1878-85; professor extraordinarius in 1879 at Bonn; 1889 at Strassburg, received a call as professor ordinarius to Ziirich, and was promoted the same year to the professorship at Strassburg; accepted a call to Marburg in 1900. He has published many works on historical and critical theology. Buddha (bodd'-d) (Gautama). See page 201. Budge, Ernest A. Wallis, English archseologist, keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities, British museum, was born in Cornwall, 1857; educated at Christ's college, Cambridge. Has conducted excavations at Aswan in Egypt, at Gebel Barkal, on the island of Meroe, at Semna and other sites in the Sudan, and at Nineveh THROUGHOUT THE WORLD OBI •nd Der in Mesopotanxia. Author of Babu- lanian Life and History; Egyptian Ideas oj the Future Life; Egyptian Magic; Easy Lessons in Egyptian Hieroglyphics; The Egyptian Hudan, its ifistory and Monuments, 2 vols. ; The Sarcophami* of Seii I.; The Book of the Kings of Egypt, 2 vola. ; and numerous others on orientiu subjects. Buff on {bii'-f6n'), Georges Louis Leclerc, Count de, French naturalist, was born 1707, died 1788. He was educated for the law ; but, after travel- ing for a time, devoted himself to science. In 1739 he was elected a member of the academy of sciences, and appointed director of the royal garden. His Natural History, in fifteen volumes. IS written in the finest literary style and created a great popular interest in natural history. Rousseau is said to have kissed the steps of the pavilion in which the book was written. He was one of the pioneers of the modern doctrine of evolution. The History of Birds, History of Minerals, and Epochs of Nature are other works of his which are well known. Bulflnch, Charles, American architect, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1763. His chief works are the Massachusetts state house, at Boston; McLean iiospital, Somerville; M.assachusett8 general hospital, Boston; and the west porticos of tho capitol at Washington. He died 1844. Pulkeley, Morgan Gardner, ex-United States senator, was born at East Haddam, Conn., 1838; edu- cated in the district schools of his native town and at the Hartford high school; hon. M. A., Yale, 1889. In 1852 commenced a business life in Brooklyn, N. Y.; in 1862 enlisted in the thir- teenth regiment, national guard state of New York, and served at Baltimore and Suffolk, Va., under the command of Brigadier-general Max Weber; returned to Hartford in 1872, and at once became actively interested in its business and politics- organized and was the first presi- dent of the United States bank of Hartford, and in 1879 was chosen president of the iEtna life insurance company, organized by his father; governor of Connecticut from 1889 until 1893; was elected to the United States senate for the term 1905-11. Bull, Ole Bomemann, famous violinist; bom in Bergen, in Norway, 1810; he secured great triumphs both throughout Europe and in America bj^ his wonderful playing. He lost all his money in a scheme to found a colony of his countrymen in Pennsylvania, and had to take again to his violin to repair his broken fortunes. He afterward settled down at Cambridge, Mass., and had also a summer residence in Norway, where he died in 1880. Buller (bddl'-iSr), Sir Sedvers, British general, was born in England in 1839, and as an officer of the 60th rifles saw much service in the China expedi- tion of 1860, in the Red River rebellion in north- western Canada, in Ashanti, and in the KaflBr and Zulu wars in South Africa. In the Boer war, 1899-1901, he had chief command of the first army corps sent from England to South Africa. The Bo§r opposition on the Tugela was of the most formidable character; after many reverses he effected the relief of Ladysmith. He was successively adjutant-general, lieutenant- general, and commander-in-chief of the Britfeh forces. Retired, 1901 ; died, 1908. Btilow (bil'-lo). Prince Bemhard tou, German statesman, chancellor of the empire 1900-09, was bom at Klein-Flottbeck in 1849. He entered the German foreign office in 1873, and acted as secretary of embassy in Rome, St. Petersburg, and Vienna, holding the important post of chargi. d'affaires to Greece during the Russo-Turkish war. At the conclusion of that war he was appointed one of the secretaries of the Berlin congress, and after more diplomatic serv- ice in Paris and St. Pet«nl>uig, h* wm «ppoiot«d minister to RuuinanU 1888, And ainh«Mr1nr to Italy, 1893. During 1807 be acted Ml fonin secretary while Baroa too MMBOhall was oo leave, and waa at laat definitely appointed to that office. In 1S90 be i!^>nduded the tteaty with Spain, whereby the Caroline^ Ma,4f«^ ^^^ Pelew islands were ceded to Germany, and upon this achievement he was created Count BQlow. In 1900, on the resignation of Prinoe Ho , he succeeded him aa chancellor of the Qennaa empire, prime minister and Tifntatirr of foreign affairs of Prussia, and, on June 6, 1005, be wa* raised to the dignity of prince. He reaimad the chancellorship in 1900, and waa ■uooeede3 by Dr. Bethmann-HoUwc^. Billow, Frledrich W'Ubelm, Baron veil, Pruadan general, was born at Falkenberg, 1755, died ai Konigsberg, 1816; in 1813 commanded in the first successful encounter with the French at Mockern, and revived the self-confidence of the army after the adverse battle of Liitsen. Hia victories over Oudiuot and Ney at Groaabeeren and Dennewitz saved Berlin; be acted a con- spicuous part in the battle of Leipslg. and, by taking possession of Montmartre, finished the campaign of 1814. The king gave him an estate worth 30,000 pounds, and the title of Graf von Dennewitz. In 1815 ne jointxi Bliicher by forced marches, and headed the column that first came to Wellington's aid at Waterloo. Bulwer {bdbl'-w€r\ Edward George Earie Lyttea* See Lytton, Lord. Bulwer, Sir Henry Lytton Earle, famous English diplomatist and author, an elder brother of Lord Lytton, usually known as Sir Henry Bulw'er, was bom 1801. In 1837 he became secretary of embassv at Constantinople, where he nego- tiated and concluded a treaty which is tne foundation of the present conmiercial sytleai of England in the East. In 1843 he waa made minister plenipotentiary to the court of Madrid. and concluded the peace between Spain ana Morocco in the following year. In 1849 he came to Washington, where ne evinced equal art in concluding the Clayton-Bulwer treaty. In 1852 he was sent to Tuscany as envoy extraordi- nary, and in 1856 was nominated by Lord Palmerston commissioner at Bucharut for investigating the state of the Danubian princi- palities; died 1872. Among his works are An AiUumn in Greece; France: Social, LiUrary, and Political; Life of Byron and Hiatarital Characters. Bun sen {bdbn'-sen). Baron, Christian Karl Joslas, German statesman and scholar, bom 1791 at Korbach, in the principality of Waldeck, died at Bonn, 1860. In 1841 he was sent on a special mission to London, to negotiate the erection of an Anglo-Pmssian bishopric in JerusalenK and was shortly afterward appointed ambaaaador at the English court. His views rega r ding the part Prussia should act in the Eastern oueation not being in accordance with those of his court, he resigned in 1854. He is known in literature by his Constitution of the Chxtrch of ths Future. Christianity and Mankind, God in Hxatory, and many other works. Bunsen, Robert Wllhelm, German chemist, was bom at Gottingen, 1811. He was the first to produce magnesium in large quantities, and in 1860 invented the magnesium light, which has proved so important to photography. Hia greatest discovery waa that of spectrum analyaia, made in conjunction with Kirchhofif. Bunaen will always be remembered by phjnridata and chemists from their constant use of the photom- eter and gas-bumer, which are such useful adjuncts to laboratory apparatus, and which bear the "Bunsen burner" name. Died, 18B0. 692 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Bunyan, John, English writer, was bom at Elstow, near Bedford, in 1628. For some years he fol- lowed his father's trade, that of a traveling tinker. After a short service in the parlia- mentary army, he married at the age of nineteen. His marriage was followed by his conversion, or religious "awakening." In 1655 he became a member of the Baptist congregation at Bedford, and, subsequently, its pastor. After the restora- tion, he was convicted under the act against conventicles, 1660, and thrown into Bwiford jail, where he remained for upward of eleven years, supporting hia family by making tagged laces, ana writing the Pilgrim's Frogreaa. Through the interjKMition of Dr. Barlow, bishop of Lincoln, he was released from prison, 1672, becoming again pastor of the Beaford congre- gation. This position he held till his death, which took place, in London, 1688. Of Bun- yan's other works, the chief are his Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, an autobiog- raphv, and the Holy War, another allegory, very inferior, however, to the PUfjrim'a Progress. He is also the author of a volume of verse, entitled Divine Emblems. Burbank, Luther, naturalist, horticulturist; bom in Lancaster, Mass., 1849; boyhood on farm: educated at Lancaster academy ; always devoted to study of nature, especially plant life. Moved to Santa Rosa, Cal., 1875; conducts Burbank's experiment farms. Originator of the Burbank potato; gold, Wickson, apple, October purple, chalco, America, and climax plums; giant, splendor, sugar, and stoneless prunes; a new fruit, the plumcot; peachblow, Burbank, and Santa Rosa roses; gigantic forms of amaryllis, tigridia, the Shasta daisy, giant and fragrance callas; various new apples, peaches, nuts, berries, and other valuable trees, fruits, flowers, grasses, grains, and vegetables. Sjiecial lecturer on evolution at Ix'land Stanford Jr. university. Burdett-Coutts {h^r-dW -kiXtts'), Angela GeorKtna, Baroness, English philanthropist, was bom in 1814, the daughter of Sir Francis Burdett; succeeded in 1837 to the great wealth of her grandfather, Thomas Ckjutts. The shoeblack brigade, the Nova Scotia gardens, model lodging houses, and Columbia market are of her founda- tion. The poor and distressed at home and abroad had a constant benefactress in her; the east-end weavers, the Irish fishermen of Cape Clear, the Turkish peasantry after the Russo-Turkish war are among those who received her help. In 1871 the queen made Miss Coutts a peeress, and in 1881 the baroness married William Ashmead-Bartlett. She died in 1906. Burdette {bUr-dif), Robert Jones, American jour- nalist, humorist, and lecturer, was bom in Pennsylvania in 1844. Served with the 47th Illinois volunteers as a private, in the civil war, and was for a time connected with the Peoria Transcript; later became associate editor of the Burlington (Iowa) Hawkeye, and of the Brooklyn Eagle; his humorous sketches won him an audience far and wide. He began to lecture in 1876, and was licensed a minister of the Baptist church, 1887; held a pastorate at Los Angeles until 1909, when he was incapacitated by an accident. He is the author of Hawkeyetems; The Rise and Fall of the Moustache; Hawkeyes; Life of William Penn; Innach Garden; Sons of Asaph; Chimes from a Jester's Bdls; Smiles Yoked with Sighs; etc. Burdick, Francis Marlon, lawyer, educator, Dwight professor law, Columbia university, since 1891; bom at De Ruyter, N. Y., 1845; graduated from Hamilton college, 1869; Hamilton college law school, 1872; LL. D., Hamilton college, 1895; practiced law, Utica, N. Y., 1872-83; professor law and history, Hamilton college, 1882-87; professor law, Cornell university school of law, 1887-91. Mayor of Utica, 1882-83; United States assay commissioner, 1889. Author: The Essentials of Business Law; Cases on Torts; Cases on Sales; Law of Sales; Law of Partnership; Cases on Partnership. Editor department of law, Johnson's Universal Cyclopasdta; The Law of Torts. Burgess, Frank Gelett, writer, illustrator; bom Boston, 1866; graduated at Massachusetts institute of technology, B. S., 1887. Draughts- man with Southern Pacific railway, 1887-90; instructor topographical drawing, university of California, 1891-94; designer, 1894-95, and associate editor The Wave; editor Lark (San Francisco), 1895-97; writer for various maga- zines in New York, 1897-98; removed to London, 1898, to San Francisco, 1900, to Boston, 1904; associate editor Rtdgways^ 1906. Author: Vivette; The Lively City o' Ltgg; Goops and How to Be "Them; A Gage of Youth; Burgess Nonsense Book; Romance of the Commonplace; The Rubaiyat of Omar Cayenne; A Little Sister of Destiny; Are You a Bromidet The Heart Line; The Romantic Mood; and short stories and articles for various English and American magazines. Burcess, John William, educator; bom in Coners- viUe. Tenn., 1844; attended Cumberland uni- versity, Lebanon, Tenn.; graduate of Amherst, 1867. Admitted to bar, Springfield, Mass., 1869; professor of English literature and politi- cal economy, Knox coUeee, 1869-71; studied historv, public law and political science, Gottin- gen, Leipzig, Berlin, 1871-73; professor history and pohtical science, Amherst, 1873-76; pro- fessor political science and constitutional law since 1876, dean faculty of political science, 1890- 1912, Columbia university; Roosevelt pro- fessor of American history and institutions, university of Berlin, 1906-07. Author: Politi- cal Science and Comparative Constitutional Law; The MiddU Period; The CivU War and the Con- stitution; Reconstruction and the Constitution; and frequent contributor to reviews on historical, political and legal topics. Burgojme (biir-goin'), John, British general, was born 1722; entered early into the army; and in 1762 displayed much talent and enterprise in command of a party of the British troops in Portugal. In the American war, he led the army which was to penetrate from Canada into the revolting provinces. At first, he was successful ; but was ultimatelv compelled to surrender at Saratoga, 1777. f)isgusted by the conduct of the ministry after his return, he resigned all his employments. He died in 1792. Burke, Edmund, British statesman and orator, was bom at Dublin in 1729; graduated at Trinity college, Dublin. Going to London, he attracted attention by his essays on the Sublime and Beautiful, and devoted himself to literature, founding in 1759 The Annual Register. In 1761 he became private secretary to Hamilton, the new chief secretary for Ireland ; and served Lord Rockingham in the same capacity when that nobleman became prime minister; in 1766 entered parliament; his speeches on American affairs created a great sensation in the house of commons. His position in p>olitical life was raised still higher by the pamphlets which he wrote on current questions. Returned for Malton, he produced in 1780 his great plan of economical reform; and in 1782 he became paymaster under Lord Rockingham's govern- ment. He again took oflBce in the duke of Portland's coalition ministry, when he maide his famous speech on the India bill. In the impeach- ment of Warren Hastings, Burke played a leading THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 8B3 part, his opening sp>eech extending over four days. The outbreak of the French revolution was the occasion of one of his finest efforts of oratory. Burke's attitude in this matter severed his friendship with Fox, and he seceded from the whig party. In 1794 he retired from parlia- mentary life, though he continued to produce pamphlets on political affairs. His other chief works are A Vindication of Natural Society; Thoughts on the Causes of Present Discontents; Reflections on the Revolution in France; and some Letters. Died at Beaconsfield, England, 1797. Burkett, Elmer Jacob, lawyer, ex-United States senator, was born in Mills county, Iowa, on a farm, 1867; graduated from Tabor college, Iowa, 1890; LL. B., law department, university of Nebraska, in 1893 ; LL. M., 1895 ; was admitted to the bar at Lincoln, 1893, and has practiced law there ever since; elected a member of the state legislature in 1896; representative to the fifty- sixth, fifty-seventh, fifty-eighth, and fifty-ninth congresses; and United States senator for the term 1905-11. Burleigh Q>&r'4l), William CecU, Lord. See Cecil, WiUiam, Lord Burleigh. Burleson, Albert Sidney, lawyer, cabinet officer, was bom 1863, at San Marcos, Texas: was educated at agricultural and mechanical college of Texas, Baylor university, and uni- versity of Texas; admitted to the bar in 1885; assistant city attorney of Austin 1885-90; appointed by the governor of Tex£is attorney of the twenty-sixth judicial district in 1891; elected to said office, 1892-96 ; elected to the fifty-sixth, fifty-seventh, fifty-eighth, fifty-ninth, sixtieth, sixty-first, sixty-second and sixty-third congresses. Was appointed postmaster-general, 1913. Burlingame, Anson, American diplomatist; bom in Chenango county, N. Y., 1820. He was elected member of congress by the republicans of the fifth district of Massachusetts, in 1854- 56-58. In 1861 he was sent as minister to China, and in 1867 appointed special Chinese envoy to the United States and to the great powers of Europe. In 1868 he visited this country at the head of a Chinese embassy, and concluded a liberal treaty between the United States and China, which was promptly ratified by the Chinese government. The embassy afterward visited London, Paris, Berlin, and lastly St. Petersburg, where Burlingame suddenly died, 1870. Bume-Jones, Sir Edward, English painter, was bora of Welsh ancestry at Birmingham, England, 1833. He was educated at Exeter college, Oxford, where William Morris, the poet, was his friend. He left without taking a degree, having relinquished orders for art; and about 1857, submitting some pen-drawings to Rossetti, whose work had powerfully influenced him, he received from him encouragement and guidance in his attempts as a painter. From the first he was a fascinating colorist. About 1870 he began to be known as an oil-painter, and his works henceforth are inspired by the earlier art of the Italian renaissance, and show more of grace and less of emphasis than his former paintings. Among his pictures are "The Davs of Creation," "The Beguiling of Merlin," ""The Mirror of Venus," "Laus Veneris," "Le Chant d' Amour," "Pan and Psyche," "The Golden Stair," "The Wheel of Fortune," "King Cophetua," "The Brazen Tower," and "Briar Rose." He fur- nished striking designs for stained glass, e. g. at Christ Church, Oxford. He became D. C. L. of Oxford 1881, A. R. A. 1885 (resigned 1893), and a baronet 1894. He died. 1898. Burnett {bur-n^tf), Frances Hodgson, author, play- wright; bom (Frances Eliza Hodgson), Man- chester, England, 1849; family moved, 1865, to Knoxvillo, Tenn.: began writing for man* sines, 1867: married Dr. L. M. Bumatt, 1873; settled in Washington, 1875; obtained oivoree, 1898; married seoond time, 1000, Stepiiea Townesend, Ensliah author. Author (novvk): That Laaa o' Lowrie't; DMy, a Lovt Story; Kathleen; Surly Tim and Othtr Stori**; Haworth's; Louisiana; A Fair Barbaruin; Through One Administration; LittU Lord Faunt- leroy; Editha'a Burglar; Sara Crnpe; LittU Saint Elizabeth; Two LittU Pilgrim*' ProgrmM; The Pretty Sister of Josi; A Lady of Quality; His Grace of Ormonde; The Captain's Youngaat; In Connection vnth the De Willoughby Claim; The Making of a Marchioness; The Little Vn/airy Princess; A Little Princess. Plays: LittU Lord Fauntleroy; Phyllis; The Showman'$ Daughttr; Esmeralda; The First Oentleman of Europt; Nixie (with Stephen Townesend): A Lady of Qvudity (with same) and The Shuttle. Burnham, Daniel Hudson, architect; bom Hen« derson, N. Y., 1846- removeard of directors of the Second national bank, and of the New Hampshire fire insurance company, Manchester; was elected to the United States senate, 1901, and reelected in 1907. Bums, Bt. Hon. John, labor leader, president of the British local government board since 1905; bom London, 1858; was educated at Batterse* and at night schools; was unsuccessful candidate for parliament from the western division of Nottingham, 1885; since 1892 has represented Battersea in the house of commons; member of the British cabinet, 1905. He has published many pamphlets, articles, and speeches. Bums, Robert, Scottish poet, was bom at Alloway, near Avr, Scotland, 1759; died at Dumfries. 1796. lie was the son of a small farmer, and was brought up amidst indigence and adverrity. He received, however, the advantages of m common school education, though his chief advances in general knowledge he owed to the books he read, among which were The Spe<^tor, the works of Pope, and the poems of Allan Ram- sav; while among the unprintcd boolcs whlcn enthralled him were the songs and ballad 1836; he was a lieutenant-colonel in the revolutionary war; attorney-general of New York 1789; United States senator 1791-97; mortally wounded Alexander Hamilton in a duel 1804; vice-president of United States 1801-05; tried on a charge of treason, 1807, but acquitted. He was a man of ^reat ability, but grossly immoral both in his pohtical and private life. Burr, George Lincoln, educator, librarian- bom Oramel, N. Y., 1857; graduated froni Cornell, 1881 ; student Leipzig, Sorbonne and Ecole des Chartes, Paris, and Ziirich, 1884-«6, 1887-88; LL. D., university of Wisconsin, 1904; Litt. D., Western Reserve, 1905. Librarian the President White library since 1878; member Cornell faculty since 1888; now professor mediseval history; historical expert Venezuelan boundary commission. Writer on history of superstition and persecution. Author: The Literature of Witchcraft, The Fate of Dietrich Flade. Editor: American Historical Review, Century Historical Series. Burr, William Hubert, engineer, professor civil engineering, Columbia university, since 1893; bom Watertown, Conn., 1851 ; graduated Rensselaer polytechnic institute, C. E., 1872. Professor rational and technical mechanics, Rensselaer polytechnic institute, 1876-84; as- sistant to chief engineer, and later general manager. Phoenix bridge company, 1884—91 ; pro- fessor engineering, Harvard, 1892-93. Consulting engineer to department of public works, 1893-95, of parks, 1895-97, of docks, 1895-97, and now department of bridges, and board of water supplv, New York. Appointed by President Cleveland, 1894, on board of engineers to investi- gate feasibility of proposed bridge across North river, and in 1896 on board to |^ate deep water harbor on coast of southern California. Ap- pointed, 1899, by President McKinley, member isthmian canal commission to examine and report upon most feasible and practicable route for an interoceanic canal across the Central American isthnaus, 1902; member and chairman commission on additional water supply of city of New York. Appointed, 1904, by President Roosevelt, member isthmian canal commission, member board consulting engineers since 1905; consulting engineer to board of water supply. New York. Awarded first place in national competition, 1900, for proposed memorial bridge across Potomac at Washington. Author: Tm Stresses in Bridge and Roof Trusses; Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering; Ancient and Modem Engineering and the Isthmian Canal; etc. Burritt, Ellhu, "the learned blacksmith," was bom at New Britain, Conn., 1810. He worked as a blacksmith in his native place and at Worcester, Mass., but devoted all his leisure to mathematics and languages — Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and most of the modem European languages. He was best known to the world as an earnest apostle of peace, through his Christian Citizen and his travels over Europe and the United States. His chief works are Sparks from the Anvil; Olive Leaves; Peace Papers, and A Walk from John o' Groats to Land s End. He took a prominent J art in advocating an ocean penny-postage. or many years be lived in England, in 1866-70 as United States consul at Birmingham. Be died at New Britain, Conn., 1879. Burroucbs (bUr'-df), John, essayist, naturalist; bomRoxbury, N. Y., 1837; received an academic education, and taught school about eight years; treasury clerk, 1864-73; national bank examiner, 1873-84 ; since 1874 has lived on a farm, devoting his time to literature and fruit culture. Author : Notea on Walt Whitman as Poet and Person; Wake Robin; Winter Sunshine; Birds and Poets; Locusts and Wild Honey; Pepacton; Fresh Fields; Sions and Seasons; indoor Studies; Riverby; Whitman, a Study; The Light of Day; Squirrels and other Fur Bearers; Literary Values; Far and Near; Ways of Nature; Bird and Bough. Burrows, Julius C ex-United States senator, law- yer; bom in Northeast, Erie county. Pa., 1837; academic education; LL. D., Kalamazoo college; entered law practice j oflBcer in the Union army, 1862-64; proeecutmg attorney, Kalamazoo county, 1866-€7; was appointed, 1867, siiper- visor internal revenue for Michigan and Wis- consin, declined; tendered office of solicitor of the treasury and declined; member of congress, 1873-75, 1879-83, 1885-95; twice elected speaker pro tem- United States senator, 1895-99, unexpirea term of Francis B. Stockbridge. deceased; reelected for term 1899-1905, and reelected for term 1905-11, by imanimoua vote of the legislature. Burton, Ernest De Witt, theologian, critic; pro- fessor of new testament interpretation, uni- versity of Chicago, since 1892; bom Granville, Ohio, 1856 ; educated at Denison university, B. A., 1876; Rochester theological seminan.', 1879-82; university of Leipzig, 1887; university of Berlin, 1894. Instructor in Rochester theologi- cal seminarv, 1882-83; associate professor 1883-86, professor 1886-92, of new testament interpretation in the Newton theological insti- tution; associate editor of the Biblical World, 1892-1906; editor-in-chief since 1906; editor (^ith others) of the American Journal of Theology since 1897. Author: Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in New Testament Greek; Harmony of the Gospels for Historical Study (with W. A. Stevens); THROUGHOUT THE WORLD N6 Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age; Con- structive Studies in the Life oj Christ (with 8. Mathews); A Short Introduction to the Gospds; Principles of Literary Criticism, and their Appli- cation to the Synoptic Problem; Struiies in the Gospel of Mark. Barton, Sir Richard Francis, English traveler, was born 1821, at Barham House, Hertfordshire, and educated in France and England. In 1842 be served in Sind under Sir Charles Napier; and having mastered Hindustani, Persian, and Arabic, made (disguised as an Afghan pilgrim) the daring journey described in his Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Mecca. After visiting SomaU- land and service in the Crimea, he in 1856 set out with Speke on the journey which led to the discovery of Lake Tanganyika, 1858, and after- ward traveled in America. In 1861 he waa consul at Fernando Po, and went on a mission to Dahomey. He was subsequently consul at Santos in Brazil, at Damascus, and at Trieste. In 1876-78 he visited Midian, and in 1882 Guinea; and he was knighted in 1886. He died at Trieste, 1890. Among Burton's many works are : First Footsteps in East Africa; Lake Regions of Central Africa; City of the Saints; Wander- ings in West Africa; The Nile Basin; Vikram and tlie Vampire. Burton, Theodore Elijah, congressman, lawyer- born in Jefferson, Ohio, 1851 ; gra^duate oi Oberlin college, 1872; admitted to bar, 1875; since then in practice at Cleveland; member congress, 1889-91, and 1895-1909, twenty-first Ohio district, republican; and United States senator, 1909-15. President of Grant family association of the United States. Author: Financial Crises and Periods of Industrial and Commercial Depression, and Life of John Sherman. Bury {b^-l), John B., British historian; regius professor of modem history, Cambridge univer- sity since 1902; was born 1861; graduate Trinity college, Dublin; M. A., Litt. D., Oxford and Durham ; LL. D., Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aber- deen; professor of modem history in Dublin university, 1893-1902; Regius professor of Greek, 1898. Author: History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene; Strident' s History of the Roman Empire from Atigustus to Marcus Aurditis; History of Greece to Death of Alexander the Great; The Science of History; Life of St. Patrick and his place in History; The Ancient Greek Historians (Harvard lectures). Editor : Pindar's Isthmian Odes; Freeman's His- tory of Federal Government in Greece and Italy; Gibbon's Decline and Fall; Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe. Bushnell, Horace, theologian, was bom at New Preston, Conn., 1802; graduated, Yale, 1827, and was for some time literary editor New York Journal of Commerce; ordained to the Congre- gational ministry 1833; preached at Hartford, 1833-59. His works include God in Christ, Christ in Theology, Vicarious Sacrifice, etc. Died at Hartford, 1876. Butler, Benjamin Franklin, American politician and general, was bom in New Hampshire, 1818, studied law and settled in Massachusetts, where he became recognized as the leading democrat of New England. A delegate to the Charleston and Baltimore nominating conventions, he took a leading part in the movement which nominated Breckenridge and divided the party. He promptly entered the service at the outbreak of the civil war, and had command of the departments of the guK and of the south Atlan- tic, acquiring no military fame but great noto- riety for his arbitrary civil regulations. Elected to congress by the Massachusetts republicans in 1866 and 1868, but, defeated in 1874, he deserted that party, and in 1882 was elected governor by the democrat*; renomlnatod Ib 1883, he WM defeated. Died, 1898. Butler, Joiephf eminent ElncUah divine, wm bom 1692 at Wantage, in Berluhira; dM 1762. At the age of twenty-two he nve proof of hi|^ metaphysical ability in a letter to Dr. Swnuel Clarke, usually appended to that oeUbrmted writer's worlu. In 1718 he wm appointed preacher at the Rolle chapel, where he prMwhed those remarkable sermons which be published in 1726. In 1725 he was presented to the rich benefice of Stanhope, in the county of Duriuun, to which he removed in the following year. His great work, the Analoay, the germs of which were contained in liis tnree sermons, »»««i wUeh has entitled him, in the eyes of his eloquant disciple, Chalmers to be called "the BaooD of theology," was published in 1736. Butler, Nicholas Murray, educator; bom, Elisa* beth N. J., 1862; graduated. Columbia, 1882, A. M. 1883, Ph. D. 1884: student at Berlin and Paris, 1884-85; LL. D. from many institutions; Litt. D., university of Oxford, 1905; officier de legion d'honncur, 1906 ; assistant in philosophy at Columbia university, 1885-86, tutor, 18s6-89, adjunct professor, 1^9-90. dean faculty of phi- losophy, 1890, professor phi ioeophy and education, and president since 1902: also president Bar- nard college, teachers college, and college of pharmacy. Selected in 1912 by republican national committee as candidate for vice-presi- dent in place of James S. Sherman, dec^ised. Editor of the Educational Review; the Great Educators Series; the Teachers' Profearional Library; the Columbia University Contribution* to Philosophy and Education; co-editor Interna- tionale Pedagogische Bibliothek. Author: The Meaning of Education; Philosophy, etc. Butler, Samuel, English satirist, was bom at Strensham, England, 1612; in his seventeenth year became attached to the household of the earl of Kent, when he frequently attended meetings at the house of a Sir Samuel Luke, a strict Puritan and parliamentarian. The expe- riences of this time furnished him with the material for his famous work, Hudibrat, the first part of which appeared in 1663, and achieved the widest popularity. Two other parts of the work appeared at intervals, but of Butler's life during that time little is known. Died, 1680. Byron, Lord, George Gordon, English poet, was bom in London, 1788. In his eleventh year he succeeded his grand-uncle, William, Lord Byron, and took possession of Newstead abbey, the ancient seat of the family, situated a few miles distant from Nottingham. Byron wss placed in a private school at Dulwicn, and afterward sent to Harrow. In 1805 he removed to Trinity college, Cambridge, and two yearn thereafter his first volume of verse, entitled Hours of IdUnme, was printed at Newark. The volume was fieroehr assailed by Lord Brougham in the E^Umrgk Review, and his sarcasms stung Byron into writing English Bards and Scotch R*viMMr». In the babble of praise that immediately arose Byron withdrew from England^ Visited the shores of the Mediterranean, and sojourned in Turitey and Greece. On his return in 1812 he published the first two cantos of Childe Harold, with immense success, and was at once anroUed among the great poets of his country. Six months' stay at Geneva produced the third canto of Childe Harold and The Prisoner of Chilian. Manfred and The Lament of Tauo were written in 1817. The next year he was at Venice, and finished Childe Harold there; and in the ny and witty Beppo made an experiment in the new field which he was afterward to work so success- fully. During the next three years be pro- duced the first five cantos of Don Jwm, and a 596 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT number of dramas of various merit, Cain and Werner being opposite poles. In 1822 he removed to Pisa, and worked there at Don Juan, which poem, with the exception of The Vision of Judgment, occupied his pen almost up to the close of his life. Morally his Italian life was unsatisfactory, and his genius was tainted by his indulgences. In the summer of 1823 he sailed for Greece, to aid the struggle for indep>endence with his influence and money. He arrived at Missolonghi on the 4th of January, 1824. There he found nothing but confusion and contending chiefs; but in three months he succeeded in evoking some kind of order from the turbulent patriotic chaos. His health, however, began to fail. On the 9th of April he was overtaken by a shower while on horseback, and fever and rheumatism followed. Medical aid was pro- cured, and copious bleeding recommended; but this Byron, with characteristic willfulness, opposed. Before death he sank into a state of letnargy. and those who were near heard him murmunng about his wife, his sister, and his child. After twenty-four hours' insensibilitv, he expired on the evening of the 19th of April, 1824. His body was conveyed to England ; and, denied a resting-place in Westminster abbey, was interred in Hucknall-Torkard churchyard near Nottingham. BystrSm (bdO'-strem), Johan Nlklas, a Swedish sculptor, bom at Filipstad, in the province of Wermland, 1783, worked three years under Sergell of Stockholm, applying himself chiefly to the study of the antique, and gained the academy's prize in 1809. He proceeded to Rome the following year, whence he soon sent home his "Drunken and Reposing Bacchante." He returned to Stockholm in 1815, and exhibited his colossal statue of the prince-royal, which pleased so well that he was commissioned to execute statues of Charles X., XI., and XII. on the same scale. These were followed later bv colossal statues of Charles XIII., Gustavus Adof- phus, and Charles XIV. He died at Rome, 13th March, 1848. Among his other works are his "Cupid depriving Bacchus of his Attributes," "Nymph going into the Bath," "Hercules at the Breast," Apollo at the Lyre, " "Pandora combing her Hair with a Book in her Hand," a statue of "Linnaeus," etc. The works of Bystrom are all natural and animated. Cabanis (kd'-bd'-nia'), Pierre Jean Georges, phy- sician and philosophical writer, born at Cosnac, France, 1757; attached himself to the popular side in the revolution. He furnished Mirabeau with material for his speeches on public education ; and Mirabeau died in his arms. During the terror he lived in retirement, and was afterward a teacher in the medical school at Paris, a member of the council of five hundred, then of the senate. He died near Meulan, 1808. His chief work is his once-famous Rapports du Physique et du Moral de I'Homme. Cabet (jKd'-ha')f £tienne, French communist, was bom at Dijon, 1788, and died at St. Louis, Mo., 1856, having gone out to Texas in 1848 to found an "Icarian community," so named after his Voyage en Icarie, a "philosophical and social romance," describing a communistic Utopia. Cable, George Washington, author, was bom in New Orleans, 1844; educated in public schools; M. A., Yale, Litt. D., Yale, Bowdoin ; served fourth Mississippi cavalry, Confederate States army, 1863-65: clerk in cotton factor's office; for a time reporter on New Orleans Picayune, 1865-79 ; wrote stories for Scrihner's Monthly; since 1879 devoted to literature. Author: Old Creole Days; The Grandissimes; Madame Ddphine; The Creoles of Loiiisiana; Dr. Sevier; The Silent South; Bonaventure; The Negro Question; Strange True Stories of Louisiana; John March, Southerner; Strong Hearts; The Cavalier; Bylaw HUl. Founded, 1887. the home-culture clubs — a system of small clubs designed to promote more cordial relations between divergent ranks of society. Cabot {kdb'-iU\ George, American shipmaster, afterward merchant, was bom 1751, died 1823. He was a member of the Massachusetts state constitutional convention, and of that which ratified the federal constitution; U. 8. ssnator 1791-96; a federalist and friend of Washington and Hamiltoa. He was a member of the Maa- sachusetts council 1808, and president of the Hartford convention, 1814. Cabot, John* bom 1450(7) ; Cabot, Sebastian, bom 1474, two Venetians, father and son, were both celebrated navigators and discoverers. John, the father, whose business coini>elled him to reside much in Bristol, England, was appointed by Henry VII., 1496, to the command of a squadron of five vessels on a voyage of discovery in the Atlantic ocean. In this expedition he was accompanied by his sons Ludovico, Sebas- tian, and Sanzio. In June, 1497, the coast of Labrador was sighted. The merit of this dis- covery has been generally ascribed to the naviga- tor's second son, Sebastian, the most scientific of the family ; but an extract from a chart preserved by Hakluyt mentions the father before the son. John probably died 1498; Sebastian died 1557. Caedraon (kdd'-miin), the father of English song, was the first Anglo-Saxon who composed in hia own language ot whom there are any remains. The date of his birth is unknown, but his death occurred about 680 A. D. He was ori^nally a cow-herd, attached to the monastery of AVhitby, and according to a legend was commanded in a dream to sing "the beginning of created things." He accordingly produced metrical paraphrases of Genesis and other parts of the Bible. Caesalplnus (sis' -&l-pl' -nils), Andreas, Italian physiologist; bom at Arezzo 1519; was professor of medicine and botany at Pisa, physician to Pope Clement VIII., and published several medi- cal works. His most important service to science was his great work On Plants. He developed several new ideas on the circulation of the blood which are now well recognized. Died, 1603. Caesar, Cains Julius. See page 425. Cagllarl (kOl'-yH-re), Paolo Veronese, an Italian painter of great eminence, was bom at Verona in 1528. He had for contemporaries both Titian and Tintoretto, and was held in eaual admira- tion with these famous painters. Tne church of San Sebastiano, in Venice, contains many of his productions, which are reckoned the most impor- tant of his earlier period — i. e., the period before he visited Rome, when he first became acauainted with the masterpieces of Raphael and Michael- angelo. The influence of the Roman school on his style was so happy that on his return he received the honor of kmghthood from the doge. He died in 1588. The most celebrated of his productions are the "Marriage Feast at Cana of Galilee," "The Calling of St. Andrew to the Apostleship," "The Feast of Simon," and the "Presentation of the Family of Darius to Alexander." Calne, Thomas Henry Hall, British novelist and dramatist; bom in 1853, of Manx and Cumber- land parentage; was educated at schoob in Isle of Man and Liverpool ; brought up as an architect, never practiced, but wrote for Builder, The Building News, etc.; became a journalist, and was for six years an editorial writer on Liverpool Mercury. Went to London at invitation of D. G. Rossetti ; lived with poet-painter until his death; wrote for Athenceum, Academy, etc.; published Sonnets of Three Centuries, Recollec- tions of Rossetti; Life of Coleridge; Gobvuba of THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 607 Criticism. Hia first novel Was the Shadow of a Crime, which he followed with Son of Hagar; his success came with The Deemster; afterward pub- lished The Bondman; The Scapegoat; The Afanx- man; The Christian; The Eternal City; The Prodigal Son, and The White Christ. The Deemster was dramatized in 1889, The Manxman in 1895, The Christian in 1898; The EterruU City was produced simultaneously in the United States and at His Majesty's tKeater, London, in 1902 ; The Prodigal Son at Drury Lane, 1905, and The Bondman at same theatre, 1906; a new version of The Christian at the Lyceum in 1907, and Pete (with Louis N. Parker) at the Lyceum in 1908. Published in 1908 My Story, an autobio- graphical narrative of the earlier years of his literary life. He is justice of the peace in the Isle of Man, where, in 1901, he was returned by a large majority to the house of Keys for Ramsey; edited for her majesty. Queen's Christmas Carol, on behalf of Queen's fund. Calrd {kdrd), Edward, Scottish philosopher, was bom at Greenock, Scotland, 1835; educated at Glasgow university; Balliol college, Oxford; LL. D., St. Andrews, 1883; Glasgow, 1894; D. C. L., Oxford, 1891; D. Lit., Cambridge, 1898; D. Lit.. Wales, 1902; fellow and tutor of Merton college, Oxford, 1864-66; professor of moral philosophy, Glasgow university, 1866- 93; master of Balliol college, Oxford, 1893- 1907; resigned. Author: Philosophy of Kant; Hegel, in Blackwood's series ; Critical Philosophy of Emmanuel Kant; The Religion and Social Philosophy of Comte; Essays on Literature and Philosophy; The Evolution of Religion (Gifford lectures at St. Andrews, 1891-92); The Evolu- tion of Theology in the Greek Philosophers (Gifford lectures at Glasgow, 1901-02) ; Lay Sermons and Addresses, delivered in the hall of Balliol college, Oxford. Died, 190». Caird, John, Scottish preacher, bom at Greenock, in 1820; studied at Glasgow, and became min- ister at Newton-upon-Ayr (1845), Edinburgh (1847), Errol in Perthshire (1849), and Glasgow (1857). His Religion in Common Life, preached before the queen at Crathie in 1855, quickly carried his fame throughout the Protestant "world; Dean Stanley said it was the greatest single sermon of the century. He received the degree of D. D. in 1860, was appointed professor of divinitv in 1862, and was pnncipal of Glasgow university, 1873-98. He died, 1898. He pub- lished a volume of Sermons; An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, which revealed a strong neo-Hegelian learning; Spinoza; etc. Calmes (Jc&rm), John Elliot, British economist, was bom at Castle Bellingham, Ireland, 1823; studied at Trinity college, Dublin, where he graduated B. A. in 1848. In 1856 he was appointed professor of political economy at DubUn, in 1859 at Queen's college, Galway, and in 1866 at University college, London. An accident in the hunting-field in 1860 led to a breakdown in health; and, having resigned his chair in 1872, he died at Blackheath, 1875. His ten works include Character and Logical Method of Political Economy, The Slave Power, Essays on Political Economy and Some Leading Prin- ciples of Political Economy. Caimes may be regarded as a disciple of Mill, though differing from him on many points; he is second only to him among recent English economists. Caius Gracchus (kd'-yHs gr&k'^&s). See Gracchus. Cajetan {k&j'-e-t&n). Cardinal, properly Jacopo Thomas de Vio, bom at Gaeta, Italy, 1469; in 1508 became general of the Dominicans, in 1517 cardinal, in 1519 bishop of Gaeta, and in 1523 legate to Hungary. In 1518 he sought to induce Luther to recant at Augsburg. He died at Home, 1534. CaXAtrtn {k6l'-dir-dn) de U Barea« Pedro, Spanish dramatist, and one of the greatest of all time, was born at Madrid in 1600, and wan educated at the university of Salamanca. At fourteen he wrote his first drama. He entered the army and served several campaigns in Italy and in Flanders, gaining a knowledge of men and things which he afterward mi^e uae of in his plavs. He became a priest and royal chaplain, and died in 1681, still working at his literary labors. He wrote about 500 dramas. Among his greatest works are: The Constant Princt, Love is No Joke, Life is a Dream, and The Physi- cian of His Own Honor. In later life he wrote many religious plays. His imagination waa brilliant and his writings abound in beautiful passages. Calderon, Ignacio, diplomat; was bom at La Pas, Bolivia, 1848; graduate university of La Pax, in which, at nineteen, he became teacher of history for one year; secretary of Bolivian legation at Rome, 1868-70; then became sujjcrvisor of pubUc instruction in Bolivia, and afterward first secretary of Bolivian legation at Lima, Peru; resigned to come to United States, 1876. Trav- eled through United States, and for a time acted as consul-general of Bohvia at New York; returned to BoUvia, 1886, to manage affairs of large importing and exporting company ; selected, 1889, as president Banco Hipotecario, a large financial institution of La Paz; secretary of the treasury of BoUvia, 1900, by appointment of President Pando; minister from Bolivia to United States since March, 1904. Calderwood (kdl'-dSr-tvdOd), Henry, British phi- losopher and educator, was bom at Peebles in 1830; from 1856 to 1868 was minister of Grey- friars, Glasgow, and then became professor of moral philosophy at Edinburgh. He was the author of The Philosophy of the Infinite; Moral Philosophy; Mind and Brain; Evolxition and Man; Vocahvlary of Philosophy; David Hume; etc. He died in Edinburgh, 1897. Calhoun {kdl-hSbn'), John Caldwell, American statesman of Irish Presbyterian descent, was born in Abbeville county. South Carolina, 1782; graduated at Yale, 1804, and became a successful lawyer. He was elected to congress, 1811; in congress he supported the measures which led to the war of 1812-15 with Great Britain, and promoted the protective tariff. In 1817 he entered Monroe's cabinet as secretary of w and did good work in reorganizing the war department. He was vice-president under John Q. Adams (1825-29), and then under Jackson. In 1829 he declared that a state can nullify unconstitutional laws; and his Address to the People of South Carolina in 1831 set forth his theory of state rights. On the passing by South CaroUna in 1832 of the nullification ordi- nance he resigned the vice-presidency, and entered the United States senate, becoming • leader of the states-rights movement, and • champion of the interests of the slave-holding states. In 1844, as secretary of state, he signed a treaty annexing Texas; but once more in the senate, he strenuously opposed the war of 1846-47 with Mexico. He aied at Washington, 1850. Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, »nd Cal- houn were "the great triumvirate" of American political orators. Calhoun, Patrick, lawyer, traction magnate; was bom at Fort Hill. S. C, 1856; educated in private schools; admitted to Georgia bar, 1875, Missouri bar, 1876; practiced at Atlanta, Ga., 1878-94; prominent in consolidation of railway and traction interests, notably the Central rail- road of Georgia, Richmond '), Cesare, modem Italian author, was bom, 1805, at Brivio, in northern Italy, ana waa educated at Sondrio, where he was appointed professor of belles-lettres. Having been impris- oned for the offense of expressing liberal tend- encies in an historicalwork on Lombardy, he spent his leisure hours in describing the sorrows of a prisoner in the form of an historical romance. His great work is the Storia Universale (35 vols., 1837-1842^, His History of Italian Literature appeared m 1851 ; History of tlie Last Hundred Years, 1852; History of the Italians, 1859; and Milano, Storia del Popdo, 1871. Died, 1895. Canute (kd-niW), or Cnut {k'ndSt), a king of Eng- land who succeeded to the rulership of the Danes ih the north of England on the death of his father, Swein or Sweyn, was born 995. On the death of Ethelred he shared the sovereignty with Edmund Ironside, who ruled over the south of England. The sudden decease or assassination of Edmund made Canute sole ruler in 1017, and he continued to reign until his death in 1035. Canute superseded his brother Harold as king of Denmark ; and in 1028 extended his dominion over Norway — becoming one of the most powerful princes of Europe. Capet (kd'-p&t), Hugh. See Hugh Capet. Capo D'lstrla (ka'-po dea'-trc-ii.), John, Count of, a Greek, who gained distinction as a diplomat, was born at Corfu in 1776. His father was a physi- cian, and became governor of the seven Ionian islands when they were occupied by Russia. John, who had studied medicine at Venice, entered the service of Russia; and in 1813, in consideration of his meritorious labors, the emperor Alexander made him minister for foreign affairs. In 1827 he was made president of the new Greek government, where he fell by the hand of an assassin in 1831. Caprlvl (kd-pre'-ve). Count Georg Leo von, Ger- man general, statesman, and chancellor, was born in 1831, and died in 1899. He entered the army in his 18th year, won rapid promotion, and served with distinction in the campaigns of 1864 and 1866. In 1882 he was given command of the 30th division of the imperial army at Metz; for a time was also at the head of the German sidmi- ralty, and reorganized the navy; was subse- quently given command of the 10th or Hano- verian army corps, the finest in the German army. In 1890, on the fall of Bismarck, Emperor William made him chancellor and minister for foreign affairs. In 1894, owing to friction with Count Eulenberg over the agrarian malcontents, he resigned office, and retired. Caracalla {kSr'-d-kdl'-d) (properly Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus), Roman emperor, the son of the emperor Septimius Severus, bom at Lyons, 188 A. D. He was playfully named by his father Caracalla, from his long-hooded tunic. After his father's death, 211 A. D., he ascended the throne as co-regent with his brother, Publius Septimius Antoninus Geta, whom he afterward caused to be murdered. Having bribed the pretorians to make him sole emperor, Caracalla next directed his cruelty against all the friends and adherents of Geta, of whom 20,000 of both sexes — including the great jurist Papinianus — were put to death. In his famous constitution he bestowed Roman citizenship on all his free subjects not citizens — but simply in order to levy a greater amount of taxes on releases Eind heritages, which were paid only by citizens. He W£is assassinated, at the instigation of Macrinus, . prefect of the pretorians, by one of his veterans named Martialis, 217 A. D. Caraccl (kd-r&'-cfie), or Carraccl, Agostino, Italian painter, was bom in Bologna in 1558, l^came a disciple of his cousin Ludovico, but he was too versatile to devote himself closely to any subject, though his "Conununion of St. Jerome," still at Bologna, is an admirable work. He dabbled in poetry and literature, and was a really great engraver on copper. His brother's jealousy is said to have anven him from Rome (where they did the frescoes in the Famese palace) to Parma, where he died, 1602. Caraccl, Annlbale, was born in Bologna in 1560, died, 1609 ; was bred a tailor, but rapidly became a great painter under his cousin, and soon out- stripped both him and his brother. The influence of Corregj^io and of Raphael largely moulded his style. His fame reached Rome, where he was employed to fresco the Famese palace. He was buried close to Raphael in the Pantheon. His most celebrated easel-picture is the "Three Maries." Caraccl, Ludovico, Italian painter, the son of a butcher, was bom at Bologna in 1555, died, 1619; studied at Venice and Parma, and, with his two cousins, established in Bologna an "eclectic" school of painting. Some of his finest works are preser^'ed at Bologna — among others, the "Madonna and Child Throned," Madonna and Child Standing," the "Transfiguration," and the "Nativity of St. John the Baptist." Cardan (kar'-ddn), Jerome, Italian mathematician, naturalist, physician, and philosopher, was born at Pavia, 1501; graduated in medicine at Padua; and was professor of mathematics at Milan. He subscuucntly jjracticed medicine and gradually gainea a high reputation. In 1559 he became pro- fessor of medicine at Pavia, later at Bologna; and there in 1570 we find him in prison for heresy or debt, or both. Having regained his liberty in 1571, he went to Rome, where Gregory XII. pen- sioned him. He died in Rome, 1576, a few weeks after finishing his candid autobiography, De Propria Vita. He wrote over a hundred treatises on physics, mathematics, astronomy, astrologv, rhetoric, history, ethics, dialectics, naturalhistory, music, and medicine. Cardigan {kdr'-dUgan), James Thomas BnidenelU Earl of, was born 1797; died 1868; sat in the bouse of commons from 1818 to 1837, when he succeeded his father as seventh earl. He entered the army in 1824, and rapidly bought himself into the command of the 15th hussars, which he resigned in 1833, on the acquittal of an officer whom he had illegally put under arrest. From 1836 to 1847 he commanded the 11th hussars, on which he spent 10,000 pounds a year, and which he made the crack regiment in the service. He was unpopular with his officers, and his treatment of them brought about a duel with Captain Harvey Tucket t, for which in 1841 Cardigan was tried before the house of lords, but escaped through a legal quibble. He com- manded a cavalry brigade under Lord Lucan in the Crimea, andi led the "Six Hundred" at Balaklava. He was inspector-general of cavalry 1855-60. Carduccl (kdr-d^f-chi), Giosui, Italian poet, was born, a physician's son, at Valdicastello, in the province of Pisa, in 1836, and died in 1907. In 1861 he became professor of Itahan literature at Bologna, in 1876 was returned to the Italian parliament as a repubUcan, and in 1890 was nominated a senator. A complete edition of his poems in twenty volumes appeared at Bologna in 1889 et seq. Awarded Nobel prize, 1906. Carew, Mrs. James. See Terry, Ellen. Carey (ka'-ri), Henry Charles, political economist, was bom at Philadelphia, 1793. In 1836 he published an essay on the Rate of Wages, which was expanded into the Principles of Political Economy. In 1838 he pubUshed The Credit System of France, Great Britain, and the VniUd THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 601 States; and in 1848 The Past, the Present, and the Future, a work market! by great vigor and originality. In 1853 appeared the Letters on the International Cojn/right; in 1858, Principles of Social Science; in 1867, Review of the Decade 1857-67 ; and, in 1873, The Unity of Law. He was originally a free-trader, but was later recognized as the head of a new school of political economy. Died, 1879. Carey. James F^ socialist leader; born Haverhill, Mass., 1867; educated at Haverhill public schools; learned shoemaking trade: joined international boot and shoemakers union; chairman convention at Boston, 1895, which amalgamated three national organizations of shoemakers into one union; one of three leaders in unemployed Eigitation on Boston common, 1894; appointed by governor a commissioner of the unemployed, but was not confirmed; first socialist elected to political office in New England; president Haverhill common council; member Massachusetts house of representatives; elected 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1902, last four elections over combination of democratic and republican parties. Carhart, Henry Smith, scientist, professor physics, 1886-1909, emeritus professor since 1909, uni- versity of Michigan; born at Coeymans, N. Y., 1844; graduated from Wesleyan university, Middletown, Conn., 1869; LL. D., 1893; later studied at Yale, Harvard, and Berlin. Pro- fessor of physics and chemistry, Northwestern university, 1872-86; president of board of judges, department of electricity. World's Columbian exposition, 1893; member of inter- national jury of awards, Paris exposition of elec- tricity, 1881; member of jury of awards, Pan- American exposition, 1901 ; president of American electrochemical society, 1904-05; vice-president of St. Louis international electrical congress, and one of official delegates for tlie United States, 1904; accompanied the British associa- tion for the advancement of science to South Africa as a guest, 1905; member of preliminary conference on electrical units and standards, Berlin, 1905, and United States delegate to the official congress on same subject, London, 1908. Author : Primary Batteries; Elements of Physics (with H. N. Chute); University Physics; Elec- trical Measurements (with G. W. Patterson); High School Physics (with H. N. Chute). Carle, Richard, actor, playwright; born at Somer- ville, Mass., 1871; received a high school educa- tion, Somerville, Mass. Began stage career. Bijou theater. New York, 1891; played in The Spring Chicken, Mayor of Tokio, etc. Author : (plays) Mam'seUe Awkins; The Storks; The Tenderfoot; The Mayor of Tokio, and adapter of The Spring Chicken and Mary's Lamb. Carleton (Jcarl'-tun), Will, author, lecturer; bom at Hudson, Mich., 1845; graduated at Hillsdale college, B. S., 1869; A. M.; Litt. D. In newspaper work, Hillsdale, Detroit, Chicago, Boston, and New York; became known as a poet; lectured • and gave author's readings through the United States, Great Britain, and continental Europe; was editor of Every Where, Brooklyn, an illustrated magazine. Author : Farm Ballads; Farm Legends; Farm Festivals; City Ballads; City Legends; City Festivals; Rhymes of Our Planet; The Old Infant and Similar Stories; Young Folks' Centennial Rhymes; Songs of Two Centuries (poems); Poems for Young Americans; In Old School Days; Drifted In. Died, 1912. Carlisle {kar4ir), John Griffin, lawyer; bom in Campbell county, Kentucky, 1835; common school education; admitted to Kentucky bar, 1858; several terms in Kentucky legislature; ■tate senator, 1866-71; delegate at large, national democratic convention, 1868; lieu- tenant-governor of Kentucky, 1871-76; member of congress, 1877-91 rapcaker, 1883-89); noted low tariff advocate: United States senator from Kentucky, 1890-93; secretary of treasury of United States, 1893-97; democrat; affiliated with national (gold standard) democrats, 1896; after 1897 in law practice. New York. Vice- president of anti-imperialist league. Died, 1910. Carlyie, Thomas. See page 103. Carman (kiir'-man), William Bliss, journalist, poet, was born at Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, 1861. Graduate of university of New Bmnswick, B. A., 1881- Edinburgh and Har- vard. Office editor, the Independent, New York, 1890-92. Author: Low Tide on Grand Prt; Behind the Arras; A Seamark; Ballads of Loat Haven; Sonas from Vagabondia (with Richard Hovey); Afore Songs from Vagabondia (with Richard Hovey); By the Aurelian Wall; A Winter Holiday; Last Songs of Vagabondia; Christmas Eve at St. Kavin'a; Ode on the Corona- tion; Pipes of Pan. Carnarvon (kdr-n&r'-v&n). Earl of (Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert), born in London, Eng., 1831 ; appointed governor of Carnarvon castle in 1854. In 1858 he became under-sccrotary of state for the colonies in the administration of the earl of Derby, and in 1859 visited the East. The feuds of the tribes in the Lebanon had broken out in a massacre of the Christians, and Carnarvon gave the world the benefit of his investigations in an interesting work, the Druses of the Lebanon. He was author of the British North America act, passed by both houses of parliament in 1867, whereby the Dominion oi Canada was formed. Died, 1890. Carnegie (k&r-n^g'-l), Andrew, capitalist, manu- facturer, philanthropist, author; born in Dun- fermline, Fifeshire, Scotland, 1835: came with family to United States, 1848, settling in Pitts- burgh; first work was as weaver's assistant in cotton factory, Allegheny, Pa. ; became telegraph messenger boy in Pittsburgh office of Ohio tele- graph company, 1851; learned telegraphy, entered employ of Pennsylvania railroad, and became telegraph operator, advancing by pro- motions until he became superintendent of Pittsburgh division of Pennsylvania system; joined WoodrufiF, inventor of the sleeping car, m organizing Woodruff sleeping car com- pany, gaining through it nucleus of his fortune; careful investments in oil lands increased his means; during civil war served as superin- tendent of military railways and government telegraph lines in the East. After the war he developed iron works of various kinds and established, at Pittsburgh, Keystone bridge works and Union iron works. Introtiuced into this country Bessemer process of making steel, 1868; was principal owner a few years later of Home- stead and Edgar Thomson steel works, and other large plants, as head of firms of Carnegie, Phipps & Company and Carnegie Bros. & Com- pany; interests were consolidated, 1899, in the Carnegie steel company, which, in 1901, was merged in the United States steel corporation, when he retired from business; married, 1887, Louise Whitfield, of New York. Has given libraries to many towns and cities in the United States and Great Britain, and large siuns in other benefactions, including $10,(XX),000 to Camegie institute, Pittsburgh, $5,200,000 to New York for the establishment of branch libraries; $22,000,000 to Camegie institution, Washington; $10,000,000 to Scotch universities; $5,000,000 to fund for benefit of employees of Carnegie steel company; $1,000,000 to St. Louis public librarv, etc., total benefactions exceeding $175,000,000, including over $50,000,000 for over 2,200 municipal library buildings, and 602 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT $15,000,000 for college professors' pension fund in United States, Canada, and Newfoundland. Author: An American Four-in-Hand in Britain; Round the World; Triumphant Democracy; The Gospel of Wealth; Empire of Buainesa; and The Life of James Watt. Lord rector of St. Andrew's university, 1903; LL. D., 1905. Camot (kd.r'-nd'), Laiare Nicolas Marguerite, was bom in 1753 at Nolay, Burgundy, France. In 1791 he became a member of the legislative assembly, and in the convention voted for the death of Louis XVI. After taking conunand of the army of the north, and gaining the victory of Wattignies, he was elected mto the committee of public safety, was intrusted with the chief direction of military affairs, and greatly contrib- uted to the successes of the French army. Though he endeavored to restrict the power of Robes- pierre, he was accused, with others, after the reign of terror, but the charge was dismissed. In 1797, having opposed the extreme measures of Barras, his colleague in the directory, Camot, suspected royalist, was sentenced to deportation. He escaped into Germany, wrote his defense, which conduced to the overthrow of his col- leagues in 1799. On his return to Paris, he was made minister of war, 1800; died, 1823. Camot, Marie Francois Sadi, French statesman, was born at Limoges, France, 1837. He was educated as an engineer, and introduced several improvements in railroad and bridge building. He was elected a member of the assembly in 1871, was twice a cabinet officer, and upon the resignation of President Gr6vy was chosen president of the French republic, 1887. He was assassinated by an anarchist, 1894. Camot, Nicholas Leonard Sadi, son of Nicolas, founder of thermo-dynamics, was bom at Paris, 1796, died 1832; in his Reflexions sur la Puissance du Feu, he enunciates the principle of reversi- bility, considered most important contribution to physical science since time of Newton. Carpaccio (kar-piU'-cho), Vlttore, an early Venetian painter, was born in Istria, about 1450, and was influenced by the Vivarini and Gentile Bellini. He is noted for rich coloring and accurate per- spective, boundless invention, powerful delinea- tion of character, and love of varied incident. In 1510 he executed for San Giobbe his master- piece, the "Presentation in the Temple," now in the Accademia. His later works show a marked decline in power. Died about 1522. Carpenter, Franic George, journalist, traveler, author; born in Mansfield, Ohio, 1855; graduate of Wooster university, 1877. Began newspaper work as legislative corresp>ondent for Cleveland Leader, at Columbus, 1879; spent 1881 in European and Egyptian travel; Washington correspondent for Cleveland Leader, 1882; correspondent for American press association, 1884; also, 1887, correspondent for New York World; trip round the world for newspaper sjTidicate and Cosmopolitan magazine, 1888-89; newspaper tour to Mexico, 1891 ; to Russia, Germany, and England, 1892; to China. Japan, and Corea, 1894; spent 1898 in South America, 25,000 miles of travel; spent 1900 in PhiUppines, China, Java, Australia, and New Zealand; made newspaper tour, 1902, to investigate American "commercial invasion" in England, France, Germany, Russia, Holland, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Denmark. Author: Carpenter's Geo- graphical Readers — Asia; North America; South America; Europe; Australia, Our Colonies and Other Islands of the Seas; Africa; Through Asia With the Children; Through North America With the Children; South America — Social, Industrial, and Political; Foods, or How the World is Fed. Has written many axticlea in leading American journals and magazines. Carpenter, J. Estlln, theological writer, principal of Manchester college, Oxford; bom 1844; second son of Wm. B. Carpenter, C. B., M. D., F. R. S., etc. ; educated at University College school, London; University and Manchester New colleges. M. A., London; Litt. D., Oxford: D. D., Glasgow. Minister of Oakfield Road church, Clifton, 1866-69; Mill Hill chapel, Leeds, 1869-75; lecturer in Manchester college, London, and Oxford, 1875-1906. Editor of Ewald's History of Israel; translator of Tide's Outlines of the History of Reliaion; author of the Life and Work of Mary Carpenter; Life in Palestine; The First Three Gospels, Their Origin and Rdations; The Bible in the Nineteenth Century; James Martineau, Theologian and Teacher; joint-editor with Professor Rhys Davids of the Digha Nikaya, and the Sumangala Vilasini; joint-editor with Rev. G. Harford-Battersby of The Hexateuch according to the revised version; joint-author (with Rev. P. H. Wicksteed) of Studies in Theology; and otlier works. Carpenter, William Benjamin, one of the most distinguished physiologists and writers on physi- ology of moclem times; was born at Exetez* 1813, died at London, 1885. Graduate of Edin- burgh univereity; M. D., LL. D., F. R. 8. He took a chief part in the government expeditions which were sent out in 1868-69-70 for deep sea exploration in the north Atlantic. Among his publications may be mentioned Zodlogy and the Instincts of Animals; The Microscope and Its Revelations; a work on Comparative Physiology and The Principles of Mental Physiology. Carpenter, Bt. Bev. William Boyd, bishop of Ripon, born at Liverpool, 1841; educated at Royal Institution school, Liverpool, St. Catha- rine's college, Cambridge; D. D., D. C. L. ; Hulsean lecturer, Cambridge, 1878; Bampton lecturer, Oxford, 1887; pastoral lecturer on theology, Cambridge, 1895; Noble lecturer, Harvard, 1904. Curate of All Saints, Maidstone, 1864-66; St. Paul's, Clapham, 1866-67; Holy Trinity Lee, 1867-70; vicar of St. James's, Holloway, 1870-79; vicar of Christ church, Lancaster Gate, 1879-84; canon of Windsor, 1882-84; hon. chaplain to the queen, 1879-83; chaplain-in-ordinary, 1883-84. Author: Com- mentary on Revelation; Thoughts on Prayer; Witness of Heart to Christ (Hulsean lectures) ; Permanent Elements of Religion (Bampton lec- tures); Lectures on Preaching; Christian Reunion; The Great Charter of Christ; Truth in Tale; Twilight Dreams; A Popular History of the Church of England; The Religious Smrit xn the Poets; Introduction to Study of the Bible; Witness to the Influence of Christ. Carr, Gene, caricaturist, illustrator; was bom in New York, 1881 ; educated in public schools of New York; never studied art. Employed on New York Recorder, 1894, later on New York Herald, Philadelphia Times, New York Journal and New York World since 1903. Creator of comic series, Lady Bountiful, Phyllis, Romeo, All the Comforts of Home, and the Prodigal Son. Carrel, Alexis, surgeon; bom in France, 1873; L. B., university of Lyons, France, 1890, Sc. B., 1891, M. D., 1900. Came to America, 1905; in charge of laboratory at McGill university, later at university of Chicago. Associate member, Rockefeller institute for medical research, since 1909. His researches in medicine during late years have demonstrated that life in tissues may be prolonged after removal from the body. Received Nobel prize for medicine, 1912. Carr&re, John Merven, architect; bom of American parents in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil^l858; educated m Switzerland; graduate of Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, 1882 ; partner with Thomas Hastings in firm, Carrdre & Hastings, after 1884. The THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 008 firm were architects of the Ponce de Leon and Alcazar hotels, St. Augustine, Fla., the New York public library, academy of design, and many otker noted buildings. Fellow, American insti- tute of architects. Died, 1911. Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, American patriot, bom at Annapolis, Md., 1737. When tne war of the revolution be^an he was the richest man in the English colonies; but though he had so much to lose, he made the most daring speeches and helped the patriot cause in every way. He was elected a member of congress, 1776, and was among the first signers of the declaration of independence. When he wrote his name, "Charles Carroll," some one said: "There are many Charles Carrolls, and the British will not know which one it is." He at once added to his name "of Carrollton," and was ever afterward known by that title. He outlived all the other signers of the declaration of independence, and died when ninety-five years old, 1832. Carroll, Lewis, the pseudonym of Rev. Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, English humorist and author, bom in 1832; graduate of Christ Church, Oxford, 1854 ; took orders in the church, 1861; lecturer at Oxford, 1855-81; wrote Alice in Wonderland, Through the Looking-glass, The Hunting of the Snark, Rhyme and Reason, A Tangled Tale, Sylvie and Bruno, and other works. Died, 1898. Carson, Christopher, popularly known as Kit Carson, an American frontiersman, bom in Kentucky in 1809. He was successively a saddler's apprentice, trapper, hunter, guide in P'r^mont's explorations, heutenant in the rifle corps of the army, and Indian agent. During the civil war he rendered important services in the territories, and was brevetted brigadier- general. Died in Colorado, 1868. Carson, Rt. Hon. Sir Edward Henry, British lawyer, statesman; M. P. for Dublin university since 1892; Q. C, English bar, 1894; Irish, 1889; bencher of King's Inn, Dublin; bencher of Middle Temple, 1900; was bora 1854; edu- cated at Portarlington school; Trinity college, DubUn, M. A., LL. D. Solicitor-general for Ireland, 1892 ; solicitor-general of Great Britain, 1900-06. Carson, Hampton Lawrence, lawyer, author; born at Philadelphia, 1852 ; graduate of university of Pennsylvania, 1871, A. M., 1874, LL. B., 1874; LL. D., Lafayette, 1898, Western university of Pennsylvania, 1904, university of Pennsylvania, 1906; " admitted to bar, 1874. Has made many addresses on legal, historical, constitutional, and political subjects. Professor of law, uni- versity of Pennsylvania, 1895-1901 ; attorney- general, Pennsylvania, 1903-07. Author: Law of Criminal Conspiracies as Found in American Cases; History of the One Hundredth Anniversary of the Promulgation of the Constitution of the United StcUes; History of the Supreme Court of the United States; also many papers in law journals. Carson, Howard Adams, civil engineer; bom at Westfield, Mass., 1842; B. S., Massachusetts institute technology, 1869; A. M., Harvard, 1906. In charge of sewer construction, Provi- dence, 1873; principal superintendent of con- struction of Boston main drainage, 1878; de- signed, 1887, and later was chief engineer of extensive sewerage systems for Massachusetts, a combined system for about twenty cities and towns, with numerous siphons under tidal estuaries and an outlet, 1,800 feet, into the sea from Deer island; chief engineer of Boston transit commission, 1894-1909, building the Boston subway, the East Boston tunnel and the Washington street tunnel; has been consulting engineer in various parts of the country. Author of annual reports as chief engineer of Boston transit commission, 1804-1904, and other engineering reports. Carter, James Coolidge, an American lawyer of note, was born at Lancaster, Mass., in 1827, and was graduated from Harvard, I860. He was a member of the commission that devised a form of municipal adminiMtration for cities in New York state, 1875, and also of the consti- tutional commission of 1888. He published a pamphlet opposing the cotiification of the com- mon law of New York state in 188.^. President Harrison appointed him one of the counsel to represent the United States before the Bering sea tribunal which met at Paris in 1893. He died, 1905. Carter, Thomas Henry, lawyer. United States senator, was bom in Scioto county, Ohio, 1854; received a common school education in Illinois; was engaged in farming, railroading, and school- teaching for a number of years; studied law and was admitted to the bar; in 1882 moved from Burlington, Iowa, to Helena, Mont.; was elected delegate from the territory of Montana to the fifty-first congress, and upon the admiasion of the state was elected its first representative in con- gress; commissioner of United States general land office, 1891-92, when he was elected chairman of the republican national committee: in January, 1895, was elected to the United States senate by the legislature of Montana for the term, 1895-1901; appointed by President McKinley a member of the board of commis- sioners of the Louisiana Purchase exposition; again elected to the United States senate for the term, 1905-11. Died, 1911. Cartier (kar'-tyd'). Sir George £tienne, Canadian statesman,, bom at St. Antoine, Canada, in 1814. He was deeply involved in the rebellion of 1837. In 1848 he was elected to the house of assembly, in 1856 was appointed provincial secretary, and soon became attorney-general. In 1857 he became leader of the lower Canada section of the government, and in 1858, premier; and he held a cabinet office for several years afterward. He was prominent in numerous governmental reforms. Died at London, 1873. Cartier, Jacques, French explorer, was born 1494. Employed by Francis I. to make explorations on the North American coast, in three successive expeditions, 1534-50; he completed the dis- covery and colonization of Canaaa. Died about 1557. Cartwright, Edmund, inventor of the power-loom, was born at Marnham, England, 1743. Edu- cated at Wakefield and University college, Oxford, he became rector of Goadby-Marwood, Leicestershire, 1779, where he made improve- ments in agriculture. A visit in 1784 to Ark- wright's cotton-spinning mills resulted in his power-loom. Attempts to employ it at Don- caster and Manchester met with fierce opposition ; it was not till the nineteenth century that it came into practical use. Cartwright also took out patents for combing wool and various other inventions; he even joined Robert Fulton in his efforts toward steam navigation. All these labors brought him no direct gain, but in 1809 the government made hini a grant of 10,000 pounds. He died at Hastings, 1823. Cartwright, Bt. Hon. Sir BIchard John« Canadian statesman; minister of trade and commerce for Canada and member of parliament for South Oxford, 1896-1912; bom Kingston, Ontario, 1835; educated at Trinity college, DubUn. Became president of the Commercial bank of Canada; was president, director, or trustee of several commercial and financial corporations; elected to parliament of Old Canada for Lennox and Addington, 1863, and continued to sit for 604 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT that constituency until 1867; from confedera- tion down to 1878, represented Lennox in house of commonB; defeated in Lennox, 1878; was returned for Centre Huron at bye-election on resignation of H. Horton; contested Centre Wellington, 1882; elected S. Huron, 1883; S. Oxford, 1887, 1891, 1896; finance minister, 1873-78; chief financial critic, and one of the leaders of the opposition in parliament, 1879-96; Acting-premier and leader m the house of com- mons, 1897 ; commissioner to Washington, 1897. to promote better relations between Canada ana the United States- proposed a joint commission, and represented Canada on the Anglo-American joint high commission when it sat at Quebec in the summer of 1898, and Washington in the winter of 1898-99; Acting-premier during Sir Wilfred Laurier's absence at colonial conference, 1907. Died, 1912. Carus (k&'-rdba), Paul, philosophical writer, editor of The Open Court and The Monist; bom at Ilsenburg, Germany, 1852; graduate of univer- sity of Tubingen, Ph. D., 1876. Author: The Ethical Problem; Fundamental Problems; The Soul of Man; Primer of Philosophy; Truth in Fiction; Monism and Meliorism; The Religion of Science; The Philosophy of tfie Tool; Our Need qf Philosophy; Science, a Religious Revelation; The Gospel of Buddha; Karma; Nirvana; Lao- tze's Too Teh King; Homilies of Science; The Idea of God; Buddhism and its Christian Critics; The History of the Devil; Whence and Whither; Eros and Psyche; Goethe and Schiller's Xenions; The Crown of Thorns; The Chiefs Daughter; Godioard; Sacred Tunes for the Consecration of Life; Kant's Prolegomena; The Canon of Reason and Virtue; Kant and Spencer; The Nature of the State; Chinese Philosophy; The Age of Christ; The Surd of Metaphysics; History of the Cross; Greek Mythology; Our Children; Chinese Tho7ight; Chinese Life and Customs; The Rise of Man; The Story of Samson. Caruso (M-r<55'-«o), Enrtro, great Italian tenor, was born at Naples in 1874; began life as an engineer with no thought of singing until a friend assured him that there was a fortune in his voice; he studied for some time, and made a first appear- ance in opera, some few years ago, in his native city, Naples. His success was immediate, and he now sings at all the greatest opera houses in the worldj commanding fees of thousands of dollars per night. Principal rdles: Edgardo in Lucia; Des Grieux in Manon Leseaut; J'Pagliaeci; the Duke in Rigoletto; Lohengrin, etc. Carver, John, the first governor of Plymouth colony, was born in England, about 1575. He was one of the Pilgrims who came over in the Mayflower, and was chosen governor soon after landing. He assisted in settling his people in their new homes, but died within four months, April, 1621. Cary, Alice, American poet and prose writer, was bom in 1820; commenced writing at eighteen. In connection with her sister Phoebe she pub- lished her first volume in 1850, and from that time till her death, which took place in 1871. continued to pour forth stories, poems, ana sketches. Cary, Henry Francis, translator of Dante, was bom at Gibraltar, 1772. He was educated at Rugby, Sutton-Coldfield, and Birmingham, in 1790 entered Christ Church, Oxford, and in 1796 took holy orders. In 1805 he published a translation of the Inferno, in 1814 of the whole Divina Commedia, a translation remarkable for fidelity, force, ajid expressiveness. He afterward trans- lated Pindar's Odes and Aristophanes' Birds, and wrote memoirs in continuation of Johnson's Lives of the Poets. Assistant librarian in the British museum 1826-37. He died in 1844, and was buried in Westminster abbey beside Samuel Johnson. Cary, Pbcebe, American poet, sister of Alice Cary, bom near Cincinnati, 1824. She wrote about a third of the Poems of Alice and Phabe Carv, and other poems. Her death quickly followed that of her sister, in 1871. Casablanca (ka'-za-hydng'-k&), Louis, French naval officer, bom in Bastia about 1755; in 1798 was captain of the fiagship L'Orient in the expe- dition to Egypt. He was mortally wounded at the battle of the Nile, August 1, 1798; the ship caught fire, his ten year old son would not leave him, and both were floating on the wreck of the ship's mast when the final explosion took place. Casaubon {kd-sd'-bUn; Fr., kd'-zo'-bdN'), Isaac* scholar and critic, bom 1559 at Geneva, where, in 1582, he was appointed professor of the Greek language. Subsequently he held profes- sorships at Montpellier 1596, and at Paris 1598, but the death of Henry IV. rendered his position very insecure, and he therefore gladly accepted the oCTer to visit England. King James received him with distinction, and appointed him some time after prebendary of Canterbury and West- minster. Died in London 1614. Casimlr-Perler (kd'-ti'-mir' pd'-ryfl'). Jean Paul Pierre, French statesman, was bom at Paris 1847; served with distinction at the siege of Paris 1871 ; entered the legislative chamber 1874, and served both as vice-president and president of that bod^; became premier of France 1893, and president in 1894; resigned 1895. Died. 1907. Cass, Lewis, American statesman, bom at Exeter, New Hampsliire, 1782, admittea to the Ohio bar in 1802, rose to be general in the war of 1812. He was then for eighteen years governor of Michigan, which under his skillful administration became a settled state. In 1831-36 he was secretary of war, and in 1836—42 minister at Paris. He twice failed for nomination to the presidency, sat in the United States senate 1845-57, and was secretary of state in 1857-60. He died at Detroit, 1866. He went wholly with the slave-holding party, advocating an extension of territory' with a view to extending the ramifi- cations of slavery. Cassini (kAs-se'^ne), Giovanni Domcnico, Italian astronomer and savant, bom at Perinaldo, near Nice, 1625, died 1712. In 1650 he was appointed to the astronomical chair in the university of Bologna. His first work related to the comet of 1652. Cassini, Jacques, son of the preceding, bom at Paris, 1677. In 1694 he was elected a member of the academy of sciences. On the death of his father he succeeded to the charge of the observatory at Paris, and died 1756. As an observer Cassini was eminently successful. He determined the periods of rotation of all the satellites of Saturn then known, the inclination of the planetary orbits, the obliquity of the ecliptic very nearly, the length of the year, etc. Cassius (k&sh'-'His), or in full, Caius Cassias Longlnus, Roman general and politician, was quaestor to Crassus in the Parthian war, 54 B. C, saved the credit of Roman arms after the com- mander's disastrous defeat and death, and as tribune of the people, in 49 B. C, attached himself to Pompey. After Pbarsalia he was taken prisoner and pardoned bv Csesar. In 44 B. C. as praetor he attached to himself the aris- tocrats who resented Cesar's supremacy, and won over Brutus; and in the same year Cssar was murdered. But popular feeling blazed out, and Mark Antony seized his opportunity. Cassius fled to the East, united his forces with those of Brutus, and at Philippi, being routed. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 606 compelled his freedman Pindarus to kill him, 42B.C. Casson, Herbert Newton, editor, socialistic writer, bom at Ontario, Canada, 1869; graduate of Victoria college; became Methodist minister; had church at Owen Sound, Ontario; became a socialist; in 1893 gave up ministry; went to Boston and with Morrison I. Swift organized the unemployed, and at head of 10,000 men marched to state house demanding relief. Founded first labor church in America, at Lynn, Mass., 1894 ; editor of Tlie Coming Nation, Ruskin, Tenn.. 1898 ; moved to New York, 1899, and on editorial staff of New York World till 1904; associate editor of Boyce's Weekly; on staff of Munsey's Magazine, 1905-06 ; doing independent work for a number of magazines, and lecturing since 1906. Author: Tfie Red Light; Crime of Credvlity; Organized Self-Help; The Romance of Steel; also many socialist tracts. Castelar {kas'-ta-lar'), EmiUo, Spanish orator, statesman, and writer, was bom at Cadiz, 1832; was for some years professor of history and philosophy in the university at Madrid- took part in several political uprisings and helped to bring about the downfall of King Amadeus in 1873. Castelar became dictator, but, when Alphonso XII. became king, he fled across the frontier. He returned to Spain in 1876, and devoted himself more to literature than to political and social questions. He died in 1899. Castlereagh {kds'l-ra', kds"l-rd), Robert Stewart, Lord, British statesman, eldest son of the marquis of Londonderry; was bom in 1769. At an early period he entered into public life, and was appointed keeper of the signet, or privy seal, in Ireland, in 1797; president of tne board of control in 1802; and secretary of war in 1805. A difference having arisen between him and his colleague. Canning, a duel was the conse- quence, and both quitted oflSce. During Lord Liverpool's administration. Lord Castlereagh again became a member of the government as foreign secretaryj and concluded the treaty of Paris in 1814. He remained in office the re- mainder of his life, which was closed by suicide in 1822. Catharine I., empress of Russia; bom about 1685; was the outcast infant of a Livonian peasant- firl, and was brought up in the family of the 'rotestant minister of Marienburg. In 1701 she married a Swedish dragoon, who soon afterward went with his regiment to Riga, and never returned. After the capture of Marienburg by the Russians, Catharine became the mistress first of General Bauer, with whom she lived at Moscow, secondly of Prince Menschikoff, and, finally, of Peter the Great, who married her privately near Warsaw in 1711, and publicly the next year at St. Petersburg. She then embraced the Greek religion, and took the name of Catha- rine. On the death of Peter in 1725, she was proclaimed czarina. Her death was the result of intemperance. Died, 1727. Catharine 11^ empress of Russia; bom in 1729; the princess Sophia Augusta, daughter of the prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, on her marriage in 1745, with Peter, nephew and heir of the empress Elizabeth, assumed the name of Catharine Alexievna. Her refinement and love of study contrasted with her husband's vulgarity and intemperance; neglected by him, she ingratiated herself with some of the nobles; her intrigues were discovered by Peter, and, on ascending the throne in 1762, he threatened to repudiate her, whereupon she imprisoned him and had him strangled. The subsequent murder of Ivan, the next heir, left Catharine in undisputed possession of the throne. As empress she seized the Crimea, and took part in the dismemberment of Poland. She promoted the welfare of Runia by eneourac- ing fiterature and commerce, but her rdgn waa sullied by disgraceful amoum. Died, 1796. Catharine, Saint, of Siena, is a saint belonginc to the fourteenth century, bom about 1347. She was said to have been favored with extraordinaiy revelations, and the wounds of Christ were believed to have been impressed upon her body. She wrote many devotional letters, poenais, etc., which are held in high favor by members of tb« Roman Catholic church. Dieecial course in law; was principal of high school and general superintendent of schools. Mason City. la. ; married first, 1884, Leo Chapman, who died 1886; second, 1890, George W. Catt, who died 1905. State lecturer and organizer, Iowa woman suffrage association. 1890-92; since then in service of national American woman suffrage association and international alliance. Has lectured in nearly every state; worked for suffrage in successful campaigns in Colorado and Idaho; aided in movement which secured clause in Louisiana constitution giving tax-paving women right to vote on all questions submitted to the taxpayers. Cattell {k&-tW), James McKeen, educator, psy- chologist, professor of psychology, Columbia, since 1891; bora Easton, Pa., 1860; graduate of Lafayette college, 1880, A. M., 1883; Ph. D., Leipzig, 1886 ; student Gottingen, Leipzig, Paris, Geneva, 1880-82; fellow Johns Hopkins, 1882-83; student and assistant university of Leipzig, 1883-86; lecturer university of Cambridge, 1888; professor psychology, university of Penn- sylvania, 1888-91. Member of manv scientific societies. Editor of Science, The Popular Science Monthly, The American Naturalist, and American Men of Science. Cahillus {kd-tiU'-iis), Calus Talerins, celebrated Roman lyric and elegiac poet, is supposed to have been bom at Verona, Italy, B. C. 87, and to have died about B. C. 64; associated with the best wits in Rome; fell in love with Clodia, a patrician lady, who waa the inspiration, both in peace and war, of many of his effusions, and whom he addresses as Lesbia. The death of a brother affected him deeply, and waa the occasion of the production of one of the most pathetic elegies ever penned ; in the civic strife of the time he sided with the senate, and op- posed Csesar to the length of directing against him a coarse lamp>oon. Cauchy (kd'-she'), Augustln Louis, French mathe- matician, the founder with Bolzano of the theory of functions, was bora in Paris, 1789. His Mimoire sur la Thiorie des Ondes helped to establish the undulatory theory of light ; at Prague, where he resided aa tutor to the Comte de Chambord, he published his M6moire star la Dispersion de la Lumiire. He was professor of aatronomv at Paris, 1848-52, but refused the oath of allegiance to Napoleon III. A reissue of his works, in twenty-six volumes, was com- menced by the French academy in 1882. Died. 1857. Caulalncourt {k6'4&ii'-k4X>r'), Armand Augustin Louis de, duke of Vicenza, French statesman, was bom 1772; waa made a general of division in 1805, and shortly after created duke of Vicenza. Faithful to the laat to Napoleon, he was minister for foreign affairs in 1813, and during the hundred days resumed the office, receiving a peerage of France, of which he was deprived after the resto- ration. When Napoleon abdicated, Caulaln- court used his influence with Alexander to obtain the most favorable conditions for the fallen emperor, and, chiefly through his intervention, the island of Elba was ceded to Napoleon. On the second restoration be retired into private life. Died in Paris. 1827. CaTalgnac {kd'-vin'-ydk'\ Louis Eugtoe, French general, bom in Paris, 1802. Bred a soldier, he served in the Morea, and afterward in Algeria, whither he was sent in 1832, into honorable exile for free speech in favor of repubUcan institutions. Here he won great distinction by his energy and intrepidity, and was made governor-general in 1848, when in view of revolutionary dangers he was called to Paris, and became minister of war. As military dictator he quelled the formidable insurrection of June, after a most obstinate three days' contest. He was the candidate for the presidency of the republic against Louis Napoleon. On the coup d'itat of December, 1851, he waa arrested but soon released ; and, though he refused to give his adhesion to the empire, he was per- mitted to reside in France. He died 1857. Cavendish {kHiZ-en^ish), Henry, English chemist and physicist, waa bom at Nice, France, 1731, died 1810. His most important work included the discovery of the composition of water, the composition of nitric acid, and the determination of the mean density of the earth. Since the dis- covery of argon by Rayleigh and Ramsay, it has become evident that Cavendish in his studies on the composition of air, had, at that early date, isolated argon, without knowing it. He wt« a man of large wealth. Cayour (fai'-wJ&r'), Count Camlllo Benso dl, dis- tinguished ItaUan statesman of the nineteenth century, the descendant of a noble and wealthy family of Piedmont, was born at Turin, 1810. He was educated for a military career, but his liberal tendencies being likely to prove an insu- p)erable barrier to his promotion, he retired during the stirring events of 1830-31, and devoted him- self to agriculture, in which he introduced great improvements. He was the first to use guano in Piedmont ; and, at his instigation, a national agricultural society was formed. During a residence in England he made himself intimately acquainted with the political organization of the country, and also with its industrial institutions; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 607 knowledge of which he made good uae on his return to his country in 1842. In conjunction with Count Cesare Balbo, he in 1847 established a political daily journal, in which he advocated the interests of the middle classes, a representa- tive system somewhat after the pattern of the English constitution, as opposed alike to absolu- tism on the one hand, and mob rule on the other. On his suggestion the king was petitioned for a constitution, which was granted in February, 1848. As a member of the chamber of deputies, during the stonny period which succeeded Charles Albert's declaration of war against Austria, Cavour strenuously opposed the ultra- democrats, and counselled an alliance with England as the surest guarantee for the success of the Italian arms. In the Marquis d'Azeglio's ministry, formed soon after the fatal battle of Novara, Cavour was successively minister of agriculture and commerce, minister of marine, and minister of finance; and in 1852 he was appointed to succeed D'Azeglio as premier. From this time until his resignation in 1859, in consequence of the conclusion of the peace of Villafranca, Cavour was the originator aa well as the director of the Sardinian policy. Taking upon himself at different times, in addition to the premiership, the duties of the ministers of finance, commerce, and agriculture, and latterly of home and foreign affairs, he greatly improved the financial condition of the country, introduced free trade, consolidated constitutionalism, weak- ened clerical influence, and made Sardinia a power of some account in Europe, by bringing it mto alliance with England and France against Russia. The dispatches, which Cavour penned in reply to those of Austria prior to the outbreak of the Italian war, are universally acknowledged as masterpieces of astute diplomacy. In 1860 he was again called upon to preside over the Sardinian government, the duties of foreign minister likewise devolving upon him, and tem- porarily those of the minister of the interior also. He continued to direct the Sardinian policy until his death, 1861. His last words were, "Brothers brothers, the free church in the free state." Caxton, William, the founder of English printing, was bom in 1422. During a residence in Flan- ders he acquired the new typographic art, and on his return set up a press in the almonry, West- minster, where he brought out the first printed book seen in England, the History of Troy. Died, 1491. Cayley (fca'-Zl), Arthur, English mathematician, was bom at Richmond, Surrey, 1821. He was educated at King's college, London, and Trinity college, Cambridge. He was admitted to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1849, and established a practice as a conveyancer. In 1863 he was elected first Sadlerian professor of pure mathe- matics at Cambridge, and in 1875 a fellow of Trinity. He was president of the royal astro- nomical society, 1872-73, and of the British association in 1883, where his address on the ultimate possibilities of mathematics attracted much attention. His chief book is an Elementary Treatise on Elliptic Functions; a ten volume edition of his Mathematical Papers was begun in 1889. He died at Cambridge, 1895. CecU {s^s'-U or sls'-U), William, Lord Burieigh, English statesman, was born at Bourne, Lincoln- shire, 1620. Entering Gray's Inn at the age of twenty-one he devoted himself assiduously to the study of law. History, genealogy, and the- ology also formed part of his studies, and his knowledge of the last recommended him to the notice of Henry VIII., who presented him with an office in the common pleas; in 1547 appointed him master of requests, and in the following year hie talents procured for him the office of secretary of state. When Queen Mary aacended the thronoL Cecil, being a Protestant, resigned hla offida) employment, but as a private gentleman In maintained good relations with the Ronuui Catholic party, and was one of the few eminent Protestants who escaped In purse and person during that reign. Ehzabeth creaUnl him Baron Burleigh in 1571. and conferred on him the order of the garter, when he was also made lord hig^ treasurer. Died, 1598. Cecilia (se-«iZ'-{-d), Saint, a Roman lady of high descent, of the second or third century, who suffered martyrdom for her faith. From her skill in singine she is the chosen patroness of musicians, anof especially of sacre brated in England by a musical festival. Cellini {chU-le'-ni), Benvenuto, Italian gold- worker, sculptor, founder, and medailleur, was bom at Florence in 1500. and first displayed skill as a chaser and gold-worker. At an early pteriod, having been banished from Florence in conse- quence of a duel, he went to Rome, where he was employed by many distinguished patrons of art, but afterward waa allowed to return to Florence. Another affray compelled him to fly to Rome a second time, where he secured the favor of Clement VII. He accompanied Cardinal Ferrara to France, and entered tne service of Francis I. He executed several fine works in metal and marble — among them the celebrated bronze group of "Perseus with the Head of Medusa," now in the market-place in Florence. He died in 1571. Celsius (sW-sl-iis), Anders, Swedish astronomer, the constructor in 1742 of the centigrade thermometer, was born at Upsala, 1701. He was the grandson of Magnus Celsius, astrono- mer and decipherer of the Helsing runes, and nephew of Olof Celsius, professor of theology. He became in 1730 professor of astronomy at Upsala, where in 1740 a splendid observatory was erected for him. Died, 1744. Celsus (s^'-siis), an Epicurean philosopher, but tinged with Platonism, lived in the second cen- tury after Christ, and wrote, after 150 A. D., the Logos Alethes. The book itself has perished, but considerable fragments have been preserved as quotations given by Origen, in his answer. Contra Celsum, in eight books. These are very interesting, as showing the views of a heathen philosopher in regard to Christianity. He reproached Christians with their party d.visions and ever-varying opinions, and chareed them with having willfully altered their sacred writings. CencI {chht'-che), Beatrice, a noble Roman lady, whose tragic fate has served as the theme of one of Shelley s best tragedies, lived in the sixteenth century. She became the victim of her father. Count Francesco Cenci, a notorious libertine. Failing in her appeal for protection from Pope Clement VIII., she, it has been said, conspired with other members of her family to murder the count. When brought to trial on this charge, she asserted her innocence, but was, neverthe- less, put to death, along with her relatives, in 1599. The fine portrait of Beatrice, by Guido Reni, in the Barberini gallery, Rome, is well known. Cervantes (sSr-vdn'-tez). See page 43. Cesnola (chas-nd'-ld). Count l-uigl Palma dl* archffiologist, waa bom near Turin, 1832. He served with the Sardinian contingent in the Crimean war, went to New York in 1860, and fought in the civil war. Appointed American consul at Cyprus in 1865, he commenced a series of excavations; his splendid collection of statue^ lamps, vases, inscriptions, etc., waa purchased by the Metropolitan museum. New York, in 1873, of which he became director in 1879. He wrote 608 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Cyprus, its ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples. Died, 1904. Chaffee (ch&f'-e), Adna Romanza, American general ; bom in Orwell, Ohio, 1842 ; educated in public schools. Entered army, 1861, and served throughout the civil war, and against the Indians in the West at various period from 1866-90. Appointed brigadier-general, United States volun- teers, 1898; commanded brigade, Santiago cam- §aign, 1898; promoted major-general. United tates volunteers, 1898; chief of staCF division of Cuba, December, 1898, to Mav, 1900. Honorably discharged as major-general, 1899. Appointed brigadier-general of United States volunteers, 1899. Assigned to the command of United States forces for the relief of United States legation, Peking, 1900 ; arrived at Peking, China, Au^st 14, 1900; promoted to major-general of Umted States volunteers, 1900; promoted to major- general of United States army, 1901. Assigned to command division of the Philippines and appointed military governor, 1901; relieved, 1902, and assigned to command department of the East; detailed to general staff corps, 1903, and assigned to duty as assistant to chief of staff, Wa.shiiigton; promoted to lieutenant-general of United States army, 1904, and chief of staff until his retirement in 1906. Cbafln, Eugene W., temperance advocate; bom East Troy, Wis., 1852; educated at public schools; graduate of law department of univer- sity of Wisconsin. Practiced law, Waukesha, 1876-1900; active as speaker and organizer in temperance and prohibition movements; was superintendent of Washingtonian Home, Chicago, 1901-04; grand chief templar of Wisconsin Good Templars, 1886-90; prohibition candidate for congress, Wisconsin, 1882, Chicago, 1902; for attorney-general, Wisconsin, 1886, 1900; for governor of Wisconsin, 1898, and for attomey- feneral, Illinois, 1904. Grand chief templar, llinois Good Templars, 1904-05. Prohibition candidate for president 1908. Author: Voters' Handbook, Lives of the Presidents, Presidential- Cabinet History Cards. Chalmers (ch&'-mirz, chd'-mirz), Thomas, Scottish divine, was bom in Fife, 1780; educated at St. Andrews, and ordained to preach at nineteen; taught mathematics after his ordination. In 1815 he became a minister at Glasgow, and at once attracted attention by his eloquence. He was subsequently professor of moral philosophy at St. Andrews, 1823, and of theology at Edin- burgh, 1828. On the disruption of the church of Scotland in 1843, he joined the Free church party, and became moderator of its assembly and principal of its college. His writings em- brace a wide range of subjects, including natural science and political economy. Died, 1847. Chamberlain {chdm'-b6r4ln), George Earle, lawyer. United States senator; bom near Natchez, Miss., 1854; graduate of Washington and Lee uni- versity, B. A., LL. B., 1876. Went to Oregon, 1876; elected to legislature, 1880; district attorney third judicial district, 1884-86; ap- pointed attorney-general, Oregon, 1891 ; elected to same position, 1892, and served until 1895; elected district attorney, fourth judicial district, 1900, for four year term; elected governor of Oregon for terms, 1903-07, 1907-11; elected United States senator for the term 1909-15. Chamberlain, Rt. Hon. Joseph, British statesman, was born in London, 1836; educated in private school and University college, London; LL. D., Cambridge, D. C. L., Oxford; joined the firm of Nettlefold, screw makers of Birmingham; was one of the leaders of the defeated unsectarian candidates for the school board of Birmingham in 1870, but in 1873 he was elected chairman, and was abo a member of the town council (mayor, 1873). On the death of his father he retired from the firm, in order to devote all his energies to public life. To him was due the transfer of the gas and water works to the borough authorities, and he was the author of the improvement scheme which has entirely transformed the face of central Birmingham. In 1876 he entered parlia- ment and took his seat with the radicals ; presi- dent of board of trade, with cabinet rank, 1880-85, and passed a patent bill and a bank- ruptcy bill; president of local government board in 1885, until his divergence of views on the Irish policy of Gladstone caused his resig- nation, 1886; chief commissioner to the con- ference at Washington for the settlement of the di.spute between the United States and Canada on the fisheries question. Married Miss Endicott, November 15, 1888. In 1895 took office under Lord Salisbury as colonial secretary. The nego- tiations with the Transvaal, which ended in war, occupied him fully during 1899, and his South African policy was one of the main controversial features of the general election of 1900 and during 1901. He had charge in 1900 of the measure for the constitution of the Australian commonwealth. In 1902 he was presented with an address by the city of London corp>oration. He presided over the 1902 colonial conference. In 1902 he visited South Africa, and on his return received an address from the lord mayor and corporation of London, 1903. In 1903 he launched, at Birming- ham, his scheme for the revision of the fiscal policy of the country and. the adoption of a policy of preferential tariffs, and in September, bcheving that policy to be at that time unacceptable to the majority in the constituencies, he resigned in order to be free to devote himself to explaining and popularizing his proposals. He b^an his campaign for this purpose at Glasgow in 1903, and the tariff commission was afterward ap- pointed on his initiative. His 70th birthday and completion of thirtv years' service as member of parliament for Birmingham were celebrated on July 7, 1906. Chamberlln, Thomas Chrowder, geologist; bom Mattoon, 111., 1843; graduate of Beloit college, 1866; Ph. D., universities of Michigan and Wis- consin, 1882; LL. D., university of Michigan, Beloit college, and Columbian, 1887, university of Wisconsin, 1904; Sc. D., university of Illinois. 1905. Professor natural science, state normal school, Whitewater, Wis., 1869-73; professor geology, Beloit, 1873-82; president university of Wisconsin, 1887-92; professor and head depart- ment of geology and director Walker museum, university of Chicago, since 1892. Assistant state geologist, Wisconsin, 1873-76. chief geolo- gist, Wisconsin, 1876-82; studied glaciers of Switzerland, 1878; United States geologist in charge of glacial di\'ision since 1882; geologist Peary relief expedition, 1894 ; consulting geolo- gist. Wisconsin geological survey. Author: Geology of Wisconsin ; General Treatise on Geology (with R. D. Salisbury), etc. Editor of The Journal of Geology. Chambers, Robert, Scottish publisher, was bom in Peebles, 1802, began business as a bookseller in Edinburgh in 1818 and gave his leisure to literary composition. In 1824 he produced the Tradi- tions of Edinburgh; and between 1822 and 1834 he wrote twenty-five volumes. The success of the Journal was materially promoted by his essays and his literary insight. In 1844 he pub- lished anonymously the Vestiges of Creation, which prepared the way for Darwin's Origin of Species. He received the degree of LL. D. from St. Andrews in 1863. The labor of preparing the Book of Days broke his health, and he died at St. Andrews, 1871. Other works by Robert are Popular Rhymes of Scotland; a History of the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 000 Rebdlioni in Scotland; Life of James I.; Scottish Ballads and Songs; Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen; Ancient Sea Margins; The Life and Works of Robert Burns (4 vols.) ; Domestic Anruds of Scotland and Songs of Scotland prior to Bums. Chambers, Robert WUliam, author, artist; born in Brooklyn, 1863; educated at Julien's academy, Paris, 1886-93. First exhibited in salon, 1889; illustrator for Life, Truth, Vogue, etc. Author: In the Quarter; The King in Yellow; The Red Republic; A King and a Few Dukes; The Maker of Moons; With the Band; The Mystery of Choice; Lorraine; Ashes of Empire; The Haunts of Men; The Cambric Mask; Outsiders; The Conspirators; Cardigan; The Maid-at-Arm^; Outdoor Land; The Maids of Paradise; Orchard-Land; Forests Land; lole; The Fighting Chance; The Firing Line; The Tree of Heaven; The Smart Set, etc. ; also The Witch of EUangowan, a drama played at Daly's theater and written for Miss Ada Rehan; and many magazine stories. Chambers, William, Scottish publisher, was bom at Peebles in 1800. In 1814 he was apprenticed to a bookseller in Edinburgh, and in 1819 started business for himself, to book-selling afterward adding printing. Between 1825 and 1830 he wrote the Book of Scotland, and, in conjunction with his brother Robert, a Gazetteer of Scotland. In 1832 he started Chambers' s Edinburgh Journal, six weeks in advance of the Penny Magazine; and soon thereafter he united with Robert in founding the business of W. «fe R. Chambers, the best known of whose many publications are, besides the Journal and a numerous series of educational works, a Miscellany, Papers for the People, the Cydopcedia of English Literature (2 vols.), and Chambers' Encyclopaedia (10 vols.). In 1859 William founded and endowed an insti- tute in his native town. He died in 1883, having shortly before received the offer of a baronetcy. He was made LL. D. of Edinburgh in 1872. Chamisso (^shd-me'-sd; French, shd -me'-so'), Adal- bert von, German lyric poet, bom in 1781 at the castle of Boncourt, in Champagne, France. In 1814 Count Rumianzow, chancellor of the Russian empire, prepared an exploring expedition round the world, which Chamisso accompanied as naturalist. Subsequently he obtained a situa- tion in the botanical garden of Berlin, and was made a member of the academy of science. As early as 1804-06, he, together with Vamhagen von Ense, published a Musen Almanack. In 1813 he wrote his original and amusing fiction called Peter SchLemiM. The character of his poetry is wild and gloomy, and he is fond of rugged and horrible subjects. Died, 1838. Cbamplain (sh&m'-pldn'; French, sMn'-pWn'), Samuel de, a French naval officer and explorer, of the seventeenth century. During the reign of Henry IV., of France, he visited many parts of America, and formed the first French establish- ments at Quebec and Montreal. He was made governor of Quebec, from which he was driven by the English, in 1631. When peace was restored, he was reinstated. He wrote Voyages and Travels in New France, called Canada, in 1632. Died in 1635. Champney, James Wells, an American painter and illustrator, bom in Boston, Mass., 1843; studied at Paris, Antwerp, and Rome. He was especially distinguished as an illustrator and genre painter ; elected an A. N. A. in 1882. Died, 1903. ChampoUion {shdn'-pol'-ydn'), Jean Francois, Egyptologist and discoverer, was bom at Figeac, France, 1790; died in Paris, 1832. He was professor of history in the Lyceum of Grenoble, and afterward professor of Egyptian antiquities in the college of France, Paris. We are chiefly indebted to ChampoUion for the discovery of the method of interpreting Egyptian hierogljrphics. Among his principal works are Eaypt under the Pharaokt, MonumtnU of Lgypt and Nubia, and an Egyptian Orammar, etc., edited by his elder brother, Jean Jaoque* ChampoUion, who was also a distinguisoed archaeologist. Channlng, Edward, historian; bom in Dorcheater, Mass., 1856; graduate of Harvard, 1878; Ph. D., 1880; instmctor, 1883-87, assisUnt professor, 1887-97, professor of history since 1897, Har- vard. Author: The United States of America, 1765-1865 ; History of the United States; Town and County Government in the En^ish Colonic of North America; Narragansett Planter a; Ths Planting of a Nation in the New World; etc. Collaborator with late Justin Winsor on Nar- rative and Critical History of America; with Albert B. Hart in Guide to Study of American History; and with Thomas W. Uigginson in Engliah History for American Readers. Channlng, William Ellery, founder of Americao Unitarianism, and one of the most elegant writers this country has produced, was bom in Newport, R. I., 1780; graduated from Harvard in 1798; ordained minister of the Federal Street church in Boston in 1803. During the earlier years of his ministry his theological peculiarities had little prominence in his discourses, and in consequence he stood upon friendly terms with all ortliodox churches. In 1819, however, he preached a ser- mon at the ordination of the Rev. Jared Sparks, in which he advocated the Unitarian doctrine with so much zeal and ability, that he was termed the " af>ostle of Unitarianism." This involved him in controversy, a thing which he naturally loathed. Nevertheless, to the end of his life he preserved a devoutly Christian heart, shrinking with the delicate instinct of a pious nature from everything cold, one-sided, and dogmatic, whether Unitarian or Trinitarian. In 1821 he received the title of D. D. from Harvard university, on account of the high talent he had exhibited in his tractate on the Evidences of Christianity, his Address on War, and his Sermons. In 1822 he visited Europe, and made the acquaintance of several great authors, notably Wordsworth and Coleridge, both of whom were strongly impressed in his favor. Coleridge said of him : " He nas the love of wisdom and the wisdom of love." In 1823 he published an Essay on National LiUra- ture; in 1826, Remarks on the Character and Writings of John Milton; in 1829, the Character and Writings of Fendon; in 1835, a work in oppo- sition to Negro Slavery; and, in 1838, an essay on Self Culture. Besides these, he wrote a variety of other essays and treatises, all characterized by vigor, eloquence, pure taste, and a lofty tone of moral earnestness. He diea in 1842 at Benning- ton, Vt. Chantrey (ch&n'-trl\ Sir Francis, English sculptor, was born in 1781, died in 1841. His works include numerous busts of distinguished men of his time, including Wellington, Watt, and Canning, the "Sleeping Children" in Lichfield cathedral, many sculptures in Westminster abbey, the bronze statue of Pitt in Hanover square, London, and the statue of Washington in the state house at Boston. He bequeathed his large fortune chiefly for the encouragement of art. _ _ Chapman, Frank Michler, ornithologist; bom Englewood, N. J., 1864; academic education. Curator omitholoKjr American museum natural history since 1908. President Liniuean society New York, elected 1897. Author: Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America; Bird-Life, a Guide to the Study of Our Common Birds; Btra Studies with a Camera; A Color Key to North American Birds; The Economic Value of Bird* to the State; The Warbler » of North America; also 610 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT numeroua papers on birds and mammals. Editor Bird-Lore; associate editor The Auk. Chapman, George, Engliuh poet, born 1559, died 1G34. He published a translation of tlie Iluid in English ballad measure, and afterward translated the Odyssey, the Homeric hymns, and portions of Ovid, Terence, Musaeus, and Petrarch, and wrote many plays. He was associated with Jonson, Marston, and others in writing the comedy of Eastward Hot for which they were imprisoned by King James. Charcot {shdr'-kd'), Jean Martin, pathologist, was born at Paris, 1825, studied medicine at Paris, where he became a profc^ssor, doctor at the Salpetriere hospital, and a member of the insti- tute. He contributed much to our knowledge j of chronic and nervous diseases, and made hypno- tism a scientific study. He published numerous works on these subiects. Died, 1893. Charlemagne {shar'-le-man\ (Charles the Great). See paf^e 430. Charles 1^ king of England, second son of James I., was born in IGOO, proclaimed king on the death of his father in March, 1G25, and married to Henri- etta Maria of France, daughter of Henry IV., in the May following. The duke of Buckingham, who had been his father's minion, became his con- fidential minister until his death. His reign is chiefly celebrated for the great civil war between the kmg and the parliameiit which began in 1642, and ended in the capture of the monarch, who was brought to trial in January, 1649, before what was styled a high court of justice, as a traitor to the country. Sentence of death being passed upon him, he was, on January 30, 1649, beheaded on a scaffold erected in the street near the win- dows of the banqueting house at Whitehall. Charles 11^ king of England, son of Charles I., born in St. James's palace, London, in 1630 ; was at The Hague, in Holland, when his father was beheaded. He assumed the royal title, and was proclaimed king by the Scots; landed in Scotland, and was crowned at Scone. Marching into England, he was defeated by Cromwell at Worcester, Septem- ber 3, 1651, and fled to France. Bv the policy of General Monk, after Cromwell's death, he was restored to his crown and kingdom in 1660, an event known as the restoration. Charles II. was an easy-going man, and is known in history as the "merry monarch." His reign was an inglorious one for England, though it is distin- guished by the passing of tne habeas corpus act, one of the great bulwarks of English liberty next to the magna charta. Died, 1685. Charles V,, surnamed "the wise," king of France 1364-80, was the son of King John H., and was born 1337. His father being made prisoner by the English at the battle of Poitiers, on Septem- ber 19, 1356, he assumed the regency. His father died April 8, 1364, and Charles ascended the throne. By his cautious policy he rescued the kingdom from some of its troubles, and reestablished the power of the crown, which had been much shaken. Died, 1380. Charles VL, "the mad," or the "beloved," bom 1368, died October 21, 1422. He succeeded his father Charles V. in 1380, and France was under the oppressive rule of his uncles until he dismissed them in 1388. He reigned wisely till 1392, when his weak mind became deranged. His uncles again seised the reins, Philip "the bold" of Bur- gundy gaining the ascendancy. A contest be- tween him and the duke of Orleans, the king's brother, divided the nation. Philip's successor, John "the fearless," caused the murder of Or- leans, whose faction became known as that of the Armagnacs. Henry V. of England invaded the distracted land and won a great victory at Agincourt in 1415. Philip "the good" of Bur- gtmdy, eager to avenge the murder of John "the fearless," perpetrated in the presence of the dauphin, concluded a treaty at Troyes, May 21, 1420, by which Henry was to succeed to the French throne. Charles died, leaving most of France in English hands. His son by Isabella of Bavaria, Charles VII., succeeded him. Charles VII., "the victorious," bom 1403, died Julv 22, 1461. He was the fifth son of Charles Vl. and Isabella, and became by the death of his brothers heir apparent in 1416. On the death of Charles VI. in 1422 Henry VI. of England was proclaimed king of France at St. Denis, and his authority was generally recognized The prog- ress of the English made the position of Charles apparently hopeless, when in 1428 Joan of Arc came forward, inspired new ardor, and delivered Orleans, 1429. Charles was crowned at Rheims, the people roae in his behalf, and the EngUsh were forced to yield. Peace and order were restored, a regular army was organized, and reforms were instituted, in which Jacques Coeur, the richest merchant of the time, had a great share. By 1453 the English had lost all but Calais. "The freedom of the Gallican church was secured by the pragmatic sanction of 1438. Charles's later years were embittered by his son Louis XL, who succeeded him. Charles IX., king of France, second son of Henr^' II. and Catharine de' Medici, bom 1550, died May 30, 1574. He succeeded his brother Francis II. in 1560. under the regency of his motiier. Soon after tne Huguenots took up arms, and then followed their defeat at Dreux, 1562, the assassi- nation of Guise, and the treaty of peace known as the edict of Amboise, 1563. Intervals of war and peace ensued. The battles of Jamac and Moncontour were fought in 1569, after which an apparent reconciliation was effected, succeeded in 1572 by the massacre of St. Bartholomew. The assent of Charles to the massacre seems to have been wrung from him by his mother. He manifested deep remorse, and died after terrible sufferings. Charles X„ king of France, the grandson of Louin XV., was bora, 1757. He received the title Comte d'Artois, and in 1773 married Maria Theresa of Savoy. After the fall of the Bastille, in 1789, he headed the first emigration of nobles and took the lead in the attempts made to restore the monarchy. Under Louis XVIII., Artois headed the roj'alist party, and by the death of that monarch became king, under the title of Charles X. At first he was popular with all parties, but it was soon plain tnat he wished to make his rule as absolute as that of the old French monarchy. The people became discon- tented, and a struggle ensued with the chamber of deputies. On July 26, 1830, the king signed the five well-known ordinances, putting an end to the freedom of the press, making a new mode of election and dissolving the chamber that had just been elected. Paris at once took up arms. In three days the revolution was finished, Charle* was driven from the capital, and Louis Philippe declared king. Charles lived the remainder of his life in exile. He died at Gorz, Austria, 1836. Charles V^ of Germany. See page 438. Charles X., king of Sweden, the son of the count Palatine, was bom at Nykoping, 1622. He took part in the thirty j-ears' war, and on the abdica- tion of his cousin, Queen Christina, 1654, suc- ceeded to the throne of a kingdom impoverished by her extravagance. He overran Poland in 1655 ; forced the great elector to acknowledge hi& lordship over Pnissia; and crushed the forces of the Polish king anew in a terrible three days' battle at Warsaw, July 28-30, 1656. His next war was with the Danes, when he crossed the great and little belt on the ice, and extorted the treaty of Roeskild, 1658, which gave to Sweden LAST MOMENTS OF CHARLES I. From a fainting by J. fVafftri i f 'c't • <. • C *«C ' « • < • » < THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 613 the southern parts of the Scandinavian peninsula, keretofore Danish. In 1659 he was driven from a new attack on Copenhagen by help of the Brandenburgere and the Dutch; and he died sud- denly at Gothenburg, 1660. Charies XII^ king of Sweden, son of Charles XI., and a warlike prince, was born 1682. He as- cended the throne at the age of fifteen. He had to cope with Denmark, Russia, and Poland com- binecl against him ; he foiled the Danes at Copen- hagen, the Russians at Narva, and Au^^ustus II. of Poland at Riga; but, being trapped m Russia, and compelled to spend a winter there, he was, in July, 1709, attacked by Peter the Great at Pultowa, and defeated, so that he had to take refuge with the Turks at Bender; here he was again attacked, captured, and conveyed to Demotica, but escaping, he found his way miracu- lously back to Sweden, and making peace with the czar, commenced an attack on Norway, but was killed by a musket-shot at the siege of Frederikshald. Charles XII. was the last of the Swedish kings. His appearance among the luxurious kings and knights of the North at the time, Carlyle compared to "the bursting of a cataract of bomb-shells in a dull ballroom." Died in 1718. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, son of Philip the Good, bom 1433, died 1477. He fought at Gavre in his father's ranks in 1452, engaged in the "war of the public weal" in France, forcing Louis XI. to yield to the demands of the confed- erates, and after humbling Li4ge in 1466 and destroying Dinant, he succeeded Philip, in June, 1467, as duke of Burgundy. His wife Isabella of Bourbon died in 1465, and he married in 1468 Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. In 1469 Sigismund of Austria mortgaged to him his pos- session in Alsace. With an army of 30,000 men, Charles b^an a war with Louis XL in 1471, and penetrated into Normandy, committing terrible devastations. A truce followed. In 1472 GeU derland, his fifth duchy, was acquired. Possessed of the most formidable power, Charles aimed to erect a kingdom out of his realms. Louis united his enemies against him^ and Alsace was lost ; but in 1475 Charles, after joining with Edward IV., conquered Lorraine. In 1476 he invaded Switzer- land, but his forces were overwhelmed at Granson and at Morat, and he lost Lorraine. He at- tempted to recover it, and besieged Nancy. Here on January 5, 1477, Ren^, duke of Lorraine, vanquished his army, Charles falling in the fight. Charles Martel, duke of Austrasia, was bom about A. D. 689; died 741. He was the natural son of Pepin d'Heristal, and succeeded his father in the dukedom in 714, As mayor of the palace he pos- sessed the whole regal power, which he adminis- tered with great success, and gained many victo- ries, the principal of which was over the Saracens under their general, Abdurrahman, whom he defeated with great slaughter between Tours and Poitiers, in 732. It was in consequence of this victory that he was called M artel, or "the hammer." Charles had never taken the title of king, but only that of mayor of the palace On the death of Thierry in 737, he omitted to declare a successor to the throne, and continued to administer affairs with the title of duke of the Franka At his death he divided his dominions between his sons Carloman and Pepin. The latter became the first king of France of the Carlovingian race, which name was taken from the founder, Charles Martel. Charlevoix (shdr'-U^moa'), Pierre Francois Xavler de, a noted French traveler and historian, bom at St. Quentin, 1682. He became a member of the society of Jesuits when only sixteen years old. In 1720 he visited Canada, went up the St. Law- rence river and through the great lakes, and reaching the Miasimippi through the lUinoia river, sailed down to New Orleans, went from there to Santo Domingo, and thence to France, which h» reached after an absence of two years. He after* ward published a History of New rranee fCanada). He diet!, 1761. Charlton, John, English artist, was bom at Bank- borough, Northumberland, 1849; studied at Newcastle school of arts and 8. Kensinston; exhibited at royal academy 1870, and regularly since that time. Paintings : " A Winter's Day '^ "The Hall Fire"; "Rescue": "Huntwnan Courtship"; "Gone Away"; "Stag at Bay"; "British Artillery entering Enemy's Lines at Tel-el-Kebir"; "Ulundi''; "Reynard's Re- auiem"; "Bad News from the Front"; "Inci- dent in the Charge of the Light Brigade," etc.;"" the "Procession o? Royal Princes paaung throuch Trafalgar Square to Westminster Abbey," 1887, painted for the queen: also by command of her majesty the queen the official picture of tlie thanksgiving service in front of St. Paul's cathe- dral on the occasion of the royal diamond jubilee, entitled " God Save the Queen " ; and "The Funeral of Queen Victoria"; also a great many military, sporting, and other subjects for the Graphic. Charron (sAd'-rdN'), Pierre, philosopher and theo- logian, born at Paris, 1541. After being atimitted to the bar he took orders, and became a leader of the moderate Catholics. He assailed the league in his Discoura Chretiens, vindicated Catholicism in Lea Troia Veritea, and in his chief work, D« la Sageaae, took a sceptical attitude toward all forms of religion. He was a friend of Montaigne, from whose essays he borrowed freely. Died, 1603. Chase, Salmon Portland, American jurist and statesman, was born in New Hampshire in 1808. He was sent to the house of representatives and to the United States senate from Ohio^ and waa elected governor of that state. Appointed sec- retary of the treasury by President Lincoln, at the outbreak of the civil war, he conducted the finances with rare skill and success. Appointed chief-justice of the supreme court in 1864, ne held this office at his death in 1873. Chase, William Merritt, American artist: was bom at Franklin, Ind., 1849; early studied under B. F. Hayes in Indianapolis, J. O. Eaton, New York. A. Wagner and Piloty, Munich. Estab- lishea studio in New York, received medal, Phila- delphia, 1876; honorable mention. Paris, 1881; honors, Munich, 1883; silver medal, Paris salon, 1889; first prize Cleveland art a«8t.ciation, 1894; Shaw prize, society American artists, 1895; gold medal of honor, Philadelphia 8w;ademy of fine arts, 1895; gold medal, Paris exposition, 1900. Specialties, portraits and figure pieces. Chateaubriand («A- of saponification opened up vast industries. Between 1828 and 1864 he studied colors. This patriarch of the scientific world died in 1889, his hundredth birthday having been celebrated three years before with great enthusiasm. Cheyne (cM'-ne), Thomas Kelly, biblical scholar, joint-editor of the Encydopcsdia Biblica, and author of Critica Biblica, was bom in London, 1841. Educated at Merchant Taylors' school and Worcester college, Oxford, he became fellow of Balliol college in 1868; D. D., Edin- burgh; Litt. D. He was rector of Tendring in THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 016 Essex from 1880 to 1885, when he became Oriel professor of the iaterpretation of scripture at Oxford and canoa of Rochester. A member of the Old Testament Revision company, he has contributed much to magazines and reviews. His chief books are The Prophecies of Isaiah; Exposition of Jeremiah and Lamentations; The Book of Psalms; The Origin of the Psalter; Founders of Old Testament Criticism; Introduction to Isaiah; Outlines of History of Israel, etc. Cheyney, Edward Potts, educator, author; bom at Walliugford, Pa., 1861 ; graduate of univer- sity of Pennsylvania, 1883 ; post-graduate course one year; traveled, 1884, 1894, and 1904-05, visiting German universities and studying in British museuna; professor European history, university of Pennsylvania. Author: Social Changes in England in the Sixteenth Century; Social and Industrial History of England; Short History of England; European Background of American History; also monographs and review articles on history and economic subjects. Childs, George William, publisher and philanthro- pist, was bom in Baltimore, 1829, became clerk in a book store in Philadelphia, and by 1850 was head of a publishing firm. Proprietor from 1864 of the Philadelphia Public Ledger, he devoted his wealth to beneficence, erecting a memorial window in Westminster abbey to Cowper and George Herbert, a monument to Leigh Hunt at Kensal Green, and a fountain to Shakespeare at Stratford-on-Avon. He wrote Recollections of Noted Persons. He died, 1894. Chittenden {ch'Uf -en-den), Russell Henry, scientist, chemist, director Sheffield scientific school, Yale, since 1898; born at New Haven, Conn., 1856; graduate Yale, Ph. B., 1875; Ph. D., 1880; LL. D., university of Toronto, 1903; Sc. D., university of Pennsylvania, 1904; studied at Heidelberg university, 1878-79. Professor phys- iological chemistry, Yale, since 1882; lecturer Shysiologioal chemistry, Columbia, 1898-1903. [ember national academy sciences since 1890; president American society of naturalists, 1893 ; president American physiological society, 1895- 1904. Author: Digestive Proteolysis; Studies in Physiological Chemistry, 4 vols.; Physiological Economy in Nutrition; The Nutrition of Man; and many papers on physiological subjects in American and foreign journals. Associate editor American Journal of Physiology, and of the Journal of Biological Chemistry. Chitty {ch'Uf-i), Joseph, English law3'er and legal writer; bom 1776, died at London, 1841. His chief works are. Treatise on the Parties to Actions and to Pleadings; Treatise on the Law of Nations relative to the Legal Effects of War on the Commerce of Belligerents and Neutrals, and on Orders in Council in Licenses; Political Treatise on Criminal Law; Synopsis of Practice in the King's Bench and Common Pleas. Cboate (chot), Joseph Hodges, lawyer, diplomat, ambassador of United States to England, 1899- 1905; bom in Salem, Mass., 1832; graduate of Harvard, A. B., 1852, Harvard law school, 1854; LL. D., Harvard, Yale, Cambridge; D. C. L., Ox- ford. Admitted to Massachusetts bar, 1855 ; New York, 1856; settled in New York, 1856. Identi- fied with many famous cases; one of the com- mittee of seventy which broke up the Tweed ring, 1871 ; secured the reinstatement of General Fitz John Porter to his army rank, etc. ; governor of New York hospital since 1877 (chairman of com- mittee of elections) ; noted as a public and after- dinner speaker. Author of Addresses on Abraham Lincoln, Admiral Farragut, Rufu^ Choate, etc. Elected bencher of the Inner Temple, E n gla n d, 1905. Choate, Bufus, American lawyer, statesman, and orator, was born at Essex, Mass., in 1799. After graduating at Dartmouth ooUese, he entersd upon the study of law at Cambridge and in Wash- ington. After practicing at Danvers, Salem, and Boston, succeesively, he was elected to the Moate in 1841, which he quitted in 1845. After the death of Daniel Webster. Choate became the recognised leader of the Maasachuaetta bar, and acouired quite a national reputation. Uia fore- sight led him to anticipate the civil war, and to do more than was by some considered wiee to con- ciliate the South. As an advocate and orator, be may be classed with the most distinguished maa- ters of modem eloquence. Died at Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1859. Cholseul {shwIX'-zid'), £tlenne Francois, Duke oC French statesman and dij)lomiit, was bom in 1719. He gained a high rank in the army, and was then employed as a diplomatist at Rome and Vienna, and honored with a peerage. He became prime minister of France, it was reported, through the influence of Madame de Pompadour. In 176 1 he negotiated the secret treaty with the king of Spain, known as the " family compact. " In 1763 he terminated the war between France and England by bringing about the treaty of Paris. In 1770 he was dismissed from office, and exiled to one of his estates. He died in 1785. Chopin {sho'-pdN'), Fr6d£rtc Francois, Polish pianist and composer, was born, 1809. His waltzes, mazurkas, and other compositiona are peculiar in melody, rhythm, and harmony, and nave a great charm. He was one of the first pianists, and his playing, Uke his music, had a captivating grace. He spent most of his life in Paris, where he died, 1849. Chosroes {kds' -ro-ez), or Khosru I^ king of Persia from A. D. 531 to 579. His reign was marked by great victories in war and wise conduct in peace. His wars were chiefly against the Greek empire, from which he took Antioch and other cities of Syria, and forced its emperors to pay him tribute, lie enlarged his kingdom, and made his subjects love him by ruling justly and kindly. He lived to be eighty years old, and the forty-eight years of his reign have been called the golden age of Persia. Chosroes 11^ king of Persia, grandson of Chosroes I., came to the throne in 5Sk). He also was a great conqueror, but cared more for his own glory than for the good of the people. He sent out large armies to fight the Greeics, while he enjoyed at home the greatest splendor and luxury. His palaces, of which he built a new one every year, were wonders of the world. He hud fifty thou- sand horses and twelve thousand wives; and his thrones were built of gold, inlaid with precioua jeweb. About A. D. 622 the Roman emperor Heraclius entered Persia with a strong army, destroyed the palaces and captured the treasures of Chosroes, and in less than six years reconquered all the territories that the Persian king had taken. At last his subjects, led by his own son, rebelled against him, and put him to death, 628, after ha had been king for about thirty-eight years. Christian 11^ king of Denmark and Norway, was bom 1481, died 1559. He was charged at the age of twenty to suppress an insurrection in Norway, and nearly extirpated the Norwegian nobility. In 1513 he succeeded his father John, under whom the union of Calmar had been reestablished in Denmark and Norway, while Sweden was in rebellion. He proceeded to subdue Sweden, where he expected aid from the treason of Gustavus Trolle. He was at first unsuccessful, but made a formidable invasion in 1620. The Swedish regent, Sten Sture, was mortally wounded, and the barons were forced to recog- nize Christian as king on the promise of a general amnesty. Stockholm and Calmar held out, but both were soon reduced. Christian was crowned. 616 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT and a fearful series of executions ensued. Sweden found a deliverer in Gustavus Vaea, while the Danes rose against Christian and gave their throne to Frederick, duke of Holstein. Christian fled with a fleet containing his family and treas- ures, the national records, and the crown jewels, to Antwerp. Thus ended the union of Calmar, 1523. He attempted to recover his throne, and in 1531 was acknowledged king in Norway. He was soon forced to surrender to the Danes, and was imprisoned for the rest of his life, passmg seven- teen years in a terrible dungeon on the island of Alsen. Christian IV^ king of Denmark and Norway, and duke of Schleswig-Holstein, born in Zealand 1577, and elected successor to the throne in 1588. He assumed the sceptor in 1593. From 1611 he carried on a successful war, known as the Kal- marian war, against Charles IX. of Sweden, and his successor, Gustavus Adolphus, which ended in an advantageous peace in 1613. As leader of the Protestants in the thirty years' war, Christian was not successful. His legislative and financial reforms, together with his love and patronage of the arts and sciences, gained the esteem of his people. Died, 1648. Christian IX^ king of Denmark, 1863-1906, was bom near Schleswig 1818, died at Copenhagen 1906. In 1864 he prosecuted a war against Austria, Prussia, and other German states, over the ownership of Schleswig and Hobtein, which terminated against him. He was the father of Frederick VIII., Queen Alexandra of England, George I., king of Greece, and Dagmar, dowager empress of Russia. Christie, James Elder, British artist; bom Guard- bridge, Fifeshire, 1847; educated at Paisley school of art. South Kensington art school, and St the royal academy. Went to London, 1874 • gold medal at South Kensington, 1875; gold medal at royal academy, 1877, for historical painting. Chief pictures: "Tarn o'Shanter"; "A Rose Among Thorns"; "Pied Piper of Hamelin"; "The May Queen"; "Sorrow's Solace"; "Blind Grannie"; "A Lion in the Path"' "The Four Maries"; "Hallowe'en"; "The Red Fisherman"; "Vanity Fair"* "Suffer little Children to come unto Me"; "Fortune's Wheel"; "Gather ye Rosebuds"; "The Golden Stair"; "The Fairy Ring": "The Banks of Allan Water"; " Bonnie Kilmeny " ; "The Vision of Mirza"; "Cupid's Bower"; "The Djnng Swan." Christina (kris-te'-na), queen of Sweden, bom in 1626 ; succeeded her father, Gustavus Adolphus. in 1632. After her coronation in 1650, she fell under the influence of favorites, and ceased to interest herself in state affairs. She resigned the crown to her cousin, Charles Gustavtis, in 1654, was baptized bv the pope, and lived for some time at Paris. On the death of Charles Gustavus, in 1660, she vainly endeavored to regain the throne. She died at Rome in 1689. Christina was one of the most accomplished women of her time, a remarkable linguist, and the friend and correspondent of Gassendi, Descartes, Salmasius, and others of the most famous literati of that age. Christy, Howard Chandler, illustrator, writer; bom in Morgan county, Ohio, 1873 ; educated at Duncan's Falls, Ohio; went East in 1893; since then on New York illustrated periodicals; went to Cuba with second United States regulars and ' ' rough riders " ; saw the fighting before Santiago ; his letters and illustrations published in Scribner's Magazine, Harper's Magazine, Collier's Weekly, and by R. H. Russell, publisher. Has charge of illustrating class at Cooper institute. Chrysostom {kris'-ds-tHm or kris-^s'-tiim), St. John, one of the Greek fathers, bom about 347; gave himself, from an early age, to a life of prayer and asceticism, and, in 397, was made bishop of Con- stantinople by the emperor Arcadius. He was renowned for his eloquence and almsgiving, and his zeal as a reformer made him many enemies, among them the empress Eudoxia. He was svunmoned before a synod at Chalcedon, deposed and banished, but an insurrection of the people led to his inmiediate recall. He was soon after- ward deposed again and conveyed to the Taurus mountains, whence he was ordered to proceed to Pitjois, on the Euxine, but died on the journey at Comana in 407. Chrystal, GeorRe, mathematician; professor of mathematics, Edinburgh university, 1879-1911: dean of the faculty of arts;< secretary, royal societvof Edinburgh, 1901-11; was chairman of first Eidinburgh provincial committee for the train- ing of teachers ; was born in Aberdeenshire, 1851 ; etlucated at universities of Aberdeen and Cam- bridge; M. A., LL. D. ; professor of mathematics, St. Andrews. Author: Treatise on Algtbra; Introduction to Algdira; articles in Encydo- pcedia Britannica, Electricity and Magnetism, etc.; contributor to Nature, Philosophical Magazine; proceedings and transactions of royal society of Edinburgh ; in particular a series of memoirs on the OsciUationa of Lakes. Died, 1911. Church, Alfred John, English clerg\'man and writer, was bom 1829; e'-d), Giovanni, Italian artist, one of the restorers of the art of painting in Italy, which had fallen into neglect during the barbarism of the dark ages; born at Florence in 1240, died about 1300. The exhibition of his table of "The Virgin" for the Rucellai chapel in Santa Maria Novella was the occasion of a public festival. Except the "Madonna," little of his work remains. Cimon (si'-mon), Athenian commander, was the son of Miltiades, the conqueror at Marathon. With his patron Aristides, he was placed over the Athenian contingent to the allied fleet, which, under Pausanias, continued the war against Persia, 477 B. C. His greatest exploit was his encounter with a Persian fleet at the river Eurymedon, 466, when he destroyed or captured 300 out of 350 ships, and defeated the land forces on the same day. He likewise drove the Persians from Thrace, Caria, and Lycia; and expended much of the money which he had obtained by the recovery of his patrimony in Thrace upon the improvement of Athens. He advocated a close alliance with Sparta; and ■when the Helots revolted, he twice led an army to support thje Spartans; but the second time, having lost the confidence of his allies, he was ignominiously dismissed. At Athens he was opposed by the democracy, headed by Pericles, ■who procured his ostracism. He was recalled in 454, and was instrumental in obtaining a five years' armistice with Sparta; He died in 449 B. C. at the siege of a Cjqirian town. Cinclnnatus (sin'-si-nd'-tOs), Lucius Quintius, a Roman consul regarded by the later Romans as the model of antique virtue, bom about 519 B. C. About 460 B. C. he was chosen consul, and two years later was made dictator. When the messengers from Rome arrived to tell him of his new dignity they found him plowing on his small farm. After a dicUtorahip ot dztaea days ho returned to hia slmpta oountry life. He was again, when eighty yean old, made dioUtor; died about 4.30 B. C. Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, Roman patrician who supported Marius; Hulla, after driving Mariua from Rome, and before setting out agiUnst Mithridates, allowed Cinna to be elected ooninil on his swearing not to disturb the existing con- stitution. No sooner, however, had ho entered on office, 87 B. C, than he impeached Sulla. and agitated for Marius' recall. Cinna ana Marius next declared themselves consuls after a cruel massacre of the Roman citiiens. Marius died a few days later; and Cinna in 84 B. C. prepared to meet Sulla, but was slain by his own disaffected troops at Bnmdisium. During his fourth consulate his daughter Cornelia was married to Julius Caesar. Cinq-Mars (sd:^'-mar'), Henri CoUBer de RaiC, Marquis de, French courtier, was bom in 1620, the second son of the marshal Marquis d'Efliat. At nineteen he was chief equerry to Louis XI IL. but already in his dreams he was a duke and peer of France, and husband of the princess Maria of Gonzaga. Finding his projects derided by Richelieu, his former patron, he conspired with the king's brother, Duke Gaston of Orleans, to murder the cardinal. With this was com- bined a wider plot with Spain; but the con- spiracy was discovered, and Cinq-Mars, with De Thou, was executed at Lyons, September, 1642. Clairaut (JcU'-ro'), Alexis Claude, French mathe- matician, was born in Paris, 1713, and died there, 1765. Admitted at eighteen to the acad- emy of sciences, he is remembered by his Figure de la Terre, his theory of the lunar apogee, and his computation of the return of Halley's comet. Clapp, Moses Edwin, lawyer. United States senator, was bom in Delphi, Ind., 1851 ; his parents removed to Hudson, Wis., in 1857; after obtain- ing a common school education, graduatee8, was bom at Ash- field, Mass.. 1808, and died at Cambridge, Mass., 1887. Early in life he was a portrait painter; but in 1845 he turned his attention to the makinz of achromatic lenses and the manufacture of telescopes. Associated with his sons, he con- struct^ object-glasses for universities, for the naval observatory at Washington, and for the Lick observatory in California. He also had 618 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT orders from Russia, from the imperial observa^ tory at Pulkova. Clark, Sir Andrew, British physician, was bom at Wolfhill, Scotland, 1826 ; educated at Aberdeen and Edinburgh. In 1854 he settled in London, ■where he acquired a high reputation for his skill in the treatment of diseases affecting the respira- tory, renal, and digestive organs. Among his patients were George Eliot and Gladstone. Cre- ated a baronet in 1883, he died 1893. He pub- lished several medical works. Clark, Champ, congressman, lawyer; bom in Anderson county, Kentucky, 1850; educated in common schools, Kentucky university, Bethany college, and Cincinnati law school; president Marshall college, West Virginia, 1873-74; has worked as hired hand on farm, clerk in country store, country newspaper editor; was city attorney of Louisiana, Mo., and later of Bowling Green, Mo. ; prosecuting attorney of Pike county- presidential elector; member con- gress, ninth Missouri district, 1893-95, and again 1897-1915 ; chairman democratic national con- | vention, St. Louis, 1904. Speaker of house of representatives since 1911. Clark, Charles Edgar, naval of&eer ; bom Bradford. Vt., 1843; appointed to United States naval academy from Vermont, 1860, graduated, 1863; LL. D., university of Pennsylvania, 1905. Served on board Ossipee, western gulf block- ading squadron, 1863-65; battle of Mobile bay, and capture of Fort Morgan, August, 1864; Vanderbilt, Pacific squadron, 1865-67; com- mander of the Ranger, 1883-86; lighthouse inspector of ninth district, 1887-91 ; navy yard. Mare island, 1891-93; commander of the Mohican, 1893-94; special duty, 1895; com- mander receiving-ship Independence, 1895-96, Monterey, 1896-98; commander battleship Oregon during the cruise from San Francisco to Key West, and in the battle of Santiago, July 3, 1898; for eminent and conspicuous conduct in , this battle was advanced six numbers in rank; i was again advanced seven additional numbers in rank, and promoted rear admiral, 1902; gov- ernor naval home, Philadelphia, 19<)l-04; presi- dent naval examining and retiring board, 1904-05; retired, 1905. C^ark, Clarence Don, lawyer, United States senator, was born at Sandy Creek, Oswego county, N. Y., 1851; educated at Iowa state university; admitted to the bar in 1874; practiced law in Iowa until 1881 ; moved to Evanston, Wyo., where he has since resided; was prosecuting attorney for Uinta county four years; upon the admission of Wyoming as a state was elected to the fifty-first and fifty-second congresses; was defeated for reelection to the fifty-third congress by a fusion of democrats and populists; was elected 1895 to the United States senate, and reelected in 1899, 1905, and 1911. Claric, Edwin Charles, English lawyer, regius professor of civil law, Cambridge, was bom 1835; graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, and was formerly scholar and fellow of Trinity; now professorial fellow of St. John's; LL. D., F. S. A. Practiced for a short time as a con- veyancer in London. Author: Early Roman Law: Regal Period; Analysis of Criminal Lia- bility; Practical Jurisprudence: A Comment on Austin; Cambridge Legal Studies; History of Roman Private Law. Clark, Francis Edward, founder united society of Christian Endeavor; bom of New England parentage, Aylmer, P. Q., 1851; graduate of Dartmouth college, 1873 ; studied theology three years at Andover; became pastor Williston church, Portland, Me., which from a small mission he built up to a large Congregational church; foimded, Febmary, 1881, the society of Christian Endeavor, which has extended throughout the world; pastor Phillips church. South Boston, 1883-87; since then has de- voted his time to the Christian Endeavor work as president of united society of Christian En- deavor, president of World's Christian Endeavor union, and editor of The Christian Endeavor World. Author: Our Vacations; Our Business Boys; Lookina Out on Life; Danger Signals; Ways and Means; Our Journey ArourCd the World; The Mossback Correspondence; Fellow Travelers; The Great Secret; World-Wide En- deavor; A New Way Around an Old World; Training the Church of the Future; Christian Endeavor Manual; etc. Clark, Sir James, British physician, bom at Cullen, Banffshire, 1788; took his M. A. at Aberdeen; studied medicine at Edinburgh and London ; was a naval surgeon 1809-15; practiced eight yeans at Rome, and in 1826 settled in London. In 1837 Clark, who had been physician to the duchess of Kent, was appointed physician in ordinary' to Queen Victoria, and in 1838 was created a baronet. He wrote on climate, consumption, etc. He died, 1870. Clark, John Bates, educator, bom at Providence, R. I., 1847; graduate of Amherst college, 1872; special studies, economics and history, university of Heidelberg, university of Zurich; Ph. D., LL. D., Amherst, LL. D., Princeton. Was professor of political economy, Carleton college, Smith college, Amherst college; lecturer, Johns Hopkins; professor of political economy, Colum- bia since 1895. Member board of trustees of Smith college, board of editors Political Science Quarterly. Author: The Philosophy of Wealth; The DistribxUion of Wealth; The Control of Trusts; The Problem of Monopoly; Essentials of Economic Theory; also monographs — Wa^ges; Capital and Its Earnings; and numerous articles in economic reviews and journals. Clark, Kate Upson, author; bom Camden, Ala., 1851 ; daughter Edwin and Priscilla (Maxwell) Upson; graduate Wheaton semlnan.', Norton, Mass., 1869^ Westfieid (Mass.) normal school, 1872; married Eklward Perkins Clark, journalist (died Febmar\' 16, 1903). Taught in Cleveland, (Ohio) Central high school, 1872-73. Editor: Good Cheer, \^2r-%7; Romance, \S9l2-95. Contributor to Harper's publications; Wide Awake; St. Nicholas; Youth's Companion; Atlantic Monthly, etc. ; also to religious weeklies ; editorial writer on BrooWyn£^a^/e since 1907. Author: That Mary Ann; Bringing Up Boys; White Butterflies; How Dexter Paid His Way; Move Upward; On the Witch Brook Road; The Dole Twins; The Adventures of Spotty; Donald's Good Hen; Art and Citizenship. Clark, or Clarke, William, American explorer; bom in Virginia 1770, died at St. Louis, Mo., 1838. In 1804-06, in company with Lewis, he started on an exploring expedition from St. Louis to the mouth of the Columbia river ; governor of Missouri territory 1813-21 j superintendent of Indian affairs from 1822 until his death. Clark, William Andrews, capitalist, ex-United States senator; bom near Ck)nnellsville, Pa., 1839; educated at Laurel Hill academy and other academies; studied law at Mt. Pleasant, la., university; did not enter legal profession; taught school, Missouri, 1859-60; went to Colo- rado, 1862; to Montana, 1863; since then merchant, banker, mine-owner, manufacturer, having large interests; owns street railways of Butte, the Miner newspaper, etc. ; president United Verde copper company, of Arizona; state orator, representing Montana at Centennial exposition, 1876; grand master Masons, Mon- tana, 1877 ; major Butte battalion, leading it in Nez Perc6 campaign, 1878; president constitu- THROUGHOXrr THE WORLD 619 tional conventions, 1884 and 1889; commissioner from Montana to New Orleans exposition, 1884 ; democratic candidate for delegate in congress, 1888 (defeated); nominated by democrats for United States senator, 1890, and claimed election, but was denied seat; elected by legislature for term, 1901-07, United States senate. Clark, Sir William Mortlmier, lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1903-08; chairman, Knox college, Toronto, since 1880; bom at Aberdeen, Scotland, 1836. He was educated at Marisciial college, Aberdeen; university of Edinburgh; settled in Toronto, Ontario, 1859; admitted to bar of Ontario, 1869; Q. C, 1890; for fifteen years senator of university of Toronto; LL. D., Toronto, 1902, Queen's university, Kingston, 1903; president of Toronto mortgage company; director of Metropolitan bank of Canada; director of gas company; solicitor for various public companies and charities; president of St. Andrew's society for two years; for five years secretary of Canadian institute; for two years president of County of York law association. He is the author of numerous contributions to Toronto press on public, educational, and literar-y questions. Has traveled extensively on Ameri- can continent, in Africa, Asia, and almost every country in Europe. Clark, William Boblnson, educator, religious writer; professor emeritus of philosophv. Trinity college, Toronto, 1882-1908; bom at Inverurie, Scotland, 1829 ; educated at King's college, Aber- deen; Hertford college, Oxford. Ordained deacon, 1857; priest, 1858; curate of St. Matthias', Birmingham, 1857; St. Mary Mag- dalene, Taunton, 1858; vicar, 1859; prebendary of Wells, 1870^ Baldwin lecturer in the univer- sity of Michigan, 1887; LL. D., Hobart college, 1888; D. C. L., Trinity university, Toronto, 1891; F. R. S., 1891; Slocum lecturer in the university of Michigan, 1899; president of the royal society of Canada, 1900; D. D., Queen's university, Canada, 1902; hon. canon of St. Alban's cathedral, Toronto, 1907. Author: The Redeemer; The Comforter; The Four Tempera- ments; Witnesses to Christ (Baldwin lectures); Savonarola: His Life and Times; The Anglican Reformation; The Paraclete (Slocum lectures); Pascal and Port Royal; translated and edited Hagenbach's History of Christian Doctrine; Hefele's History of the Councils. Clarke, Adam, British Wesleyan divine and author, was bom at Moybee, Ireland, 1762. From 1782 he preached in places as widely different as the Channel islands and Shetland, but after 1805 lived mostly in London. His first work was a Bibliographical Dictionary (8 vols.); his greatest, his edition of the Holy Scriptures (8 vols.) with a commentary. He died, 1832. Clartce, Sir Caspar Purdon, Kt^ formerly director Metropolitan museum of art, New York, was bom at London, England, 1846 ; educated in England and France; LL. D., McGill university, Mon- treal, 1908. Was keeper of art collections and assistant director, and afterward director of art museum. South Kensington, London, until 1905; director of iJetropolitan museum of art. New York, 1905-11. Chevalier legion d'honneur, France, 1878; companion of the order of the Indian empire, 1883; created knight, 1902; commander Victorian order, 1905. Read a num- ber of papers before various art societies, and was influential in promoting art education. Died, 1911. Clarke, Charles Cowdcn, English writer and critic, was bom in 1787, at Enfield, Middlesex. He early imbibed a passion for the theater, and made frequent visits to London, where he formed the friendship of Leigh Hunt, Shelley, Haelitt, Charles and Mary Lamb. On his father's death in 1820, he became a bookseller in London, and shortly partner as music publisher with Alfred Novello, whose sister, Mary Victoria, be married m 1828. A year later Mrs. Cowden Clarke becan her famous Concordance to ShahufMortf » Play*. In 1834 Clarke entered on that twenty years' course of public lectures on Shakespeue and other dramatists and poets which brought him so much celebrity and profit. Some of them were published, as his Shakespeare Chareuiert and Moliire Characters. The joint productions of the pair were the valuable Shakespeare Key; an annotated edition of Shakespeare, now reissued as Cassell's Illustrated Shakespeare; and Recollections of Writers, full of reminiscences of Keats, Lamb, Dickens, etc. In 1866 both went to live at Nice, but removed in 1861 to Oimoa, where Charles died, 1877, and his widow, 1897. Clarke, Frank WlRKlesworth, cheniist; born at Boston, 1847; graduate of Lawrence scientific school. Harvard, 1867; D. Sc., Columbian, 1891, Victoria, Manchester, 1903; LL. D., Aber- deen, 1906. Instructor at Cornell, 1869: pro- fessor of chemistry, Howard university, Wash- ington, 1873-74; professor of chemistry and physics, university of Cincinnati, 1874-83; chief chemist of United States geological survey and honorary curator of minerals in United States national museum, since 1883. Member of numerous scientific bodies; chairman inter- national committee on atomic weiglits ; chevalier de la legion d'honneur; member of international jury of awards, Paris exposition, 1900. Author: yVeights, Measures and Money of All Nations; Elements of Chemistry; Constants of Nature; Report on the Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the United States; Elementary Chemistry (with L. M. Dennis) ; Laboratory Manual (with same) ; also bulletins of United States geological survey and over 100 papers on chemistry and mineralogy. Clarke, James Freeman, American theologian and writer, was born at Hanover, N. H., 1810; graduated at Harvard, 1829; Cambridge divinity school, 1833. He was pastor of a Unitarian church, Louisville, Ky., until 1840; co-founder of the church of Disciples, Boston ; professor of natu- ral theology at Harvard, 1867-71; lecturer on ethnic religions, 1876-77. He wrote: The Ten Great Religions, his greatest work; Orthodoxy; Events and Epochs in Religious History; Steps of Belief; etc. Died at Jamaica Plain, MtLsa., 1888. Clarke, James P., lawyer. United States senator, was bom in Yazoo City, Miss., 1854: was edu- cated in the common schools, in several academies in Mississippi, and studied law at the imiversity of Virgima, graduating in 1878; began the practice of his profession at Helena, Ark., in 1879. He was elected to the Arkansas legia- lature in 1886; in 1888 was elected to the state senate, serving until 1892, being president of that body m 1891 and ex-officio lieutenant- governor; was elected attorney -general of Arkansas in 1892, but declined a renomination, and was elected governor in 1894. At the close of his service as governor he moved to Little Rock and resumed the practice of the law. He was elected to the United States senate to succeed Hon. James K. Jones, 1903 ; reelected in 1909. Clarke, Samuel, English philosopher and theoloeian, was bom at Norwich, 1675, and educated at Cambridge. Along with philosophy he pursued the study of theolo^ and philology. He was for some time chaplain to the oishop of Norwich, a promoter of science; he afterward became chaplain to Queen Anne, and in 1709 rector of St. James's. His views were of the kiiid known as semi-Arian. He died 1729. His most famous works are Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, and Verity and Certitude of Natural and Revealed Rdigion. 620 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Claude (Jddd) of Lorraine, or Claude Gel^e, French landscape painter, bom at Chamagne, in Lor- raine, 1600; died in Rome, 1682. He was originally, it is said, apprenticed to a pastry cook; but at the age of twelve, being left an orphan, he found a home with an elder brother, who was a carver in wood at Freibui^, ana there showed some signs of Kenius. He after- ward studied at Rome and at Naples. In return for his teaching, in the house of Agoetino Tassi at Rome, he ground his master's colors, and did all the drudgery of the house. He made a tour in Italy, France, and Germanv, suffering much through poverty; but, in 1627, he returned finally to Rome, where he speedily made himself famous. His works are remarkable for their rich coloring, and for the wonderful vividness of their representations of natural scenery. Claudlanus {kl6-dl-a'-nix8\ Claudius, the last of the great Latin poets, came from Alexandria to Rome in 395 A. D., and obtained patrician dignity by favor of Stilicho, whose fall, 408, he seems not to have long survived. A pagan, he wrote first in Greek, tliough he was of Roman extraction; but in Gibbon's words, he "assumed in his mature age the familiar use and absolute command of Latin." We have two epic poems by him, Raptus Proserpina and the fragmentary Gigantoniachia, besides panegyrics on Honorius and Stilicho, EidyUia, Epigrammata, etc. Claudius {kld'-dl^iia), Marcus Aureiius Claudius Gothlcus, Roman emperor, bom in Illyria in A. D. 214. He was of a poor family, but won fame as a soldier, and when the emperor Gallienus was murdered the soldiers made him emperor. The next year he gained a great victory over the Goths in Macedonia, from which he took the name of Gothicus. He died in 270 from a pestilence which broke out in the camp of the Goths and spread to his own array. Claudius, Tiberius Drusus Nero Germanlcus, Roman emperor, born at Lugdunura (Lyons), 10 B. C. He was weak and timid in his youth, and was treated with neglect even by his mother, for which Augustus left him a fortune when he died, to which Tiberius largely added on his death. When Caligula was killed (A. D. 41), he was made emperor by the soldiers. This was the first time that an emperor was chosen by the army. He was disposed to be a kind and iust ruler, but was led to do some cruel things by his wives and favorites. The conauest of Britain was begun by him, and it would probably have become a Roman state had not Claudius been recalled to Rome; from his conquests in Germany he took the title of Germanicus. He did much good for his people and greatly improved Rome, building the harbor of Ostia and the Claudian aqueduct, which supplied the city with water. He was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, who wanted the empire for her son Nero, in A. D. 54. Clauslus (Jcld'-sUiis), Rudolf Julius Emanuel, German physicist, was bom at KosUn, Pomerania, 1822. He was educated at Berlin, and held pro- fessorships of physics at Zurich, Wiirzburg, and Bonn. He discovered the principle of virial in mathematical physics and published a number of books on physical subjects. He defended the scientific possibility of miracles. Died, 1888. Claxton, Kate (Mrs. Charles A. Stevenson), actress; born Somerville, N. J., 1850; daughter Spencer Wallace Cone ; first professional engagement with Miss Lotta, Chicsigo, 1870 ; fall of same j'ear joined Augustin Daly's Fifth Avenue theater. New York; became member of A. M. Palmer's Union Square theater, spring of 1872, playing princi- pally comedy r61es. Created part of Louise in The Ttoo Orphans. First starring tour, 1876; married 1878 Charles A. Stevenson. Claxton, Philander P., United States commissioaer of education since 1911; born in Tennessee, 1862; A. B., university of Tennessee, 1882, A. M., 1887; graduate student Johns Hopkins, 1884-85; studied in Germany, 1885-86; visited schools in Europe, 1897. Superintendent of schools, Kinston, N. C, 1883-84, Wilson, 1886-88, Asheville, 1888-93; professor of pedagogy and German, 1893-96, professor of pedagogy, North Carolina normal and industrial college, 1896-1902; professor of education, university of Tennessee, 1902-11. Clay, Alexander (Stephens, lawyer. United States senator, was born on a farm, Cobb county, Ga. 1853; graduate of Hiawassee college, 1875 taught school two years; admitted to bar, 1877, afterward practiced law; member Marietta city council, 1880-82; Georgia general assembly, 1884-87, speaker, 1886-87; member and preai- dent senate, 1892-94; chairman Georgia state democratic committee, 1894-97. United States senator 1897-1910. Died. 1910. Clay, Henry, American statesman, bom 1777 in Hanover county, Va. He studied law and was admitted to theoar, 1797. In 1806 was elected to congress, and again in 1809 was chosen senator. In 1811 be was sent to the house of representa- tives, where be was immediately elected speaker. A strong advocate of nationality, he denounced the claims put forth by England as to right of search ; he was a strenuous supporter of the war with that country, and in consequence was sent, in 1814, as one of the commissioners to sign the treaty of peace at Ghent. On his return he exerted all his talents in favor of the independence of South America, and labored hard to eradicate all European influence from the Americsui con- tinent. Clay, however, is best known as' the author of the famous Missouri compromise, and of the compromise of 1850, known as Clay's "omni- bus" measure. In 1824 he was an unsuccessful candidate for president, but was made secretary of state by J. Q. Adams, the successful candidate. In 1832 he again ran against Jackson and was defeated. He was then returned to the United States senate, in which he played a leading part for many years ensuing, especially in the tariflf compromise of 1833, whereby a conflict with South Carolina was averted, and in resistance to the new financial policy of President Van Buren in 1837, whereby the treasury was to be divorced from all connection with banks. Clay was again a candidate for president before the first whig national convention in 1839, but Harrison was nominated and elected. Harrison's death and Tyler's course brought Clay forward as the choice of his party in 1844, when an unsuccessful effort was made to elect him. Clay's name was once more presented to the whig national convention of 1848, but Taylor was nominated over him and elected. He had in 1842 bidden farewell to the senate, but was persuaded to return to it after 1844, and bore a leading part in effecting the slavery compromise of 1850. He returned to Washington from Kentucky for the last time near the close of 1851, and was soon prostrated by disease, under which he gradually sank until hia death. Though not successful as an aspirant to the presidency, he was a gallant party chief, an eloquent orator, a skillful legislator, wielding un- equaled influence, not only over his friends, but even over his political antagonists. Died, 1852. Clayton, John SUddleton, American statesman and diplomat, bom in Delaware, 1796; graduated from Yale, 1815, and became a noted lawyer. . He was United States senator 1829-37, 184&-49, and 1851-56. During 1849-50 he was secretary of state under President Taylor and negotiated with the British government the historic Clay- ton-Bulwer treaty. Died, 1856. u THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 623 Cldtncnceau (fcZfi'-?nole, and Dr. Johnson all liked her^ the last remarking to Boswell that "in the snnghtliness of humor he never had seen her equaled." Cllve, Robert, Lord, English statesman and soldier, was born at Styche, near Market Drayton, in Shropshire, 1725; died in London, 1774. He went to India in 1744 as a writer under the East India company, but three years later relinquished the civil lor the military service, in which he greatly distinguished himself. Returning to England in 1753, he went back to India as gov- ernor of Fort St. David, near Madras, and with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Scarcely had he arrived when the nabob of Bengal captured Calcutta, destroyed the British factories near that city, and threw 146 of his prisoners into the memorable "black hole of Calcutta," from which only twenty-three came out alive. The victory of Plassey, 1757, was Clive's retaliation for these wrongs. He was now made governor of Bengal, but two years afterward returned once more to England, when he was created an Irish peer. In 1765 he went again to Bengal, as president, but finally returned to England in 1767. His last years were embittered by the attacks of his enemies, and by charges of malver- sation and abuse of p>ower; but the house of commons rejected a motion against him, and declared that "he had rendered great and meri- torious services to his country. In a fit of gloom, however, probably induced by disease, he put an end to his life by suicide. Clodd (kldd), Edward, English scientist and writer, secretary, London joint-stock bank, ltd., since 1872 ; bora in Margate, 1840. Educated at Alde- burgh grammar school. Entered commercial life, 1855; clerk in London joint-stock bank, ltd., 1862. Author: T fie Childhood of the World; The Childhood of Religions; Jesus of Nazareth; Myths and Dreams; Story of Creation; Story of Primitive Man; Primer of Evolution; Story of the Alphabet; Thomas Henry Huxley; Animism: or the Seed of Rdigion; articles in Encyclopcedia Britannica, Chambers's Clycopcedia, Quarterly Review, etc. Clodius (kld'-dl-Os), Publius, a famous Roman tribune who committed sacrilege and was tried for the offense, but acquitted through bribery. He persecuted Cicero, who had become his enemy by testifying against him, and was killed in an encounter with Milo, 52 B. C. Cloosh {kmf), Arthur Hugh, English poet, was born at Liverpool, 1819. His father, a cotton merchant, of an old Denbighnhire family, in the winter of 1822-23 emigrated to Charleston, South Carolina, and there the boy lived until in 1828 he was taken back to school at Chester, and next year at Rugby, then under Dr. Arnold. In 1837 he entered Balliol college, Oxford; in 1842 he was elected a fellow of Oriel. For a time he fell under the spell of Newman's influ- ence, but this waa soon followed by a period of severe inward struggle, with the result that he felt it his duty to withdraw in 1848 from Oriel. The same year he published the Bothie of Tober- na-Vuolich, a "long vacation pastoral" in hexameter verse. He traveled in France and Italy^ part of the time with Emerson, and was appointed on his return in 1849 warden of University hall, London. In 1852 he visited America. Died at Florence, Italy, 1861. Clevis L (kld'-vls), son of Childenc I., was bom about 465, and is regarded as the real founder of the French monarchy. He succeeded Chil- deric in 481. The victory of Soissons. which he gained in 486 over Syagrius, rendered him master of all the Roman possessions in the center of Gaul. Victorious when opposed to the Ger- mans at Tolbiac near Cologne, in 496 he is said to have made a vow embracing Cliristianity. and to have kept his promise. He was baptized by St. Remigius, archoishop of Rheims. Having conquered Alaric, king of the Visigoths, in 607, he gained mo8t of the south provinces, but was himself overthrown near Aries, by Theodoric, in 509. Died, 511. Cobb, Henry Ives, architect; bom at Brookline, Mass.. 1859; educated at private and public schools and at Massachusetts institute of tech- nology- graduated from Harvard, 1880. He entered an architect's oflice in Boston, and in 1881 removed to Chicago; established practice, and was architect for Chicago opera house, Newberry librarj*, university of Chicago, church of the Atonement, and many prominent resi- dence, business and public builuings in Chicago and other cities: one of national board of archi- tects of Worlds Columbian exposition, 1893; special architect for United States government, 1893-1903; also lar^e general practice through- out the country — mcTuding the Pennsylvania state capitol. United States government buildings at Chicago, League island, Annapolis, etc., and the American university at Washington, and many other prominent buildings. Cobbe (kdb), Frances Power, British author, was bom at Newbridge near Dublin, 1822, and went to school at Brighton. Her interest was early aroused in theological questions; and her mother's death led her to Theodore Parker, whose counsels are contained in his famous Sermon of the Immortal Life. Her father, too, died in 1857, when, lea\ing Newbridge, she traveled in Italy and the East, and wrote Cities of the Past, and Italics. A strong theist, a sup- porter of women's rights, and a prominent anti- vivisectionist, she published more than thirty works, among them Friendless Girls; Criminals, Idiots, Women, and Minors; Darunnism in Morals; The Hopes of the Human Race Hereafter and Here; Re-echoes; The Peak in Darien; Scientific Spirit of the Age; and an autobiography. Died, 1904. Cobbett {k5b'-^), William, British politician and miscellaneous writer, bom at Farnham, Surrey. 1762; commenced life as a farm laborer, ana then as copying clerk; enlisted, and saw seven years' service in Nova Scotia; being discharged, traveled in France and America; on his return started the Weekly Political Register, at first tory, then radical ; published a libel against the govern- ment, for which he was imprisoned; on his release issued his Register at a low price, to tb* THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 026 immense increase of its circulation ; vain attempts were made to crush him, against which he never ceased to protest; after the passing of the reform bill he was elected to parliament, and proved an effective debater. His writings were numerous, and include his Grammar, Cottage Economy, Rural Rides, and Advice to Young Men and Women; his political opinions were extreme, but his English was admirable. Died, 1835. Cochrane (kdk'-ran), Thomas (tenth earl of Dun- donald). See Dundonald. Cockbum (ko'-burn). Sir Alexander, British jurist, was bom in 1802; in 1822 entered Trinity hall, Cambridge; in 1829 was admitted to the bar, and soon became distinguished as a pleader before parliamentary committees. In 1847 he became liberal member of parliament for South- ampton, in 1850 a knight and solicitor-general, in 1851 attorney-general, in 1856 chief justice of the common pleas, in 1858 a baronet, and in 1859 lord chief justice. He prosecuted in the Palmer case, and presided over the Wain- wright and Tichbome cases. He represented Britain in the Alabama claims at Geneva. He died, 1880. Cockbum, Sir George, English naval officer, whose operations against Martinique secured that island to Great Britain, was born in 1772. He was active in the war with the United States in 1812-15, marauding along the shores of the Chesapeake and burning the public buildings at Washington. His last noteworthy sea employ- ment was to convey Napoleon to St. Helena. He rose to rank of admiral, was several times returned to house of commons, and was one of the lords of the admiralty. Died, 1853. Cockran, William Bourke, lawyer, orator: bom in Ireland, 1854; educated in Ireland and France; came to the United States, 1871; taught in private academy; later, principal of a public school in Westchester county, N. Y.; then a lawyer, soon becoming prominent in New York city politics; made noteworthy speeches at national democratic conventions, 1884 and 1892, opposing the nomination of Cleveland; member of congress, 1887-89, and 1891-95, as democrat. In 1896, became advocate of the gold standard and campaigned for McKinley. On issue of anti-imperialism, returned to democratic party, 1900, and campaigned for Bryan. Was again elected to congress, February 23, 1904, at a special election to fill a vacancy caused by the resignation of George B. McClellan; reelected, 1904 and 1906. Cockrell, Francis Marlon, ex-United States senator, lawyer; was bom in Johnson county. Mo., 1834; graduated from Chapel Hill college, Missouri, 1853; studied law, and admitted to bar, 1855; Practiced at Warrensburg ; served in Confederate tates army, captain to brigadier-general. Resumed practice after war; United States sen- ator, 1875-1905 ; was chairman senate committee on engrossed bills and member committees on appropriations, military affairs, rules, etc., and select committee on industrial expositions ; mem- ber of the interstate commerce commission, 1905-10. Coghlan, Bose, actress; bom at Peterboro, Eng- land, 1853; played soubrette parts at Theater Royal, Cheltenham, England, later becoming leading lady; went to London and traveled through the provinces in burlesque and comedy. Came to the United States, 1872, with Lydia Thompson, soon after joining E. A. Sothern; returned to England and supported Barry Sulli- van; leading lady with Wallack, 1880^9. Has starred since then in various companies in the United States and England; naturalized Ameri- can citizen, 1902, and engaged in stock raising in Montana. Cohan, GeofRe M^ comedian, playwright; bom at Providence, R. I., 1878. Kirrt appearance, Haverstraw, N. Y., at nine years of age, in Daniel Boone; appeared in Feck' a Bad Boy, 1890; later in vaudeville, in The Four Cohant; starred in LitUe Johnny J ones, 1904-06: Oeorgt Waahtn^ton, Jr., 1906-07. Author: (playi) The Wtae Guv; The Governor's Son; Running /or Office; LitUe Johnny J one*; Forty-five Minutet from Broadway; George Washington, Jr.; Pomt- larity; The Talk of New York, and many popular songs. Cohen, Solomon Soils, physician- bom In Phila- delphia. 1857 ; graduate of Philadelphia Central high school, 1872, A. M., 1877; graduate of Jef- ferson medical college, 1883. Professor of clinical medicine and therapeutics, Philadelphia polyclinic and college for graduates in medicine, 1887-1902; lecturer on clinical medicine, Jeffer- son medical college, 1888-1902; professor of clinical medicine, Jefferson medical college, since 1902. Author: Therapeutics of Tuberculosis. Essentials of Diagnosis, and other medical writings. Editor: System a/ Physiologic Thera- peutics; was editor of Philadelphia Polyclinic; editor of department of treatment, in American Medicine; one of the editors of The Ameri- can Hebrew. Has contributed poems and occa- sional essays to Century, Scribncr's, Lippincott's, Arena, etc. ; also a translator of poems from the Hebrew Coke {kdbk or k6k). Sir Edward, English jurist and law writer, was born 1552; educated at Norwich granunar school and Cambridge; admitted to the bar in 1578 ; early acquired a high reputation, and became solicitor-general in 1592, ana attorney-general in 1594. He showed much harshness in his prosecution of Essex, Raleigh, and others; but his loyalty gained him the chief- justiceship of the common pleas, in 1606. In this position and that of chief-justice of the king's bench, 1613, he opposed James I.'s claim to exercise prerogatives and was temporarily deprived in 1616. Entering parliament in 1621, he there resisted the king's encroachments; was imprisoned in the Tower in 1622, and in 1628 took the chief part in drawing up the petition of right. The remainder of his life was spent in compiling his Commentaries upon Littleton. Diecf, 1634. Colbert (kol'-Mr'), Jean Baptiste, a distinguished French statesman, minister of finance in the reign of Louis XIV. ; was bom at Rheims, France, 1619. His whole life was devoted to financial and fiscal reforms, and to the encourage- ment of commerce and manufactures. To him the kingdom was indebted for the enlarjcement of its navy, for the acquisition of many of its foreign possessions, and for a large number of internal improvements. He instituted the royal acad- emy of painting and sculpture, and also the academies of science and of architecture. The gardens of the Tuileries, the H6tel des Invalides, the fagade of the Louvre, and several of the quays along the Seine were all the work of Colbert. Died, 1683. Colby, Frank Moore, editor and educator, bom at Washington, 1865; studied at Columbian uni- versity, Washington; graduated from Columbia university. New York, 1888, M. A., 1889; special studies in political science, Columbia. Acting professor of history, Amherst college, 1890-91 ; lecturer of history, Columbia, 1891-95 ; instructor of history and economics at Barnard college, 1891-95; professor of economics. New York university, 1895-1900; resigned to become editorial writer Commercial Advertiser^ 1900-02. On editorial staff Johnson's Cydopcedia, depart- ment of history and political science, 1893-95; editor International Cydopcedia, 1898 edition; 626 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT International Year Book 1898-1902; American editor Nelson's Encydopcedia, 1905-06; editor New International Encydopcedia, since 1900. Author: Outlines of General History; Imaginary Obligations. Cole, Thomas, artist, was bom at Bolton, England, 1801, and came to America in 1819, where he became one of the best known landscape painters. In 1830 two of his pictures appearea in the royal academy, and he afterward made sketch- ing tours through England, France, and Italy; but all his best landscapes were American. Died at Catskill, N. Y., 1848. Cole, Timothy, wood engraver, was bom at London, England, 1852, and came to the United States, 1857; burned out bv Chicago fire of 1871: returned to New York penniless; entered employment of Scribner's Magazine, 1875. Went to Europe to engrave the old masters, 1883: finished first Italian series, 1892, Dutch and Flemish series, 1896, English series, 1900, Spanish series, 1907; French series, 1910. Received diploma, Chicago exposition, 1893; first-class gold medal, Paris exposition, 1900; grand prix, St. Louis exposition, 1904. Honorary member society of sculptors, painters, and engravers, London. Author: Notes to Old Italian Master s; Monograph on the lives of Dutch Masters; Notes to English Masters. Colebrooke {kol'-brdbk or k^'-brdbk), Henry Thomas, British orientalist, was born in London, 1765. He was a director of the Bengal Asiatic society, and made translations from the San- skrit works on Hindu law, algebra, arithmetic, and mensuration, which were important contri- butions to the history of mathematics. He laid the foundations for the modern study of San- skrit. Died, 1837. Colenso {k6-lin'-sd\ John William, English divine, was born in 1814. In 1846 he was appointed rector of Forncett St. Mary, in the county of Norfolk, England, and 1853 first bishop of Natal, South Africa. In the next year appeared his Ten Weeks in Natal; in 1861 his Translation of the Epistle to the Romans Commented on from a Missionary Point of View; A Letter to his Or ace the Archbishop of Canterbury upon the Question of the Proper Treatment of Cases of Polygamy, as found already existing in Converts from Heathenism; and in 1802 The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined. The two latter subjected him to intense criticism, and the bishop of Cape Town declared him deposed from his see; but on an appeal to the privy council, in 1865, the deposition was pronounced null and void. Colenso wrote treatises on mathematics used as text books. Died, 1883. Coler, Bird Sim, politician, financier, ex-comptroller of New York; born at Champaign, 111., 1867; educated at polytechnic institute and Andover academy. Entered his father's banking house as clerk and later became partner of the firm of W. N. Coler & Co. Candidate for alderman at large, Brooklyn, 1892; democratic candidate for gov- emor of New York, 1902; elected comptroller city of New York, 1897; president borough of Brooklyn, 1906-09, on the municipal ownership ticket; delegate to democratic national conven- tion, 1896. Author: Municipal Government, as illustrated by the Charter, Finances and Public Charities of New York; The Financial Efects of Consolidation, Municipid Government and Tunnds and Bridges. Coleridge (kdl'-rif). Hartley, eldest son of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, born at Clevedon, near Bristol, 1796. In 1815 he was entered a scholar of Merton college, Oxford. He then went to Lon- don, wrote for the London Magazine, and pub- lished therein some sonnets of remarkable beauty. He afterward attempted a private school at Ambleside, but failed. Near this little town he resided till he died, 1849. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, British poet, essayist, and dramatist, was bom in Devonshire in 1772. He was sent to Christ's hospital, and subsequently studied at Cambridge, where, in 1792, he obtained the prize for the best Greek ode. His works are many, and are generally distinguished by benevo- lence and piety. His Sibylline Leaves and Biographia Literaria found many admirers, and several of his poems have been given very high praise, particularly the Ancient Mariner. Among his other works are: Remorse, a Tragedy Christabd, Aids to Reflection, etc. Died, 1834. ' Colfax (kol'-fdks), Schuyler, American statesman, vice-president of the United States, 1869-73, was bom in New York, 1823. Removing to Indiana, he published a newspaper at South Bend, whick he made the foremost whig journal in the state. Elected to congress by the newly formed repub- lican party, in 1854, he remained a member until 1869 and was three times speaker. He was elected vice-president on the ticket with Grant in 1868. He died 1885. Coltgny (kd'-Un'-ye' or k6-lin'-yi), Gaspard de Chatlllon, Sire de, French admiral and general of eminence, bom at Chfttillon-sur-Loing, 1517. Introduced at court, he served under Francis I. in Italy. Under Henry II. he was made an infantry colonel, and in 1552 admiral of France. On the death of Henry II. Cohgny became a Protestant, and a friend of the prince of Cond6. Coli^ny went to court, and was apparently well received by Charles IX., but the enmity of the Guises, by whom Coligny was unjustly accused of murdering the duke of Guise at the siege of Orleans, was stirred up against him, and an attempt was made by one of their menials to assassinate him, 1572. This attempt at individ- ual murder was but a preUminary step to the general massacre of the Huguenots, which took place two days afterward, and in which Coligny was basely slaughtered, his bodv being afterward exposed to the vile outrages of the mob. In 1889 a statue of Coligny of colossal size was unveiled in Paris. Collier (kdl'-yir), Jeremy, English clergyman and controversialist, was bom at Stow cum Quy, Cambridgeshire, 1650. He was educated at Caius college, Cambridge, afterward becoming rector of Ampton near Bury St. Edmunds, and lecturer at Gray's Inn. His reply to Bumet's Inquiry into the State of Affairs, 1688, cost him some months in Newgate. He next waged war- fare on the crown with incisive pamphlets, and was arrested in 1692 on suspicion of being involved in a Jacobite plot. In 1697 he pubUshed his Short View of the Immorality of the English Stage, which fell like a thunderbolt among the wits. Collier continued to preach, and was con- secrated bishop in 1713. He died, 1726. His largest works were the Great Historical, Geographi- cal, Genealogical, and Poetical Dictionary, and An Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain. Collier, Peter Fenelon, publisher ,was bom atCarlow, Ireland, 1849 ; educated at Mt. St. Mary's college, Cincinnati. Founder and publisher of Collier's Weekly and head of P. F. Collier & Son, publishers. Member of Ohio society, American academy of political and social science. United States Catholic historical society. New York historical association, and of many clubs and turf associa- tions. Died, 1909. Collingwood, Cuthbert, Lord, English admiral, was bom at Newcastle-upon-T5Tie, 1750. He entered the navy at eleven, and from 1778 his career was closely connected with that of Nelson, whom he followed up the ladder of promotion step by step. Among the great naval victories in which he bore THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 627 a prominent part were those of Lord Howo off Brest in 1794 ; of Lord Jervis off Cape St. Vincent in 1797; and of Trafalgar in 1805, where he held the second command. A peerage was his reward. After several years' uneventful service in the Mediterranean, he died at sea, 1810, and was buried beside Nelson, in St. Paul's. Collins, William, English artist, was bom in Great Tichfield street, London, 1788. In 1807 he entered the royal academy as a student, and in the same year he exhibited two pictures at the academy's exliibition. At firstj necessity obliged bim to devote himself to portraits, but he latterly devoted himself successfully to landscapes and fenre pictures. He was elected R. A. m 1820. n 1836 he visited Italy, and remained there nearly two years, studying the great masters, and sketching monks and peasants, and groups of bronzed children. In 1839 he sent to the academy several Italian pictures, which were greatly admired. His attempts in another direc- tion — "Our Saviour with the Doctors in the Temple," and "The Two Disciples at Emmaus" — were not particularlv successful, and he fell back on his green fiefds, his sea-beaches, his rustics, and his children at their games. Died at London, 1847. Collins, William Wilkle, English novelist, was bom in London, 1824. He was educated at a private school. After a .short time spent with a firm in the tea trade be adopted the profession of the law, and was a student at Lincoln's Inn. From 1848 he made literature his profession. His first novel was printed in 1850, and was called Antonina, or The Fall of Rome. This was followed by Basil, a story of modem life; Mr. Wray'a Cash Box; Hide and Seek; After Dark; The Dead Secret; The Woman in White; No Nam^; Armxidale; The Moonstone; Man and Wife; The New Magdalen; The Law and the Lady; etc. His frincipal books have been translated into French, talian, German, Dutch, Danish, and Russian. Died, 1889. Collyer (kdl'-yer), Kobext, Unitarian clergyman; bom Keighly, Yorkshire, England, 1823; Teamed the blacksmith trade, which he followed after coming to the United States, 1850. Was Metho- dist local preacher, but became a Unitarian in 1859; became Unitarian missionary in Chicago; founded and was pastor of Unity church there, 1860-79; in 1879 became pastor of church of the Messiah, New York (later pastor emeritus). Author: Naiure and Life; The Life That Now Is; The Simple Truth: a Home Book; Talks to Young Men; History of Ilkley in Yorkshire (with Horse- fall Turner) ; Things New and Old. Died, 1912. Colman, George, commonly called "the elder," English dramatic author and theatrical manager, was bom at Florence in 1732. In 1760 his first dramatic piece, entitled Polly Honeycomb, was produced at Drury Lane, London, with great success. Next year he gave to the world his comedy of The Jealous Wife, and in conjunction with Garrick in 1766 wrote The Clandes- tine Marriage. In 1767 he became part owner of Covent Garden theater, and held the office of acting manager for seven years. In 1777 he purchased the Haymarket. He died, 1794. Colman was an industrious author; besides poetry and translations, he wrote and adapted upward of thirty dramatic pieces. Colman, George, "the younger," son of the pre- ceding, was bom in 1762. His bent lay in the same direction as his father's, during whose illness he acted as manager of the Haymarket theater; and on the death of the elder Colman, George III. transferred the patent to his son. Colman held for a considerable time the ofiice of examiner of plays. In industry, he rivaled his father, and he received large sums for his dramatic writings. His best known pUvs ara The Poor Gentleman, John Bull, and T/ki Htir at Law. He died, 1830. Colman, Samuel, American painter, was bom in Portland, Maine, 1832; studied in Europe in 1860-62; was elected a member of the national academy in 1862, and first president (1860-67) of the American society oi painters in water colors. His pictures include scenes from Alireria, Germany, France, Italy, and Holland. Colonna (fcd-ion'-rui), Vlttoria, the most celebrated poetess of Italy, was the daughter of Fabrisio Colonna, high constable of Naples, at whose estate of Marino she was bom in the year 1490. When four years old she was betrothed to a boy of the same age, Fernando d'Avalos, son of the Marchese de Pescara. At seventeen they were married. After her husband's death in the battle of Pavia, 1525, she found her chief conso- lation in solitude and in the cultivation of her poetical genius. Her friendship with Michael- angelo is well known. He addressed many of his sonnets to her. Died in Rome, 1547. Colquhoun {k6-ha>n'), Archibald Boss, journalist, descriptive writer, born off cape of Good Hope, 1848, of Scotch parentage. Educated in Scot- land and on the continent. Indian public works department, 1871; secretary and second in command of government mission to Siam and Siamese Shan states, 1879; explored from Canton to Bhamo to trace best route for con- necting Burmah and China by railway, 1881-82; London Times correspondent Franco-Chinese war and whole far East, 1883-84; proposed annexation of upper Burmah, and visited Siam in connection with railway construction, 1885; deputy-commissioner of upper Burmah, 1886- 89; accompanied pioneer force to South Africa, and on occupation of Mashonaland became administrator, 1890 j executed Manika treaty; has traveled extensively, and been Times cor- respondent in various parts of world. Author: The Key of the Pacific; China in Transformation; Russia Against India; The Renascence of South Africa; The Mastery of the Pacific; Greater America; The Africander Land; The Whirlpool of Europe; Austria-Hungary and the Habsburga (with Mrs. Colquhoun); From Dan to Beerah^a — reminiscences of public service ; and many contributions to the periodical press. Colt, Samuel, American inventor, bom in Hartford. Conn., 1814. He early conceived the idea m revolving fire-arms, and, in 1835, took out a patent for the weapon since known ihe world over as "Colt's revolver." In 1848 he estab- lished a company for the working out of his patent, and built at Hartford one of the most extensive armories in the world. Died, 1862. Columba (A;d-Zum'-6d), St^ Celtic missionary, was bom at Gartan, County Donegal, 521, the son of a chief related to several of the princes then reigning in Ireland and in the west of Scotland. He studied under St. Finnian at Moville on Strangford Lough and under another St. Finnian at Clonard; in 546 he founded the monastery of Derry, and in 553 that of Durrow. Accom- panied by twelve disciples, he founded a mon- astery at lona, Scotland, 563, and set himself to convert the northern Picts; he and his followers founded mona-steries on the Pictish mainland, the Western islands, and the Orkneys. The parent house of lona exercised supremacy over all these, as well as over the Columban churches in Ireland and those afterward established in the north of England. He died, 597. Columbus, Christopher. See page 329. Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus, the most learned of Roman writers on practical agricul- ture, bom at Cadiz in Spain, smd flourished in 628 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the earlier part of the first century of the Chris- tian era. For some time he resided in Syria, but lived chiefly at Rome, and died, most prob- ably, at Tarentum. His great work, De Re Ruatica, in twelve books, is addressed to one Publius Siivinus, and treats of arable and pasture land, culture of vines, olives, etc., the respective duties of masters and servants, etc. Combe (k(}bm or kom), George, British phrenologist and moral philosopher, born in Edinburgh, 1788. As early as 1816 he made the acquaintance of Dr. Spurzheim, while the latter was on a visit to Scotland, but at first regarded his phrenological system with aversion. Investigation, however, convinced him that phrenology was based on fact. The result was his Essays on Phrenology, 1819. Five years later appeared his System of Phrenology. But his most important production is The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Died, 1858. Comenius {ko-itia'-ne-^s or A:d-m^'-nl-us),orKoinen- sld, John Amos, educational reformer, was bom in 1592, in Moravia, either at Comna or at Nivnitz. His parents belonged to the Mora^ vian brethren. He studied at Herbom and then at Heidelberg, became rector of the Moravian school of Prerau, 1614-16, and minister at Fulnek, but lost ail his property and library in 1621, when that town was taken by the imperial- ists. Settling at Lissa in Poland. 1628, he here worked out his new theory of education, wrote his Didactica Magna, and was chosen bishop of the Moravian brethren in 1632. In 1631 he publishe{l his Janua Lingtiarum Reaeraia, and in 1639 his Pansophice Prodromus. In 1641 he was invited to England by parliament to assist in reforming the system of public instruction ; but owing to the outbreak of the civil war. he went instead to Sweden, 1642. He returned to Lissa in 1648, and in 1650 went to Saros-Patak, Hun- gary. Here he composed his Orbis Senstialium Pictus, the first picture book for children. Finally, he settled in Amsterdam, and died at Naarden, 1671. Commons, Jolin Rogers, educator, economist - born in Darke county, Ohio, 1862; graduated from Oberlin, 1888, A. M., 1890; student Johns Hopkins, 1888-90. Professor of sociology, Ober- lin college, 1892; Indiana university, 1893-95; Syracuse university, 1895-99. Expert agent industrial commission, 1901 ; professor of polit- ical economv, university of Wisconsin since 1904. Author: 7^ he Distribution of Wealth; Social Reform and the Church; Proportional Representa- tion, Regulation and Restriction of Output by Employers and Unions; Trade Unionism and Labor Problems; Races and Immigrants in America. Contributor to reviews and periodi- cals. Comnena, Anna. See Anna Comnena. Comstock (kum'stdk), Anthony, moral reformer, secretary and special agent of New York society for suppression of vice since 1873; born in New Canaan Conn., 1844 ; educated in district school and Wyckoff's academy. New Canaan, and 1860-61, high school. New Britain, Conn.; left school to earn living, 1861. His brother Samuel having been killed at Gettysburg, he volun- teered to fill his place in regiment, enlisting in 17th Connecticut volunteer infantry, Decem- ber, 1863 ; mustered out, July, 1865. Appointed, March 3, 1873, and since then, post-ofiice inspector of New York; was prominent in Y. M. C. A. As secretary and special agent of New York society for suppression of vice and post-office inspector, has brought about 3,500 criminals to justice and destroyed one hundred forty tons of obscene literature and pictures, etc. Author: Frauds Exposed, Gambling Outrages, Morals vs. Art, Traps for the Young. Comstock, John Henry, scientist, professor of entomology, Cornell, since 1882; born at Janes- yille, Wis., 1849; graduated, B. S., Cornell, 1874; instructor entomology, 1875-77, assistant pro- fe.ssor, 1877-78, Cornell; United States entomol- ogist at Washington, 1879-81. Author: A Manual for the Study of Insects; Insect Life; Notes on Entomology; Report on Cotton Insects; Introduc- tion to Entomology; How to Know the ButterflieM (with his wife). Contributor of papers on entomology in various scientific journals. Comte (fc<5N<), Auguste, French philosopher, founder of the "positive philosophy," born at Mont- pellier, France, 1798. He studied at Paris, and attracted the attention of his companions by the boldness and novelty of his speculations, main- taining that the time was come when philosophy must undergo another great change, such as it had done in the days of Bacon. He became acquainted with St. Simon, and in 1820 was appointed to prepare an exposition of the Politique Positive of the St. Simonian society. In 1832 was appointed professor of mathematice at the Ecole Polytechnique, which situation he was forced to resign in 1852, on account of differ- ences with hia colleagues. Died, 1857. Conant (ko'^nant), Charles Arthur, author, banker; bom at Winchester, Mass., 1861; educated at grammar and high schools, supplemented by pri- vate study. Democratic candidate for congress. Harvard university district, 1894; Wasliington correspondent of New York Journal of Commerce, 1889-1901; delegate to gold democratic conven- tion, 1896; s[)ecial coninns.sioner of war depart- ment in Philippines, 1901 ; member of commission on international exchange of United States, 1903 ; member of special committee of New York cham- ber of commerce on currency reform. 1906; strong advocate of gold standard and civil service reform. Treasurer of Morton trust company, 1902-06. Member of American economic associa- tion, chamber of commerce (New York), Ameri- can academy of political and social science, American Asiatic association. Author: A History of Modem Banks of Issue; The United States in the Orient; Alexander Hamilton; Wall Street arid the Country; The Principles of Money and Banking (2 vols.); contributor on economics to journals. Conaty {kdn'-d-H), Rt, Rev. Thomas James, Roman Catholic prelafee, bishop of Los Angeles: bom in Ireland, 1847; educated at Montreal college, 1863-67 ; graduated at college of the Holy Cross. 1869 ; Montreal theological school, 1872 ; ordained priest, 1872; D. D., Georgetown university, 1889; J. C. D. and D. D., Laval university. Quebec, 1896; pastor, church of the Sacred Heart, Worcester, Mass., 1880-97; president of Catholic total abstinence union of America, 1887-88; one of organizers of Catholic summer school, Plattsburgh, N. Y.; president, 1893-97; selected hy American Cathohc bishops, trustees of university, to succeed Bishop Keane as rector Catholic university, Washington, 1896, and appointed to position by Pope Leo XIII., who also conferred upon him, 1897, the title of domestic prelate and nominated him titular bishop of Sam OS, 1901 ; appointed to see of Monterey and Los Angeles, Cal., 1903. Long identified with educational and social movements; founded, and edited four years. Catholic SchoM and Home Magazine. Author: Bible Studies, for use in colleges and schools. Cond£ (kdN'-dd'), Prince de, Louis I. de Bourbon, younger brother of Antony of Bourbon, king of Navarre, was bom 1530. During the wars between Henry II. and Spain, he distinguished himself at the siege of Metz, the battle of St. Quentin, and the capture of Calais from the English. On Francis II.'s accession, 1569, THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 629 Cond6, like hia brother, joined the Huguenots, took part in the unlucky conspiracy of Amboise against the Guises, and escaped execution only by the death of the king. The regent, Catharine de' Medicis, the Guises' bitter enemy, made con- cessions to tlie Huguenots, and Cond6 became governor of Picardy. The massacre of Hugue- nots at Vassy by Guise. 15G2, led to the first civil war, and Cond6 and Coligny gathered a Iluguenot army; but at Dreux Cond6 was defeated and taken prisoner. In the second Huguenot war, 1567-69, Cond6 had coins struck with the inscrip- tion: "Louis XIII., first Christian king of France"; but at Jarnac, 1569, he was defeated, taken prisoner, and shot. Cond£, Prince de, Louis II. de Bourbon, commonly termed "the great Cond6," was born 1621. By the death of his father, 1646, he became head of hia family, and, next to the duke of Orleans, the highest personage in the state. At the head of troops collected in the Netherlands, he gained the battle of Bleneau, in April, 1652, and im- mediately marched upon Paris. After a fruit- less effort to seize Paris he left the country, and on the formal outbreak of war between France and Spain became generalissimo of the Spanish forces, but was unable to gain the advantage over Turenne. The war having been renewed by Spain, 1673, he again commanded the French in the Netherlands, and soon after retired to Chantilly, where he enjoyed the society of such men as Molidre, Boileau, and La Bruydre. Died, 1686. Condillac (kdvi'-de'-ydk'), £tienne Bonnot de Mably de, French philosopher, the founder of sensationalism, was born of a noble family at Grenoble, 1715. As a child his delicate health delayed his progress in education; but in youth he numbered among his friends Rousseau, Diderot, Duclos, etc. Many of his works were composed for his pupil, the duke of Parma, grandson of Louis XIV.; and he was titular Abb^ de Mureaux. He was chosen a member of the French academy of sciences in 1768. He died on his estate of Flux, near Beaugency, in 1780. He based all knowledge on the senses. Among his works were Essai sur I'Origine des Connaissances Humaines; TraiU des SysUmes; Traits des Sensations; Logique; and Ltangue des Calculs. Condorcet (k6n'-ddr'-s^'), Jean Marie Antolne Nicholas Caritat, Marquis de, French philosopher and mathematician, was born in 1743. He first gained celebrity by his successful labors as a mathematician. His treatise on integral calculus, written when he was but twenty-two years of age, was eminently successful, and was con- sidered to indicate a degree of knowledge seldom I>ossessed at so early an age. He was the friend of D'Alembert and of almost all his illustrious contemporaries, as well as one of the disciples of Voltaire. Being appointed governor of the dauphin by the constituent assembly, he was suc- cessively called to the legislative body and to the convention; but subsequently denounced as a partisan of the Girondists, he was outlawed in 1793, and shortly after was taken prisoner, when he poisoned himself, in 1794. Confucius (kdn-/u'-shl-us), (Chinese philosopher). See page 198. Congreve (kdng'-grev), William, English drainatist, was bom near Leeds, 1670. He entered himself as a student at the Middle Temple, but abandoned the law for literature. His first piece, written at the age of seventeen, was a romance entitled Incognita, or Love and Duty Reconciled. In 1693 he wrote his first comedy. The Old Bachelor. This brought him not only great reputation, but also the substantial benefit of a commissionership in the hackney-coach office, which was given to him by the earl of Halifax, who afterward still further patronised and favored him. He wrote also Love for Love; The Double DettUr; Tk« Mourning Bride; The Way of the World; an opera, and some poems. Died, 1729. Ck>nkllng {kdmjk'-llng), Boaooe, American politician, was born at Albany, N. Y., 1829. In 1846 he removed to Utica, N. Y., where he became dis- trict attorney, and was mayor in 1858. In the latter year he was elected to consrees, and In 1867 became a member of the iJnited State* senate. He took an active and prominent part in the practical business of both housee, a en r ed on important committees, and was instrumental in the passing of many useful legislative measure*. After the war he took an active part in the recon- struction of the southern states, and atlvocated the resumption of specie payments. He opposed President Johnson's policy, and was a zealous champion of Grant's administration. In 1881 he resigned his seat in the senate, owing to Garfield's assumption of the control over appointments in his native state. In 1882 he was appointed asso- ciate-justice of the supreme court, but declined the appointment. Died at New York, 1888. Connaught, Arthur William Patrick Albert, duke of, third son of Queen Victoria, wa.s bom May 1. 1850. He was educated at Woolwich; entered the army, 1868; became captain, 1871, major, 1875, colonel and major-general, 1880; accom- panied the expedition to Egypt, 1882; became lieutenant-general, 1889, ancf general, 1893. He conunanded the Bombay army in India, 1886- 90, the southern district of England, 1890-93, that of Aldershot, 1893-98. In 1900 he suc- ceeded Lord Roberts in command of the forces in Ireland; became inspector-general in 1904, and was commander-in-chief of Mediterranean, 1907-09. He was created duke of Connaught and Strathearn and earl of Sussex in 1874 ; mar- ried Princess Louise of Prussia, 1879. In 1911 he was designated by George V. to succeed Earl Grey as governor-general of Canada. "Connor, Ralph.*' See Gordon, Charles W. Conrad I. {kdn'-r&d), was chosen king of Germany in 911, and was the first of the elected rulers of Germany. His short reign was spent in putting down his nobles, who were always rebelling against him, Duke Henry of Saxony being the one who gave him most trouble. Many contests took place with him, and Henry showed so much ability that even Conrad admired him • and when he was mortally wounded in a battle with the Huns, Conrad begged his nobles to elect the duke of Saxony to succeed him, as Henry I., which they did. Conrad died, 918. Conrad III., the first Hohenstaufen king of the Germans, was born 1093, son of Frederick of Swabia. He unsuccessfully contested the crown of Italy with the emperor Lothair of Saxony, on whose death the princes of Germany, fearing the growing prep>onaerance of the Guelph party. offered Conrad the throne, and he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1138. He was immediately involved in a auarrel with Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria ana Saxony, and head of the Guelphs in Germany; and the struggle was continued under Hen^s son, Henry the Lion. When St. Bernard of Clairvaux preached a new crusade, Conrad set out for Palestine with a large army, 1147. A new attempt by the duke of Bavaria to regain his dukedom was defeated by the nephew of Connad, whose health had broken during the crusade, and who died at Bamberg, 1152. Conscience {k6s'-sy&fi8'\ Hendrik, Flemish novel- ist, was bom at Antwerp, 1812, and died at Brus- sels, 1883. His Phantazy, a fine collection of tales, and his most popular romance, De Leeuvo van Vlaenderen, early made his name known; but it was hb series of charming pictures of quiet 630 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Flemish life, beginning with Hoe men achilder wordt, 1843, that, through translations, carried his name over the world. C^nsid^rant {kda'-ae'-dd'-r&ii'), Victor-Prosper, French socialist, was born at Salins, France, 1808 ; he entered the army, which, however, he soon left to promulgate Fourier's doctrines. On the death of his master, Consid^rant became head of his school, and edited the Phalange. An Eng- lishman, Mr. Young, having advanced money, Considdrant established a socialist colony or ■phalanatire in Eure-et-Loir; but the experiment failed, and with it the Phalange. Of his numerous writings the chief is the Deatinie Sociale. In 1849 he was accused of high treason, and fled from France. In Texas he founded a community, La /i^unum, which flourished for a time. He returned to France in 18G9, and died 1893. Constable (ktin'-atd-b'l), John, landscape painter, born in East Bergholt, Suffolk, England, 1776. died suddenly 1837. He studied at the royal academy; b(>gan with portraits and historical Bubiects, but finally fixed upon landscape. The national gallery has his best pictures, "The Cornfield,'^ "The Valley Farm," and "The Hay- wain." Several good examples of his art have been added to the Louvre, and Marquand pre- sented two fine pictures by him to the Metro- politan museum of art, New York. Constans ikdn'-gt&nz)^ Flavius Julius, emperor of Rome, was born about A. D. 320. He was the youngest son of Constantine the Great, on whose death, 337, he received as his share of the empire. Western lllyricum, Italy, and Africa. Three years afterward his brother Constantine II. mvadcd Italy, and was killed in battle near Aquileia, when Constans became master of the whole of the Western empire. He was a weak and cruel ruler, and at last Magnentius, his feneral in Gaul, sent some conspirators to kill im. Constans fled to Spain, but was overtaken by them and slain, A. D. 350. Constant de Rebecque (^n'-sMn' di r6-bik'), Henri Benjamin, author and poUtician, was born of Frencli Huguenot ancestry at Lausanne, Switzerland, 1767. Educated at Oxford, Erlan- gen, and Edinburgh, he in 1795 settled in Paris as a publicist. He entered the tribunate in 1799, but was banished from France in 1802 for de- • nouncing the despotic acts of Napoleon. After traveling in Germany and Italy with Madame de Stael, he settled at Gottingen. On Napoleon's fall in 1814 he returned to Paris; during the hundred days became one of Napoleon's coun- cillors, though previously he had styled Napo- leon a Genghis Khan* and after the second restoration of the Bourbons wrote and spoke in favor of constitutional freedom. He was returned to the chamber of deputies in 1819, and became the leader of the liberal opposition. He died 1830. His De la Religion (5 vols.) is a notable work. He likewise wrote a remarkable novel, Adolphe, a short story of love and disillusion. Constantine I. (k6n'~stan-4in)t called the Great; born in 272jat Moesia, was the son of Constantius Chlorus by Helena. On the death of his father at York, where he accompanied him, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by the troops ; this title being challenged by Maximian, his father-in-law, and Maxentius, his brother-in-law, he took up arms against first the one and then the other, and defeated them. One day he saw a cross in the sky with the words, "By this conquer," in Greek, and under this sign, kno\vn as the labarum, which he adopted as his standard, he accord- ingly marched straight to Rome, where he wiks acknowledged emperor hy the senate in 312, and thereafter an edictwas issued named of Milan, granting toleration to the Christians. He had still to extend his empire over the East, and hav- ing done so by the removal of Lieinius, he trans- ferred the seat of his empire to Byzantium, which was thereafter called Constantinople, i. e., Con- stantine's city. Constantine was oaptis^ in 337 as a Christian, after having three years before proclaimed Christianity the state religion. Died, 337. Constantine XIII., Palseologus, the last empteror of the East, born in 1394. His father and his brother had been emperors before him, and he did not come to the throne until he was fifty- four years old, 1448. At that time the Turks had conquered almost all of the Eastern empire, and but little was left besides Constantinople and a few other cities. The Turkish sultan, Moham- med II., determined to take Constantinople also, and laid siege to it with a great army, 1453. Constantine, who had only about 9,000 soldiers, resisted bravely for nearly two months, but at last the Turks battered down part of tne walls and rushed in ^^ith wild shouts, and the emperor and his little band of nobles were all slain. Constantine's body, found under a heap of the dead, was known by the gold eagles on his shoes. It is said that Mohammed had nis head cut off and exhibited it in all the cities of Arabia and Persia. Constantius I„ called Chlorus, a Roman emperor, father of Constantine the Great, bom about A. D. 250. Constantius served in the army with dis- tinction under the emperor Diocletian, and in 292, when the two emperors Diocletian and Maximian each appointed a favorite general aa assiBtant emperor, under the title of Cma»i, Constantius received the place of Ciesar to Diocletian. After he had been Cssar thirteen years he was made chief emperor, when Diocletian gave up the throne. He died at York, England, Constantius II., a Roman emperor, second son of Constantine the Great^ born 317. Constantine on his death divided his empire among his three sons, Constantine, Constans, and Constantius, but at last the whole was united under Constan- tius. There were many rival emperors in his time, many disputes in the church, and many unsuccessful wars against the Germans and Persians. His cousin Juhan won so many victo- ries that the army proclaimed him emperor, and Constantius marched again.st him, but died on the way, 361. He was succeeded by Julian. Converse, John H., philanthropist, manufacturer; president of Burnham, Williams & Co., proprie- tors of Baldwin locomotive works, Philadelphia; bom at Burlington, Vt., 1840; educated at university of Vermont. Vice-moderator of the general assembly, Presbyterian church. United States, 1900; leader of many benevolent and religious enterprises. Was trustee of Princeton theological seminary; was member of American philosophical society. Died, 1910. Conway, Moncure Daniel, clergjinan, author, was bom in Virginia, 1832; entered the Methodist ministry in 1850, but, after a divinity course at Cambridge, Mass., became a Unitarian preacher in Washington in 1854, and in Cincinnati in 1857. He was a strong opponent of slavery, and in 1863 went to England to lecture on the war. In Lon- don he became head of the South Place institute (for advanced religious thought), which he finally gave up in 1897, and wrote much for the press and magazines. He wrote The Rejected Stone, RepiMican Superstitions; Idols and Ideals, Demonology and Devil-lore; Thomas Carlyle, Pine and Palm, and A Life of Paine. Died 1907. Conway, Sir William Martin, English traveler, art critic, and geographer, bom at Rochester, Eng- land, 1856; was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge. University extension lecturer. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 081 1882-85; professor of art, University college, Liverpool, 1885-88; in 1889 traveled in Egypt and the East nine months; in 1892 in Himalayas, climbing peak 23,000 feet high, and surveying 2,000 miles of mountains; traversed the Alps from end to end in 1894; explored interior of Spitsbergen, 1896-97; in 1898 explored and sur- veyed Bolivian Andes, ascending Sorata (21,500 feet) and lUimani (21,200 feet), also ascended Aconcagua (23,080 feet) and explored glaciers of Tierra del Fuego; Slade professor of fine arts, Cambridge, 1901-04; president of the Alpine club, 1902-04. Author: Woodcutters of the Netherlands in the fifteenth century; Early Flemish Artists; Literary Remains of Albrecht DOrer; Dawn of Art in the Ancient World; Climbing and Exploration in the Karakoram-Himalayas, etc.; Tlic Alps from End to End; The First Crossing of Spitsbergen; With Ski and Sledge over Arctic Glaciers; The Bolivian Andes; The Domain of Art; Early Tuscan Artists; Aconcagua arid Tierra del Fuego; Great Masters; No Man's Jjond (history of Spitsbergen) ; etc. Conwell, Russell Herman, lecturer, educator. Bap- tist clergyman; bom at Worthington, Mass., 1842 ; educated at Wilbraham academy ; entered Yale, law department, 1860; graduated from Albany law school, 1866; served, captain of infantry, 1862-65, in Union army; promoted to lieutenant-colonel, 1865; practiced law in Minneapolis, 1865-67; immigration agent for state of Minnesota to Germany, 1867-68: foreign correspondent New York Tribune ana Boston Traveler, 1869-71 ; practiced law in Bos- ton, 1871-79; ordained to ministry, 1879; pastor of Grace Baptist church, Philadelphia, 1881-91 ; founded Temple college, 1888, and is its presi- dent; Samaritan hospital, 1890; pastor the Baptist temple, Philadelphia, since 1891; lyceum lecturer. Author: Why the Chinese Emigrate; Woman and the Law; Joshua Giana- vello; .Life of Charles H. Spurgeon; Life of Bayard Taylor; Life of President Hayes; Life of President Garfield; Acres of Diamonds; Lives of the Presidents; The New Day. Cook, Albert Stanburrough, educator; bom at Montville, N. J., 1853; graduated at Rutgers college, 1872; M. S., M. A., L. H. D., LL. D., Rutgers; M. A., Yale; Ph. D., Jena; student Gottingen and Leipzig, 1877-78, London and Jena, 1881-82. Tutor mathematics, Rutgers, 1872-73; teacher at Freehold, N. J., institute, 1873-77; associate in English, Johns Hopkins, 1879-81 ; professor of English, university of California, 1882-89; professor of English lan- guage and literature, Yale, since 1889. Co-editor of Journal of English and Germanic philology, 1897-1905. Author and editor of numerous works on English classics, criticism, and language. Cook, Captain James, a celebrated English naviga^ tor, best known through his Voyages Round the World; born in Marton, in North Riding, York- shire, 1728. He made three principal voyages, in the course of which he made many important discoveries, but was ultimately killed in a quarrel with the natives of Hawaii. His kindly disposi- tion and his scrupulous justice and humanity were, with his skill as a navigator, among his first recommendations. After his death, at Hawaii, one of the Sandwich islands, 1779, many honors were paid to his memory, both in his own and in foreign countries. Cooke, Josiah Parsons, American chemist, was bora at Boston, Mass., 1827, and was professor of chemistry at Harvard from 1850. His chief works are Elements of Chemical Physics, First Principles of Chemical Philosophy, The New Chemistry, etc. Died at Newport, R. I., 1894. Cooke, Sir WiUiam FothergUl, British electrician, bom at Ealing, England, 1806; was educated at Durham and Eklinburch, lerved in the Indiwi army from 1826 to 1831; after studving medidae at Paris and Heidelljcrg, took up telemtpby. in 1837 entere'-l6ti')t Charles AuKustln de, French physicist, was bom at Angouleme, 1736. He exp>erimented on friction, and invented the torsion balance for measuring the force of mag- netic and electrical attraction. Died at Paris, 1806. Coulter {kdl'-Ur), John Merle, botanist, head profes- sor of botany, university of Chicago, since 1896; born at Ningpo, China, 1851; graduated at Han- over college, Indiana, 1870; Pn. D., university of Indiana. Botanist of United States geological survey in Rocky mountains, 1872-73 ; professor of natural sciences, Hanover college, 1874-79; professor of biology, Wabash college, 1879-91; president of university of Indiana, 1891-93; president of Lake Forest university^ 1893-96. Author: Manual of Rocky Mountain Botany; Manual of Texan Botany; Plant Relations; Plant Structures; Plant Studies; Morphology of Gymnosperms; Morphology of Angiosperms; etc. Courbet (fa»r'-W), Gustave, French painter, founder of realism in painting, was bom at Umans, Franche-Comte, 1819. In 1839 he was sent by his father to study law in Paris, but the bent of his nature was toward art. In 1841 he took to landscape work, painting in the forest of Fontainebleau. In 1844 he began to exhibit at the salon ; and his works created a great sensa- tion in 1850. His hunting scenes and animal subjects are especially vigorous and spirited. In 1871 he joined the commune, and was concerned in the destruction of the Venddme column, May 16th, for which the next September he wa» sentenced to six months' imprisonment and a fine for its restoration, his pictures being sold in 1877 toward that purpose. On his release he retired to Tour-de-Peiltz, near Vevey, in Switzer- land, where he died, 1877. Cousin (AyJB'-aiN'), Victor, French philosopher, was bom in Paris, 1792; died at Cannes, 1867. After a literary career extending over many years, he was made, in 1830, under the ministry of M. Guizot, a member of the council of public instruction in France; in 1832 he was n^e a peer of France, and, in 1840, was minister o( public instruction in the cabinet of M. Thiers. He published a translation of Plato, in thirteen volumes, and a Course of the History of Philosophy. in five volumes, which was his largest original work. Besides these, he published, among other works, Philosophical Fragments, and Lessons from the Philosophy of Kant. His last years were spent in retirement in the Sorbonne. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 085 Couture (k^SS'-tiir'), Thomas, French painter, pupil of Delaroche, was bora in 1815. Uis first note- worthy work was "The Love of Gold." In 1847 he greatly enhanced his reputation by the "Romans of the Decadence," which secured for him the cross of the legion of honor. His chief work is "Les liornains de la Decadence." Died near Paris, 1879. Coverdale, (kUv'-ir-dal) Miles, translator of the English Bible, was born in Yorkshire, 1488; died in London, 1568. He was a monk of Norwich, but early devoted himself to the work of the reformation. In 1551 he was appointed bishop of Exeter, but was ejected and imprisoned on the acces.sion of Mary in 1553. In the subsequent reign of Elizabeth, till within two years of his death, he was rector of the church of St. Magnus, in the city of London; and to that church his remains were removed in 1840, when the church of St. Bartholomew, in which he was at first buried, was taken down. The Psalms of Cover- dale and Tyndale's translation are still used in the services of the church of England. Cowley, Abraham, in his own day considered the greatest of English poets, was born in London, 1618. Attracted to poetry by the Fd&rie Queen, he wrote excellent verses at ten, and at fifteen Eublished five poems. From Westminster school e proceeded in 1637 to Trinity college, Cam- bridge, and while here wrote, among many other pieces, a large portion of his epic, the Davideis, its hero King David. During the English civil war he was ejected from Cambridge, but at St. John's, Oxford, studied for another two years. In 1646 he followed Henrietta Maria to Paris, was sent on royalist missions, and carried on her correspond- ence in cipher with the king. He returned to England in 1656, was arrested, released on £1,000 bail, and, perhaps as a blind, took the Oxford M. D., 1657. On Cromwell's death he again went to Paris, and returned to England at the restoration. He died at Chertsey, 1667, and was buried in Westminster abbey. Cowper, WlUlam, English poet, was bom, 1731, died 1800. He was admitted to the bar in 1754, but did not practice. He passed many years at Olney, Buckmghamshire, in the society of Mrs. Unwin, Lady Austen, and the Rev. John Newton, engaged in religious exercises and charities. Lady Austen turned his attention to poetry, and after contributing sixty-eight pieces to the Olney Hymns, he published in 1782 his first volume, which was tolerably well received. The ballad of John Gilpin gave him a wide renown. His longest original poem. The Task, 1785, gained general popularity. He next translated Homer in blank verse, and undertook a new edi- tion of Milton, with translations of the Latin and Italian poems. In 1799 he revised his Homer, and wrote his last poem, Tfie Castaway. Cox, David, noted landscape painter, was bom at Deritend, a suburb of Birmingham, England, 1783. He studied in London with John Varley; in 1805-06 visited North Wales, which to the end of his life was his favorite sketching-ground; taught as a drawing-master from 1814 to 1826 in Hereford, publishing A Treatise on Landscape Painting. From 1827 till 1841 London was his headquarters, but in 1841 settled at Harbome, near Birmingham, where he died, 1859. It was during this period that he produced his greatest works. Among his oil pictures are "Lancaster Castle"; "Peace and War"; "The Vale of Clwyd"; "The Skylark"; "Boys Fishing"; and "Bettws-y-Coed Church." Among his very numerous water colors are "Lancaster Sands"; "Ulverston Sands"; " Bolton Abbey " ; "Welsh Funeral"; and "Broom Gatherers on Chat Moss." His water color "The Haj^eld " brought £2,950 in 1875. Cox, 81p George Wllllaau English writer, mytholo- gist, was horn 1827, educated ftt Rugby Mbool and Trinity collcgo, Oxford. He took onlws In 1850, and after holding curacies in Devonahire and an assiatant-mMtentUp at Cheltenham, became vicar of Bekesboume in Kent and after- ward rector of Scrayingham, York. In 1877 ho succeeded to his uncle s baronetcy. Among his works are Tales of Ancient Greece; Aryan My- thology; History of Greece; Comparative Mj^M- ogy and Folklore; Lives of Greek Staleemen, and Life of Colenso. Died, 1902. Cox, Kenyon, painter; bom in Warren, Ohio, 1856; studied in Cincinnati and Philadelphia; in Paris under Carolus Duran and G^rdme, 1877-^2- returned to New York. Pictures are principally portraits and figure pieces; painted two decorations in library of congress, one in Walker art gallery^ Bowdoin college; one in Minnesota state capitol, one in Citizens' buildins, Cleveland, Ohio, and frieze in court room, appel- late court. New York, and other decorative pictures. Contributed to leading magazines on art subjects; part author of Modem French Masters, edited oy J. C. Van Dyke, and of The Nineteenth Century. Author: Mixed Beaata, Old Masters and New. Died, 1911. Cox, Palmer, artist; bom in Granby, Quebec, Canada, 1840; graduate of Granby academy; lived in San Francisco, 1863-75, contributing to Golden Era and Alta California; since 1875. has lived in New York. His specialty is original humorous pictures illustrating his own books. Author: Squibs of California, or Every-day Life Illustrated; Hans von Pelter's Trip to Gotham; How Columbus Found America; That Stanley; The Brownies, Their Book; Queer People; Queer People with Wings and Stings; Queer People ivilh Paws and Claws; Another Brownie Book; The Broumies at Home; The Brovmiea Around the World; The Brownies Through the Union; The Brownies Abroad; The Broumies in Fairyland (cantata in two acts); Palmer Cox's Brownxe* (spectacular play in three acts) ; The Broumies in the Philippines; Brownie Clown in Brownie Town; etc. Cox, Samuel Sullivan, American politician and diplomat, known as "Sunset" Cox, was bom in Ohio in 1824, and died in New York, 1889. Graduate of Brown university; studied law, entered politics, and 1857-65 represented an Ohio district in congress. In 1866 he moved to New York, and was returned to congress almost continuously from 1869, except while be was minister to Turkey, 1885-86. The present arrangements for taking the national census were largely of his conception, and the life-saving service, which is one of the most efficient branches of the govertunent service, is almost entirely his creation. It was one of his glowing editorial descriptions of a sunset which won him his nickname, and he added many books to his journalistic work. A genial humor characterized his writings and made them popular. Coxe (kdks), Arthur Cleveland, American Episcopal bishop, was bom at Mendham, N. J., 1818j and died 1896. He graduated at the university of New York in 1838, and became well known as a churchman and a writer. Among his works are his Christian Ballads, and Impreesiona of England. He became the rector of Grace chiirch in New York city in 1859, and bishop of western New York in 1865. Crabbe (krOb), Georxe, English p>oetj bom 1754, died 1832. He was a surgeon, but abandoned his profession for literary aSventure, and went to London in 1780. Edmund Burke secured a pub- lisher for his poem The Library, 1781, and advised him to take holy orders. He was ordained a priest in 1782, and became chaplain to 636 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the duke of Rutland at Bel voir caatle. In 1783 he published Tfte Village, and in 1807 The Parish Register, his best works. They were followed by The Borough, Tales in Verse, and Tales of the Hall. His last days were spent as rector of Trowbridge, Wiltshire. Craddock, Charles Egbert. See Murfree, Alary NoaUles. Crafts, Wilbur Flsk, Presbyterian clergyman; bom at Fryeburg, Me., 1850; graduate of Wesleyan university, Connecticut, 18G9; B. D., Boston university, 1871; Ph. D., Marietta college, 1896. Was pastor Stoneham, Haverhill, New Bedford, Mass., Dover, N. II., Chicago. Brooklyn, New York. Founded American Sabbath union, 1889 ; lectured throughout the United States as its field secretary, 1889-90; founded, 1895, and became superintendent of international reform bureau. Chief editor of Christian Statesman, 1901-03; Twentieth Century Quarterly since 1896. Author of numerous reUgious and educational books and tracts. Cralgte (krag'-l), Mrs. Pearl Mary Theresa. See Hobbes, John Oliver. Craik (krdk), Mrs. Dinah Maria. See Mulock. Craili« GeorKc Llllle, Scottish writer and educator, born at Kennoway, Fife, 1798; studied for the church at St. Andrews, but settled in London in 1826. In 1849 he became professor of history and English literature in Queen's college, Belfast. Among his works are Pursuit of Knowledge under Dijjicxdties; History of Literature and Learning in England (6 vols.); History of British Commerce (3 vols.); Spenser; Bacon; The English of Shakespeare and History of English Language and Literature. Died at Belfast, 1866. Cranach (fcrfl'-ndK), Lucas, German painter, was born near Bamberg, Germany, 1472. He seemed to have acted as factotum at the court of the elector and his two successors, preparing for and directing the ceremonies and festivities, and knew besides how to follow other lucrative trades. In 1520 he bought an apothecary's business at Wittenberg, where he was also a book-seller and paper-maker, became councilor and chamberlain, and was twice chosen burgomaster of the town. He was an intimate friend of Luther, whose pic- ture he several times painted ; his best works are probably his portraits. In 1550 he went to Augsburg to share the imprisonment of the elector, and returned with nim to Saxony in 1552. Cranach died at Weimar, 1553. Cranch (krdnch), Christopher Pearse, American painter, was bom at Alexandria, Va., 1813: studied in France and Italy in 1846-63 ; returned to New York and became a member of the national academy in 1864. He was also a graceful writer in prose and verse, and published a book of Poems, The Bird and the Bell, Ariel and Caliban, and prose tales for children, which he illustrated. His best pictures are "October Afternoon'' "Venice," and "Venetian Fishing Boats." Died, 1892. Crane, Walter, English painter, decorator, designer, book-illustrator, writer, lecturer, socialist, born at Liverpool, 1845. Educated privately; mostly self-taught. Apprenticed to W. J. Linton; first illustrated book. The New Forest, 1863 ; exhibited at the royal academy at sixteen, 1862; director of design, Manchester municipal school of art, 1893-96; hon. art director, Reading college. 1898; principal of the Roval college of art, South Kensington, 1898-99'; awarded Albert gold medal, society of arts, 1904. Publications: Baby's Opera; Baby's Bouquet; Mrs. Mundi; Pan-Pipes; Grimm's Household Stories; First of May; The Sirens Three: a Poem; Baby's Own ^sop; Flora's Feast; Claims of Decorative Art; A Wonder Book; The Old Garden; etc. ; illustra- tions to Shakespeare's Tempest, Two Gentlemen of Verona, Merry Wives of Windsor; Decorative Illustration of Books; Spenser's Fairie Queene; The Shepherd's Calendar; The Bases of Design; Line and Form; Don Quixote; A Masque of Days; illustrations and type decorations to the International Bible; An Artist's Reminiscences; etc. Principal pictures: " Renascence of Venus " ; "Fate of Persephone"; "Sirens Three"; " Europa " ; " Freedom " ; "The Bridge of Life " ; "La Belle Dame sans Merci"* "Neptune's Horses"; "The Swan Maidens' ; "England's Emblem"; "Britannia's Vision"; "The World's Conquerors " ; "A Stranger " : " "The Fountain of Youth"; "The Winds of the World"; "The Fates"; "The Mower"; "The Walkyrie's Ride"; "A Masque of the Four Seasons"; " Prometheus Unbound " ; etc. Crane, William H., actor- bom at Leicester, Mass., 1845; d^'but Utica, N. Y., 1863. Was with Mrs. Harriet Holman's opera company for eight years; Oates opera company, four years. Became leading comedian Hoolev's stock company, Chicago; appeared with Stuart Robson, Park theater. New York, in Our Boarding House, 1877, followed by numerous successes, including the two Dromios in Shakespeare's Comedy of JSrror«, ending with The Henrietta. Separated from Robson in 1889, and since appeared in star rAlea in The Senator; On Probation; For Money; The American Minister; Brother John; Fool of Fortune; The Pacific Mail; A Virginia Courtship; Worth a Million; The Head of the Family; David Harum; Father and the Boys; etc. Crane, Wlnthrop Murray, manufacturer. United States senator, was born at Dalton, Mass., 1853; educated at pubUc schools, Dalton and WilUston seminary; A. M., Williams, 1897. He was an ex- tensive manufacturer of paper, but upon his elec- tion to the United States senate retired from active connection with that industry. Lieutenant- Sovemor of Massachusetts, 1897-99 ; governor of [assachusetts, 1900-02; United States senator from Massachusetts, appointed by governor, 1904, to fill vacancy caused by death of Senator Hoar; elected, 1905, to fill term expiring 1907, and reelecte- pointed minister to France in 1813. Two years later he was appointed secretary of war, and the next year became secretary of the treasury, and held the latter office till 1825. He received the nomination for president, 1824, and in the elec- tion had forty-one electoral votes. He died in 1834. Creasy (fcre'-st). Sir Edward Shepherd, English historian, born at Bexley, Kent, in 1812, from Eton passed to ^King's college, Cambridge, and in 1834 was elected a fellow. Admitted to the bar in 1837, he went on the home circuit for over twenty years, and in 1840 was appointed pro- fessor of history at London university, in 1860 chief-justice of Ceylon, and knighted. In 1870 he returned to England on a year's leave of absence, in 1871 went out again, but returned finally in 1873; died at Hampton Wick, 1878. He was author of The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, Invasions of England, History of the Ottoman Turks, etc. Creel, Enrique C^ Mexican diplomatist and states- man, was born at Chihuahua, Mexico, 1854 ; self- educated; went to work at an early age; has been merchant, sohooi teacher, newspaper man, tanner, fanner, miner, banker, railway offidal, financier. Member of city council, Chilmahua, 1876-80; memlnT of Mcxtran national cungraM, 1898-1904; speaker of house, 1802; govemorM state of Chilmaluia, 1903-O6; ambaaaador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary of Mexico to United SUtes, I906-O9. Praaid«it of Banco Central Hexicano: vio»«r«aideni of Chihualiua «fe Pacific railroad, Kansaa City, Mexico & Orient railroaoetry. Crittenden (krlf-'n-den), John Jordan, American statesman, born in Kentucky in 1787. After I having studied and engaged in the practice of the j law, he, in 1816, became a member of the Ken- , tucky house of representatives, and was elected j to the United States senate in 1817, 1835, and 1855. In 1841 he became attorney-general in President Harrison's administration, and in 1848 was elected governor of Kentucky. He served as attorney-general in President Fill- more's cabinet from 1850 until the accession of President Pierce. Throughout his political career, Crittenden's name is identified with most of the measures introduced and advocated by his friend, Henry Clay. He opposed the secession movement in 1860-61. Died, 1863. Crocker, FrancLs Bacon, electrician, physicist, pro- fessor of electrical engineering, Columbia, since 1893; born at New York, 1861; graduated at Columbia, M. E., 1882; Ph. D., 1894. President American institute of electrical engineers, 1897- 98; president of New York electrical society. 1889-92: permanent secretary of international electrical congress, Chicago, 1893. Founder and vice-president of Curtis and Crocker electric com- pany, 1887, and Crocker-Wheeler electric com- pany, 1889. Author: Afanagement of Electrical Machinery, Electric Ldghting, Electric Motors; also many articles and papers in Electrical World, transactions American institute electrical engi- neers, etc. Crockett, David, American pioneer and politician, was born in Tennessee, 1786. He was chiefly noted for his adventures and eccentric habits; he was a member of congress from 1827 to 1831, and from 1833 to 1835. He joined the Texans in their revolt against Mexico, was taken prisoner at Ft. Alamo in 1836, and was killed in that celebrated massacre. He published his AtUobiograpfiy in 1834. Crockett, Samuel Rutherford, British novelist; bom in Duchrae, Galloway, 1860. Educated at Edinburgh, Heidelberg, and New college, Oxford. Entered Free church of Scotland, 1886; minister of Penicuik for some vears, then became a writer and journalist. Author: The Stickit Minister; Sweetheart Travelers; The Standard Bearer; The Black Douglas; The Silver SkuU; Love Idylls; The Firebrand; The Lilac Sunbonnet; Maid Margaret; Sir Toady Crusoe; The Cherry Ribbon (Peden the Prophet) ; Vida; Me and Myn; The Bloom of the Heather; etc. Croesus (kri'-sHs), last of the kings of Lvdia, in the sixth century B. C. ; celebrated for his wealth, so that his name became a synonjTn for a man overwhelmed by the favors of fortune; being visited by Solon, he asked him one day if he knew any one happier than he was, when the sage answered, "No man can be counted happy till after death." Of the truth of this Crcesus soon had experience ; being condemned to death by Cyrus, who had defeated him and condemned him to be burnt, and about to be led to the burning pile, he called out thrice over the name of Solon. Cyrus, having learned the reason, was moved with pity, ordered his release, retained him among his counsellors, and commended h'*" when dying to the care of his son. Crofts, Ernest, British painter, keeper of the royal academy; born in Yorkshire, 1847; educated at Rugby and Berlin. Studied art at London and Diisseldorf. Pupil of A. B. Clay and Pro- fessor Hunten. First picture, "A Retreat," exhibited at the royal academy, 1874. Hia historical paintings range over a wide period and deal mainly with miUtary subjects. Cnief paint- ings: "Napoleon at Ligny"; "On the Mominc of the Battle of Waterloo"; "Oliver CromweU at Marston Moor"; "Ironsides Returning from Sacking a Cavalier's House"; "The Evening of the Battle of Waterloo"; "George II. at Det- tingen"; " Wallenstein " ; "Marlborough after Ramillies"; "Napoleon Leaving Moscow"; "Marston Moor": "Execution of Charles I.": "Queen Elisabeth Opening the First Royal Exchange." Died, 1911. Croker, Richard, poHtician, was bom at Black Rock, Ireland, 1843; brought to United States when two years old; educated at public schools. New York. Alderman, New York, 1868-70 and 1883; coroner, 1873-76; fire commissioner, 1883; city chamberlain, 1889-90. Was prominent opponent of Tweed ring; prominent in Tammany hall and long recognized as its leader; especially active in the campaign of 1897, when Robert A. Van Wyck was elected first mayor of Greater New York. Now resides in Ireland, and devotes much time to the turf, but retains his citizen- ship in New York. Cromer (Ara'-mft-), Evelyn Baring, first Earl, British statesman and diplomat, was bom at Cromer hall, Norfolk, 1841. Educated at ordnance school, Carshalton; royal militaiy academy, Woolwich. Hon. D. C. L., Oxford; LL. D., Cambridge. Entered roval artillery, 1858: captain, 1870; ma^or, 1876- A. D. C. to Sir Henry Storks in Ionian islands, 1861, and secretary, 1865, during inquiry into outbreak in Jamaica; private secretary to earl of North- brook, viceroy of India, 1872-76; commissioner of Egyptian pubhc debt, 1877-79; controller- generaJ in Egypt, 1879; financial member of council of governor-general of India, 1880; financial assistant at conference in London on Egyptian finance, 1884; agent and consul- general in Egypt, 1883-1907. Author: Staff College Essays; Paraphrase and Translations from the Greek; The War Game, and other military works; Modem Epypt (2 vols.); etc. Crompton, Samuel, inventor of the spinning-mule; bom near Bolton, England, 1753; for five years he worked at his project, and at last sold it for £60. It revolutionized the manufacture of British muslin, and brought wealth to all save the inventor, who died in comparative poverty, 1827. Cromwell, Oliver. See page 449. Cromwell, Richard, bom in 1626, was the third son of Oliver, but by the deaths of two elder brothers, Robert and Oliver, became his father's heir. He was an amiable and popular but weak man, devoted to field sports and pleasure. When the protector had been empowered to nominate his successor, an efifort was made to train Richard to the work of government, but in vain. Scarcely had he entered on the protectorship when the forces of anarchy, both parliamentary and mili- tary, broke loose; finding himself unable to restrain them, and deep in debt, he abdicated in 1659. After the restoration he lived abroad as John Clarke; but he returned to England about 1680, and Uved and died (1712) at Cheshunt. Cromwell, Thomas, earl of Essex, English states- man, bom about 1485. He was in the service of Wolsey for several years before the cardinal's ruin in 1529, and remained his steady friend in adversity. His fidelity to his patron and his talents commended him to Henry VIII., who THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 630 appointed him his secretary and spokesman in the house of commons. This made him the leader of the EngHsh reformation. He was soon after made secretary of state and master of the rolls, in 1535 visitor general of all the monas- teries, religious houses, and universities of England, and in 1536 lord privy seal, baron, and ecclesiastical viceregent. the visitorial power was executed with great vigor, and sweep- ing changes were made in the religious system of England. He was created earl of Essex, received valuable estates from the spoils of the monasteries, and was the king's most powerful subject. But he had enemies on all siaes, and, haAring lost the king's favor by his promotion of the marriage with Anne of Cleves, with whom Henrj' was disgusted, he was beheaded in 1540. Cromwell, William Nelson, lawyer, was bom in 1854 ; now senior of law firm of Sullivan & Crom- well; specialty is corporation law; organized, 1899, National tube company with a capital of $80,000,000; since then many other corpora- tions; appointed assignee and reorganized Decker, Howell & Company, 1890, and later, Price, McCormick & Company, which had failed for several millions, and put both on paying basis; was officer, director, or counsel of more than twenty of the largest corporations in the United States, and one of orgamzers of United States steel corporation. Engaged by Panama Canal compapy of France, and was instrumental in securing passage of Panama canal bill in congress. He perfected the details of the transfer of Panama canal to United States government. Cronje (kron'-yi), Pletnis Amoldus, Boer general, was bom, 1835, of Huguenot descent; com- manded the western army of the South African repubUcs; besieged Potchefstroom, 1881, and received its capitulation, keeping the garrison in ignorance of the fact that an armistice had been declared; frustrated the Jameson raid at Kru- fersdorp, 1895. Surrendered at Paardeberg to 'ield-Marshal Lord Roberts, 1900 ; was member of executive council of Transvaal republic and chief native commissioner. Died, 1911. Crookes (krdbks). Sir William, British chemist and physicist; proprietor and editor of Chemiccd Netos; president of the British association for the advancement of science, 1898; editor of Quarterly Journal of Science; bom in 1832. Educated at royal college of chemistry; pro- fessor of chemistry, Training college, Chester, England, 1855. Discoverer of: thallium, a new element, 1861; repulsion resulting from radia- tion, 1873; the radiometer, 1875; illumination of lines of molecular pressure, 1878; radiant matter, 1879; radiant matter spectroscopy, 1881; new elements in gadoHnite, etc., 1886; genesis of elements, 1887; the spinthariscope, 1903. Received Nobel prize for chemical researches, 1907. Author: Select Methods in Chemical Analysis; Manufacture of Beet Root Sugar in England; Handbook of Dyeing and Calico- Printing; A Solxition of the Sewage Question; The Wheat Problem; etc. Crosby (krdz'-bl), Fanny (Mrs. Frances Jane Van Alstyne), blind writer of popular hymns; bom at Southeast, N. Y., 1820; when six weeks old became blind from application of hot poultices to her eyes during an illness, the poultices destroying the optic nerve. At fifteen entered the institute for blind, New York; teacher there, 1847-58, in English grammar and rhetoric, and Roman and American history. Wrote words to many songs for George F. Root, the composer. Her first hjmnn was written for WiUiam B. Bradbury; haswritten more than 6,000, amongthem, "Safe in the Arms of Jesus"; "Jesus, Keep Me Near the Cross," and "Jesus the Water of Life Will Give." Among her songs are "There's Music tn the Air," and "Ha«el Dell." Author: Th« Blind Girl; Monterey and Other Poema; A Wreath of Columbia's Flowers; Belt* at Evening and Other Poems; Memories of Eight]/ Years. Crosby. Howard. American clergyman and scholar, was bora at New York, 1836; graduate of the university of New York, 1844; professor of Greek there, 1851-59, and at Rutgers college, New Jersey, 1859-63. He was pastor of the Fourth Avenue Presbyterian church, Now York, 1863-91 ; chancellor of the university of New York, 1870-81; and a member of the American committee for the revision of the new testament. In 1877 he was the leading organizer of the society for the prevention of crime, and its first president. Died, 1891. Crothers (fcrfiTH'-erz), Samuel McChord, Unitarian clergyman, author, was born at Oswmto, III., 1857; graduated at Princeton, 1874 ; stucued the- ology at Union theological seminary; D. D., Harvard; Litt. D., St. Lawrence, 1904. Pastor- ates: Eureka, Nev., Santa Barbara, Cal., Brattle- boro, Vt., and St. Paul: since 1894 at First Parish, Unitarian churcn, Cambridge, Mass.; preacher to Harvard university. Author: Mem- bers of One Body; Miss Muffet's Christmas Party; The Gentle Reader; The Understanding Heart; The Pardoner's Wallet; The Endless Life. Crozler, William, army officer, was bora at Car- rollton, Ohio, 1855; graduated from United States miUtary academy, 1876. Began his service in the United States army as an artillery officer, 1876; inspector-general of volunteers, 1898; appointed professor of natural and experi- mental philosopny, United States military academy, 1901 (declined); brigadier-general and chief of ordnance of United States army since 1901. With General Buffin^on invented the Buffington-Crozier disappearing gun carriage: invented the wire gun. Delegate to international peace conference at The Ilague, 1899; chief ordnance officer of Peking relief expedition, 1900. Cruikshank {krdbkf-sh&ngk), George, English artist, was bom in London, 1792. His father and elder brother were both caricaturists. The works illustrated by him include, among hundreds of others, Grimm's Stories, Peter Schlemihl, Scott's Dernonology, Dickens's Oliver Twist, and Ains- worth's Jack Shevpard. Like Hogarth, he was a moralist as well as an artist, and as a total abstainer he consecrated his art at length to dramatize the fearful downward career of the drunkard; his greatest work, done in oil, is the "Worship of Bacchus," which is a vigorous pro- testation against this vice. He died, 1878. Crumpacker, Edgar Dean, lawyer. cx-conRressman, was born^in Laporte county, Indiana, 1851 ; edu- cated at common schools and at Valparaiso academy; was admitted to the bar in 1876, prose- cuting attorney for the thirty-first judicial dis- trict of Indiana from 1884 to 1888; appellate judge in the state of Indiana, 1891-93; member of the lower house of congress, 10th Indiana dis- trict, 1897-1913. , ^ , . CruttweU, Charles Thomas, English clergyman and scholar, rector of Ewelme, Oxfordshire, canon of Peterborough cathedral; bora in London, 1847: graduate of St. John's college, Oxford. Ordained to the ministry, 1875 ; curate of St. Giles's, Oxford, 1875-77; headmaster of St. Andrew's college, Bradfield, 1878-80; Malvera college, 1880-85; rector of Sutton, Surrey, 1885; rector of Denton, Norfolk, 1885-91; rector of Kibworth. 1891- 1901; rural dean of Gartree, diocese of Peter- borough, 1892-1901; select preacher to the university of Oxford, 1896-98 and 1903-06; proctor in convocation for the clergy of Peter- borough diocese, 1900-06. Author: A History of Roman LUeraivre; A Literary History of Early Christianity (2 vols.); Six Lecture* on the Oxford 640 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Movement; History of the Church of England; etc. Died, 1911. Cujas {ku'-zhas'), Jacques, eminent French jurist, bom in 1522; studied under Amaud Ferrier at the university of Toulouse; became professor of the Roman law at Bourges and Valence. Amon^ his numerous works are Commentaries on Justinian's Institutes, and on the Pandects and Decretals. Cujas has been styled by Hailam the greatest of all civil lawyers. Died at Bourges, 1590. Culberson, Charles A., lawyer, United States senator, born in Dadeville, Ala., 1855; removed with his parents from Alabama to Texas in 1856; resided at Gilmer and Jefferson until 1887, when he removed to Dallas; graduated from the Virginia military institute, Lexington, 1874; studied law under his father and at the university of Virginia in 1876-77 under Professors Minor and Southall; elected attorney-general of Texas in 1890 and 1892; elected governor of Texas in 1894 and 1896 ; was a delegate at large to the democratic national conventions at Chicago in 1896 and at St. Louis in 1904, and chairman of the Texas delegation at both; chosen United States senator, 1899, to succeed Senator Roger Q. Mills; reelected in 1905 and 1911. He was made minority leader of the United States sen- ate for the 60th and 61st congresses. Cullen, WtUlam, physician, born at Hamilton, Scotland, 1710; M. D., Glasgow university, 1740. In 1746 he began to lecture on the theory and practice of physic, on botany, materia medica, and finally on chemistry, Glasgow university. He was one of the most celebrated prof<>8.sor8 of medicine in universities of Edinburgh and Glas- fow; also first to commence clinical lectures in Edinburgh royal infirmary. Among his chief works are : First Lines of the Practice of Physic; A Treatise of the Materia Medica. Died, 1790. Cullom, Shelby Moore, lawyer, ex-United States senator, bom in Kentucky in 1829; studied law, 1853, was admitted to the Dai\ 1855, and began to practice law at Springfield, 111. ; elected to state legislature in 1856^ reelected in 1860; member of the war commission which sat in Cairo in 1862, and of the 39th and 40th congresses; again elected to the state legislature in 1872, reelected in 1874; was governor of Illinois in 1877-83- elected United States senator in 1883, and reelected in 1888, 1894, 1900, and 1906. He was a member of the commission appointed to prepare a syBtem of laws for the Hawaiian islands. Cummins, Albert Balrd, lawyer, United States senator, was born near Carmichaels, Pa., 1850; academic education at Waynesburg college, Waynesburg, Pa. ; LL. D., Waynesburg and Cor- nell colleges ; studied survejnng and became assist- ant chief engineer of Cincinnati, Richmond fobeI prize (with Professor Becquerel), 1903; member of the French academy of sciences, 1905. He was killed by an accident 1906. Curran (/cur'-an), John Phil pot, Irish legal and Farliamentary orator, was bom in County Cork, reland, 1750. He was educated at Trinity college, Dublin, and in 1773 went to London, and entered the Middle Temple. Two years after he was admitted to the Irish bar, where his humorous, flowery, and sarcastic speech secured him immediate success, which his attractive social qualities did much to extend. In 1782 he obtained a seat in the Irish parliament as member for Kilbeggan, his general policy being in unison with that of Grattan and the few other Uberal members who were then in the house. Died, 1817. Curtin, Jeremiah, American author, ethnologist, and linguist, was bom at Milwaukee, Wis., 1840; grfuluated from Harvard, 1863; was secretary THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 641 of legation at St. Peterebure, 1864-70 ; connected with the United States bureau of ethnology, 1883-91. He traveled extensively, was master of many languages, and is probably best known through his translations of Tolstoi and Sienkie- wicz. Died, 1906. Curtis, Benjamin Sobbtns, American jurist, bom in Massachusetts, 1809; graduated at Harvard: was a member of the bar m Boston, and in 1851 was appointed one of the justices of the United States supreme court, resigning this office in 1857. On the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, he appeared as one of the counsel for the defend- ant. His reports of law cases are well known. Died at Newport, R. I., 1874. Curtis, Charles, lawyer, ex-United States senator, was born at Topeka, Kansas, 1860; studied law at Topeka; was admitted to the bar in 1881; was elected county attorney of Shawnee county in 1884 and reelected in 1886; mem- ber of congress from Kansas, 1893-1909; United States senator from Kansas, 1907-13. Curtis, Cyrus H. K., publisher, was bom in 1850, and was educated in the public schools of New England. He removed to Philadelphia and became publisher of the Tribune ana Farmer. Later he established the Ladies' Home Journal. He is now the head of the Curtis publishing company, publishers of the Ladies' Home Journal, The Country Gentleman and the Saturday Evening Post, the latter established in 1728 by Benjamin Franklin. Curtis, George Ticknor, American lawyer and writer, was bom in Massachusetts, 1812; grad- uated at Harvard, and began law practice in Boston, afterward removing to New York. He was several times in the Massachusetts legislature, and was for a time United States commissioner. While acting as such he returned to his master the fugitive slave Thomas Sims, an act which brought upon him severe censure. Among his many books are Rights and Duties of Merchant Seamen; Treatise on the Law of Copy- right; History of the Origin, Formation, and Adoption of the Constitution of the United States; Life of Daniel Webster; Constitutional History of the United States; and various works on legal subjects. Died, 1894. Curtis, George William, American journalist, author, publicist, was bom at Providence, Rhode Island, 1824. After four years in Europe and the Orient (1846-50) he joined the staff of the New York Tribune, and was one of the editors of Putnam's Monthly from 1852 to 1869. He com- menced the "Editor's Easy Chair" papers in Harper's Monthly in 1853, and became editor of Harper's Weekly on its establishment in 1857. A novel, Trumps, and most of his books appeared first in these journals. He died at New York, 1892. He wrote Nile Notes of a Howadji; The Howadji in Syria; Lotus-Eating; Potiphar Papers; Prue and I; Trumps; Washington Irving; etc. Curtis, William Eleroy, journalist; bom in Akron, Ohio, 1850; graduate of Western Reserve college, 1871. Op staff of Chicago Inter-Ocean, 1873-87; Washington correspondent for Chicago Record, 1887-1901; Chicago Record-Herald. 1901-11. Was special commissioner from United States to Central and South American republics; executive officer of international American con- ference, 1889-90 ; director of bureau of American republics, 1890-93; chief of Latin-American department and historical section at World's Columbian exposition, 1891-93; commissiorier of Columbian exposition to Madrid, and special envoy to the queen regent of Spain and Pop)e Leo XIII., 1892. Author: The Life of Zachanah Chandler; The Land of the Nihilist; Handbook to tlie American Republics; The United States and Foreign Powers; The Yanke—t/ths Ba$t; To-day in France and Germany: The Tme Thoma* Jefferson; Denmark, Su>eaen, and Norway; The True Abraham Lincoln; To-day in Syria and Palestine; Modern India; Egypt, Burma, and the British East Indies; etc. Was nicnilM-r of nearly all learned societies of United States and several in Europe. Died, 1911. Curtius (kd6r'-t»e-db»), Erost, German historian and archaeologist, was born 1814, at LUbcck; studied at Bonn, Gottingen, and lU-rlin; visited Alliens in 1837, and next aocoiiipaiiiod Otfrieed a regiment of volunteers for Mexican war, became its colonel, and later a brigadier-general : was attorney-general from 1853 to 1857, and one of three jurists intrusted with the revision of the laws of congress, 1866; in 1872 he was one of the counsel for the settlement of the "Alabama claims," before the Geneva tribunal; and 1874-77 was minister to Spain. Died, 1879. Cuslilng, Frank Hamilton, American ethnologist, was bom at Northeast, Pa^ 1857. ' He entered the national museum at Washington, and in 1875 began making collections of India relics for the department of ethnology. He lived among the Zuni Indians for six years and wrote extensively on their traditions, customs, and remains. He also discovered the remains of an aboriginal people on the coast of Florida in 1895. Author: Zuni Fetiches, Adventures in Zuni, Zuni Folk-tales, etc. Died at Washington, 1900. Cusbman {kdbsh'-man), Charlotte Saunders, Ameri- can actress, was bom in 1816, at Boston, Mass., and died there, 1876; appeared first in opera in 642 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 1834, and as Lady Macbeth in 1835. In 1844 she accompanied Macready on a tour through the northern states, and afterward appeared in London, where she was well receivecl in a range of characters that included I^ady Macbeth, Rosa- lind, Meg Merrilees, and Romeo. She retired from the stage in 1875. Custer (kHs'-tir), George Armstrong, American soldier, born in Ohio in 1839, graduated at West Point in 1861, and served with distinction through the civil war. As a cavalry commander in tne West, he several times defeated the hostile Indians; but on the 15th of May, 1876, he attacked 9,000 Sioux on the Little Big Horn, in Montana, and he and his 1,100 men were all destroyed. He was brevet ma^or-general of United States army, and major-general of United States volunteers. As a cavalry officer he had few equals. Cuvler (ku'-vya'), Georges Chretien Leopold Fr£d6rlc Dagobert. See page 386. Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian monarchy, commonly called Cyrus the Elder, was born about 590 B. C. Much of a legendary character attaches to his birth and early youth. According to Herodotus, he was the son of Cambyses, a Persian noble, ana of Mandane, daughter of Astyagea, the Medo-Persian king. His birth was a source of alarm to his grandfather, Astyages, who had previously had a dream, the interpretation of which portended that the offspring of Mandane would one day be the ruler of all Asia. He therefore contrived to get the infant into his own hands, and gave it to Harpagxis, his cliief servant, with orders to put it to death. Harpagus promised to do so, but intrusted it secretly to the care of a herdsman, who brought it up together with his own children. The young Cyrus quickly distinguished himself. Meanwhile, the tyranny of Astyages had made him hateful to his subjects, and, by the help of the crafty Harpagus, Cyrus formed, a party among the Medes favorable to his designs. Putting himself at the head of his Persian troops, Cyrus advanced into Media and overthrew the forces of Astyages, 549 B. C. After consolidating his domimons. which was a work of some time, Cyrus proceeded to conquer the surrounding nations. The kingdom of Lydia first yielded, 546 B. C, and its King, the | famous Croesus, fell into his hands. Ultimately, I the whole of Asia Minor was subdued. But the I crowning triumph of Cyrus was his capture of i the city of Babylon, the metropolis of Assyria, j 538 B. C, whose king was Labynetus, the Bel- shazzar of Daniel. Through the instrumentality of Cyrus the Jews were delivered from their captivity, and allowed to return to Palestine. He wished his power to overshadow all Asia, and although his aominions already extended from the Hellespont almost to the Indus, he resolved to subjugate the Scythian peoples, and began an unjust war with the Massagetse, a nation or tribe who dwelt to the northeast of the Caspian, beyond the Araxes, whose queen was called Tomyris. At first Cyrus was successful, but in the second engagement he was defeated and slain, 529 B. C. Cyrus the Younger, was bom in 424 B. C, son of Darius, and governor of the western provinces of Asia Minor. After unsuccessfully plotting against his elder brother, Artaxerxes, he raised a large army, including about 12,000 Greek soldiers, with which he marched against him, but was defeated and slain at Cunaxa. Xenophon then conducted the retreat of the 10,000 surviving Greeks. Died, 401 B. C. Dabney, Charles William, educator, president of university of Cincinnati since 1904, was bom in Hampden-Sidney, Va., 1855; graduated from Hampden-Sidney college, 1873; university of Virginia, 1877; studied, 1878-80, Berlin and Gottingen, Ph. D., 1880; LL. D., Yale, 1901, Johns Hopkins, 1902. Professor of chemistry, university of North Carolina, 1880-81; state chem- ist and director of North Carolina agricultural experiment station, Raleigh, 1880-87; chief department of government and states exhibits. Cotton Centennial exposition, New Orleans, 1884-85; was first to discover the phosphate deposits in eastern, and tin ore in western North Carolina, and to make them known to science and commerce; took prominent part in estab- lishing an industrial school at Raleigh (now North CaroUna college of agricultural and mechanic arts) ; president of university of Tennessee, 1887-1904; assistant secretary of agriculture. United States, 1893-97; meml>er of many scientific and educational societies. Da Costa (da kda'-tA), John Chalmers, Americau surgeon, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1863; graduated from university of Pennsylvania, scientific department, 1882; Jefferson medic^ colle^^e, 1885. Resident physician, Philadelphia hospital, 1885-86: assistant physician of insane department, Philadelphia hospital, 1886-87; assistant demonstrator of anatomy, Jefferson medical college, 1887; assistant surgeon, Jeffer- son hospital, 1887; demonstrator of surgery, Jefferson medical college, 1891 ; cUnical pro- fessor of surgery, same, 1898; professor of sur- ?ery, 1900. Surgeon to Philadelphia hospital 895-1910, to St. Joseph's hospital 1896-1910. Author: A Manvuxl of Modrm Surgery. Edited English edition of Zuckerkandl's Operative SuT' gery, and new American edition of Gray's Anatomy. Died, 1010. Daendels (dan'-dds), Herman Wlllem, Dutch general, was bora in 1762, died in 1818. He became oolonel of a corps of volunteers in the French army in 1793, and afterward brigadier- general. In 1806 he entered the service of the king of Holland, occupied East Friesland, and was made governor of Miinster. He was subse- quently made commander-in-chief of the cavalry, marshal of Holland, and from 1808 to 1811 was govemor-generiil of the East Indian provinces. After the fall of Napoleon he was intrusted with the organization of the East African colonies. He published a work on the Dutch East Indies. Daguerre (dd'-gdr'), Louis Jacques Mand£, French inventor, was bom in 1789. He discovered the daguerreotype process of photography, by which the portrait was fixed on a plate of copper thinly coated with silver, by the successive action of the vapors of iodine, bromine, and mercury; in this invention he was associated with M. Ni^pce. He was also celebrated as a dioramic painter; was named by the P>ench government as an officer of the legion of honor, and granted a pension of six thousand francs. Died, 1851. Dahlg^ren (dOl'-grSn), John Adolf, American admi- ral, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1809. He became a midshipman, 1826, and a lieutenant, 1837. Ten years afterward he began to experi- ment in the casting of heavy cannon for naval warfare, and finally devised the Dahlgren gun. He served throughout the civil war, and in 1863 was made a rear-admiral. He died in Washington, when in command of the navy yard, 1870. Dahlmann (daZ'-wi4n), Frledrich Christoph, Ger- man historian, was bom at Wismar, 1785; studied at Copenhagen and Halle, and in 1812 became professor of history at Kiel, and in 1829 of political science at Gottingen, where he pmb- Ushed his invaluable Quelienkunde der deuUchen Geaehichte. Banished in 1837 by the king of THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 043 Hanover, he went to Leipzig, next to Jena, where he wrote his masterpiece, History of Den- mark. In 1842 lie became professor of history at Bonn, and in the movement of 1848 headed the constitutional liberals. Died, 1860. Dahn {d&n), Julius Sophus Felix, German publicist, historian, poet, was bom at Hamburg, 1834, the son of the actor, Friedrich Dahn. He studied at Munich and Berlin, and in 1872 became professor of German jurisprudence at Konigsberg, and in 1888 at Breslau. His most important works are The Kings of the Germans (6 vols.); Reason in Law; Ballads and Songs; The Struggle for Rome, and Odin's Consolation. Died, 1912. Daingerfleld, Elliott, artist, was bom at Harper's Ferrv, Va., 1859; studied drawing and painting in New York with private teacher ana at art students' league. First exhibited at National academy of design, 1880; studied in Europe. 1897; commissioned to paint the Lady chapel of the church of St. Mary the Virgin, New York, 1902 ; public lecturer on art. Notable paintings : "Madonna and Child"; "The Story of the Madonna"; "Slumbering Fog"; etc. Professor of painting and composition, Phjladelphia school of design. Dalberg-Acton {dal'-bh-K-&k'-tun\ Sir John Eme- rlch Edward, first Baron Acton, English historian, was born at Naples, Italy, 1834. In 1895 he was made professor of modern history at Cambridge university, and as a liberal Catholic exerted a profound influence. He wrote The War of 1870 ; Wolsey and the Divorce of Henry VIII.; Schools of History in Germany; and projected The Cam- bridge Modem History, written by eminent his- torical scholars after his death. He died, 1902. D'Albert (ddl'-b&r'\ Eugen Francis Charles, pianist and coniposer; bom in Glasgow, 1864; studied first in London, afterward under Franz Liszt in Weimar. Has received ten decorations. Gave his first concert in Berlin, 1883, and traveled after that in Russia, Italy, France, Germany, and England, giving concerts every- where with the greatest success; visited the United States several times, and was court pianist in Weimar. He has written the operas The Ruby, Ghismonda, Gemot, The Departure, Kain. and The Improvisor; and has also com- posed string-quartets, concertos, a symphony, and many songs and smaller works. Dale, Alan, pseudonym of Alfred J. Cohen, dramatic critic, author, was bom in Birmingham, England, 1861; educated at King Edward's school there, and Oxford university. Came to United States, and engaged in journalism in New York; dra- matic critic of New York Evening World, 1887- 95; dramatic critic of New York Journal since 1895. Author: Jonathan's Home; A Marriage Below Zero; An Eerie He and She; My Footlight Husband; Miss Innocence; Familiar Chats with Queens of the Stage; An Old Maid Kindled; A Moral Busybody; Conscience on Ice; His Own Image; A Girl Who Wrote; Wanted, A Cook; etc. D'Alembert. Se^ Alembert. Dalhousie (dOl-hou'-zi), James Andrew Broun Ramsay, Marquis of, British statesman, was born at Midlothian, Scotland, 1812. He dis- tinguished himself in parliament, holding with credit many important posts, and in 1847 pro- ceeded to India as the youngest governor-general ever appointed to that country. His course there was marked by energy and ability, and earned him the title of "the greatest of Indian pro- consuls." He carried out many reforms, opened up the country by railroads, telegraphs, roads, and canals, and added four kingdoms to the British possessions. He died in 1860. Dall (dal), Caroline Healey, author, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1822; daughter of Mark and Caroline (Porter) Healey; educated by privaU tutors; LL. D., Alfred university, 1877; vice- principal of Miss English's ■obool, Qeorgetown. D. C, 1842-44; married, 1844, Rev. C. H. A. Dall. Author: Essays and Sk«leku; Hidoriecd Pictures Retouched; Woman'a Right to Labor; Woman's Riahts Under the Law; Egyjtt'a PUiea in History; The College, the Market, and tht Court; My First Holiday; What We Redly Know About Shakespeare; etc. Dallas (dOl'-lds), Alexander James, American statesman, was bom in tlie island of Jamaica in 1759 ; died in 1817. He was educated in London, came to the United States in 1783, and settled as a lawyer in Philadelphia. He was the pro- jector of the United States bank at the time when the nation was in great trouble about currency to carry on the war with England. He was also secretary of the treasury and acting secretary of war, and superintended the reduction of the army after peace had been declared. Dallas, George Sllflain, American statesman and diplomatist, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1792. He accompanied Gallatin in his special embassy to St. Petersburg as private secretary. During 1831-33 he represented Pennsvlvania in the United States senate; was minister to Russia, 1837-39; vice-president of the United States, 1845-49; and minister to England, 1866-61. He died in 1864. Dalton (ddl'-tun), John, British chemist and physicist, was born near Cockermouth in 1766. He taught mathematics and physics in Man- chester; made his first appearance as an author in 1793 in a volume of his observations and essays, and in 1808 published A New System of Chemical Philosophy, which he finished in 1810. He was famous for his experiments on the elastic force of steam; for his researches on the proportional weights of simple bodies; for his discovery of the atomic theory, as also for his investigations on color-blindness by experiment- ing on himself and his brother, who, like him- self, was color-blind. Died, 1844. D'Alviella (dM-ve-U'-la), Count Goblet, member and secretary of the Belgian senate; professor at the university of Brussels; was born in Brussels, 1846; educated at Brussels and Paris. Hon. LL. D., university of Glasgow and of Aberdeen; former member of parliament for Brussels. Late rector of Brussels university; Hibbert lecturer at Oxford, 1891, on the "Origin and Growth of the Conception of God"; long time director of the Revue de Belgique. Author: Sahara and Ixtp- land; Inde et Himalaya; Contemporary Ei'er; bom in New York, 1845 ; removed to Pittsburgh, 1847; graduate of Yale, 1865; admitted to bar, 1867; nas practiced ever since; for years one of the attornevs for the Pennsylvania railroad company for all its western lines; also attorney for manv corporations in Allegheny county. Pa. Member' of congress, 1887-1913; member of the important committees on rules, and wa}^* and means, fifty-fourth to sixty-second congresses. Damlen de Veuster (dd'-mydN' de vfstAr'), Joseph, Roman Catholic missionary, was bom near Louvain, Belgium, 1840. Sent on a mission to Honolulu, and, learning of the neglected state of the lepers, he volunteered to cast in his lot with tneirs, and became physician of their souls and bodies, their magistrate, teacher, carpenter, gardener, cook, and even gravedigger at need. He long worked on single-handed, but was ultimately joined bv other priests. For twelve years he escaped the contagion; but in 1886 the malady appeared in him, yet he continued 044 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT unabated his heroic labors until near his death in 1889. Damroscb {ddm'-rdsh), Walter Johannes, composer and musical director, was born in Breslau, Prussia, 1862; received his musical education under his father and Ilischbieter, Urspruch, and Hans von Billow ; came to United States with his father, 1871. Succeeded his father as conductor of the New York symphony society, 1885; founded the Damrosch opera company, 1894, which produced the Nibelungen Trilogy in the United States; elected conductor of New York philharmonic society, 1902, and New York symphony orchestra, 1903. He wrote The Scarlet Letter, op>era in three acts; Cyrano, opera in four acts; Manila Te Deum; Violin Sonata; songs, etc. Dana {d6'-nd), Charles Anderson, American Jour- nalist, was bom at Hinsdale, N. H., 1819. From 1848 to 1802 he was managing editor of the New York Tribune, and from 1803 to the close of the civil war was assistant secretary of war. In 1867 he founded the New York Sun, and began the successful management of that paper on democratic lines. Toeether with George Ripley, he planned and edited the New American Cydo- pcedia, and its revised edition. The American Cyclopcedia. He also edited the Household Book of Poetry. He died on Lon^ I.sland, 1897. Dana, Edward Salisbury, mmeralogist, educator, was born in New Haven, Conn., 1849; graduated from Yale, 1870; Ph. D., 1876; studied at Heidelberg and Vienna. Tutor at Yale, 1874— 79; curator of mineral collection since 1874; assistant professor of natural philosophy, 1879— 90; professor of physics since 1890; trustee of Peabody museum smce 1885; editor American Journal of Science since 1875. Member of many scientific bodies. Author: Text-book of Miner- alogy; Text-book of Elementary Mechanics; Dana's System of Mineralogy; Minerals and How to Study Them, etc., and many papers on mineral and other scientific subjects. Dana, Francis, American jurist and diplomat, was born in Massachusetts, 1743; graduated at Harvard in 1762, and admitted to the bar in 1767; was a member of the congress of 1777, which formulated the articles of confederation; also of congress of 1778; went with John Adams to England on peace negotiations; was minister to Russia, 1781-83; judge of Massachusetts supreme court, 1785; chief-justice, 1791-1806. He was one of the founders of the American academy of arts and sciences. Died, 1811. Dana, James Dwlght, scientist, geologist, educator, was bom at Utica, N. Y., 1813; graduated at Yale, 1833 ; geologist of the government exploring expedition, 1838-42; editor oi American J oumm of Science; professor of natural history and geology at Yale college, 1850-95; author of many philosophic and scientific works, including System of Mineralogy, Manual of Geology, Corals and Coral Islands, etc. Died at New Haven, Conn., 1895. Dana, John Cotton, librarian, was bom at Wood- stock, Vt., 1856, and graduated from Dartmouth, 1873; studied law, Woodstock, Vt., 1878-80; land surveyor, Colorado, 1880-81; admitted to New York bar, 1883; civil engineer, Colorado, 1886-87. Librarian of Denver public library, 1889-97; city library, Springfield, Mass., 1898- 1902; free public librarj', Newark, N. J., since 1902. President of American library association, 1896. Dana, Paul, editor, was bom in New York, 1852; educated in private schools. New York, Wash- ington, and Chicago; graduated from Harvard, 1874; Columbia law school, 1878. Major ord- nance, first brigade New York national guard, on staff of General Louis Fitzgerald, 1883; commissioner of public parks, New York, 1891: became connected with New York Sun, 1880, of which his father was editor, and on the death of the latter, 1897, succeeded him as editor; retired in 1903. Dana, Richard Henry, American poet and prose writer, was bom at Cambridge, Mass., 1787. Ho was educated at Harvard, aud admitted to the bar at Boston in 1811. In 1818 he became associate editor of the North American Review, to which he contributed largely. His Dying Raven, The Btuxaneer, and some others of his poems were warmly praised by critics ; but Dana s best work was in criticism. He died at Boston, 1879. Dana, Blchard Henry, Jr^ lawyer and author, son of the preceding, was born at Cambridge, Mass., 1815. He entered Harvard college in 1832, but suspended his studies on account of the weakness of his eves in 1834. He then shipped as a com- mon sailor on a voyage to California, of which he wrote a narrative entitled Tuk> Years Before the Mast. He was graduated at Harvard, 1837. studied law under Judge Story, and was admitted to the bar in 1840; published The Seaman'* Friend J Containing a Treatise on Practical Sea- manship, and International Law. He was one of the founders of the free soil party in 1848. In 1806-67 he was lecturer on international law in Harvard university law school. Died in Rome, Italy, 1882. Dandolo {d&n'-d646), Enrico, doge of Venice, was bom about 1105 or 1108 A. D. Eminent in learning, eloquence, and knowledge of affairs, he ascended from one step to another, until in 1171 he was sent as ambassador to Constantinople, and in 1192 was elected doge. In this latter capacity he extended the bounds of the republic in Istria and Dalmatia, defeated the Pisans, and in 1201 marched at the head of the crusaders. He subdued Trieste and Zara, the coasts of Albania, the Ionian islands, and Constantinople. When the emperor Alexius, who had been raised to the throne by the exertions of Dandolo, was murdered by his own subjects, Dandolo laid siege to Constantinople, and took it by storm. 1204. He died in 1205 in Constantinople, ana was buried in the church of St. Sophia. Dane {dan), Nathan, American lawyer, was bom in Massachusetts, 1752. He served in the conti- nental congress, 1785-88; framed the ordinance for the Northwest territory, in which he pro- hibited slavery, and was United States senator, 1794-98. By a gift of $15,000 he founded at Harvard the Dane professorship of law. Died at Beverly, Mass., 1835. Daniel, John Warwick, lawyer. United States senator, was born in LjTichburg, Va., 1842; educated at Lynchburg college and Dr. Gessner Harrison's university school; LL. D., Washing- ton and Lee, 1883, university of Michigan, 1887. He served in Confederate States army of north- em Virginia throughout war, and was wounded four times; became adjutant-general on General Early's staff; studied law, university of Vir- ginia, 1865-66; admitted to bar, 1866. Member of Virginia house of delegates, 1809-72 ; of state senate, 1875-81; defeated for governor of Vir- ginia, 1881; member of congress, 1885-87; United States senator, 1887-1910. Author: Attachments Under the Code of Virginia, Ne- gotiable Instruments, etc. Died, 1910. Dannecker (dan'-ik-ir), Johann Helnrich von, German sculptor, was bom near Stuttgart, 1758, and educated by the duke of Wiirttemberg, who had become his patron; became professor of sculpture in the academy at Stuttgart; his earher subjects were from the Greek ms^hology, and his later Christian, the principal of the latter being a colossal "Christ, which he took THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 645 eight years to complete; he executed besides busts of contemporaries, which are wonderful in expression, such as those of Schiller, Lavater, and Gluck; "Ariadne on the Panther" is regarded as his masterpiece. Died, 1841. D'Annunzlo (dan-TMJ5n'-eer of France. Ue died in 1823. Davy, Hit Humphry, noted English chemist, was born at Penzance, in Cornwall, 1778. He wa* educated at various local schools and, 17U8, was made laboratory assistant in Beddwu institution at Bristol. Two papers on nitrous oxide obtained for him the post of assistant lecturer on chemistry to the royal institution, Lonelled him to leave England, and he died at (ieneva in 1820, of paralvHis. Hih chief works are ElcmentM of Chemical Philosophy, and EletnerUx of Agri- cultural CherniHtry. Dawson, George Mercer, Canadian geologist, was born at Pictou, Nova Scotia, 1849. He was educated at McGill univerttity, Montreal, and at the royal school of mines, I^ondon. In 1875 he was appointed to the geological survey of Canada, and carried on explorationn in the Canadian Northwest, British Columbia, and the Yukon region. In 1891 he wan appointed one of the Bering sea commissioners, and in the same year was awarded the Bigsby medal of the geological society <)f London for his researches m geology of the Ciinadian Dominion. In 1893 he became president of the royal society of Canada, and was made a companion of the order of St. Michael and St. George. The results of his investigations are publishe^l in reports of the geological survey of Canaom near Paris, 1799. At the age of 660 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT eighteen he entered the atelier of Pierre Gu6rin. In 1822 his first work, "Dante and Virgil," attracted much attention; his second picture, "Massacre of Scio," won him fame. He subse- quently painted many Moroccan canvases with novel effects of Ught and costumes. He also decorated many public buildings and churches. In 1857 he was chosen by the institute to fill the place of Paul Delaroche. He died in 1863. Delambre {di-Um'-hr'), Jean Baptiste Joseph, eminent French astronomer, was born at Amiens, 1749, and studied first under Delisle, and after- ward under Lalande. After the discovery of the planet Uranus in 1781, he computed tables of its motion, which obtained the annual prize of the academy of sciences; soon after con- structed new solar tables, and, at a still later period, tables of the motions of Jupiter and Saturn. He was appointed by the French gov- ernment, in 1792, to measure the arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, which was completed in 1799. In 1802 he was appointed inspector-general of education, and in 1803 perpetual secretary of the mathematical section of the institute. In 1807 he obtained the chair at the Collie de France rendered vacant by the death of Lalande, his master and friend. In 1814 he was appointed a member of the council of public instruction. His most valuable publication is the History of Astronomy, published in six volumes. He died at Paris, 1822. Deland {di-ld.nd'), Margaretta Wade, nie Campbell, American writer, was bom at Allegheny, Pa., 1857; educated at private schools, and married, 1880, Lorin F. Deland, Boston. Author: John Ward, Preacher; The Old Garden and Other Verses; Philip and His Wife; Florida Days; Sydney; The Story of a Child; The Wisdom of Inyols; Mr. Tommy Dove and Other Stories; Old Chester Tales; Dr. Lavendar's People; The Common Way; The Awakening of Helena Richie; An Encore; The Iron Woman. De la Bam£e (di la Txi'-m6'\ Loalse (better known by her pen name "Ouida"), English novelist of French extraction, was born at Bury St. Ed- mund.s, England, in 1840. She began her career on Colburn s New Monthly and other magazines. Her first novel, Granville de Vigne, appeared in book form in 1863, and was followed by numerous others dealing with many phases of European society. Her early stories were extravagantly romantic. Her later years were spent in Italy, where the scenes of many of her novels are laid. Among her stories are: Under Two Flags; Held in Bondage; Chandos; FoUe Farine; In Mar- emma; The Princess Napraxine; Othmar; Moths; A House Party; Strathmore; Friendship; The Massarenes; Pascarel; Two Little Wooden Shoes; Wanda; Tricotrin, and Santa Barbara. She died in Italy, 1908. Delaroche (ds-ld'-rosh'), Paul, French historical painter, was bom at Paris in 1797, died in 1856. He studied under Watelet and Gros. Many of his subjects are drawn from English and French history, and they are usuallv of a somber char- acter: "The Death of the Princes in the Tower " ; "The Death of Ladv Jane Grey"; "The Death of Queen Elizabeth''; "Joan of Arc"; "Napo- leon at St. Bernard"; etc. His most important work is the famous hemicycle coyering the semi- circular wall of the hall in the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, Paris. Delcass£ (dSl'-kd'-sa'), Theophile, French states- man, was bom in Pamiers, France, 1852; edu- cated in Paris, and began his career as a journal- ist. He was elected to the chamber of deputies in 1889, for Foix; in 1893, became under- secretary for the colonies under MM. Ribot and Dupuy, and colonial minister in the I)upuy cabinet of 1894. He has always been a con- sistent advocate of colonial expansion. When M. Brisson formed his ministry in 1898, he intrusted foreign affairs to M. Delcass^, and it fell to his lot to deal with the difficult po.sition at Fashoda. He retained hia portfolio in M. Dupuy's ministry, after the defeat of the Brisson administration. In 1899 he negotiated the agreement with Great Britain as to the Nile valley and central Africa, and still remained foreign minister when M. Waldeck-Rousseau succeeded M. Dupuy, and when M. Combes, in 1902, succeeded M. Waldeck-Rousseau. He brought about the rapprochement with Italy, visited England with the president in 1903, and with Lord Lansdowne prepared the Anglo-French agreement, signed in 1904. The difficulty ^ith Germany about Morocco caused his retirement in 1905. Delille (dl-lil'), Jacques, French poet, was bom in Auvergne, France, 1738. He was educated at the College de Lisieux in Paris, and obtained a professorship in Amiens. His verse translation of Virgil's Georgics liad an extraordinary success, and its author was made an academician in 1774. Let Jardiru, a didactic poem, was generally accepted as a masterpiece. The revolution compelled Delille to leave France, and he traveled in Switzerland and (Germany, and then in London occupied eighteen months in translating Paradise Lost. After his return to PVance in 1802 he produced a translation of the /Eneid; L'lmagina- tion; Les Trois Regnes, and La Conversation. Blind in his old age, he died in 1813. During his life he was regarded by his countrymen as the greatest French poet of the dav, and wa» even declared the equal of V' irgil ancf Homer. DellUsch (dd'-llch), Franz, German theologian and Hebraist, was bom at Leipzig. 1813; died there in 1890. He was professor of theology at Rostock in 1846, at Erlangcn in 1850, and at Leipzig in 1867. His vast learning gave him a foremost place among conservative German theologians, while his great personal influence over a genera- tion of Leipzig students and a long series of profoundly learned books extended a sound knowledge of old testament exegesis in Germany, England, and America. De Martens. See Martens, Frederic de. De* Medici, Catharine. See Catharine de* MedicL De Blille (de mW), James, Canadian novelist, was bom at St. John, New Brunswick, in 1837. He was professor of history and rhetoric in Del- housie college for a number of years. He wrote Helena's Household; The Dodge Club; Cord and Creese; The Lady of the Ice; The Cryptogram; The American Baron; An Open Question; Babe* in the Woods, and The Living Link. Died at Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1880. Democritus (de-mdk'-rUtiis), Greek philosopher, was born at Abdera, in Thrace, about 470 or 460 B. C. He was by far the most learned thinker of his age. The period of his death is uncertain. He fived, however, to a great age. Only a few fragments of his numerous physical, mathematical, ethical, and musical works are extant. Cicero praised his style, and Pyrrhon imitated it. Democritus' system of philosophy is known as the atomic system. Its essence con- sists in the attempt to explain the different phenomena of nature — not hke the earlier Ionic philosophers, by maintaining that the original characteristics of matter were qualitative, but that they were qwirUiiative. Died about 357 or 360 B. C. Demosthenes (de-mds'-the-^niz). See page 19. Deneen, Charles Samuel, lawyer, public official, was bom in Edwardsville, 111., 1863; graduated from McKendree college, 1882; studied law, and was admitted to the Illinois bar. Elected to THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 061 nUnoIs house of representatives, 1892; served one term as nttorncj' for sanitary district of Chicago, 1895-96; state's attorney of Cook countv. 111., 189G-1904; governor of Illinois, 1905-13. Depew, Chauncey Mitchell, lawyer, railroad execu- tive, ex-United States senator, was born in Peeks- kill, N. Y., 1834- was graduated at Yale college in 1856; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1858; LL. D., Yale, 1887. He was appointed United States minister to Japan, and, after holding the commission a month, declined, and began his career as a railroad official and attorney for the New York and Harlem railroad. He was made attorney and director of the con- solidated Hudson River and New York Central railroads in 1869; general counsel of the whole Vanderbilt system in 1875; second vice-presi- dent of the reorganized New York Central rail- road in 1882, and president in 1885. He resigned in 1898 to become chairman of the consolidated board of directors of the New York Central, the Lake Shore, the Michigan Central, and the New York, Chicago and St. Louis railroad companies. He was canclidate for the presidential nommation in the republican national convention in 1888; was elected to the United States senate, 1899, and reelected, 1905. He has an international reputation as an orator, is constantly in request as a lecturer, and has delivered many addresses of public importance. l>e Qulncey, Thomas, EngUsh essayist, bom in Manchester, England, in 1785. He was first educated at Salford and at Bath, and afterward at Winkfield and the Manchester grammar school, from which he ran away, and subsequently went through the adventures and privations which he described, in 1821, in the Confessions of an English Opium Eater. In 1803 he entered Worcester college, Oxford, which he left without a degree, and soon after became acquainted with Coleridge and Wordsworth, took a cottage at Grasmere, and became a member of the famous "lake school." Here he remained for many years, occasionally visiting London and Edin- burgh. In 1830 he removed his wife and eight children to the latter place, and lived there until his wife's death, in 1837. He had acquired the habit of taking opium by using it to cure an attack of neuralgia, and so greatly did it grow upon him that he was known to take as many as 12,000 drops, equal to ten wineglasses, in a day. He was engaged in preparing fourteen volumes of his works for the press within a few davs of his death. Besides the Confessions, the follow- ing works may be mentioned : Murder Considered as One of tlie Fine Arts, Suspiria de Profundis, The English Mail Coach, and A Vision of Sudden Death. ' Died, 1859. Derby, Edward George Geoffrey Smith-Stanley, fourteenth Earl of, British statesman, was born in 1799. He entered parliament in 1821, and in 1827-28 was under-secretary for the colonies. In the reform government of Lord Grey he became in 1830 chief secretary for Ireland, with a seat in the cabinet, and in 1833 secretary of state for the colonies. In 1841 he became colonial secretary in Peel's cabinet. In 1844 he was called to the house of lords as Baron Stanley of Bickerstaffe, and assumed the leadership of the conservative party in that body. He left the cabinet in 1845 and became the leader of the protectionist opposition. During the six years of Lord Russell's premiership, Lord Stanley was the leader of the opposition in the upper house. On the death of his father, in 1851, he succeeded to the earldom and the vast estates in England and Ireland. He declined the premiership in 1845 and in 1851, but accepted . it in 1852, and resigned it the same year. In 1858 he became first lord of the treasury. Being defeated on a meaflure of parliumentary reform, he diaaolved parliament; but after the assembling of the new house of commoni, he was forced to resign in 1850. He became prime minister a third time in 1806, and rwlgned in 1868. In 1804 he published a translation of the Iliad in blank verse. Died, 1869. De Bestke (da riah'-ki), j^douard, Polish singer, born in Warsaw, Poland, 1850; studied under CiafTei and Colctti, at Milan and Naples, where he developed a splendid baas voice; made his d6but, Th6Atre dea Italiens, Paris, as the king in A'ida, 1876; later, sang at Turin, Milan, and other European cities; London d^'-but as Indra with Royal Italian opera, 1880, reipaining there four seasons. Has smce then appeared in grand opera in Europe and United States, taking oasso rdles. De Bescke, Jean, Polish tenor, brother of ^ouard, was bom in Warsaw, Poland, 1853 ; studied music under CiafTei, Cotogni, and Sbriglia; d£but as baritone singer in La Favorita, Venice, 1874 ; tenor ddbut, Madrid, 1879. He made his d^but in Paris, 1885, and has appeared in leading rAles in grand opera in Europe and United States. De Buyter. See Buyter. Derzhaven (dySr-zhu'-ven), Gabriel, a Russian lyrie poet and statesman, was born at Kasan, 1743. He rose from the ranks as a common soldier to high offices in the state under the empress Catharine II., and was made minister of justice by Alexander I. In 1803 he retired to private life, and gave himself up to poetry; the ode by which he is best known is his Address to ttU Deity. Died, 1816. Descartes (dd'-kdrf), Ben6. See page 285. Desmoullns (dd'-Tnd!)'4&t('), Benedict Camllle, French revolutionist, was born at Guise, France, in 1760; studied with the notorious Robespierre, and was a man of great talent. In 1789 he was much admired as an orator, and harangued on all occasions in favor of liberty. He was a deputy to the convention in 1792, but his com- panions eventually sent him to the scaffold. He perished by the guillotine in 1794. De Soto (de so'-td), Hernando, Spanish explorer, bom about 1500, followed the path of Cortez and Pizarro, under the latter of whom he served in Peru. About 1536 he was made governor of Cuba, and in 1539 explored and took possession of the territory now comprising the present Florida. In the same year he conducted an expedition from Florida, which resulted in the discovery of the Mississippi. Died of fever in Louisiana about 1542. Dessallnes {d&'sd'-lin'), Jean Jacques, Haytien ruler, was bom in Africa about 1758, and was originally a slave to a free black in Santo Domingo. When the disturbances first besan in that colony during the French revolution, ne took an active part. He became second in command to Toussaint I'Ouverture, and. after the imprison- ment of that chief, he displayed so much talent and courage that in 1804 he was chosen emperor of Hayti, under the title of Jacques I. He did not long hold his new dignity, but fell the victim of a conspiracy in 1806. De StaSl, Mme. See StaCl. D'Estaing. See Estalng. Detallle (di-td'-y'), Edouard Jean Baptiste, French painter, was bom in Paris in 1848. His pictures are chiefiv of soldiers and battle-scenes, and have gained him much fame. Among them are "En Reconnaissance"; "Le Regiment qui Passe"; "Salut aux Blesses"; "Le Reve"; "Sortie de la Garrison de Huningue en 1815"; "Les Victimes du Devoir"; "En Batterie"; portraits of prince of Wales, duke of Connaught, and emperor of Russia; "La Revue de Chalons"; 682 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT "Grandes Decorations pour I'HAtel de Ville de Paris " ; etc. He was a member of the French institute, member of the Academie des Beaux Arts, etc. Died, 1912. De Tocqueville. See Tocqueville. De Vere (de ver'), Aubrey Thomas, Irish poet and political writer, was born in 1814. He first published, in 1842, The Waldenaea. In 1872 he produced the Legends of St. Patrick; in 1879, Legends of the Saxon Saints, and in 1882, The Foray of Queen Meave, and Other Legends of Ireland's Heroic Age. He died in 1902. De Vlgny. See Xigay. Devine {di-vln'), Edward Thomas, sociologist, educator, was born in Union, Iowa, 1867; graduated,, Cornell college, Iowa, 1887; Ph. D., university of Penn.. 1893; LL. D., Cornell col- lege. 1904. General secretary of charity organ- ization society. New York, since 1896. Eaitor of the Survey since 1897; Schiff professor of social economy, Columbia university, since 1906. Special representative of American na- tional red cross in charge of relief in San Fran- cisco, 1906; member of many educational and humane bodies. Author : Economics; The Prac- tice of Charity; T" he Principles of Relief ; Efficiency and Relief, and fre<}uent contributor to economic journals of articles on sociological subjects. De Vtnne (di vin'-i), Theodore Low, printer, and writer on the printer's art, was bom at Stamford, Conn., 1828; learned printer's trade; was an employee and later partner of Francis Hart, of New York, and after the lattcr's death, firm became Theodore L. De Vinne & Co. He has been a leader in the improvement of typography, and received an honorary M. A. from Both Columbia and Yale universities. Author : Inven- tion of Printing; Historic Types; Christopher Planlin; Plain Printing Types; Correct Compo- sition; Title Pages; Book Composition; etc. Dewar {dii'-6r). Sir James, British scientist, Ful- lerian professor of ciiemistr^, royal institution, Loudon; was bom in Kincaruine, Scotland, 1842; educated at Dollar academy and Edin- burgh university; M. A. and hon. LL. D.. Glas- gow, St. Andrews, Aberdeen, and Edinbiiivh; D. Sc, Oxford. Victoria, and Dublin. With Sir Frederick Abel he invented cordite, and he has distinguished himself by his researches into the properties of matter at low temperatures, and into the nature and properties of atmos- pheric air. He was the first to liquefy and solidify hydrogen. Received French academy's Lavoisier gold medal, in 1894, and Matteucci medal of Italian society of science in 1906; elected foreign member of nationstl academy of sciences, Washington, in 1907, and correspond- ing member of academy of sciences in 1907. Knighted, 1904. Author of numerous papers contributed to the proceedings of the royal societies of London and Exiinburgh, the royal institution, the British association, the chemical society, etc. De Wet (dg v^). Christian Kudolf, Boer general, was bom in 1853. He had acquired fame as a hunter before he became conspicuous in the Transvaal war of 1880-81 ; and in the Boer war of 1899-1902 he was of all the Boer commanders the most audacious, swift in movement, and fertile in expedients. After the submission he went to Europe as a commissioner to raise money for the distressed Boer families. De Wette (dd vif-i), WUhelm Martin Leberecht, German biblical critic, born at Ulla, near Weimar, 1780. He studied from 1799 at Jena, and became professor at Heidelberg in 1807, in 1810 at Berlin, and in 1822 at Basel, Switrerlsmd, where he died, 1849. His reputation rests on his Introduction to the Old Testament, translated by Theodore Parker, 1850, his Manual of Hebrew Archaology, and his Introduction to the New Testament. Dewey, George, admiral in United States navy; born in Montpelier, Vt., 1837; appointed to naval academy, September 23, 1854; graduated in 1858, as passed midshipman; LL. D., univer- sity of Pennsylvania, Princeton university, 1898. Attached to steam frigate Wabash, Mediterranean squadron, until 1861 ; then to steam sloop Mississippi of west gulf squadron; commis- sioned heutenant, April 19, 1861; in Farragut's squadron which forced the passage of Fort St. Pnilip and Fort Jackson, April, 1862, and par- ticipated in the attack on Fort St. Philip and the subsequent fights with gunboats and ironclads, which gave Farragut possession of New Orleans. In the smoke of trie battle of Port Hudson, the Mississippi lost her bearings and ran ashore under tne guns of the land batteries, and the officers and men took to the boats after setting the vessel on fire. Was afterward on severu vessels in North Atlantic blockading squadron, then in European squadron, and later on various duties and at different stations, being promoted to commander, 1872; captain, 1884 ; conunodore, 1896. In January, 1898, assumed command of Asiatic squadron. On May 1, 1898, in Manila bay, he commanded in the greatest naval battle since Trafalgar, completelv annihilating the Spanish Asiatic squadron under Admiral Montojo, destroying eleven and capturing all other vessels and aU the land batteries, without the loss of a man on the American side. Immediately upon receipt of official news of victorv he was pro- moted to rear-admiral, and thanked by resolu- tion of congress; member of United States Philippine commission, 1899; promoted to admiral, 1899. Dewey, John, educator, professor of philosophy, Columbia university, since 1904 ; was bom at BurUngton, Vt., 1859; graduated, university of Vermont. 1879; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins, 1884. Was professor of university of Minnesota, 1888- 89; university of Michigan. 1889-94; and pro- fessor of philosophy and uirector of school of education, university of Chicago. 1894-1904. Member of American psychological association, American philosophical societv, naturalists society, etc. Author: Psychology; Leibnitz; Criticid Theory of Ethics; Study of Ethics; Psychology of Number; School and Society; Studies in Logical Theory; Ethics; etc. Dewey, Melvil, librarian, was bom in Adams Center, N. Y., 1851; graduated, Amherst, 1874; LL. D., Syracuse, Alfred, 1902. Acting librarian, Amherst, 1874-77; chief librarian and professor of library economy, Columbia college, 1883-88. Director of New York state library, 1888-1906, and of home education department, 1891-1906; secretary and executive officer of university of the state of New York, 1888-1900; founder and director, New York state library school, 1887-1906; state director of libraries, New York, 1904-06. Author: Library School Rules; Deci- mal Classification and Relative Index; editor of American Library Association Catalog, 1904. De Witt {di vW), Jan, Dutch statesman, was bom at Dort, 1625, son of Jacob De Witt, a vehement opp>onent of William II., prince of Orange. Jan inherited his father's hatred of the office of stadtholder, and the family that filled it. He was carefully educated, and soon exhibited remarkable ability. He was one of the deputies sent by the states of Holland in 1652 to Zealand for the purpose of dissuading that province from adopting an Orange policy. In 1654, on the conclusion of the war with England, a secret article was inserted in the treaty drawn up between De Witt and Cromwell, in virtue of which the house of Orange was to be deprived THROUGHOUT THE WORLD •6S of all state ofRces. After the restoration of Charles 11^ De Witt leaned more to the side of France. This tendency necessarily received an impetus from the renewal of hostilities between England and Holland in 1665. These lasted for two years; and although De Witt acted with great vigor his influence was diminished, and his party was compelled to concede a larger measure of power to the house of Orange. De Witt's prospects became still more clouded when the designs of Louis XIV. upon the Spanish Nether- lands became manifest. The Orange party carried their point in the elevation of Wuliam to the family and dignity of stadtholder. On the invasion of the Netherlands by Louis XIV. in 1672, the prince of Orange was appointed commander of the Dutch forces; and the first campaign proving unfortunate, the popular clamor against De Witt greatly increased. His brother, Cornelius, accused of conspiracy against the life of the stadtholder, was imprisoned and tortured. De Witt went to see him on his release. As they were coming out of prison they were attacked and murdered, 1672. De Young, Michel Harry, journalist, was bom in St. Louis, Mo., 1849; removed to California with parents when five years old; with brother Charles he established, 1865, The Dramatic Chronicle, later changing it to the San Francisco Chronicle, which they made a leading newspaper; on his brother's death, 1880, he became sole proprietor and editor-in-chief. Commissioner from California to Paris exposition, 1889; candidate for United States senator, 1892; commissioner and vice-president of World's Columbian national commission, 1892-93; pro- jector and director-general of California mid- winter exposition, 1893-94; ex-president of international league of press clubs; United States commissioner and president of United States commission, Paris exposition, 1900. Vice-president and director of concessions, Pan- ama-Pacific international exposition. Dlae (de'-ds), or Dias, Bartolomeu, Portuguese navigator, flourished in the fifteenth century. His residence at the court of John II. brought him into contact with many scientific men, and in 1486 the king gave him the command of two vessels to follow up the discoveries already made on the west coast of Africa. Driven by a violent storm, he sailed round the southern extremity of Africa, the cape of Good Hope, without immediately realizmg the fact, and discovered Algoa bay. The discontent of his crew com- pelled him to return; and arriving in Lisbon, December, 1487, he was at first greeted with enthusiasm. But in the expedition of 1497 he had to act under Vasco da Gama, who even sent him back to Portugal after they had reached the Cape Verde isles. Three years later he joined the expedition of Cabral, the discoverer of Brazil, but was lost in a storm. May, 1500. Diaz, Porflrio, Mexican statesman, ex-president of Mexico, was bom at Oaxaca in 1830. He studied law, and was an oSicer in the war between Mexico and the "United States. In 1863 he was military governor of the state of Vera Cruz, and commanded the army in the war with France. He was captured and sent to France, but escaped and was in command of the army which over- threw Maximilian in 1867, thus ending the war with France. In 1876 he rebelled and over- threw the president, Lerdo de Tejado, and was himself made president in the same year. He was elected again in 1884, 1888, 1892, 1896, 1900, 1904, and 1908. Resigned, 1911. Mexico greatly prospered under his administration, and his career has given him a high place among the world's statesmen. Dtai de la PeSs {di'-dt' dt lA pkn'-yd'), NardsM Vlnclle, French painter, was tx>m at EiordflMUe of Spanish parentage, 1807. Left dependent, he was educatini by a Protestant putor at Bellevue, near Paris. A snake-bite occasioDed the amputation of a leg; at fifteen be wm apprenticed to a porcelain painter; in 1831 he began to exhibit in the salon. His favorite subjects were landscapes with nymphs, loves, and satyrs, which he executed with rare skill. He died at Mentone, 1876. Dicey (di'si), Albert Venn« British lawyer and writer, Vinerian professor of English law at Oxford, 1882-1909; was bom in 1835; graduated from BalUol college, Oxford; M. A., hon. D. C. L., Oxford; hon. LL. D., Cambridge, Glasgow, and Edinburgh; studied law and was made a barrister of the Inner Temple, 1863. Author: The Law of DomicU; Law of Uve Con- stitution; England's Case Against Home RuU; Treatise on the Conflict of Laws; Lectures on ths Relation Between Law and Public Opinion in England During the Nineteenth Century; etc. Dick, Charles, lawyer, ex-United States senator, was bom in Akron, Ohio, 1858; educated in public schools, and was store clerk, bank bookkeeper and teller, and later grain commission merchant; studied law, and in 1893 was admitted to Ohio bar. He has been long connected with the Ohio national guard, and is now serving as major- general; engaged in active service with his regiment during Spanish-American war; mem- ber of congress, nineteenth Ohio district, 1898- 1904; elected United States senator, 1904, for short and long terms to succeed late Senator M. A. Hanna; term expired 1911. Dickens, Charles, EngUsn novelist and humorist, was bom at Landport, England, 1812. He was first a parliamentary reporter, and soon became distinguished for his uncommon ability. After a literary apprenticeship on The True Sun, he attached himself to the staff of the London Chronicle. In this newspaper he gave the first evidence of his talents in the lively essays entitled Sketches by Box, published in 1836. This was followed by the immortal Pickwick Papers and Oliver Tunst. After a visit to the United States he published, in 1842, his American Notes for General Circulation; but a much more admir- able result of his visit was Martin Chuzdewit. This was certainly the greatest of his humorous works since the Pickwick Papers, and it may almost be said to have been his last. His humor, except in some rich creations, such as Mr. Micawber, was no longer so apparent, while, on the other hand, his wit and pathos increased. Dombey and Son was below the standard of his other works, but for this he made amends in David Copperfidd, which is considered by far his greatest work. Bleak House, Hard Times, Little Dorrit, Tale of Two Cities, Great Expec- tations, Our Mutual Friend, and other novels equally celebrated succeeded one another with almost periodical punctuality, and an audience larger than any English author ever had awaited each. No prose writer was ever more quotable or more quoted than he. In 1846 the Daily News was started under his editorial auspices, but the task appiears to have been uncongenial, for he soon withdrew from it. In 1850 he commenced a weekly periodical entitled Household Words, afterward merged in AU, the Year Round. In 1867 he again visited the United States, gave numerous rea-. He died in 1860. Dtmgllson (dung'-gll-siin), Bobley, medical pro- fessor and author, was born in England in 1708. He studied medicine in London and Erlangen, Germany; received his degree at the latter university, 1823, and was appointed professor of medicine in the university of Virginia, 1824. He served there until 1833; was professor of materia medica and therapeutics in the univer- sity of Maryland, 1833-36, and of the institutes of medicine in Jefferson medical college, Phila- delphia, 1836-68. He translated and edited a number of foreign medical works, published about twenty original volumes, among which were his well-known Medical Dictionary and Therapeutics and Materia Medica. Died, 1869. Dunne (dUn), Flnlej Peter, joumalist author, was bom in Chicago, 1867; educated in Chicago public schools; entered newspaper life as reporter m 1885; served on various papers; on editorial staff of Chicago Evening Post and Time»-Herald, 1892-97; editor of Chicago Journal, 1897-1900. Author: Mr. Dooley in Peace and in War; Mr. Dooley in the Hearts of His Countrymen; Mr. Doolnf's Philosophy; Mr. Dooley'a Opinions; Observations by Mr. Dooley; etc. Dunning, William Archibald, historian, educator, professor of history, Columbia university, since 1891, was bom in" Plalnfield, N. J. ; graduated from Columbia, Ph. D., LL. D. ; was managing editor of Political Science Quarterly, 1894-1903. Author: Essays on the Civil War and the Recon- struction; History of Political Theories; Reeon' struction, Political and Eeonomie; etc. 662 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Dnnols (du'-ntDd')t Jean, Count of Dunois and LonKueTiUev was born in Paris, 1402, the natural son of Louis, duke of Orleans, brother of Charles VI. His first great achievement was the defeat of the English at Montargis, 1427; next he threw himself into Orleans with a small force, and defended it until its relief by Joan of Arc forced the English to raise the siege. In 1429 Dunois and the maid of Orleans won th« battle of Patay, after which he marched through the provinces overrun by the English, and took the fortified towns. Shortly after Joan's tragical death. Dunois took Chartres, the key of Paris, forced Bedford to raise the siege of Lagny. chased the enemy from Paris, and soon deprived them of all their conquests except Normandy and Guienne. In 1448-50 he drove them from Normandy, and in 1455 from Guienne also, and secured the freedom of France. For joining the league of the nobles against Louis XI. he was deprived of all his possessions, which were, how- ever, restored to him in 1465. He died in 1468. No French hero is more popular than Dunois. Duns Scotus (dUm skd'-iiis), John, famous Francis- can monk and divine, was born about 1265. He appears to have been educated at Oxford, where in 1301 he became professor of theology. He afterward removed to Paris, and then to Cologne, where he died in 1308. Duns Scotus, as one of the most eminent of the Franciscans, was a chief opponent of the teachings of the Dominicans, the two parties representing at that time two different schools of theology. He was also a chief advocate of reaUsm, as opposed to nominal- ism. His writings occupy many volumes. Dunstan (diin'-stan). Saint, English prelate, was born in -925, died in 988. Under several kings he wielded great influence. He was made arch- bishop of Canterbury in 959 by Edgar, whom he absolutely ruled. On Edgar's death he raised Edward to the throne, but on the accession of Ethelred his power was broken. Dunstan built up the power of the church, introduced the Benedictines, and meted out justice with a stern hand. Du Pont, Henry Algernon, United States senator, soldier, was born near Wilmington, Del., 1838; graduated at West Point, 1861, at head of class, and served throughout the civil war. in which he gained the rank of colonel. He resigned from the army in 1875, and was president and general manager of the Wilmington and Northern rail- road company, 1879-99. Engaged chiefly in agricultural pursuits since his retirement from business, 1902. Elected United States senator, 1906, for the term 1906-11; reelected, 1911. Dupont, Samuel Francis, American rear-admiral, was bom at Bergen Point, N. J., 1803. In the summer of 1861 he was given command of the Atlantic blockading squadron. He also com- manded the expedition which captured Port Royal harbor in the same year. He was made rear-admiral in 1862, and the next year com- manded the fleet of ironclads which attacked Charleston, S. C, where he was defeated. He resigned his command in 1863, and died at Phila- delphia in 1865. Dupr£ (du'-prd'), Jules, celebrated French painter, was bom in 1812. He excels as a landscape painter, and his work is noted for its refined Soetic taste as well as for its bold and vigorous rawing. Many of his pictures are owned in the United States. He died in 1889. Duquesne {du'-kdn'), Abraham, Marquis, French naval oflScer, was bom at Dieppe, P>ance, 1610, and first distinguished himself in 1637—43 in the war with Spain. In the Swedish service he rose to vice-admiral; and then, returning to France, reduced Bordeaux, which had declared for the Fronde. He defeated De Ruyter and Van Tromp several times in 1672-73, and the united fleets of Spain and Holland on Sicily in 1676. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes, Duquesne was the only Protestant excepted. Died, 1688. Dtlrer (dii'-rir), Albrecht, Germtin artist, was born at Nuremberg in 1471. He was apprenticed to a Eainter in his native town, and some years later egan designing on wood and engraving on copper. In 1505 he proceeded to Venice, and after his return painted his "Adam and Eve," and "Assumption of the Virgin," one of his finest works. He was much employed by the emperor Maximilian I. In 1520 he went to the Netherlands and painted the portrait of Erasmus, and while there ne was appointed court painter by Charles V. He died at Nuremberg in 1528. Besides being the founder of the German school of art, Diirer ranks even higher as an engraver on metal and designer of woodcuts. Duse (diSO'-zd), Elenora, Italian actress, was bom in Vigevano, 1861. She appeared about 1880 on the Italian, chiefly the Roman stage, as leading lady in the plays of Dumas and Sardou, but afterward played parts of greater depth. She earned high praise by her combined force and gracefulness. In 1892 she appeared at Vienna and Berlin: in 1893 at New York, and more recently in England, she reaffirmed her triumphs. Although she appears chiefly in tragedy, her versatility has also allowed her to please in the lighter vein of Dumas' Francillon, and as the hosteM in Goldoni's Locandiera. aer latest suc- cesses are D'Annunsio's Gioconda and Francesca da Rimini. Dvorak (dvdr'-ihak), Antonin, compKwer, was bom at Muhlhausen, Bohemia, 1841. In 1873, after years of hack work, he composed a hymn which attracted attention. Brahms introduced his compositions to Vienna: but the work which won for him the ear of ail Europe was his Stabat Mater, which was first performed in London in 1883. His most ambitious work is orchestral and choral — a cantata, the Spectre's Bride, an oratoria, St. LudmiUa, and several operas — none of them really successful. In 1892-95 he was director of the conservatory at New York, where he wrote an American symphony. He sub- sequently Uved at Prague, where he diedfin 1904. Dwight, Theodore William, jurist, professor, and editor, was bom in 1822 at Catskill, N. Y.: graduated at Hamilton college, 1840, and studied at Yale law school. In 1846 he was elected Maynard professor of law in Hamilton;. college, and there established a law school. In 1858 lie was chosen professor of municipal law in Coliun- bia college. He pubUshed an Argument in the Rose Wiu Case, and other arguments in leading law cases, and edited Maine's Ancient Law. I« 1874 he was appointed by Governor Dix, of New York, a judge of the commission of appeals. Died, 1892. Dwlght, Timothy, educator, theologian, was bom at Northampton, Mass., 1752; graduated from Yale college. He was minister of Greenfield Hill, Conn., 1783, where he also successfully conducted an academy. In 1795 he was elected president of Yale college, which position he held until his death. His principal works are his Theology Explained and Defended, The Conquest of Canaan, an ambitious epic poem, and Travds in New England and New York. Died, 1817. Dwight, Timothy, educator, theologian, was bom at Norwich, Coim., 1828; grandson of the above; graduated from Yale, 1849; D. D., LL. D.; studied theology at Yale, 1850-53; tutor at Yale, 1851-55; studied at Bonn and Berlin, 1856-58; professor of sacred literature and new testament Greek, Yale theological seminary, 1868-86; president of Yale universitv, 1886-99. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD » Member of American committee for revision of English version of the Bible. Author: Thoughts of and for the Inner Life, Memoira of Yale Life and Men, and numerous articles on theological and educational subjects. Badle (e'-di), John, British clergyman and writer, was born at Alva, Scotland, 1810; studied at Glasgow, and in 1835 became minister of a Glasgow United Presbyterian congregation; from 1843 he also lectured on exegesis in the college of his church. He was a member of the New Testament Revision company. His chief works are Biblical Cydopoedia, Ecclesiastical Encyclo- pcedia, and a number of commentaries. Died at Glasgow, 1876. Eads {edz), James Buchanan, American engineer, was born at Lawrenceburg, Ind., 1820. He con- structed the steel bridge over the Mississippi river at St. Louis, completed in 1874; partly carried out a plan of deepening the Mississippi by means of jetties, and was engaged at nis death in planning a ship-canal over the isthmus of Tehuantepec. Died, 1887. Games {amz), Emma, American prima donna soprano, was born at Shanghai, China, of Ameri- can parentage, 1867. In 1891 she married Julian Story, the well-known painter, from whom she is divorced. In 1911 she married Emilio de Gogorza. Made her d(5but at the Paris grand opera, 1889; Covent Garden, London, in r61e of Marguerite in Faust, 1891; sang regularly in London and New York during the respective seasons after 1893, and retired from the stage in 1908. She resides chiefly at Torre di Cam- piglioni Vallombrosa, Italy. Earle, George H., Jr., banker, lawyer, manufac- turer, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., 1856; graduated from Harvard, 1879, hon. A. M., 1904; was admitted to the bar, 1879. He is president of the Finance company of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia, South Chester tube company, and Pennsylvania warehousing and saife deposit company; vice-president Market Street national bank and Tradesmen's national bank; was receiver and is now president of Real Estate trust company of Philadelphia; receiver of Chestnut Street national bank ; is active in a number of other financial institutions. Earle, John, English scholar, was bom at Elston, South Devon, 1824 ; was educated at Plymstock, Plymouth, Kingsbridge, and Magdalen hall, Oxford, and became professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, 1849-54, and again permanently from 1876, being also a prebendary of Wells cathedral. Among his books are: The Philology of the English Tongue; Anglo-Saxon Literature; Book jor the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon; English Prose; etc. Died at Oxford, 1903. Early, Jubal Anderson, soldier and lawyer, was born in Virginia, 1816; was graduated at the United States military academy, 1837; served through the Seminole war, 1837-38; resigned in the latter year, and studied and practiced law in Virginia. He"' was a major of Virginia volun- teers during the Mexican war. At the opening of the civil war he was appointed a colonel in the confederate army; commanded a brigade at Bull Run and Williamsburg, 1862 ; was promoted brigadier-general, 1863; commanded a division at Fredericksburg and Gettysburg; sent a body of cavalry into Pennsylvania which burned Chambersburg ; was defeated by Sheridan near Winchester and at Fisher's Hill, Va., 1864, and was completely routed by General Custer at Waynesborough, 1865, after which he was relieved of his command. He subseauently practiced law in Richmond, and publisned A Memoir of the Last Year of the War for In- d^pmdenee in the Coi^ederaU StaU$. Died, 10tf4. East, Alfred, English landscape painter and etcher, was born at Kettering, 1849. He received his art education at the government aobool of •rt, Glasgow, afterward at Ecolo dea Beaux Art*- also studied under Fleury and Boucuanau.' Paris; has exhibited at the royal academy ^ ^hr* 1882, and became an aaaoeiate in 1890; la now president of the royal society of British artisU. Among his chief works are "Returning from Church," Carnegie art gallery, Pittaburgh, Pa. ; A Passing Storm " Luxembourg, Paris; "I^n- don at Night," Milan national gallery; "Gib- ^^L^A ^™'" Algeciras." Liverpool. Author: 7 he Art of Landscape Painting in Oil Colour. Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock, English painter, was bom at Plymouth, 1793. From 180« be studied under Haydon, in the royal academy schools, and in Paris. When the BeUerophon put into Plymouth, Eastlake took a number of rapid sketches from a shore-boat, and produced two full-length portraits of Napoleon. From 1818 to 1830 he lived in Rome, executing banditti pictures, "Pilgrims in Sight of Rome, etc. In 1839 appeared "Christ Blessing Little Children," now in the national gallery, London. He was knighted in 1850, and in 1855 was appointed director of the national gallery. He died at Pisa, 1865. Eastman, George, inventor, was bom in Waterville, N. Y., 1854; was educated in Rochester. New York, and first became an amateur pliotog- rapher. He subsequently carried on a series of experiments in photography and perfected a process for making dry plates: began to manu- facture dry plates on small scale, 1880 • inventor of the kodak, and entered extensively into ita manufacture; now treasurer and general manaxrer of Eastman kodak company, Rochester, N. Y. ; managing director of Kodak company, London, England ; president of Eastman kodak company of New Jersey, etc. Eaton, Arthur Wentworth Hamilton, Protestant Episcopal clergyman, was bom in Kentville, Nova Scotia; graduated from Harvard, 1880 D. C. L.. King's university. Nova Scotia, 1905 Ordainea deacon, 1884, priest, 1885, in New York priest in charge of parish, Chestnut Hill, Mass. 1885-86. Author: The Heart of the Creeda] Historical Religion in the Light of Modem Thought, Acadian Legends and Lyrics; Tales o/" a Gamson Town (with Craven Langstroth Betts), etc.: also many poems, historical monographs, ana magazine articles, besides eened a studio in New York; was one of the founders and the first secretary of the society of American artists, and achieved success as a portrait and figure landscape painter. Among his paintings are: "Farmer's Bov"; "Reverie"; Harveatera at Rest"; "Boy Whittling"; " Portrait of William Cullen Bryant " ; and "Grandmother and Child." Died at Newport, R. I., 1896. Ebers {i'-birs), Cieorg Morltx, German novelist and Egyptologist, was bom at Berlin, 1837; studied jurisprudence at Gottingen and oriental lan- guages and archsBology at Berlin. In 1870 he was made professor of Egyptoloey at Leipzig. His most important works are: Egypt ana the Books of Moses; Through Goshen to Sinai; the famous novel Uarda; An Egyptian Princess; Homo Sum; The Burgomasters Wife; and The Emperor. Be died at Tutaing, Bavaria, 1808. 664 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Ebner-Eschenbach (ob'-ner-ish'-en-baK), Marie, Baroness voa, Austrian novelist and poet, was born in Moravia, 1830. Since 1848 she has lived principally in Vienna. Her first publications, a drama and some comedies, are now unimportant. Her fame rests on her prose fiction, which was begun in ErzafUungen in 1875, and continued in Lotti, die Uhrmaclierin, Alte Schule, Agave, and Die arme Kleine. She also wrote a popular collection of Aphorismen, and Parabeln, Marchen und Gedichte. She is the foremost German woman writer of the day, pos.sessing remarkable power of description, keen humor, and polished precision of style. Her novels are especially notable for their psychological insight, and for the exact sense of proportion shown in their construction. Eck {ik), Jobann Maler von, German monk and theologian, was bom at Eck, in Swabia, 1486. He was the son of a peasant, but raised liimself by his abilities to the professorship of theology in the university of Ingolstadt. He took ,a prominent part in opposition to Luther in the diet at Augsburg, 153U, and in the conferences of Worms and Kati.sbon, 1540 and 1541. The name of Lutherans, which was at first given to the party of the reformation as a nickname, was given to them by Eck. Died, 1543. Eckermann {Ikf-ir^m&n), Jobann Peter, German writer and literary executor of Goethe, was bom in Winsen, Germany, 1792. After serving in the war of 1813-14, he was employed in uje war office at Hanover, and studied at Gottingen. The publication of his Beitr&ge zur Poesie in 1823 led to his removal to Weimar, where he assisted Goethe in preparing the final ef>, when she discovered what are known as the principles of Christian Science. In 18G7 she began to teach them, and in 1879 founded the church of Christ in Boston, Mass. In 1881 she was ordained to the ministry; in the same year established the Massachusetts metaphysical college in Boston; and in 1883 started the Christian Science Journal. She is the author of Science and Health, With Key to the Scriptures, the Christian Scien6e text-book; Unity of Good; No and Yes; Rudimental Divine Science; Manual of the Mother Church, and other works on related subjects. In 1907 she was decorated by the French government as an officier d'acaa^mie. In 1908, after a residence of nineteen years, she removed from Concord, N. H., to Brookline, Mass. Mrs. Eddy left her entire fortune to the Christian Science Church, specifying that $100,000 be used for the benefit of indigent, educated, well-qualified persons who desire to enter the Christian Science work, while the residue of her fortune is to be used by the Church for furthering the Christian Science movement. Died, 1910. Edeson, Robert, actor, was bom at New Orleans, La., 1868. He was educated in the pubUc schools at Brooklyn, N. Y., and made his first appearance on the stage in Fascination at the Park theater, New York, 1887. Later he appeared in A Night Off, The Dark Secret, Incog., and Under the Red Robe. He has also starred in The Climbers, Soldiers of Fortune, Strongheart, and Classmates, and ranks among the leading American members of his profession. Edgeworth, Maria, EngUsh novelist, was bom at Oxfordshire, 1767. She began to WTite fiction early in the nineteenth century, though she had j previously taken an interest in educational topics. Her chief books, wiiich treat mainly of I the virtues and vices of humanity with a nigh ! moral aim, embrace Popular Tatea; Moral Tales; I Castle Rackrent; Belinda Ormond; Tales of I Fashionable Life, with an Essay on Irish Bulla. Died in Ireland, 1849. I Edison, Thomas Alva, celebrated American inven- tor and electrician, was born at Milan, Ohio, 1 1847; received some instruction from his jnother; at twelve years of age he became newsboy on , Grand Trunk railway; later learned telegraphy* I worked as operator at various places in United States and Canada; invented many telegraphic j appliances, including automatic repeater, quad- ruplex telegraph, printing telegraph, etc. Estab- I lisned workshop at Newark, N. J., removing to I Menlo Park, N. J., 1876, and later to West I Orange, N. J. Invente*! machines for quadru- plex and sextuplex telegraphic transmission; I the carbon telegraph transmitter- the raicro- tasimeter for detection of small changes in temperature; the megaphone, to magnify sound; the phonograph: the aerophone; the incan- descent lamp and light system ; the kinetoscope; also scores of other inventions. Was made chevalier, officer, and aft(>rward commander of legion of honor, by French government* was given the honorary degree of Ph. D. by Union university, 1878, and has been variously honored by numerous scientific, educational, and other iKxlies; apj>ointetl, 1903, honorary chief con- sulting engineer of Louisiana Purchase exposi- tion, St. Louis. He invented a talking moving picture machine, 1912. Edmund, or Eadmund, king of the English, known as Ironside, was born about 981. lie was the son of Ethelred "the unready," and was chosen king by the Londoners on nis father's death, 1016, while Canute was elected at Southampton by the witan. Edmund hastily levied an army in the West, defeated Canute twice, raised the siege of London, and again routed the Danes. Levying a fresh army, he defeated them at Otford — his last victory. At Aasandun in Essex, after a desperate fight, he was routed. By a compromise with Canute, the latter retained Mercia and Northumbria, Edmund all the South and the headship, the survivor to succeed to the whole. A few weeks later Edmund died, 1016. Edmunds« George Franklin, American lawyer and statesman, was bom at Richmond, Vt., 1828; received a public school education, studied law, was admitted to the bar, and began practicing when twenty-one years old ; removed to BurUng- ton, 1851 ; was a member of the state legislature, 1854-59, and its speaker three years; took his seat in the United States senate as a republican from Vermont, 1866. He was returned 1869, 1875, 1881, and 1887, and succeeded Vice- president Arthur as president pro tern, of the senate after the death of President Garfield, 1881. He was chairman of the senate com- mittee that acted in conjunction with one of the house in drafting the bill creating the electoral commission of 1877, and was a member of that body; was author of the act to suppress polyg- amy and disfranchise those who practiced it, 1882; decUned the appointment of associate justice of the United States supreme court, 1882; elected president pro tern, of the senate, 1883, and was author of the act prescribing the manner in which electoral votes for president shall be counted, 1886. He resigned the senator- ship in 1891, and has since practiced law in Philadelphia. Edward, or Eadward, "the confessor," king of the English, was bom about 1004, son of Ethelred "the unread J'" and Emma, daughter of Richard "the fearless," duke of Normandy; was brought THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 687 up at the Norman court, and after liia accession, on the death of Hardicanute, in 1042, siiowcd a preference for Norman customs and ideas. Outrages were committed with impunity by his Norman favorites, while the Enelisn earls, Leofric of Mercia, and Godwine of Wesscx, were engaged in private quarrels. At last, in 1052, Godwine, who had been outlawed, rose in rebel- lion, installed Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury, in place of Robert of Jumicges, who had fled with the other Normans, and during the rest of the reign all real power was in the hands of the house of Godwine. Edward codified the cus- tomary law of the Anglo-Saxons, which thus became known as the "Taws of King Edward." Died, 1066. Edward I., king of England, was born in 1239, succeeded his father, Henry III., in 1272. Im- bued with high notions of feudal sovereignty, he sought to establish his supremacy throughout the island of Britain. His expeditions against Llewellyn-ap-Grufifydd, prince of Wales, 1282, and his brother, David, 1283, resulted in the reduction of the principality, the government of which he settled by the statute of Wales, 1284. The struggle between John Baliol and Robert Bruce for the throne of Scotland gave him a pretext for interfering in that country, 1290. After vainly endeavonng to maintain Baliol as his vassal, he set to work to conquer Scotland for himself, sending the earl of Warrenne there as viceroy, but was forced to contend with a succession of claimants, and died near Carlisle, while marching against Robert Bruce. A man of strictly legal, but somewhat narrow mind, he secured order and good government by the statutes of Winchester and Westminster and other enactments, and carried on Simon de Montfort's work of molding the English parlia- ment, 1295, though, at the same time, somewhat inclined to strain the royal prerogative. His per- sonal character was extremely high. Died, 1307. Edward II., king of England from 1307 to 1327, son of Edward I., was bom at Carnarvon, 1284. In 1301 he was created prince of Wales, being the first heir apparent to the English throne who bore that title. In 1308 he went to France to conclude a marriage with Isabella, daughter of Philip "the fair," leaving the dissolute Piers de Gaveston in charge at home. The nobles rose against the latter, twice forced Gaveston to leave England, and after his return finally hanged him in 1312. Two years later Edward invaded Scotland with an immense army, but was encountered at Bannockburn on June 24, 1314, by Robert Bruce and defeated with great slaughter. The rest of his reign was a succession of disputes with the nobles and with Charles IV. of France. Finally his queen and the nobles revolted against him successfully in 1327, and Edward was murdered in Berkeley castle, having been deposed by parliament several months Erevious. He was succeeded by his son, who ad already been named as Edward III. by parliament. Edward III., king of England, eldest son of Edward II. and Isabella of France, was bom in 1312. He was proclaimed king, 1327, during his father's captivity, and soon after marched with more than 40,000 men against the invading Scots, but concluded an inglorious campaign by a treaty in which the entire independence of Scotland was recognized. The war was subsequently renewed by Edward, who several times invaded Scotland in support of Edward Balliol's claims to the crown. As the son of Isabella, daughter of Charles IV., Edward claimed the crown of France against Philip of Valois. Having made foreign alliances, in 13.38 he advanced into France with about 50,000 men, but returned Without an eogamment. Soon after he defeated a French fleet off Sluls, and at the head of nearly 200 000 men, including hia Flemiah alliea, under- took the sicgoB of Toumav and St. Omer, both of which were unsucceasful. In 1346 Edwaid gained over Philip the decisive battle of Cr«cy, which was followed by the siege and surrender of Calais and a truce which lasted until 13M. While Calais was besieged, King David of Scot- land invaded Englandj but was defeated and captured, and lOdward retaliated by widely desolating Scotland. The war was renewed in France under hia son lulward the Black Prince, who, in 1356, gained the memorable victory of Poitiers, in which he took King John of France prisoner. The Scottish king wa« ransomed for 100,000 pounds in 1357; and in 1360 the "great peace" was concluded at Brctigny, by which Edward renounced his pretensions to the crown of France and restored hia conquests, retaining only the full sovereignty of Poitou, Guienne, and the county of Ponthieu. Edward was suo- ceeded by his grandson Richard II. Died, 1377. Edward IV,, king of England, was bom in Rouen in 1441 or 1442. He was the son of Richard, duke of York, led a force into London during the war of the Roses, 1461, and was proclaimed king by parliament while Henry VI. was still alive. In 1460 the Yorkists had gained a great victory at Northampton, and shortly after his accession Edward completely routed the Lan- castrians in the bloody battle of Towton. In 1464 he married Lady Elizabeth Grey, which so displeased the earl of Warwick that he joined the Lancastrians and raised an army against Edward, who in 1470 fled to Holland. Henry VI. was restored to the throne, and Edward was pronounced a usurper. The latter returned with foreign aid, was greatly reenforced in England, defeated the Lancastrians at Barnet, April 14. 1471, where Wan^'ick was slain, and remanded Henry to the Tower. The Lancastrian army, commanded by the duke of Somerset, was again defeated at Tewkesbury, May 4. Margaret, Henry's queen, was taken prisoner and held in captivity for five years, and her son. Prince Edward, was slain. Her husband perished in the Tower a few weeks after the battle. In 1474 Edward formed an sdliance with the duke of Burgundy, and made preparations for a war in support of his claim to the throne of France. He passed over to Calais, but the expedition proved fruitless through the dereliction of his ally Charles the liold of Burgundy, with whom the kingdom was to have been divided. Edward then became involved in a bitter strife with his brother Clarence, who was put to death in 1478 on a charge of treason for arraigning public justice. During the latter part of his life Edward was sunk in indolence and pleasure. He left five daughters, of whom Elizabeth was' afterward married to Ilenrv VII., and two sons, the ill-fated princes, Edward and Richard. Died, 1483. Edward VI„ king of England, son of Henrv VIII. by his third wife. Jane Seymour, was bom in 1537. He succeeded to the "throne at his father's death in 1547, his uncle, the carl of Hertford, being chosen protector and created duke of Somerset. With the protector Ekiward shared the religious convictions of the reformation, and during his rule great strides were made toward the estalDlishment of Protestantism in England; images were removed from the churches; the laity were admitted to the Lord's supper: Henry's famous six articles were repealed, and a new book of common prayer was issued. Edward became diaplca.sed with Somenwt and had him executed in 1552. His place was taken by Dudlev, the eari of War^^-ick, now created duke of 'Northumberland, who sucoeeded ia 868 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT getting Edward to nominate Lady Jane Grey as Tub successor shortly iaefore he died in 1553. His reign was marked by the restoration of many of the grammar schools suppressed by Henry VIII. Edward VII^ king of the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and emperor of India from 1901 to 1910, eldest son of Queen Victoria, was born at Buckingham palace, 1841. He studied at Edinburgh, and suLscquently at Oxford and Cambridge. As prince of Wales he bore his full name, Albert Eaward. In 18C0 he visited the United States and Canada; in 1802 traveled with Dean Stanley in the East; and in 1863 married the princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of Chris- tian IX. of Denmark. Besides three daughters, two sons were born of this marriage — the eldest. Prince Albert Victor, duke of Clarence, and Prince George of Wales. The king's recovery from a six weeks' attack of typhoid was celebrated in St. Paul's in 1872 with ^reat enthusiasm. He made a visit to India m 1875-76. He con- stantly manifested a lively interest in exhibitions, charitable institutions, the housing of the poor, and agriculture; and for the queen, his mother, he as prince of Wales bore much of the burden of court ceremonials and public functions. He assisted in promoting the royal college of music ; and the imperial institute was due to his sug- gestion. In 1900 he was shot at by a young anarchist, Sipido, in a train at Brussels. On January 22, 1901, he succeeded his mother as Edward VII. His coronation, fixed for June 26, 1902, had to be postponed on account of a severe surgical operation, but was carried out on August 9th. By visits to continental capitals the king did much to allay international animosities and gromote peace and goodwill, especially between >ritain and France. Died, 1910. Edward, the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III., was born in 1330, and was created earl of Chester, 1333, duke of Cornwall, 1337, and prince of Wales, 1343. In 1346, though only a boy, he fought at Cr6cy, and is said to have won from his black armor his popular title — a title first cited in the sixteenth century. In 1355-56 he undertook two marauding expeditions in France, the second signalized oy the great vic- tory of Poitiers. In 1361 he married his cousin, Joan, the "fair maid of Kent," who bore him two sons, Edward and the future Richard II.; in 1362 his father created him prince of Aqui- taine, and next year he departed to take posses- sion of his principality. In 1367 he espoused the cause of Pedro the Cruel, and at Navarrete won his third great victory, taking Du Guesclin prisoner; in 1370, worn out by sickness, he mercilessly sacked Limoges. He died, 1376. Edwards, Amelia Blandford, British novelist and Egyptologist, was born in London, 1831. Her first novel, Aly Brotlier's Wife, 1855, was followed by a dozen others, among them Barbara's History, Debenham'a Vow, and Lord Brackenbury. She also published a volume of Ballads, and, besides books of holiday travel in Belgium and the Dolomites, A Thousand Miles up the Nile, in 1877. Miss Edwards was the founder of the Egjrptian exploration fund, and contributed papers on Egyptology to the principal European and American journals. She visited the United States in 1889, lectured at a number of places and received the degree of LL. D. from Columbia university. She died at Weston-super-Mare, 1892. Edwards, Jonathan, celebrated American divine and metaphysician, was bom at East Windsor, Conn., 1703. He was graduated from Yale in 1720, and toward the close of 1723 was appointed tutor in Yale college. In 1726 he accepted an invitation to become colleague to his maternal grandfather, Solomon Stoddard, in a church at Northampton, Mass., and was ordained in 1727. Here he labored with intense zeal for more than twenty-three years, at the end of which period he was dismisscnl by his congregation. The immediate cause of the rupture between him and his hearers was his insistence that no unconverted persons should be allowed to approach the Lord's table. Eklwards was a powerful and impressive preacher, somber, and even gloomy in his religious opinions and sentiments, but earnest, unaffected, and nobly conscientious. During the famous revival of 1740-41 he was much sought after as a preacher, and is in fact often regarded aa the originator of that movement. As early as 1734 a local manifestation of religious enthusiasm had token place in his own parish. of which he published an account, entitlea A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton. After his dismissal in 1750 he became a missionary among the Indians of Massachusetts. Whifc residing at Stockbridge, in that state, he cotnr>osod his famous treatises on the Freedom of tfie WiU, and Original .Jim. In 1757 he was chosen president of Princeton college, New Jersey, but died in 1758. Edwmrds, Julian, American composer, -was bom in Manchester, iviipland, 1855. He studied music under Sir Herbert Oakeley, Edinburgh, and Sir George Macfarran, London ; comjK>sed operettas played in British provinces, and became conduc- tor of the Royal English opera company. He came to the United States in 1888. Among his compositions are the operas and musical pieces: Victorian; Elfinella; Corinne; Jupiter; Friend Fritz; King Rene's Daughter; Goddess of Truth; and Brian Boru. He is also author of Sunlight and Shadow, a song collection. Dii>d, 1910. Egan (f-gan^ Maurice Francis, educator, author, diplomat, was born in Philiidelphia, Pa., 1852; graduated at La Salle college; entered George- town college, 1875; LL. D., Georgetown, 1879; J. U. D., Ottawa university, 1891 ; was on the editorial staff of McGee's Illustrated Weekly, Catholic Review, and Freeman's Journal; pro- fessor of English hterature, university of Notre Dame, Ind., 1888-95; and at Catholic university of America, 1896-1907. Author: A Garden of Roses; Stories of Duty; The Life Around Us; The Theater and Christian Parents; Modem Novelists; Lectures on English Literature; A Gentleman; Jack Chumleigh; Jack Chumleigh at • Boarding School; A Primer of English Literature; The Disappearance of John Longworthy; A Mar- riage of Reason; The Success of Patrick Desmond; The Flower of the Flock; Preludes, poems; Songs and Sonnets, and other poems; The Chatelaine of the Roses; Jasper 1 home; In a Brazilian Forest; The Leopard of Lancianus; Studies in Literature; The Watson Girls; Belinda; Belinda's Cousins; The Sexton Maginnis Stories, etc. One of the editors of The World's Beat Literature, Encyclopedia of Irish Literature, etc. In 1907, appointed United States minister to Denmark. Eggieston {^-'lz^iin\ Edward, American author, was bom at Vevay, Ind., 1837. He became a Methodist preacher in 1856, and subsequently edited for various periods the New York Inde- pendent, Hearth and Home, etc. In 1879 he retired from the ministry, and devoted himself entirely to literature. Among his best known books are The Hoosier Schoolmaster; The Circuit Rider; Roxy; Pocahontas and Powhatan; The Graysons; and History of United States; The Beginners of a Nation, and The Transit of Civil- ization. Died, 1902. Egmont (ig'-mdn'; Eng., ig'-mdni), LamoraU Ckiunt of, Dutch general, descended from the KING EDVARD VII. From a photograph THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 671 duke of Guilders, waa born in 1522. As com- mander of the Spanish cavalry of Charles V., he defeated the French, 1557-58, but incurring the enmity of Philip II., through his lenient treatment of the Flemish Protestants, he was put to death, 1568, despite the remonstrances of Queen EHzabeth of England, and German princes. His fate led to the independence of the Nether- lands. ElchelberKer (iK'-«Z-?;grK'-^r), William Snyder, as- tronomer, was born in Baltimore, Md., 1865; graduated from Johns Hopkins, 1886; Ph. D., 1891. He became assistant in nautical almanac office, 1889-90, 1896-98; instructor in mathe- matics and astronomy, Wesleyan university. Conn., 1890-96; computor in United States naval observatory, 1898-1900; professor of mathe- matics. United States navy, since 1900; head of division of meridian instruments. United States naval observatory, 1902-07; member of United States eclipse expedition, Pinehurst, N. C, 1900; in charge of United States eclipse stations at Fort de Kock, Sumatra, 1901, and Daroca, Spain, 1905. Member of numerous scientific societies, and a frequent contributor of astronomical papers to government publications and astro- nomical journals. dcbhorn (iK'-hdrn), Johann Gottfried, German scholar, was born at Dorrenzimmern, Germany, 1752, and studied at Gottingen. He first became rector of the school of Ohrdrufif, in the duchy of Gotha, afterward, in 1775, professor of oriental languages in the university of Jena, and in 1788 removed to Gottingen in the like capacity. Of this university he continued a distinguished ornament until his death in 1827. His scholar- ship was almost universal, and he left numerous treatises on a multitude of subjects, both ancient and modern, classical and oriental, but he is chiefly known in this country as a biblical critic, and a chief of what is called the rational school. His chief works are a Universal Ldbrary of Biblical Literature, an introduction to the old testament, an introduction to the new testa- ment, and an introduction to the apocryphal writings of the old testament. Eiffel {S'-f&l'), Gustave, French engineer, was bom at Dijon, 1832, and early gained a reputation for bridge construction. In 1858 he constructed the iron bridge over the Garonne at Bordeaux, and was one of the first to utilize air-caissons. The bridge over the Douro at Oporto, the great viaduct of Garabit in Cantal, and that over the Tardes near Montlugon, were designed by him; while in the huge framework erected for Bar- tholdi's statue of Liberty may be seen the germ of the iron Eiffel tower, 984 feet high, erected in 1887-89, on the Champ-de-Mars in Paris, at a cost of 200,000 pounds. In 1893 he was con- demned to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 20,000 francs for breach of trust in connection with the Panama canal works, but the sentence was annulled by the court of cassation. Elnhard (In'-hart), or Eginhard {a' -gin-hart). Prankish scholar and biographer of Charlemagne, was born at M^ingau in East Franconia, about 770. He was sent to the court of Charlemagne, where he became a pupil of Alcuin and a favorite of the emperor. Louis, successor of Charlemagne, continued his father's favor. For years Einhard was lay abbot of various monasteries, but ulti- mately retired to Miihlheim. Here he died about 840, and was buried beside his wife, Emma, whom a baseless tradition makes a daughter of Charlemagne. His Vita Caroli Magni is the great biographical work of the middle ages. Eldon, John Scott, Lord, celebrated English lawyer and jurist, was born at Newcastle, of humble parentage, 1751. He was educated at Oxford i for the church, but got into difficulties through a i runaway marriage. Ho then betook hlmMlf to law. rose rapidly in his profewian. and, anterinc Parliament, held important lesal offloM under itt; waa mode a baron, 1799, and lord chan- cellor, 1801, an office which ho held for twenty- six years; retired from public life in IKirt and left a large fortune at his deatli ; waa noU-d for tho shrewd equity of hia judgraenta and hia delay in deHvering them. Died, 1838. Eleanor of Aqultalne, queen of France and of England, was born about 1122, and died in 1204. She was so called because she was a daughter of the duke of Aciuitaine. She first married Louis VII. of France, who divorced her in 1152, and she then married Henry II. of England. It was through her that the English kings claimed the duchy of Aquitaine. Henry's neglect turned her love to hatred, and she stirred up her nona to rebel against him, for which she was kept in prison about fifteen years. She afterward ruled England as regent when her son Richard I. went to the holy land, and when he was imprisoned in Germany she went there to carry his ransom. King John was also her son. Elgin {U'-gin) and Kincardine (Hn-kAr'-dln), James Bruce, Earl of, was born in London, 1811. and succeeded his father, the seventh earl, who in 1812 brought from Athena the Elgin marbles, and himself was first Baron Elgin in the United Kingdom peerage. As governor of Jamaica, 1842-46, and as governor-general of Canada, 1847-54, he displayed great administrative abili- ties. While on his way to China in 1857, aa flenipotentiary, he heard at Singapore of the ndian mutiny, and diverted the Chinese expedi- tion thither — thus delaying his own operations, which, after some military operations ana diplomacy, issued in the treaty of Tientsin in 1858. He also negotiated a treaty with Japan, and on his return to England became p>ostmaater- general. In 1860 he was again in China to enforce the treaty, and in 1861 became governor-general of India. He died, 1863. Elijah, greatest of the prophets of Israel, was born at Tishbe, in Gilead, on the borders of tho desert. He comes upon the scene in the same time of Ahab, in the ninth century B. C. When that monarch, to please his Pnccnician wife, Jezebel, had introduced on an extensive scale the worship of Baal, Elijah pronounced a curse on the land. The prophet had to flee. He took refuge by the brook Cherith. Here he was miraculously fed by ravens. He then went to Zarephath, a town lying between Tyre and Sidon. Here he lodged with a widow, pro- longed her oil and meal, and brought back her son to health from the brink of the grave. Sub- sequently he made a temporary reconciliation with Ahab, and on Mount Carmel executed dreadful vengeance on the prophets of Baal, slaying 400 with his own hand. After the death of Ahab he rebuked the idolatries of his son Ahaziah in a solemn fashion and also de- nounced the evil doings of his successor. The closing scene of his life on earth is vividly nar- rated. A chariot of fire and horses of fire appeared after Elisha and he had crossed the Jordan, and "Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven." Eliot, Charles William, educator, ex-president of Harvard university, was bom in 1834, and graduated from Harvard in 1853. He taught mathematics and chemistry at Harvard, and in 1863 went to Europe to study chemistry and to investigate the educational institutions of that continent. While at Vienna in 1865, ho was chosen professor of analytical chemistry in the Massachusetts institute of technology, which post he filled for a period of four years and again went to Europe and spent fourteen months, 672 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT mainly in France, in further investigation. In 1869 Dr. Eliot succeeded Dr. Tliomas Hill as president of Harvard college, and continued at its head until 1909. During his administration many notable changes in the government of the college occurred, its scope was broadened and there was a great increase in the number of its professors and students, while its wealth by gifts and benefactions was greatly increased, so that now it more than successfully competes with the great European universities. Eliot was given the degree of LL. D. by Williams and Princeton colleges in 1869, by Yale in 1870, and by Johns Hopkins in 1902. He is also an officer of the legion of honor of France, and member of many scientific and literary bodies. Besides numerous addresses, chemical memoirs, and technical investigations, he published in con- junction with Professor F. H. Storer a Manual of Inorganic Chemistry, and a Manual of Qualita- tive Chemical Analysis. More recently he pub- lished American Contributions to Civilization; Educcdional Reform; Charles Eliot: Landscape Architect; More Money for the Public Schools; John Gilley; The Happy Life; and Four Ameri- can Leaders. Eliot, George, is the nam de plume of Mary Ann Evans, a distinguished English novelist, bom at Arbury, in Warwickshire, 1819. She received a superior education, and became very proficient in Latin, German, and the higher mathematics. She began her literary career by a translation of Strauss's Life of Jesus, and became, in 1851, a contributor to the Westminster Review. During this time she formed the acquaintance of George Henry Lewes, with whom sue ere long lived as his wife, though unmarried, and who, it would seem, discovered her latent faculty for fictional work. Her first work in that line was Scenes of Clerical Life, contributed to Blackwood's in 1857. The stories proved a signal success, and were followed by a series of seven novels, begin- ning in 1859 with Adam. Bede, which attained an immense success, and at once secured for the writer almost undisputed rank with the most eminent novelists of the day. This was followed in 1860 by The Mill on the Floss, which amply sustained the high reputation of the writer; and in 1861 by Silas Mamer, the Weaver of Raveloe, a tale in one volume, which, as to art, is perhaps the most perfect of any of this series of works. In 1861 the Scenes of Clerical Life was republished from Blackwood's Magazine, to meet with a renewal of the favor with which it was originally received. In 1863 Romola appeared; Felix Holt was published in 1866, and Mtddlemarch in 1872; Daniel Deronda and Impressions of Theophrastus Such appeared later. These, with two volumes of poems, make up her works. Lewes died in 1878, and two years after she formally married an old friend, John Cross, and after a few months of wedded life died of inflammation of the heart. Eliot, Jolin, the "Indian apostle," was bom probably at Widford, Herts, England, in 1604; graduated from Jesus college, Cambridge, in 1622, and after taking orders quitted England for conscience' sake, and landed at Boston in 1631. Next year he settled at Roxbury, and in 1646 began to preach in the native dialect to the Indians at Nonantum, five miles ofif. He shortly after established his converts in regular settle- ments; and in England a corporation was founded in 1649 for propagating the gospel among the Indians of New England. In 1674 the number of "praying Indians" was estimated- at 3600, but the decay of the "praying towns" was rapid after King Philip's war in 1675, in which the converts suffered equal cruelties at the hands of their countrymen and of the English. Eliot died at Roxbury in 1690. He assisted in preparing an English metrical version of the psaims. The Bay Psalm-Book, the first book printed in New England ; but his greatest work was the translation of the Bible into the Indian tongue. EliEal>etb, queen of England from 1558 to 1603, was born at Greenwich in 1533. She was the daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, and was scarcely three years of age when her mother was beheaded, and only thirteen at tlie death of her father. As Princess Elizabeth, she had the advantage of the best teachers and masters, especially under the supervision of Catharine Parr, the last of Henry's queens; but, during the reign of her half-sister, Mary, her life was in imminent danger through the jealousy of Mary, though she was allowed to remain in seclusion at Ilatfield until her accession to the throne in 1558. Thus she was in her twenty-hixth year when she obtained the crown. Her first act was to release the imprisoned Protestants, and to reestablish Protestantism. Next she concluded a peace with France and Scotland, entering into an undertaking with the reformers in the latter country to protect them from the Catholics; but in her own country, while zealously main- taining Protestantism, and severe in her pro- ceedings toward those of her subjects who wlhered to the formerly established religion, she was not less severe toward the Puritans, who were the most Protestant of all the sects, and who suffered many things at her hands. Very early in her reign she was troubleent five years in France, and lectured on law at Paris and Orleans. He returned to Scotland, and became rector of the university and official- general of the diocese of Glasgow, official of Lothian, bishop of Ross and of Aberdeen. He was then engaged in embassies, and for four months before the death of James III., in 1488, was chancellor. Under James IV. he was ambassador to France, and keeper of the pri\-^ seal from 1492. It was chiefly through his influence that the first printing press — that of Chepman and Myllar — was estaolished in Scot- land. The university of Aberdeen (King's college) was founded by him in 1500. Additions to the cathedral and a stone bridge over the Dee were also due to him. The fatal battle of Flodden broke his spirit, and he died at Edinburgh in 1514. Ely, Richard Theodore, educator, author, was born in Ripley, N. Y., 1854. He was graduated from Columbia, 1876; Ph. D., Heidelberg university, 1879; LL. D., Hobart college, 1892; professor of political economy, Johns Hopkins, 1881-92; professor of poHtical economy, univer- .sity of Wisconsin, since 1892 ; founder, secretary, 1885-92, president, 1899-1901, American eco- nomic association. Member of Baltimore tax commission, 1885-86; Maryland tax commia- sion, 1886-88; founder, 1904, and since director of American bureau of industrial research. Author: French and German Socialism in Modem Times; Taxation in American States and Cities; Introduction to Political Economy; Outlines of Economics; The Social Law of Service; Monop- olies and Trusts; Labor Movement in America; Past and Present of Political Economy; Problems of To-day; Social Aspects of Christianity; Social- ism and Social Reform; The Coming City; Studies in the Evolution of Industrial Society, etc. Emanuel I. (S-man^-u-il), king of Portugal, called "the great," or " the fortunate," was bom in 1469, and became king in 1495. His reign is known as the golden age of Portugal. He prepared the code of laws which bears his name, and made his court a center of chivalrj', of art, and of science. Vasco da Gama's voyage round the cape of Good Hope, Cabral's discovery of Brazil, and the expeditions of Albuquerque and others that so widened Portuguese possessions were all sent out and encouraged by Emanuel. It was he who made Portugal the first naval power of the world, as well as its great commercial center. He died at Lisbon 1521. Emanuel, FJllbcrt duke of Savoy, son of Charles III., was bom in 1528; was commander-in-chief 676 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT of the imperial troops in Italy against the French, who, on his father's death, seized most of his inheritance. Appointed governor of the Nether- lands by Philip 11. in 1556, he attacked France, winning the battle of St. Quentin, and by the treaty of Ch&teau-Cambresis, 1559, recovered his ancestral domains, and married Marguerite, sister of the king of France. He applied himself to the administrative and military organization of his country, and is considered the founder of the Sardinian monarchy. Died, 1580. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. See page 112. Emerton, Ephraira, educator, nistorian, professor of ecclesiastical history, Harvard, since 1882, was bom in Salem, Mass., 1851. He was grad- uated from Harvard in 1871; Ph. D., Leipzig, 1876. Member of Massachusetts historical so- ciety, American academy of arts and sciences, American historical association, and correspond- ing member of Institut Gen^vois. Author: Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages; Sipiopsia of the History of Continental Europe; Mediceval Europe, 814—1300; Desiderius Eratmua; etc. Emin Pasha (d'-men pd-ahd'), or Bey, proper name Eduard Schnitzer, was bom at Oppeln, Silesia, in 1840. He studied medicine and m 1864 went to Turkey, where he became a well-known physician. He learned to speak Turkish and Arabic easily, and adopted Turkish habits and customs. He also adopted the name Emin. which means "faithful one." In 1876 he joinea the Egyptian service and proceeded as chief physician to the equatorial province, of which he was made governor in 1878 oy ''Chinese" Gor- don. Here on the sudden uprising of the Mahdi, his rescue reached him in May, 1888. In 1890 he entered the German service and at once made his way again to central Africa. He was killed, however, in 1892 by Arabs near Nyangwe. Enunet, Bobert, Irish enthu.siast and revolutionist, was born at Dublin in 1778, the son of a Dublin doctor. He was expelled from Dublin university in 1798 owing to his anti-English sympathies, and was henceforth an ardent though misguided partisan of Irish independence. His impulsive patriotism in 1803 led him to make an unsuccess- ful attack on Dublin castle, but he escap>ed into Wicklow. He was subsequently captured and executed the same year. His fate is the subject of a famous poem by Moore. Empedocles (Sm-^d'-o-kliz), Greek philosopher, was bom in Sicily about the middle of the fifth century B. C. He was poet, priest, physician, and philosopher, and foUowea Pythagoras in his teaching. He was very vain, and used to move about among the people dressed in long purple robes with a golden girdle, his flowing hair bound with a garland, a branch of laurel in his hand, and sandals of brass on his feet, while a proces- sion of slaves followed him. Strange stories are told of his death, one being that he had thrown himself into the crater of Etna, hoping that Eeople would think he had been translated to eaven. Encke (Sng'-kS), Johann Franz, German astron- omer, was bom at Hamburg in 1791. In 1825, chiefly at the instigation of Bessel, he was called to Berlin as director of the observatory. While at Gotha the astronomical prize was awarded to Encke by the judges, Gauss and Gibers, for his determination of the orbit of the comet of 1680. This led him to solve another problem, which had been proposed along with the other — viz., the distance of the sun — and his value of the solar parallax, giving a distance of about 95,000,- 000 miles, was for a long time accepted as the best known. In 1819 he showed that the comet discovered by Pons in 1818 revolved round the stin in the remarkably short time of 3.3 years. being identical with those observed in 1786, 1795, and 1805, and this comet has ever since been known by Encke's name. He was an indefatigable computer and did great service by developing and putting into convenient shape for use the new method of least squares dis- covered by Gauss. Died, 18G5. Endlcott (Sn'-dl-kdt), or Endecott, John, Puritan governor of Massachusetts, was born at Dor- chester, England, about 1588. He landed as manager of a plantation near Salem in 1628; headed a sanguinary expedition against the Indians in 1636; was deputy-governor in 1641- 44, 1650, and 1654, and governor six times from 1644 to 1665. In 1658 he was president of the united colonies of New England. He died at Boston, 1665. Endicott, William Crowning hield, descendant of the foregoing, was born in Salem, Mass., 1827; graduated at Harvard in 1847, and became a member of the Massachusetts bar. From 1873 to 1882 he was a judge of the Massachusetts supreme court. In 1884 he ran for governor of Massachusetts on the democratic ticket, but was defeated: In 1885 he became secretary of war in the cabinet of President Cleveland. He died in Boston, 1900. Endllcber {(nf4lx-ir), Stephan Ladlslaus, Hun- garian botanist and linguist, was born in Pres- burg in 1804. In 1836 ne was appointed keeper of the court cabinet of natural historyj Vienna, and in 1840 professor of botany and director of the botanic garden of the university. He was a chief founder of the Vienna academy and of the Annalen dea Wiener Muaeurm, made valuable contributions to the study of old German and classic literature, pointed out new sources of Hungarian history, and published several lin- guistic works. Tne most important of his botanical works is bis Genera Plantarum, in which he lays down a new system of classification. Died, 1849. Ennlus (J^'-{-fi«), Qulntus, Roman poet, the father of Roman literature, was born in 239 B. C. Cato "the elder" took him to Rome, where he taught Greek and Latin, and gained the friendship of the noblest Romans of his day. He was famous for his learning and his charming conversation. His writings were a poem on Roman history, plays for the theater, many of them adapted from the finest Greek plays, and short poems, a few of which remain. He died in Rome, 169 B. C. EOtvOs (iU'-vil«A), J6zsef, distinguished Hungarian author, was bom at Buda, 1813. He became an advocate in 1833, but soon resolved to devote himself exclusively to literature, in which field he had already won a great reputation by his comedies. After his return from a journey through Germany, France, England, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, he published his Prison Reform, which was instrumental in bringing about many wholesome improvements in regard to prisons. In 1867 he was appointed minister of religion and education, and m that capacity engaged actively in the work of reform. Died at Pesth, 1871. Epaminondas (e-p&m'-Hr^n&n'-das), greatest of Theban generals and statesmen, was bom about 418 B. C, and led a retired life until his fortieth year. After the stratagem by which his fellow citizens expelled the Spartans in 379, he joined the patriots; and, when sent to Sparta in 371 to negotiate peace, displayed as much firmness as eloquence. When war was resumed, he received the conmiand, and with 6,000 men defeated twice that number at Leuctra. Two years later, with Pelopidas, he marched into the Pelopon- nesus, and incited several of the allied tribes to desert Sparta. On his return to Thebes, he was THROUGHOUT THE WORLD •77 accused of having retained the supreme power beyond the lawful time, but was acquitted in consequence of his able defense. In 368 war was renewed, and Epaminondiis made a some- what unsuccessful invasion into the Peloponnesus. To atone for this he advanced with 33,000 men into Arcadia, and near Mantinea broke the Spartan phalanx, but was mortally wounded. Died, 362 B. C. £p4e, de la' {dS Id'-pd'), Charles Michel Abb£, one of the founders of the system of instruction for the deaf and dumb, was born at Versailles, France, 1712. In 1755 he first began to occupy himself with the education of two deaf and dumb girls. At his own expense he founded an institution for the deaf and dumb, and labored with unwearied zeal for its prosperity. Died, 17S9. Eplctetus {Sp'-ik-te'-tHs), celebrated stoic philoso- pher, who flourished in the first century, was bom at Hierapolis, in Phrygia, and was originally a slave to Epaphroditus, one of Nero's freedmen. Having obtained his freedom, he retired to a hut and gave himself up wholly to the study of philosophy. His lessons were greatly admired, and his life afforded an example of unblemished virtue. Being banished from Rome, with the other philosophers, by Domitian, he settled at Nicopolis, in Epirus. Whether he ever returned to the Roman capital is uncertain; nor do we know the period at which he died. His memory was so much venerated that the earthen lamp which gave him light was sold for more than ninety pounds. His admirable Enchiridion, a manual of morality, is highly esteemed even to-day. His teachings approach very nearly the precepts of Christianity. Epicurus (JtTp'-l-ku'-rus), Greek philosopher, was bom about 342 B. C. It is douijtful whether his birth occurred before or after his parents' removal from Gargettus, in Attica, to Samos. His youth was spent in that island, whence he removed to Athens, when about eighteen, and afterward taught at Colophon, Mitylene, and Lampsacus. He returned to Athens about 306, and remained there until his death. He was founder of the Epicurean school, who hold that the aummum bonum consists in pleasure — chiefly mental pleasure. Died, 270 B. C. £pinay, d' (da' pe'-nS'), Madame, French writer, was born about 1725. In 1745 she formed a close intimacy with Rousseau, and presented him with a small house, the now famous Hermit- age, which stood on one of her husband's estates in the woods of Montmorency. An unfortunate jealousy, however, which Rousseau conceived for Grimm, another friend of Madame d'Epinay, was followed by an open rupture with his bene- factress, and in his Confessions he scrupled not to malign her by way of vengeance. Died, 1783. Eraslstratus (Sr-a-sis'-tra-tiis), one of the rnost famous physicians and anatomists of ancient times, flourished in the third century B. C, and is supposed to have been bom at lulls, in the island of Ceos. He resided for some time at the court of Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria. He founded a school of medicine, wrote several works on anatomy, practical medicine, and pharmacy. Erasmus (e^&z'-mus), Deslderlus, one of the greatest scholars of the renaissance, was bom in Rotterdam about 1467; on his parents' death he entered a monastery, which he left to become a teacher at Paris, and at the invitation of his pupil. Lord Mount] oy, came to England. He settled at Oxford, where he became the friend of More, and studied divinity under Colet, and Greek under Grocyn and Linacre. In 1506 he visited Italy, staying at Bologna and Rome, where he was warmly raodved, but raturaad to England, and waa made Marsaret profeMor of divmity and professor of Qreek at Cambridge. He returntHl to the continent, and after a ioumey to the low countries, settlea at Baael, wnere hie iiublished his edition of the new testament. <>a.smu8 was in favor of moderate reform in the church, as is shown b^ his Enchiridion AftZitie Christiani and Encomium Moricr, but he nve little support to Luther, although he refused to write against him. Dietl, l.'>;'/6. Eratosthenes {hr'-d-tHs'-thi-niz), eminent Greek writer, called, on account of hla varied eruditioiif the philologist, was bom at Cvrene about 276 B. C. By Ptolemy Euergetes ne was called to Alexandria to superintend his great library. Here he died of voluntary starvation, at the age of eighty, having become blind and wearied of life. As an astronomer he holds an eminent rank among ancient astronomers. He measured the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the result at which he arrived — viz., that it was 23" 61' 20* — must be reckoned a very fair observation, considering the age in which he lived. Hippar- chus used it, and so did the celebrated astronomer Ptolemy. A letter to Ptolemy, king of Egypt, on the duplication of the cube, is the only complete writing of his that we possess. Eratosthenes' greatest claim to distinction, however, is as a geometer. Erckmann-Chatrlan {h-W-m&n-sha.'-tri'-lis') (Emile Erckmann and Alexandre Chatrian), two French men of letters, the first of whom was bom at Phalsbourg, 1822; the second in the village of Soldatenthal, 1826. The two friends employed their pens in the same works^ which they signed with the two names united in one; and it was only about 1863 that the authors informed their readers that the numerous works of fiction, which had obtained a widespread popularity, and were supposed by the general public to be the work of a single writer, were the fmits of their friendly collaboration. In 1848 they pub- lished several feuilletons in the DemocraU du Rhin, which had just been started; Le Sacrifice d' Abraham, Le Bourgmestre en Bouteille. At the same time thev wrote a drama, Le C/ujMeur des Ruines. Le Joueur de ClarinetU, a simple story of a musician, and Les Amoureux d» Catherine, another tale of village life in the same volume, are nearly perfect as literary efforts. Erckmann died in 1899; Chatrian, 1890. Eric (jtr'-'ik) the Red, Norwegian navigator, was bom about 950 and died about 1000. In 982 he located on the island of Iceland, and in 983 sailed from Bredifiord to reach some western shore said to have been visited by one of his country- men in former times. On the voyage he PM^d Cape Farewell, and on the coast met with rein- deer. He named the country Greenland and the inlet Ericfiord. Returning to Iceland in 985, he interested the people of the island in his dis- covery, and with twenty-five sail set out for the voyage. Some of the ships were lost in a storm. and others were driven home; but he succeeded in reaching the Greenland coast with fourteen, and locat^ on the fiord at some distance from the ocean where there was grass and trees. About twelve years later his son Lief is said to have discovered the continent of North America, which he called Markland and Vinland. Ericsson (ir'-Vcsiin), John, Swedish-American engineer, was bom in Lanzbanshyttan, Sweden, 1803. At the age of twelve he became cadet of engineers, and at seventeen entered the Swedish army: in 1826 he was promoted to captain. In 18^ he constracted a flame engine and went to London to introduce it, resigning his captaincy in the army. He also protluced in suc cc e slo n an instrument for sesr^ounding, a hydroatatio < "5 2 o THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 681 ture of Cadiz in 1596. He quarreled with the queen about an appointment, turning his buck upon her in the presence of her ministers, and wnen she resented the indignity with a box on the ear, drew his sword, swearing that he would not endure such treatment from Henry VIH. himself. They were never reallv reconciled. After failing as lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he formed a wild scheme to get rid of Elizabeth's councilors, who were opposed to him. He entered London at the heaa of 300 men, expect- ing the people to rise in his favor, but was disappointed and forced to surrender. He was tried for treason, condemned, and beheaded in 1601. Estaing (&'-<4n')» Charles Hector, Count d% French admiral, was born in 1729. After serv- ing in the army in India, under the Marquis de Bussy, and being made prisoner at the siege of Madras, he entered the navy and led an expe- dition to Sumatra, capturing several English forts. He was then placed in command of a squadron sent to aid the United States against England, captured the island of Grenada, but ultimately met with reverses, and returned to France in disgrace. He was guillotined during the revolution. Died, 1794. Esterh&zy (Jts'-ter-haf-ze), Nicholas de, Hungarian patron of arts and sciences, was bom in 1765, traveled over a great part of Europe, and resided for a considerable time in England, France, and Italy. He founded the splendid collection of pictures at Vienna. He also made a choice collection of drawings and engravings. When Napoleon, in 1S09, entertained the notion of weakening Austria by the separation of Hungary, he made overtures to Prince Esterhazy respect- ing the crown of Hungary, which, however, were declined. Haydn composed most of his works at the court of Prince Nicholas. Died, 1833. Esterhdzy, Prince Paul Anton, Austrian diplomat, was born in 1786. He entered at an early age on a diplomatic career. After the peace of Vienna he went as ambassador to the court of Westphalia. From 1815 to 1818 he represented the Austrian government at London. He filled the same oflBce between 1830 and 1838, and distinguished himseK by his diplomatic tact and ability. In 1842 he returned home and continued to exert himself in the cause of political and literary progress. In March, 1848, he became minister of foreign affairs; but when the struggle between Austria and Hungary broke out he exhibited more prudence than heroism by retiring from public life altogether. He died in 1866. Esther, the Persian name of Hadassah, daughter of Abihail, a Beniamite. She was an orphan, and brought up by her cousin Mordecai, an officer in the household of the Persian monarch, Abasuerus. Her history is extremely interesting, and set out in detail in the biblical book of that name. When the misconduct of Vashti had cost her her "royal estate," all "the fair virgins" of the kingdom were gathered together, that Ahasuerus might clioose a successor. He selected Hadassah, who received the name of Esther on account of her loveliness. The great event of her life was the saving of her Jewish countrymen from the horrors of that universal massacre planned by the malice of Haman, and consented to by the thoughtless cruelty of an oriental despot. Esther is not mentioned in profane history, whence it has been inferred by some that she was not the only wife of Ahasuerus (Xerxes), but rather the favorite of his house- hold, to which she undoubtedly belonged. Bthelbert (Jith'-U-hert), first Christian king of Kent, England, was bom about 552. He was con- verted by his wife, Bertha, of France^ and by St. Augustine. He gave the KngUah the firat written code of laws. Reigned from 000 to 616. Euclid (u'-A:{{(f), eminent geonietrici«n, \» ndd by Pappus and Froclus to have been a native of Alexandria, in wliich city he taught mathemattcs. during the reign of Ptolemy Lague, about 800 B. C. It was he who finit estabusbed a mathe- matical school there. He wrote on muaic, optica, catoptrics, and other subjects; but the work whicn has immortalized his name is The EUmetUa of Geometry. Of the fifteen books which com- pose these elements, however, the last two are supposed to be the production of Ilypsicles. Eudocla {u-do'shl-d), Byzantine princess, wife of the emperor Theodosius II., was bom ^x>ut 393, the daughter of the sophist Leontius or Leon, who instructed her in the literature of Greece and Rome, in rhetoric, geometry, arith- metic, and astronomy. Her accomplummenta and her singular beauty were reckonea by Leon- tius a sufficient fortune, for at his death he left all his property to her two brothers. Eudocla appealed to the emperor at Constantinople. Pulcheria, the sister of Theodosius, was interested in the maiden, and thought she would make a suitable wife for the emperor, to whom she was married, 421. For many years, however. Pul- cheria ruled in the imperial household and councils, Eudocia, according to Nicephorus, "submitting to her as mother and Augusta"; but in 447 a quarrel broke out between them in regard to the Eutychian heresy, of which Eu- docia had become a supporter. At first Eudocia was triumphant, and Pulcheria was banished: but in a short time the emperor was reconciled to his sister, and treated Eudocia so sharply that she retired to Jerusalem, where she died, 460 or 461. Eudocia was a poetess of consider- able merit. Eugene, Francois, usually called Prince Eugene of Savoy, celebrated Austrian general, was bom in Paris, 1663. He was a son of Eugene Maurice, count of Soissons, who was grandson of the duke of Savoy, Charles Emmanuel I.; but his appli- cation for a commission in the army of France having been refused, in consequence of a differ- ence between Louis XIV. and Eugene's mother, a niece of Cardinal Mazarin, he left France for Vienna, and offered his services to the emperor of Austria, in whose court and army he spent the whole of his remaining life. For fifty years, and under three emperors, he was one of the greatest and most successful of the Austrian generals, and was regarded as one of the most distinguished soldiers of his time. He was also eminent as a statesman, and inaugurated some important reforms in the con.stitution of the Austrian monarchy. In later life he took much interest in art and learning, and formed a val- uable collection of engravings and books. Died in Vienna, 1736. Eug€nle-Marie de Montijo {H'-th&'-^ni md'-r#' d* mdTir4e'-h6), ex-empress of the French, was bom in Spain, 1826. She was the granddaughter of William Kirkpatrick, American consul at M ala g a, whose daughter married Count de Montijo, an officer in the Spanish army. Her mother, the Comtesse Teba, took her to Paris, where she attracted great attention at the balls given at the Tuilenes by Louis Napoleon, then prince president. The latter, after he made himself emperor, began negotiations for a union with the princess Carola Wasa of Sweden, which were peremptorily rejected. He made overtures to other reigning houses and, being each time refused, proposed to the charming young Spaniard, whom he married in 1853. The empress became the leader of the fashions of Europe, and main- tained a brilliant court, but not content with her 682 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT triumphs in this line she interfered in politics, and with most disastrous results. She forced on the war with Germany, which she spoke of as "my war," and in many ways her influence was bad for France. She was ay)pointed regent when Napoleon III. went to fight the Germans, and was in Paris when the revolution broke out after Sedan. In 1870 she escai>ed from the Tuileries and sought refuge in England where she now resides. Euler (oi'-lSr), Leonard, distinguished mathema- tician, was bom at Basel, Switzerland, 1707, and at the time of his death in 1783 was director of the mathematical department of the academy of St. Petersburg, having been previously pro- fessor of mathematics in tlie academy of sciences in Berlin. His works on algebra and other branches of pure mathematics are very numerous and of great value, notwithstanding that many of the later years of bis life were spent in total blindness. Euripides (u-rlp'-i^z), the latest of the three Greek tragedians, was bom at Salamis, 480 B. C, on the very day of the great victory gained bv the Greeks over the Persians near the island. The Arundel marbles, however, gives 485 B. C. as the date of his birth. The first play of Eurip- ides' which was performed was the Peliadea. In 441 B. C. he gained the first prize for tragedy, and continued to write for the Athenian stage until 408 B. C, when he accepted an invitation to the court of Archelaus, kin^ of Macedonia. He is said to have been killed m 406 B. C. by dogs, which were set upon him by two brother- poets who envied him his reputation. Among nis works are the Alcestis, Hecuba, and Medea. Eusebius (u-si'-bl-u8) of Ciesarea, father of ecclesiastical history, was bom in Palestine about 264, and died about 340. He took the name of PamphiU. In 313 he succeeded Agapius as bishop of Coesarea, and took a prominent part in the council of Nice. Constantine declared that he was fit to be bishop of the world. Eusebius was the most learned father of the church after Origen. Eustachio (d'-^a-ta'-kyo), or Eustachlus, Barto- lommeo, Italian anatomist, was bom in 1510. Few particulars are known regarding his fife, but we learn from the introduction to one of his works that in 1562 he was professor of medicine in the CoUegio della Sapienza at Rome. His name is indelibly associated with smatomical science through his discoveries of the tube in the auditory apparatus, and the valvular structure in the heart, which have been called after him. He was tlie first to give an accurate description of the thoracic duct, and was probably the first to notice and describe the stapes. Died, 1574. Evans, Mary Ann or Marian. See Ellot, George. Evans, Bobley Dungllson, American admiral, was bom in Floyd county, Va., 1846. He was appointed to the United States navy from Utah, and graduated from the United States naval academy in 1803; rear-admiral 1901. During the civil war he participated in both attacks on Fort Fisher, 1865, and in land attacks received four severe rifle-shot wounds. When in com- mand of the Yorktoum at Valparaiso, Chile, 1891, during the period of strained relations between Chile and the United States, his actions in con- nection with various incidents earned him his gopular name of "fighting Bob." In war with pain, commander of Iowa in Sampson's fleet off Santiago, taking active part in battle with Cervera's fleet, July 3, 1898; was president of board of insi>ection and survey; commander-in- chief at Asiatic station, October, 1902-04, and in command of the Asiatic expedition, 1907-08. Author: A Sailor's Log. Died, 1912. Evans, Very Rev. Thomas Frye Lewis, prelate, dean of Montreal since 1902, was born at St. John's rectoiy, Simcoe, Ontario, 1845. He was educated at Upper Canada college, and Trinity university, Toronto. B. A., Toronto, 1866; M. A., 1871; hon. D. C. L., 1894; D. D., 1902; deacon, 1869; priest, 1870 (Huron); missionary at Norwich. Ontario, 1869-71 ; assistant, Christ Church cathedral, 1871-74; hon. canon, Christ Church cathedra^ 1874; rector of St. Stephen's church since 1874; archdeacon of Iberville, 1882; archdeacon of Montreal, 1886. Evarts, William MaxweU, American lawyer and stat^man was born at Boston, Mass., 1818, and died at New York city, 1901. He graduated at Yale, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1841, where he built up a notable practice — receiving as high as $50,000 for an opinion in a case. He was chief counsel for President John- son, in the impeachment trial in 1868, and was United States attorney-general to the close of Johnson's administration. He was United States counsel before the Alabama tribunal in 1872, and senior counsel for Henry Ward Beecher in 1875. In 1877-81 he was secretary of state, and United Stotes senator for the term 1885-91. ETelyn, John, English author, was bom at Wotton, in Surrey, 1620. He took part in political affairs during the reigns of Charles I., Ciiarles II., and James II.; was the author of several scientific treatises, written in a popular style; but is now chiefly remembered for his Diary, which he kept during the greater part of his life, and which forms one of the most valuable collections of historical materials for the latter half of the seventeenth century. It was pubUshed in 1818. Among his other works are: Sylva, or a Discourse of Forewt Trees, and Numismata, or a Discourse of Medals. Died, 1706. Everett, Charles Carroll, Unitarian theologian, was bom at Brunswick, Me., 1820. He graduated at Bowdoin college, 1850, and continued his studies at the university of Berlin ; was professor of modem languages at Bowdoin, 1855-57; graduated at Harvard divinity school, 1859; held a pastorate at Bangor, Me., 1859-69; professor of theolo^ at Harvard, 1869-1900, and dean of the divinity school after 1878. He wrote The Science of Thought; Religions before Christianity; Poetry, Comedy, and Duty; The Gospel of Paul, etc. Died, 1900. Everett, Edward, American author, orator, and statesman, was bom at Dorchester, Mass., 1794. He was graduated from Harvard. 1811, and was for some time a Unitarian clergyman. He became professor of Greek at Harvard in 1815; traveled in Europe from 1815 to 1818; became editor of the North American Review, and was a member of congress from 1824 to 1834 ; governor of Massachusetts from 1835 to 1839; and from 1840 to 1845, minister-plenipotentiary to Eng- land, in which capacity he succeeded in adjusting several deUcate matters. He became secretary of state in 1852, and was elected to the United States senate in 1853. He wrote The Dirge of Alaric the Visigoth (a poem). Lives of Washington and General Stark, ana other works, but was best known as an orator. He was made D. C. L. by Oxford, and LL. D., by Cambridge and Dublin universities. Died, 1865. Ewald (d'-valt), Georg Helnrich August von, Ger- man orientalist and theologian, was born at Gottingen, 1803. In 1820 he b^an the study of theology, philosophy, and oriental languages, and became professor at Gottingen in 1831. He was dismissed with six others in 1837 for remon- strating against the unconstitutional proceedings of the king of Hanover, and was professor at Tiibingen from 1838 to 1848, when he was reinstated at Gottingen. He was a member of THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 66S the North German and German parliaments. His works are numerous, but he is Dest known by his History of Israel and various writings on the old testament, linguistic, excgctical, and critical. Died, 1875. Ewell (u'-&.), Richard Stoddert, American soldier, was born in the District of Columbia in 1817. He graduated at West Point in 1840, and served in the Mexican war. In 1861 he entered the confederate service, and commanded a bripade at Bull Run. In 1862 he commanded a division in Jackson's campaign in the Shenandoah valley, and lost a leg in the second battle of Bull Run. He was made a lieutenant-general in 1863, and succeeded to the command of Jackson's corps, with which he was present at Gettysburg, the Wilderness, and Spottsylvania Court House. In April, 1865, he surrendered to General Sheridan at Sailor's Creek, Va. Died, 1872. Ewlng (u'-ing), Thomas, American politician, was born in Ohio county, Va., 1789. He was ad- mitted to the Ohio bar in 1816, and from 1831 to 1837 was United States senator from Ohio. Under Harrison he was secretary of the treasury for a month, in 1841, and in March, 1849, became the first secretary of the interior, which office he held until September 12, 1850. In 1850 he was appointed to succeed Thomas Corwin in the senate, but held office onlv a year, and spent the remainder of his life in the practice of nis pro- fession. He adopted as a member of his family his relative, William T. Sherman, afterward general of the United States army, who, in 1850, married Swing's daughter Ellen. Died, 1871. Eyck (ifc), Hubert, and Jan van, two illustrious painters of the old Flemish school. Much dis- cussion has arisen as to the time of the birth of these brothers, and the various dates assigned range from 1350 to 1400. Their birthplace was Maas-Eyck, and they chiefly resided at Bruges and Ghent, and became the founders of the Flemish school of painting. The masterpieces of the brothers are for the most part in the cities of Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, Berlin, Munich, and Paris. Hubert died in 1426, and Jan in 1440. Eyre (<5r), Edward John, English colonial governor, was born in Yorkshire, England, 1815; went to Australia in 1833, and in 1840-41 explored the south coast of Australia and discovered Lake Torrens. He was afterward appointed lieuten- ant-governor of New Zealand and of the island of St. Vincent. In 1862 he became governor of Jamaica, and in 1865 suppressed with severity a negro insurrection. Martial law was pro- claimed, and a wealthy mulatto named Gordon, who was a member of the house of assembly, was hanged. Eyre was recalled and prosecuted by a committee, of which John Stuart Mill was a member. Such men as Carlyle, Charles Blingsley, and Sir Roderick Murchison defended EjTe, and he was acquitted by a jury. Died, 1901. Ezekiel, one of the four great Hebrew prophets, was the son of Buzi, and one of the sacerdotal race. He was carried to Babylon as a captive by Nebuchadnezzar, 598 B. C. Favored by the Lord with the gift "of prophecy, he soothed, com- forted, and amnonished his countrymen, until at length he was stoned to death by order of the Babylonian authorities. Ezekiel, Moses, American sculptor, was bom at Richmond, Va., 1844. After service with a corps of cadets in Confederate States army, he grad- uated from Virginia military institute, 1866; studied anatomy at medical college of Virginia; removed to Cincinnati, 1868; visited Berlin, Germany, 1869, where he studied at royal academy of art under Professor Albert Wolf; admitted into society of artists, Berlin, on the merits of his colossal bust of Washington, and was the first foreigner to win Michael Beer pri«e. He executed the marble icroup raprcaentinc religious liberty, for the Centennial exhibition, now in Fairmount park, Philadelphia; monu- ment to Jessie Seligmann for orphan aaylum. New York. After 1880 his work becam* ohiefly ideal. Among his protluctions are busta ot Liait and Cardinal Uohcnluhc, Eve, Homer, David, Judith, Christ in the tomb, statue of Mrs. Andrew D. White for Cornell university: "Faith," in cemetery at Rome; "Madonna,'' for chureb in Tivoli; "Apollo and Mercury," In Berlin; "Robert E. Lee"; "Pan and Amor": "The Fountain of Neptune," for town of Neptune, Italy; bust of Lord Sherbrooke, for St. Margaret, Westminster, London, and scores of busta ana reliefs, and JeiTerson monument, for Louisville, Ky. ; Homer group for university of Virginia; "Virginia Mourning Her Dead" at LexiiurtOD, Va.; "Napoleon I. at St. Helena," etc. Ezra, the scribe, was living in Babylon during the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who commis- sioned him to lead a band of his fellow country- men from Babylon to Jerusalem in 468 B. C., there to reorganize the returned Jews. He is believed to have arranged the books of the Mosaic law — the pentateuch — as it is now. The book which bears his name was anciently and justly regarded as forming one book witn Nehetniah; and in their present shape Eera and Nehemiah are simply the continuation of Chron- icles. Faber (fd'-bir), Frederick William, English h>Tnn- writer, was born at Calverley in Yorkshire, 1814; graduated from Balliol college, Oxford, and in 1834 was elected a scholar of Llniversity college, in 1837 a fellow. He had already come under the influence of Newman, and in 1845j after three years' tenure of the rectory of Elton in Hunting- donshire, he followed him into the fold of Cathol- icism. He founded a community of converts at Birmingham — "the Wilfridians" — he him- self being Brother Wilfrid, from his Life of St. Wilfrid. With his companions he joined in 1848 the oratory of St. Philip Neri; next year a branch under his care was established in London, and finally located at Brompton in 1854, where he died in 1863. Faber wrote many theological works: but his fame will rest upon his hyoms. "The Pilgrims of the Night," "The Land beyond the Sea," etc. Fablus (Ja'-blrHs), Maxlmus Qulntus, Roman general, was bom about 275 B. C. He was sumamed Cunctator because, having in 217 been appointed dictator for the second time and intmsted with the defense of Italy against the victorious Hannibal, he pursued a course of cautious and patient generalship, never risking a general engagement with his opponent, but cutting off his supplies, and gradually wearing him out, and meeting with signal succeea. Before his appointment to the dictatorship he was five times consul. Died, 203 B. C. Fabriclus {fd-brish'-Uiu), or Fabriilo (/&-brit'-4y6), Girolamo, commonly named from his birthpwce Fabricius ab Aquapendente, celebrated anatomist and surgeon, was bom in 1537, and died in 1619. He graduated from the university of Padua, where, in addition to the usual instruction in the classics, he studied anatomy and surgery under the celebrated Fallopius. On the death of the latter in 1562, Fabricius was appointed to fill the vacant professorship. Among nis students was William Harvey, who attended his prelections in 1598, and who derived from Fabricius' observa- tions on the valves of the veins the first clue to his great discovery. He was a most laborious investigator in comparative anatomy, and made comparative studies of the eye, the larynx, the ear, the intestinal canal, the development of the 684 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT foetus, and many other subjects. The improve- ments which his knowledge of anatomy enabled him to introduce into the practice of surgery were very great. His chief work was his Opera Chirurgica. Faed (J&d), John, Scottish painter, was bom in 1819. In 1841 he settled in Edinburgh, where his talents won him a high reputation. Plis pictures include : "The Cruel Sisters"; "Shakes- peare and his Contemporaries"; "The Cotter's Saturday Night"; "The Soldier's Return"; "The W appenschaw " ; "The Old Stvle " ; "Tam o' Shanter"; "Iladden Hall of Old"; "The Stirrup Cup"; " John Anderson my Jo " ; "The Gamekeeper's Daughter," and "The Hiring Fair." Died, 1902. Faed, Thomas, brother of the preceding, and also an artist, was bom in 1826. In 1849 he executed a very attractive work, entitled "Scott and his Friends at Abbotsford." In 1852 he removed to London, where his "Mitherless Bairn," exhib- ited in 1855, was declared by the critics to be "the picture of the season. His subsequent works include "Home and the Homeless"; "The First Break in the Family"; "Sunday in the Backwood.'j " ; "From Dawn to Sunset " ; " Baith Faither and Mither," and "The Last o' the Clan." He was made an R. A. in 1864. Died, 1900. Fahrenheit (Jd'-ren-hit), Gabriel Daniel, physicist, improver of the thermometer, was bom at Dantzic, Germany, 1686. In 1720 he first con- ceived the idea of using quicksilver instead of spirits of wine in the construction of thermome- ters, by means of which the accuracy of the instrument was very much improved. His thermometer, since its introduction, has been in general use in Holland, Great Britain, the United States, and other countries. Died, 1736. Faidherbe iji'-dirb'), Louis Lfon C^sar, French general, was born at Lille, France, 1818, and entered the French army in 1842. His earliest service was in Algeria, and in 1851 he took part in the campaign against the Kabyles, and a year later in the disastrous expedition in the highland-s imder General Bosquet. He was subsequently sent to Senegal, was invested with the government of the French possessions there, and after seven years' hard worJc renovated the colony. During the Franco-Prussian war he was in command of the army of the North and fought several battles. He subsequently went on a scientific mission to upper Egypt, was elected to the assembly in 1871, and became a senator in 1879. He was the author of a number of works on military and archaeological subjects. Died, 1889. Fairbairn (/dr'-Mm), Andrew Martin, Scottish theologian and principal emeritus of Mansfield college, Oxford, 190!>-12, was bom near Edin- burgh, Scotland, 1838. He was educated at the universities of Edinburgh and BerUn, and at the Evangelical Union theological academy, Glasgow. For a time he held charges at Bathgate and Aberdeen, and from 1877 to 1886 was principal of Airedale college. In the latter year he was elected principal, on its foundation, of Mansfield college, Oxford, where his labors as a metaphysician and theologian have made him famous. His books embrace: Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and History; Studies in the Life of Christ; The City of God; Christ in Modem Theology; Christ in the Centuries; Religion in History and in Modem Life; Philoso- phy of the Christian Religion, etc. He visited the United States as Lyman Beecher lecturer at Yale ; lectured also in India, at Edinburgh university, and at Aberdeen university. Died, 1912. Fairbairn, Sir William, Scottish engineer, was bom at Kelso, Scotland, 1789. He was the first to use iron instead of wood in the shafting of cotton mills. He was also among the earliest of iron shipbuilders, and made many improvements. Fairbairn built the tubular bridge across the Menai strait, after a plan of Robert Stc'phenson'.s, the Britannia and Conway bridges, and more than a thousand other bridges. He also devised improvements for steamboilers and other steam machinery. In 1869 he was niade a baronet, and also a chevaUer of the legion of honor. He pubUshed many works and papers on iron, bridges, boilers, mills, etc. He died at Moor Park, Surrey, England, 1874. Fairbanlts, Arthur, educator, author, was bom in Hanover, N. H., 1864; graduated from Dart- mouth college, 1886; Yale divinity school, 1887-88, Union theological seminarv, 1888-89, Beriin and Freiburg, 1889-90; Ph. D., Freiburg in Breisgau, 1890; professor of Greek literature and arcnsology, university of Iowa, 1900-06; professor of Greek and Greek archaK)logy, uni- versity of Michigan, 1906-07; director of Boston museum of fine arts since 1907. Editor of The CUuncal Journal. Author: Introduction to Sociology; First Philosophers of Greece; A Study of the Greek Paan; The Mythology of Greece and Rome; Handbook of Greek Religion, etc. Trans- lator of Riehl's Introduction to the Theory of Science and Metaphysics. Fairbanks, Charles Warren, lawyer, ex-vice- preeident of the United States, was bom on a farm near Unionville Center, Union county, Ohio, 1852; gratluatetl from Ohio Weslevan university, 1872; admitted to Ohio bar, 18^4, and estab- lished j)ractice at Indianapolis. Was republican caucus nominee for United States senator, 1S03, but was defeated by David Turpie, democrat. Appointed in 1898 member of joint high British- American commission, and chairman of American commissioners. Elected United States senator from Indiana, 1897, and reelected in 1903; vice- president of the United States 1904-09; repro- (M>ntative of United States at the tercentenary celebration of Quebec, 1908. Fairfax, Thomas, Lord, an English general, was bom in Yorkshire, 1612. After serving with distinction in Holland, Lord Fairfax was declared general-in-chief of the parUament army at the opening of the civil war in 1642^ and again in 1645. He distinguished himself in most of the great battles and sieges of that struggle, and after its close refused to act as one of the judges of Charles I. In 1659 Lord Fairfax used all nis influence with the army to promote the restora- tion of Charies II. Died, 1671. Falconlo (Jdl-kd'^nU^i), Dlomede, cardinal since 1911; was bom in Pescocostanzo, in the Abruzzi, Italy, 1842. He entered the Franciscan order, 1860; on completion of studies in 1865 he was sent as a missionary to the United States; or- dained priest, 1866, by Bishop Timon, of Buffalo; professor of philosophy and vice-president of St. Bonaventure s college. New York, 1866; pro- fessor of theology and secretary of Franciscan province of the Immaculate Conception, 1867; president of the college and seminary of St. Bonaventure, 1868; became citizen of United States, 1868; secretary and administrator of cathedral at Harbor Grace, Newfoundland, 1872-82; in United States, 1882-83; returned to Italy, 1883, and elected provincial of Francis- cans in the Abruzzi; later reelected and was also conunissary and visitor-general, province of Naples, 1888; synodical examiner in diocese of Aquila; commissary and visitor-general Francis- can province in Puglia, 1889; procurator- general Franciscan order and visitor-general in various provinces of the order, 1889-92. Conse- crated, 1892, bishop of Lacedonia, and was raised in 1895 to be archbishop of Acerenza and Matera, in BasiUcata; apostolic delegate to Canada, 1899-1902 ; apostohc delegate to United THROUGHOUT THE WORLD «M States, 1902-11. A volume of his Pastoral Letters (translated into French) was published in Canada, 1900. Falk (/dlk), Adalbert, Prussian statesman, was bom at Metschkau in Silesia, 1827, and as minister of public worship and education, in 1872. was instru- mental in carrying the "May laws (passed in May, 1873, 1874, and 1875) against the hierarchi- cal supremacy of the church of Rome. When Bismarck made overtures for the support of the clerical party, Falk resigned in 1879, and retired from political life. He died in 1900. Falll£res (fdl'-ydr'), Clement Armand, French statesman, president of the French republic, 1906-13, was born near Agen, South France, 1841. He received his education at Angoultmc and Paris; settled at N6rac as a barrister, and became mayor; elected to the chamber of deputies, 1876 ; undcr-secretary of state at home office, 1880 ; has been minister of the interior, of justice, and of education, and prime minister, and was eight times reelected president of the senate. He was elected -president of France in 1906, in succession to M. Loubet. He is a man of simple habits, great uprightness, and delights in supervising work on his vineyards, the Loupillon estate, in his native district. He is a lover of books, and has written verse both in French and in the Languedocien dialect. He married Mile. Besson, daughter of a solicitor, and has two children — a son, who is a barrister, and a daughter. Fallopius (Jol-io'-pl-us), Gabriel, Italian anatomist, physician, and naturalist of celebrity, was born at Modena in 1523, in the cathedral of which city he commenced his career as an ecclesiastic. He abandoned thfe priesthood for the pursuit of science, which he studied at Ferrara and Padua. At Pisa he was for three years professor of anatomy, and afterward went to Padua to fill the chair of anatomy and surgery, and to take charge of the first botanical garden established there. He died there in 1562. He acquired great fame by being the first to describe the anatomical structure of the foetus. Observa- tiones Anatomicce is his principal work. Cuvier characterizes him as one of the three savants who restored, rather than created, the science of anatomy in the sixteenth century, the other two being Vesalius and Eustachius. Faneull (Jiln"l oTfdn'-yel), Peter, founder of Faneuil hall, Boston, Mass., was born in New Rochelle, N. Y., 1700. He was a rich merchant in Boston, and gave to the city a building for a market and town-hall. The building, which was finished just before his death in 1743, was burned in 1761, and the present one was built two years after by the town. So many important patriotic meetings were held in Faneuil hall during the revolution that it has been called the "cradle of American liberty." Faraday (f&r'-d-dd), Michael, distinguished English chemist and natural philosopher, a splendid instance of success obtained by patience, perse- verance, and genius over obstacles of birth, education, and fprtune, was born in 1791 near London. He was largely self-educated, and in 1833 became professor of chemistry in the royal institution, London, where his lectures attracted the admiration of both Europe and America. His Christmas lectures at the royal institute were professedly addressed to the young, but contain in reality much that naay well be pon- dered by the old. His manner, his unvarying success in illustration, and his felicitous choice of expression, though the subjects were often of the most abstruse nature, were such as to charm and attract all classes of hearers. Besides two sets on chemical subjects, we have his Lectures on the Physical Forces, a simple work, but in ; reality mo8t profound, even in it* aUgbtcst renaarks. But the grvat work of hia Ufeb the seriea of Experimental ReaearehM in BUetrieUy, published in the Philn»opfvieal TrmuaeHon*. Fully to understand all the diaooveriw ffontdncd in that extraordinarv lua of paper* would r«quii« a knowledge of all that has been dlaoovcred during that time aa to electricity, '"rigifti\nm, electro-magnetism, and diamagnetism. DtedLlSOT. Farel {f&'-rU'), Guillaump, Swiaa reformer, was born m Dauphin*:-, in 1489, and studied at Paris. A convert to Protestantism, he, In 1624, sustained at Basel many Protestant theses. After being twice compelled to leave Geneva, he once mur« entered it m 1534 ; and in 1535 the town-council proclaimed the reformation. The organisation of the Genevan church was undertaken by Calvin, and the severity of the ecclesiastical discipline produced a reaction, so that In 1638 the two reformers were expelled from the city. In 1557, together with Beia, Farel was sent to the Protestant princes of Germany to implore their aid for the Waldenses; and he next laborc- oi-w&T Saratoga; in 1851 made assistant-inspector of ordnance; in 1854 he was sent to construct a navy-yard in California, and in 1858, with the rank of captain, was appointed to the steam frigate Brooklyn in the home Sfjuadron. In 18(32 he was appointed to the command of a navul expedition to act against the confederates in the gulf of Mexico. On April 24th, after a heavy cannonade, his squadron passed the forts at the mouth of the Mississippi, and on the 28th he received the surrender of New Orleans. Ascend- ing the Mississippi he took Natchez. Raised to the rank of vice-admiral in March, ISG.'i, he once more passed up the Mississippi, successfully ran past the confeKlerate batteries of Fort Hudson, and aided General Grant in the combined attack on Vicksburg, which resulted in its capitulation July 4th. In August, 1864, after a furious engagement between his fleet and the confederate forts and vessels at Mobile, in which the monitor Tecumseh was sunk by a torpedo, with the loss of all on board, he succeeded in capturing the forts, which led to the fall of the city. In 1866 he attained the rank of admiral, and a purse of $50,000 was presented to him by New York merchants. He died in 1870. Farrar (fdr'-dr), Frederick WUIiam, English clergyman and author, was bom in Bombay, India, 1831; educated at London and Cam- bridge, and was ordained in the church of England in 1854. He became a master of Harrow, and from 1871 to 1876 was head master of Marlborough college. In 1876 he became canon of Westminster, in 1883 archdeacon, and in 1895 dean of Canterbury. He rwaka among the most eloquent of English pulpit orators, and published many works on educational, theo- logical, and other subjects. Chief of these are: Seekers After God; Witness of History to Chriat; The Silence and Voices of God; and the Life of Chriat. His work Eternal Hope created a sen- sation on account of its broad \new8 concerning future punishment. Died, 1903. 686 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Farrar, Geraldlne, grand opera singer, was bom at Melrose, Mass., 1882, daughter of Sydney and Henrietta (Barnes^ Farrar: graduated at Mel- rose, Mass., public school, and received her musical education at Paris and Berlin. Made d6but, Royal opera house, BerHn, as Marguerite in Faust, October, 1901. She sang with the Berlin royal opera in and after 1901; with Metropolitan opera from 1906, and has appeared frequently both in Europe and United States in concert. Fassett (fda'-it), Jacob Sloat, lawyer, capitalist, former member of congress, was born in Elmira, N. Y., 1853 ; graduated from Rochester university, 1875 : studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1878; district attorney of Chemung county, 1878-80; studied law and political economy, Heidelberg university, 1880-81 ; state senator. New York, 1884-91 ; temporary chairman of republican national convention, Minneapolis, 1892; secretary of republican national com- mittee, 1888-92: republican nominee for gov- ernor of New York, 1891, but defeated. Has large mining, cattle ranch, banking, and other interests in West. Member of congress, thirty- third New York district, 1905-11. Faunce (J6ns), William Herbert Perry, educator, C resident of Brown university since 1899, was orn at Worcester, Mass., 1859. He was grad- uated from Brown university, 1880; Newton theological seminary, 1884; D. D., Brown, 1897; Yale, 1901; Harvard, 1904; LL. D., Baylor, 1904; Alabama, 1905. Instructor in mathematics, Brown universitv, 1881-82- pastor of State Street Baptist church, Springfiela, Mass., 1884-89; pastor of P'ifth Avenue Baptist church. New York city, 1889-99; lecturer in university of Chicago, 1897-98; Lyman Beecher lecturer, Yale university, 1907-08. Author: The Educes tional Ideal in the Ministry, and many contribu- tions to religious and educational penodicals. Faure (for), Francois F^llx, president of France, was born in Paris, 1841. A Roman Catholic, though of Protestant ancestry, and a moderate republican, he was a self-made man, having been first a journeyman currier in Touraine, but ultimately a merchant and shipowner at Havre. He served as a volunteer in the Franco-German war. in 1881 became deputy for Havre, and after holding posts in several administrations, in January, 1895, succeeded Casimir-Perier as presi- dent. He died of apoplexy in 1899. Faust (Joust), Dr. Johann, "famous magician and dealer in the black art, lived in the sixteenth century. He has been made a noted character in literature, and became the hero of Goethe's Faust. Luther spoke of him as the type of the "infidel and impious man." The story is that he obtained his art from Satan, making a con- tract that the devil should serve him for twenty- four years, and at the end of that time should have possession of his soul. The contract was signed with his own blood. Marlowe and Goethe have both made the story the subject of a drama. He is said to have died in 1540. Faust, or Fust, Johann, German printerj was bom in Mainz, Germany, was associated with Guten- berg in the first introduction of printing. He probably had nothing to do with the invention of printing, but furnished the capital to intro- duce the new art. The process was kept secret at first, but, at the sacking of Mainz in 1462, Faust's workmen were scattered and the new art became public property. A Latin Bible in the Mazarin library is thought to have been printed by Gutenberg and Faust. Probable date of death, at Paris, 1466. Favart (fd'-vdr'), Charles Simon, French dramatist, was born at Paris, 1710. In 1745, as director of the Op4ra Comique, he and his wife made the first attempt to harmonize the actors' costumes with their impersonations. This excited the jealousy of the other theaters, and the Op>6ra Comique was closed in its first year. After spending some time in Flanders in the army under Marshal Saxe, Favart returned to Paris and con- tinued to write operas. His most celebrated pieces are Le Cog du Viilage; Bastien et Baatienne; Ninette it la Cour; Les Trois Sultanes; and L' Anglais d. Bordeaux. Died, 1792. Favre (Jd-vr'), Jules Claude Gabriel, French statesman and orator, was born at Lyons, 1809, studied for the bar, and was engaged in the July revolution of 1830. After this he took a promi- nent part in politics as an uneompromisine repubbcan. The coup d'itat closed his politicu career, and he returned to his profession. In 1858 he defended Orsini ; this procured his election to the legislature for Paris, and he became one of the leaders of the republicans against Napoleon III. In September, 1870. after the fall of the empire, he was appointea minister of foreign affairs, and in 1871 settled the terms for the capitulation of the capital. He resigned office in July, 1871, resumed practice at the bar, and died in 1880. Fawcett (J&sH), Henry, English statesman, was bom at Salisbury' in 1833. He graduated at Cambridge in 1856, and commenced to read for the bar. In September, 1858, when they were shooting, shots from his father's gun entered both Fawcett s eyes, totally blinding him. His Manual of Political Economy led to his; election to the chair of political economy at Cambridge in 1863, a i>ost which he held until his deatn. Other writings are The Economic Position of the British Labourer and Protection and Free Trade. He was elected to parliament in 1865, and again in 1868. He urgea measures for the abolition of religious tests at the universities, the extension of the factory acts to agricultural children, the promotion of compulsory education, the preserva- tion of commons and open spaces, and the better government of India. He strongly opposed, in 1873, Gladstone's Irish university bill. In 1874 he lost his seat for Brighton, but was elected for Hackney. He opposed legislative restrictions upon the industry of women, and was a warm supporter of their claims to representation. In 1880 he was again elected for Hackney, and Gladstone offered him the postmaster-generalship, which he accepted. Here he carried several reforms — the introduction of the parcel post, postal orders, and sixpenny telegrams. He died in 1884. Fawcett, Mlllicent Garrett, widow of Henry Fawcett, was bom at Aldeburgh, Suffolk, 1847. She has taken a keen interest in the higher educa- tion of women and the extension of the franchise to women, and received the degree of LL. D. from St. Andrews university. She was made president of the women's unionist association m 1889. Author : Political Economy for Begin- ners; Tales in Political Economy; Essays and Lectures (jointly with Henry Fawcett) ; Some Eminent Women of our Time; Life of Queen Victoria; Five Famous French Women, etc. Fawkes (Jdks), Guy, properly Guido, the head of the conspiracy known as the gunpowder plot, was born of a Protestant family in Yorkshire in the year 1570. He became a Roman CathoUc at an early age and served in the Spanish army in the Netherlands. Inspired with fanatical zeal for his new religion, on his return to England he entered into a plot to blow up the king, his ministers, and the members of both houses of parliament, November 5, 1605. He was taken with the burning match in his hand, tried, and, after having been put to the torture, was pub- licly executed in 1606. i THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 687 Ferhner (fSK'-nSr), Gustav Theodor, physicist and psychophysicist, was born at Gross-Siirclien, in lower Lusatia, 1801 ; became professor of physics at Leipzig in 1834, but afterward devoted himself to psychology; laid the foundations of the science of psychophysics in his Elementa of Psychophysics; wrote besides on the theory of color and galvanism, as well as poems and essays. Died, 1887. Felix (Je'4lks), Antonius, or Claudius, Roman gov- ernor of Judea at the time of the apostle Paul. His wife was Drusilla, according to Tacitus a granddaughter of Antony and Cleopatra. He was an energetic ruler, clearing the country of the rob- ber bands that abounded, and holding the sedi- tious Jews in check. When Paul was brought before him as a prisoner, and he heard him "con- cerning the faith in Christ," he trembled and said: "Go thy way for this time. When I have a convenient season I will call for thee." When Felix was recalled in 62 A. D. to Rome, he left Paul in prison to please the Jews. Felton {JW-tun), Cornelius Conway, American scholar, was bom in West Newbury, Mass., 1807 ; died in Chester, Pa., 1862. He was graduated from Harvard in 1827, and in 1834 received the Eliot professorship of Greek literature. Later he became a regent of the university. In 1853-54 he visited Europe and studied modem Greek. In 1858 he made a second visit to Europe and in 1860 was chosen president of Harvard, in which office he continued until the time of his death. He was also one of the regents of the Smithsonian institution. President Felton made many con- tributions to literature in the leading magazines and reviews, and published translations of modem European works arid editions of Greek classics. F^nelon (Ja'-ne'-l6N'), Francois de Sallgnac de La Mothe, eminent French preacher and author, archbishop of Cambray from 1695 to the time of his death, was born at the Chdteau de F6nelon, in P^rigord, France, 1651, and died at Cambray, 1715. As a preacher he was remarkable for his persuasive eloquence; as a writer he was dis- tinguished for his tender and mystic devotion, and for the purity of his style. Before his eleva- tion to the archbishopric, he was tutor to the grandsons of Louis XIV., for whom he composed several works, among them his best-known work, Telemachus. He was also the author of Maxims of the Saints in the Interior Life, for which he was strongly denounced by his great contemporary, Bossuet, and which was con- demned, on account of its tendency to mysticism, by Pope Innocent XII. As a man, F^nelon was distinguished for the simplicity of his character, and for his Christian piety and charity. Fenn, William Wallace, theologian, Bussey pro- fessor of theology at Harvard university smce 1901, was bom m Boston, Mass., 1862; gradu- ated from Harvard, 1884; A. M., 1887; Harvard divinity school, 1887; D. D., 1908. Entered the Unitarian ministry, 1887; minister of Unity church, Pittsfield, Mass., 1887-91, First Unita- rian society, Chicago, 1891-1901; Shaw lecturer biblical literature, Meadville theological school, 1892-1901, 1905-07; preacher to Harvard, 1896-98, 1902-05; dean of Harvard divinity school since 1906. Author: Lessons on Luke; Lessons on Acts; The Flowering of the Hebrew Religion; Lessons on Psalms, etc. Ferdinand I^ emperor of Germany, son of Philip I. of Spain and younger brother of Charles V., of Germany, was bom in 1503. On the death of his grandfather Maximilian, he received the archduchy of Austria and the other German possessions of the house of Hapsburg. He suc- ceeded his brother-in-law Louis II. of Bohemia and Hungary, and waged a long and bloody war with Zapolya for the possession of Hungary, only partially sucoeedlnff. In 1631 Ferdliuuul wm elected king of the Romans, luid in lAAO b« auo- ceeded Charles V. as emperor. He was toknmnt to the Protestants, whom be tried to reooneile with Rome. Died, 1664. Ferdinand II,, em]x>ror of Germany and king of Hungary and Bohemia, was bom in 1678. He was a grandson of Ferdinand I., and duke of Styria. His cousin, the emperor Matthias, in 1617 surrendered to him the mle of Ikihemia, and he succeeded him as emperor in 1619. His intolerance had shortly before kindled the thirty years' war. The Bohemians now ofTerps l^gislatif he opposed the war with Prussia, but as central mayor of Paris rendered signal service during the siege by the Germans; during his tenure of oflBce as minister of public instruction, in 1879 was instrumental in bringing about the expulsion of the Jesuits; as prime minister in 1880 and again in 1883-85 he inaugurated a spirited colonial policy, which involved France in war in Madagascar, and brought about his down- fall. Elected to the senate, 1890, and became its president one month before his death, 1893. Fesch (fSsh), Joseph, cardinal archbishop of Lyons, was born in Ajaccio, 1763, the half-brother of Letizia Ramolino, Bonaparte's mother. He took holy orders, but became commissary to the revolutionary army of the Alps in Italy. Having resumed the clerical habit, he helped on the concordat with Pope Pius VII. in 1801, and was raised to be archbishop of Lyons, 1802, and cardinal, 1803. In 1804 he was French ambas- sador to Rome, and two years later he was appointed associate and succe.ssor of Dalberg, prince primate of the confederation of the Rhine. At a conference of clergy in Paris in 1810 he gave utterance to views which lost him the favor of Napoleon, who was further exasperated by his letter to the pope, then in captivity at Fontaine- bleau. He retired to Lyons, and, at the approach of the Austrians in 1814, he fled to Rome, where he died in 1839. Fessenden (JW-en-den), William Pitt, American statesman, was born in New Hampshire in 1806. He graduated at Bowdoin college in 1823, and was admitted to the bar in 1827. He entered congress in 1841, served one term and was United States senator, 1854-64; secretarj' of the treasury, 1864-65; and again United States senator^ 1865-69. He voted for the acquittal of President Johnson; was one of the founders of the republican party, and distinguished him- self as a debater in the senate. He ranked among the first lawyers of his time, and made a notable reputation before the United States supreme court. Died, 1869. Fetter, Frank Albert, educator, economist, was bom in Peru, Ind.. 1863; graduated at Indiana university, 1891; Ph. M., Cornell, 1892; Ph. D., Halle, 1894; LL. D., Colgate, 1909 ; post-graduate studies at the Sorbonne and Ecole de Droit, Paris, 1892-93, and Halle, 1893-94; was a book- seller, 1883-90, Peru, Ind. ; wnner interstate ora- torical contest, Des Moines, la., 1891 ; instructor of political economy, Cornell, 1894-95; professor of Indiana university, 1895-98, Leiand Stanford Jr., 1898-1900; professor of political economy and finance, 1901-10, economics and distribution, 1910-11, Cornell; professor of economics and head department history, politics and economics since 1911, Princeton. Author: Rdationa Betvoeen Rent and Interest; The Principles of Economics; articles, monographs, etc., on economic subjects. Fetterolf, Adam H^ educator, president of Girard college, 1882-1910, was born at Perkiomen, Pa., 1841; graduate of Ursinus college; A. M., 1865, Ph. D., 1878. Lafayette college; LL. D., 1886, Delaware college. Was vice-president of Girard college, 1880-82. Member of the historical society of Pennsj'lvania, American academy of political and social science, etc. Died, 1912. Feuerbach (foi'-ir-bdK), Ludwlg Andreas, German philosopher, was bom at Landshut, 1804, and studied at Heidelberg. For a time he engaged in business, devoting his leisure to literary pursuits; but the greater part of his life was spent in retire- ment. His works include a history of modem philosophy from Bacon to Spinoza, an explosion of the philosophy of Leibnitz, The Essence of Christianity, The Essence of Religion, and God, Freedom, and Immortality. The leading principle of his philosophy, a naturalistic development of Hegelianism, is that there is no God distinct from nature and man. Died, 1872. Feuerbach, Paul Johann Ansehn von, jurist, father of the preceding, was bom at Jena, 1775, where he studied law. He had made a brilliant repu- tation by his Kritik des natiirlichen Rechts, and his Anii-Hobbes. His Lehrbuch des gemeinen peinlichen Rechts placed him at the head of the new THROUGHOUT THE WORLD ew school of rigorists. His penal code for Bavaria was taken as a basis for amending the criminal law of several other countries. In 1808-11 he fiublished a great collection of criminal cases, n his Geschworenengericht he maintained that the verdict of a jury is not adequate legal proof of a crime. Appomted a judge at Bamberg, 1814, and at Anspach, 1817. He died at Frank- fort, 18.33. FealUet (/il'-j/g'). Octave, French novelist, was born at Saint-L6, in La Manche, 1821. He started his literarv career as one of Dumas's assistants, but made nis first independent success in the lievue des Deux Mondes by a series of tales and romances begim in 1848. In 1802 he was elected a member of the academy, and later became librarian to Louis Napoleon ; his novels, of which Le Roman d'un Jeune Homme Pauvre and Sibylle are the most noted, are graceful in style, and reveal con- siderable dramatic force, but often lapse into sentimentality, and too often treat of indelicate subjects, although in no spirit of coarseness. Died, 1890. Ficbte (fiK'-te), Johann Gottlieb, German philoso- pher, was born at llammenau, in upper Lusatia. 1762. During the years 1784-88 he supported himself in a precarious way as tutor in various Saxon families. In 1791 he obtained a tutorship at Warsaw, in the house of a Polish nobleman. The situation, however, proved disagreeable, and was given up by the fastidious philosopher, who next proceeded to Konigsberg, where he had an interview with Kant, of whom he had become an ardent disciple. Here he wrote, in 1792, his Critique of all Revelation. In 1794 he was ap- Eointed to the chair of philosophy at Jena, where e commenced to expound with extraordinary zeal his system of transcendental idealism In 1798 he removed to Berlin, where he delivered lectures on philosophy to a select auditory. In 1800 there appeared his work On the Destiny of Man. In 1805 he obtained the chair of philoso- phy at Erlangen, with the privilege of residing at Berlin in the winter. Here he delivered his celebrated lectures On the Natiire of the Scholar. The victories of Napoleon at Auerstadt and Jena drew forth Addresses to the Germans. These addresses were full of the most exalted enthu- siasm. The Prussian king appreciated the zeal of the eloquent metaphysician, and, on the restoration of peace, requested him to draw up a new constitution for the Berlin university. In 1810 the university was opened with a host of brilliant names, Fichte, Wolff, Miiller, Humboldt, De Wette, Schleiermacher, Neander, Klaproth, and Savngny. By the votes of his colleagues Fichte was unanimously elected rector. He died in 1814. Flck, August, German philologist, was bom near Minden, 1833, studied at Gottingen, and became professor there in 1876, and at Breslau in 1887. He retired in 1891. His great comparative Indo- Germanic dictionary has been followed by works on Greek personal names, the original language of the Iliad, etc. Field, Cyrus West, founder of the Atlantic cable company was bom at Stockbridge, Mass., 1819. He first became a clerk in New York, but soon had a prosperpus business of his own. Being joined by Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor, and other American capitalists, he organized, in 1854, the New York, Newfoundland, and London tele- graphic company, and, in 1856, the Atlantic telegraph company. Devoting himself entirely to the work of uniting the old and new worlds, he crossed the ocean nearly thirty times in its prosecution ; and on the laying of the first cable, 1858, was received by his countrymen with enthusiastic plaudits. He continued his exer- tions, and on the success of the cable of 1866 received a gold medal from congrcM and • vot« of thanks from the Amcriowi nation. In 1871 Field was one of the origiDatora of the oompany which undertook to lay a cable acroM the Paelfio ocean via the Sandwich inlands to China and Japan. From 1876-80 he was acUvelv engaged in the rapid-transit problcma in New York, and became largely identirietry, which he soon gave up for prose. Flaubert's life was extremely uneventful; in his youth some obscure form of brain-disease to some extent arrested his intel- lectual development. He was a very late pro- ducer, and his works, when they tiid anpear, were marked by a strong and morbid idiosyn- crasy. His works include Madame Bovary; Salammbd; L'Education SentimetUaU; La TentO' tion de St. Antoine; Le Candidal; Troia ConU*, and Bouvard et Picuchet. Died, 1880. Flaxman, John, greatest o£ English sculptors, was born at York, 1755. At the age of fifteen be became a student in the royal academy, but never worked in the studio of any master. He was elected an associate of the royal academy in 1797, royal academician in 1800, and in 1810 was appointed professor of sculptor to that institution. Of his sculptures, the best known in England are his monument to the poet Collins at Chichester, the monument to Lord Mansfield, and that to the Baring family at Micheldean church, Hampshire. His model for the shield of Achilles, taken from the eighteenth book of the Iliad, is one of the finest achievements of modem art. He produced two series of outline illustrations of Homer and ./Eschylus, a series of illustrations of Dante, and also one of scriptural compositions. Died, 1826. Fleming, Sir Sandford, chancellor of Queen's uni- versity, Canada, since 1880, was bom in Scot- land in 1827. He has lived in Canada since 1845; extensive practice as chief engineer of railway and other public works; constructed the Inter-Colonial railway through provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec; engineer-in-chief of Canadian Pacific railway, 1871-80; president of royal society of Canada. 1888-89; has for many years taken a special interest in the movement for establishing the Pacific cable and a pan-Britannic telegraph service, having state-owned tel^raph conunu- nications encircling globe, and constituting a great imperial intelligence union, in the unifica- tion of time reckoning throughout the world. Author: The Inter-Colonial: a History, 1832-76; England and Canada; Old to New WestminaUr; Time and Its Notation; Memoirs on Univeraal Time and a Prime Meridian for All Nations; The New Time Reckoning. Fletcher, Andrew, Scotch patriot and publicist, was bom in Saltoun, East Lothian, 1655. After some years of travel he sat in the Scottish par- liament in 1681, arid offered so determined an opposition to the measures of the duke of York that he had to flee to England, and thence to Holland. Here he formed fast friendship with the refugee English patriots, and on his return to England in 1683 shared the counsels of Russell, Sidney, and others. After the Rye-house plot, Fletcher fled to Holland, returned as a volunteer with Monmouth, but having shot the mayor of Lyme in a quarrel, fled to Spain, was imprisoned, but delivered. He fought in Hungary against the Turks, and returned to Scotland at the revolution. His orations in the Scottish par- liament still glow with eloquence, and carry the stamp of genuine sincerity. After the union of Scotland with England, he retired in disgust from public life, devoting himself to promoting agriculture. He died at London in 1716. Fletcher, Duncan Cpshaw, lawyer. United States senator, was bom in Sumter county, Ga., 1859. He was graduated from Vanderbilt university. Nashville, Tenn., 1880; studied law there, and 694 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT has practiced law in Jacksonville since 1881, in state and federal courts, including the United States supreme court. He was a member of the Florida legislature in 1893; mayor of Jack- sonville, 1893-95, and 1901-03; chairman of board of public instruction, Duval county, 1900- 06; chairman of democratic state executive committee, 1905-08, and was elected United States senator for the term 1909-15. Fletcher, Horace, author, lecturer, was bom at Lawrence, Mass., 1849. He was educated at Dartmouth college; has traveled to all parts of the world since 1865, and engaged in numerous occupations. Since 1895 he has devoted his attention to sociology, and especially to scientific research in human nutrition, in chemical-physio- logical laboratories of university of Cambridge, England, and Yale university. Author: A B C of Snap Shooting; Menticidture; Happiness; That Last Waif, or Social Quarantine; What Sense? or Economic Nutrition; Nature's Food Filter, or What and When to Swallow; Glutton or Epicure; A B-Z Our Own Nutrition. Fletcher, John, English dramatist, whose name is inseparably associated with that of his friend and co-worker. Francis Beaumont, was bom in Northamptonshire, in 1579. He was educated at Cambridge with Beaumont, and it was there the intimacy began that led to their future collaborations. It is said that Beaumont sup- plied the judgment and Fletcher the fancy. The chief piece of his own unaided composition is a dramatic pastoral entitled The Faithful Shepherdess. The collaborated plays, such as The Scornful Lady, and Hule a Wife and Have a Wife, were during two centuries the delight of the stage. Died, 1625. Fleury {flU'^i'), Andr£ Hercule de. Cardinal, French statesman and prelate, was bom at Lodfeve, 1653. He became almoner to Louis XIV., in 1698 bishop of Fr^jus, and preceptor to Louis XV., who in 1726 made him prime minister. In the same year he received the cardinal's hat. He was honest and well-meaning, but his statesmanship is often criticised. In foreign affairs he earnestly desired peace, but was dragged by court intrigues into the war of the Austrian succession. Died, 1743. Fleury, Claude, French historian and ecclesiastic, was born at Paris, 1640; was tutor to various princes, prior of Argenteuil, and confessor to young Louis XV. Among his numerous works were: Maeurs des IsraUites; Maeurs des Chritiens; Droit Ecclisiastique; and the great Histoire Ecdisiastique — really the first complete church history, on which he labored thirty years. Fleury's avra work only reached to 1414; it was continued to 1778 by others. Died, 1723. Flexner, Simon, American physician, was bom at Louisville, Ky., 1863. He graduated at the university of Louisville, M. D., 1889; post- graduate student of Johns Hopkins, universities of Strassburg and Berlin; D. Sc, Harvard, 1906; was associate professor and professor of patho- logical anatomy, Johns Hopkins, 1891-99; pro- fessor of pathology, university of Pennsylvania, 1899-1904; director of Ayer clinical laboratory, Pennsylvania hospital, 1901 ; pathologist. Uni- versity hospital and Philadelphia hospital, 1900, and director of laboratories of Rockefeller institute for medical research. New York, since 1903. He is the author of various monographs and papers relating to pathology and bacteriology, snake venom, bubonic plague, cerebro-spinal meningitis, bacillary dysentery, infantile par- alysis, and other infectious diseases, etc. Flint, Austin, American physician and medical writer, was bom at Petersham, Mass., 1812. After graduation from the medical department of Harvard, he settled to practice in his native state. In 1836 he moved to Buffalo, N. Y., where, in 1847, he assisted in founding the medical department of the university of Buffalo, filling the chair of principles and practice of medicine. In 1859 he moved to New York. He was president of the New York academy of medicine, 1872—85. He is the author of a treatise on the diseases of the heart, Principles and Practice of Medicine, and Manual of Ausculia- tioii and Percussion. Died, at New York, 1886. Flint, Austin, American phvsician and physiolo- gist, son of preceding, was born in Northampton, Mass., 1836. He removed to Buffalo in infancy; was educated at private schools, Buffalo, and at Harvard college; studied medicine in office and at medical department, university of Louisville, 1854-56; graduate of Jefferson medical college, 1857; LL. D., 1885; nracticeti in Buffalo, 1857-59; editor of Buffalo Medical Journal, 1857-60; professor of physiology, medical depart- ment, university of Buffalo, 1858-59, visiting surgeon, Buffalo general hospital, 1858. Re- moved to New York, 1859; professor of physi- ology, New York medical college, 1859-60, New Orleans school of medicine, 1860-61 ; acting- assistant surgeon, United States army at general hospital. New York, 1862-65. One of founders and professor of physiology, 1861-98, Bellevue hospital medical college; professor of physi- ology. Long Island college hospital, 1862^68; Cornell university medical college since 1898. Author: Physiology of M an, five vols. ; Chemical Examination of the Urine in Disease ; Physiologi- cal Effects of Severe and Prolonged Muscular Strain; Text-Book of Human Physiology; Source of Muscular Power; Handbook of Phynology, etc. Also many articles on medical and physiological subjects in medical periodicals and transactions. Flint, Cbaiies Ranlett, merchant, banker, was bom at Thomaston, Me., 1850. He was euucated at the polytechnic institute, Brooklyn. Organized firm of Gilchrist, Flint and Company, ship chandlers, 1871; firm of W. R. Grace and Com- pany, 1872; Chilean consul. New York, 1877-79; consul of Nicaragua at New York, 1880; presi- dent of United States electric lighting company, 1885; joined firm Flint and Company, 1885; consul-general of Costa Rica at New York, 1889-90; United States delegate international conference American republics, 1889-90; fitted out fleet of war vessels for Brazilian republic, 1895: purchased cruiser Esmeralda from Chile and delivered to Japan during Chinese-Japanese war, 1896; established Pacific Coast clipper line between New York and San Francisco, 1896. Confidential agent of United States in negotiating for war vessels preparatory to the war with Spain ; has devoted much time to the consolida- tion of industrial concerns, which has caused him to be known as the "father of trusts." Flint, Frank Putnam, lawyer, ex-United States senator, was bom in North Reading, Mass., 1862. In 1869 his parents moved to San Francisco, where he was educated in the public schools. In 1888 he moved to Los Angeles, was admitted to practice law and appointed assistant United States attorney in 1892. In 1897 was appointed United States district attorney for the southern district of California, 1897-1901, and was elected to the United States senate in 1905, to succeed Hon. Thtomas R. Bard. Flint, Robert, British educator and philosophical writer, was bom in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 1838. He was educated at Glasgow university, and became parish minister. East church, Aberdeen, 1859-62, Kilconquhar, 1862-64; professor of moral philosophy and political economy, St. Andrews university, 1864-76; Baird lecturer, 1876-77; Stone lecturer, Princeton university, 1880; Croall lecturer, Edinburgh, 1887-88; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 606 professor of divinity, Edinburgh university, 1876-1903 ; was correspondent of the institute of' France. Author: Christ's Kingdom on Earth; Philosophy of History in Europe; Theism; Anti- Theistic Theories; Historical Philosophy in France; Socialism; Sermons and Addresses; Agnosticism; and a volume on theological, biblical, and other subjects. He was also a con- tributor to a number of encyclopedias and various periodicals. Died, 1910. Flotow (flo'-to), Friedrlcli, Frclhcrr von, German composer, was born at Teutondorf in Mecklen- burg, 1812. He studied music under Reicha, in Pans, and made his reputation by Le Naufrage de la Mlduse, Stradella, and Mart/ia, the last two characterized by pleasing melody. His later operas were /ruira, La Veuve Grapin, and L'Ojntrc. From 1856 to 1863 he was director of the theater at Schwerin. He died at Darmstadt, Germany, 1883. Flourens (JlSd'-r&iis'), Marie Jean Pierre, French physiologist, was born at Maureilhan, France, 1794. He attracted attention by works on the nervous system, and, after lecturing for Cuvier, 1828-30, became perpetual secretary of the academy of sciences, 1833, professor at the College de France, 1835, and member of the academy, 1840. He was elected to the chamber of deputies in 1838, and made a peer of France in 1846. He wrote on the development and nutrition of the bones, the skin, and mucous membranes, the longevity of man, and animal instinct, besides a series of Elogea Historiques. Died, 1867. Flower, Sir William Henry, English zoologist, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, 1831. He served as assistant surgeon in the Crimean war, and became demonstrator of anatomy at the Mid- dlesex hospital. He was appointed in 1861 conservator of the Hunterian museum, in 1869 Hunterian professor of comparative anatomy and physiology, and in 1884-98 was natural history director at the British museum. He wrote on anatomy, zoology, anthropology, the osteology of mammalia, etc. In 1892 he was created a K. C. B. Died at London, 1899. Foley (Jd'4l), John Henry, Irish sculptor, was bom in Dublin, 1818. He was elected in 1849 an associate, and in 1858 a member of the royal academy. His works are very numerous. Among them are the statues of Hampden and Selden in the houses of parliament at Westmins- ter, and that of Prince Albert, which forms a part of the Albert memorial in Hvde Park, London. Statues of Burke, J. S. Mill, Goldsmith, and others brought him further fame. His vigor and genius were further revealed in the noble eques- trian statues of Hardinge and Outram. He designed the seal of the Confederate States of America, and executed a statue of Stonewall Jackson for the state of South Carolina. Died, 1874. Folk, Joseph Wlngate, lawj'er, former governor of Missouri, was bom in Brownsville, Tenn., 1869. He was graduated at Vanderbilt university, and was admitted to the bar in 1890. He was circuit attorney, -St. Louis, 1900-04, and prose- cuted mmaerous bribery cases. From 1905 to 1909 he was governor of Missouri. Fontana (fon-ta' -na), Domenico, celebrated Italian architect, was born on the borders of Lake Como in 1543. He obtained the favorable notice of Cardinal Montalto, who engaged him to plan the dome and lantern on St. Peter's according to Michaelangelo's design, and to erect the Capella del Principlo in Santa Maria del Maggiore and also the Villa Negroni. He erected the obeHsk near St. Peter's, Rome, in 1586, and built the Lateran palace and Vatican Ubrary. Other important works were also confided to him by the pope. He died in 1607. FonteneUe (/dsf-nil'), Beraard le Bovfer da, eminent French writer, was bom at Rouen, 1657. He was a nephew of Corneille, the great tragic poet, and in 1699 was appointed perpetual secretary of the academy of sciences. Uia reputation rests chieflv upon Dialogues of th$ Dead, Discourse on the Plurality of Worldt, and an Essay on the Geometry of the Infinite. Hl» long life, extending over nearly one hundred yeari, was filled with literary activities, and, aa a man of the world, liis brilliant, though somewhat cynical wit, gave him a great reputation among his contemporaries. Died, 1757. Foote, Andrew Hull, American naval officer, waa bom in New Haven, Conn., 1806. Entering the United States navy in 1822, he became a com- mander in 1852, saw service in China in 1856, and, after the outbreak of the civil war, actea with signal credit in the reduction of Forts Henry and Donaldson, 1862. In the same year he was promoted to rear-admiral. Died, 1863. Foote, Mary Hallock, author, artist, was bom In Milton, N. Y., 1847. She married Arthur D. Foote, a civil engineer, and lived some years in Colorado, Idaho, and California. Studied art in New York; has done much work in black and white for magazines and book illustration. Author: The Led Horse Claim; John Bodewin'a Testimony; The Last Assembly Ball; The Chosen Valley; In Exile, and Other Stories; Cceur d'Alene; The Cup of Trembling, and Other Stones; The Little Fia Tree Stories; The Prodi- gal; The Desert and the Sown; A Touch of Sun, and Other Stories. Foraker (fdr'-d-ker), Joseph Benson, lawyer, iurist. United States senator, 1897-1909, was bom in 1846, on farm near Rainsboro, Plighland county, Ohio. Enlisted July 14. 1862, m the 89th Ohio volimteer infantry, ana served to end of war, becoming first lieutenant and brevet captain; graduated at Cornell, 1869; admitted to bar and began practice at Cincinnati, 1869; judge of superior court, Cincinnati, 1879-82; resigned on account of ill-health; republican candidate for governor of Ohio, 1883; defeated, but elected governor in 1885 and 1887; again defeated, 1889, for same office; chairman of republican conventions, Ohio, 1886, 1890, 1896, 1900; delegate-at-large from Ohio republican national conventions, 1884-1904; m con- ventions of 1892 and 1896, served as chairman of conamittee on resolutions, and as such reported the platform each time to the convention; presented name of William McKinley to the conventions of 1896 and 1900 for nomination to the presidency. He was elected to the United States senate in 1896, reelected in 1902, and served as one of the conspicuous members of that body until 1909. Forbes, Archibald, British war correspondent, special correspondent of the London Dauy News, was bom at Boharm Manse, Keith, Scotland. 1838. He was for some years in the royal dragoons, but in 1870-71 went through the Franco-German war as war-correspondent; and thenceforward, whether in Spain with the Carlista, in Cvprus, in the Russo-Turkish campaign, or in the ^ulu war of 1879, he accustomed the British public to expect feats of unexampled audacity, swiftness, tact, and pluck in securing and trans- mitting his vivid notes of events at the front. He lectured in Great Britain, America, and Australia, and wrote Drawn from Life; Ghmpsea Through the Cannon Smoke; Chinese Gordon; Studies of War and Peace; Napoleon III., etc. Died, 1900. Forbes-Robertson, Johnston, English actor, was bom in London in 1853. He was educated at Charterhouse, London, at Rouen, and at the royal academy of arts. Actor from the age of 696 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT twenty-one; eventually the leading actor at Bancroft's and Hare's theaters, in London. He has been theatrical manager since 1896. His first success was the part of Sir Horace Welby in Forgel-me-^not. He subsequently played Romeo, Hamlet, and Macbeth in a most impressive man- ner. He was the chief support of Mrs. Patrick Campbell in her tour of the United States. Appeared in Passing of the Third Floor Back in London and America, 1908-11. Ford, John, EnglLsh dramatist, was bom at Ilsing- ton, Devonshire, 1586 ; studied at Exeter col'ege, Oxford, and entered the Middle Temple in 1602. His first work was an elegy on the earl of Devon- shire, entitled Fame's Memorial. Among those following were: Honour Triumphant; An III Be- ginning Has a Good End; The Lover's Melancholy; The Broken Heart; Love's Sacrifice; The Chronide History of Perkin Warbeck; The Fancies Chaste and Noble, and The Lady's Trial. His two great tragedies, 'Tis Pity and The Broken Heart, are not far inferior to Webster's masterpieces. Died, 1039. Ford, Paul Leicester, American author, was bom in Brooklyn, N. Y., 1865. He was educated privately, owing to physical deformity, and early devoted himself to literature. Author: The Honorable Peter Stirling; The True George Wash- ington; The Many Sided Franklin; Janice Meredith; Wanted: A Chaperon, etc. Died at New York, 1902. Fordney, Joseph Warren, lawyer, congressman, was born in Blackford county, Ind., 1853; received a common school education, living with his parents on a farm until sixteen vears of age; removed to Saginaw, Mich., 1869; began life in the lumber woods, logging and estimating pine timber, thus acquiring a thorough knowledge of the pine land and lumber industry, which has occupied his attention since- was vice-president of the Saginaw board of trade ; elected alderman in 1895 and reelected in 1897; has served as member of congress conthiuously since 1899. Forgan, James Berwick, financier, president of First national bank, Chicago, was bom at St. Andrews, Scotland, 1852. lie was educated at Madras college and Forres academy, Scotland. His first employment was with the royal bank of Scotland for about three years; later with bank of British North America, with assignments to Montreal, New York, and Halifax; was later paying teller, afterward inspector of agencies. Dank of Nova Scotia; established agency in Minneapolis, of which he was manager for three years. About 1888 he became cashier and manager of the Northwestern national bank; came to First national bank, Chicago, as vice- president, 1892. He succeeded Lyman J. Gage as president of the latter. Forrest, Edwin, celebrated American actor, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., 1806. He went on the stage at fourteen, and finally made his way to New York, where his rendering of Othello at the age of twenty raised him to the front rank among actors. He made three tours in England, but during his last in 1845 he entirely lost the popular favor through his conduct in an embit- tered quarrel with Macready. After his final appearance on the stage in 1871 he continued for a short time to give Shakespearian readings. In the parts of Richard III., Macbeth, and Othello, his acting was of the highest order, and in his profession he ama-ssed a large fortune. He built a stone castle on the Hudson, now a Catholic convent, and established an asylum for aged and indigent actors. He left a splendid library exceedingly rich in Shakespearean literature, which was destroyed by fire in 1873. Died, 1872. Forster, John, English political and historical writer, was bom at Newcastle, 1812. He was educated for the bar, but in 1832 became the dramatic critic of the True Sun. His political articles in the London Examiner attracted atten- tion; and he edited successively the Foreign Quarterly Review, the Daily News, and, 1847-56, the Examiner. He was the author of many admirable biographical and historical essavs: Lives of the Stalesmcn of tfic Commonwealth; Debates on the Grand Remonstrance; Arrest of the Five Members, and Sir John Eliot, a Biography. His literary memoirs are Life and Times of Goldsmith; Landor; Life of Dickens, and a Life of Swift. He was appointed secretary to the commissioners in lunacy in 1855, and commis- sioner in 1861. He died in 1876. ForKter, William Edward, English statesman, waa born of Quaker parentage at Brad pole, Dorset- shire, 1818. He abandoned the bar for a post in a worsted manufactory at Burley-in-Wharfe- dale near Bradford. In 1861 he entered parlia- ment for Bradford. Under-secretary for the colonies, 1865-66, he became in 1868 vice-presi- dent of the council on education and a privy- councillor. In 1870 he accepted a seat m the cabinet, and carried the elementarv education bill; in 1872 he piloted the ballot bill through the commons. In 1874 he visited the United States. On Gladstone's retirement from the liberal leadership in 1875, Forster and Lord Hartington were named for the post, but Forster decUned it, on the ground that he could not hope to unite the various sections of the party. That year he was elected lord rector of Aberdeen university. Under the Gladstone administration of 1880 I'^'orster was chief -secretary for Ireland in troublous times. He was attacked unceasingly in parliament by the Irish members, and his life was threatened by the "invincibles." A land act was passed m 1881, but a coercion act seemed necessary; and when the land league issued its "no rent" manifesto, Forster pro- claimed the league illegal. Pamell and several of his party were arrested. When, in April, 1882, a majority of the cabinet determinea to release the suspects, Forster and Lord Cowper (the lord-lieutenant) resigned. A strong oppo- nent of home rule, he died in London, 1886. Forsyth (fOr-sith'), John, American statesman, was bom in Virginia, 1780. He practiced law in Georgia, was elected attorney-general of that state in 1808, and sat in congress from 1813 to 1818, when he became United States senator. In 1819 he resigned to become minister to Spain, and negotiated the Florida cession with that country. From 1823 to 1827 he was again in congress, then governor of Georgia one term, and in 1829 was again elected senator. In 1834 he resigned and served as secretary of state iinder Jackson and his successor, van Buren, imtil 1841. He died in 1841. Fortescue (J6r'-Vts-ku), Sir John, English jurist, was born in Somerset about 1394, and educated at Exeter college, Oxford. Admitted to the bar, he was in 1441 made sergeant-at-law, and in 1442 lord chief-justice of the king's bench. Adhering to the house of Lancaster, he was accused of treason under Edward IV. He accompanied Margaret of Anjou and her son into Scotland, and there was probably appointed lord chancellor by Henry VI. In 1463 he embarked with them for Holland, and during his exile wrote his celebrated De Laudibus Legum AnglicB for the instruction of Prince Edward. On the final defeat of the Lancastrians at Tewkes- burj', 1471, Fortescue submitted to Edward IV. The De Laudibus was not printed until 1537; another valuable work is Tfie Governance of England. Died, 1476. Fortuny (/or-WB'-w*), Mariano, Spanish painter, was bom at Reus in Tarragona, 1839. When THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 007 Spain declared war asainst Morocco, Fortunv followed the arm}', and filled liis portfolios with studies of eastern life. His celebrated pictures are "The Spanish Marriage," "Book-lover in the Library of Richelieu," and "Academicians Choosing a Model." He died at Home in 1874. Foscarl {fds'-k&-re), Francesco, was born about 1372. He was named procurator to St. Mark's at Venice in 1415, and became doge of that city in 1423. His armies defeated the Turks. His son James was accused by his enemies of having assassinated Ermolao Donati, a senator, and he was in consequence sent into exile, where he died. This event caused such affliction to the doge that it drove him mad, and he was forced to abdicate in 1457. He survived his loss of power but two days. Foss, Eugene Noble, manufacturer, governor, was bom in West Berkshire, Vt., 1858; studied at university of Vermont; entered manufactory at Boston, 1882; treasurer and general manager B. F. Sturtevant and Co. ; president of Becker milling machine company, Mead-Morrison manu- facturing company; director of Chicago Junction railwavs and Union stock yards company, Brooklyn rapid transit company, Manhattan railway company, Hyde Park national bank. Elected to congress from Massachusetts, 1910, and governor of state in same year; reelected governor 1911 and 1912. Prominent in advocacy of tariff revision and reciprocity. Foss, George Edmund, lawyer, ex-congressman, was born at Berkslij re, Franklin county, Vt., 1863. He graduated from Harvard university in 1885: attended the Columbia law school and school of political science in New York city; graduated from the Union college of law of Chicago in 1889; admitted to the bar the same year and began the practice of law in Chicago. He never held any political office until elected to the fifty-fourth congress, 1895. He subsequently represented the 7th lUinois district, 1895-1903, and the 10th district, 1903-13. Foss, Sam Walter, poet, librarian, was bom at Candia, N. H., 1858; graduated at Brown, 1882; editor, 1883-94; general writer, 1894-98; librarian, Somerville, Mass., public library, 1898-1911. Was lecturer and reader of his own poems. Author: Back Country Poems; Whiffs from Wild Meadows; Dreams in Homespun; Songs of War and Peace; Songs of the Average Man, etc. Died, 1911. Foster, George Eulas, minister of trade and com- merce, Canada, since 1911; member of parliament, North Toronto, since 1904 ; was born in New Bruns- wick, Canada, 1847; educated at the university of New Brunswick, Edinburgh university, and Heidelberg. Professor of classics, university of New Brunswick, 1872-79; entered politics, 1882, and represented Kings, New Brunswick, 1882-96; ran for York, 1896, and sat for that constituency until 1900; contested city of St. John, New Brunswick, 1900; became minister of marine in Sir John A. Macdonald's govern- ment, 1885; finance minister, 1888, in same ministry, and since under Sir John Abbott, Sir John Thompson, Sir Mackenzie Bowell, and Sir Charles Tupper. He is a strong supporter of adequate protection for Canadian industries, the development of Canada by railway and steamship facilities. Foster, John Watson, lawyer, diplomat, was bom in Pike county, Ind., 1836. He was graduated from Indiana university, 1855; student one year at Harvard law school; LL. D., Princeton, iPennsylvania, Yale, Wabash college; admitted to Indiana bar, and practiced at Evansville, 1857-61; entered the Union army in 1861 as major of the 25th Indiana volunteers, and was fromoted to Ueutenant-rolonel and colonel in ndiana regiment*, and brevplU-d brigii'-k5'\ Jean Bernard Lfon, French Ehysicist, was bom at Paris, 1819. From 1856 eheld an appointment in the Paris observatory. He demonstrated the rotation of the earth by 098 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT means of a graduated disk, invented the gyroscope and introduced physics into the study of as- tronomy. Died, 1808. Fouch6 (Jdb'-afM'), Joseph, duke of Otranto, French revolutionist and statesman, was bom near Nantes in 1763. In 1792 lie obtained a seat in the national convention, and on the trial of Louis XVI. voted for death without appeal. He became president of the Jacobins in 1794, but lost that situation through the fall of Robes- pierre, when he was imprisoned as a dangerous terrorist. At a later period he became Napoleon Bonaparte's minister of police, and in 1809 was created duke of Otranto. He incurred Bona- parte's displeasure by using on one occasion these words — "Let us prove that Napoleon'.s presence is not necessary to repel our enemies." Subsequently, Bonaparte having returned from Elba, Fouch6 again became minister of police. He advised Bonaparte to abdicate after the battle of Waterloo, was placed at the head of the pro- visional government bj" the chambers, and nego- tiated with the allies. He was sent as ambassa- dor to Dresden. In 1816 he was deprived of his estates. Died, 1820. Foulke (Jolk), William Dudley, author, pub- licist, was born in New York, 1848. He was graduated from Colunabia, 1869, and Columbia law school, 1871. Removed to Indiana, 1876; member of state senate, 1883-85; formerly presi- dent of Indiana civil 8er^-ice reform association, American woman's suffrage association , Ameri- can proportional representation league; chair- man of suffrage congress. World's Columbian exposition, 1893. United States civil service commissioner, 1901-03. Author: Slav or Saxon; Life of Oliver P. Morton; Maya, a Story of Yiicalan; Protean Papirs; frequent contributor to magazines on history and other subjects. Fouqu£ (j^'-ka'), Frledrich Helnrlch Karl de la Motte, famous German novelist and poet, was born in Brandenburg, 1777. When young he was a soldier and fought against Napoleon, but his health obliged him to leave the army. He then gave himself up to study, and wrote many charming stories. Undine and Sintram are the best ; they are read and loved by both young and old. He died in Berlin, 1843. Fourier (J<5d'-re-a'), Francois Marie Charles, famous French socialist, was bom in Besangon, 1772. He served on the Rhine during the revolutionary period, and afterward embarked in trade, at the same time earnestly studying the problem involved in the modem social system of man- kind. In 1808 he disseminated his peculiar views on socialism by the publication of a work entitled A Theory of Four Movements and General Desti- nies, which in 1822 was reproduced in a completed form under the name of A Treatise on Domestic and Agricultural Association. A supplement to it appeared later, styled The New World of Industry and Society. In 1831 he established a news- paper called the Phalange, for the better exposi- tion of his doctrines, w'hence he has been some- times called "the Phalansterian." Died, 1837. Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, baron, celebrated French geometrician, was born at Auxerre in 1768. When eighteen years of age he filled the chair of mathematics at the military school of I that place, and was named professor to the j polytechnic school. He accompanied the French expedition to Egypt, where his labors were not unimportant. In 1802 he was appointed prefect of the Is^re, and in 1815 of the Rh6rie. Being afterward displaced, he gave himself up entirely to scientific studies; was admitted in 1817 -a inember of the academy of sciences, and exer- cised with Cuvier the ' functions of perpetual secretary. His chief works are Annnles de Physique, Thiorie Analytique de la Chaleur, RSeherchea Statisquea mr la Ville de Paris, and the Analyse des Equations dUerminies. The last work is posthumous, being completed under the inspection of M. Navier, and published in Paris in 1831. He died in 1830. Fowler, Charles Newell, lawyer, former member of congress, was bom at Lena, III., 1852; gradu- ated from Yale university, 1876, Chicago law school, 1878. He was a rnember of the United States house of representatives from New Jersey from 1895-1911, and was a pronainent advocate of financial reform. Fox, Charles James, English statesman, was bom in Westminster. 1749, the third son of Henry Fox, Lord Holland, who early inducted him into gambling and the other fashionable vices, which clung to him through life. He was edu- cated at Eton and at Hertford college, Oxford, entered parliament at the age of nineteen as member for Midhurst, and, having immediately made his mark as a debater, became a lord of the admiralty, and was in 1773 nominated lord of the treasury. However, he soon quarreled with Lord North. In 1782 he became secretary of state under Lord Rockingham, but on the latter's death, in the same year, refused to serve under Lord Shelburne. His name was struck off the list of privy councillors, and in 1797 he retire*! from parliamentary Ufe to superintend the education of his nephew. Lord Holland, and to write the History of the Reign of James II. When his great rival, Pitt, formed his last admin- istration, he wished Fox to join it, but the king gave a steady refusal. The regency, the trial of Warren Hastings, the French revolution, and the events whicn followed it gave ample scope to the talents and energies of Fox, and on all occasions he employed his influence to modify, if not to counteract, the policy of his great rival. He was a strenuous opponent of the war with France, and an advocate of those non-interven- tion views which find greater favor in our day than they did in his. On Pitt's death^ in 1806, the king was at last obliged to admit him to office, and Fox became foreign secretarj' in Grenville's ministry. But the term of his life had nearly run out, and he had no time to realize the high expectations of his followers. His last motion in parUament was directed against the slave trade, and he died at Chiswick in 1806, a few months before the measure founded upon it passed into law. He was admittedly the first orator of his time; was also a man of wide reading, and showed himself equal to sacrifices to principle such as few statesmen have cared to make. Fox, George, founder of the society of Friends, was bom in County Leicester, England, 1624. Early adopting the peculiar tenets and manners kno\\'n as Quakerism, he suffered for many years continual persecution. His leading doctrines or convictions were the futility of learning for the work of the ministry, the presence of Christ in the heart as the "inner light" superseding all other lights, and the necessity of trying men's opinions and religions by the Holy Spirit, and not by the scriptures. In 1655 he was brought to London and examined before Cromwell, who quickly saw that there was nothing in Quakerism to excite his apprehensions, and pronounced the doctrines and the character of its founder to be irreproachable. In 1671 he sailed for the West Indies and the American colonies, to propagate the doctrines of the sect he had originated; and on his return to England, in 1673, he was again imprisoned, but soon released through the influ- ence of William Penn. After the accession of William III. to the throne, the public worship of the society of Friends became tolerated and legalized. He died in London, 1691. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD eoB Fox« John, Jfm American novelist, was bom in Kentucky, 1863. and was graduated from Har- vard in 1S83. After some experience in iournal- ism, he traveled in southern states and California, and afterward engaged in business at Cumber- land Gap, where Re had ample opportunity for the study of mountain life. Author: A Moun- tain Europa; A Cumberland Vendetta; Hell-for- Sartain; The Kentuckians; Crittenden; Blue Grass and Rfiododendron; The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come; Follouring the Sun Flag; Knight o/" the Cumberland; The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, etc. Foxe, John, English martyrologist, was born at Boston, in Lincolnshire, 1516. At sixteen he entered Brasenose college, Oxford, and was a fellow of Magdalen, 1538-46; was tutor to the son of the earl of Surrey, executed in 1547. During the reign of Mary he retired to the conti- nent, where he met Knox, Grindal, and Whit- tingham. On Queen Elizabeth's accession he was pensioned by his old pupil, the duke of Norfolk, and received a prebend of Salisbury cathedral, 1563. He lived chiefly in London, and often preached. For a year he held a stall at Durham, but was debarred from further preferment by objection to the surplice. He published numerous books, but the one upon which his fame rests is popularly known as Foxe' 8 Book of Martyrs. Died, 1587. Fragonard (frd'-go'-nar'), Jean Honor£, French painter, was born at Grasse, 1732, and gained the prix de Rome in 1752. In 1765 he received 2,400 francs from Louis XV. for his "Callirrhoe," commissioned for reproduction in Gobelins tapestry. He painted, with a loose touch and luscious coloring, genre pictures of contemporary life, and is also known by his landscapes. He is represented in the Louvre by such works as "Bacchante Endormie" and "La Chemise Enl^vee." Died, 1806. France (/rciNs), Jacques Anatole Thibault, French author, member of French academy, was bom in Paris, 1844, and educated at College Stanislaus. Author: Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard; La Rdtisserie de la reine Pldauque; La Lys Rouge; L'Etui de nacre; Balthazar; Thais; La Vie Littiraire; Le Mannequin d'Osier; Vie de Jeanne d'Arc, and many other books. Received Nobel prize for literature, 1912. Francia (Jran'-se-a), Jos6 Caspar Sodri^ez, dic- tator of Paraguay, was born near Asuncion, about 1757. He studied theology, took his degree as doctor, and was a professor of divinity. Next he practiced law for thirty years with a high reputation. He was past fifty when the revolution which shattered the Spanish yoke in South America broke out. He took a leading part in the movement in Paraguay, and on the declaration of independence in 1811 became secretary of the national junta, in 1813 one of the two consuls, and in 1814 dictator — first for three years, and then for life. Under his firm rule, which excluded all foreign intercourse, Paraguay rapidly improved. Though politically despotic, he improved agriculture, promoted education, repressed superstition, and enforced strict justice in his law-courts, however little he regarded it for himself. Died, 1840. Francis 1^ king of France, was born at Cognac, France, 1494, and became king in 1515. His first act was to reconquer Milan. Charles V'., Henry VIII., and the pope were in alliance against him, driving his troops out of Italy and invading France on the nortn. Taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia, 1525, Francis was kept a year at Madrid, gaining his freedom only by renouncing Flanders, Artois, the duchy of Bur- gimdy, and all his Italian possessions. His Btruggles with Charles V. continued until the peace of Crespy, 1644. His reign is marked by the French renaissance, the beginning of the Protestant reformation, and the strengthening of the power of the monarchy. He fostered learning and art, invited painters and scholars to his kmgdom, founded libraries, opened schools, and built several of the finest palaces in France; but his persecution of the Vaudois has left a stain on his memory. He died in 1547. Francis I., emperor of Germany, was bom in 1708, eldest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine. On the death of his father, 1729, Francis succeeded him in the dukedom, which, in 1735, he ceded to Stanislaus Leszczynski, father-in-law of Louis XV., to revert after his death to the crown of France. In 1736 he married Maria Theresa of Austria, the only daughter and heiress of the emperor Charles VI. In 1740 Charles died, and Maria Theresa succeedcnl him ; she made her bus- band co-regent with herself, but gave him little share in the administration. Francis fought bravely for his wife's rights in the wars cameid on against Frederick the Great. In 1745 he was elected to the once important dignity of emperor of Germany, and cro'mied at Frankfurt. The famous seven years' war, 1756-63. now broke out between Austria and Prussia; out the cares which it imposed fell mainly upon his leonine consort, Maria Theresa. Francis died at Inns- bruck, 1765. His son Joseph succeeded him. Francis II., emperor of Germany, and I. of Austria, was bom at Florence. Italy, 1768, and succeeded his father, Leopold II., in 1792. His reign was a series of wars against Napoleon, in which, with the exception of the last, he was beaten. In 1806 he formally abdicated the crown of the holy Roman empire. Although narrow-minded, Francis was a popular ruler. He died at Vienna, 1835. Francis Ferdinand of Austria, archduke, son of the late archduke Charles Louis, by his second mar- riage with the princess Maria Annonciata, daughter of Ferdinand II., king of the Two Sicifies, was bom at Gratz^ 1863. Until recently he has been a conservative figure in Austrian society, and, of course, holds aloof from politics because of his p>osition. By the death of Crown Prince Rudolph and the abdication of his father, who died in 1896, he became the heir apparent to the Austrian throne. On July 1, 1900, he contracted a morganatic marriage with Countess Sophia Chotek, a member of one of the noblest Austrian families, and formally declared that neither his wife nor any children of the marriage could have the rights of equal birth or any claim to succeed to the throne. Before the ceremony the emperor made the bride Princess von Hohenberg. Francis Joseph Charles, emperor of Austria and king of Hungarv, was bom in 1830, son of the archduke Francis Charles, and grandson of the emperor Francis I., and nephew of the emperor Ferdinand I. The revolution of 1848 compelled Ferdinand to abdicate, and his brother resigning his claims to the throne in favor of his own son. the latter was at the early age of eighteen callea to rule an empire shaken by civil war. He took part in the campaign against the Hungarians, and was present at the capture of Raab in June, 1849. Restored to the mastery of his dominions, he proceeded to undo the work of 1848. The Hungarian constitution was suspended, the absolute authoritv of the Habsburg monarchy in the Austrian dominions proclaimed, and the imperial ministers were declared responsible only to the emperor. The absolute regime was main- tained during the first ten years of his reign, though his own sentiments inclined to a more liberal rule. It was not until AiLstria had sustained severe reverses abroad that the system fell. The 700 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT demand of Napoleon III. that the question of the Lombardo-Venctian states should be referred to a European conference being refused, war waa declared. The Austrians were defeated at the battle of Solferino on June 24, 1859, and the emperor was compelled to sign the treaty of Villafranca, by which all claims to Lombardy were resigned. A partial return to constitution- aliem was then attempted, and representative diets were restored in the difTerent states, but the Hungarians did not cease to demand restora- tion of their old national institutions in their integrity. A dispute between Austria and Prussia as to Schleswig-Holstein led to war between the two nations in 1866. Here again the Austrians were completely defeated, and were compelled to accept the North German con- federation under the leadership of Prussia, and to give up Venice to Italy. After these disasters the emperor restored national self-government to Hungary, and in June, 1867, was declared king of that country. In later years the emper- or's influence in foreign politics has been chiefly directed to forming a closer alliance with Germany and Italy. In 1878 the treaty of Berlin allowed Austria to occupy Bosnia and the Herzegovina. In 1887 the emperor took part in a series of mili- tary councils held to provide for the defense of Galicia against Russia. By the suicide of Crown Pnnce Rudolph in January, 1889, he was deprived of all hope of a direct successor, and the crowTi will pass, on his death, to his nephew, Francis Ferdinand, son of his brother, Charles Louis. Francis, Charles Spencer, journalist, diplomat, was bom in Troy, N. Y., 1853; graduated from Cornell university, 1877; while at college dis- tinguished himself as an athlete and established the world's intercollegiate record for single sculls. Was secretary to his father during the latter' s three years' residence at Athens as United States minister to Greece. Was officer on staff of Gov- ernor Alonzo B. Cornell, of New York. On his father's death, 1897, succeeded to editorial direction and sole ownership of Troy Timeg; regent of university of the state of New York, 1903-06. United States minister to Greece, Rumania, and Ser^^a, 1900-02; ambassador to Austria-Hungar>', 1906-10. Died, 1911. Francis, David Bowland, merchant, ex-governor of Missouri, was bom at Richmond, Ky., 1850. He was graduated at Washington university, 1870; LL. D., university of Missouri, 1892, Shurtleflf college, 1903, St. Louis university, 1904, Washington university, 1905. Became clerk and afterward partner in a commission house ; in 1877 established what became Francis, Brother and Co., and D. R. Francis and Brother commission company, grain merchants, of which he is president: vice-president of Merchants- Laclede national bank; president of Madison County ferry Company; director of Mississippi Valley trust companj'; trustee of New York life insurance company. President of merchants' exchange, St. Louis, 1884 ; president of Hospital Saturday and Sunday association; member of executive committee national civic federation. Mayor of St. Louis, 1885-89; governor of Mis- souri, 1889-93 ; secretary of the interior. United States, 1896-97. He was president of the Louisi- ana Purchase centennial exposition of 1904, and was decorated by rulers of the principal countries of Europe and Asia. Francis, Sir Philip, reputed author of the "Junius letters," was bom in Dublin, 1740. Lea\'ing Ireland at twelve, he entered St. Paul's school in London, and at sixteen became a junior clerk in the secretary of state's office. In 1758 he was a secretary in the expedition against Cher- bourg; in 1760 he was secretary on a mission to Portugal; in 1761 he acted an amanuensis to the elder Pitt; and in 1762 he was made first clerk in the war office. In 1773 Lord North made him a member of the council of Bengal; in 1780 he fought a duel with Warren Hastings, with whom he was always at enmity, and was seriously wounded. He entercni parliament in 1784, and was energetic in the proceedings against Hastings, wrote many pamphlets, was eager to be governor- general of India, and was made a K. C. B. in 1806. In 1816 John Tavlor wrote a book identifying Francis with "Junius," but Francis never acknowledged having written the seventy letters, which app>eared in the Public Advertiser 1772, and were reprinted in 1812 with 113 additional letters. He died in 1818. Francia de Sales {/rtis'-sis' de sal). Saint, an eminent theologian, orator, and writer, bishop of Geneva, was bom at Sales, near Geneva, 1567, died, 1622, and was canonized in 1665. He was a Savoy- ard, coae, but not in the British islands. Louis XI. of France summoned St. Francis to bis death-bed, and Charles VIII. and Louis XII. built him convents at Plessis-les-Tours and Amboise. He died at Plessis on Good Friday, 1507, and was canonized in 1519. Francis Xavler, Saint. See Xavier. Franclte {Jr&n^-kt), Kuno, educator, literary critic, professor of German culture, and curator of the Germanic museum. Harvard university, was bom at Kiel, Germany, 1855 ; graduated gymna- sium, Kiel, 1873; Ph. D., university of Munich, 1878; LL. D., university of Wisconsin, 1904; chevalier of the royal Prussian order of the red eagle and of the order of the crown. Mem- ber of American philosophical society, American academy of arts and sciences, modem language association of America. Author: Social Forces in German Literature; Glimpses of Modem Get' man Culture; History of German Literature; Handbook of the Germanic Museum; German Ideals of To-day, etc. Frank, Henry, lecturer, author, was bom at Lafayette, Ind., 1854; graduated from Phillips academy, Andover, Mass., 1874 ; student at Harvard, 1874. Was a Methodist Episcopal minister, then pastor of Congregational church, Jamestown, N. Y., 1886; renounced orthodoxy and originated Independent Congregational church, Jamestown, N.Y., 1888; founded, 1897, and since lecturer Metropolitan (Independent liberal) society. Lyric hall, New York. Was director of world new thought federation. Actively engaged in social reform, and ethical forward movements. Editor The Rostrum, Jamestown, N. Y., 1889, Independent Thinker, New York, 1900-01 ; associate editor of Metaphysical Maga- zine, 1901-02. Author: Skeleton and the Rose; His Bold Experiment (a sociological novel); Conquests of Love; Doom of Dogma and Dawn of Truth; The Shrine of Silence; Vision of the Invisible; Science and Immortality; The Kingdom of Love. He is a frequent contributor to maga- zines. Franldand, Percy Faraday, English chemist, pro- fessor of chemistry, the university, Birmingham, since 1900, was bom at London, 1858. He waa THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 701 educated at University college school, London, royal school of mines, and Wiirzburg university; was demonstrator and lecturer on chemistry, royal school of mines, 1880-88; professor of chemistry. University college, Dundee, 1888-94; and in the Mason college, Birmingham, 1894- 1900. Inaugurated monthly systematic bacteri- ological examinations of London water-supply for local government board. President of the institute of chemistry, 1906; member of council of royal society, 1903. Author of over eighty original memoirs published in Philosophical Transactions Royal Society, etc., dealing with chemical aspects of fermentation, stereo-chemis- try, and application of bacteriology to air, water, and the sand filtration of water, and the bacte- rial treatment of sewage; Agricultural Chemical Analysis; Our Secret Friends and Foes; Micro- organisms in Water; Life of Pasteur, etc. Franklin, Benjamin. See page 401. Franklin, Fabian, mathematician, editor Balti- more News 1895-1908; associate editor. New York Evening Post, since 1909; was born at Eger, Hun- gary, 1853 ; graduated at Columbian (now George Washington) university, 1869; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins, 1880; LL. D., George Washington university, 1904. Engaged in civil engineering and surveying, 1869-77 ; fellow of Johns Hopkins, 1877-79; associate professor and professor of mathematics, Johns Hopkins, 1879-95; contribu- tor of mathematical papers to the American Journal of Mathematics, and other mathematical journals; also contributed to The Intellectual Powers ofWoman, to the North American Review, and editorial and other articles to The Nation. Franklin, Sir John, English rear-admiral, Arctic explorer, and colonial governor, was bom in Lincolnshire, England, 1786. He was appointed to command the Trent, in the expedition sent out in 1818 for the discovery of a northwest passage. He made a second expedition during 1825-27, and for his achievements was knighted in 1829. In 1845 he commanded another expe- dition for the discovery of the northwest passage. He had with him two ships, the Erebus and the Terror, with 134 chosen officers and men, and sailed from Greenhithe, May 19, 1845, and was last seen July 26. Many expeditions were sent out in search of the missing boats and their crews, and the relics and skeletons found proved that Sir John Franklin and his men had perished by starvation and exposure in 1847. He is entitled to the honor of being the first discov- erer of the northwest passage. A monument was erected to him, 1875, in Westminster abbey. Franklin, WiUiam Suddards, educator, electrician, was born in Geary City, Kansas, 1863. He was graduated at the university of Kansas, 1887; M. S., 1888; student of Cornell, winters of 1892- 96; D. Sc, 1901; student of university of Berlin, 1890-91 ; assistant professor of physics, university of Kansas, 1887-90; professor of physics and electrical engineering, Iowa state college, 1892-97; Lehigh university, 1897- 1903; professor of physics, Lehigh, since 1903. Joint author : Elements of Physics; The Elements of Alternating Currents; The Elements of Elec- trical Engineering; The Elements of Mechanics (with Barry MacNutt), and contributor of numerous papers to Science, American Journal of Science, and Physical Review. Franz (frdnts), Bobert, German composer, was born, lived, and died at Halle, 1815-r92. He published upward of 300 songs, a kyrie, chorales, and arrangements of the vocal masterpieces of Bach and Handel. Franz's best songs rank with those of Schubert and Schumann. His published works first appeared in 1843. Franz£n (fran-san'), Frans Michael. Swedish poet, was bom in Ule&borg, Finland, 1772. He was educated at Abo, became librarian of the univer- sity there, and in 1801 profensor of history and ethics. After the conquest of Finland, he settled in Sweden as a clergyman, finally removing to Stockholm where he was nuule bishop. Ho wrote: Emili, or an Evening in Lapland; Colum- bus; Gustav Adolf in Germany, and many religious songs. Died, 1847. Francos (frdn'-tsda), Kari £mil, Austrian novelist, was bom in Russian Podolia of Jewish parentage, 1848. He passed his earliest years in the Polinh- Jewish village of Czortckow in Galiciu, the Bamow of his novels. Left an orphan at an early age, he was educated at tne German gymnasium at Czemowitz. He studied juris- prudence, but afterward settled as a journalist m Vienna. Among his principal works is Aua Halbasien, sketches of South Russia and Ruma- nia, and the novels Junge Liebe; The Jews of Bamow; Moschko von Parma; For the Right; Der Pr&sident; Die Reise nach dem Schickaal; Tragische NoveUen, and Der Wahrheitaticher. Franzos's tales are full of deep pathos. Died, 1904. Fraser, Alexander Campbell, British author and educator, professor emeritus of logic and meta- physics, and formerly Gififord lecturer, in Edin- burgh university, was bom at Ardchattan manse. County Argyll, 1819. Educated privately and at Edinburgh university; D. C. L., Oxford; LL. D., Princeton, Glasgow, Edinburgh; Litt. D., Dublin. Professor of logic, New college, Ekiin- burgh, 1846-56; editor of North British Review, 1850-57; professor of logic and metaphysics in the university of Edinburgh in succession to Sir William Hamilton, 1856-91, and now professor emeritus; Gifford lecturer on natural theologjr in Edinburgh, in succession to Professor Pflei- derer of Berlin, 1894-96. Author: Essays in Philosophy; Essays, Philosophical and Miscel- laneous; Collected Works of Bishop Berkeley, annotated ; Life and Letters of Berkeley; Locke s Essay on Human Under standing, with Proleg- omena, Notes and Dissertations; Thomas Reid, a Biography; Philosophy of Theism; Biogrnphia Philosophica ; a Personal Retrospect; Berkeley and Spiritual Realism, and various minor publications. Fraser, Mrs. Hugh, novelist and writer of travels, was born at Rome, Italy, daughter of Thomas Crawford, sculptor, and Louisa Cutler Ward; sister of Marion Crawford ; married Hugh Fraser, British minister to Japan. She was educated at Bonchurch, by Miss E. M. Sewell, and in Rome. Accompanied her husband to China, South America, and Japan, as well as to various courts of Europe; has traveled much in the United States; became a Catholic in 1884, and a widow in 1894. Author: The Brown Ambas- sador; Palladia; A Chapter of Accidents: The Looms of Time; A Diplomatists Wife in Japan; Tlie Customs of the Country, or Tales of New Japan; The Splendid Porsenna; A Little Grey Sheep; Marna's Mutiny; The Stolen Emperor; a Tale of Old Japan; The Slaking of the Sword; A Diplomatist's Wife in Many Lands, etc. Fraunhofer (Jroun'-ho-ftr), Joseph von, German optician, was bom at Straubing in Bavaria, 1787. In 1807 he was employed to found an optical institute at Benediktbeuem, which under his management was in 1819 removed to Munich He invented many optical instruments, but ia most celebrated for his improvements in tele- scope prisms and in the mechanism for manipu- lating large telescopes, and above all for his discovery of the dark lines in the sun's spectrum, called Fraimhofer's lines. Died, 1826. Frazier, James B., lawyer, ex-United States senator, was born in Pikeville, Tenn., 1856; graduated in arts and law, university of Tennessee ; practiced law at Chattanooga since 1881 ; elected governor of Tennessee for terms 1903-05, 1905-07; 700 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 1 demand of Napoleon III. that the auestion of the Lombardo-Venctian states should be referred to a European conference being refused, war was declared. The Austrians were defeated at the battle of Solferino on June 24, 1859, and the emperor was compelled to sign the treaty of Villafranca, by which all claims to Lombardy were resigned. A partial return to constitution- alism was then attempted, and representative diets were restored in the different states, but the Hungarians did not cease to demand restora- tion of their old national institutions in their integrity. A dispute between Austria and Prussia as to Schleswig-Holstein led to war between the two nations in 18C6. Here again the Austrians were completely defeated, and were compelled to accept the North Cierman con- federation under the leadership of Prussia, and to give up Venice to Italy. After these disastem the emperor restored national self-government to Hungary, and in June, 18G7, was declared king of that country. In later years the emper- or's influence in foreign politics has been chiefly directed to forming a closer alliance with Germany and Italy. In 1878 the treaty of Berlin allowed Austria to occupy Bosnia and the Herzegovina. In 1887 the emperor took part in a series of mili- tary councils held to provide for the defense of Gulicia against Russia. By the suicide of Crown Pnnce Rudolph in January, 1889, he was deprived of all hope of a direct successor, and the crown will pass, on his death, to his nephew, Francis P'erdinand, son of his brother, Charles Louis. Francis, Charles Spencer, journalist, diplomat, was born in Troy, N. Y., 1853; graduated from Cornell university, 1877; while at college dis- tinguished himseff as an athlete and established the world's intercollegiate record for single sculLs. Was secretary to his father during the latter's three years' residence at Athens as United States minister to Greeco. Was officer on staff of Gov- ernor Alonzo B. Cornell, of New York. On his father's death, 1897, succeeded to editorial direction and sole ownership of Troy Times; regent of university of the state of New York, 1903-06. United States minister to Greece, Rumania, and Servaa, 1900-02; ambassador to Austria-Hungary-, 1906-10. Died, 1911. Francis, David Rowland, merchant, ex-govemor of Missouri, was born at Richmond, Ky., 1850. He was graduated at Washington university, 1870; LL. D., university of Missouri, 1892, Shurtleff college, 1903, St. Louis university, 1904, Washington university, 1905. Became clerk and afterward partner in a commission house; in 1877 established what became Francis, Brother and Co., and D. R. Francis and Brother commission company, grain merchants, of which he is president; vice-president of Merchants- Laclede national bank; president of Madison County ferry Company; director of Mississippi Valley trust company; trustee of New York life insurance company. President of merchants' exchange, St. Louis, 1884 ; president of Hospital Saturday and Sunday association; member of executive committee national civic federation. Mayor of St. Louis, 1885-89; governor of Mis- souri, 1889-93 ; secretary of the interior. United States, 1896-97. He was president of the Louisi- ana Purchase centennial exposition of 1904, and was decorated by rulers of the principal countries of Europe and Asia. Francis, Sir Philip, reputed author of the "Junivia letters," was bom in Dublin, 1740. Leaving Ireland at twelve, he entered St. Paul's school in London, and at sixteen became a junior clerk in the secretary of state's office. In 1758 he was a secretary in the expedition against Cher- bourg; in 1760 he was secretary on a mission to Portugal; in 1761 he acted as amanuensis to the elder ritt; and in 1762 he was made first clerk in the war office. In 1773 Lord North made him a member of the council of Bengal; in 1780 he fought a duel with Warren Hastings, with whom he was always at enmity, and was seriously wounded. He entered parliament in 1784, and waa energetic in the proceedings against Hastings, wrote many pamphlets, was eager to be governor- general of India, and was made a K. C. B. in 1806. In 1816 John Tavlor wrote a book identifying Francis with "Junius," but Francis never acknowledged having written the seventy letters, which appeared in the Public Advertiier, 1772, and were reprinted in 1812 with 113 additional letters. He died in 1818. Francis de Sales (fr6ti'-sis' de aid). Saint, an eminent theologian, orator, and writer, bishop of Geneva, waa bom at Sales, near Geneva, 1567, died, 1622, and was canonized in 1665. He was a Savoy- ard, coadjutor bisliop, 1599, bishop of Geneva, 1602, and co-founder of the order of the visita- tion, 1610. Francis of Asstsl (6»-gi'-zi), Saint. See page 227. Francis of Facia (,pou'-l&). Saint, founder of the Minims, was bom in 1416 at Paola in Calabria. At thirteen he was a Franciscan; and at nine- teen he retired to a cave and inflicted on himself every species of self-nriortification. The fame of his piety having attracted emulators, he obtained permission to erect a convent, and tne new order came to be known as Minim-Hermits of St. Francis of Paola. Communities were established throughout Europe, but not in the British islands. Louis XI. of France summoned St. Francis to his death-bed, and Charles VIII. and Louis XII. built him convents at Plessis-les-Tours and Amboise. He died at Plessis on Good Friday, 1507, and was canonized in 1519. Francis Xavler, Saint. See Xavler. Franclce (/r&ng'-ki), Kuno, educator, literary critic, professor of German culture, and curator of the Germanic museum. Harvard university, waa bom at Kiel, Germany, 1855 ; graduated gymna- sium, Kiel, 1873; Ph. D., university of Munich, 1878; LL. D., university of Wisconsin, 1904; chevalier of the royal Prussian order of the red eagle and of the order of the crown. Mem- ber of American philosophical society, American academy of arts and sciences, modem language association of America. Author: Social forces in German Literature; Glimpaea of Modem Ger- man Culture; History of German Literature; Handbook of the Germanic Museum; German Ideals of To-day, etc. Franic, Henry, lecturer, author, waa bom at Lafayette, Ind., 1854; graduated from Phillips academy, Andover, Mass., 1874 ; student at Harvard, 1874. Was a Methodist Episcopal minister, then pastor of Congregational church, Jamestown, N. Y., 1886; renounced orthodoxy and originated Independent CongrcKational church, Jamestown, N.Y., 1888; founded, 1897, and since lecturer Metropolitan (lndep>endent liberal) society. Lyric hall, New York. Was director of world new thought federation. Actively engaged in social reform, and ethical forward movements. Editor The Rostrum, Jamestown, N. Y., 1889, IrtdcpenderU Thinker, New York, 1900-01 ; associate editor of Metaphysical Maga>- zine, 1901-02. Author: Skeleton and the Rose; His Bold Experiment (a sociological novel); Conquests of Love; Doom of Dogma and Davm of Truth; The- Shrine of Silence; Vision of the Invisible; Science and Immortality; The Kingdom of Love. He is a frequent contributor to maga- zines. Franldand, Percy Faraday, English chemist, pro- fessor of chemistry, the university, Birmingham, since 1900, was bom at London, 1858. He waa THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 701 educated at University college school, London, royal school of mines, and Wiirzburg university; was demonstrator and lecturer on chemistry, royal school of mines, 1880-88; professor of chemistry, University college, Dundee, 1888-94 ; and in the Mason college, Birniingham, 1894- 1900. Inaugurated monthly systematic bacteri- ological examinations of London water-supply for local government board. President of the institute of chemistry, 1906; member of council of royal society, 1903. Author of over eighty original memoirs published in Philosophical Transactions Royal Society, etc., dealing with chemical aspects of fermentation, stereo-chemis- try, and application of bacteriology to air, water, and the sand filtration of water, and the bacte- rial treatment of sewage; Agricultural Chemical Analysis; Our Secret Friends and Foes; Micro- organisms in Water; Life of Pasteur, etc. Franklin, Benjamin. See page 4G1. Franklin, Fabian, mathematician, editor Balti- more News 1895-1908; associate editor. New York Evening Post, since 1909; was bom at Eger, Hun- gary, 1853 ; graduated at Columbian (now George Washington) university, 1869; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins, 1880; LL. D., George Washington university, 1904. Engaged in civil engineering and surveying, 1869-77: fellow of Johns Hopkins, 1877-79; associate professor and professor of mathematics, Johns Hopkins, 1879-95; contribu- tor of mathematical papers to the American Journal of Mathematics, and other mathematical journals; also contributed to The Intellectual Powers of Woman, to the North American Review, and editorial and other articles to The Nation. Franklin, Sir John, English rear-admiral, Arctic explorer, and colonial governor, was bom in Lincolnshire, England, 1786. He was appointed to command the Trent, in the expedition sent out in 1818 for the discovery of a northwest passage. He made a second expedition during 1825-27, and for his acliievements was knighted in 1829. In 1845 he commanded another expe- dition for the discovery of the northwest passage. He had with him two ships, the Erebus and the Terror, with 134 chosen officers and men, and sailed from Greenhithe, May 19, 1845, and was last seen July 26. Many expeditions were sent out in search of the missing boats and their crews, and the relics and skeletons found proved that Sir John Franklin and his men had perished by starvation and exposure in 1847. He is entitled to the honor of being the first discov- erer of the northwest passage. A monument was erected to him, 1875, in Westminster abbey. Franklin, William Suddards, educator, electrician, was born in Geary City, Kansas, 1863. He was graduated at the university of Kansas, 1887; M. S., 1888; student of Cornell, winters of 1892- 96; D. Sc, 1901; student of university of Berlin, 1890-91 ; assistant professor of physics, university of Kansas, 1887-90; professor of physics and electrical engineering, Iowa state college, 1892-97; Lehigh university, 1897- 1903; professor of physics, Lehigh, since 1903. Joint author : Elements of Physics; The Elements of Alternating Currents; The Elements of Elec- trical Engineering; The Elements of Mechanics (with Barry MacNutt), and contributor of nimierous papers to Science, American Journal \ of Science, and Physical Review. j Franz (/rants), Robert, German composer, was ! born, lived, and died at Halle, 1815^92. He \ published upward of 300 songs, a kyrie, chorales, ; and arrangements of the vocal masterpieces of Bach and Handel. Franz's best songs rank with those of Schubert and Schumann. His j published works first appeared in 1843. i Franz^n (frdn-sdn'), Frans MichaeU Swedish poet, j was bom in Ule4borg, Finland, 1772. He was educated at Abo, became librarian of the univer- sity there, and in 1801 professor of history and ethics. After the conquest of Finland, he settled in Sweden as a clergyman, finally removing to Stockholm where he was made bishop. IIo wrote: Emili, or an Evening in Ixipland; Column bus; Gustav Adolf in Germany, and many religious songs. Died, 1847. Franzos (/rdn'-teds), Karl £mll, Austrian novelist, was bom in Russian Podolia of Jewish parentage, 1848. He passed his earliest years in the Polinh- Jewish village of Czortckow in Galicia, the Bamow of his novels. Left an orphan at an early age, he was educated at tne German gymnasium at Czemowitz. He studied juris- prudence, but afterward settled as a journalist in Vienna. Among his principal works is Au» Halbasien, sketches of South Russia and Ruma- nia, and the novels Junge Liebe; The Jews of Bamow; Moschko von Parma; For the Right; Der Prasident; Die Reiae nach dem Schickacd; Tragische Novellen, and Der Wahrheitaueher. Franzos's tales are full of deep pathos. Died, 1904. Fraser, Alexander Campbell, British author and educator, professor emeritus of logic and meta- Ehysics, and formerly Gilford lecturer, in Edin- urgh university, was bom at Ardchattan manse, County Argyll, 1819. Educated privately and at Edinburgh university; D. C. L., Oxford; LL. D., Princeton, Glasgow, Edinburgh; Litt. D., Dublin. Professor of logic. New college, Ekiin- burgh, 1846-56; editor of North British Review, 1850-57; professor of logic and metaphysics in the university of Edinburgh in succession to Sir William Hamilton, 1856-91, and now professor emeritus; Gifford lecturer on natural theology in Edinburgh, in succession to Professor Pflei- derer of Berlin, 1894-96. Author: Essaijs in Philosophy; Essays, Philosophical and Miscel- laneous; Collected Works of Bishop Berkeley, annotated ; Life and Letters of Berkeley; Locke a Essay on Human Understanding, with Proleg- omena, Notes and Dissertations; Thomas Reid, a Biography; Philosophy of Theism; Biographia Philosophica ; a Personal Retrospect; Berkeley and Spiritual Realism, and various minor publications. Fraser, Mrs. Hugh, novelist and writer of travels, was bom at Rome, Italy, daughter of Thomas Crawford, sculptor, and Louisa Cutler Ward; sister of Marion Crawford ; married Hugh Fraser, British minister to Japan. She was educated at Bonchurch, by Miss E. M. Sewell, and in Rome. Accompanied her husband to China, South America, and Japan, as well as to various courts of Europe; has traveled much in the United States; became a Catholic in 1884, and a widow in 1894. Author: The Brown Ambaa- sador; Palladia; A Chapter of Accidents: The Looms of Time; A Diplomatist's Wife in Japan; Tfie Customs of the Country, or Tales of New Japan; The Splendid Porsenna; A LUUe Grey Sheep; Marna's Mutiny; The Stolen Emperor; a Tale of Old Japan; The Slaking of the Sword; A Diplomatist's Wife in Many Lands, etc. Fraunhofer {froun' -ho-ftr), Josepti von, German optician, was bom at Straubing in Bavaria, 1787. In 1807 he was employed to found an optical institute at Benediktbeuem, which under his management was in 1819 removed to Munich. He invented many optical instruments, but is most celebrated for his improvements in tele- scope prisms and in the mechanism for manipu- lating large telescopes, and above all for his discovery of the dark lines in the sun's spectrum, called Fraunhofer's lines. Died, 1826. Frazler, James B., lawyer, ex-United States senator, was born in Pikeville, Tenn., 1856; graduated in arts and law, university of Tennessee; practiced law at Chattanooga since 1881; elected governor of Tennessee for terms 1903-05, 1905-07; 702 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT resigned, 1906, and vras elected United States senator to succeed W. B. Bate: term expired, 1911, Frear (/rer), Walter Francis, governor, jurist, was bom in Grass Valley, Cal., 1863; graduated from Oahu college, Honolulu, 1881; Yale uni- versity, 1883; Yale law school, 1890; taught Greek, mathematics, and political economy, Otuiu college, 1886-88; second judge, first circuit, kingdom of Hawaii, 1893; second associate justice of supreme court, provisional government, Hawaii, 1893; first associate justice of supreme court, republic of Hawaii, 1896; member of Hawaiian commission to recommend to congress legislation concerning Hawaii, 1898; acting cnief- justice, supreme court, republic of Hawaii, 1899-1900; chief-justice, 1900-07; governor of Hawaii territory since 1907. Frederick Im called Barbarossa or Redbeard, wa« bom about 1121, and became emperor of Ger- many in 1152. His reign was a long struggle, with powerful vassals at home, and with Lom- bardy and the pope in Italy. He captured and razed Milan in 1162, and took Rome by storm five years later. His army was, however, smitten with the plague, and Lombardy again revolted; in 1176 ne was defeated at Legnano. At home he managed his vassals by a system of conciliation, and by keeping the balance of power among them equal. He asserted his power, moreover, over Poland, Hungary, Den- mark, and Burgundy. At the height of his fame and influence, he took the cross to fight against Saladin. He defeated the Mohammedans in two battles, but was himself drowned in Pisidia, 1190. Frederick II., of Germany, son of Emperor Henry VI., was born at Jesi near Ancona, 1194. In bis fourth year his father died, leaving him king of Sicily. When eighteen he wrested the imperial crown from Otto IV., and was crowned in 1215. He ardently desired the consolidation of the imperial power in Italy by reducing the pontifi- cate to a mere archiepiscopal dignity. Crowned emperor at Rome in 1220, he devoted himself to organizing his Italian territories. He founded the university of Naples, encouraged the medical school of Salerno, patronized art and literature, and commissioned his chancellor to draw up a code of laws to suit his German and Italian subjects. He took Jerusalem in 1228, and after crowning himself king of Jerusalem, 1229, he returned to Italy, where his Neapolitan domin- ions had been overrun by the papal allies. During the remainder of his reign he was engaged in a harassing contest with the pope, whose hands were strengthened by the accession of the revolted Lombard cities and of several princes and towns of Germany, headed by his son, Henry. Disaster and misfortune were gathering around him, when he died at Fiorentino in 1250. Intel- lectually, he was perhaps the most enlightened man of his age. Frederick II,, the Great, king of Prussia. See page 406. Frederick III,, eighth king of Prussia and emperor of Germany, son of William I., was bom near Potsdam, 1831. He commanded an army of 125,000 in the Austro-Pmssian war of 1866, and one of 200,000 in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. He won the victories of Weissenburg and Worth and bore a distinguished part in the succeeding events of the war. After arousing the world's best expectations by his goodness and wisdom no less than by his bravery, he ascended the throne in 1888, during his last illness, in which he suffered as heroically as he had fought. He died when fifty-seven years old, 1888. He was succeeded by his son, WilUam II. Frederick VI., king of Denmark, son of Christian VII. and the princess Caroline Matilda, was bom in 1768. In 1784 he was declared regent, on account of bis father's incapacity. With the help of his minister. Count Bernstorff, he abol- ished serfdom, relormed the criminal code, removed the disabilities of the Jews, and pro- hibited the slave trade. By the advice of Bern- storff he strove to maintain strict neutrality in the wars of the epoch. But for refusing the demands of the English, the Danish fleet was almost destroyed in 1801, and in 1807 Copen- hagen was bombarded and the fleet transferred to England. Denmark then became an ally of Napoleon, and shared his fortune. Frederick ascended the throne on the death of his father in 1808. In 1814 he was robbed of Norway, and was at last compelled to send a contingent of 10,000 men against the French. The country bad become bankrupt in 1813, but by his wise measures financial order was finally restored. Died, 1839. Frederick Charles, prince and field-marshal of Ger- many, was bom in Berlin, 1828. He was the eldest son of Prince Charles, brother of Emperor William I. Frederick Charles entered the Prus- sian array when a boy, served in the first 8chla»- wig-Holstein war, commanded the right wing in the second Danish war, and defeated the Aus- trians at Koniggriitz in 18G6. He commanded the second army in 1870, drove Bazaine back Into Metz, and received the surrender of that fortress October 27, 1870. Thence he marched on Orleans, which he captured, defeated General Chanzy at Le Mans, and broke up the army of the Loire. He was known as "the red prince," from the fact that he always wore a red hussar uniform. His daughter, Louise Margaret, mar- ried the duke of Connaught, son of Queen Victo- ria, in 1879. Died, 1885. Frederick WlUlam, the great elector of Branden- burg, was bom in 1620. On his accession in 1640 he found the state disorf^anized, exliausted, and devastated by the thirty years' war. He strenuously regulated the finances, made a treaty of neutrality with Sweden, organized his army, and strove to repeople his deserted towns ami villages. By the treaty of Westphalia, 1648, he recovered eastern Pomerania, Halberstadt, and Minden, with the reversion of the arch- bishopric of Magdeburg; and out of a auarrel be- tween Sweden and Poland he contrivea to secure the independence of the duchy of Prussia from Poland, 1657. After another fifteen years of peace, alarmed at the aggressions of Louis XIV. on the Rhenish frontier, he induced the eniperor, the king of Denmark, and the elector of Hesse- Cassel to make a league against France. Incited by Louis, the Swedes invaded Brandenburg, but were defeated at Rathenow and at Fehrbellin, 1675, and driven from the electorate; still, forsaken by the emperor and the other Germaa princes, the elector was obliged to agree to the treaty of St. Germain, 1679, by which he restored all his conquests to the Swedes on the paj'ment to him of 300,000 crowns. From this time he devoted himself to consolidating his dominions and developing their resources. He encouraged the immigration of exiled French Protestants, Dutchmen, and other foreigners. He founded the royal library at Berlin, reorganized the universities, opened canals, established posts, and greatlj' enlarged Berlin. He left a well- filled exchequer and a highly organized army. He made Brandenburg virtually an absolute monarchy only less powerful than Austria. He died at Potsciam in 1688, and his son became King Frederick I. of Prussia. Frederick William I., king of Prussia, son of Frederick I., was bom, 1688, and on his accession in 1713 became embroiled in the war waged by Sweden against Russia, Poland, and Denmark, THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 703 at the end of which he acquired Pomcrania with Stettin. The remainder of his reign was devoted to improving the internal condition of Prussia. He was sternly practical, blunt, and determined ; he despised the arts and sciences, was rigidly economical, and strict in his ideas of justice. At his death in 1740 he left a treasure of 1,350,000 pounds, and an army of more than 80,000 men, the best-disciplined force in Europe, which made Prussia fourth in military power. He fostered industry and agriculture, introduced the manu- facture of woolen cloth, and settled in East Prussia 17,000 Protestant refugees from Salzburg. His rule laid the foundation upon which his son Frederick the Great built the subsequent great- ness of Prussia. Frederick William II., king of Prussia, nephew of Frederick the Great, was born in 1744. The abolition of some of his predecessor's oppressive measures made him very popular at his accession in 1786. But he soon lost the regard of his sub- jects by his predilection for unworthy favorites, and by the abrogation of the freedom of the press and religion in 1788. The millions his uncle left in the treasury he dissipated in a use- less war with Holland. His foreign policy was weak, while he oppressed his subjects with debt and increased taxation. He acquired large areas of Polish Prussia and Silesia by the partitions of Poland in 1793 and 1795, as also Ansbach and Baireuth. He died in 1797. Frederick William IIIm of Prussia, son of Frederick William II., was born in 1770. The truculent policy of Napoleon roused the spirit of the nation, and the king saw himself obliged, in 1805, to agree to a convention with Russia, the real object of which was to drive Napoleon out of Germany. By the intervention of the emperor Alexander of Russia a peace was concluded, known as the treaty of Tilsit, by which Frederick William lost the greater part of his realm, and was deprived of all but the semblance of royalty. The dis- astrous termination of Napoleon's Russian cam- paign was the turning-point in the fortunes of Prussia. The part taken by the Prussian army under Bliicher in gaining the victory of Waterloo, by which Napoleon's power was finally broken, raised the kingdom from its abasement. From that time Frederick William devoted himself to the improvement of his exhausted states. He was more than once embroiled with the pope, on account of his violation of the concordat. He concluded the great German commercial league known as the Zollverein, which organized the German customs and duties in accordance with one uniform system. Died, 1840. Freeman, Edward Augrustus, eminent English historian, was born at Harbome, England, 1823. He was educated at Trinity college, Oxford. His first work was a History of Architecture, 1849. After several minor works, his most important one on the History of the Norman Conquest appeared between 1867 and 1879, and was fol- lowed by that of The Reign of WUliam Rufus and Accession of Henry I. He also wrote histories of the Saracens and of the Ottoman power in Europe; General Sketch of European History; Growth of (he English Constitution; Comparative Politics; Historical Geography of Europe; William the Con- queror; and various other works, some of a more popular character, besides many articles and reviews. In 1884 he was appointed regius pro- fessor of modern history at Oxford. Died, 1892. Freeman, John ICipIey, civil and mechanical engi- neer, was born in West Bridgeton, Me., 1855; graduated at the Massachusetts institute of tech- nology, 1876; hon. Sc. D., Brown university, 1904; Tufts college, 1905. Principal assistant engineer Water Power company, Lawrence, Mass., 1876-86 ; chief engineer Associated Factory i mutual insurance companies, 1886-96; ooniult- ing engineer on water power and mill construction to sundrv large manufacturing corporations since 1886. Made extensive studies of water supply for Greater New York, for finance department, 1899-1900 ; chief engineer investigations, Cliarles river dam, Boston harbor, 1903; consulting engineer Boston metropolitan park commission on sanitary and drainage problems, 1003-04; water commissioner, Win("he8ter, Mass., 1882-86; engineer niember of Massachusetts metropoUtUi water board, 1895-96; president of Manufactur- ers, Rhode Island Mechanics, State, Enterprise and American Factory mutual insurance com- panies; director of Rhode Island Hospital trust company. Providence national bank of commerce, Providence gas company. Consulting engineer to New York board of water supply smce 1905: consulting engineer isthmian canal locks ana dams, 1907 and 1909. Member of many engineering and scientific societies. Freeman, Mary E. Wilkin s, author, was bom at Randolph, Mass., 1862. She was educated there and at Mt. Holyoke seminary, 1874; came Into prominence as a writer for magazines — poems, short stories, etc.; married Dr. Charles M. Freeman, 1902. Author: A Humble Romance; A New England Nun; Young Lucretia; Jane Field; Giles Corey; Pembroke; Madelon; Jerome; Silence; Evelina 8 Garden; The Love of Parson Lord; The Hearts Highvxiy; The Portion of Labor; Understudies; Six frees; The Wind in the Rose Bush; Tfie Givers; Doc Gordon; By the Light of the Soid, etc., also The Jamesons, and People of Our Neighborhood, serially in the Ladies' Home Journal. Freiligrath (/ri'^lK-rfl^), Ferdinand, German poet, was born at Detmold, 1810, and was led by the success of a volume of poems, published in 1838, to desert commerce for literature. In 1844 he attached himself to the democratic party, and for his radical writings had to flee to Belgium. Switzerland, and London. In 1848 he celebrated the revolution in Die Revolution and Februar- kl&nge, and returned to Germany, where he be- came the leader of the democratic party. Im- peached the same year for his poem Die Todten an die Lebenden, he was acquitted ; but a second prosecution in 1851 compelled him to flee once more to London. He returned in 1868, and died at Cannstatt, 1876. Cliief among his political poems are (^a Ira, and Neuere politische und soziale Gedichte. He translated Longfellow. Shakespeare, etc. His collected works appeared in 1870. Frellnghuysen (fre'-llng-hl'-zen), Frederick, Ameri- can statesman, was bom in New Jersey, 1753. He raised a corps of artillerj', fought in the revolutionary war, was a member of the con- tinental congress in 1778 and 1782-83, and » United States senator in 1793-96. He died in 1804. Frellnghuysen, Frederick Theodore, nephew of above, was bom in New Jersey, 1817. He prac- ticed law and held minor oflices in New Jersey, and in 1861 became attorney-general of that state. From 1866 to 1869 he served as United States senator. In 1870 he was nominated and confirmed as minister to England, but declined the appointment. In 1871 he was again elected to the United States senate, and served until 1877. He was a strong republican, voted for the conviction of Andrew Johnson, supported the civil rights bill, and was an ardent protec- tionist. He was a member of the Hayes-Tilden electoral commiasion. In 1881 he became secre- tary of state in President Arthur's cabinet, and held office until his death in 1885. Frellnghuysen, Theodoi*, son of Frederick, waa born in New Jersey in 1787. He studied law, 704 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT practiced in New Jersey, and from 1817 to 1829 waa attorney-general of that state. In 1829 he was chosen United States senator, and served until 1835. Afterward he was mayor of Newark, and in 1839 became chancellor of the university of New York. In May, 1844, he was nominated for vice-president by the whigs, Henry Clay heading tne ticket. In 1850 he became president of Rutgers college, which position he held until his death in 1862. Fr^mlet (/ra'-mj/g'), Emmanuel, noted French sculptor, wjs bom at Paris, 1824. He studied at La Petite Ecole, and under Rude; made draw- ings at the Jardin des Plantes, and later drew plates for medical works. His first sculptural work was of a fox and a gazelle. His master- piece is an equestrian statue of Joan of Arc. His other pieces include "Gorilla Abducting a Woman," St. Michael," "Faun and Young Bear," and "Daschshund." Died, 1910. Fremont (fre-mdnf), John Charles, explorer of the Rocky mountains, was born at Savannah, Ga., 1813. For two years he taught mathematics on a warship, and in 1838 began surveying. In 1842 he crossed the Rocky mountains, and demonstrated the feasibility of an overland route across the continent. In 1843 he explored Great Salt lake, advancing to the mouth of the Columbia river; and in 1845 examined the watershed between the Mississippi and the Pacific. During the Mexican war he cleared northern California of Mexican troops, but, quarreling with his superior oflficers, was court-martialed, and resigned his captaincy. In 1848 he started upon a fourth expedition along the upper Rio Grande, but was compelled to return to Santa F6, after unspeakable sufferings. In 1849 he crossed over to California, where he settled, and next year became United States senator from the new state. In 1853 he conducted a fifth expedition. In 1856 he was the republican and anti-slavery candidate for the presidency; nominated again in 1864, he withdrew in favor of Lincoln. In 1861-62 he served in the regular army as major-general, but resigned rather than serve under General Pope. He was governor of Arizona in 1878-82, and died in New York, 1890. French, Alice, author, better known as Octave Thanet, was bom at Andover, Mass.. 1850, daughter of Hon. George Henry French. She was educated at Abbot academy there, but her life since then has been spent in the South and West. Author: Knitters in the Sun; Expiation, a novelette; Otto the Knight; An Adventure in Photogra'phy; Missionary Sheriff; A Book of True Lovers; The Heart of Toil; A Slave to Duty; Man of the Hour, etc. French, Daniel Chester, American sculptor, was bom at Exeter, N. H., 1850. He was educated in Exeter, N. H., and Massachusetts institute of technology, Boston, one year; A. M., Dart- mouth college ; studied art with William Rimmer in Boston, and with Thomas Ball in Florence, Italy; occupied a studio in Washington, 187G- 78, in Boston and Concord, Mass., 1878-87, and in New York since 1887. Among his best-known works are: "The Minute Man of Concord," at Concord, Mass. ; a statue of General Cass, in the capitol at Washington; statue of Rufus Choate, Boston courthouse; John Harvard, at Cam- bridge, Mass., and Thomas Starr King statues; "Dr. Gallaudet and His First Deaf-Mute Pupil," the Milmore memorial; and colossal "Statue of the Republic," at World's Columbian exposition. Received medal of honor, Paris exposition, 1900. Freneau (fre-no'), Philip, American poet, was bom in New York city, 1752. He was of French descent, and was graduated at Princeton in 1771. In 1776 he visited the West Indies, and in 1778 went to the Bermuda islands. In 1780, during the war of the revolution, he again sailed for the West Indies, when he was captured by a British cruiser. After the return of peace Freneau became in succession editor of a news- paper, and captain of a ship that plied between New York, the West Indies, and the southern states. In 1790 he edited the New York Daily Advertiser. Under Jefferson's administration Freneau was made translator for the state department, and also became editor of the National Gazette. Later he published the Jersey Chronicle, which in 1797 was followed by the publication of the Time-piece and Literary Companion. From that time until his death he rarely came before the public. Died, 1832. Fr*re (jr&r), Pierre £douard, French painter, waa born at Paris, 1819. He studied under Delaroche. His paintings are mostly figures and scenes from domestic Ufe. They are good subjects for engraving, and are well known in art stores. Ruskin was enthusiastic in praise of several of his works, which were shown in the French gallery in 1857. "The Seamstress," "Little Gourmand," "Preparing for Church." and the "Gleaner Boy " are among his best-known pictures. "Preparing for Church" is in the Corcoran gallery at Washington. He died at Ecouen, 1886. FrescBtaa (frd-td'^ni-^ba), Karl Remlglus, noted German cnemist, was bom in 1818. He studied at Bonn and Giessen under Liebig, and in 1845 became professor of chemistry at Wiesbaden. The laboratory' founded by him in 1848 subse- quently Kained great celebrity in chemical science. He was a skillful analyst, and his works have been translated into many languages. Died, 1897. Fresnel (Jr&'-7M,'\ Augustln Jean, eminent French physicist, was born at Broglie, Eure, France, 1788. He was educated at the polytechnic school in Paris, and in 1810 received a permanent appointment there through the celebrated Arago. He distinguished himself by his experiments on the inflection and polarization of light, and in 1819 gained the prize offered for the best treatise explanatory of the phenomena of light. He invented the compound lighthouse lens. He died in 1827, and his works were published in 1866 by the French government. Freund (froint), Wilhelm, German philologist, was bom of Jewish parents at Kempen in Posen, 1806. He studied at Berlin and Breslau, taueht at Breslau, Hirschberg, and Gleiwitz, and finally settled down at Breslau to a literary life. On his WSrterhuch der lateinischen Sprache most English-Latin dictionaries are based. Died, 1894. Freycinet {Jra'-se'-ni'), Charles Louis de 8aulce de, French statesman, was bom at Foix, France, 1828. He was educated at the polytechnic school in Paris, and was originally an engineer. In 1870 he was called by Gambetta to the war department; his conduct there he described in La Guerre en Province. Elected to the senate in 1876, he became minister of public works in 1877, premier in 1879, 1882, 1886, and 1890, and in 1892 remained war minister under his successor, M. Loubet. The Panama scandal drove him to resign in 1893. He has written on engineering, sanitation, etc., and was admitted to the academy of sciences in 1887, and to the French academy in 1890. Freytag (JrV-tiiK), Gustav, German novelist and dramatic writer, waa bom in Silesia, 1816. He studied at Breslau and Berlin, and lectured on German Uterature in the university at Breslau. He edited a newspaper at Leipzig, held a court position at Gotha, and during the Franco- German war was attached for a period to the staff of the crown prince. He wrote poema, successful plays, and novels. His best-icnown THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 70S work is Debit and Credit, which has appeared in several English translations. The Lost Manu- script and a series called Our Ancestors were almost as popular, while the plays, The Valen- tine, and Couvi Waldcmar, were brilliant suc- cesses. His other important works include Die J cntrnalisten and Die Tecknic dea Dramas. He died at Wiesbaden, 1895. Frtck, Henry Clay, manufacturer, philanthropist, was born in West Overton, Pa., 1849. He began business life as a clerk for his grandfather, a flour merchant and distiller; later embarked in a small way in the coke business. Was president, and since 1897 chairman of board of directors of the H. C. Frick coke company, now the largest coke producer in the world, operating nearly 40,000 acres of coal and 12,000 coke ovens, with dailv capacity of 25,000 tons. He came into public notice by his vigorous management during the famous strike at Homestead, 1892, when he was several times shot and stabbed by one of the strikers. He was chairman of board of the firm of Carnegie Bros., 1889-92, chairman of board of managers of the Carnegie steel com- pany since 1892, and is also director or officer in numerous other business enterprises. FrSbel (friX'-bel), Frledrlch Wilhelm, founder of the famous Kindergarten system, was born at Ober- weissbach, Germany, 1782. He studied at Jena, Gottingen, and Berlin; served in the German army against the French, 1813-14, and founded in 1816 his school at Greisheim, which he removed, in 1817, to Keilhau, near Rudolstadt. He also founded a kindergarten at Blankenburg in 1837. His system was founded on that of Pestalozzi — under whom he worked from 1807 to 1809 — which combined "physical, moral, and intellectual training, commencing with the years of child- hood. His chief work is The Education of Man, Mother's Songs, Games, and Stories, etc. Died, 1852. Froblsher (Jrdh' -Ish-er or fro' -blsh-^). Sir Martin, famous English navigator, was born near Don- caster about 1535, and brought up to the sea. Persuaded that there was a northwest passage to the Indies, and after many fruitless efforts to enlist the merchants in his cause, he obtained in 1576 from the government of Queen Elizabeth three vessels, explored portions of the Arctic coast, and, passing through the strait which has since borne his name, he returned to England with some black ore, which was thought to con- tain gold, and was enabled by the queen to make two more voyages in 1577 and 1578, neither of which was crowned with fortunate results. In 1585 he went with Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies. He contributed by his gallantry toward the defeat of the Spanish armada in 1588, and received the honor of knighthood. In 1590 and I 1592 he commanded squadrons with success against the Spaniards; and in 1594, being sent I to the aid of Henry IV. of France with four ships | of war, he was wounded, and died on his home- ; ward voyage. Frohman, Charles, theatrical manager, was bom at i Sandusky, Ohio, 1860. He was educated in the ^ public schools of New York ; was employed in the office of Daily Graphic, New York, and sold tickets evenings at Hoolev's theater, Brooklyn. In 1877 he took charge of a company that was sent west to play Our Boys; was vrith Wm. Haverly's minstrels, 1879-80, in United States and Europe ; went on road with Lady Clare and Victor Durand, 1881, but the tour was a failure. In 1888 he saw Shenandoah at Boston museum; organized a company and bought rights to that play, outside of Boston; made great success with that and succeeding ventures; organized Charles Frohman stock company, 1890; now proprietor and manager of Empire theater. Criterion, Lyceum, Garrick, Savov, and Knicker- bocker theaters, New York, and Duke of York's, Comedy. Glolie and Adelphi theaters, London; also joint manager of Vaudeville theater, Lon- don. Frohman, Daniel, theatrical manager, was bom at yandusky, Ohio, 1853. Received a common school education, and became office boy of New York Tribune, 1866. Remained in newspaper business for five years, then appeared as maiia|{er of traveling theatrical companies through the United States; manager of Fiftli Avenue theater and Madison Square tlicater. New York, 1870-85; manager of Lyceum theater since 1885; manager of Daly's theater. New York, with the Daniel Frohman stock company; also manaser of English and American stars and theatriciu com- panies and New Lyceum theater. New York. President of actors' fund of America. Froraentln {fro' -mas' -t&N'), Eugene, French painter and author, was bom at La Rochelle, France, 1820. He was a pupil of R6mond and Cabat; traveled in 1842-46 m Algeria, Egypt, and the East, and was made an officer of the legion of honor, 1859. He wrote the successful romances Dominique and Lea Maitrea d' Autrefois. Some of his best pictures are: "Crossing the Ford," "Arabs Watering Horses," and "Encampment in Atlas Mountains." Died, 1876. Frontenac (Fr. fr6N'-U-ndk'; Eng., frdn'-U^nHk). Louis de Buade, Comte de, French colonial officer, governor of Canada, was bom in 1621. He served in the French army, and in 1672 was appointed governor of the French possessions in >forth America. He was recalled after ten years of quarreling with the Jesuits, but he had gained the confidence of the settlers and the respect of the Indians; and in 1689, when to constant attacks from the Iroquois a war with England was added, he was again sent out. He now let loose the Indians on New England villages, repulsed a British attack on Quebec, and com- pletely broke the power of the Iroquois. He died at Quebec, 1698. Frost, Arthur Burdett, illustrator, author, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1851. He was self-taught in art, and exhibited at the Paris exposition, 1900. Author: BuU Calf and Other Tales; Gol- fer's Alphabet; Stuff and Nonsense; Sports and Games in the Open; Book of Draunngs, etc. He lives chiefly in France. Frothingham (frdth'-ing-am), Octavlus Brooks* clergyman and author, was bom at Boston, Mass., 1822. He was graduated at Harvard in 1843, and became pastor of a Unitarian church in Salem, Mass. In 1855 he removed to New Jersey, and in 1859 to New York, where he acted as minister of an independent religious organiza- tion for twenty years. He has written exten- sively on theological subjects. His chief works are: Religion of Humanity; Transcendentalism in New England; Life of Theodore Parker; Creed and Conduct, etc. Died, 1895. Frothingham, Paul Revere, clergyman, author, waa bom at Jamaica Plain, Mass., 1864. He waa graduated from Har^'ard, 1886, Harvard divinity school, A. M., S. T. B., 1889; minister of First Congregational society, New Bedford, Maas., 1889-1900; preacher to Harvard university, 1899-1902 and 1909-10; minister of Arlington Street church (Unitarian), Boston, since 1900. Author: William Ellcry Channina; His Message* from the Spirit; The temple of Virtue, etc. Froude (JrObd), James Anthony, eminent EngUah historian and general writer, professor of history at Oxford from 1892 to his death, was born at Dartington, England, 1818. He was educated at Oriel college, Oxford, and destined for the church, but abandoned this and his fellowship owing to a change of vi^ws explained in hia 706 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Nemesia of Faith. His chief historical work is T}ie History of England from the full of Wolsey to Uu defeat of the Spanish Armada; he also wrote ou The English in Ireland. In literature his best- known works are those on the Carlyle family, and Erasmus. He also wrote a novel, The Two Chiefs of Dunboy, and many miscellaneous works, including Ccesar; Life of Lord Beaconsfitld; Life of Carlyle; Oceana, etc. His accuracy has been greatly criticised In detail, but his brilliant yet simple style, and power of presenting broad effects, have secured for his histories great influence and popularitv. Died, 1894. Fry, Sir Edward, English lawyer and jurist, was bom at Bristol, England, 1827. lie was educated at Bristol college, University college, London, and Balliol college, Oxford. He was made a barrister in 1854 ; Q. C. and bencher of Lincoln's Inn, 1869; judge of the high court, chancery division, 1877-83; lord justice of appeal, 1883- 92; presided over the royal commission on the Irish land acts, 1897-98; was chairman of the court of arbitration under the metropolis water act, 1902; and was legal assessor to the inter- national commission on the North sea incident; was chairman of the royal commission on Trinity college, DubUn, and on the university of Dublin ; appomted ambassador extraordinary and first British plenipotentiary to The Hague peace i conference, 1907. Author: Essays on t}ie\ Accordance of Christianity with Nature of Man; ' The Doctrine of Election, an Essay; A Treatise on I the Specific Performance of Contracts; British Mosses; Studies by the Way, etc. Fry, Elizabeth, English philanthropist, was bom near Norfolk, 1780, daughter of John Gumey, a banker. She had no deep religious opinions until, at the age of eighteen, a sermon she heard in the Friends' meeting house turned her thoughts in that direction. She began working among the poor, and founded a school for poor children, which she managed entirely herself, even when the number of scholars increased to more than neventy. She married, and later became a preacher among the Friends. In 1813 she first saw the miserable condition of the 300 women, with their children, in the Newgate prison, ana her attention was turned to prison reform. By her efforts a school and manufactory were begun in the prison, an association formed to imprt)ve the prisoners, provide them with religious instruc- tion, and a matron was appointed. Mrs. Fry visited prisons in different parts of Great Britain and on the continent, everywhere effecting ameliorations. She died at RamMate, 1845. Frye, William Pierce, lawyer. United States senator from Maine, 1881-191 1; was born in Lewiston, Me., 1831. He was graduated at Bowdoin college, 1850, LL. D., 1889; LL. D., Bates, 1881 ; studied and practiced law. Mem- ber of Maine legislature, 18G1, 1862, and 1867; mayor of Lewiston, 1860-67 ; attomev-general of Maine, 1867-69; presidential elector, 1864; member of confess, 1871-81; elected United States senator in 1881 to succeed James G. Blaine, and reelected for the period 1883-1913. Was chairman of commerce commission of senate ; president pro tem. of the senate, 1896; reelected, 1901 and 1907; discharged the duties of that office during the 56th congress; delegate to republican national conventions, 1872, 1876, and 1880. Member of peace commission, Paris, 1898. Died, 1911. Fryer, John, Agassiz professor of oriental languages and literature, university of California, since 1896, was born at Hythe, Kent, England, 1839; graduated from Highbury college, London, 1860 ; LL. D., Alfred university. New York; principal of St. Paul's college, Hongkong, 1861-63; pro- fessor of English, Tung-Wen college, Peking, China, 1863-65; head master of Anglo-Chinese school, Shanghai, 1865-67; head of department for translation into Chinese of foreign scientific books at imperial govemnaent arsenal, Shanghai, 1867-96; viceroy's examiner at imperial naval college, Nanking, 1894-95; secretary to imperial Chinese ambassador, Kwo-Sung-Tao, 1878; gen- eral editor and chairman of executive committee of educational association of China, 1887-96; hon. secretary of Chinese polytechnic institution, Shanghai, since 1870. Author: Educational Directory for China; Translator's Vade-Mecum, or Voaunuary of Scientific Terms in Chinese and English; essays, reports, etc., and upward of 100 books published at Shanghai in Chinese language. FUhrlch (Jdo'-rlK), Joseph von, Austrian painter, was born at Kratzau, Bohemia, 1800. He became professor of painting in the academy of Vienna, and painted many scriptural subjects, chief of which was the Triumph of Christ.' Died, 1876. Fuloishlma (JOb'-kdb-shi'^md), Baron, Japanese general, was oorn at Matsumoto, 1853. He began Ufe as a drummer-boy ; studied in Tokyo univer- sity; entered judicial department, 1874; trans- ferred to general staff office, 1875; visited Philadelphia exhibition, 1870; lieutenant in army, 1877; traveled in Mongolia, 1879; mili- tary attach^, Peking 1882-84; sent to India, 1886; military attache BerUn, 1887-92; trav- eled on horseback. Berlin to Vladivostock, through Russia, Sioeria, Mongolia, Manchuria (9,000 miles), 1892-93; general staff officer, 5th division, first army; then chief of administrative bureau of territory occupied by Japan during war with China ; sent to Egypt, Turkey, Persia, Caucasia, Arabia, Turkestan, India, Burma, Siam, and Annam, 1895-97: in command of Japanese contingent until fall of Tientsin, then attached to General Yamaguchi, then to Field- Marshal Waldersee as general staff officer during Boxer troubles, 1900-01 ; attended King Edward's coronation; general staff officer, headcjuarters, Manchurian army, Russo-Japanese war, 1904-05; succeeded General Kodama as vice-chief of general staff of the army, 1906; governor-general of Kwantung since 1912. Fuller, George, American figure, portrait, and land- scape painter, was bom at Deerfield, Ma-ss., 1822. He studied in Boston, New York, Ixindon, and on the continent, and achieved his first success in 1857. Had notable exhibits at Boston and New York, 1876 and 1879, respectively. Chief paintings: "The Romany Girl " • "And She was a Witch"; "Maidenhood"; "'The Quadroon"; "Loretti"; ""Turkey Pasture in Kentucky"; "Winifred Dysart"; "Fagot-Gatherers," etc. Died, 1884. Fuller, Melville Weston, chief -justice of the United States supreme court, was born in Augusta, Me., 1833. He was graduated from Bowdoin College in 1853, and attended a course of lectures at Harvard law school; LL. D., Bowdoin, Harvard, Yale, Dartmouth, Northwestern; ad- mitted to the bar, 1855; formed a law partner- ship at Augusta ; was associate editor of Tlte Age, a democratic paper there, president of the com- mon council, and city solicitor. Went to Chicago in 1856, and practiced law until 1888. Was member of the Illinois state constitutional con- vention, 1862, and of the legislature, 1863-65. He was chief-justice of the United States from 1888-1910; was chancellor of Smithsonian institution; chairman of trustees of Peabody education fund ; vice-president of John P. Slater fund; member of board of trustees of Bowdoin college; one of the arbitrators to settle boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana, Paris, 1899; member of perma- nent court of arbitration. The Hague; member THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 709 of arbitral tribunal in the matter of the Muscat Dowhs, at The Hague, 1905. Died, 1910. Fuller, Sarah Margaret, Marchioness Ossoli, transceiulentalist, wa.s born at Cambridgeport, Mass., 1810. At twenty-five she assisted her family by school and private teaching. In Boston she edited The Dial, translated from the German, and wrote Sumtner on the Lakes. In 1844 she published Woman in the Nineteenth Century, and in the same year proceeded to New York, and contributed to the Tribune a series of miscellaneous articles, republished as Papers on Literature and Art. In 1847 at Rome she met the Marquis Osaoli, and married him. In 1849, during the siege of Rome, she took charge of a hospital; and after the capture of the city by the French she and her husband sailed with their infant for America, 1850. On July 16th the vessel was wrecked on Fire island near New York; the child's body was washed ashore, but nothing was ever seen of mother or father. Fullcrton, George Stuart, professor of philosophy, Columbia university, since 1904, was born at Fatehgarh, India, 1859. He graduated at the university of Pennsylvania, 1879; hon. Ph. D., Muhlenberg college, 1892; hon. LL. D., Muhlen- berg college, 1900; studied divinity, Princeton, 1879-80, and Yale, 1880-83; instructor, 1883- 85, adjunct professor, 1885-87, professor of philosophy, 1887-1904, university of Pennsyl- vania; dean of department of philosophj^, 1889- 90, dean of college, vice-provost of university, 1894-96, vice-provost of university, 1896-98, same. Author: The Conception of the Infinite; A Plain Argument for God; On Sam.eness and Identity; On the Perception of Sinall Differences in Sensa- tion (with Professor Cattell); The Philosophy of Spinoza; On Spinozistic hnmortality; A System of Metaphysics; An Introduction to Philosophy, etc. Fulton, Robert, celebrated American inventor and engineer, was bom at Little Britain, Pa., 1765. He was apprenticed to a jeweler in Philadelphia at an early age, and in addition to his labors at this trade he devoted himself to painting. The sale of his portraits and landscapes enabled him, in the space of four years, to purchase a small farm, on which he placed his mother, his father being dead. At the age of twenty-two he pro- ceeded to London, where he studied painting under West; but after several years thus spent he felt that this was not his true vocation. Accordingly, he abandoned painting and applied himself wholly to mechanics. In 1794 he ob- tained from the British government a patent for an inclined plane, the object of which was to set aside the use of locks; and in the same year he invented a mill for sawing and polishing marble. His next invention was a machine for spinning flax, followed by one for making ropes. He was received as a civil engineer in 1795, and wrotera ■work on canals in which he developed his system. Accepting an invitation from the United States minister at Paris, he proceeded to that city in 1797, and remained there for seven years, devot- ing himself to new projects and inventions. In 1803 he constructed a small steamboat, and his experiments with it on the Seine were attended with great success. He returned in 1806 to New York and pursued his experiments there. In 1807 he launched his steam-vessel, the Clermont, upon the Hudson, which made a succe.ssful start, in the presence of thousands of astonished spec- tators. From this period steamers came mto general use upon the rivers of the United States. In 1815 he launched the war-steamer Fulton, and died the same year. Funk, Isaac Kaufman, author, publisher, clergy- man, was born at Clifton, Ohio, 1839. He was graduated at Wittenberg college; D. D., 1861; LL. D., 189C. Filled various putonttes, 1867- 72, the last St. Matthew's English Luthermn church, Brooklyn. Was editor-in-chief of various periodicals of Funk and Wagnalls company; editor-in-chief of Standard Dictumary; cbiurmMi of editorial board that produced the J0wi$k Encyclopa-dia; fountler-edltor of The MetropolUttn Pulpit, now the HomUetic Review, 1876: In con- nection with his house founded The Voice, 1880; The Misi^ionary Review, 1888; The Literary Digest, 1889; published numerous works of reference; entered into partncrehin with A. W. Wagnalls in 1878, merging into the Funk and Wagnalls companv, 1890. I-Mitor: Tarry Thou Till I Come. Author: The Next Step in Evolu- ti-on; The Widow's Mile, and Other Payehie Phenomena; The Psychic Riddle. Died, 1912. Funston, Fred, brif^adier-gcncral of l.'nited States army, was bom in Ohio, 1N65. He studied in Kansas state university, Lawrence, two years, but was not graduate'4li-Nzh'\ Numa Denis French historian, was bom at Paris, 1830. He filled chairs at Amiens, Paris, Strassburg, and from 1875 at the Ecole Normale at Paris. After the war of 1870 he turned his attention to history, though he had written previously C/jto and Polybe. His first historical work. La Cit6 antique, made its author famous. His Histoire des Institutions politiques de I'ancienne France is profoundly learned, and made him a member of the French institute. Died, 1889. Fyffe (flf), Charles Alan, English historian, was bom at Blackheath, England, 1845. In 1867 he took classical honors at Balliol college, Oxford, and was elected a fellow of University college. During the Franco-German war he was war correspondent for the London Daily News, and was in Paris during the commune. In 1880-90 he published his History of Modem Europe, in three volumes. Died, 1892. Gabelentz (ga'-bl-l(hits), Hans Conon von der, German philologist, was born at Altenburg, 1807. He was educated at the universities of Leipzig and Gottingen; studied the Finno-Tartaric languages, and published Elements de la Gram- maire Mandchoue; published a critical edition of the Gothic translation of the Bible by Ulfilas, with a Latin translation, and with a Gothic glossary and grammar appended. Besides he furnished contributions to periodicals on the Mordvinian and Samoyed languages. He is said to have known more than eighty languages. Died, 1874. Gade (ga'-de), Niels WUhelm, Danish composer, was bom, lived, and died at Copenhagen, 1817- 90. He was court organist at Copenhagen, and wrote several symphonies, overtures, and can- tatas, as well as many choral and solo pro- ductions. His overture, Ossian, has received high praise, as have also his musical sketches, AqxLarellen and Volkstanze. He was one of the originators of the Scandinavian school of music. Gadsden (g&dz'-din), Christopher, American patriot, was bom in Charleston, S. C, 1724. He was a member of the first continental congress, 1774, became brigadier-general during the revolution, and was lieutenant-governor of South Carolina at the time of the surrender of Charleston to Sir Henr>' Clinton in 1780. He died in 1805 Gadsden, James, grandson of above, was born at Charleston, S. C, 1788. He ser\'ed in the war of 1812 and against the Seminoles. In 1853 he was appointed minister to Mexico, and negotiated the purchase of part of Arizona and New Mexico, known as the "Gadsden purchase." He died in 1858. Gage, Lyman Judson, financier, was bom at De Ruyter, Madison county, N. Y., 1836. He removed to Rome, N. Y., 1848, and was educated at Rome academy; LL. D., Beloit, 1897, New York universitv, 1903. At seventeen he entered Oneida centraf bank ; served as office boy and junior clerk until 1855, when he went to Chicago; clerk in planing mill until 1858; bookkeeper, 1858-01, and cashier, 1861-68, Merchants' loan and trust companv; became, in 1868, cashier, in 1882, vice-president, and in 1891, president of First national bank of Chicago. Was first presi- dent of board of directors. World's Columbian exposition; three times president of American bankers' association; first president of Chicago bankers' club ; twice president of civic federation of Chicago. Secretarv of United States treasury, 1897-1902; president of United States trust company. New York, 1902-06. Retired, 1906. Trustee of Carnegie institution, Washington. Gage, 81mon Henry, biolo^st, educator, was l>om in Otsego countv, N. \ ., 1851. He was grad- uated at Cornell, 1877; instructor, assistant professor and full professor of Cornell, 1878-1908; studied in Europe, 1889, and is now one of the editors of A meriean Journal of A natomy. Author : The Microscope and Microscopic Methods; Ana- tomical Technology (with Professor Burt G. Wilder); and numerous papers on biolc^cai subjects; collaborator or contributor to Foster's Encydopcedic Medical Dictionary, Wood's Refer- ence Hand-Book of the Medical Sciences, Johnson's Cyclopedia, etc. Gage, Thomas, English general, last royal sovemor of Massachusetts, was bom in 1721. In 1763 he was made commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. His inflexible character led the British government to regard him as well fitted to end the disturbances in the American colonies. In 1774 he was nominated governor of Massachusetts, a post of peculiar difficulties. In April, 1775, he dispatched an expedition to seize a quantity of arms which had been stored at Concord. On the way thither the detach- ment came upon a number of militia drilling, whom they attacked because they refused to lay down their arms. This encounter, known as the battle of Lexington, was the signal for a general rising throughout the colonies. On June 17th the battle of Bunker Hill was fought, which resulted in a dearly bought victory to the Eng- lish; but numerous complaints being lodg^ against Gage, he was recalled bv the British government in October, 1775. Died, 1787. Gagem {gii'-ghm), Helnrlch Wilhelm August, Ger- man statesman, was bom at BajTeuth, Germany. 1799. He was educated at the military school at Munich. On Napoleon's return from Elba he entered the army of Nassau, and ser\'ed as lieutenant at Waterloo. He subsequently studied law at the universities of Heidelberg, Gottingen, Jena, and Geneva; in 1821 he entered political life under the government of Hesse-Darmstadt. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 711 He was elected a member of the second chamber in 1832, and vigorously opposed the piliciee of the state governments and of the federal diet. In 1836, seeing the fruitlessness of opposition to the governmental politics, he declinetl reelection, and turned to aignculture on his father's estate. In 1846 he published a work against the govern- ment of Hesse; in 1847 was again elected to the chamber as representative of Worms, and was president of the Frankfort parliament, 1848-49. From 1859 he again took part in grand-ducal politics, as a partisan of Austria against Prussia. Died, 1880. Gallor, Thomas Frank, prelate, bishop of Tennes- see since 1898, was born at Jackson, Miss., 1856. He graduated at Racine college, and the General theological seminary, New York; D. D., S. T. D., Columbia, Trinity, university of the South. Rector of Pulaski, Tennessee, Episcopal church, 1879-82. Professor ecclesiastical historv, 1882-90, chaplain, 1883-90, vice-chancellor, 1890-93, chan- cellor and president of board of trustees, university of the South, since 1908: declined bishopric of Georgia, 1890. Author of a Manual of Devotion, and many lectures and sermons. Gainsborough {gam'-b'ro), Thomas, eminent Eng- lish landscape painter, was born at Sudbury, England, 1727. He early displayed a decided talent for painting, and began life as a portrait painter. His later genius found adequate expres- sion in the delineation of the rich and quiet scenery of his native country, and to this he mainly devoted himself after settling in London in 1774. At the creation of the royal academy he was chosen one of the first members. Among his finest productions are "The Shepherd's Boy," "The Fight Between Little Boys and Dogs," "The Sea^shore," "The Woodman in a Storm," and "Duchess of Devonshire." The most celebrated of his pictures is "The Blue Boy," in the Devonshire gallery. Died, 1788. Gairdner (gard'-ner), James, British historian, was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, 1828. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh; LL. D., Edinburgh, 1897. He became clerk in the pub- lic record office, 1846 ; assistant keeper of public records, 1859. Edited for master of the rolls: Memorials of Henry VII., and Letters and Papers of the Reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII.; appointed, 1879, to continue the Calendar of Henry VIII., of which vol. v. to vol. xxi. have appeared under his editorship, completing the work; edited the Paston Letters, 1872-75; edited also some volumes for the Camden society; author of England in the series Early Chroniclers of Europe; Life of Richard III.; The English Church in the Sixteenth Century to tlie Death of Mary; Studies in English History; con- tributed numerous articles to the Dictionary of National Biography and the English Historical Review. Died, 1912. Gains (gd'-yOs), or Caius, Roman jurist, flourished in the second century of our era. He was the author of more than fifteen works, of which the Institutes was the most important. This is sup>- posed to have been the first instance of a popular manual of Romari law in the sense of modem elementary text books. It was incorporated almost bodily into the celebrated Institutes of Justinian. The work was long lost, but a large part of it was recovered in 1816-17 from a much defaced palimpsest in the cathedral library at Verona, found by Niebuhr. Galba (g&l'-bd), Servius Sulplcius, Roman emperor, was bom B. C. 3. He was of a noble and very rich famih', and showed so much talent when a boy that the emperors Augustus and Tiberius both predicted that he would one day be at the head of the Roman world. He was commander of the army in Spain when the emperor Nero diet!, in 68 A. D., and wru no popular with th» soldiers that they made him emperor when seventy-one years' old. But he •con began to pursue a military course of marked severity, made promises to his friends which he did not keep, and hoarded up his money like a miser. He was nnirdere l.tnds in South Africa, and soon after entered the British civil service in the board of trade. He was an officer and member of many scientific societies^ and for his Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa received the gold medal of the royal geographical society. Author: Tropical South Africa; Art of Travel; Vacation Tourists; Hereditary Genius; English Men oj Science, their Nature and Nurture; Human Faculty; Natural Inheritance; Finger Prints; Fingerprint Directory, and numerous Memoirs, latterly on eugenics, in 1905 establishing for its studv a research fellowship in the university of London. Died, 1911. GalvaiU (gOl-v&'-ni), Lulgt, Italian physician and physicist from whom "galvanism" derived its name, was bom in Bologna, 1737. He waa educated for the profession of medicine, and studied under Beccaria, Tacconi, and Galeazzi. In 1762 he was appointed lecturer on anatomy in the university of Bolognaj in which city he practiced. It was while holding this lectureship that he made those discoveries, partly by means of experiments on the muscles ot frogs, which he published to the world in 1791 in his treatise entitled De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Mus- culari Commentarius. The now fully-established doctrine of animal electricity owes its origin to the patient and laborious investigations of the Bologna professor. Died, 1798. Gama {gH'-mil), Vaseo da, Portuguese navigator, was bom about 14G9 at Sines in Alemtejo. He early distinguished himself as an intrepid mariner, and was selected by King Emanuel to discover the route to India around the cape. The exp>e- dition of three vessels with 168 men left Lisbon in July. 1497, but was four months in reaching St. Helena. After rounding the cape, despite hurricanes and mutinies he made Melinda early in the following year. Here he found a skillful Indian pilot, crossed the Indian ocean, and arrived at Calicut in May, 1498. The ruler of Calicut soon became actively hostile, and Da Gama had to fight his way out of the harbor. In September, 1499, he arrived at Lisbon, and was ennobled. Emanuel immediately despatched THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 718 a fresh squadron of thirteen ships under Cabral, ■who founded a factory at Calicut. But the forty Portuguese left there were murdered, and to avenge them the king fitted out a S()uadron of twenty ships under Da Gama, 1502. which founded the colonies of Mozambique and Sofala, bombarded Calicut, and reached the Tagus with thirteen richly-laden vessels in December, 1503. For twenty years Da Gama lived inactive at Evora, while the extended Portuguese con- quests were presided over by five viceroys. The fifth was so unfortunate that John III. in 1524 despatched Da Gama to India, where he suc- ceeded in making Portugal once more respected, but soon after his arrival he died at Cochin, 1524. Gamaliel (gd-md'41-d), St, Paul's teacher, was a prominent Pharisee, and taught "the law" early in the first century. He was the grandson of Hillel. Tolerant and peaceful, he seems to have placed Christianity on a par with other sects; and he exhorts to long-suffering on all sides. Gambetta {g&m-bU'-d), L£on Michel, French lawyer, statesman, and orator, was born at Cahors, 1838. He studied law, and in 1859 joined the Paris bar. It was not until 1868 that his name came prominently before the pubUc. He then acquired fame as counsel for defendants in political prosecutions. He showed himself an able and determined enemy of the second empire. After Sedan he became minister of the interior, and remained for some time in Paris after it was invested by the Germans. As he was anxious, however, to stir up the provinces, he contrived to escape from the city by a balloon. He came down to Amiens, and thence proceeded to Tours, where he was intrusted with the control of the war department. He assumed unlimited power, and made every effort to stir up the provinces in defense of Paris. He preached war with the utmost hostility against the Germans, and denounced the capitulation of Metz as an act of treason on the part of Marshal Bazaine. When the national assembly was resolved upon in 1871, Gambetta sought by decree to give it an exclu- sively republican character. The decree was canceled at the instigation of Prince Bismarck, and Gambetta resigned office as minister. He subsequently entered the assembly as a member for Paris, became the leader of the extreme left, and to the violence of a speech which he delivered at Grenoble was largely attributed the reaction which set in against republican government and the retirement of M. Thiers. After this his political action became more skillful and mod- erate, and to his leadership the republicans greatly owed their success in the elections of 1877. He became premier in 1881, but in a few months resigned. Died, 1882. Gambler (g&m'-ber), James, Baron, English admiral, was born in the Bahamas, 1756. He fought with distinction off Ushant, under Lord Howe, in 1794; became rear-admiral, 1795, vice-admiral, 1799, and admiral, 1805. He commanded the British fleet at Copenhagen in 1807, and was rewarded with a peerage. At the battle of Aix Roads in 1809 he disregarded the signals of Dundonald but was "most honorably acquitted" by court-martial. In 1814 he served on the commission which negotiated the treaty of peace with the United States. Died, 1833. Gamble, Robert Jackson, lawyer. United States senator, was born in Genesee county, N. Y., 1851. He removed to Fox Lake, Wis., 1862; graduated from Lawrence university, Appleton, Wis., 1874 ; located at Yankton, S. D., 1875, where he has since been engaged in the practice of law. He was district attorney for the second judicial district of the territory in 1880; city attorney of Yankton for two years; state senator in 1885, under the constitution adopted that year; wa« elected to the fifty-fourth and fifty-«ixth eon- gresses; elected to the United States senate, 1901, and reelected for the term 1907-13. Gannett (g&n'-it), Henry, geographer and atatia- ticiau, United States geologicul survey, aiace 1882, was bom at Batli, Me., 1846. He waa graduated from Lawrence scientific school, Harvard university; LL. D., Bowdoin; was civil and mining engineer, 1866-70; assistant Harvard observatory, 1870-71; topographer, Hayden survey, 1872-79; geographer, United States census, 1880-«2, 1890-92. 1900-02; assistant director census, Philippine islands, 1902-03; assistant director census of Cuba, 1907-08. Author: Statistical Atlases of Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Censitses; Scribner'a Statis- tical Atlas (in part); Dictionary of Altitudes; Commercial Geography; Building of a Nation; United States; Stanford Series of Geography; Contour Map of United States; and many geographical and statistical reports and papers. Garcia {gdr-thi'-ix), Manuel, musical genius, waa born at Seville, Spain, 1775. After accjuiring » considerable reputation as a singer in Cadis and Madrid, he went to Paris in 1808, where he ob- tained great success at the Italian opera; and in 1811 proceeded to Italy, where he was received with equal favor in Turin, Rome, and Naples. Subsequently, with a select operatic company, composed in part of members of his own family, he crossed the Atlantic, and visited the United States, Mexico, and South America. After his return to Paris he became a vocal teacher, and many of his pupils reached a high degree of excellence, but none equaled his eldest daugliter, Maria, afterward Mme. MaUbran. Died at Paris, 1832. Garcilaso de la Yega {g&r'-thi-lli'-sd d& la v&'-gei), Spanish soldier and poet, was bom at Toledo about 1503. He early adopted the profession of arms, and gained a distinguished reputation for bravery in the wars carried on by Emperor Charles V. against the French and Turks, but was mortally wounded while storming a castle near Fr^jus, in the south of France. He wrote a number of sonnets and other poems, several eclogues, and is sometimes called the "Spanish Petrarch." Died at Nice, 1536. Garcilaso de la Vega, Peruvian historian, known as "the Inca," was bom at Cuzco, in Peru, about 1540. He was the son of Sebastian Garcilaso de la Vega y Vargas, who married Elizabeth Palla, a princess of the race of the Incas, and niece of the famous Huayna Capac, the last emperor of Peru. At the age of twenty he pro- ceeded to Spain, and never again visited America. During the greater portion of his life he lived at Cordova, where he died. His first work waa a History of Florida, containing an account of the conquest of the countrjr by Hernando de Soto, and was followed by a history of the royal Incas, his largest work. Died, 1616. Gardener, Helen Hamilton, author, was bom at Winchester, Va., 1858, daughter of Rev. Alfred GriflSth Chenoweth. She was graduated at Cincinnati high and normal schools; pursued post-graduate work in biology, medicine, and other branches in New York; married Col. 8. A. Day, United States army, in 1901. She has done much magazine work as editor and con- tributor, and written many stories, essays, and scientific articles. Author: Men, Women, and Gods, essays; Facts and Fictions of Life; Is This Your Son. My Lordf Pushed by Unseen Hands; A Thoughtless Yes; An Unofficial Patriot; Historical Sketches of Our Navy, etc. She has been active in movements for progress and development of women, and for social and ethical reform. 714 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Gardiner, Samnel Bawson, English historian, was born in 1829; was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1884 he was elected fellow of All Souls', and was for some years pro- fessor of modern history at King's college, Lon- don. His historical works include 77i€ History of England from Die Accession of James I. to the Disgrace of Chief Justice Coke; Prince Charles and the Spanish Marriage; England Under the Duke of Buckingham and Charles I.; The Per- sorud Government of Cfiarles I.; and the Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I.; all these being repub- lished as a continuous work in 1883-84; An Introduction to the Study of English History, with J. B. Mullinger; History of the Great Citnl War; and a complete History of England. Died, 1902. Garfield, Harry AuKUstus* educator, was bom at Hiram, Ohio, 18G3, the son of James Abram Garfield. He was graduated at Williams college, 1885; studied law at Columbia law school one year, and at Oxford, England, and Inns of Court, London, but without matriculation at either of the latter places. He practiced law as a member of the firm Garfield, Garfield, and Howe, Cleve- land, 1888-1903; professor of politics, Princeton, 1903-08; elected president of Williams college, 1907, and assumed duties in June, 1908. Presi- dent of Cleveland chamber of commerce, 1898-99, and member of many learned and other associa- tions. Garfleld, James Abram, twentieth president of the United States, was born in Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio, 1831. As a boy he had few adv,antages, received a common school education, and this in a fragmentary way. He workeu occasionally at a carpenter s bench, toiled early and late on the small maternal farm, and also drove a team of canal mules. By dint of hard work he persevered until he entered Williams college. Mass., and was graduated in 1856. He studied and practiced law, and was a member of the Ohio senate, 1859-60; entered the army in 1861 as colonel of the 42d Ohio volunteers; served in southeastern Kentucky, and was promoted to be brigadier-general of volunteers, 1862 j served at Shiloh, Corinth, etc.; was appomted chief of staff by General Rosecrans, 1863; and for gallantry at the battle of Chicka- mauga was promoted to major-general of vol- unteers. He resigned to occupy a seat in the thirty-eighth congress, to which he had been elected, and remained in congress as chairman of important committees, until elected United States senator in the spring of 1880. He was elected to the presidency at tlie close of 1880, and entered upon office in the spring of the following year; but on the 2d of July he was shot by the assassin Guiteau, while at the Washington station of the Baltimore and Potomac railway, and died at Elberon, N. J., after lingering for nearly three months. His early povertj*, nis manly inde- pendence, his hard-won attainments, and his mcorruptible integrity had all caused his career to be watched as that of a man of exceptional powers and of brilliant promise ; and his untimely death was mourned, not only by his own country- men, but by the whole civiUzed world. Died, 1881 Garfield, James Rudolph, lawyer, former secretarv of the interior, and son of James Abram Garfield, was born in Hiram, Ohio, 1865. He was gradu- ated at Williams college, Mass., 1885; studied at Columbia law school; was admitted to the bar in 1888; practiced law in Ohio, 1888-1902; was member of Ohio senate, 1896 to 1899; member of United States civil service commission from 1902 to February, 1903; commissioner of cor- porations, department of commerce and labor, from February, 1903, to March, 1907; was secretary of the interior, 1907-09. Garibaldi ig&'-re-bal'-de), Giuseppe, Italian patriot, was bom at Nice, France, 18u7, and began life as a sailor. He associated himself enthusiastic- ally with Mazziui for the hberation of his country, but, being convicted of conspiracy, fled to South America, where, both as a privateer and a soldier, he gave his services to the young repub- lics struggling there for life. Returning to Europe, he took part in the defense of Rome against France, but, being defeated, fled to New York, to return to the isle of Caprera, biding his time. He joined the Piedmontese against Aus- tria, and in 1860 set himself to assist in the overthrow of the kiuedom of Naples and the union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel. Land- ing in Calabna, he entered Naples and drove the royal forces before him without striking a blow, after which he returned to his retreat at Caprera, ready still to draw sword, and occaj^ionally offer- ing It again in the cause of republicanism. In 1870-71 be commanded a French force in the Franco-German war. Died, 1882. Garland, Hamlin, American novelist and short- storv writer, was born of Scotch descent at West Salem Wis., 1860. Until 1881 he worked on his father s farm, spent some time in Dakota, then proceeded East, where he taught English litera- ture in private schools in Boston and its neighbor- hood, and published his first book in 1890. Since then be has devoted himself to lecturing and writing. Besides a collection of verse entitled Prairie Songa, he has published the following books: Rose of Dutchera Coolly; A Little Norsk; Jaaon Edwards; A Member of the Third Houae; A Spoil of Office; Main Traveled Roadaj Crumbling Idola; Wayside Courtships; Prairte Folka; Ulyaaea Grant: Hia Life and Character; The Trail of the Gold Seekera; Boy LiJe on the Prairie; The Spirit of Sweetwater; The Eagl^a Heart; Her Mountain Lover; The Captain of the Gray Horae Troop; Hesper; The Tyranny of the Dark; The Long Trail; Money Magic; The Shadow World, etc. Gamier (pdr'-nyd'), Jean Ix>ula Cbaries, French architect, was bom at Paris, France, 1825. He studied at the school of fine arts, and began to exhibit water colors in 1853, after considerable travel in Italy and Greece. In 1854 he set up as an architect in Paris, and in 1861 competed for the design of the new opera house in Paris. His design was accepted, and he constructed the building, which was completed in 1875. He also built the conservatory at Nice, and the casino at Monte Carlo. He was made an officer of the legion of honor. Died, 1898. Garrelt, R. W., Canadian physician, professor of obstetrics. Queen's university, Kingston, Canada, was born in the county of North Ontario, 1853. He was educated at Ontario college, Picton; M. A., Trinitv college, Toronto; M. D., Queen's university, I^ngston, Ontario. After receiving his degree in medicine, 1882, he settled in the practice of his profession at Kingston, where he was shortly app)ointed professor of anatomy in the Women's medical school; was afterward appointed demonstrator of anatomy in the royal college of physicians and surgeons, and later filled the chair of professor of anatomj'. Senior sur- geon in the Kingston general hospital, and sur- geon-major in the 14th battalion princess of VV^ales' own rifles. Author: Medical and Surgical Gyncccology; editor, Kingston Medical Quarterly. Garrlck, David, English actor, son of a captain in the army, was bom in Hereford in 1717. He went to London with Dr. Johnson in 1736 to study law ; but an irresistible instinct urged him to tne stage. He made his first appearance, under the name of Lyddal, at Ipswich, in 1741, and soon after played Richard III. in the theater of Goodman's Fields, where his success enabled THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 716 him to get an engagement at Drury Lane. In 1742 he went to Dublin- in 1747 he became joint patentee of Drury Lane, two years later marrymg Mademoiselle Violette. He acted at Drury Lane until 1776, when he retired and sold his snare in the concern. In 1763 he visited Italy, and in 1769 projected and conducted the memorial jubilee at Stratford-on-Avon in honor of Shakespeare. His last appearance was as Don Felix in The Wonder. He died in 1779 and was buried in Westminster abbey. Garrison, WlUiam Lloyd, American abolitionist, was born at Newburyport, Mass., 1805. As a young man he was chiefly engaged in newspaper work, and soon made himself obnoxious to the then ruling powers by the boldness of his denun- ciation of slavery. In 1829, while editing The Genius of Universal Emancipation, which was published at Baltimore, his articles on this sub- ject led to his being convicted and imprisoned for libel. He was released from prison on the payment of his fine by a friend, and thereupon commenced his career as an anti-slavery lecturer, which he continued until such agitation was no longer necessary. In 1831 he founded The Liberator, which he published at Boston during thirty-five years. His whole course was attended by the most malignant opposition from the pro- slavery party ; his life was frequently threatened, and more than once he was assaulted and pub- licly handled; but his courage, energy, and ability were inexhaustible, and he lived to see the complete success of the movement which he had done so much to promote. On the abolition of slavery in 1865, he was presented by his friends in the United States with the sum of $30,000. He visited England in 1833, 1846, 1848, 1867, and 1877, and on the last occasion but one he was entertained at a public breakfast in St. James's hall, London, in which the duke of Argyll and Mr. Bright, among others, took part. Died, 1879. Garth (garth). Sir Samuel, English physician and poet, was bom at Bowland Forest, Yorkshire, 1661, studied at Peterhouse, Cambridge, and Leyden, graduated M. D. in 1691, and next year settled in London. In 1700 he did himself ever- lasting honor by providing burial in Westminster abbey for the neglected Dryden. He was knighted by George I. and appointed physician in ordinary, and physician-general to tne army. He published The Dispensary, 1699, a satire on the apothecaries and physicians who opposed giving medicine gratuitously to the sick poor, and, in 1715, Claremont, a topographical poem. Died, 1719. Gary, Elbert H., chairman of board of directors and chairman of finance committee of United States steel corporation, was born at Wheaton. 111., 1846; educated at Wheaton college ana Chicago university; graduated from law school, university of Chicago, 1867. Admitted to lUinois bar, 1867, bar of United States supreme court, 1878. First mayor of Wheaton; county judge, Du Page county, two terms; practiced law in Chicago twenty-five years", chiefly as counsel for railroad and manufacturing corporations; president of Chicago bar association, 1893-94; retired from law practice to become president of Federal steel company, 1898; is chairman of board of directors of Allis-Chalmers company, and several banks and other corporations. Trustee of North- western university. Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghom Stevenson, English novelist, was bom at Cheyne Row, Chelsea, 1810. She married in 1832 William Gaskell, a Unitarian minister in Manchester. Here she studied work- ing men and women. In 1848 she published anonymoiosly Mary Barton, followed by the Moorland Cottage; Cranford; Ruth; North and South; Round the So/a; Riaht at Last; Sylvia't Lovers; Cousin Phillis, and Wives and Daughters. She died suddenly at Holyboume, Alton, in Hampshire, 1865, and was fittingly buried at Knutsford. Besides her novels she wrote Ths Life of Charlotte Bronii, a masterpiece of Engli^ biography. Gassendi {gd'-sati'-di'), or Gassend, Pierre, French philosopher and mathematician, was bom at Champtercier in Provence, 1592. He studied and taught at Aix, but revolted from the scholas* tic philosophy, and applied himself to physica and astronomy. His examination of the Aris- totelian system appeared in Exerciiationes Para- doxiccB adversus Anstoteleos, 1624. In that year he was appointed provost of DIgne csthedural; and in 1645 professor of mathematics In the College Royal at Paris, where he died, 1665. He controverted Fludd, the mystic, and Des- cartes|s new philosophy; wrote on Epicurus; gave in his Institutio Astronomica a clear view of the science in his day; and published lives of Tycho Brahe, Copemicus, and Regiomontanus. Gaston de Folx (g&a'-tSy' di fwti), famous French general, was bom in 1489. When twentv-three years old he was made commander of the ^French army in Italy. He defeated the army of Venice, near Brescia, and took the city by storm on the same day. A few weeks afterward he won a victory at Ravenna over the enemy's forces, in one of the hottest battles ever fought, 20,000 men being killed on each side. The victory was so splendid that the hot-blooded young hero grew impatient when he saw some of the enemy's infantry leave the field slowly and in good order, and madly rushed after them in person, followed by Bayard and about twenty knights. He broke the enemy's line, but his horse was wounded and fell; and when Gaston's friends reached him he was dead. He was killed in 1512. Gates, Horatio, famous American general, was bom in England, 1728. Sent to America in 1755, as captain of infantry, he served under General Braddock, and with difficulty escaped in the defeat in which that officer was slain. On the peace of 1763 he purchased an estate in Virania, where he resided until the war of independence, when he sided with his adopted countiy, and in 1775 was made adjutant-general in the colonial army. He accompanied Washington to Massa^ chusetts in July of the same year, where he remained until June, 1776, when he received the chief command of the army, which had just retreated from Canada. In March, 1777, he superseded Schuyler in the command of the army of the North, but was himself superseded by Schuyler in the following May. In Augtist he once more undertook the command, and soon compelled the entire British army to surrender at Saratoga. This brilliant success gained for him a great military reputation, and his considerate conduct toward his compatriots won for him the esteem of even his enemies. In 1780 he was called by congress to the command of the army of the South, and in the unfortunate defeat of Camden lost the laurels he had already won. He was superseded, and was not acquitted of blame until 1782, after a protracted trial by court martial. He then retiretl to Virginia until 1790, when he emancipated all his slaves, and settled in New York. Died, 1806. Gates, John Wame, capitalist, was bom on a farm near Turner Junction (now West Chicago), 111.. 1855. He was educated in country schools, ana conducted a small hardware store at Turner Junction, III. ; became salesman in Texas, intro- ducing barbed wire for I, L. Ellwood; built up a large business; established for himself in St. Louis; organized Southern wire company. 1880; later in Braddock wire company; sola it to 716 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Federal steel eom pmny , IMS: orgfaiaed Aneri- etm etegl mod wire eoaqMuajr (maw part of United States eteel c a ri wwrlwi ). UB7; wm hViitified with Mmeroae Ivse deab in lailiray and indua- trialatoek; was direetor Bahtmore and (Miio iBlt- road eompany, W e a t em Marjriand railniad eom- paaj, Rtpdkme in» and atea company of New Jeraer, Aaaerieaa aalk aB Myauj i , United Statea realty and iuipim€Mi e ut ea «p ai n r, Tfnnf Bi i' i > eoal, iron and raiiroad eompany, Clycfe ateamalup eoot- pany. National bank of North America, etc. Waa eofaatl of minofemtlilia. 1^97-1001. Died. 191L Oaias. Menfll BAaavia* eoucator, author, waa bom at WafBKW, N. Y^ IMS; graduated from unirer- iity of Roeheater. 1870; Ph. D., mtirenttj of State of New York, 1880; LL. D., Prioeeton and Rodicnter, 1882, Columbia, 1801, Williams, 1803; L. H. IX. Columbia, 1887. He was prtneipal of the Albany boys' academy, 1870-82; praidsnt of Ratters coUeKe^ 1882-00; prerident of Amhenfe eoHna, ISOCMW; dtairman of United States board of ImUaa eomndarioners, 1800-40; president of the American miarionary aaaociation, 1802-48; and eig^t Tcais president of the Lake Mohawk Indian eooiercaea. He is a u is M i ber of the American piiflosogMaal aodety, bistmy pubBshed his fint the strikmc CmMriM reached its lijghest pomt lone poem, A&erUu; in ie^ U Mm^ Bat hia p k pomt in Mtmmmx it Cm waa Cumin, association; lec tur er and writer upon reiicious, social, and educational themea. Author: Sidney Lanier, Poet and Artiet; Land and Late at Aoenia in Educating the Indiane; InUrmaUamal Arbitra- tion: Higheet Um of Wealth, ete. Gatttnc Bietaard Jordan, American inrentor. was bom in North Carolina, 1818. He UxAi his degree in medicine about 1840, but did not pfBctica. In 1850 he invented a hanp4»eakiiic machine, and in 1857 a steam ploom; but his eelebrated invention was tBai of the revolving gun^ which bean his name^ the eon- eepUon of which came to him in 1861. In 1866 the gun was improved and tested, and was forth- with brought into use by the United States service. Several European covemmenta also adopted it. Among Dr. GatBng's hUer iBTcn- tions were an improved method of resting steel cannon and a pneumatic gun for dischaij^ng explosives. Died, 1903. Ganss (goua), Karl Frledrleh, noted German mathematician, was bom in Brunswick, Germany, 1777. He was graduated at the Collegium Carolinum in his native city in 1795, at the university of Gottingen in 1798, and then rrpaired to Helmstadt to avail himself of the library of that place. Here he completed his celebrated Dieqttieitionet Arithmetieig, which appeared in 1801, and at once atamped ita author as one of the most profound and original mathe- maticians of any age. In 1809 appeared bis Theoria Motue Corporum CaUatium, in which was also contained tlie exposition of his newly di s cov er ed method of least squares for the treat- ment of the results of observations. In 1807 he was called to the chair of mathematics and the directorship of the obeervatory in the univcrsitj of Gottin^en, positions which he held until his death. His investigations here took a wide ranse, and much of his time waa taken op in work in the field of terrestrial magnetism. His complete worlu, collected and puuldied by the royal society of sciences of Gdttingen, fiD seven : GararrC large quarto volumes, with titles as follows: Diaquieiiionee Ariihmetiea; Higher Arithmetic; Analyeie; Geometry and Method of Lecut Soyaree; Mathematical Phyeica; Aatronomy; Theoria Motue. Died, 1855. Gautama (gd'-td-md), Buddha. See page 201. Gautier {g&-tya'^^ Thfophile, French poet and novelist, was bom at Tarbea, 1811. From painting he turned to literature, and became a "romanticist" of extreme type. In 1830 he AfodeaMtaeBe^lfMipM, with iU defiant preface. He wrote mamrothernovels and sliorter stories — Lea Jettne rmnee; Portumio; Una Larme de DiabU; MUUema; he Peam de Tiare; Jettatura; Le CaviUnne Fracame; La BeOe Jenny; Spirite; ete. MMmte alone contests with him the palm as the prinee of writers of short stories. The first hair of Gantier's theatrical critidaow were collected as L'Hialair* da FAH Dnmmatiqye en Franee, 18S0. His artides on the salon form periiapa the best history of the Fmeh art of his day. His liisiiri fie devoted to travel, of which he pobUriwd charaeteristie aeeounts in his deHtf itful CmfHett H Zigaaga, ConatantinopU, Voysfs «» mmmit, and Voyage en Eapagne. Other woriks wars an snlarsed edition of his Snams at Cmmtm: Lea fn|aii, on the writers of the siartesnth and aeventeenth centuries; Homari da Balaae; Minagerie Intime, a kind of informal au t o b lo gra nhy ; Hiatoire du Roman- tiama; aad the postliiiniiwis worlca, PartraiU et Somwamka litMrmkm; mmI L'OnamL Be died at Ptek,187!2. Gay* John, EngMi post, was bom in 1685. He wrote a lar:gs mmibsr of poems and ballads, besides sevenl operas; bat Itttle of his poetry is now read. His gwntest sueessi was Tha Beggar^a OparUf wfaieh ran sixty-two nights^ made the aeton etiebeated, and ia the popular phrase, "made Bieh (the maaaor) gay, and Gay (the author) rich.'' HisTSss and hia ballad of ■fffiiit agai Bmaa» wiao desenrs iitMilioM Died, 1732. Gay, Srdaaj Bamardt Amamteatk jouraaliat and 1814. author, waa bom at i ^,11111 1 1., .u.^. Early in life be took an anlsiit faitercst hi the anti^avery cause and lec tur ed eztenaivciy, bcfaig editor alao of the New York Amti'SUverg atamdard. He thm became connected with the Nsfw York Tribmrna aad waa ita managing editor from 1802 to 1866. For four years be was editor of the Chicago Tribiime, bat returning to New Yoric fai 1872be joined tiie staff of theNew York Evening Poat. In 1876-80, in conjanction with William Cullen Bryant, he wrote • Hiatory of the United Statea, and in 1884 published a Life of Jamea Madiaon. Died, 1888. Gay, Walter, American artist, was bom at Hing- ham, Mass., 1856. He waa educated in Boston pubUe schools and Roxbury Latin schooL He began to paint flower subjects, 1873; went to Paria, 187o, to study art, where he was a puni of Bonnet, and was a eoiMtant exhibitor at Paria salon. He painted the larse picture "Bene- dlcite," now in museum, Amwtis, France; ."Laa Cigarreras," in the Luxembourg, Paris* alao pictures in the Tate collection, London, Metro* politan museum of fine arts. New Yoik^ and museum of fine arts, Boston. He recdvea gold medals at Antwerp, Vienna, Berlin, Mumcli, Paris, and Hors Concours, Paris. Life fellow of the Metropolitan museum of fine arts. New York; created chevalier legion of honor, 1894, and officer, 1906. Member of numeroua art societies, Ameri- can and foreign. (g6'-d'-r&^, Charles £tlenne Arthnr, American historian, was bom in New Orleans, 1805. He was admitted to the Phihuleliriiia bar in 1829 ; was a member of the Louisiana legisla- ture, and judge of the city court of New Oneans. In 1835 he was electedT to the United Statea senate, but on account of ill health resigned his seat. In 1844 he again entered the state legisla- ture, and from 1846 to 1853 was secretary of state of Louisiana. During the civil war he sup- ported the confederacy, and after its close became THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 717 reporter of the state supreme court. He wrote the valuable History of Lortisiana, and several historical sketches. Died, 1895. Gayley, Charles Mills, author, educator, critic, professor of English, university of California, since 1889, was boru at Shanghai, China, 1858. He was a student at Blackheath, England, 1867-74, royal academic institution, Belfast, 1874-75; B. A., university of Michigan, 1878; student Giessen and Halle, 1886-87; Litt. D., Kenvon, 1900; LL. D^ Glasgow, 1901, university of ifichigan, 1904. He was instructor in Latin, 1880-84, assistant professor of Latin, 1884-86, assistant professor of English, 1887-89, university of Michigan. Author: (with F. N. Scott and A. A. Stanley) Songs of the Yellow and Blue; A Guide to the Literature of ^^sthetics (with F. N. Scott); Classic Myths in English Literature; English in Secondary Schools; Methods and Materials of Literary Criticism (with F. N. Scott) ; Representative English Comedies (5 vols.) ; The Poetry of the People (with M. C. Flaherty); The Star of Bethlehem; The Principles attd Progress of English Poetry (with C. C. Young) ; Songs of California (edited); Plays of Our Forefathers, etc. Gay-Lussac {gd'-lii'-sdk'), Joseph Louis, French chemist and physicist, was born at St. L^nard in Haute Vienne, 1778. He was educated at the Paris pKjIytechnic school, passed in 1801 to the de})artment of ponts et cliauss6es, and began a series of researches on vapor, temperature, and terrestrial magnetism. In 1808 he made the important discovery of the law of volumes; in 1809 he became professor of chemistry at the Polytechnic, and from 1832 in the Jardin des lantes. He was the first to form synthetically the hydriodic and iodic acids; and in 1815 he succeeded in isolating cyanogen. His investiga- tions on sulphuric acid, the manufacture of the bleaching chlorides, the centesimal alcoholometer, and the assaying of silver are also important. In 1818 he became superintendent of the govern- ment gunpowder factories, and in 1829 chief assayer of the mint. In 1839 he was made a peer of France. For many years, in conjunction with Arago, he was editor of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, one of the most imp>ortant scientific publications of France. Died, 1850. Gaynor, WUliam Jay, jurist, mayor of New York, was bom in Whitesto\^^l, Oneida county, N. Y., 1851; educated there and in Bostoij; worked on New York and Brooklyn newspapers, 1873-75, while studying law; admittetl to bar and began practice, 1875. Became a national figure by his breaking up of rings within the democratic party and securing convictions for election frauds; he twice declined democratic nomination for governor; elected by republicans and indepen- dent democrats iudge of New York supreme court, 1893; reelected, 1907, and designated justice of appellate division of supreme court ; received democratic nomination for mayor of New York city, 1^09, and was the only candidate on the ticket elected. An attempt to assassinate him failed in 19K). Gata (g&'-zd), Theodoras, Italian scholar, one of the earUest to revive Greek learning in the West, was born at Thessalonica, 1398. He fled about 1430 before the Turks to Italy, and became teacher of Greek at Ferrara, next of philosophy at Rome. Cardinal Bessarion obtained for him a small benefice in Calabria. His principal work was a Greek grammar i.ssued in 1495. He translated into Latin jwrtions of Aristotle. Theophrastus. St. Chrysostom, Hippocrates, and other Greek writers. Died, 1478. Geddes (gld'-ls), Patrick, British biologist and botanist, was born at Perth. 1854. He was educated at the normal school of science, Lon- don^ and at several foreirn universltiea; beeara* professor of botany at Dundee. Hia aim is (o moralise evolution and carrv princlplea from biology into history and sociology. Beaidea important articles m the encydoiMBdiaa and journals, he baa written Chapttra in Modem Botany and (with J. A. Thomson) Tk» Evolution of Sex. He is identified with vast sohemss of housebuilding in Edinburgli, and of social, academic, and economic reform. Geefs (gdfs), GuiUaume, Belgian sculptor, was bom at Antwerp, 1806. After studying there for some time he went to Paris, wHere he worked in the studio of M. Ramey. During the revolu- tion of 1830 he quitted Paris and returned to Belgium, and soon after executed at Brxiasels a monument to the memory of the victims of the revolution of 1830. The most important of his other works are a colossal marble statue of King Leopold, monument to Count FrWosition of supremacy in Asia, and established by means of them a kingdom which, at his death, stretched from the \ olga to the Pacific, and from Siberia to the Persian gulf. He regarded himself as commissioned by heaven to conquer the world, a destiny which he almost fulfilled. Died, 1227. Genseric (iSn'sir-ik), king of the Vandals, son of Godigisdus, founder of the Vandal kingdom in Spain, and natural brother of Gonderic, whom he succeeded in 429, was born in 406 A. D. From Spain he crossed to Africa, and in con- junction with the Moors aosite lands of Asia Minor, sacking Home in 455. He continued master of the seas until his death in 477, despite strenuous efforts of the Roman emperors to crush his power. Gents, Ton (J'dn ginW), Frederick, German diplomat and pubUcist, was born at lireslau, 1764. In 1786 he entered the public service of Prussia, but in 1802 exchanged into that of Austria. He wrote bitterlv against Napoleon. Ab adherent of Metternich from 1810, at the congress of Vienna in 1814 he was first secretary, as also in subsequent conferences. His writings are dis- tinguished for elegance, but his ])en was on sale to the highi-st bidder; and he drew the supplies for his lavish private expenditure from more than one foreign government. Dietl, 1832. Gflnunx (ji-nUng'), John Franklin, educator, pro- fessor of literature and biblical interpretation, Amherst college, was bom at Willsevville, N. Y., 1860. He graduated at Union college, 1870, Rochester theological seminary, 1875; Ph. D., Leipzig, 1881; D. D., Yale, 1905. Author: Tennyson's In Memoriam — Its Purpose and Its Structure; Practical Elements of Rhetoric; The Study of Rhetoric in the College Course; Hand- Book of Rhetorical A nalysis; The Epic of the Inner Life, Being the Book of Job; Outlines of Rhetoric; What a Carpenter Did with His Bible; The Pass- ing of Sdf: The Working Principles of Rhetoric; Stevenson s Attitude to Life; Ecclesiastes and Omar Khayyam; Words of Koheleih, Being a Study and Translation of the Book of Ecclesiastes; The Hebrew Literature of Wisdom In the Light of Today; The Idylls and the Ages, etc. GeofTroy Saint-HUaire {zh6'-frw&' s&ii'^-lAr'\ Etlenne, French naturalist, was bom at Etampes, 1772, became a pupil of Haiiy at the college of Navarre, Paris, and in 1793 professor of zoology in the museum of natural history. He accom- panied Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, for the collection of specimens, and after his return laid the basis of scientific anatomy by enunciating his well-known theory of the unity of organic composition. He fillwi the chair of zoology at the faculty of sciences, 1809, and evoked a great controversy with Cu\ner by the publication of his Philosophic Anatomiqxu, 1818-22. He was also the author of several other valuable works illustrative of the science to which he was devoted. Died, 1844. George, Grace, actress, was born in New York, 1880. She received a convent education, and married William A. Brady, 1899. Made her d^but in The New Boy, New York, 1894; ap- peared in leading parts in The Girl I Left Behind Me; Charley's Aunt; The Wandering Minstrd; The Turtle; Mile. Fifi,; starred in The Princess Chiffon, 1899; Her Majesty, 1900; Under Southern Skies, 1901-02; Frou Frou, 1903; Pretty Peggy, 1903-04; The Two Orphans, 1904; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 719 Abigail, 1904; The Marriage of William Aahe, 1905-06 ; The Richest Girl, 1906 ; Clothes, 1906 ; DivoTcons, 1907, etc. George, Henry, American ecooomiat and sociolo- gist, was born in Philadelphia, 1839. After being successively at sea, in a counting-house, and a printer's office, he settled in California, and in 1866 joined the staff of a San Francisco paper. He afterward became editor of two papers there, and wrote his first essay on the land question in Our Land and Land Pdicy, pub- lished in 1871. In 1876 he was state inspector of gasmeters, but in 1880 removed to New York, and the next year visited Ireland on his way to England. He was there arrested as a "suspect" under Forster's act, but was soon released. He wrote Progress and Poverty in 1879, and undertook lecturing tours in 1883 and 1889 in support of his principles. He also published The Irish Land Question, Social Problems, Protection and Free Trade, and The Science of Political Economy. Candidate for mayor. New York, 1886 and 1897. Died, 1897. George I., king of Great Britain from 1714 to 1727, was bom in 1660. He was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, the granddaughter of James I. of England; and, on the death of Anne, he ascended the throne, being the first monarch of the house of Hanover. The early part of his reign was troubled by the conspiracies and rebellions of the Jacobites, aggravated by foreign wars; and in 1720 the collapse of the famous South sea scheme occurred, when thousands of families were ruined. In 1727 the king set out on a visit to his Han- overian dominions, but had only reached Osna- briick when he was struck down by apoplexy. By his marriage with Sophia Dorothea, a daughter of the duke of Zell, he left one son, George Augustus, who succeeded him, and one daughter, Sophia Dorothea, who, in 1706, was married to Frederick II. of Prussia, and became the mother of Frederick the Great. George II., son and successor of George I., and king of Great Britain from 1727 to 1760, was born in 1683. Ascending the throne when forty- four years of age, he had the advantage over his father of being able to speak English, which George I. could never do. But he also had to cope with Jacobite conspiracies, and to contend with Charles Edward Stuart, the young pre- tender; nor was the latter entirely defeated until the battle of CuUoden, which was fought April 27, 1746. The war of the Austrian succes- sion occurred in this reign, the object of which was to secure Maria Theresa of Hungary, the daughter of Charles VI. of Germany, from the partition of her Austrian dominions; and this war was only brought to a close by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, October 7, 1748. In 1756 the seven years' war broke out, in which England sided with Prussia; and the last years of the king's reign saw the British victors in India, Can- ada, and on the seas. He died, 1760. George III«, king of Great Britain from 1760 to 1820, and king of -Hanover (elector from 1760 to 1815), eldest son of Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, was born in London, 1738. In 1761 he married Princess Charlotte Sophia of Mecklen- burg-Strelitz, by whom he had fifteen children. More English in sentiment and education than his two predecessors, George's main interest was centered in his English kingdom, and never during his long life did he once set foot in his Hanoverian possessions. At his accession he found the seven years' war in progress, and he was later involved in the war of the American revolution and the Napoleonic wars. In 1801 the legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was effected. Died at Windsor, 1820. George V^ king of Great Britain and Ireland, and emperor of India, was born al Marlborough House, London, 1865, the si-cond son of Edward VII. The death of his elder brother, Albert, in 1892 made him heir apparent to the Britiah throne, and he took his seat in the house of lords as duke of York. Upon the aoceasioa of Edward VII. in 1901, he received the title of duke of Cornwall. At this time he made a tour of all the large British colonies, gaining great popularity. On his return he was created prince of Wales. In July 1893, he married Prinoeas Victoria May of Teck, and six children have been born to them. On the death of Edward VII., the new king ascended the throne under the title of George V., May 7, 1910. The coronation took place, June 22, 1911. He was crowned emperor of India at the durbar at Delhi, December 12, 1911. The early months of his reign were marked by the agitation against the house of lords, which resulted finally m the abolition of the veto powers of the upper house. George I„ king of Greece, was bom at Copenhagen, 1845. He was a brother of the dowager empreaa of Russia, Queen Alexandra, and King Frederick of Denmark. Chosen king of Greece in 1863, in succession to Otho I. Married Princess Olga, daughter of the Russian Grand Duke Constan- tine, 1867, and had five sons and one daughter. An attempt to assassinate him was made in 1898, but happily failed. The kin^ was of the Lutheran faith, but by the constitution his heirs and successors must be members of the Greek orthodox church. He was assassinated, 1913. His eldest son, Constantine, succeeded to the throne, March 18. 1913. George, Saint, the patron saint of England. His true history is not clearly known. A story is told about him that he slew a dragon, which had been sent by a magician to devour an Egyptian prin- cess, and in pictures he is generally shown in the act of killing the monster. Some say the real Saint George was a soldier in the army of Diocletian, 300 A. D., and that he suffered death for the Christian faith. English crusaders brought home his fame from the East, and Edward III. made him patron of his new order of the garter. His name became the Engli.sh battle-cry. and since then he has been considered the especial saint of Russia, and the Russians have an order of Saint George. G£rard (zha'-rdr'), £:tienne Maurice, Count, marshal of France, was bom in Lorraine, 1773. He specially distinguished himself at Austerlitz, Halle, Jena, Erfurt, Lintz, and Wagram. On the morning after this last battle he received the title of baron of the empire. In 1831 Louis Philippe appointed Gerard a marshal of FrancCj and gave him command of the expedition to Belgium, in the course of which he distinguished himself by taking Antwerp in 1832. Died, 1852. G«rard, Francois Pascal, Baron, French painter, was bom in Rome, 1770. Nearly the whole of his life was spent in Paris, where he was first pupil and assistant to David, but speedily acquired a splendid reputation of his own. Most of the leading men and women of the French empire were painted by Gerard, and he became known as the "painter of kings." Famous portraits were those of Napoleon, Talleyrand, Talma, and Mme. Rert, William Schwenck, English dramatist, was bom in London, 1836. He took the degree B. A. at London university, was a clerk in tlie privy council office from 1857 to 1862, and in 1864 was admitted to the bar. He wrote much for the magazines, and was for many years on the staff of Fun, in whose columns his Bab Ballads first appeared. His stMe-work began with a Christ- mas burlesque, Dulcamara, 1866, which was fol- lowed by a succession of burlesques, dramas, comedies, fairy comedies, and operas. The fairy comedies include The Palace of Truth; Pygmalion and Galatea; The Wicked World, and Broken Hearts; among the comedies are Sweethearts and Engaged; ancl other plays by him are Charity; Gretchen; Comedy and Tragedy, and Branting- hame Hall. In conjunction with Sir Arthur Sul- livan, besides Theepia and Trial by Jury, he produced The Sorcerer; H. M. S. Pinafore; The Pirates of Penzance; Patience; lUanthe; Princess Ida; The Mikado; Ruddigore; The Yeomen of the Guard; The Gondoliers; Utopia Limited, and The Grand Duke. Died, 1911. Gilder, Jeannette L- lishment of the civil government of the island. Died, 1905. Gompers (gdm'-ptrz), Samuel, labor leader, presi- dent of the American federation of labor, wa« bom in Kneland, 1850. He is a cigar-maker by trade, and has been an advocate of the rights of labor, and connected with the efforts to organize the working people since his fifteenth year. He is one of the founders of the American federation of labor and editor of its official magazine; haa written a number of pamphlets on the labor question and the labor movement, and, with an intermission of one year, has been president of the American federation of labor since 1882. In 1909 he visited various countries of Europe and wrote upon the labor situation as there found. Goncourt (gds'-hJbr'), Edmond and Jules de, French novelists, bom, the former at Nancy in 1822 the latter at Paris in 1830. Artists pri- marily, in 1849 they set out to traverse France for water-color sketches. Their notebooks m^de them writers as well as artists, and their literary partnership began in 1852. Their earliest serious works were a group of historical studies UfMin the second half of the eighteenth century. Of much more real value is Gavami, L'Art au XV I Heme aiicie, and books on Watteau and Prud'hon. But the important work of the De Goncourt brothers commenced when they took to novel-writing. The first of these novels, Le^ Hommes de Lettres, was followed by Steiir Philo- mine, RerUe Mauperin, Germinie Lacertetix, Manette Salomon, and Madame Gervaisais. The last is their greatest novel. After Jules' death in 1870, Edmond, who lived until 1896, issued the extraordinarily popular La fills Elisa, La Faustin, and Charts. Gonsalvo de C6rdoTa (gdn-Ml'-vd d& kdr'-dO-vA), "the great captain," Spanish commander, was bom at Montilla near Cordova, Spain, 1453. He served with distinction against the Moors of Granada, and afterward in Portugal. Sent to assist Ferdinand II. of Naples against the French, 1495, he conquered the greater part of the king- dom of Naples, and exp)elled the French. When the partition of Naples was determined upon in 1500, Gonsalvo again set out for Italy, but first took Zante and Cephalonia from the Turks, and restored them to the Venetians. He then landed in Sicily, occupied Naples and Calabria, and demanded from the French that they should keep the compact. This demand being rejected, war was waged with varied success; but ulti- mately Gonsalvo won a great battle, and secured Naples to Spain. Recalled in 1506, and treated by the king with neglect, he withdrew to his estates in Granada, and died in 1515. Goodale (gdbd'-al), George Lincoln, botanist, pro- fessor of botany, 1878-88, Fisher professor of natural historv and director of botanic garden, 1888-1909, Harvard; was bom at Saco, Me., 1839. He graduated at Amherst, 1860; M. D., Har\'ard and Bowdoin, 1863. Practiced medicine, Portland, Me., for three years; state assayer of Maine, 1864 ; professor natural science, mineralogy, botany, and applied chemistry at Bowdoin, THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 729 1868-72; instructor of botany and university lecturer on vegetable physiology, Harvard, 1872- 73; assistant professor of vegetable physiology, same, 1873-78. He is author of various works on plant physiology and economic botanv, and associate editor of American Journal of Science. Member of national academy of sciences, etc. Goodnow, Frank Johnson, educator, author, was born at Brooklj'n, N. Y., 1859. He was grad- uated at Amherst college, 1879, and at Columbia law school, 1882; studied at Ecole libre des sciences politiques, Paris, and university of BerHn; LL. D., Amherst, 1897, Columbia, 1904. Eaton professor of administrative law and munic- ipal science, Columbia, 1903-13. Appointed legal adviser to Chinese republic, 1913. Author: Comparative Administrative Law; Municipal Home Ride; Municipal Problems; Politics and Administration; City Government in the United States. Editor: Selected Cases on the Law oj Taxation; Selected Cases on Government and Administration; Selected Cases on the Law of Officers, etc. Goodrich, Samuel Griswold, better known as "Peter Parley," a famous writer for young folks, was bom in Ridgefield, Conn., 1793. He was a book-publisher, first in Hartford, Conn., and afterward in Boston, Mass. After settling in Boston, he began to write, under the name of "Peter Parley, books for young folks, of which he published more than a hundred. He was also the editor for many years of Merry's Mtiseum and Parley's Magazine. His "Peter Parley" books comprised geographies, histories, travels, stories, and works on the arts and sciences, ana won him much fame. He died, 1860. Goodwin, Nathaniel Carl, American actor, was born in Boston in 1857 ; studied under Wyzeman Marshall, then manager of Boston theater ; made his dfebut with Stuart Robson, Boston, 1873, in Law in New York, and later starred as Captain Crosstree in Blackeyed Sv^an, in New York. He subsequently starred in Rice's Evangeline; Hobbies; The Member from, Slocum; In Mizzoura; Nathan Hale; The Rivals; When We Were Twenty- one; The Merchant of Venice; The Genius, and other plays. Goodwin, William Watson, educator, Greek scholar, was born in Concord, Mass., 1831. He was gradu- ated at Harvard, A. B., 1851 ; studied at univer- sities of Gottingen, Berlin, and Bonn; Ph. D., Gottingen, 1855; LL. D., Amherst, 1881; Cam- bridge, England, 1883; Columbia, 1887; Edin- burgh, 1890; Harvard, 1891; Chicago, 1901; Yale, 1901; D. C. L., Oxford, England, 1890. Tutor at Harvard, 1856-60; first director of American school of classical studies, Athens, Greece, 1882-83; knight of Greek order of the Redeemer; professor of Greek literature, Har- vard, 1860-1901; professor emeritus, 1901; over- seer of Harvard, 1903-09. Author: Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb, Greek Grammar. Editor: Demosthenes on the Crown, etc. Died, 1912, Goodyear, Charles, inventor of vulcanized rubber, was born in New Haven, Conn., 1800. His career was a troubled one. He failed as an iron-founder, and when, after ten j'ears' labor, amidst every disadvantage of poverty and pri- vation, he, in 1844, produced his new method of hardening rubber by means of sulphur, he became involved in a fresh series of troubles, as well as poverty, consequent on the infringement of his inventions. His patents latterly amounted to sixty, and both medals and honors were awarded him in London and Paris. Died, 1860. Gordon, Charles George, British soldier, fajniliarly known as "Chinese Gordon," was bom in 1833. He served in the Crimean war, 1854-56, and was wounded at Sebastopol; entered the Chinese service and assisted to suppreas the "T«i-pinc" rebellion, 1863-64 whence his sobriquet of "Chinese Gordon''; held several posUi of dis- tinction in the British army, and \n 1876 took command of the forces destined to follow up Baker's African explorations, during which he totally suppressed the slave traffic on the Red sea. In 1884 he proceeded to the Soudan, in lower Egypt, as an emissary of England to quiet the insurgent tribes under El Mahdi, the "falsa prophet of the Soudan." His memorable journey to Khartoum, with one or two attendants, and the influence which his presence exercised over the tribes of the desert, is one of the most thrill- ing episodes in his career. He was killed when Khartoum was captured by El Mahdi, 1885. Gordon, Charles William, Canadian novelist, Presbyterian clergyman, was born in Indian Lands, Glengarry, Ontario, Canada, 1860; was graduated at Toronto university, 1883; classical master at Chatham high school, 1883-84; crrad- uated in theological course, Knox coUege, Toronto, 1887; F. R. S., Canada- D. D., Knox college; master, 1886-87, Upper Canada college, Toronto; post graduate study. New college, Edinburgh, Scotland • then spent a year in travel on the continent. He was a missionary to BanflT, etc.. Rocky mountains, 1890-94 ; minister of St. Stephen's church, Winnipeg, since 1894. Author: Black Rock; Beyond the Marshes; G wen's Canyon; The Sky Pilot; Quid Michael; The Man from Glengarry; Glengarry School Days; The Pros- pector; The Doctor; all under the [>seudonym of "Ralph Connor." Gordon, George Angler, Congregational clerg>'man, religious writer, was born in Scotland, 1853. He was educated in common schools, Insch, Scotland, and was graduated at Harvard in 1881 ; D. D., Bowdoin and Yale, 1893, S. T. D., Harvard, 1895. Minister of Old South church, Boston, since 1884 ; lecturer in Lowell institute course, IfliOO ; Lvman Beecher lecturer, Yale, 1901. Author: The Wit- ness to Immortality; The Christ of To-day; Immor- tality and the New Theodicy; The New Epoch for Faith; etc. Universitv preacher to Harvard, 1886-90; Yale, 1888-1901. Gordon, John Brown, American soldier, was bom in Georgia, 1832. He was educated at the university of Georgia, studied law and was admitted to the bar. He served with distinction in the confederate army, 1861-64, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-general. From 187.3 to 1879 and 1891 to 1897 he was a member of the United States senate; governor of Georgia, 1886-90. He wrote Remmiscencea of tlie Civil War. Died, 1904. Gordon-Cununlng, Constance Frederlca, Scotch traveler and writer, was bom at Altyre, 1837, twelfth child of Sir WiUiam Gordon-Cumming, second baronet, Alt5Te and Gordonstoun. She was educated privately and at Fulham, London. An invitation to spend a year with a married sister in India, 1867, awoke the taste for travel and led to very extensive wandering extending over twelve years. Author: At Home in Fijx and New Zealand; A Lady's Cruise in a French Man-of-War among the l^outh Sea Ides; Fire Fountains of Hawaii; Granite Crags of Cali- fornia; Wanderings in China; In the Hebridea; In the Himalayas; Via Comicall to Egypt; Two Happy Years in Ceylon; Memories, etc. She invented the numeral-type for the use of illiterate Chinese, both blind and seeing, in Mandarin- speaking districts of China. Gore, Christopher, American statesman and diplomat, wa-s bom in Boston, Mass., 1758. He was a graduate of Harvard, a lawyer by profes- sion, and the first United States district attorney for Mas-sachusetts. As one of the United States commissioners, he contributed largely to the 730 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT settlement of the claims of this country upon Great Britain. He was governor of his state in 1809, and United States senator, 1814-17. He betjueathed the greater part of his property to Harvard college. Died, 1829. Gore, Thomas Pryor, lawyer, United States senator, was born in Webster county, Miss.. 1870. He lost the sight of both eyes by aeciclent when a boy. He attended a local school at Walthall, Miss., graduated from the law department of Cumberland university, Lebanon, Tenn., 1892, moved to Texas in 1895 and to Oklahoma in 1901. After serving one term in the territorial senate, he was appointed United States senator by the povernor, 1907, was elected by the legislature I m the same year, and was reelected 1909 for the i full term 1909-15. I Gttrgei, or GdfKey (g^r'-gi-i), Arthur, Hungarian : general, was born at Tonorcz in north Hungary, 1818. During the revolt of 1848 he compelled i Jeliachich and his 10,000 Croats to capitulate at Ozora, but was driven back by Windischgratz. As Hungarian commander-in-chief he relieved Komorn by inflicting a series of severe defeats on the Austrians, practically driving them out of the country. Though almost constantly at feud with Kossuth and a provisional government, he in 1849 accepted the ministry of war. By unin- telligible delays and jealousies he allowed the enemy to gain numerous advantages, and was himself repeatedly defeated. In August he was nominated dictator, and two days later sur- rendered with his army of 24,000 men to the Russian commander, lliidiger, at V'ildgos near Arad. Gorgei was imprisoned at Klagenfurt. but eventually set at liberty. Kossuth accused him of treachery, a charge to which he replied in Mein Leben und Wxrken in den Jahren 1848-49. He returned to Hungary in 18G8. Gorgias (gdr'-jl-da), celebrated Greek rhetorician of the time of Socrates, was born at Leontinl about 487 B C, and settled in Greece, residing for the most part at Athens, and at Larissa in Thessaly. He has been immortalized by Plato in a dialogue which bears his name. Two works attributed to him are extant, The Apology of Palamedes and the Encomium on Helena. Died about 380 B. C. Gorky {g6r'-ke), Maxim, pen name of Alexei Maxi- movitch Pyesliko£f, a self-educated Russian novelist, was bom in Nizhni-Novgorod, 1868 or 1869, the son of an upholsterer. After the death of his parents he was engaged in various occupa- tions until, through the influence of his friend Kalushni, his attention was turned to literary work, and his first story, Makar Chudra, appeared in 1892. He is one of the most original and popular of modern Russian writers. Among his works are The Song of the Falcon; The Song of the Petrel; The Orloff Couple; Malva; Foma Gordeyeff; Children of the Sun, and The Barba- rians. Gorman, Arthur Pue, American politician^ was bom in Maryland, 1839. He was a page in the United States senate, 1852-G6; collector of internal revenue, fifth district of Maryland, 1866-69; elected to legislature of Maryland, 1869; reelected, 1871, and chosen speaker of the house; state senator, 1875-79, and United States senator, 1881-99, and 1903-06. He died at Washington, 1906. Gortchakoff (gdr'-chd-ko/^). Prince Alexander Ml- khailovltch, Russian statesman, was bom at St. Petersburg, 1798. As ambassador at Vienna, 1854-56, he displayed great ability during the Crimean war; he then succeeded Nesselrode as foreign minister. As chancellor of the empire, 1863, he was, until Bismarck's rise, the most powerful minister in Europe. His influence largely secured the neutrality of Austria in the Franco-German war of 1870, and he it was who in 1871 freed Russia from the treaty of Paris. After the conclusion of the liusso-Turkish war, the repudiation of the treaty of San Stefano, and the signing of the treaty of Berlin, his influence began to wane. He died at Baden-Baden, 1883. Gosnold (gda'-nUld), Bartholomew, English navi- gator, was born in England about the middle of the sixteenth centurv. He was associated with Sir Walter Raleigh in his attemnt to found a colony in Virginia, and later headed an expedi- tion fitted out by the earl of Southampton, to found a colony in New England. In 1602 he left Falmouth for this purjxjse with a ship and twenty colonists, attempting to cross the oceun in a direct Une. Contrary winds took his vessel to the Azores, whence, after a tedious voyage of seven weeks, he reached the coast of Maine. Following the land-Une in a southwesterly direc- tion, he discovered Cai>e Cod and Martha's Vineyard. In 1606 Gosnold united with a com- pany, of which Captain John Smith was one of the leaders, to locate in Virginia. Through their joint efforts the settlement at Jamestown was established in 1607. He died in Virginia, 1607. Goas, Charles Frederic, American clergyman, novelist, was bom in Meridian, N. Y., 1852. He was graduated at llumilton college, 1873, D. D., 1898; was graduated at Auburn theologi- cal seminary. 1876. His early ministry was spent in home missionary work; pastor of Moody church, Chicago, 1885-90; spent two years recovering health at Kettle Falls, Washington; associate pastor of Madison avenue church, New York. 1892-94, since 1894 pastorof Avondale Pres- byterian church, Cincinnati. Author: The Opti- mist; The Phiiopolist; Hite and Miaaea; Life of D. L. Moody; The Redemption of David Coraon; The Loom of Life; Little Saint Sunahine; Juat a Minute; CnickoryvUle Sunday School; Huaband, Wife, and Home, etc. Goase (p6a), Edmund, English poet and writer, librarian to the house of lords since 1904. was bom at London, 1849. He was educated pri- vately in Devonshire. Hon. M. A., Trinity college, Cambridge, hon. LL. D., St. Andrews, 1899. He was assistant librarian of British museum, 1867-75; traveled in Scandinavia and Holland for literary purposes, 1872-74: transla- tor to board of trade, 1875-1904; Clark lecturer in English literature at Trinity college, Cam- bridge, 1884-90, and lectured in United States, 1884-85. Author: Verse — On Viol and Flute; King Erik; New Poems; Firdauai in Exile; In Ruaaet and Silver; Collected Poema; Hypolympia. Prose — Northern Studies; Life of Gray; Seven- teenth Century Studica; Life of Congreve; History of Eighteenth Century Literature; Life of P. H. Ooaae; Gossip in a Library; The Secret of Nar- cisse; Questums at Issue; The Jacobean Poets; Critical Kit-Kats; History of Modem Engliak Literature; Henrik Ibsen, etc. Gosse, Philip Henry, British naturalist, was bom at Worcester, 1810. In 1827 he went to New- foundland as a clerk, and was afterward farmer in Canada, schoolmaster in Alabama, and naturalist in Jamaica. Returning to England, he pubUshed in 1840 the Canadian Naturalist, and after another stay in the West Indies settled in England to a literary life. Author: The Birds of Jamaica; A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica; A Naturalist's Ramble on the Devon- shire Coast; Aquarium; Alanual of Marine Zoology, and The Romance of Natural History, his best-knou-n work. He died at St. Mary Church near Torquay, 1888. Gottschalk (gdt'-shMk), Louis Moreau, American pianist and musical composer, was bom in New Orleans, 1829. He studied in Europe, and from THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 731 1845 to 1852 made successful tours of the conti- neDt, returning to America in 1853 to tour this country, and meeting with wonderful success, Slaying and conducting his own compositions, •ied at Rio Janeiro, 1869. Gough {g6f), John Bartholomew, temperance lecturer, was born at Sandgate, Kent, England, 1817. He came at twelve to America, and in 1831 found employment in New York, but lost it by dissipation, and was reduced to singing conuc songs at grog-shops. In 1842 he was induced to take the pledge; and, devoting the rest of his life to the cause of temjierance, he became a singularly effective lecturer, making several visits to England. He published an Autobiography, Orations, Sunlight and Shadow, etc. Died, 1886. €>ouln. Sir Lomer, prime minister and attorney- general of Quebec since 1905, was born at Gron- dines, province of Quebec, 1861. He was educated at Sorel and L6vis, province of Quebec. Admitted to the province of Quebec bar, 1884; queen's counsel, 1900: elected member pro- vincial parliament for Montreal, 1897 ; app>ointed member of public instruction council, 1898; minister of colonization and public works, Suebec, 1900; reelected by acclamation for ontreal (St. James division), 1900, 1904, and 1905; elected for Portneuf, 1908. Goujon {g'-zh6ii'), Jean, French sculptor and architect, was born in Paris about 1515. He was employed on the church of St. Maclou, at Rouen, 1540, and on the cathedral there, 1541; worked with Pierre Lescot, architect of the Louvre, on the restorations of St. Germain I'Auxerrois, 1542-44; was employed with Bullant on the Chdteau d'Ecouen; and on the accession of Henry II. entered the royal service. In the Louvre he executed the reliefs of the Escalier Henri II., the carvings at the southwestern angle of the court, and the Tribune des Caryatides, and he was the author of what is considered the masterpiece of French sculpture, the "Diane Chasseresse," now in the Louvre collection. There is no direct evidence of his death, but it is believed to have occurred in the St. Bartholomew massacre, 1572. Gould, Benjamin Apthorp, American astronomer, was born at Boston, Mass., 1824. He was grad- uated at Harvard college in 1844, afterward studied at Gottingen, where he took a degree in 1848, and was for some time an assistant in the observatory at Altona, Germany. After visiting the principal observatories in Europe, he returned to America and was employed in the coast survey, having in special charge the longitude determi- nations, the methods of which he greatly im- proved. In 1856 he was appointed director of the Dudley observatory, at Albany, N. Y., retaining that post until the beginning of 1859. In 1866 he established an observatory at Valentia in Ireland, and made the first determination of transatlantic longitude by telegraph cable. His principal works are: Report on the Discovery of the Planet Neptune; Smithsonian Institution Reports; Investigation of the Orbit of the Comet V .; Discussions of Observations Made by the United States Astronomical Expedition to Chili, to Deter- mine the Solar Parallax; On the Transatlantic Longitude; Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers; and several charts of stars of scarcely less importance than those already noted. Died, 1896. Gould, Elgin R. I^^ economist, president of City and Suburban homes company. New York, was bom at Oshawa, Ontario, 1860. He was edu- cated at Toronto in a private school, at Victoria university, A. B., 1881, and at Johns Hopkins imiversitv, Baltimore, Ph. D., 1886. Formerly statistical expert in charge of various investiga- tions for the United States department of labor; formerly lecturer at Johns Hopkins, and pro- fessor of Chicago univer«ity; chamberlain of city of New York, 1902-04. He has been very active in pubUc, religious, and philanthropio affairs. Author: The Gothenburg System of Liquor Traffic; Housing of the Working PeopU: Public CoTitrol of the Liquor Traffic; The SoeitU Condition of Labor; Civic Reform and Social Progress, etc. Gould, George Jay, American capitalist, eldest son of Jay Gould, was born in New York city, Feb- ruary 6, 1864; received privaUi education. Eariy in life he began railway management, and becaoM president of the Little Rock Junction railway in 1888. In 1892 he was elected president of the Manhattan elevated railway company of New York city; he has been elected president and chairman of boards of directors of numerous railways and corporations in 8ucceeeace commission, Paris, 1898 ; appointed by the president a member of the joint high commission at Quebec, 1898 ; made member of the international ptermanent court of arbitration under The Hague convention, 1906, reappointed, 1913; judge of United States circuit court, third judicial circuit, since 1899; chairman of anthracite coal strike commission, 1902, Gray, Horace, American jurist, was bom at Boston, 1828; was graduated at Harvard, 1845, and its law school, 1849; was admitted to the bar, 1851 ; appointed reporter of the Massachusetts supreme court, 1854, and served until 1862; associate- justice of the Massachusetts supreme court, 1864-73, and chief-justice, 1873-81, when he was appointed successor to Judge CUfiford in the United States supreme court. He remained a member of this tribunal until shortly before his death, 1902. Gray, John Chlpman, lawyer, educator, was bom at Brighton, Mass., 1839; graduated at Harvard, 1859, LL. B., 1861 ; LL. D., Yale and Harvard. Admitted to bar, 1862, but in same year entered army and served, 1862-65, from lieutenant to major and judge-advocate of United States volunteers. Since the war he has continuously engaged in the practice of law in Boston. Lec- tured at Harvard law school, 1869-71; Story professor of law, 1875-83, and Royall professor of law since 1883, in same school. Author: Restraints on Alienation; The Ride Against Perpetuities; Select Cases and Other Auiharities on the Law of Property (6 vols.), etc. Gray, Thomas, English poet, was bom in London, 1716. He was educated at Cambridge, and appointed professor of history and modem lan- guages there in 1768. He had a just appreciation of the natural beauty of his native country, made notes wherever he went, and wrote copious descriptions of what he had seen to his literary friends. He published his Ode to Eton College in 1747, and his Elegy Written in a Country Church- yard, by which he is best known, several years afterward. On the death of Colley Gibber he was offered, but declined, the post of poet laureate. Died, 1771. Greeley, Horace, American journalist, was bom at Amherst, N. H., 1811. He entered a printing offic? as an apprentice at East Poultney, Vt., 1826. On the completion of his apprenticeship he worked for some time as a journeyman printer, and m 1834 founded the New Yorker, a literary weekly paper, for which he wrote essays, poetry, and other articles. After one or two other ^tempts at editorship he founded, in 1841, the New York Tr-Omne, and became the leading ^^\or Ashe had adopted, to some extent, thi social theories of Fourier, he was joined by the most able writers of that school of socialism — the paper published as a joint-etock concern, being held in shares b^ its writers and others engaged in its publication. The Tribune under his editorship was also an earnest advocate of temperance, woman's rights, the abolition of slavery and capital punishment, and other reforms, and wa.s recognized as the organ of the extreme or radical repubUcan party. In 1848 he was elected to congress from one of the dis- tricts of New York, for the short temij but failed in his congressional career by agitating aa unwelcome reform in the mileage payments to members. In 1851 he visited Europe. His aspirations to political position were defeated by the more conservative party leaders, and be, ia turn, influenctnl the election of Lincoln instead of Seward, in 186U. On the secession of several of the southern states from the Union, Greeley at first admitted their right to secede, in accorcf- ance with the principles of the declaration of independence; but, when the war be^an, he be- came its most zealous advocate, and is supposed to have caused the premature advance that resulted in the defeat at Bull Run, 1861. In 1872 he was an umsuccessful candidate for the presidency. Died, 1872. Greely, Adolphus WashinKton, American general, was bom at Newburyport, Mass., 1844. Enter- ing the volunteer service, he attained the rank of captain during the civil war, and at its close was transferred to the regular army with the rank of Lieutenant. In 1868 he was placed in the signal service, and in 1881 was assigned to the command of the Lady Franklin bay expedi- tion to northern Greenland. After suffering extreme and terrible hardsiiips, Greely and a few surviving members of his command were rescued in 1884, by an expedition sent to his relief by the United States government. He published aa account of the expedition in 1885, under the title of Three Years of Arctic Service. In 1887 became chief of United States signal service, and was head of the weather bureau from that time until it passed under control of the department of agriculture. Major-general, 1906. Green, Anna Katharine, pseudonym of Ann* Katharine Green Rohlfs, American novelist, was bora at Brooklyn, N. Y., 1846. She is the daughter of James Wilson Green, a lawyer, and was educated at Ripley college, Poultney, Vt. She married Charles Rohlfs in 1884. Author: The Leavenworth Case; A Strange Disappearance; The Sword of Damocles; The Defense of the Bride; Hand and Ring; X, Y, Z; The Mill Mystery; The Doctor, His Wife, and the Clock; That Affair Next Door; Lost Man's Lane; Agatha Webb; Risifi's Daughter, a drama; A Difficult Problem, and Other Stories; The Circular Study; One of My Sons; The Filigree Ball; House in the Mist; The Millionaire Baby; The Amethyst Box; The Woman in the Alcove; The Chief Legatee; The Mayor's Wife; The House of the Whispering Pines, etc. Green, Hetty Howland Robinson, American finan- cier, was bom in New Bedford, Mass., 1835, daughter of Edward Mott Robinson, who died in 1865, leaving her a large fortune. She was educated at Mrs. Lowell's school, Boston; she married Edward H. Green, 1867, who died in 1902. She is said to be the richest woman in America, and probably the greatest woman financier in the world. She personally manages her large property in stocks, bonds, and real estate in Chicago, New York, and elsewhere. Green, John Richard, English historian, was bom at Oxford, England, 1837, and educated at Magdalen College school and Jesus college. He took orders in 1860, and was for some time vicar of St. Philip's, Stepney, becoming in 1869 THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 737 librarian at Lambeth. Author: A Short History of the English People; A History of the English People; The Making of England, and The Con- quest of England. The latter was published after his death by his wife, who assisted him in various works, and herself wrote Henry II. in the Twelve English Statesmen series. Died, 1883. Green, Thomas Hill, English philosopher, was bom in Yorkshire, 1836. Educated at Rugby and Balliol college, Oxford, he in 1860 was elected to a Balliol fellowship, and reelected in 1872, becoming also its first lay tutor in 1866. He married a sister of J. A. Symonds in 1871, be- came in 1877 Whyte professor of moral phi- losophy. Green's noble character, contagious enthusiasm, philosophical profundity, and strong interest in social questions drew around him many of the best men at Oxford. Popular education and temperance lay near his heart. In 1874 he contributed his masterly introduction to the Clarendon press edition of Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, subjecting Hume's philosophy in detail to searching and hostile analysis from an idealist point of view. His Prolegomena to Ethics, left incomplete at his death, was edited by A. C. Bradley, and two "lay-sermons" by Arnold Toynbee in the same year. His scattered essays in Mind and elsewhere were edited as The Works of T. H. Green by R, L. Nettleship. He died in 1882. Green, William Henry, American Presbyterian theologian, was born at Groveville, N. J., 1825. He was graduated from Lafayette college, 1840, and at Princeton theological seminarv, 1846. In 1851 he was made professor of biblical and oriental literature at Princeton, and was chair- nian of the committee which revised the old testament. He wrote: A Grammar of the Hebrew Language; Moses and the Prophets; The Hebrew Feasts, etc. Died at Princeton, N. J., 1900. Greene, Francis Vinton, American army officer and author, was born at Providence, R. I., 1850. He was graduated at West Point, 1870 ; was assigned to engineer corps; served on international com- mission for survey of northern boundary of United States as assistant astronomer and sur- veyor, 1872-76 ; miUtary attach^ of United States legation, St. Petersburg, 1877-79; was with Russian army in Turkey, 1877-78; present at battles of Schipka, Plevna, Sophia, Philipopolis, and minor engagements. He was engineer in charge of public works in Washington, 1879-80; professor of practical military engineering. West Point, 1885. Served in Spanish war as colonel of 71st New York volunteers at Tampa, 1898; as brigadier-general in Manila campaign, and was promoted to major-general for services in capture of Manila. He was chairman of committee on canals, New York, 1899, and police commissioner. New York city, 1903-04. President of Niagara, Lockport, and Ontario power company, and vice- president of Ontario power company of Niagara Falls. Author: The Riissian Army and Its Cam- paigns in Turkey; Army Life in Russia; The Mis- sissippi Campaigns of the Civil War; Life of Nathanael Greene, Major-General in the Army of tlie Revolution; and numerous magazine articles. Greene, Nathanael, American general, was bom in 1742, at Potowhommet, Warwick county, Rhode Island. In 1770 he was chosen a member of the Rhode Island assembly, and, to the great scandal of his fellow Quakers, was among the first to engage in the military exercises preparatory to resisting the mother country. In 1774 he enlisted as private, and in 1775 was appointed to the command of the Rhode Island contingent to the army at Boston, with the rank of brigadier- general. He was promoted to major-general in 1776, and distinguished himself at the engage- ineate of Trenton and Princeton. At the battle of Brandywine, he commanded a division, and by his skillful movements saved the American army from utter destruction; and at Germantown he commanded the left wing. In 1778 he became quartermaster-general. In 1780 he succeeded Gates in the command of the army of the South. Gates had just been completely defeated by Cornwallis, and Greene found the army in a wretched state, without discipline, clothing, arms, or spirit. By dint of great activity he got his army into better condition, and remained on the defensive for the remainder of the year. In 1781 he had a successful skirmish with an English detachment, but, drawing upon himself the whole army of Cornwallis, much liis superior in numbers, he made a masterly and successful retreat. With 5,000 new recruits, he entered upon more active operations, and finally defeated the English at Eutaw Springs, the hardest-fought field of the revolution, which put an end to the war in South Carolina. Congress struck and presented to him a medal in honor of this battle, and the Carolinas and Georgia made him valuable grants of land. When peace was restored in 1783, Greene returned to Rhode Island, where he received numerous testimonials of the public admiration. In 1785 he retired with his lamily to his estate in Georgia, where he died of sun- stroke in 1786. He was one of the very best generals of the war of independence, second, per- haps, only to Washington, whose intimate fnend he was. Greenough {gren'-o\ Horatio, American sculptor, was born in Boston, Mass., 1805. He graduated at Harvard in 1825, and from that year till 1851 lived chiefly in Italy. His principal work is the colossal statue of Washington formerly in front of the capitol. Others are "Medora, "Venus Victrix," and a group of four figures, "The Rescue." He died at Somerville, Mass^ 1852. Greer, David Hummell, Protestant Episcopal clergyman, bishop, was bom at Wheeling, W. Va., 1844. He was graduated at Washington college. Pa., 1862; studied theology at Protestant Epis- copal seminary, Gambler, Ohio; D. D., Brown university, Kenyon college, university of the South; LL. D., Washington and Jefferson col- lege; S. T. D., Columbia: was ordained deacon, 1866, priest, 1868; rector Grace church, Provi- dence, R. I., 1871-88, St. Bartholomew's church, New York, 1888-1904 ; bishop coadjutor, diocese of New York, 1903-08, bishop since 1908. Author: The Historic Christ; From Things to God; The Preacher and His Place; Visions, etc. Gr£goire {gra'-gw&r'), Henri, French ecclesiastic and revolutionist, was born near Lun^ville, 1750. He took orders and lectured at the Jesuit college of Pont-Ji-Mousson. His Essai sur la Rigin^a- tion des Juifs became widely popular. Cur6 of Embermdnil in Lorraine, and an ardent democrat, he was sent to the states-general of 1789 as a deputy of the clergy, attached himself to the tiers-dtat party, and acted a prominent part throughout the revolution. He was the first of his order to take the oaths, and was elected "constitutional bishop" of Loire-et-Cher. He exercised a stem democracy which he identified with the Christian brotherhood of the gospel. At the blasphemous feast of reason he refused, in the face of the infuriated rabble, to renounce Christianity. He became a member of the constituent assembly, 1789, but the concordat forced him to resign his bishopric. He died at Paris, unreconciled with the church, 1831. Among his works are Histoire des Sectea Rdig- ieuses and UEglise Gallicane. Gregorovius {grig'-o-rd'-vi-^), Ferdinand, German historian, was bom at Neidenburg in East Prussia, 1821. He studied theology, but devoted himself 738 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT to poetry and literature ; in 1852 settled In Rome, and died at Munich, 1891. His great work — the standard work on the subject — is the History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages. He wrote also on Italian geography and historj", on Corsica, Capri, the graves of the popes, Lucrezia Borgia, Urban VIlI., Athens, Corfu, and the Byzantine empress, Athenais; also a tragedy on the death of Tiberius, and an epic, Euphorion. Gregory I^ Pope, called "the great," waa bom in Rome about 540. He was appointed governor of Rome, but, on inheriting his father's wealth, resigned it, and became abbot of St. Andrew's, Rome. After being secretary to Pelagius II.. he succeeded him as bishop of Rome; renouncea communion with the eastern Christians because of the assumption of the title "universal bishop" by the patriarch of Constantinople; composed chants, and established a musical school, in which he himself taught^ and collected and arranged fragments of ancient hymns. He was the author of numerous sacred works, of which the chief waa his Morala from the Book of Job. Died, 604. Gregory VII. See page 223. Grenvllle, George, English statesman, was bom in 1712. He entered parliament in 1741, in 1762 became secretary of state and first lord of the admiralty, and m 1763 succeeded Lord Bute as prime minister. In his administration befell the American stamp act, which excited the American colonies to resistance. He resigned in 1765. Died, 1770. Gresbam (grSsh'-am), Sir Thomas, English financier, philanthropist, was born at Loudon in 1519. From Cambridge in 1543 he became connected with the Mercers company, and in 1551 waa employed as kind's agent at Antwerp. In two years he paid off a heavy loan and restored the king's credit. As a Protestant he was dismissed by Queen Marj', but was soon reinstated. He waa knighted by Queen Elizabeth in 1559, and waa for a time ambassador at Brussels. The troubles in the Netherlands compelled him in 1567 to withdraw from Antwerp, to which city he had made more than forty journeys on state service; in one in 1560 he was thrown from his horse and lamed for life. In 1569, by his advice, the state borrowed money from London mer- chants instead of from foreigners. Having in 1564 lost his only son, Richard, in 1566-71 he devoted a portion of his great wealth to building an exchange, in imitation of that of Antwerp; he made pro\'ision for founding Gresham college, and left money for eight almshouses. Died, 1579. Gresham, Walter Quinton, American politician and jurist, was born in Harrison county, Ind., 1832. He was admitted to the bar in 1853; was elected to the state legislature In 1860, but resigned to accept a commission in an Indiana regiment. He was severely wounded near Atlanta and received the brevet of major-general of volunteers for his gallantry. In 1869 he waa appointed United States judge for the district of Indiana by President Grant, but in April, 1882, resigned from the bench to become postmaster-general under President Arthur. On the death of Secretary Folger, in 1884, he became secretary of the treasury. In October, 1884, he was appointed United States judge for the seventh circuit. In 1893 he became secretary of state in President Cleveland's cabinet. Died at Washington, 1895. Greuze (grUz), Jean Baptlste, French painter, was bom at Toumus near M&con, France, 1725. He studied under Gromdon at Lyons, and at the academy in Paris. His first notable works were historical; after a visit to Italy, 1755, he painted Italian subjects; but he is seen at his best in such studies of girls as "The Broken Pitcher," the "Girl with Doves," and "Girl with Dead Canary." His art, though full of delicacy and grace, is marred by Its triviality and pursuit of mere prettiness. Died, 1805. Gr€vy (grd'-ve'), Francois Paul Jules, French statesman, waa born at Mont-sous-Vaudrev, in the Jura, near the boundary of Switzerland, 1807, and attended school and college near his native place. When not yet twenty years of age he began his law studies at the capital, and, becoming interested in politics, took part in the revolution of 1830, which drove Charles X. from the French throne. In 1848, when Louis Philippe was dethroned, and a republican gov- ernment set up. Gr^vy became prominent. The voters of his old department, the Jura, elected him to represent them In the constituent assem- bly of 1848, and he took a prominent part in the organization of the government. Opposed to Louis Napoleon as president, and still more bitterly against him as emperor. Gr^vy was obliged to keep out of public affairs from 1852 to 1868. After Napoleon's downfall, he waa chosen president of the national assembly which met In 1871, and in 1873, when the young repub- lic seemed to be headed toward another mon- archy, Gr6vy earnestly advocated democracy as the only hope of France. In 1876, 1877, and 1879 he again represented the Jura in the French parliament, and In the latter year waa chosen president of the republic by an enormous major- ity. In 1885 he was reelected, but on account of a scandal in which his son-in-law was impli- cated he was forced to resign, 1887. Died, 1891. Grey, Albert Henry George, fourth Earl Grey, English statesman and administrator, governor- general of Canada, 1904-11, was bom in 1851. Be is the son of General Charles Grey; waa educated at Harrow and Trinity college, Cam- bridge, and succeeded his uncle, the third Earl Grey, in 1894. He was a liberal member of the house of commons, 1880-85; administrator of Rhodesia, 1896-97; director of British South Africa company, 1898-1904; waa lord-lieutenant of Northumberland, 1899-1904. He succeeded his brotiier-in-law. Lord Minto, as governor- general of Canada in 1904. Grey, Cbarles, second Earl Grey, English states- man, waa bom at Falloden, Northumberland, 1764, and educated at Eton and King's college, Cambridge. He became a whig member of parlia- ment for Northumberland, 1786, was one of the managers of the Impeachment of Warren Hast- ings, and in 1792 helped to found the society of the friends of the people. In 1806 Grey^ now Lord Howick. became first lord of the admiralty, and, on the death of Fox, foreign secretary arid leader of the house of commons. In 1807 he succeeded his father as second Earl Grey. He opposed the clamor for a renewal of the American war in 1815, denounced the coercive measures of the government, condemned the bill against Queen CaroUne, defended the right of public meeting, and supported the enlightened com- mercial f>olicy of Huskisson. In 1830 he formed a government whose policy, he said, would be one of peace, retrenchment, and reform. The first reform bill was produced in 1831; its defeat led to a dissolution and the return of a parliament still more devoted to reform. Early in 1832 another bill was carried in the commons, and it weathered the second reading in the house of lords; but when a motion to postpone the dis- franchising clauses was adopted, ministers resigned. The duke of Wellington failed to form an adnunistration, and Grey returned to oflSce with power to create a sufficient number of peers to carry the measure. Wellington now with- drew his opposition, and in June the reform bill passed the house of lords. Grey was the chief of LORD GREY From a photograph by Pittaiuay, Ottawa THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 741 ft powerful party in the first reformed parliament. He carried tlie act for tlie abolition ot slavery in the colonies, as well as a number of minor reforms ; but dissensions sprang up, and in consequence of his Irish difhcultics he resigned in 1S34. He died at Howick House, Alnwick, 1845. Grey, Sir Edward, English statesman, secretary of state for foreign affairs since 1905; member of parliament for Berwick-on-Tweed since 1885: was born in 1862. He was graduated at Balliol college, Oxford, and succeeded to tlie baronetcy in 1882; was under-secretary for foreign affairs, 1892-95. He is a man of brilliant talents of whom Gladstone is alleged to have said: " I have never remembered so signal a capacity for parliamentary life and so small a disposition to it." Grey, Lady Jane, eldest daughter of Henry Grey, marquis of Dorset, afterward duke of Sufifolk, and of Lady Frances Brandon, was born at Bradgate, Leicestershire, 1537. In 1553. after the fall of Somerset, the dukes of Suffolk and Northumberland, now ruling in the name of the youthful King Edward VI., and foreseeing his speedy death, determined to change the succes- sion to the crown, and secure it to their own families. Lady Jane Grey, now sixteen yea.rs old, was therefore married to Lord Guilford Dudley, fourth son of the duke of Northumber- land, in May, 1553. The king, failing in body and weak in mind, and surrounded by selfish or fanatical advisers, was persuaded to make a deed of settlement, setting aside the right of succes- sion of his sisters Mary and Elizabeth, and Mary, queen of Scots, leaving the crown to Lady Jane, who was innocent of the conspiracy. After the king's death her ambitious relatives hailed her as "queen." Lady Jane at first shrank from honor so treacherously won, but ultimately yielded herself to force of their treaties and commands, and allowed herself to be proclaimed. The people of England resented the unscrupulous conduct of Suffolk and Northumberland, and, learned, brilliant, and amiable as Lady Jane was, they rallied round Mary. Northumberland was defeated, sent to the Tower, and beheaded August 22, 1554; and in the following November Lady Jane and her husband were also condemned and she was executed in Februarj', 1554. Grieg (grig), Edvard Hagerup, Norwegian com- poser, was born at Bergen, Norway, 1843. In 1858 he began a four years' course of study at Leipzig, and in 1863 continued his studies at Copenhagen. His nationality became a strong element even in his earliest compositions. He spent the winter of 1865-66 and some months of 1870 in Rome where he inaugurated a Norse music concert. In 1888 he went to London, where he both played and conducted, and this was followed by imp>ortant engagements in Germany and elsewhere. Among his compositions are numerous pieces for the piano, songs, dances, and an opera. He died in 1907. Griffls (grlf'-ls), WUliam Elliot, lecturer, author, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1843. He served with the 44th Pennsylvania regiment in the civil war, 1863: graduated at Rutgers, 1869; Union theological seminary, 1877; D. D., Union college, 1884; L. H. D., Rutgers college, 1899. In 1870 he went to Japan to organize schools; was superintendent of education in the province of Echizen, 1871; professor of phvsics. Imperial university, Tokio, 1872-74. Pastor of First Reformed church, Schenectady, N. Y., 1877-86; , Shawmut Congregational church, Boston, 1886— | 93 ; 1893-1903, First Congregational church, ^ Ithaca, N. Y. Author: The Mikado's Empire; Japanese Fairy World; Asiatic History; China, Corea, and Japan; Corea, The Hermit Nation; Corea, Without arui Within; Japan: in History, Folk-lara and Art; Brave LittU Holland and What She Taught Ua; The Religiona of Japan; Ro- viance of Discovery; Romance of ConquMt; Tht Pilgrims in Their Three Homes; America in the East; In the Mikado'a Service; A Maker of the New Orient; The Japanese Nation in Evolution, etc Griggs, Edward Howard, lecturer, author, was bom at Owatonna, Minn., 1868. lie was eradusted from Indiana university, 1889, A. M., 1890; special studies, university of Berlin; was in- structor of English literature and professor of literature, Indisuia university; professor of ethics and later head of combined departments of ethics and education, Leland Stanford Jr. university; public lecturer since 1899. Author: The New Humanism; A Book of Meditationa; Moral Education, etc. Griggs, James M,, congressman, lawyer, was bora in Lagrange, Ga., 1861 He was graduated at Peabody normal college, Nashville, Tenn., 1881; taught school, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1883. He practiced at Alapaha, Berrien county, Ga. ; was for a short time ia newspaper business; removed to Dawson, Ga.. 1885; solicitor-general (prosecuting attorney) Pataula judicial circuit, 1888-93; judge of sama circuit, 1893-96; member of congress, 1897-1909, second Georgia district; chairman of demo- cratic congressional committee, 1902. Died, 1910, Griggs, Jolin William, lawyer. United States attorney-general, 1898-1901, was bom at New- ton, N. J., 1849. He was graduated at Lafayette college, 1868; admitted to bar, 1871; practiced at Paterson; member of New Jersey general assembly, 1876-77 ; state senator, 1882-88 ; presi- dent of New Jersey senate, 1886: governor of New Jersey, January, 1896, until he resigned. January, 1898, to take office of attorney-general in President McKinley's cabinet; made member of Hague permanent court of arbitration, 1906. Griliparzer (grU'-par-tser), Franz, Austrian dra- matic poet, was born at Vienna, 1791. He studied jurisprudence, and in 1813 entered the imperial civil service, in which he remained until 1856. He first attracted notice in 1817 by a tragedy, Die Ahnfrau, which was followed by Sappho; Das goldene Vliea; Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen; Der Traum ein Leben, etc. He produced in lyric poetry much meritorious work ; and one good prose novel, Der Arme Spidmann. Died at Vienna, 1872. Grimm, Friedrich Melchlor, Baron von, German- French critic and writer, was bom at Katisbon, 1723. After studying at Leipzig, and failing with a tragedy, he accompanied a nobleman to Paris, and became reader to the crown-prince of Saxe-Gotha. He became acquainted with Rous- seau in 1749, and through him with Diderot, Holbach. and Madame d'Epinay. His connec- tion with the encyclopedists, added to his own acquirements, opened up a brilliant career. He became secretary to the duke of Orleans, and began to write for several German princes those famous literary bulletins, which for nearly fortr years gave the most trenchant criticism of all important French books. In 1776 he was made a baron by the duke of Gotha, and appointed minister-plenipotentiary at the French court. At the revolution he withdrew to Gotha, and afterward to the court of Catharine II., whence he was sent in 1795 as Russian minister to Ham- burg. He died at Gotha, 1807. Grimm, Jakob Ludwig Karl, German philologist and antiquary, was bom at Hanau, in Hesse- Cassel, 1785. Though holding at various times important public offices, his Ufie was devoted to phuologicaf and antiquarian studies. His Ger- man Grammar, in four volumes, is perhaps the greatest philologicad work of the age. After 742 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 1814, in company with his brother, Wilhehn, he pubhshed numerouB works of a more popular character, the best known of which is Ktnder- und HausnUirchen, nursery and fireside stories. From 1830 to 1837 they were joint professors at Gottingen, subsequently joint librarians at Cassel, and in 1841 settled in Berlin at the invita- tion of the king of Prussia. The greatest joint undertaking of the two brothers was the Deutsche W&rterbuch, begun in 1852. Jakob Griram died in 1863. Wilhelm was bom in 1786 and died at Berlin in 1859. Grlmston (grim'-stiln), Mib. Margaret B. See Ken- dal, Mrs. GrlmMton, William H. Sec Kendal, Mr. Gros (gro), Antoine Jean, Baron, French historical painter, was bom at Paris, 1771. lie studied in the school of David, and acquired celebrity by his great pictures of Napoleon s battles, "Francis I. and Charles V. at Saint Denis," "Departure of Louis XVIII. for Ghent," "The Plague at Jaffa," and "Embarkation of the Duchess of Angoii- 16me." He drowned himself in the Seine, 1835. Gross (grda), Charles, historian, was born at Troy, N. Y., 1857. He was graduated at Williams, 1878; Ph. D., Gottingen, 1883; A. M., Harvard, 1901; LL. D., Williams, 1904. He engaged in literary work in England, 1884-88; instructor at Harvard, 1888-1909. Author: Gilda Mer- catoria; The Excliequer of the Jews of England in the Middle Ages; The Gild Merchant; Select Cases from the Coroners' Rolls; Sources and Liter- ature of English History. Translator: Lavisse's Political History of Europe, Kayserling's Chriato- pher Columbus. He was a frequent contributor to American Historical Review, and other histori- cal journals. Died, 1909. Gross, Samuel David, American surgeon, was bom in Pennsylvania, 1805. He was graduated from Jefferson medical college, 1828; was professor of pathological anatomy in Cincinnati medical college, 1835—40; professor of surgery in univer- sity of Louisville, 1840-50, and at university of New York, 1850-51- professor of surgery in Jefferson medical college, 1856-84. He wrote: System of Surgery (2 vols.), American Medical Biography, etc. He was the founder and chief editor of the North American Medico-Chirurgical Review, and was president of the American medical association, 1867. He wrote exten- sively for medical publications, and made many valuable contributions to operative surgery. Died, 1884. Grosscup {grdtf-kUp), Peter Stenger, jurist, judge of United States circuit court of appeals, 7th circuit, 1899-1905, was bom at Ashland, Ohio, 1852. He was graduated from Wittenberg college, 1872, Boston law school, 1874; practiced law at Ashland, Ohio, 1874-83, where he was city solicitor for six years; practiced in Chicago, 1882-92 ; United States judge of northern dis- trict of Illinois, 1892-99. He has been president of the John Crerar Ubrary, Chicago, since 1901. Grosvenor (gro'-ve-nir), Charles Henry, lawyer, ex-congressman, was bom in Pomfret, Conn., 1833. He went to Ohio in 1838, taught school, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1857 ; engaged in practice; served in eighteenth Ohio volunteers, 1861-65, as major, lieutenant- colonel, and brevet brigadier-general. Member of Ohio legislature, 1874-78 (speaker, two years) : presidential elector, 1872 and 1880; tmstee of Ohio soldiers' and sailors' orphans' home, 1880- 88, and president for five vears; member of con- gress, 1885-91, and again from 1893 to 1907, eleventh Ohio district. Author: Willidm McKirdey, His Life and Work. Grosvenor, Edwin Augustus, educator, historian, was bom in Newburyport, Mass., 1845. He was graduated from Amherst, 1867, Andover theo- logical seminary, 1872; LL. D., Wabash, 1903, Alfred university, 1904; was professor of history, Robert college, Constantinople, 1873-90; pro- fessor of European history, 1892-98, moaern fovemments and their administration, 1898- 901, modem government and international law since 1901, Amherst college. Author: The Hippodrome of Constantino'^; Constantinople (2 vols.); Thie Permanence of the Greek Type; Contemporary History, etc. Grote {grot), George, English historian and politi- cian, was born at Clay Hill, Kent, England, 1794. He was educated at the Charterhouse, entered the family banking house, but devoted his leisure time to literary work. He published many pamphlets on reform, and contributed to the Westmiruter Review. In 1832 he was elected to parliament for the city of London, for M'hich he continued to sit until 1841, as one of the "philo- sophical ratlicals." His History of Greece ai)peared between 1846 and 1856, and was fol- lowed by Plato and Other Companions of Socrates. During his parliamentary life he made himself conspicuous by his advocacy of the ballot. He took an active part in the foundation of the university of London, of which, at the time of his death, he was vice-chancellor. He died in 1871, and is buried in Westminster abbey. Grotius (grd'shlr-iia), or De Groot, Hugo. See page 443. Grouchy (grtfd'-ahi'), Enunanurl, Marquis de., dis- tinguished French marshal, was bom in Paris, 1706. He entered the French army, 1781, was a lieutenant in the royal body-guard. 1787-93, served with Lafavette. was promotea brigadier- general, commanded tne cavalry in the army of the Alps, aided in the conquest of Savoy, and after fighting in La Vendue, 1794, was cashiered with all other officers of the nobility. He then enlisted as a private soldier, and after the fall of Robespierre was reinstated and promoted generaJ of division by a special decree. In 1798 he persuatled the kmg of Sardinia to abdicate and surrender Piedmont to France; in 1799 received fourteen wounds and was taken prisoner at Novi ; gained his liberty after Marengo, serveeared in 1809. After the second restoration tie became general secretary to the minister of the interior, afterward to the minister of justice. He con- tributed to the dissolution of the Chambrt Introuvable by writing a memorial which was placed in the hands of Louis XVIII. by Decazes. The latter committed to him the direction of the administration of the communes and department* in 1819. After the revolution of 1830, he became Buccessively minister of public instruction and minister of the interior, an office which he held, with two interruptions, until 1836. On the breaking out of the eastern disturbances in the beginning of 1840, under Soult's administration, he was sent as ambassador to London; in 184/ he became the official leader of the cabinet, which maintained its ground, as the organ ot Louis Philippe's policy, until the revolution of 1848. Among his work^ are his History of th« English Revolution, Life of Oliver Cromwell, History of CivUixation in Europe, and History of Ctvilization in France. He di«xl in 1874. Gunsaulus (gun-sd'4ils), Frank Wakelejr, Congre- gational clergyman, educator, was bom at Chester%'ille, Onio, 1856. He was graduated at Ohio Wesleyan university, 1875- D. D., Beloit college, Wisconsin. Ordained Methodist min- ister; pastor of Eastwood Congregational church, Columbus, Ohio, 1879-81; Newtonville, Mass.. 1881-85; pastor of Memorial Congregational church, Baltimore, 1885-87; Plymouth church, Chicago, 1887-99; Central church, Chicago, since 1899; president of Armour institute of technol- ogy, since 1893 ; lecturer of Yale theological semi- nary, 1882; professorial lecturer of university of Chicago. Author: Phidias and Other Poems; Songs of Night and Day; Transfiguration of Christ; Monk and Knight; Life of WiHiam Ewart Glad- stone; Metamorphosis of a Creed; November at Eastwood; Loose Leaves of Song; The Man of Galilee; Paths to Power; Paths to the City of God; Higher Ministries of Recent English Poetry, etc. Gunter {g&n'-tir), Edmund, English mathematician, was bom in Hertfordshire about 1581. He wae educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford; obtained a Southwark curacy in 1615, and in 1619 became professor of astronomy in Gresham college, London. He invented the sector, with the lines known as Gunter's scale. His principal works are Canon Triangidorum, a table of logarithmic sines, etc. ; On the Sector, Cross-staff, and Other Instruments. Invented the surveying-chain, and made first observation of the variation of the compass. Died, 1626. GOnther (giin'-tSr), Albert Charles Lewis Gotthllf. German-English zoologist, was born at Esslingen, Wiirttemberg, 1830, and educated at the univer- sities of Tubingen, Berlin, and Bonn. He entered the British museum in 1856, and was appointed :5 UJ Qa > < I- D O THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 747 keeper of the department of zoology in 1875. Subsequently he devoted himself exclusively to the administration of the extensive collections under his charge. He published Die Fiache dea Neckars; Medizinische Zodlogic; The Reptiles of British India; Catalogue of Fishes; The Fishes of the South Seas; The Gigantic Land Tortoises, Living and Extinct; An Introduction to the Study of Fishes; and numerous papers in the philosoph- ical transactions, the proceedings of the zoological and Linnean societies, and other periodicals. He founded the Record of Zoological Literature, of which he edited the first six volumes, and was co-editor of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Gustavus Vasa (gUs-t&'-v&a v&'-ad), king of Sweden, was born of a noble house at Lindholmen in Upland, 1496, and in 1518, during the patriotic struggle with Christian II. of Denmark, was treacherously carried off to Denmark as a hpstage. After a year he escaped to Liibeck, thence to Sweden, where he strove in vain to rouse a spirit of resistance against the Danes. Retreating to Dalecarlia, he wandered for months with a price set on his head, and worked on farms and in mines. At last the infamous "blood-bath" of Stockholm, 1520, roused the Swedes, and soon Gustavus had an army large enough to attack the enemy. His capture of Stockholm in 1523 drove the Danes from Sweden. Thus ended the great Scandinavian union which had existed for 126 years, and Gustavus I. was elected king. He found the whole country demoralized. Yet after a forty years' rule he left Sweden a peaceful and civilized realm, with a full exchequer and a well-organized army. He promoted trade, fos- tered schools, and made roads, bridges, and canals. Missions were sent to the Lapps, and a Finnish Bible was printed for the Finns. He died in 1560, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Eric. Gustavus 11^ Adolpbus, was bom at Stockholm, 1594. He was the grandson of Gustavus Vasa by his youngest son, Charles IX., at whose death, in 1611, he succeeded to the throne of Sweden. Gustavus had been strictly brought up in the Lutheran faith, carefully trained in habits of business, and was one of the most accomplished princes of his age. He was acquainted with eight languages, five of which he spoke and wrote fluently, was well read in the classics and ancient history. He was proficient in music, and excelled in all warlike and manly exercises. Having made various administrative reforms, and availed himself of the short interval of peace to promote the material prosperity of the coun- try, he remitted the charge of the government to his chancellor, Oxenstiem, and set sail, in the summer of 1630, with an army of about 15,000 men, to aid the Protestants of Germany in their hard struggle against the Catholic league, which was backed by the power of the empire. With and for the Germans he fought until his death on the battlefield of Liitzen, 1632. He made Sweden a power in northern Europe. Gustavus III^ king of Sweden, was bom at Stock- holm, 1746, and succeeded his father, Adolphus Frederick, in 1771. At this period the country was distracted by the intrigues of the rival political parties of Horn and Gyllenborg, known as the "nats" and "caps." A revolution was effected without the sheading of blood, and by a stroke of the pen Gustavus recovered all the legal powers that had been gradually lost by his immediate predecessors. In 1792 he was mor- tally wounded by Ankarstrom at a masked ball in the opera house which he himself had built. The pistol had been loaded with broken shot, which rendered the wound especiallv painful, and the king suffered the most dreadful agony for thirteen days before his d'»ath. Oustavtis was a man of varied learning, and the author of several dramatic works and poems of considorablu merit. Gu^«ta\'us V„ king of Sweden, waa bom In 1868, and married, in 1881, Princess Victoria of Baden, first cousin of the Gcnnan emperor and a descend- ant of the old Swedish royal family of Vaaa. He succeeded his father, King Oscar II., ou December 8, 1907, having several times pre- viously acted as regent. The king's eldest aoa. Prince Gustavus Adolnhus, married Princess Margaret of Connaught, June, 1905. His majesty is a knight of the garter of Great Britain, and received the royal Victorian chain in April, 1908. Gutenberg (gr<»'-eriods in Roman history, the onlv important war which broke out during the reign being a rebellion of the Jews which lasted for three years. He erected many magnificent works in various parts of his empire, the remains of some of whicn are still standing. During his last years he was morose and cruel ; though some verses, addressed to his soul, which he is said to have composed on his death-bed. are of quite a different character. They were imitated by Pope in his poem. The Dying Chrirtian to Hxs Soul. After his aeatb, which took place at Bais, 138 A. D., he was succeeded by Antoninus Pius. The mausoleum which he built for himself in Rome forms the groundwork of the present castle of St. Angelo. Haeckel (hfk'-el), Ernst Heinrlcb, German natural- ist and writer, was bom at Potsdam, Prussia, 1834. He studied medicine and science at Wiirzburg, Berlin, and Vienna. In 1859 he went to Italy, and studied zoology at Naples and Messini, returning in 1861 to Jena, where he was appointed professor of zoology. Between 1860 and 1875 he traveled over the greater part of Europe, besides visiting Syria and Egypt. Later he visited India and Ceylon, and published a lively account of his travels. He is regarded in Germany as the foremost supporter of Darwin's theories. Among his works are The History of Creation; The Origin of the Human Race; Life in the Deep Seas; The History of Man's Develop- ment; Popular Lectures on Evolution; Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger, etc. Haflz {ha'-flz or ha.-fiif\ Mohammed Sbamsnddtn, or Shams-«d-Din, better known by his poetical name of Hafiz, was the greatest of Persian lyrical poets. He was also eminent as a teacher of theology and mvstic philosophy, but it was his poetic genius which gained lor him a world- wide fame. The name of Hafiz is a household word throughout Persia, and his songs are recited in every social assembly, so that he, who can most frequently garnish his conversation with quotations from Hafiz, is held in the highest esteem and admiration. "The date of his birth is imknown, but he is said to have died at a good old age in 1388 A. D. Haggard, Henry Kider, English novelist, barrister, and social reformer, was bom in England, 1856. He accompanied Sir Henry Bulwer, as secretary, to Natal in 1875, and formally hoisted the British flag over Transvaal territory, 1877. He was subsequently appointed to the post of master of the high court of the Transvaal. During the Zulu war he was elected adjutant and lieutenant of the Pretoria horse. He retired from the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 749 colonial aervice in 1879; returned to England and became a barrister. His first book, pub- lished in 1882, of a political character, is named Cetywayo and His White Nrighhors; or Remarks on Recent Events in South Africa. Subsequently he published Davm; The Witch's Head, and King Solomon's Mines, the work by which he established his reputation; She, a novel of great power; Ayesha, or the Return of She; Jess; Cleopatra; Beatrice; Eric Brighteyes, etc. He has also written Rural England and A Farmer's Year, and has made extensive studies in social- istic settlements. Ha^ue (.hag), Arnold, American geologist, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1840. He was graduated at the scientific school of Yale, 1863, and for several years studied in Germany at Gottingen, Heidel- berg, and in the mining school at Freiberg. D. Sc, Columbia, 1901; LL. D., Aberdeen, 1906. He was assistant geologist of United States geological exploration of 40th parallel, 1867-77; geologist in the service of the Chinese government, 1878-79; field service in Rocky mountains and for several years in Yellowstone national park and adjacent country; secretary, national acad- emy of sciences, since 1901, and member of many scientific societies. Author : Descriptive Geology; Geological Exploration of 40th Parallel; Geology of the Eureka District; Geology, Yellowstone National Park; Tertiary Volcanoes of the Absaroka Range; Geological Atlas of Yellowstone Park, etc. Hahnemann {h&'-ni-man), Samuel Christian Fried- rich, physician, founder of the homeopathic sys- tem of medicine, was born at Meissen, Saxony, in 1755. He received the degree of M. D. at Erlangen in 1779. While translating Cullen's Materia MeMca from English into German, 1790, he noticed a similarity between the effects of Peruvian bark — cinchona — upon a healthy person and the results of certain diseases for the cure of which that drug was used. In other words, he rediscovered, quite independently, Hippocrates' old "law of similars." After many experiments he became convinced of the truth of the principle similia similibus curantur — that is, the cure for a disease is the very drug that would in a healthy individual produce the symptoms of such disease. Further investigation caused him to conclude that the conventional doses of his day were injurious, and this led him to another principle, that of very minute doses, made by a process of "potentization," described by him at length in his Organon, 1810, which work was translated into many languages. He encoun- tered much opposition, and, after having prac- ticed medicine at Leipzig for more than thirty years, was driven out of that city, 1821, by the apothecaries who invoked the aid of the German law which prohibited physicians from dispensing their own prescriptions. The grand duke of Anhalt, however, appointed him court physician, and he remained at Kothen, occupying that posi- tion until 1835, when he removed to Paris. Although opinions differ very widely concerning the accuracy and scientific value of Hahnemann's investigations, it is undeniable that he was a man of great courage and perseverance. He not only sacrificed his financial interests for the sake of his convictions, but he made many painful experiments upon his own person. He died in 1843. Hakluyt Qi&kf-l^t), Richard, English author, was bom about 1552. He was lecturer on cosmog- graphy at Oxford university, and was the first to teach the use of globes. He was afterward professor of divinity, and in 1584—89 was in Paris, where he published several works. On his return he joined Raleigh's company of gentle- men adventurers and merchants for colonizing Virginia. His chief work is The principal Navi- gations, Voyages, and Discoveries of the English Nation, conmionly called Hakluyt's Voyages. Died, 1616. Haldane {hOl'-d&n), Bichard Burdon, British statesman and writer, wa« born in 1856. He was educated at Edinburgh academy and uni- versity and at Gottingen; in 1879 was called to the chancery bar, and In 1890 waa made a queen's counsel; hon. D. C. L., Oxfortl; LL. D., Edinburgh. He entered parliament in 1885 as member for HaddinKtonshire, and became British secretary of state for war in 1905. He trans- lated Schopenhauer (with Kemp, 1883-86), and wrote a Life of Adam Smith, 1887 ; and his Gifford lectures at St. Andrews on the funda- mental problems of philosophy and theology were published as The Pathvxiy 'to Reality, 1903. In Education and Empire, 1902, he zealously insisted on educational reform as essential to national well-being. He also wrote Essays in Philosophical Criticism, etc. Haldeman {hdl' -de-man), Samuel Stehman, Ameri- can naturalist and philologist, was born near Columbia, Pa., 1812. He was assistant on the New Jersey geological survey, 1836, and in the Pennsylvania geological survey, 1837. While engaged thus he found the oldest fossil known at the time, viz., Scolithus linearis. He occupied the chair of natural history, and later of com- parative philology, in the university of Pennsyl- vania, and was the author of numerous articles on philology, conchology, entomology, and palaeontology. His work, Arudytic Orthography, obtained in England the highest Trevelyan prize over eighteen competitors, 1858. He died ia 1880. Hale, Edward Everett, Unitarian clergyman, author, was born in Boston, Mass., 1822. Ho was graduated at Harvard university, 1839; S. T. D., 1879; LL. D., Dartmouth, 1901, Williams, 1904. Studied theology, and became minister of the church of the Unity, Worcester, Mass., 1846-56; minister of South Congrega- tional (Unitarian) church, Boston, Mass., 1856— 1909; chaplain United States senate, 1902-09. He actively promoted the Chautauqua move- ment, assisted in the organization of^ "Lend-a- Hand" clubs, and was a prolific editor and writer. Author: (stories) The Man Without a Country; Ten Times One is Ten; In His Name; Mr. Tangier's Vacations; His Level Best; The Ingham Papers; Ups and Downs; Philip Nolan's Friends; Fortunes of Rachel; Four and Five; Crusoe in New York; Christmas Eve and Christ- mas Day; Christmas in Narragansett; Otir Christmas in a Palace, etc. ALso: Sketches in Christian History; What Careert Boy's Heroes; The Story of Massachusetts; Sybaris and Other Homes; For Fifty Years; A New England Boy- hood; If Jesus Came to Boston; Memories of a Hundred Years; Ralph Waldo Emerson; We, the People; New England Ballads; Prayers in the United States Senate; Foundation of the Republic, etc. Died, 1909. Hale, Eugene, United States senator from Maine, 1881-1911, was bom in Turner, Oxford county. Me., 1836. He received an academic education: LL. D., Bates college, Colby university ana Bowdoin college ; was admitted to the bar, 1857 ; county attorney of Hancock county for nine years; member of Maine legislature, 1867, 1868, and 1880; member of congress, 1869-79. Was appointed postmaster-general by President Grant, 1874, but declined; was tendered naval port- folio by President Hayes, but declined ; delegate to national republican conventions, 1868, 1876, and 1880. He was elected to the United States senate to succeed Hannibal Hamlin in 1881, and became the republican floor leader of the senate, from which he retired in 1911. 750 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Hale, George EUery, American astronomer, was bom at Chicago, Ill.j 1868. He was graduated at Massachusetts institute of technology ; studied at Harvard college observatory, 1889-90, uni- versity of Berlin, 1893-94; Sc. D., Western university of Pennsylvania, 1897, Yale, 1905; LL. D., Beloit, 1904. Director Kenwood astro- physical observatory, 1890-96; associate pro- fessor astrophysics, university of Chicago, 1892-97, professor of same, 1897-1905; director Yerkes ODservatory, 1895-1905^ director solar observatory of Carnegie institution of Washing- ton at Mt. Wilson, Cal. Joint editor Astronomy and Astrophysics; editor Astrophysical Journal since 1895. He has written many papers on the sun, stellar spectroscopy, etc. Bale, Jolm Parker, American statesman, was bom at Rochester, N. H., 1806. He was graduated at Bowdoin college, and admitted to the bar, 1830; was elected to congress in 1842 as a demo- crat, but opposed the annexation of Texas. He served in tne United States senate, 1847-53 and 1855-65, and was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency, 1852. Was minister to Spain, 1865-69. Died at Dover, N. H., 1873. Bale, Sir Matthew, English lawyer and jurist, was born at Alderley, England. 1609. He was fraduated at Oxford, studied law at Lincoln's nn, and was admitted to the bar in 1637. Though a royalist, he was appointed head of the com- mittee for prevention of delays and expenses of law in 1652; became a judge of common pleas in 1654, and sat in parliament until the restora- tion, when he was matle lord chief baron of the exchequer. In 1671 he became lord chief justice, and resigned shortly before his death. He wrote a History of the Pleas of the Crovm, DifficUes Nuga, an essay on Gravitation of Fluids, History of the Common Law of Englarid, and Contemplations, Moral and Divine. Died, 1676. Bale, Nathan, American patriot, was bom in Coventry, Conn., 1755. He was graduated at Yale college in 1773, and devoted himself to the cause of the colonies in the contest with Great Britain. After the defeat of the patriot army at Long Island he endeavored to obtain knowledge of the enemy's plans and position for the isforma- tion of Washington. He obtained the knowledge, but was arrested by the British before he could return, and, the papers containing the information being found on his person, he was hanged as a "PXi by order of Sir William Howe, 1776. His sentence was carried into effect in the most unfeeling manner; he was refused the attendance of a clergyman, and the letters which he wrote to his mother a short time before his death were destroyed. His last words were, "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." Bale, Sarah Josepha, American writer, author of Mary's Lamb, was born at Newport, N. H., 1790. On her husband's death in 1822 she devoted herself to authorship, and became in 1828 editor of the Ladies' Magazine. She helped to procure the employment of lady medical missionaries, to complete the Bunker Hill monument, and sug- gested the observance of Thanksgiving day in all the states. Her works include poems, novels, biography etc. Died, 1879. Bal£vy (d -td-'ve'), Jacques Francois Fromental, French composer, was bom at Paris, of Jewish parentage, 1799. He studied under Berton and Cherubini, and afterward at Rome. The first work that brought him any considerable reputa- tion was La Juive, produced at the Grand Op4ra in 1835. The most important of his subsequent pieces were: La Reine de Chypre, Charles VI., Le Juif Errant, and La Magicienne. Those executed for the Op6ra Comique are regarded as his most successful; the principal are: Les Mousquetaires, L'Eclair, and Le Vol d'Andorre. He was a ereat favorite with his countrymen, but his style was so purely national that, in spite of his great dramatic power, he did not enjoy a great celebrity out of France until recently. He died in 1862. Hal£vy, Ludovic, French novelist and dramatic author, was bom at Paris, 1834, and received his education at the Lyc6e Louis le Grand. He entered the service of the government, and from 1852 to 1858 was employed in the office of the minister of state. He was chief of the depart- ment for Algiers and the colonies, and in 1861 was apjjointed to edit the proceedings of the corps l^f^islatif. This position he resigned to devote himself to the drama. He was the libret- tist of many of Offenbach's operettas. Under his own name, and with various collaborators, principally M. M. L. Battu, Hector Crimieux, and Henri Meilhac, he produced Ba-La-Clan; Rose et Rosette; Orphie aux Enfers; La Belle HAhie, a burlesque of ancient Greek life, which had a great success; La Barbe Bleue; La. Grande Duchesse de Girolatein; Froufrou; L'Edi de la Saint Martin; La Boulangere a des icus; Le Maride la Dibutante; L'Abbi Constantin; Kari- kari, etc. In 1872 be published L' Invasion, personal recollections of the war; and in 1873, Madame et Monsieur Cardinal. He was a mem- ber of the French academy. Died, 1908. Hallburton (/uU'-{-6tlr'-<'n), Thomas Chandler, Canadian humorist, was bom at Windsor, Nova Scotia, 1796. He was judge of the supreme court of Nova Scotia, but is best known as a satirical writer. In 1837 he published Tlte Clockmaker; or the Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville, which became very popular. He was also the author of The AttacfU, or Sam Slick in England, which was the result of a visit to that country in 1841. In 1856 he went to England to reside permanently, and in 1859 entered the house of commons as member for Launceston, which seat he held until within a few months of his death. Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote: The Old Judge, or Life in a Colony; The LOier Bag of the Great Western; Traits of American Humor, and several other books. He died at Isleworth, Middlesex, Eng- land, 1865. Halifax, Charles Montagu, Earl of, British poet and statesman was bom at Horton, England. 1661. He was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge. His most notable ]>oetical achievement was a parodv on Dryden's Hind and Panther, entitled The 'fovon and Country Mouse, 1687, of which he was ioint-author wth Matthew Prior. He was member of parliament for Maldon in 1689, and a lord of the treasury in 1692, and in that year proposed to raise a million sterling by wav of loan — so the national debt was established. In 1694 money was again wanted, and Montagu suppUed it by originating the bank of England, as proposed by William Paterson three years earlier. For tlus service Montagu was appointed chancellor of the exchequer. His next work was the recoinage in 1695, appointing his friend, Newton, warden of the mint, and raising a tax on windows to pay the expense; and now he first introduced exchequer bills. In 1697 he became premier, but his arrogance and vanity soon made him unpopular, and ne was impeac&ed in 1701, but was protected by the lords and the proceed- ings fell to the ground. He was president of the royal society, 1695-98. Died, 1715. Hall, Charles Cuthbert, American theologian, was bom in New York city, 1852; graduated at Williams college, 1872; D. D., university of New York, 1890, Harvard, 1897, Yale, 1901 ; LL. D., Union, 1905. Studied theology at Union theo- logical seminary and in London and Edinburgh. Pastor of Union Presbyterian church, Newburgh, THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 761 N. Y., 1875-77; First Presbyterian church, BrookljTi, 1887-97. barrows lecturer for the university of Chicago to the far East, 1902-03 and 1906-07 : Cole lecturer, Vanderbilt university, 1905; Noble lecturer at Harvard, 1906. As president of Union theological seminary from 1897 until his death, he did much to encourage higher criticism, and to induce a more liberal and broadminded attitude on the part of the cler^. Author: Christian Belief Inter preied by Christian Experience; Redeemed Life After Death; Universal Elements of the Christian Religion; Christ and the Human Race; The Witness of Oriental Consciousness to Jesus Christ. Died, 1908. Hall, Charles Martin, inventor, manufacturer, was born at Thompson, Ohio, 1863; graduated at OberUn college, 1885, A. M., 1893. Invented the electrolytic process for the manufacture of aluminum now universally used, 1886; com- menced its commercial manufacture in 1888 with Pittsburgh reduction company, now the Alumi- num company of America. The Hall process has reduced the price of aluminum so as to make it a common metal of conmierce, whereas it was for- merly as costly as silver and little used. Member of many scientific societies; trustee of Oberlin college. Hall, Granville Stanley, American educator and psychologist, president of Clark university since 1888, was born in Ashfield, Mass., 1846. He was graduated at Williams college, 1867; Ph. D., Harvard, 1878; LL. D., university of Michigan, 1888, Johns Hopkins. 1902; was professor of psychology, Antioch, Ohio, college, 1872-76; studied in Berlin, Bonn, Heidelberg, and Leipzig; lecturer on psychology in Harvard and Williams, 1880-81 ; professor of psychology, Johns Hoplcins, 1881-88. Author: Aspects of German Culture; Hints Toward a Select arid Descriptive Bibliography of Education (with John M. Mansfield) ; Adoles- cence (2 vols.) ; Youth — Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene, etc. Editor and founder of The American Journal of Psychology ; editor Tfie Ped- agogical Seminary, and Am,erican Journal of Religious Psychology and Educaiion. Hall, Marshall, British physician and physiologist, was born at Basford, Notts, 1790. After study- ing at Edinburgh, Paris, Gottingen, and Berlin, he settled at Nottingham in 1815, and practiced in London from 1826 until 1853. He did impor- tant work in regard to the reflex action of the spinal system, and his name is also associated with a standard method of restoring suspended respiration. He wrote on diagnosis, the circula- tion, and finally an important article on Respira- tion and Irritability. Died, 1857. Hall, Robert, British pulpit orator, was bom at Amsby near Leicester, England, 1764. He was educated at a Baptist academy at Bristol, and at Aberdeen umversity. He was appointed assistant minister and tutor in the Bristol acad- emy, where his eloquent preaching attracted overflowing audiences. He went in 1790 to Cambridge, where he rose to the highest rank of British pulpit (frators. In 1807 he settled in Leicester, but returned in 1826 to Bristol. He died in 1831. Among his writings are Apology for the Freedom of the Press and On Terms of Communion. Hallam, Henry, English historian and critic, was bom at Windsor, England, 1777. He was gradu- ated at Christ Church, Oxford, 1799, and subse- quently called to the bar. LL. D., D. C. L., Cambridge and Oxford respectively. His first writings were pubUshed in periodicals, especially the Edinburgh Review; afterward he was dis- tinguished among the literary men of Europe for his extensive and profound learning, jwwers of generalization, taste, judgment, and conscien- tiousness, exhibited in n ■ucccssion of (rcat works, the principal of which are Europe During the Middle Ages, The Constitutional Hiatary of England, and Introduction to the Literature of Europe. During the greater portion of his long life he lived in London in privacy, devoting him- self to linguistic and historical studies. Died. 1859. Halleck, FltE-Greene, American poet, was bom in Guilford, Coiuj.^ 1790. He began life as a clerk in a store in Guilford, but when twenty-one years old he was employed in a banking-house in New York, where he remained many years. At last he became a clerk for John Jacob Astor, who left him in his will $200 a year for the" rest of his life. Halleck then retired from active life and passed the rest of his days at Guilford. His eariiest poem, Twilight, was printed in 1818. Five years after he visited Europe, and in 1827 a volume of his poetry, including Marco Bozzaris, appeared. He died in Guilford, 1867. A bronze statue of him has been erected in Central park, New York. Haller (hdl'-ir), Albrecht von» Swiss anatomist, botanist, physiologist, and poet, was bom at Bern, 1708. He started practice in 1729, but in 1736 was called to a chair at Gottingen. Here he organized a botanical garden, an anatomical mu- seum and theater, and an obstetrical school; helped to found the academy of sciences; wrote anatomical and physiological works; and took an active part in the literary movement. In 1753 he resigned and returned to Bern, where he became magistrate. After this he wrote three political romances, and prepared four large works on the bibliography connected with botany, anatomy, surgery, and medicine. His poems were descriptive, didactic, and (the best of them) lyrical. Died, 1777. Halley, Edmund, English astronomer, was born in 1656. He went to St. Helena in 1676 to study the southern heavens, and in 1679 published his Catalogue Stellarum AuMralium, containing the positions of 360 stars, and numerous other obser- vations. In 1679 the royal society sent him to Dantzic to settle the controversy between Hooke and Hevelius. In 1681, near Paris, he discovered the comet known by his name; his prediction of its return was the first of the kind that proved correct. In 1683 he published his Theory of the Variation of the Magnetic Compass, and from an examination of Kepler's laws of the planetary motions inferred that the centripetal force always varies inversely as the square of the distance. He prevailed on Sir Isaac Newton to complete his Principia, the first volume of which was Erinted by Halley at his own expense. In 1692 e published his modified theory of the changes in the magnetic variation, and obtained from King William the appointment of captain of a vessel, in which in two successive voyages he finished his experiments. In 1703 he was chosen Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford. In 1721, after the death of Flamsteed, he was appointed astronomer royal; and he continued for twenty years, without an assistant, to carry on the operations of the Green\v'ich observatory. In 1721 he pubUshed his method of finding the longitude at sea, and in 1725 drew up his tables for computing the places of the planets, which did not appear until 1749. Died, 1742. HaUiwell-Phillipps (hOl'-ir-w&.-fll'-lps), James Or- chard, English Shakespearian scholar and anti- quary, was bom at Chelsea, 1820. He studied at Jesus college, Cambridge. His studies em- braced the whole field of our earlier literature, and in 1839 he became fellow of the royal ana antiquarian societies. Gradually he concentrated himself upon Shakespeare alone, and more par- ticularly upon the facts of his life, the successive 752 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT editions of his OvMines of the Life of Shakegpeare recording the growing results of his discoveries. In 1872 he added to Halliwell the surname of Phillipps, that of his first wife, a Worcestersiiire heiress. He accumulated in iiis house, Holling- bury Copse, near Brighton, an unrivaled collec- tion of Shakespearian books, MSS., and rarities, and gave princely benefactions to Edinburgh university, Stratford, and Birmingham. Besides his sumptuous folio edition of Shakespeare, he published Nursery Rhymes and Tales of England and Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words. Died, 1889. Hals (hJils), Frans, the elder, portrait and genre painter, was bom, probably at Antwerp, between 1580 and 1584. He settled in Haarlem about 1604, and is regarded as the founder of the Dutch school of genre-painting His subjects of feast- ing and carousal are treated with marvelous vivacity and spirit. His works are distributed among the chief galleries of England and the continent. He died at Haarlem, 1606. Hamerton {h&m'-ir-tun), Philip Gilbert, English writer on art, was born at Laneaide, Oldham, the son of a solicitor at Shaw^ 1834. He began as an art-critic by contributmg to the Fine Arts Quarterly and Saturday Review, and published a volume of poems on The Isles of Loch Awe. Subsequently appeared A Painter's Camp in the Highlands; Etching and Etchers; Contemporary French Painters; and Painting in France after the Decline of Classicism. From 1869 he edited the Portfolio. The Intellectual Ldfe, published in 1873, is a volume of letters of advice addreaoed to literary aspirants and others; Human Inter- course is a volume of essays on social subjects; The Graphic Arts, finely illustrated, is a treatise on drawing, painting, and engraving; Land- acape^ a superbly-illustrated volume, sets forth the influence of natural landscape on man. Among his other works are two lives of Turner, Portfolio Papers; French and English; Man in Art; The Mount; and two novels. He died at Boulogne-sur-Seine, 1894. Bamllcar Barca (hO-mU'-kar b&r'-ka), Carthaginian general, was bom shortly before the first Punic war. While very young he was appointed to the command of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily in 247 B. C, at which time the Romans had pos- session of almost all the land. His first care was to discipline his infantry thoroughly; he then established himself on Mount Ercte (now Pelle- grino, near Palermo), and from this point made pillaging excursions in all directions, sending his privateers along the coast of Italy as far north as Cumse, thus obtaining abundant supplies for his troops. From this position the Romans endeav- ored to dislodge him, but in vain. After three years he left Ercte and established himself on Mount Eryx, keeping up his communication with Drepanum and tne sea, where the same tactics were repeated on both sides, and with the same w^ant of success on the part of the Romans. But the Carthaginian admiral having been totally defeated off the ^Egates islands, 241 B. C, Hamilcar was compelled to abandon his fortress and evacuate Sicily. He was next appointed commander-in-chief of the Cartha- ginian army, and was engEiged for some time in ■wars with the neighboring tribes, which were abruptly ended by his entering upon the Spanish campaign in (probably) 236 B. C. His great aim was to found a new empire in Spain, Irom -which, as his basis, he might assail the Romans. He marched west, while the fleet under his son- in-law, Hasdmbal, cruised along the coast; he then crossed over at the strait of Gibraltar, and made war on Spain. He spent nine years in Spain, and at length, in 228 B. C, met his death on the field of battle while fighting against the Vettones. His military genius is considered scarcely inferior to that of his son Hannibal. Hamilton, Alexander, celebrated American states- man, was born in the West India island of Nevis, 1757, son of a Scotch merchant who had married a young French widow. His father soon failed in business, and Alexander, at the age of twelve, had to enter the counting-house of a rich American merchant. His extraordinary abilities, however, induced some of his friends to procure for him a better education than could be secured at home. He was accordingly sent to a grammar-school at Elizabethtown, N. J. ; and shortly afterward entered Columbia college, New York. On the first appearance of disa- ?;reement between Great Britain and her colonies, lamilton, still a schoolboy, and barely eighteen, wrote a series of papers in defense of the rights of the latter, which were at first taken for the production of the statesman Jay, and whick secured for the writer the notice and considera- tion of the popular leaders. On the outbreak of the war he obtained a commission as captain of artillery gained the confidence of Washington. was made nis aide-de-camp in 1777, and acquired the greatest influence with him as his friend and advuer. On the termination of the war he left the service with the rank of colonel, and, betaking himself to legal studies, soon became one of the most eminent lawyers in New York. In 1782 he was elected by the state of New York a repre- sentative to the continental congress; in 1786 he became a member of the New York legisla- ture; and in 1787 he was appointed one of the delegates to the convention wiiich met at Phila- delphia, for the purpose of revising the articles of confederation. In conjunction with Madison, he had the most important share in drawing up the constitution aften^ard adopted. He was a strong supporter of the federal, as opposed to the democratic party: and, along with Jay and Madison, defendea the constitution against all attacks, by a series of letters in the New York Daily Advertiser, afterward collected and pub- lished under the title of The Federalist. On the establi.shment of the new government in 1789, with Washington as president, Hamilton was appointed secretary or the treasury. The dis- order of the public credit and the lack of ofiicial accounts of the state treasury rendered this office one of peculiar difficulty. In order to reestablish public credit, he carried, in spite of much opposition, a measure for the funding of the domestic debt, founded a national bank, rearranged the system of duties, and altogether showed himself one of the greatest of American financiers. In 1795 he resigned his office, and resumed the practice of law in New York. When the war with France broke out in 1798, he was, according to the wish of Washington, made major-general of the United States army; and, on the death of Washington, he succeeded to the chief command. When peace was restored, he returned to his civil duties, but became involved in a political quarrel with Aaron Burr. This difference unhappily culminated in a duel in which Hamilton received a wound of which he died the following day, July 12, 1804. Hamilton, Allan McLane, American physician, great-grandson of General Philip Schuyler and grandson of Alexander Hamilton, was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., 1848. He was graduated at the college of physicians and surgeons, New York, 1870; became a health inspector, 1873; later was physician in charge of the New York state hospital for diseases of the nervous systenij and visiting physician to the epileptic and paralytic hospital on Blackwell's island, N. Y. : 1900-^, professor of mental diseases in Cornell university medical college, New York. He THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 753 was appointed health officer of the port of New York ia 1889. Author: Clinical Electro-Thera- peutics; Nervous Diseases; Medical Jurispru- dence; A System of Legal Medicine; Railway and Other Accidents; and many articles in medical journals. Hamilton, Most Rev. Charles, bishop of Ottawa, 1896-1909, archbishop since 1909; was bom at Hawkesbury, 1834. He was educated at Mont- real high school and University college, Oxford; D. D., Bishop's college, 1885; D. C. L., Trinity college, Toronto, 1885 ; ordained, 1857 : curate of Quebec cathedral, 1857-58; incumbent, St. Peters, Quebec, 1858-64 ; rector of St. Matthew's, Quebec, 1864-85, and bishop of Niagara, 1885-96. Hamilton, Sir William, Scottish metaphysician, was bom at Glasgow, 1788. He studied at Glasgow and Oxford, was admitted to the bar, but rarely practiced. He became, in 1821, professor of civil history at Edinburgh, and pro- fessor of logic and metaphysics there, 1836—56. From 1836, when he accepted the latter pro- fessorship, he was widely known as a philo- sophical writer. His chief books were an edition of Reid's works. Discussions in Philosophy, Literature and Education, Metaphysics, Logic, and his Lectures, published after his death. He left his library to the university of Glasgow. Died at Edinburgh, 1856. Hamilton, Sir William Bowan, British mathema- tician, inventor of quaternions, was born in Dublin, 1805. He was educated at Trinity college, Dublin, and at nineteen commenced original investigation in conical refractions. In 1827 he was appointed professor of astronomy at DubUn and Irish astronomer-royal; in 1835 he was knighted. His earlier essays connected with caustics and contact of curves grew into the Theory of Systems of Rays, which helped to confirm the undulatory theory of light. He published many important treatises and papers, and his memoir on Algebra as the Science of Pure Tim^ was one of the first steps to his great invention of quaternions. Published in 1853 a large volume of Lectures. He died in 1865. Hamlin, Hannibal, American statesman, was bom in Paris, Me., 1809. He practiced as a lawyer many years, and became a member of the state legislature. In 1842 he was elected to congress ; was United States senator from 1848 to 1857, when he was elected governor on the republican ticket, but resigned immediately on again being elected senator. In 1861 he became vice-presi- dent under Lincoln, whose views he shared. He was again senator from 1869 to 1881, when he was named minister to Spain, 1881-83. He was chiefly instrumental in passing the "Wilmot proviso" through the house of representatives. Died, 1891. Hammer, WilUam Joseph, consulting engineer, was bom in Schuylkill county. Pa., 1858; was educated in public schools of Newark, N. J., and attended the university and technical school lectures abroad. He was assistant to Edward Weston in Weston malleable nickel company, Newark, N. J., 1878; in 1880 became an assistant to Thomas A. Edison in the labora- tory at Menlo Park, N. J., and was sent to England the following year to become chief engi- neer of the English Edison company; installed in London the first central station in the world for incandescent electric lighting. For two years he was chief engineer of the German Edison cornpany, returning in 1884 to take charge of Edison's exhibits at the Franklin institute electrical exposition, the Crystal Palace electrical exposition and the Paris exposition of 1889. Was manager of the Boston Edison electric illuminating company for a year; in- stalled the 8,000-light plant 'of Ponce de Leon hotel at St. Augustine, Florida. Since 1890 ho has been engaged in practice an a consulting engineer. Member of many scientific societiM. Hammersteln {htim'-irshtin), Oscar, theater man- ager, was bom in Berlin, Germany, 1847. Hs came to the United States in 1863; invented and patented several IalH)r-8aving devices; wrote three one-act comedies in Gennan. 1868, which were produced in New York. He oecame leasee and manager of Stadt theater. New York. 1870; built Harlem opera house, 1880 ; later Columbus theater, Manhattan opera house, Olympia (now the New York) theater, Victoria theater, Belaaco theater, and New opera house. Hammond, James Bartiett, typewriter inventor, was born in Boston, 1839. He was graduatea at the university of Vermont, 1861; was news- paper correspondent during civil war; graduate of Union theological seimnary, 1865 ; studied philosophy and science at university of Halle. Germany; devoted many years to mechanical experiments; patented, 1880, a typewriting machine made on scientific principles; intro- duced "Ideal" keyboard and true alignment in the Hammond typewriter; put machine on market, 1884, and won highest honors in com- petitions. Collaborator on American translation of Lange's Commentary on The Psalms, 1884. Died, 1913. Hammond, Jolin Hays, mining engineer, was born in San Francisco, 1855. He was grs^uated at the Sheffield scientific school, Yale, 1876 ; M. A.. Yale; pursued a mining course at royal school of mines, Freiberg, Saxony. Special expert of United States geological survey, 1880, exfunining California gold fields; later in Mexico, and after- ward consulting engineer of Union iron works, San Francisco, and to Central and Southern Pacific railways. He has examined properties in all parts of the world; became consulting engineer for Bamato Bros., 1893, and later for Cecil Rhodes, of whom he became a strong 8U{>- porter. Was consulting engineer of consolidated gold fields of South Africa, British South .\frica company, and the Randfontein Estates gold niining company. Was one of four leaders in reform movement in the Transvaal, 1895-96; after Jameson raid (with which he was not in sympathy), he was arrested and sentenced to death. Sentence was afterward commuted to fifteen years' imprisonment; smd later he was released on payment of a fine of $125,000. He then went to London and became interested in many large mining companies. Has traveled extensively, examining mines in United States and Mexico. Special ambassador to coronation of King George V. of England, 1911. Hanmiond, William Alexander, American physi- cian, was born in Annapolis, Md., 1828. He was graduated from the medical department of the university of the city of New York, and entered the United States army in 1848 as assistant surgeon. In 1860 he was appointed professor of anatomy and physiology in the university of Maryland. At the' beginning of the civil war he resigned his professorship, and entered the army as an assistant surgeon. When the medical bureau was organized, in 1862, he was appointed surgeon-gener^ of the army, with the rank of brigadier-general, and served as such until 1864. In that year he was court-martialed and dis- missed from the army, but in 1878 was reinstated. He practiced his profession in New York, where he made a specialty of nervous diseases. From 1867 to 1873 he was professor in Bellevue hos- pital medical college; and from 1873 to 1882 in New York university. He published Diseasea of the Nervous System, Insanity in its Relation to Crime, On Certain Conditions of Nervou* D»- rangement, etc. Died, 1900. 764 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Hampden, John« celebrated English patriot, was born in London in 1594. He graduated at Ox- ford, studied law, and in 1621 entered the house of commons as member for the borough of Gram- pound. In lti27, for refusing to pay his pro- portion of the general loan which the king attempted to raise on his own authority, Hamp- den was committed to close imprisonment m the Gatehouse. Subsequently he was removed to Hampshire, but, with others, was uncon- ditionally liberated by order of council. After the dissolution of the parliament of 1628-29 he retired to his estate, and devoted himself to Btudy and to country sports and occupations. In the short parliament of 1640 he took a promi- nent part in the great contest between the crown and tne house of commons. To the long parlia- ment he was returned both for Wendover and the county of Buckingham. For his resistance to the king's proceedings he was one of the five members whom Charles, in 1642, rashly attempted in person to seize in the house of commons ; and on the breaking out of the civil war he raised and became colonel of a regiment in the parlia- mentary army under the earl of Essex. He was present at the repulse of the royalists at Southam, at their defeat near Aylesbury, at the fight of Edgehill, and at the assault and capture of Reading. Prince Rupert having attacked a parliamentary force at Chinnor, near Thame, Hampden put himself at the head of a few cavalry that were rallied in haste to oppose him, and in the fight that ensued at Chalgrove Field received in the first charge a wound, of which he died, 1643. Hampton, Wade, American politician and soldier, was bom at Columbia, S. C, 1818. He was a grandson of General Wade Hampton, and, though opposed to secession, he joined the con- federate army and raised a force called "Hamp- ton's legion. These troops he led with dis- tinction at the first battle of Bull Run. He subsequently served at Seven Pines, Antietam, Gettysburg, and commanded a body of cavalry in 1865. He attained the rank of lieutenant- general, and was thrice wounded. In 1877-79 he was governor of South Carolina; United States senator, 1879-91, and United States commissioner of railroaos, 1893-97. He died in 1902. Hanaford {Mn' -A-ftrd), Phebe Anne, Universalist minister, was born at Nantucket, Mass., 1829. She was the daughter of Captain Georga W. Coffin, and married, in 1849, Joseph H. Hanaford. She taught school ; edited the Ladies' Repository and The Myrtle, 1866-68; became a lecturer on literary and reform topics, and was ordained, 1868, the first woman minister ordained in New England. She held pastorates at Hingham and Waltham, Mass., New Haven, Conn., and Jersey City. Author: Life of Abraham Lin- coln; Our Martyred President (poem); Life of George Peabody; Lucretia, the Quakeress; Leonette, or Truth Sought and Found; The Best of Books and Its History; Field, Gunboat and Hospital; Women of the Century; Life of Dickens; Heart of Siasconset; From Shore to Shore and Other Poems, etc. Hancock, John, American patriot, was bom in 1737. He was one of the leaders in the revolt in Massachusetts, the seizure of his sloop. Liberty, being the occasion of a riot in Boston. He was very active in denouncing the "Boston mas- sacre," and was one of the persons whose seizure was attempted by the expedition which led to the battle of Lexington. He was president of the continental congress from 1775-77, and governor of Massachusetts, 1780-85, 1787-93, and the first signer of the declaration of inde- pendence. He presided at the constitutional convention of 1788, and favored the adoption of the proposed federal constitution. Died, 1793. Hancock, iVlnfield Scott, American general, was bom in Pennsylvania, 1824. After graduating at West Point in 1844, he served with great gallantry durine the Mexican war. Appointed brigadier-general of volunteers in 1861, he took part in the campaign on the Potomac, fought at Antietam, and commanded a corps in the battle of Gettysburg, where he was wounded. 1863. In 1804 he became brigadier-general in the regular army, in 1866 a major-general, and held from August, 1867, until March, 1868, the command of the 5th miUtary district. In 1880 he was the unsuccessful democratic nominee for president. At his death, in 1886, he was in command of the department of the East. I Handel (hdn'-dil), George Frederick. See page 164. Hanly, J. Frank, lawyer, ex-governor of Indiana, was bom in St. Joseph, 111., 1863. He was edu- cated in common schools, Champaign county, 111., taught school for nme years m Warren county, Ind., and was admitted to the bar in 1889. He practiced at WilUamsport, Ind.', 1889-06; was elected to the state senate, 1890: elected to congress, 1894, serving one term, ana was a candidate for the United States senate, 1899. He was governor of Indiana, 1906-09. Hanna, Hugh Henry, was bom at Lafayette, Ind.. 1848. He received a liberal education in Unitea States and German]^; hon. M. A., Harvard, 1900. Began business in ms father's bank at Lafayette, Ind.. removed to Indianapolis, 1880, and is now E resident of the Atlas engine works. He became ead of monetary movement that resulted in gold standard legislation; devoted three years to the work, beginning with call issued by board of trade, Indianapohs, 1896, for a monetary conference; organized the monetary commission which developed plan of currency reform, part of which was included in legislation enacted by cong|es«, 1900. Hanna, Marcus Alonio, American politician and legislator, was bom in New Lisbon, Columbiana countv, Ohio, 1837. He was educated in the Clevefand public schools and at Western Reserve university, leaving college, however, before graduation. He began his career in bis father's wholesale grocery bouse. In 1867 entered the firm of Rhodes and Company, dealers in coal and iron, and ten years later the firm name was changed to M. A. Hanna and Company. He subsequently engaged in lake transportation, banking, mining, and railroading. He was appointed to the United States senate as a repub- lican by Governor Bushnell, 1897, to fill a va- cancy caused by the resignation of John Sherman, who resigned to accept the position of secretary of state in President McKinley's cabinet, and took his seat March 5, 1897. His term of service under the appointment expired in January, 1898. and he was elected for a full term, and served until his death in 1904. He proved a remarkable political organizer, was a man of excellent judg- ment, and an effective debater. Hannibal, Carthaginian general, the famous son of Hamilcar Barca, was ^m in 247 B. C. At nine years he accompanied his father on his Spanish expedition, and before starting swore an oath of eternal hatred to the Roman name. He spent two years in contests with some tribes hitherto independent of Carthage. He attacked Sagun- tum, a city in alliance with Rome, for making aggressions on the Torboletes, subjects of Car- thage. After eight months' siege the city was taken, and the Romans, after unsuccessfully demanding the surrender of the general who had thus wantonly violated the treatv, declared war in 218 B. C. Hannibal started from New Car- thage in 218 B. C. with 90,000 foot and 12.000 THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 755 horse. The force was very much thinned by contests with the tribes between the Ibenis and the Pyrenees. From the Pyrenees he marched to the Rhone without opposition, since Scipio was at Massilia (Marseilles), four days' march from the point where Hannibal crossed the river in the face of the Celtic hordes who sided with the Romans. He effected the passage of the Alps in fifteen days, in spite of the attacks of the mountain tribes, the snow, storms, and other difficulties. He first subdued the Taurini, a hostile tribe, took their chief city after a siege of three days, and thus forced into alliance with him all the Ligurian and Celtic tribes on the upper course of the Po. Scipio, having returned from Massilia, took command of the army in the north of Italy, and first met Hannibal on the plain near the river Ticinus. The Romans were entirely routed, and Scipio, severely wounded, retreated across the Po Hannibal next inflicted a severe defeat, near Lake Thrasymene, on the consul Flaminius. He then crossed the Apen- nines to Picenum and Apulia, and thence re- crossed to the fertile Campania, which he rav- aged. He wintered in Geronium, and in June, or, according to others, in August, 216 B. C, almost annihilated a Roman army of 90,000 men under Terentius Varro and iEmilius Paulus. In this battle about 50,000 are said to have fallen, including .lEmilius Paulus. Hannibal traversed Italy in all directions, surjprised the Roman generals, defeated their armies, captured their towns, such as Casilinum, Arpi, Tarentum, Meta- pontum, Thurii, Locri, and many others; he defeated Centenius near Capua; C5n. Fulvius at Herdonea; Fulvius Flaccus on the Anio; Cris- pinuB and Marcellus in Lucania; and the besieg- ing army before Locri ; in all these cases the armies were almost annihilated. The defeat of Hasdrubal, his brother, at the river Metaurus, and the loss of his army, compelled Hannibal to confine himself to the mountainous peninsula of Bruttium, where for four years he resisted all the efforts of the Romans to dislodge him. At length, after having maintained himself in Italy for upward of fifteen years, he was recalled to Africa, to defend his country against Scipio; but notwithstanding his utmost exertions and the bravery of his veteran troops he was defeated near Zama with a loss of 20,000 men, 202 B. C. The surrender of Hannibal was one of the con- ditions of peace; but, foreseeing such a result, he fled to Bithynia, and, seeing no hope of escape, he committed suicide by taking poison, 183 B. C. Hapgood, Isabel Florence, author, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1851. She was educated at Worcester, Mass., and at Miss Porter's school, Farmington, Conn., 1865-68. Author: The Epic Songs o] Russia; Russian Rambles; A Survey of Russian Literature, etc. She has«made many translations of standard works from Spanish, French, Italian, and Russian authors. Hapgood, Norman, editor, author, and critic, was bom in Chicago, 111., 1868. He was graduated at Harvard, 189a, A. M., LL. B., 1893. Author: lAterary Statesmen; Daniel Webster; Abraham Lincoln; The Stage in America, etc. He was dramatic critic of New York Commercial Adver- tiser, and Bookman, 1897-1902, and was editor of Collier's Weekly, 1903-12. Harahan, James Theodore, president of Illinois Central railroad company, 1906-12; was bom at Lowell, Mass., 1843. He rose step by step ih the service of the Orange and Alexandria railroad, the Nashville and Decatur, and the Louisville and Nashville from 1864 xmtil he became general manager of the latter, 1884. He was then succes- sively assistant general manager of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern railway, general manager of the Chesapeake and Ohio, and later of the Louisville, New Orleans and Texas railway until 1890, when he became second vice-president of the Illinois Centr»l railroad. Died, 1912. Harben, William Nathaniel, American novelist, was bora at Dalton, Ga., 1858. He was educated at high schools and privately. He has traveled extensively, and was associate editor of the Youth's Companion, Boston, 1891-93. Author: White Marie; Almost Persuaded; A Mute Cor^ fessor; The Land of the Changing Sun; From Clue to Climax; The Caruthera Affair; Northern Georgia Sketches; The Woman Who Trusted; WesterfeU; Abner Daniel; The SubstittUe; The Georgians; Pole Baker; Ann Boyd; Mam' Lindy; Gilbert Need, etc. Harden berg (Adr'-den-WrK), Karl AuKUst, Prince Ton, Prussian statesman, was bom at ICssenroda in Hanover, 1760. After holding appointments in Hanover, Brunswick, Ansbach, and Bayreuth, on Bayreuth's union to Pmssia in 1791 he became a Pmssian minister, and in 1804 first Prussian minister. His policy was to preserve neutrahty in the war between France and England; but in 1806, under Napoleon's influence, he was dis- missed. In 1810 he was appointed chancellor, and addressed himself to the task of completing the reforms begun by Stein. In the war of libera- tion he played a prominent part, and after the treaty of Paris, in 1814, was made a prince. He took part in the congress of Vienna, and in the treaties of Paris. He reorganized the council of state, of which he was ap]>ointed president, and drew up the new Prussian system of imposts. To Hardenberg Prussia is mainly indebted for the improvements in her army system, the abo- lition of serfdom and the privileges of the nobles, the encouragement of municipalities, and the reform of education. Died, 1822. Hardie (har'-dl), James Kelr, British labor leader, member of parliament for Merthyr-Tydvil since 1900, was bom in Scotland, 1856. He was a miner near Cumnock in Ayrshire, and from 1892 to 1895 represented the independent labor party in the British parliament for South-west Ham. In 1895 he was an unsuccessful candidate for East Bradford. He was appointed editor of the Cumnock News, 1882, but resigned in 1886. He visited India and Australia, 1907; founded the Labor Leader, and has been a frequent contributor to magazines and reviews. Hardinge {h&r'-dlng), Henry, Viscount, English general, governor-general of India, was bom at Wrotham, Kent, 1785. Gazetted an ensign in 1798, he served through the peninsula war, being wounded at Viraiera and Vittoria. From 1809 to 1813 he was deputy-quartermaster- general of the Portuguese army. After Napo- leon's escape from Elba, Hardinge was appointed commissioner at the Prussian headquarters, and was severely wounded at Ligny. From 1820 to 1844 he took an active share in parUamentary life, being secretary of war under Wellington in 1828, and afterward chief secretary for Ireland. In 1844 he was appointed governor-general of India. During the nrst Sikh war he was present at the battles of Mudki, Ferozeshah, and Sobraon as second in command to Lord Gough. After the peace of Lahore in 1845 he was created a viscount, and granted a pension of 5,000 pounds by the East India company, as well as one of 3.000 pounds by parliament. Returning to England m 1848, he succeeded Wellington as commander- in-chief^ in 1852, and in 1855 was made field- marshal. He died at South Park, Timbridge Wells, 1856. Hardy, Arthur Sberbume, diplomat, author, was bom at Andover, Mass., 1847. He was graduated at West Point, 1869; sers'ed one year in 3d United States artillery; was professor of civil 766 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT engineering. Iowa college, 1871-73; studied abroad at Ecole des Fonts et Chausse^s, 1873-74 ; professor of civil engineering, 1874—78, naathe- matics, 1878-93, Dartmouth college. Was editor of the Cosmopolitan Magazine, 1893—95; United States minister and consul-general, Teheran, Persia, 1897-99; minister of United States to Greece, Rumania, and Servia, 1899-1901; to Switzerland, 1901-03, and to Spain, 1903-05. Author: Elements of Quaternions; Elements of Calculus; Elements of Analytic Geometry; New Methods in Topographical Surveying; Imaginary Quantities; also the following novels: But Yet a Woman; Wind of Destiny; Passe Rose. He also wrote Life and Letters of Joseph H. Neesima; Songs of Two (poems); His Daughter First, etc. Hardy, Thomas, English novelist, though educated as an architect, was born in Dorsetshire, 1840. The scenes of his novels are chiefly laid in the south of England, the early Wessex. His chief works are: Desperate Remedies; Under the Greenwood Tree; Far From the Madding Crowd; The Return of the Native; The Trumpet Major; The Woodlanders; The Mayor of Casterbridge; Wessex Tales; Teas of the D'Urbervilles; Life's Little Ironies; Jude the Obscure; The Pursuit of the Well-Beloved; Wessex Poems; Poems of the Past and the Present; The Dynasts, a drama, etc. Hare, Augustus John Cuthbert, English author, was born in Romcj 1834. He was educated at Harrow and at Umversity college, Oxford. He wrote the famous and often reprinted Walks in Rome; Wanderings in Spain; Days near Rome; Cities of Northern and Central Italy; Walks in London; Cities of Southern Italy and Sicily; Sussex, etc. Other works are nls delightful biography of Maria Edgeworth ; Memorials of a Quiet Life, Life and Letters of Baroness Bunsen, Two Noble LiveSj etc. Died, 1903. Hare, John, English actor, was bom in London, 1844. lie was educated at Giggleswick grammar school, Yorkshire, and obtained an engagement at a London theater, 1865. In 1875 he became manager of the Court theater, and 1879-88 maintained a partnership with W. H. Kendal. From 1889 to 1895 his tenancy of the Garrick theater was important for his production of La Tosca and A Pair of Spectacles, the latter possibly his greatest success. He visited the United States, 1896-97, and again in 1900 Harg^reaves {h&r'-grevz), James, English mechanic and inventor, was bom probably at Blackburn, England, about 1745. He was an illiterate weaver and carpenter of Stanhill near that town. In 1760 he invented a carding-machine, and about 1764 the spinning-jermy. But his fellow- spinners, prejudiced against machinerj', broke into his house and destroyed his frame in 1768. He removed to Nottingham, where he erected a spinning-mill, but his patent proved invalid. He continued to carry on business as a yam manufacturer until his death in 1778. Harkness {h&rk^-nis), Albert, American classical scholar, was bom at Mendon, Mass., 1822. He was graduated at Brown imiversity in 1842, studied at Berlin, Bonn, and Gottingen, and became professor of Greek in Brown vmiversity in 1855. He published a series of Latin classics, and a standard Latin Grammar which has been widely used. Died, 1907. Harlan (h&r'-lan), John Marshall, jurist, associate justice of the United States supreme court, 1877-1911; was bom in Boyle county, Ky., 1833. He was graduated at Centre college, Kv., 1850; LL. D., Bowdoin, 1883, Centre college, and Princeton, 1884. Studied law at Tran- sylvania university, practiced at Frankfort, Ky. ; was elected county judge, 1858; then whig candidate for congress in Ashland district, 1859; elector on Bell and Everett ticket, 1860; removed to Louisville in 1867 and practiced law there. Colonel of 10th Kentucky regiment in Union army, 1861-63; attorney-general of Ken- tucky, 1863-67; returned to practice; republi- can nominee for governor, 1871; def eatecl then and again in 1875; his name was presented by republican convention of Kentucky for vice- E resident of United States in 1872; member of ouisiana commission, 1877; one of American arbitrators on Bering sea tribunal which met in Paris, 1893; was vice-moderator of the general assembly of the Pre8b>'terian church in 1905; for more than twenty years, was lecturer on constitutional law in George Washington univer- sity. Died. 1911. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford and Mortimer, British statesman, was born in 1661. He entered parliamcnit which met under the chieftainship of Rochester and Godolphin in 1(J89, and in 1701, was, by a large majonty, elected speaker. He retained this poet until 1704, when he became secretary of state. The principal act of his administration was the treaty of Utrecht. Having ceased to pay court to Lady Masham. Bolingbroke succeeded in getting him dismissed in 1714. Lord Oxford was dismissed on a Tuesday — Bolingbroke became premier — and Queen Anne died on the next Sunday. Both of the rivals, formerly colleagues, were justly sus- pected of having conspired to restore the Stuarts on the death of the queen. When George I. was proclaimed, Bolingbroke fied to France, but Oxford remained to meet his fate. He wsis sent to the Tower, and after two years' imprisonment brought to trial. The two houses quarreled as to the mode of procedure, and the commons having in anger refused to take any part in the trial, he was acquitted and released. He spent the remainder of his life in retirement. Died, 1724. Harmon, Judson, American lawyer and statesman, was bom in Hamilton county, Ohio, 1846. He was graduated at Denison university, 1866, and from the Cincinnati law school, 1809; LL. D., Denison, 1891. He was judge of common pleas court, 1876-78; superior court of Cincinnati. 1878-88; was attorney - general of the United States, 1895-97; resumed practice; president of Ohio bar association, 1897-98; member of faculty law department, university of Cincinnati, since 1896. In 1908 he was elected governor of Ohio. He was reelected in 1910. Harmsworth (hArmz'-unirth), Sir Alfred Charles William, Lord Northchfife, first baron of the isle of Thanet, was bom in Chapelizod, county of Dublin, 1865. He founded, 1888, the weekly periodical Answers, which had an immediate success. He bought the London News in 1894, two years later founded the Daily Mail. He subsequently founded the Glasgow Daily Record, and acquired the Leeds Mercury and the Bir- mingham Gazette. He visited the United States in 1900 and 1909, and in 1905 was elevated to the peerage as Lord Northclifife. Hamack (har'-ndk), Adolf, the foremost of living church historians; professor of theology and general director of royal library, Berlin; was bom in Dorpat, Russia, 1851; educated at the university there, 1869-72; became privat- docent at Leipzig, 1874; professor extra- ordinary of church history there in 1876; ordinary professor of church history at Giessen, 1879, at Marburg in 1886 and at BerUn in 1889. He is a man of strong and inspiring personality, and his lectures are attended by hundreds of students from Europe and America. Is the author of many standard works on theology, the most important of which are his Das Wesen des ChristerUum^, translated "What is Christian- ity?" and the Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, translated "History of Dogma." THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 767 Hamed (h^-nid), Tlr^rlnia, American actress, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1868; joined George Clark's company at sixteen and appeared as Lady Despar in the Corsican Brotncrs. She made her d^but at Fourteenth street theater, 1890, in A Lonq Lane, or Green Meadows. She was engaged as leading woman for E. H. Sothem under Daniel Frohman's management; subse- quently played leading r61es in A. M. Palmer's stock company. Created the title r61e in Trilby, Park theater, Boston, 1895, and starred in that play one season. She married E. H. Sothem in 1896, and subsequently appeared in leading parts in his company. In 1913 she married W. Courtenay. Haroun al Raschid (Aa-r', 1883-99. Preacher to Dartmouth college, 1894- 99; to Harvard^ 1897-99. Author: Moral Evolution, Inequality and Progress, etc., and was one of the editors of Andover Review, 1884-93. Harris, James Rendel, English biblical scholar, director of studies at the Friends' settlement for social and religious study, Woodbrooke, near Birmingham, England, since 1903, was bom at Plymouth. He was graduated at Clare college, Cambridge; was professor at Johns Hopkins university, 1882-85; professor at Haverford college, 1886-92; university lecturer in palaeog- raphy, Cambridge, 1893-1903; professor of theology, university of Leyden, 1903-04 ; presi- dent Free church council, 1907-08. He has traveled extensively in the East in search of MSS. Author: Tfie Teaching of the Apostles and the Sibylline Books; Fragments of Philo; The Teach- ing of the Apostles; Biblical Fragments from Mount Sinai; The Diatessaron; The Apology of Aristides; Some Syrian and Palestinian Inscrip- tions; Stichometry; Union with God; The Gospel of the Twelve Apostles; Tract on Triune Nature of God; The Guiding Hand of God; The CuU of the Heavenly Twins, etc. Harris, Joel Chandler, American author, was bom in Eatonton, Ga., 1848. He served apprentice- ship to printing trade, and was one of tne editors of the Atlanta Constitution twenty-five years. Author: Uncle Remus: His Songs and Hie Say- ings; Nights with Unde Remus; Unde Remus and His Friends; Mingo; Little Mr. Thimble- finger; On the Plantation; Daddy Jake, the Runaway; Balaam and His Master; Mr. Rabbit at Home; The Story of Aaron; Sister Jane; Free Joe; Stories of Georgia; Aaron in the Wild Woods; Tales of the Home Folks; Georgia, From the In- vasion of De Soto to Recent Times; Evening Tales; Stories of HoTne Folks; Chronicles of Aunt Minerva Ann; On the Wings of Occasion; The Making of a Statesman; Gabriel ToUiver; Wally Wanderoon; A Little Union Scout; The Tar Baby Story and other Rhymes of Uncle Remus, etc. Died, 1908. Harris, William Torrey, American educator and philosophical writer. United States commissioner of education, 1889-1906, was bom at North Killingly, Conn., 1835. He entered Yale with 758 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the class of 1858, but did not graduate; Ph. D., Brown, 1893; univeraity of Jena, 1899; LL. D., university of Miaeouri, 1870, university of Pennsylvania, 1894; Yale, 1895; Princeton, 1896; was superintendent, 1867-80, St. Louis public schools; resigned because of failing health; settled at Concord, Mass., and became lecturer at school of philosophy. Established, in St. Louis, 1867, Journal of Speculative Philos- ophy; was chief editor of the Appleton school readers ; later edited Appleton s educational series. Edited department of philosophy in Johnson's Cyclopceaia, writing many important articles; and was editor-in-chief of Webster's International Dictionary. Author: Introduction to the Study of Philosophy; The Spiritual Sense of Dante's Divina Comrnedia; Hegel's Logic, A Book on the Genesis of the Categories of the Mind, and Psychologic Foundation of EdvJcation. He died in 1909. Harrison, Benjamin, lawyer, twenty-third presi- dent of the United States, was born in North Bend, Ohio, 1833. He was a great-grandson of Benjamin Harrison, signer of the declaration of independence, and grandson of William Henry Harrison, ninth president of the United States. He was graduated at Miami university, 1852; studied law in Cincinnati; removed to Indian- j apolis, Ind., in 1854, and laid the foundation of a fine legal practice; entered the Union army in 1862, serving with consnicuous gallantry in the Atlanta campaign, finally returning to civil life at the close of the war with the rank of brevet brigadier-general; was the republican candidate for governor of Indiana in 1876, but was defeated : entered the United States senate in 1881, ana in 1888 was nominated for the presidency of the United States; elected in the ensuing November, and inaugurated, 1889. His administration was quiet, successful, and measurably jxjpular. It was marked by the amicable settlement of the trouble with Chile and by the passage of the McKinley tariff bill. In 1892 he received again the nomination in the national republican con- vention, but by this time the able and persistent attacks of the democracy on the hi^h tariff pohcy led to a general revulsion against it, and he was defeated at the election by Grover Cleveland. He thereupon pursued a private law practice, occasionally giving public addresses. He died in Indianapolis, Ind., 1901. Harrison, Charles Custis, American educator, provost university of Pennsylvania, 1895-1911. was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1844. He was graduated at the university of Pennsvlvania, 1862; LL. D., Columbia, 1895, Princeton, 1896, Yale, 1901. Was in active business as a manu- facturer, 1863-92. He has been a trustee since 1876, and was acting provost, 1894-95, university of Pennsylvania. Member American philosophi- cal society, Pennsylvania historical society, Phi Beta Kappa, etc., and is the author of series of annual reports, addresses, etc., on edu- cational topics. Harrison, Constance Cary (Mrs. Burton Harrison), author, was born in Fairfax county, Va., 1846, daughter of Archibald Cary. She was educated by private governesses, lived in Richmond, Va., during civil war, and then went abroad with widowed mother to complete her studies in music and languages. She married Burton Harrison, lawyer, and has since resided in New York. Has traveled in Europe, Asia, Africa, and spent much time in London, Paris, and other capitals. Author: Golden Rod, an Idyl of Mt. Desert; Woman's Handiwork; Old Fashioned Fairy Books; Folk and Fairy Tales; Bar Harbor Days; The Anglomaniacs; Flower-de- Hundred; Sweet BeUs Out of Tune; Crow's Nest and BeUhaven Tales; A Daughter of the South; A Bachelor Maid; An Errant Wooing; A Son of the Old Dominion; Good Americans; A Triple Entangle- ment; A Russian Honeymoon, a play adapted from the French; Little Comedies for Amateur Acting; The Circle of a Century; A Princess of the Hills; a play. The Unwelcome Mrs. Hatch; Latter-Day Sweethearts, etc. Harrison, Francis Burton, lawyer, ex-congressman, W£is born in New York city, 1873. He was gradu- ated from Yale, 1895, from New York law school, 1897, and was instructor at New York niKht law school, 1897-99. During the war with Spain he was a private, troop A, New York volunteer cavalry, and captain and adjutant-general. United States volunteers. Was elected to the fifty-eighth congress from the thirteenth New York district; was democratic candidate for lieutenant-governor of New York, 1904. He was elected to the sixtieth, sixty-first, and sixty-second congresses from the sixteenth district, and again to the sixty-third congress from the twentieth district. Harrison, Frederic English essayist and philosophi- cal writer, was bom in London, 1831. He was educated at Wadham college, Oxford, became fellow and tutor of his college, and was called to the bar in 1858. He practiced conveyancing and in the courts of equity, sat on the roytJ commission upon trades-unions, 1867-69, served as Mcretary to the commission on the digest of the law, 1869-70, and from 1877 until 1889 was professor of jurisprudence and international law at Lincoln's Inn. A positivist cuid an advanced liberal, he has written The Meaning of History; Order and Progress; The Present and the Future; Lectures on Education; The Choice of Books; Oliver Cromwell; Annals of an old Manor House; Early Victorian Literature; William the Silent; Byzantine History, etc. From 1889 to 1893 he was an alderman of the London county council. HairlsoB* tmaiM All>ert, American philologist, educator, was bom at Pass Christian, Miss., 1848. He was gp'aduated at the university of Vimnia, 1868; studied in Germany, 1871; L. H. D., Columbia, 1887; LL. D., Washington and Lee university, and Randolph-Macon col- lege, Va. ; professor of Latin and modem lan- guages, Randolph-Macon college, 1871-76; pro- fessor of Englisn and modern languages, Wash- ington and Lee, 1876-95; professor of English and romance languages, 1895; later professor Teutonic languages, university of Virginia; was lecturer on Anglo-Saxon poetry, Johns Hop- kins. Author: Group of Poets and Their Haunts; Greek VigriHtes; Spain in Profile; French Syntax; Ifistory of Spain; Story of Greece; Autrefois, a collection of Creole tales; Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon Poetry (with W. M. Baskervill), etc. Editor of Beowulf; Heine's Reisebilder; Library of Anglo-Saxon Poetry (5 vols.); Mme. De S6vign6's Letters; Comeille's NicorrMe; E. A. Poe's complete works (17 vols.). Joint author of Anglo-Saxon Reader; Anglo- Saxon Dictionary; Easy French Lessons; Life of George Washington. One of editors of Century Dictionary and Standard Dictionary. Died, 1911. Harrison, John, British inventor of the chronom- eter, was bom at Foulby near Pontefract, 1693. By 1726 he had constructed a time keeper with compensating apparatus for correcting errors due to variations of climate. In 1713 the gov- ernment had offered three prizes for the dis- covery of a method to determine the longitude accurately. After long perseverance Harrison made a chronometer which, in a voyage to Jamaica in 1761-62, determined the longitude within eighteen geographical miles. After fur- ther trials, he was awarded the largest prize of 20,000 pounds. He also invented the gridiron pendulum, the going fusee, and the remontoir THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 7» escapement. Ho wrote five works on his chro- nometer, etc. Died, 1776. HarrisoB, William Henry, ninth president of the United States, was born in Virginia, 1773, son of Benjamin Harrison, who signed the declaration of independence. On the death of his father he joined, m 1791, as ensign, the army which Wayne was leading against the Indians of the Northwest. He left the army in 1798; in 1801 he became governor of Indiana territory, and as its repre- sentative in congress succeeded in passing a law relating to the sale of the federal land in small parcels, to which the western states ascribe much of their prosperity. In the war against the Indians in 1811, and which soon became also a war against the English in Canada, Harrison, as commander-in-chief of the American army, showed great military talent. He defeated the Indians in an important battle at Tippecanoe, and by the victory of Perry on Lake Erie was enabled to pursue the British invaders into Canada, where, in 1813, he totally routed them in the battle of the Thames. In 1814 he resigned his comimission; in 1816 he was elected to con- gress, and in 1824 became a member of the United States senate. In 1828 he went as ambassador to Colombia, but was recalled in 1829, and the following few years he spent in retirement as clerk in a county court in Ohio. The whig party tried in vain to make him presi- dent of the United States in 1836, and succeeded in 1840. He died, 1841, after serving one month. Hart, Albert Bushnell, American educator and historian, was bom in Clarksville, Pa., 1854. He was graduated at Harvard, 1880; Ph. D., Frei- burg, Baden, 1883; LL. D., Richmond college, 1902. From 1897 to 1910 he was professor of history, professor of government since 1910, Harvard university. Author : Introdtiction to the Study of Federal Government; Evoch Maps; Formation of the Union; Practiced Essays on American Government; Studies in American Edu- cation; Guide to the Study of American History (with Edward Channing) ; Salmon Portland Chase; Handbook of the History, Diplomacy, and Government of the United States; Foundations of American Foreign Policy; Actual Government; Essentials of American History. Editor: E'pochs of American History (3 vols.) ; American History Told by Contemporaries (4 vols.); American Citizen Series; Source-Book of American History; Source Readers in American History (4 vols.); The American Nation, etc. Joint editor: Ameri- can History Leaflets, 1895-1910; since 1910, Cyclopcedia of American government. Hart, James McDougal, American landscape painter was bom in Kilmarnock, Scotland, 1828. When a child he removed with his family to America, and lived at Albany, N. Y. About 1851 he went to Diisseldorf and studied painting for a year. He returned to Albany and later removed to New York city, where he continued to reside. He was made an academician in 1859. His pic- tures are admired for their harmony of color and quiet peacefulness of tone. The best known among them are; "Woods in Autumn"; "Moon- rise in the Adirondack^ " ; "Peaceful Homes"; "Coming Out of the Shade"; "On the March"; "Among Friends"; "Threatening Weather": "Indian Summer"; "A Misty Morning." Died at Brooklyn, N. Y., 1901. Hart, Joel T., American sculptor, was bom in Kentucky, 1810. He learned the mason's trade, educated himself, and while working as a stone- cutter at Lexington he began modeling busts in clay. He soon attained a phenomenal success in portrait busts, and on receiving a commission for a marble statue of Henry Clay, 1849, went to Florence to study and work. Brides the marble statue of Clay for Richmond, he made one of that statesman in bronse for New Orleans, and another in marble for Louisville. He executed many busts and statues of eminent men during his twenty-eight years' residence in Florence. He died in 1877, and his remains were removed from Florence to Lexington, Ky., 1884, where the state erected a monument over them. Hart, Sir Robert, British diplomat, was bom at Milltown, County Armagh, Ireland, 1835. He was educated at Queen's college, Taunton, Wee- ley college, Dublin, and Queen's college, Belfast, graduating from the last in 1853; M. A., 1871; Hon. LL. D., 1882. Entered British consular service in China, 1854; assistant, British con- sulate, Ningpo, 1855; second assistant, Brit- ish consulate. Canton, 1858; secretary to allied commissioners for the government of the city of Canton, 1858; interpreter, British COQ- sulate. Canton, 1858; granted special permission to resign and accept appointment in Chinese imperial maritime customs, 1859; officiating inspector-general, 1861-63; conmiissioner at Shanghai, with charge of Yangtze ports and Ningpo, 1863; inspector-general, 1863; gazetted mimster plenipotentiary, 1885, but declined. Author of These From the Land of Sinim, etc. Died, 1911. Hart, William, American painter, brother of James McDougal Hart, was bom in Scotland. 1823. He came to Albany, N. Y., 1831, and, like bis brother, developed a taste for landscape painting, and in 1848 exhibited a specimen of nis work in the national academy of design in New York. In 1849 he returned to his native country for study. On returning to America he settled in New York, and soon became an academician. For several years he was president of the Brook- lyn academy of design. Some of his most notable works are: "The Last Gleam"; "The Golden Hour"; "Opening in the Elands"; "Up the Glen in the White Mountains" ; "Sunset in Dark Harbor, New Brunswick." He was one of the founders, and for some years president of the water-color society, and was himself eminent in that branch of art. He was remarkable for lumi- nous brilliancy of coloring, particularly in skiea. Died, 1894. Harte (hart), Francis Bret, American writer, was bom in Albany, N. Y., 1839. He was at different times a miner, school teacher, printer, and editor. From 1864 to 1870 he was in San Francisco as 8ecretar3' of the United States mint, and, in 1870, he pubUshed The Heathen Chinee. He was named American consul at Crefeld in 1878, at Glasgow in 1880, and after leaving the latter in 1885, lived in London. Chief among his works are Condensed Novels; The Luck ^ Roarina Camp and Other Sketches; Poetical Works; Talea of the Argonauts; The Twins of Table Mountain and Other Stories; By Shore and Sedge; A Mil- lionaire of Rough and Ready; Devil's Ford; A Ward of the Golden Gate, etc. Died, 1902. Hartley, Sir Charles Augustus, British engineer, engineer-in-chief and consulting engineer to the European commission of the Danube, 1866- 1907, was bom at Heworth, in Durham, 1825. He served in Crimea as captain in the Anglo- Turkish contingent, 1855-56, and in 1867 reported to foreign office on important questions of engi- neering connected with the river Scheldt. In the same year he designed plans for the enlargement of the j)ort of Odessa, for which he was awarded the emperor of Russia's grand competition prize of 8,000 silver mbles. He was appointed member of a board of engineers to report on the improvement of the Mississippi, 1875; was nominated by the British government member of international technical commission of Sues canal, 1884, and served until 1907; has been consulted at various periods by the Indian, 760 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Austrian, Russian, Egyptian, Rumanian, and Bulgarian governments on the improvement of the Hugh below Calcutta, and harbor of Madras, the enlargement of the port of Trieste, the con- solidation of the Nile Barrage below Cairo, the improvement of the Don and Dnieper, and on commercial harbors of Constanza, Bourgas, and Varna. Author: Delta of the Dantibe; Ptiblic Works in the United States and Canada; Inland Navigations in Europe; History of the Engineering Works of the Suez Canal, etc. Hartley, David, British philosopher, was bom near Halifax, 1705. A clergyman's son, at fifteen he entered Jesus college, Cambridge, and in 1727 became a fellow. lie studied for the church, but, dissenting from some points in the thirty-nine articles, abandoned his mtention. In his mature years he impugned the eternity of hell-punish- ment; in all other points he remained a devout member of the church of England. As a medical practitioner he attained considerable eminence at Newark, Bury St. Edmunds, London, and Bath. His chief work is Observations on Man. Died, 1757. Hartmann, Karl Robert Eduard tod, German philosopher, was born at Berlin, 1842. He nerved as an artillery officer, 1860-65, but from 1867 until his death lived in Berlin, working out his philosophical scheme, a synthesis of Hegel, Schelling, and Schopenhauer, in which "the Unconscious" plays tne r61e ol^ creator and prov- idence. His great work was The Philosophy of the Unconscious, followed by books on the ethical consciousness, the development of the religious consciousness, German a!8thetics, Lotre, anil Kant, besides a work on the self-destruction of Christianity, criticisms of neo-Kantianism and contemporary philosophies, defenses of his o'wn system, and political and educational treatises. A pessimist as regards the ine\'itable misery of existence, he was an optimist as champion of evolutionary progress. He died in 1906. Harvard, John, founder of Harvard collie, was born in Southwark, England, 1607. He was fraduated at Emmanuel college, Cambridge, Ingland, 1631 ; married and came to America. 1637 ; was made a freeman of Massachusetts, and §iven a tract of land in Charlestown, where he egan preaching as a Congregational minister. In his will he bequeathed about 750 pounds and 320 volumes from his library for the establish- ment of a college. He died at Charlestown. Mass., 1638. A granite monument was erectetl over his remains in Charlestown, 1828, and a memorial statue on the delta at the university was unveiled in 1884. Harvey, George Brinton McClellan, editor of the North American Review, and Harper's Weekly: was bom in Peacham, Vt., 1864. He was edu- cated at Peacham academy; was consecutively reporter on the Springfield Republican, Chicago News, and the New York World; was later managing editor of the New York World, insur- ance commissioner. New Jersey, colonel and aide-de-camp of Governors Green and Abbett, New Jersey. He was the constructor and pres- ident of various electric railroads, 1894-98, and bought the North American Review in 1899. He has been president of Harper and Brothers since 1900, and bought the Metropolitan Maga- zine, 1903. He was made honorarv doctor of la"«^s by Erskine college. South Carolina, 1905, and by the university of Nevada, 1908. Was Bromley lecturer on journalism at Yale, 1908. Harvey, William. See page 354. Hase (hd'-zS), Karl August von, German theologian, was born at Steinbach in Saxony, 1800. He was expelled from Erlangen university for his con- nection with the political " Burschenschaften," became m 1823 tutor at Tubingen, but after a new trial was imprisoned for ten months. From 1830 to 1883 he was professor of theology at Jena, after which he was ennobled. His chief writings are : Des Alten Pfarrers Testament; Handbook of Dogmatics; Gnosis; Life of Jesus; Church His- tory; Francis of Assiai; Handbook of Protestant Polemical Theology; Life of St. Catharine of Siena; and lectures on church history. Die^, 1890. Haskell, Charies Nathaniel, governor of Oklahoma, 1907-11, was born in Putnam county, Ohio, 186t). He was reared on a farm, taught school and read law, and was admitted to the bar in 1881. He began practice at Ottawa, Ohio; engaged in rail- way building and other construction work, 1888 ; went to Muskogee, I. T., 1901, and built many lines of railroad there. Was member of Oklahoma constitutional convention, and was elected first governor of the state of Oklahoma, 1907. Hassall (h&a'-al), Arthur, British historical writer, was bom at Bebington, Cheshire, 1853. He wa» graduated at Trinity college, Oxford; was lecturer and tutor of Keble college, 1880-83; student of Christ Church, 1884 ; censor of Christ Church, 1894-95, and student and tutor since 1895. Author: Life of Bolingbroke; Louis XIV.; A Handbook of European History; The Balance of Power; A Close Book of Enalish His- tory; History o^ France; The French People; Maxarin; The Tudor Dynasty: War and Reform; The Expansion of Great Britain^ etc. HsBamin, Chllde, American artist, was bom in 1859. He was educated in Boston public schools, and studied art in Boston and Paris, 1886-89. He has exhibited widely in this country and in Europe, and follows generally the methods of the French impressionist school. His pictures are represented in the collections of the Pennsyl- vania academy of fine arts; Carnegie institute, Pittsburih; Cincinnati museum; Corcoran art gallery, Washington ; Boston art club, etc. HastlnKS, Warren* English statesman and adminis- trator in India, was bom in 1732. He went to Bengal as a writer in 1750, and was seven year* later appointed agent of the East India company at the court of the nabob of Bengal. In 1764 he returned to England, where he remained four years stuiU-ing Eastern literature. On his return to tndia he became a member of the council of Madras, and in 1772 governor of Bengal, a position which, in 1774, became that of governor-general of India. He was now involved in quarrels with his council, and sent in his resignation, which, however, when accepted, he disavowed. The supreme court decided in his favor, and he was reappointed. During hi» first term of office he sold the vale of RohJlcund to Siraj-ud Dowlah and obtained the execution of Nuncomar, his enemy. During his second term, in order to obtain money, he took those measures against the rajah of Benares and the nabob of Oude which were afterward charged against him, but left the affairs of the company in a very prospterous condition. Three years after his return he was impeached before the lords for high crimes and misdemeanors, but, after a trial which proceeded at intervab for seven years, and in spite of the eloquence of Burke and Sheridan, he was acquitted in 1795. He was ruined by the expense, but was granted an annuity by the court of directors. To him the British government is largely indebted for its political and judicial organization in India- and its method of Indian administration. Died, 1818. Hauff (houf), Wilhelm, German novelist, was bom at Stutt"gart, 1802. He studied at Tiibingen, was for two years a tutor, and had been editor of a paper for nearly a year when he died, 1827. His MOrchen and his Novellen are admirable for THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 761 their simplicity and playful fancy. His other works include: Die Bettlerin vom Pont dea Arts; Das BUd des Kaisers; lAchtenstein, an iniitation of Scott; and Mitteilungen atia den Memoir en des Satans, a story rich in satiric humor. Hanpt (houpt\ l/ewls Muhlenbergt American civil engineer, was bom at Gettysburg, Pa., 1844. He attended the Lawrence scientific school. Harvard, and graduated at the United States military academy, 1867. He was Ueutenant- engineer in lake surveys, 1868; engineer officer of the 5th military district Texas, 1869; pro- fessor civil engineering, university of Pennsyl- vania, 1872-92. Member of the Nicaragua canal commission, 1897-99; Isthmian canal commis- sion, 1899-1902; president Colombia Cauca arbitration, 1897; chief engineer survey for ship canal across New Jersey, 1894; consulting engineer of Lake Erie and Ohio River ship canal, etc. He edited T}ie American Engineering Register, 1885-86. Author: Engineering Speci- fications and Contracts; The Topographer — His Methods and Instruments; Physical Phenomena of Harbor Entrances; Special Report on Railway Plant of Paris Exposition; Canals and Their Economic Relation to Transportation; A Move for Better Roads; and a number of pamphlets and other contributions to engineering. Haupt, Paul, philologist, professor of Semitic languages and director of oriental seminary, Johns Hopkins, since 1883, was born at Gorlitz, Germany, 1858. He was graduated at Gymna- sium Augustum, Gorlitz, 1876; university of Leipzig, Ph. D., 1878; LL. D., university of Glasgow, 1902; post-graduate studies at Leipzig and Berlin universities, and British museum. He was tutor at the university of Gottingen, 1880-83; professor extraordinarius of Assvri- ology, same, until 1889. Editor: The Poly- chrome Bible, New Critical Edition of Hebrew Text of the Old Testament. Co-editor: The Assyriological Ldbrary; The Johns Hopkins CorUriinUions to Assyriology and Comparative Semitic Grammar. Author: The Sumerian Family Laws; Akkadian and Sumerian Cunei- form Texts in British Museum; The Babylonian Nimrod Epic; The Cuneiform Account of the Deluge; The Akkadian Language; Koheleth; The Book of Canticles; The Book of Ecclesi- astes; and numerous papers on biblical and Assyrian philology, history and archaeology, comparative Semitic grammar, Sumerian, etc. Hauptmann, Gerhart, German dramatic poet, was born in Salzbrunn, Silesia, 1862. At eighteen he decided to become a sculptor and entered the royal college of art, Breslau. In 1882 he went to the university of Jena, and spent most of 1883 and 1884 in Italy. Settled in Berlin in 1885, devoting himself to literary work. He has writ- ten: Vor Sonnenaufgang ; Das Friedensfest; Ein- same Menschen; Die Weber; Kollege Crampton; DerBiberpelz; FlorianGeyer ; Fuhrmann Henschel; Rose Berndt; Die Versunkene Glocke, and Und Pippa Tanzt. Received Nobel prize for litera- ture, 1912. Haussmajin {o^-m&n'), Georges Eugfine, French magistrate, was bom in Paris, 1809. He entered the public service, and under Napoleon III. became prefect of the Seine in 1853. He then began his task of improving Paris by widening streets, laying out boulevards and parks, building bridges, etc. For these services he was made baron and senator; but the heavy burden of debt laid upon the citizens led to his dismissal in 1870. In 1871 he was appointed director of the Cr6dit Mobilier, and in 1881 was elected to the chamber of deputies. He died, 1891. Havelock (hdv'-ldk), Sir Henry, English general, was bom at Bishop-Wearmouth, in Durham, 1795. He entered the army a month or two after the battle of Waterloo, went to India in 1823, and honorably distinguished himself in the Afghan and Sikh wars. In 1866 he commanded a division of the army that invaded Persia. While absent in that country news arrived of the Indian mutiny, and he hastened to Calcutta. He was directea to organize a small movable column at Allahabad, and to push on to the relief of the British at Cawnjjore and Lucknow. He made a forced march to Futtehpur, where, at the head of 2,000 men, he engaged and broke the rebels. Ho continued his march upon Cawnpore, and twice defeated the enemy. The consequence of the latter victory was the massacre of all the Euro- pean women and children in the hands of Nana Sahib. After fighting eight battles with the rebels, in all of which ne was victorious, his little army found itself so thinned by fatigue and sickness that it was obliged to retire upon Cawn- pore. Early in September, General Outram arrived with reenforcements. and Havelock again advanced to the relief oi Lucknow. Out- ram, with chivalrous generosity, refusing to take the command out of his hands, Havelock and his column, with desperate bravery, fought their way through streets of houses, each forming a separate fortress, until they gained the British residency, to the indescribable joy of the be- leagured garrison. The victorious army were now in turn besieged, but held their own until November, when Sir Colin Campbell (Lord Clyde) forced his way to their rescue. After the relief of Lucknow Havelock was attacked by dysentery, and died in 1857. Haven, Erastus Otis, bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church, was bom in Boston, 1820. He was a graduate of Wesleyan university at Middletown, Conn.; held a professor's chair at Amenia seminary for two years, and was engaged in pastoral work from 1848-53, when he accepted a professorship in the university of Michigan. He became editor of Zion's Herald, in Boston, 1856, and left in 1863 to become president of the university of Michigan. He resigned his office to accept a similar position in the Northwestern university at Evanston, III., 1869. and remained there for three years. In 1874 he was elected chancellor of Syracuse university. Elected bishop at general conference, 1880. Died, 1881. Haven, Joseph, American clergyman and educator, was bom in Massachusetts, 1816. He was graduated at Amherst, studied in Union theologi- cal seminary, and graduated at Andover theologi- cal seminary, 1839. After officiating as pastor in Congregational churches in Brookline and Ashland, Mass., he was chosen professor of moral and mental philosophy in Amherst college in 1850, and from 1858-70 occupied the chair of systematic theology in Chicafjo theological semi- nary. In 1870 he traveled in Europe and the East. In 1874 he was professor of mental and moral philosophy in Chicago university. He pub- lished Menial Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, &nd Studies in Philosophy and Theology. Died, 1874. Hawkins, Anthony Hope, English novelist, waa bom in London, 1863. He waa graduated from Balliol college, Oxford; received his M. A. there; and was admitted as a barrister of the Middle Temple, 1887. Author: The Prisoner of Zenda; The God in the Car; The Dolly Dialogues; Ru- pert of Hentzau; The King's Mirror; Quisanti; Tristram of Blent; The Intrusions of Peggy; Double Harness; A Servant of the Public; Sophie of Kravonia; Tale* of Two People; The Great Miss Driver, etc. Plays: The Adventure of Lady Ursula, Pilkerton's Peerage, etc. Hawthorne, Julian, American novelist, journalist, historical writer, biographer, was bom in Boston, 1846. He was educated at Harvard, 762 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT and at Dresden, Germany; lived in Europe, 1853-60; at Concord and Cambridge, Mass., 1860-68; Dresden. Germany, 1868-69; New York city, as hydrographic engineer in dock department, 1869-71; Dresden, 1871-73; Lon- don and neighborhood, 1874-81 ; New York, 1881-89; Europe, 1889; New York, 1890-94; Jamaica, West Indies, 1894-97; India, 1897; New York, 1898 to present; but he has not §racticed as engineer since 1871. He has written: axon Studies; Garth; Archibald Malmaison; Sebastian Strome; Dust; Fortune's Fool; Sinfire; Biography of Nathaniel Hawthorne; History of Oregon; History of United States (3 vols.); History of American Literature; Foci of Nature ($10,000 prize novel); Love is a Spirit; Haw- thorne arid His Circle; and many others. He was reviewer on London Spectator', 1877-81, and literary editor New York World, 1885. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, celebrated American novel- ist, was born at Salem, Mass., 1804. He was graduated at Bowdoin college in 1825, and three years later published his first novel, Fanshawe. He then wrote a number of stories for the jour- nals, which he afterward collected in 1837, and published under the title of Twice-told Talea, a second volume of which appeared in 1842. In 1843 he took up his residence at the charming village of Concord, in a manse which hat! formerly been the dwelling of Emerson, and which sug- gested the title of his next work. Mosses from an Old Manse, published in 1843. These sketchs, in which he gives some interesting recollections of his boyhood, first matle his name known in Europe. In 1842 he published The Liberty Tree, and m 1845 The Journal of an African Cruiser. After a three years' residence at Concord he accepted a situation in the custom-house at Salem, and removed to that city. This, how- ever, did not stop his literary work. The Scarlet Letter appeared m 1850, and was received with universal approbation, as was likewise The House of the Seven Gables, published in 1851. His Blithedale Romance, published in 1852, may be regarded as a kind ot autobiography so far as it goes, and is founded on incidents in his own Bfe. In 1853 he received the appointment of consul at Liverpool from his friend and class- mate, President Pierce, whose life he haul written. He resided in Liverpool discharging the duties of his office for five years, and afterward went to Italy to recruit his impaired health — a journey which furnished him with material for his fan- tastic romance, The Marble Faun, generally regarded as one of the best of his works. After his return to America he published a sketch of England and the English. He died suddenly at Plymouth, N. H., 1864. As a writer he com- bined a true poetic spirit with a charming style, and displayed a deep knowledge of numan nature. As a character analyst no American writer excels him. Hay, John, American statesman and writer, was bom in Salem, Ind., 1838. He was graduated from Bro^iTi university, 1858, and settled in Illinois as a lawyer. He went to Washington in 1861, as one of Lincoln's private secretaries, acting also as his aide-de-camp. He served under Generals Hunter and Gillmore with the rank of major and assistant adjutant-general. He was subsequently in the United States diplo- matic service, stationed at Paris, Vienna, and Madrid. In 1897 he was made ambassador to England, and in 1898 secretary of state. In the latter capacity he inaugurated the important "open door" policy, for all nations, in China, and laid the foundation for subsequent diplo- matic relations with the Orient. As secretary of state he gained a standing equal to that of the most eminent men who have held that high office. In coolness, foresight, and statesmanlike appre- ciation of current and coming events he had no superior among contemporary diplomats Hia literary reputation rests upon Pike County Bal- lads, Castuian Days, a volume of travel, and Life of Abraham Lincoln (with J. G. Nicolay). Di^i, 1905. Haydn, Joseph, Austrian composer, was bom at Rohrau, Austria, 1732. He was the son of a poor wheelwright, and, manifesting great musical talent, he was received, at the age of eight, into the choir of the cathedral of St. Stephen's at Vienna. Subsequently Metastasio introduced him to the celebrated singer, Porpora, who em- ployed Haydn to accompany him on the piano during his singing lessons, ana from whom Hayda obtained the instruction in composition he so anxiously desired and needed. In the latter part of 1750 he composed his first quartet for stringed instruments. In 1759 a certain Count Morzin engaged him as music director and com- poser, "with a salary of 200 florins, free lodging* and table with his secretaries and other officials." In 1760 Prince Esterhazv placed him at the head of his private chapel. For him Haydn composed his beautiful symphonies and the greater number of his magnificent quartets. He is often called "Father Haydn," as having been the inventor of the symphonic form as we now essentially know it. After the death of Prince Esterhazy, in 1790, Haydn accompanied Salomon, the violinist^ to En|;land, where, in 1791-92, he pro- duced SIX of his "Twelve Grand SjTnphonies." In England he first obtained that recognition which afterward fell to his share in his own country. On his return to Austria he purchased a small house with a garden in one of the suburbs of Vienna. Here he composed his oratorios, the Creation and the Seasons. The former work, the harmonies of which are pervaded with the fire of youth, was written in his sixty-fifth year, and is consiaered by many to be equal to the finest productions of Handel; the Seaaona waa almost his last work. Died, in Vienna, 1809. Haydon, Benjamin Robert, English historical painter, was bom at Plymouth, England, 1786. lie exhibited his first picture at the academy in 1807, "Joseph and Mary Resting with our Sa\'iour After a Day's Journey on the Road to Egypt." It was succeeded by "Dentatus." His great work, "Christ's Entry into Jeriisalem," was exhibited in 1820, but it took some time to find a purchaser. Nothing daunted, Haydon painted two other subjects from the Passion of the Saviour. While in prison for debt he painted the "Mock Election,' which George IV. purchased for 500 guineas. Of his succ^ding works, "Napoleon Musing at St. Helena" has been frequently reproduced. He forsook the brush for the plat- form, and his lectures on art, in London ana the provinces, brought him fame and, for the time being, money. He died by his own hand in 1846. Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, nineteenth president of the United States, was born at Delaware, Ohio. 1822. He was graduated at Kenyon college and at Harvard law school, and began the practice of law at Lower Sandusky in 1845. He removed in 1849 to Cincinnati, where he was city solicitor, 1859-61. At the outbreak of the civil war he was appointed major of the 23d Ohio infantry, and shortly afterward lieutenant-colonel. He distinguished himself in the campaigns of West Virginia and in the battles around Winchester, and was severely wounded at South Mountain. In 1864 he was made brigadier-general and in 1865 brevetted major-general. He was elected to congress from Ohio, 1864-66, and was gover- nor of that state, 1868-72 and 1876-77. He was the republican candidate for the presidency in THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 703 1876, and, after the memorable contest with Samuel J. Tilden, was inaugurated in 1877. As chief magistrate his career was marked with moderation, wisdom, and a sympathy with all true reforms. His independence of character, however, was strongly shown by his vetoes, his steady adherence to principle, and his refusal to pander to mere party politics. Died, 1893. Hayne, Robert Young, American statesman, was bom in South Carolina, 1791. He was admitted to the bar in 1812; served in the war with Great Britain; and at its close returned to his practice in Charleston. He sat in the United States senate from 1823 to 1832. He was a vigorous opponent of protection, and in 1832 boldly sup- ported in congress the doctrine of nullification. The great debates between Daniel Webster and Ha)aie on the principles of the constitution, the authority of the general government, and the rights of the individual states are of unusual historical value. In November, 1832, South Carolina adopted an ordinance of nullification. in December Hayne was elected governor, and the state prepared to resist the federal power by force of arms. A compromise, however, was agreed to and the ordinance was repealed. He was mayor of Charle'^on, 1835-37. Died, 1840. Hazard, Caroline, American educator, president of Wellesley college, 1899-1910, was bom at Peace Dale, R. I., 1856, daughter of Rowland Hazard. She was educated by governess and tutors, at Miss Mary A. Shaw's school. Providence, and bv private study abroad; A. M., university of Michigan, 1899; Litt. D., Brown, 1899; LL. D., Tufts, 1905. Author: Life of J. L. Diynan; Thomas Hazard, Son of Robert; Narragansett Ballads; The Narragansett Friends' Meeting, Some Ideals in the Education of Women, etc., and essavs, re\'iews, verse.?, etc., in magazines. Editor: Works of R. a. Hazard (4 vols). Hazlitt (hdz'4U\ William, English essavist and miscellaneous writer, was born in Kent, JEngland, 1778. In 1802 he visited Paris and studied in the Louvre. On his return he attempted to support himself by portrait-painting; but as he could please neither himself nor his patrons he relinquished the easel and threw himself into literature, for which he was much better adapted. In 1803 he went to London, and shortly after published his Essay on the Principles of Human Action. In 1813 he delivered a course of lectures on the history of English philosophy, and he subsequently delivered courses on the English poets. He wrote essays in the Examiner in con- junction with Leigh Hunt, which were afterward republished in a volume entitled Tfie Round Table. He also wrote Characters of Shakespeare' s Plays; View of the Contemporary English Stage; Life of Napoleon, etc. Died, 1830. Hearst (hurst), Phoebe Apperson, philanthropist, was bom in 1842; became a teacher. In 1862 she married George Hearst, United States senator from California, and a man of large wealth. She established and maintained kindergarten classes in San Francisco several years ; also classes and a training clag? for kindergarten teachers in Washington, D. C, nearly ten years; now caring for about 300 children in her kindergarten classes at Lead, S. D., where her principal mining inter- ests are located ; made donations to the Ameri- can university at Washington ; gave $250,0(X) to build National Cathedral school for girls; established working girls' clubs, San Francisco; erected and equipped a mining building at university of California as a memorial to her husband; built, endowed, and gave thousands of volumes to free libraries at Lead City, South Dakota, and Anaconda, Mont., finally presenting same to the municipalities ; paid cost of a com- petition of best architects of Europe and America for plans for greater university of California. Her other charities extend to numerous objects and institutions. She is a regent of the univer- sity of California. Hearst, William Randolph, American newspaper publisher and politician, was bom in San Fran- cisco in 1863, son of Senator George F". and Phoebe Apperson Hearst. He was educated in the public schools of San Francisco and at Har- vard. He then became editor and proprietor of the San Francisco Examiner, 1886; bought New York Journal, 1895 ; later bought the New York Advertiser to secure news franchise, and made it New York Morning American; started the Chi- cago American, 1900. In 1902 he started The Chicago Morning Examiner. In 1904 he also acquired the Boston American and the Los Anodes Examiner. He was elected to the 58th and 59th congresses from the 11th New York district, as democrat. He was candidate for mayor of New York in 1905 and 1909, and for governor in 190G. Was chief promoter of the independence league, and was responsible for making it a factor in the presidential campaign of 1908. Heber (he'-bSr), Reginald, English prelate and hymn writer, was bom at Malpas, Cheshire, 1783. He entered Brasenose college, Oxford, 1800, and in 1803 wrote his prize poem Palestine. Inducted into the family-living of Hodnet in Shropshire, 1807, he was a frequent contributor to the Quarterly Review, and in 1812 published a volume of Hymns.. He was appointwi a prebendary of St. Asaph in 1812, Bampton lecturer in 1815, and preacher of Lincoln's Inn in 1822. In 1823 he accepted the see of Calcutta; but an episco- pate of apostolic zeal was terminated by his sudden death at Trichinopoly, 1826. He pub- lished sermons, A Journey Through India, etc., and edited Jeremy Taylor's Works. As a poet, his fame rests upon Palestine and his Hymns, which include "Lord of Mercy and of Might, "From Greenland's Icy Mountains," "Holy, Holy, Holy," and "The Son of God Goes Forth to War." Hubert (d'-fedr'), Louis Philippe, French-Canadian sculptor, was born in the province of Quebec, 1850. In early days he worked on a farm; obtained prize at provincial exhibition, Montreal, for wood-carving in 1873; afterward studied in Paris, and won prize given by Dominion govern- ment for full-length statue of George Cartier. His chief works consist of statues, among which are those to Maisonneuse and Chdnier, in Mont- real. Hecker, Isaac Thomas, founder and superior of the order of Paulist fathers, was bom in New York in 1819. His brothers established the well-known Hecker mills, but he was not content to labor in mercantile pursuits, and in 1843 joined the Brook Farm community in West Roxbury, Mass. Later he established a similar society at Fruitlands, Mass., then took up the study for the Episcopal ministry, but in 1845 joined the Roman Catholic church, and became a Redemptorist father. Much of his time was devoted to literature. He founded the Catholic World, organized the Catholic publication society, and wrote Questions of the Soul; Aspirations of Nature; The Church arid the Age, etc. Died, 1888. Hedin (hi-den'), Sven Anders, Swedish traveler and geographer, was bom in Stockholm, 1865. He was educated at Stockholm, at Upsala, and in Germany; Ph. D., Halle. He began his explora- tions in Persia in 1885, and has traveled through Kh6rassan and Turkestan, several times through Tibet and other parts of central Asia. His books include: Through Asia; Central Asia and Tibet; Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia; The Tarim River, etc. 764 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Hegan, Alice Caldwell. See Bice, Alice HcKan. Begel (hd'-gel), George Wllbelm Frledrlch. See page 313. Heine (hi'-nS), Helnrich, German poet and wit, was bom at DuBseldorf, of Jewish parents, 1799. He abandoned Judaism, and was baptized in the Lutheran church of Heiligenstadt. He studied at Gottingen, and was graduated there in law. A visit to the Harz and to Italy supplied him with material for his Reisebilder, "Pictures of Travel." This book was a brilliant success. His Buck der Lieder — a portion of which had first appeared as YoiUhfrd Sorrows, in Berlin, 1822 — was no less fortunate. Many of these songs are of the most exquisite and etherial beauty. They are unmatched in German litera^ ture, except by the lyrics which Goethe wrote in his youth. About 1845 Heine was attacked by disease of the spine, and was almost constantly bedridden. He suffered the most acute pain, together with the loss of his siglit, with the most remarkable equanimity and even good-humor, vmtil the day of his death, which took place in Paris, 1856. Held, Annat comedienne, was bom in Paris, 1877, daughter of Maurice Held. She was educated in an academy at Rouen, France, and married in Paris, F. Ziegfeld, Jr., of Chicago. She made her d^but as comedienne in Paris, 1890; since then in many r61es; began starring, 1896, in A Par- lor Match; later in French Maid and Papa's Wife; Mile. Napoleon, at the Knickerbocker theater. New York ; in Parisian Modd, Broad- way theater. New York; in The LitiU Duchess, Casino theater. New York, etc. Helmholtz (hUm' -holts), Hermann von. See page 409. Belmont {hW-mdnt), Jan Baptista van, Belgian chemist, was born at Brusselis in 1577. He filled the chair of surgery in the university of Louvain. and writers on the history of chemistry regard him as the greatest chemist who preceded Lavoisier. In 1609 he settled at Vilvordc, near Brussels, where he practiced medicine gratui- tously for thirty years. He was the first to point out the imperative necessity for employing the balance in chemistry. He paid much attention to the study of the gases, and is supposed by some authorities to have been the first to apply the term gases to elastic aeriform fluids. Of these gases he distinguished several kinds. His works were published under the title Ortus Medicina. Died, 1644. Helps, Sir Arthur, English essayist and historian, was bom at Streatham, 1813. He was graduated at Cambridge in 1835, and on leaving the univer- sity obtained a post in the civil service. He then resigned and retired to Bishop's Waltham, in Hampshire, where, in the possession of ample means, he enjoyed lettered ease. His first work of consequence was entitled Essays written in the Intervals of Business. Among his subsequent works are Oulita, the Serf, a pTav; Ttie Spanish Conquest in America; Friends in Council; Conquerors of the New World and their Bonds- men; Companions of My Solitude. Died, 1875. Heist (hMst), Bartholomeus van der, Dutch painter, was bom at Haarlem or Dordrecht, between 1611 and 1614. He was joint-founder in 1654 of the painters' guild of St. Luke at Amsterdam, where he attained great celebrity as a portrait-painter. His best-known work is "The Banquet of the Civic Guard," now in the Amsterdam gallery. He died in 1670. Helvetius {h4U-ve'shl-iis), Claude Adrien, French philosopher, was bom at Paris, 1715. Itf 1738 he was appointed to the lucrative office of farmer- general, and soon after became chamberlain to the queen. In 1758 appeared his celebrated work De I' Esprit, in which he endeavors to prove sensation to be the source of all intellectual activity, and that the prand lever of all human conduct is self-satisfaction. He visited England in 1764, and the year following was entertained by Frederick the Great at Potsdam. His com- plete works were published after his death. Died, 1771. Hemans (hlhn'-am), Felicia Dorothea, EngUsh poet, was bom in Liverpool, 1793, daughter of George Browne, a Liver]:>ool merchant, and became the wife of Captain Hemans. A few years after their marriage, Captain Hemans removed to Italy, and they never afterward met. Mrs. Heman's subse- quent life was spent in North Wales, in Lan- cashire, and in Dublin. Her best poem of any length is The Forest Sanctuary; but her shorter pieces, published under the title of Songs of the Afections, etc., are by far the most p>opular. Many of these shorter pieces have become standard English lyrics, and up>on them, almost exclusively, dcpenos her claim to remembrance. She died in Dublin, 1835. Henderson, Charles Kiclunond, American educator, sociologist, professor of nociologv, university of Chicago, since 1897, was born at Covington, Ind., 1849 He was graduated at the umversity of Chicago, 1870; B. D., 1873. D. D., 1885, Baptist Union theological aeminary; Ph. D., Leipzig, 1901. Was pastor at Terre Haute, Ind., 1873-82, Detroit, 1882-02. Associate eej)tem bacramerUomm against Luther. The appearance at court of Anne Boleyn, and ths failure of a male heir, encouraged Henry to raise the old question as to the legality of the marriage with Catharine. Wolsey zealously aided him, seeing in a divorce the possibility of a breaking of ties with Charles V. and an alliance with France. The appeal to the pope in 1527 resulted only in the appointment of a commission. Henry, angered at Wolsey's apparent failure, took away his office, and installed Thomas Cromwell as minister and Cranmer as archbishop of Canter- bury, with Sir Thomas More as chancellor. Parliament was called in 1529, and passed a number of acts abrogatine the papal power in England, heavily fining the clerg\', and finally recognizing Henry as supreme heatf of the church of England, the clerpy acknowledging his authority to secure a partial remittance of the fines. In 1531 Cromwell succeeded More as chancellor. In 1533 Henry, impatient at the delay, was privately mamed to Anne, with whom he had long been living; three months later the marriage was announceii, and Cranmer, calling a court, as the highest ecclesiastical authoritv in England. pronounced the divorce from Catharine ana declared the marriage null and void from the beginning. A year later Clement decided in favor of Catharine^ but not until Henry had severed all connections with Rome, by making it treason to deny his authority as head of the church of England. In quick succession came the translation of the Bible, its introduction into every church, the act of uniformity, and the ten articles of faith, lat^r changed again to six articles, embodying substantiailv the old creed, with the penalty of death for denial. In 1536 Henry charged Anne BolejTi with infidelity, sent her to the block and married Jane Seymour, by whom he had a son, Edward VI. She died in 1537 and three years later he married Anne of Cleves, at Cromwell's su^estion. She proved far from handsome, was divorced, and Cromwell sent to the block. On the day of his execution Henry married Catharine Howard, but she was soon found unfaithful, and beheaded. In 1543 Henry married Catharine Parr, who survived him. He died, 1547. Henry 11^ king of France, was bom in 1519, son of Francis I., whom he succeeded in 1547. By his alliance with the German Protestants, be acQuired Metz, Toul, and Verdun, carried on his father's war with Spain, was defeated at St. Quentin in 1557, but in 1558 he regained Calais from the English He died in 1559 of a wound inflicted in a tournament held to celebrate the conclusion of the war by the marriage of his daughter and Philip II. of Spain. Henry II L, king of France, third son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici, was bom in 1551. In 1569 he gained victories over the Protestants at Jamac and Moncontour, and he took an active share in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. In 1573 the intrigues of the queen-regent secured his election to the crown of Poland; but in 1574 he succeeded his brother, Charles IX., on the French throne. His reign was a period of almost incessant civil war between Huguenots and Catholics, the duke of Guise having formed the holy league to assert the supremacv of Catholi- cism and secure the reversion of the throne to the Guises. Henry showed fickleness and want of courage in his public conduct ; and in private his life was sp>ent in an alternation of dissolute excesses and wild outbreaks of religious fanati- cism. In 1588 the assassination of the duke of Guise roused the Catholics to the utmost pitch of exasperation; Henry threw himself into the arms of Henrj* of Navarre, and the two marched upon Paris at the head of a Huguenot army. But in August, 1589, Henry was stabbed by a • km mm mi^ 'S' HENRY IV. AT CANOSSA From the painting by E. Schivoiser THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 709 fanatical Dominican named Jacaues Clement; he died, the last of the house of Valois, on the following day, nominating Henry of Navarre as his successor. Henry IV^ l^ing of France, was bom in 1553, son of Anthony of Navarre, a descendant of Louis IX. He was founder of the Bourbon dynasty, succeeding Henry III. in 1589. His marriage with Marguerite de Valois, in 1572, was the occasion of the Bartholomew massacre. In 1576 he quitted the court and became leader of the Huguenots and opponent of the league, being the rival of the Guises for the succession. He defeated them at Arques and Ivrv, but was unable to conquer Paris without becoming a Roman Catholic, which he did in 1593. He concluded peace with Philip II. at Vervins, and issued the edict of Nantes. The rest of his reign was occupied by domestic reforms. He was assassinated by Ravaillac, 1610. Henry IV^ emperor of the holy Roman empire, was bom at Goslar, Prussia, 1050, son of Henry III. He was crowned emperor in 1084 by Clement III. The chief occurrence of his reign was the struggle with Gregory VII., with whom he began the investiture disputes. During this celebrated controversy he deposed Gregory, but was himself excommunicated and deposed, and was obliged to submit at Canossa in 1077. In 1084 he again invaded Italy, and captured Rome. In Germany he had enemies in Rudolf of Swabia (whom he defeated finally at Wolks- heim in 1080), in the Saxons, and in his sons, Conrad and Henry, by the latter of whom he was dethroned. Died, 1106. Henry, king of Navarre. See Henry IV., king of France. Henry, Joseph, American physicist, was bom in Albany, N. Y., 1797; was appointed professor of natural philosophy in the college of New Jersey at Princeton, 1832; and, in 1846, was called to the office of secretary or director of the Smithsonian institution at Washington, to the organization and v,nde reputation of which he had mostly contributed. Henry made most important discoveries in electro-magnetism, and disputed with Morse the invention of the electric telegraph. Died, 1878. Henry, Patrick, American orator and statesman, was born in Virginia in 1736. After receiving a common school education, and spending some time in trade and agriculture, he commenced the practice of law, after only six weeks of prepar- atory study. In spite of several years of poverty, he first rose to distinction in managing the popu- lar cause in the controversy between the legis- lature and the clergy, touching the stipend which was claimed by the latter. In 1765 he was elected a member of the Virginia house of bur- gesses, with express reference to an opposition to the British stamp act. In this assembly he obtained the honor of being the first to commence the opposition to the measures of the British government, which terminated in the revolution. He was one of the delegates sent by Virginia to the first general congress of the colonies, in 1774, and in that body distinguished himself by his boldness and eloquence. In 1776 he was ap- pointed the first governor of the commonwealth, and to this office was repeatedly reelected. In 1786 he was appointed by the legislature one of the deputies to the convention held at Phila- delphia, for the purpose of ^e^'^sing the federal constitution. In 1788 he was a member of the convention which met in Virginia to consider the constitution of the United States, and exerted himself strenuously against its adoption. In 1794 he retired from the bar, and died in 1799. Without extensive information uf)on legal or political topics, he was a natural orator of the highest order, possessing great powers of imagi- nation, sarcasm, and humor, united with great force and energy of manner, and a deep knowl- edge of human nature. Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, waa born in 1129. He was the son of Henry the Proud, a rebellious noble who had been deprived of his estates by Conrad HI. On the death of Conrad these dukedoms were restored to Henry the Lion, who became the greatest of all the Gcr- inan princes. Great improvements were made by him in his dominions, and he became so powerful as to determine to be no longer a subject even to the emperor. At the battle of Legnano he caused the emperor Frederick Barbarossa to be defeated bjr withdrawing his troops from the field. Fred- erick for this took away liis estates, and banished him for three years to England. Died, 1195. Henry the Navigator, son of JoaoI.,kingof Portugal, and the English Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt, was bom in 1394. He distinguished himself at the capture of Ceuta in 1415; took up his residence at Sagres, in Algarve; and during the war against the Moors his sailors reached parts of the ocean before unknown. He erected an observatory and a school for navigation, and despatched some of his pupils on voyages of discovery, resulting in the dis- covery of the Madeira islands in 1419. Henrv's thoughts were now directed toward the gold- producing coasts of Guinea; and in 1434 one of his mariners sailed round Cape Nun, and touched Cape Bojador. Next year another ejcpedition reached a point 120 miles beyond Cape Bojador; in 1441 Cape Blanco was reached. Up to this period the prince had borne the expense of these voyages himself; henceforth societies for the purpose were formed under his guidance. In 1445 Henry's captain, Nuno Tristam, doubled Cape Verde, and in 1448 Gonzalez Vallo dis- covered three of the Azores. Henry died in 1460, after his mariners had reached Sierra Leone. Henson, Herbert Hensley, canon of Westminster abbey and rector of St. Margaret's since 1900; sub-dean of Westminster since 1911; was born in London, England, 1863. He was educated privately and at Oxford; was a fellow of All Souls college, Oxford, 1884-91, reelected, 1896: B. D., 1898; hon. D. D., Glasgow, 1906. Head of the Oxford house, Bethnal Green, 1887-88; vicar of Barking, Essex, 1888-95; select preacher at Oxford, 1895-96, Cambridge, 1901 ; incum- bent of St. Mary's hospital, Ilford, 1895-1900; chaplain to lord bishop of St. Alban's, 1897-1900. Author: Light and Leaven; Apostolic Christian^ ity; Cut Bom>t an Open Letter to Lord Halifax; Ad Rem, Thoughts on the Crisis in the Church; Godly Union and Concord; Cross Bench Views of Current Church Questions; Preaching to the Times; Sincerity and Subscription; English Religion in the 11 th century; Moral Discipline in the Christian Church; Religion in the Schools; Christian Marriage; The National Church; Christ and the Nation, etc. Hepburn, Alonso Barton, banker, was bom at Colton, N. Y.. 1846. He was graduated at Middlebury college, Vermont, 1871, LL. D., 1894; D. C. L., St. Lawrence university, 1906. He was instructor in mathematics, St. Lawrence academy; principal Ogdensburg educational institute; practiced law at Colton; member New York assembly, 1875-80; superintendent banking department. New York, 1880-92; comptroller of the currency, 1892-93; president Third national bank. New York city, 1893-97; vice-president National city bank, 1897-99; president Chase national bank, 1899-1911, chair- man board of directors since 1911. He is also a director in the New York life insurance com- pany, Bankers trust company, Columbia trust 770 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT company, Maryland trust company (Baltimore), Safety car heating and lighting company, Union typewriter company, United cigar manufac- turers company, Sears, Roebuck and Company (Chicago), etc. Author of History of Coinage and Currency, and frequent contributor to reviews and magazines. Hepburn, James Curtis, American physician and medical missionary, was bom at Milton, Pa., 1815. He graduated at Princeton college, 1832; university of Pennsylvania medical department, M. D., 1836; LL. D., Lafayette, 1872, Princeton, 1905. Went to China as medical missionary, 1840; stationed in Singapore, 1841-43, in Amoy, China, 1843-46; returned to United States, 1846; resided in New York, 1846-59; went to Japan, 1859; lived in Yokohama until 1892; returned to United States, 1893, and retired. He compiled first English dictionary of Japanese language; published an English-Japanese Dic- tionary; wrote a grammar oif the Japanese lan- guage; translated the Bible into the Japanese language, 1872-88, and published a Japanese Dictionary of the Bible, 1891. Died, 1911. Hepburn, William Peters, lawyer, ex-congressman, was bom in Wellsvillc, Ohio, 1833. His parents removed to Iowa in 1841, where he was educated in local schools and in a printing office. He was admitted to the bar in 1854; in the Union army, 1861-65, as a captain, major, and lieutenant- colonel, 2d Iowa cavalry; was presidential elector, 1876 and 1888; member of congress, 1881-87, and 1893-1909 from the 8th Iowa dis- trict. While a member of congress be was chairman of committee on interstate and foreign commerce, and author of the Hepburn bill to regulate interstate commerce. He was re- garded as the ablest debater in the lower house for many years. Heraclius (hir-d-kll'-iis), Byzantine emperor, was bom in Cappadocia about 575. In 610 he headed a revolt against Phocas, slew him, and mounted his throne. At this time the Avars threatened the empire on the northwest, and the Persians invaded it. Chosroes II. captured Damascus in 613, and in 614, Jerusalem; then all Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor were conquered. At length Heraclius, having in 620 concluded a treaty with the Avars, in 622 took the field against the Persians, routed them in a series of brilliant campaigns, won back his lost provinces, and shut up Chosroes in Ctesiphon, 628. But soon the followers of Mohanmied won from Heraclius nearly all he gained from the Persians, he meanwhile wasting his time in self-indulgence and theological disputes. Died, 641. Herbart (h^-b&rt), Johann Friedrlcb, German philosopher, was bom at Oldenburg, Germanj', 1776. At a very early age he was familiar with religious and metaphysical doctrines and discus- sions, and at twelve years had read the systems of Wolff and Kant. He then studied at Jena, became the pupil of Fichte, and received his philosophy with enthusiasm; but after more reflection he found himself obliged to reject much of his system, and to form one of his own. In 1805 he was appointed professor at Gottingen, and in 1809 obtained the chair of philosophy at Konigsberg. In 1833 he returned to Gottingen, where he remained until death. His collected works were published by his scholar, Harten- stein, 1850-52. Died, 1841. Herbert, George, Enghsh poet, was bom in Mont- gomery castle, Wales, 1593. His oldest brother was Lord Herbert of Cherbury. From West- minster he passed in 1609 to Trinitv college, Cambridge, m 1615 was elected a fellow, and was pubUc orator, 1619-27. He looked for advancement at court, but, by the gift of a prebend of Lincoln and the friendship of Nicholas Ferrar, he was drawn toward a religious life, anedi- tion against a British force of tories and Indians. In this movement he fell into an ambuscade at Oriskany in August, 1777. Herkimer's horse was killed, and he himself fatally wounded. Herkomer {hxir'-ko-mir), Hubert von, English artist, was bom in Waal, Bavaria, 1849. His father, Lorenzo Herkomer, a skillful wood-carver, emigrated with his family to the United States, 1851, but in 1857 removed to England and settled in Southampton. At the age of thirteen Herkomer entered the art school at Southampton, and won a bronze medal there. He then studied at Munich, established himself in the village of Hythe, and there painted two pictures, which he exhibited at the Dudley gallery. He finally removed to London, where he occupied himself successfully with water-color painting and designing for wood engravings. Subsequently THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 771 he turned his attention to etching and other branches of practice. His later pictures include : "At Death's Door"; "Der Bittgang"; "Even- tide"; "A Scene in the Wostminster Union"; " A Welshwoman ", "Souvenir de Rembrandt " ; "The Last Muster," etc. He became a member of the royal academy, an honorary member of the imperial academy of Vienna, and succeeded Raskin as Slade professor of art at Oxford,- 1885-94. Hermes (/igr'-wds), Georg, Roman Catholic phi- losopher, was bom at Dreyerwalde in West- phaha, 1775. He became theological professor at Miinster in 1807, and in 1819 at Bonn. In his Die Innere Wahrheit des Christentums, Philosophische Eivleitung in die Christkatholische Theologie, and Christkatholische Dogmatik, he sought to base the Catholic faith and doctrines on a critical theory of knowledge like Kant's. The Hermesian method departed widely from the old text-books of the schools; and although his substantial orthodoxy was not questioned, his doctrines were condemned by a papal brief in 1835 as heretical, and his followers were deprived of their chairs. Died, 1831. Heme (h-Am), James A^ American actor and dramatist, was born at Troy, N. Y., 1840. He appeared chiefly in his own plays, chief of which are: Hearts of Oak; Margaret Fleming; Shore Acres; Rev. Griffith Davenport; Sag Harbor. He was an actor of great ability and a skillful stage manager. Died, 1901. Herod (h^'-iid) the Great, king of Judsea, was bom at Askalon, 62 B. C, became governor of Galilee about 47, and through the influence of Mark Antony ascended the throne of Judsea in 40. During his reign occurred the birth of the Messiah, and the consequent massacre of the innocents. Herod was so cruel by nature that for deeds of blood and violence his name became a proverb. Died, 4 B. C. Herodotus (he-rdd'-o-tiis). See page 16. Herrera (Sr-rd'-ra), Antonio de, Spanish historian, was born at Cuellar near Segovia, 1549. Philip II. made him chief chronicler of America, and historian of Castile, which offices he filled for many years. He wrote a history of Castilian Exploits in the Pacific, a description of the West Inoies, a history of England and Scotland in the time of Marj' Stuart, etc. Died, 1625. Herrera, Fernando de, Spanish lyric poet, was born at Seville about 1534, and took orders in the church. Many of his love-poems are remarkable for tender feeling, while his odes display a lofty enthusiasm. He wrote a prose history of the war in Cyprus, and translated from the Latin of Stapleton a Life of Sir Thomas More. Died, 1597 Herrera, Francisco, "the elder," Spanish painter, was bom in Seville, 1576. He painted historical pieces, wine-shops, fairs, carnivals, and scenes from the life of the people, and was one of the most eminent Spanish painters of the school of Seville. His "Last Judgment" is a masterpiece of drawing and coloring; and his "Holy Familv " and "Outpouriijg of the Holy Spirit are also much esteemed. The cupola of the church at St. Bonaventure displays his skill in fresco- painting. Some of his best works are in the Louvre at Paris. Died, 1656. Herrick, Myron T., financier, ex-governor of Ohio, was bom at Huntington, Ohio, 1854. He was educated in the district schools in Ohio, at Oberlin college, and Ohio Wesleyan university; was admitted to the bar, Cleveland, 1878. He retired from law practice, 1886, to become secretary and treasurer of the society for savings, Cleveland, of which he has been president since 1894; also chairman of board Wheeling and Lake Erie railroad ; officer or director in numer- ous other railway and financial enterprises. From 1903 to 1906 he was governor of Ohio, and has since been influential in the politics of the state. Appointed ambassador to France, 1912. Herrick, Robert, English poet, was born in Cheap)- side, London, 1591, son of a goldsmith. He was educated at St. John's college and at Trinity hall, Cambridge. After taking orders as a clergyman of the church of England, he was presented by Charles I. to the vicarage of Dean Prior. After about twenty years' residence, his living was sequestered in the civil war, and, rejoicing in his freedom from the "rude salvages" of Devon, he went to reside in Westminster. After the restoration he was replaced in bis vicarage, where he died in 1674. In 1648 he published his celebrated collection of lyrical poems, entitled Hesperides, or the Works both Human and Divine of Robert Herrick, Esq. About the same time he published Noble Numbers, or Pious Pieces. His poems, not fewer than thir- teen hundred in number, include some of the finest lyrical pieces in the language. Herrick, Robert, educator, novelist, was bom at Cambridge, Mass., 1868. He was graduated at Harvard, 1890; was instructor in rhetoric, Massachusetts institute of technology, 1890-93; instructor in rhetoric, 1893-95, assistant profes- sor, 1895-1901, associate professor, 1901-05, professor English since 1905, university of Chi- cago. Author: The Man who Wins; Literary Love Letters and other Stories; The Gospel of Freedom; Love's Dilemmas; Composition and Rhetoric (with Professor L. T. Damon) ; The Web of Life; The Real World; Their Child; The Common Lot; Tlie Memoirs of an American Citizen, etc. Herschel (h-dr'-shel), Caroline Lucretla, sister of the astronomer. Sir (Frederick) William Herschel, was bom in Hanover, 1750. When William was appointed astronomer to George III. she acted as his assistant, and in that character received a small salary from the king. She discovered seven comets, for five of which she has the credit of priority of discovery. Several remarkable nebulse and clusters of stars included in her brother's catalogues were described from her original observations. In 1798 she published, with an introduction by her brother, A Catalogue of Stars taken from Mr. Flamsteed's Observations, etc. This valuable work was published at the expense of the royal society, and contained 661 stars omitted in the British catalogue. She was made an honorary member of the royal society, and died in 1848. Herschel, Sir John Frederick William, English astronomer, son of Sir (Frederick) WilRara Herschel, was bom in 1792. About 1825 he began his observations in sidereal astronomy, to which he chiefly devoted himself. His great enterprise was his expedition toward the close of 1833 to the cape of Good Hope to take obser- vations of the southern firmament. In 1847 appeared his Results of Astronomical Observa- tions at the Cape of Good Hope, one of the most valuable works of our time. His residence at the cape gave not only valuable additions to astronomy, but also to meteorology. His obser- vations on the milky way, on the brightness and the color of stars, on variable stars, on the sun's rays, on the atmospheric air, and on the Magellanic clouds, are all very valuable. He also made valuable researches in light, sound, and celestial physics. His best known work is Outlines of Astronomy. Died, 1871. Herschel, Sir (Frederick) William, German-Eng- lish astronomer, was bom in Hanover, 1738. He was educated specially as a professional musician. In 1757 he went to England, where he became a teacher of music in the town of Leeds, from 772 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT which he went to Halifax as organist, and sub- sequently in the same capacity to Bath. Here he turned his attention to astronomy. Wanting a telescope, and unable to afford a reflector, he made one for himself. In 1781 he discovered the planet Uranus, which discovery resulted in his appointment as private astronomer to George III., with a salary of 200 pounds a year. He was knighted by George III., and made a D. C. L. by tiie university of Oxford. He contributed sixty-nine papers to the Philosophical Trans- actions, and to vol. i., Memoirs of the Astronomic col Society, he contributed a paper On the Places of 145 New Double Stars. He greatly added to our knowledge of the solar svstem; discovered six satellites of Uranus, and two satellites of Saturn; detected the rotation of Saturn's rings, the period of rotation of Saturn itself, and the existence of the motion of binary stars, the first revelation of systems besides our own. He threw new light on the milky way and the con- stitution of nebuliB, and, in fact, was the first to give the human mind a proper conception of the immensity of the universe. He erected a monster telescope, as it was then considered, of forty feet focal length. It was begiui in 1785 and finished in 1789. Died, 1822. Herts Quhrts), Henrik, Danish poet and dramatist, was bom in Copenhagen, 1798. He was of Jewish descent, was educated at the university of Copenhagen, traveled abroad, and returned as a professor of the university. His first impor- tant work was Letters of a Ghost, a rhymed satirical poem. His subsequent works include: Amor's Clever Pranks; Emma; The Only Error; King Ren&s Daughter; Svend Dyring's Hotise; The Saving's Bank; Love and Politics; The Heirs, etc. Died, 1870. Hervieu (tr'-vyH'), Paul Ernest, French author and dramatist, was born at Neuilly-sur-Seine, 1857. He was educated at the Lyc6e Condorcet, Paris, and at the Ecole de Droit; was admitted as an advocate, 1877. In 1900 he was elected to the French academy. He has written several novels, but his most notable achievements are his dramas, which are marked by keen obser- vation of life and delicate fancy. Hersog (fiir'-tsoK), Johann Jakob. German theo- logian, was born at Ba.sel, 1805. He became professor at Lausanne, 1830, at Halle, 1847, and Erlangen, 1854. He wrote books on the Ply- mouth brethren and the Waldenses, lives of Calvin and (Ecolampadius, a church-history, etc., and edited the great Healencyklopiidie fux Protestantische Theologie und Kirche (22 vols.). Died, 1882. Hesiod {he'-si-dd), one of the earliest Greek poets, was born in Bceotia, lived in the eighth century B. C, chiefly at Orchomenus, probably of humble birth. Of the works ascribed to him the princi- pal were the Works and Days, the Theogony, and the Shield of Hercules. His poems treat of the quiet pursuits of ordinary life, the origin of the world, the gods and heroes, while those of Homer are occupied with the restless and active enter- prises of the heroic age. Hewlett, Maurice Henry, EngUsh historical writer and novelist, was born at London, 1861. He was educated at the London international college, at Spring Grove, Isleworth; was admitted as a hamster, 1891. Author: Earthwork out of Tuscany; The Masque of Dead Florentines; Songs and Meditations; The Forest Lovers; Pan and the Young Shepherd; Little Novels of Italy; Richard Yea-and-Nay; New Canterbury Tales; The Queen's Quair; The Road in Tuscany; Fond Adventures; The Fool Errant; The Stooping Lady; Half-way House, etc. Heybum, Weldon Brinton, United States senator, lawyer, was bom in Delaware county, Pa., 1852. He received an acadenuc education, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1876. He re- moved to Shoshone county, Idaho, 1883, and practiced* there. He was a delegate to repub- lican national conventions, 1888, 1892, 1900; was republican nominee for congress, 1898, but was defeated; elected United States senator from Idaho for term, 1903-09, said reelected for term, 1909-15. Died, 1912. Heyne {hl'-ni). Christian Gottlob, German classical scholar, was bom in Saxony, 1729. In 1753 he obtained the situation of under-clerk in the Briihl library at Dresden. While there he pre- pared his edition of TibvUxis, which appeared m 1755. In 1756, unfortunately for Heyne, the seven years' war broke out. Frederick the Great marchinl against Dresden, and burned, among other things, the Briihl library, but not before Heyne had edited, from a codex there, the Enchiridion of Epictetus. In 1763, following the death of Gesner, professor of rhetoric at Got- tingcn, Heyne was appointed his successor. Among his other works were editions of Virgil, Pindar, ApoUodorus. and Homer's Iliad; six volumes of Omiaeula Academica; and 7,500 reviews of books in the Gottinger Gdehrte An- teigen. Died, 1812. Heyae {hV-tl), Paul Johann, German poet, dram- atist, and novelist, was bom in Berlin, 1830. He was educated at Berlin and Bonn, and settled at Munich in 1854. He has published collections of novelettes, good specimens of which are con- tained in Das Such der Freundsctuift. His poetic works include narrative ix>em.s, such as Uriea, and epics, Die Braut von Cypern and Thekla. Aa a dramatist he has been almost as copious as a novelist, but few of his jiieces have been une- quivocally successful. His more recent successful novels are Die Kinder der Welt, Im Paradiese, Mer- lin, etc. Received Nobel prise for literature, 1910. Heseklah, king of Judah, son and successor of Ahaz, reigned from 726 to 696 B. C. There waa "none like him among all the kings of Judah" is the praise bestowed upon him in the book of Kings. His efforts seem chiefly to have been directed toward the abolition of the idolatry which reigned paramount in the land, and the restoration of the worship of Jehovah to its pristine purity and glory. At the head of a repentant and united people Hezekiah returned to assume the aggressive against the Philistines, and in a series of victories not only re-won the cities his father had lost, but captured others. At length Sennacherib with a mighty host ad- vanced against Jerusalem, but by some catas- trophe 180,000 men in the Assyrian camp were killed in a single night, and Sennacherib waa obliged to retreat. A second Assyrian invasion, however, under Merodach-baladan resulted in the capti\ity and the end of Hezekiah's rule. Hicks, Elias, American Quaker preacher, was bom at Hempstead, L. I., 1748. At twenty-seven he was a well-known and influential Quaker preacher, and for many years traveled through the United States and Canada. He exercised great influence among his co-reUgionists until his Unitarianism brought him into disfavor with orthodox Friends; but he defended his views with perseverance, and at eighty he still preached. The result waa a schism of the society into two divisions, known as orthodox and Hicksite Friends. He was a vigorous abolitionist. Died, 1830. Hicks-Beach, Sir Michael Edward, English states- man, made in the year 1906 Viscount St. Aldwyn, was bom in London, 1837. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; succeeded his father as ninth baronet in 1854; in 1864 became conservative member of parliament for East Gloucestershire, and in 1885 for West Bristol. He was chief-secretarj' for Ireland, THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 773 1874-78 and 1886-87; colonial secretary, 1878- 80, and chancellor of the exchequer, 1885-86 — an office he held again in 1895-1902. Hlero (hi'-€-r6) l^ king of Syracuse, succeeded his brother Gelon in 478 B. C. The most important event of his reign was the naval victory gained by his fleet and that of the Cumani over the Etruscans in 474, which deprived the latter of their supremacy in the Tyrrhenian sea. Though violent and rapacious, he was a lover of poetry, and the patron of Simonides, .iEschylus, Bac- ohylides, and Pindar. He died at Catania in 467 B. C. Hlero II., king of Syracuse, 269-216 B. C, was the son of a noble Syracusan named Hierocles. He came to the front during the troubles in Sicily after the retreat of Pyrrhus, 275 B. C. He joined the Carthaginians in besieging Messana, which had surrendered to the Romans ; but was beaten by Appius Claudius. In 263 he con- cluded a fifteen years' peace with Rome, and in 248 a permanent one. In the second Punic war Hiero supported the Romans with money and troops. He was a patron of the arts, and Archimedes was his relative and friend. Died, 216. Higrsinson, Ella, author, was bom at Council Grove, Kansas, in 1862, daughter of Charles Reeves Rhoads. She was educated at Oregon City seminary and in a private school; married Russell Carden Higginson, New York. Author: The Flower that Grew in the Sand, From the Land of the Snow Pearls, A Forest Orchid, all books of short stories; When the Birds Go North Afjain, poems; The Snow Pearls, a poem; MarieUa, of Out-West, a novel; The Voice of April-Land, poems; also The Takin' In of Old Mis' Lane, which won McClure's $500 prize for best short . story. She also conducts the literary depart- ment of the Seattle Sunday Times. Higginson, Henry Lee, banker, was bom in New York, 1834. He entered Harvard in 1851, but did not complete course. He became an em- gloyee in the counting-house of S. and E. Austin, Boston; then went to Vienna; studied music; served in United States volunteers in civil war, becoming major and brevetted lieutenant- colonel of 1st Massachusetts cavalry, and was severely wounded at Aldie, Va., June, 1863. He later entered the firm of Lee, Higginson and Company, bankers, Boston. He has devoted a considerable sum to organization of the sym- phony orchestra in Boston, and has dispensed numerous other philanthropies. Hii^rginson, Thomas Wentworth, American writer, was bom in Cambridge, Mass., 1823. He gradu- ated at Harvard, 1841; LL. D., Harvard, Western Reserve university. After several years in the ministry he entered keenly into the movement against slavery; took part in the civil war as captain of the 51st Massachusetts volunteer militia, later colonel 1st South Caro- lina (Union) volunteers, and afterward of the 33d United States colored troops. Author: Outdoor Papers; Army Life in a Black Regi- ment; Atlantic Essays; Oldport Days; Young Folks' History of the United States; Young Folks' Book of American Explorers; Short Studies of American Auihors; Common Sense About Women; Life of Margaret Fuller Ossoli; Larger History of the United States; The Monarch of Dreams; Women and Men; Travelers and Outlaws; The Afternoon Landscape, poems; The New World and the New Book; Concerning All of Us; Such As They Are, poems; English History for Ameri- cans; Cheerful Yesterdays; Tales of the En- chanted Islands of the Atlantic; Old Cambridge; Contemporaries; Henry W. Longfellow, in Ameri- can Men of Letters series; John G. Whittier, in English Men of Letters series; A Reader's His- tory of American Literature; Part of a Man't Life, etc. Died, 1911. HUdebrand (hU'-de-brdnd), Saint. Sec Gregorr VII., page 223. Hildreth {hil'-dritJi), Richard, American historian, was born in Deerfield, Mass., 1807. He WOB graduated at Han'ard college in 1826; admitted to the bar in 1830, and became connected with the Boston Atlas and other newspapers. For a number of years he was engaged on newspapers in Demerara, British Guiana, was subsequently on the editorial staff of the New York Tribune, and in 1861 became United States consul at Trieste, Austria. Among his most notable works are the White Slave, an anti-slavery novel ; History of the United States (0 vols.); Banks, Bankin{i and Paper Currency; Theory of Morals; Theory of Politics, etc. He died, 1865. Hilgard {hW-g&rd), Eugene Woidemar, professor of agriculture, 1874-1904, professor emeritus since 1903, university of California; director Cal- ifornia agricultural experiment station, 1888- 1904; was bom at Zweibriicken, Rhenish Bavaria, 1833. He came to the United States in 1836; was graduated at Heidelberg, Ph. D., 1853; studied, also, Ziirich and Freiberg, Saxony; LL. D., Columbia, university of Michigan, uni- versity of Mississippi. He was state geologist, Mississippi, 1855-73 ; also professor of chemistry, university of Mississippi, 1866-73, and prof essor of geology and natural history, university of Michi- gan, 1873-75. Received the Liebig medal for dis- tinguished achievements in agricultural sciences from academy of sciences, Munich; also gold medal, Paris exposition, 1900, as collaborator in agricultural science. Author: Report on the Geology and Agriculture of Mississippi; Report on the Agricidtural Features of the Pacific Slope; Reports and Bulletins California Experiment Station, 1877-1903. Editor: Cotton Culture in the United States, 10th Census, and contribu- tor on geological, chemical, and agricultural subjects to many American and European journals and government reports, 1854-1911. Hill, Adams Sherman, educator, was bom in Bost«n. Mass., 1833. He was graduated at Harvard college, 1853; Harvard law school, 1855; LL. D.. 1903. He was law reporter, correspondent, and editor. New York, Washington, and Chicago, 1856-68; assistant professor of rhetoric, 1872-76, Boylston profes.sor of rhetoric and oratory, Harvard, 1876-1904, emeritus professor same, 1904-10. Author: Principles of Rhetoric; Our English; Foundations of Rhetoric; Beginnings of Rhetoric and Composition, etc. Died, 1910. Hill, Albert Ross, educator, president university of Missouri since 1908, was bom in Nova Scotia, 1869; graduated at Dalhousie university, 1892; Ph. D., Cornell, 1895; studied at Heidelberg, Berlin, and Strassburg; LL. D., university of South Carolina, 1905. Taught school in Nova Scotia, 1885-87; professor of psychology and education, state normal school, Oshkosh, Wis., 1895-97; associate professor of philosophy. 1897-98, professor, and director of psychological laboratories, 1898-1903, university of Nebraska; professor educational psychology and dean of teachers college, university of Miasouri, 1903-07 : professor philosophy of education, director of school of education and dean of college of arts and sciences, Cornell university, 1907-08. He waa president of the Western philosophical associa- tion, 1904-05. Hill, Ambrose Powell, American soldier, was born in Virginia, 1825. He was graduated at West Point, 1847, served in the Mexican war, and entered the confederate army in 1861 as colonel. He ser\'ed in Johnston's command at the first battle of Bull Run; conaraanded a brigade at Williamsburg; became a major-general, 1862; 774 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT took part in the seven days' battle around Rich- mond^ and in the second battle of Bull Run ; reinforced Lee at Antietam; commanded the right wing of Jackson's corps at Fredericksburg; was promoted to lieutenant-general, 1863; commanded a corps at Gettysburg; repelled, with Longstreet, the attack on Weldon railroad ; was killed near Petersburg, Va., 1865, while reconnoitering. HIU, David Bennett, American laAvyer and politi- cian, was born at Havana, N. Y., 1843. He was educated at the district schools and Havana academy, and was admitted to the bar in 1864. He early entered politics and was a delegate to democratic state conventions, 1868-80, chairman 1877, 1881 ; delegate to national democratic conventions, 1876, 1884, 1896, 1900, 1904; seconded nomination of William J. Bryan for ? residency, 1900 ; member of New York assemblv, 871-72; city attornev, 1865, aldermah, 1880 aiid 1881, mayor, 1882, Elinira, N. Y.; lieutenant- governor of New York, 1882-85; governor of New York, 1885-91; United States senator 1891-97 J prominent candidate for presidential nomination in national democratic convention, 1892; candidate for governor of New York, 1894, but was defeated. President New York state bar association, 1886-«7. Died, 1910. Hlllt David Jayne, American diplomat, scholar, was born in Plainfield, N. J., 1850. He was graduated at Bucknell university, Pa., 1874; LL. D., Colgate, university of Pennsylvania, Union college; was a student in universities of Berlin and Paris. President of Bucknell uni- versity, 1879-88; president of university of Rochester, 1888-96; resigned; spent nearly three years in study of public law of Europe; professor of European diplomacv in school of comparative jurisprudence and diplomacy, Washington, 1899-1903. Assistant secretary of state of United States, 1898-1903, envoy extra- ordinary and minister plenipotentiary of United States to Switzerland, 1903-05, to the Neth- erlands, 1905-07; ambassador to Germany, 1908-11. Author: Life of Washington Irving; hife of William CuUen Bryant; Elements of Rhetoric; Science of Rhetoric; Elements of Psy- chology; Social Influence of Christianity; Prin- ciples and Fallacies of Socialism; Genetic Phi- losophy; International Justice; A Primer of Finance; The Conception and Realization of Neutrality; The Life and Work of Hugo Grotius; The Contemporary Development of Diplomacy; A History of Diplomacy in the International Development of Europe, etc. Also numerous political pamphlets in EngUsh and German, and printed addresses. Hill, James J., railway ofhcial, capitalist, was bom near Guelph, Ont., 1838. He was educated at Rockwood academy; left his father's farm for business life in Minnesota; was in steamboat offices in St. Paul, 1856-€5; agent of North- western packet company, 1865 ; later established general fuel and transportation business on his own account, and became head of Hill, Griggs and Company. He estabUshed in 1870 the Red River transportation company, wliich was the first to open communication between St. Paul and Winnipeg; organized, 1875, the North- western fuel company, and three years later sold out his interest, in the meantime having organized a syndicate which secured control of the St. Paul and Pacific railroad, from the Dutch owners of the securities. He reorganized the system as the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba railway company, and was its general manager, 1879-82"- vice-president, 1882-83, and president, 1883-90. This railway became part of the Great Northern system, 1890. He then interested himself in building the Great Northern railway, extending from Lake Superior to Puget sound, with northera and southern branches, and a direct steamship connection with China and Japan. He became president of the entire Great Northern system, 1893; retired in 1907 and became chairman of the board of directors of same; was chief pro- moter and is president of the Northern Securities company; is now director of Chicago, BurUngton and Quincy railroad company; St. Paul, Minne- apolis and Manitoba railway company; Man- hattan trust company; Chase national bank. First national bank of city of New York, First national bank of Chicago. He gave S500.000 toward establishing the Roman Catholic theologi- cal seminary at St. Paul, Minn., and has dis- pensed numerous other pliilanthropies. HUl, Sir Rowland, originator of penny postage, was bom at Kidderminster, England, 1795, anu was a . teacher from an early age down to 1833. He was one of the founders of the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge, 1826, interested himself in the socialistic schemes of Robert Owen, and took an active share in the colonization of South Australia. Sensible of the urgent need for reducing the high rates of postage, he advocated, in 1837, an adhesive postage stamp and a low and uniform rate between all puices in the British isles in a pamphlet, Post-office Reform. Two years later Hill was attached to the treasury for the purpose of putting his projected reforms into execution; ana in 1840 the present uniform penny rate came into force. In 1841 the cod- ser\-ative government, which had opposed the reduction, came into office, and in 1842 Hill was dismissed. Four years later a sum of 13,000 pounds, raised by public subscription, was pre- sented to him; and the liberals, returning to power, made Hill secretarj' to the postmaster- feneral, and in 1854 secretary to the poet-office, n 1864 he resigned owing to ill-health, and was awarded a pension of 2,000 pounds for life, together with a parliamentary grant of 20,000 pounds. Ho died at Hampstead in 1879, and was buried in Westmirmter abbey. EUll, Thomas, American educator and writer, was bom at New Brunswick, N, J., 1818. He graduated at Har^'ard, 1843, and from the oivinitv school, 1845. He was pastor of the Unitarian church at Waltham, Mass., 1845-59; president of Antioch college, 1859-62; president of Harvard, 18(52-68, resigning on account of poor health. He then accompanied Agassis to South America on a scientific expedition, and in 1873 became pastor of a Unitarian church at Portland, Me. He was an able mathematician, an authority on natural sciences, and a gifted classical scholar. He invented various mathe- matical machines, pubUshed Geometry and Faith; Curvat-ure; Jesus the Interpreter of Nature; Statement of the Natural Sources of Theology; and was co-editor of the Hill-Wentworth series of mathematical text-books. Died at Waltham, Mass.. 1891. HiUel {hU'-U\ sumamed Hababli, "the Baby- loruan," and Hazaken, "the elder," one of the greatest doctors of the Jewish law, was bom in Babylonia about 60 B. C. He was president of the sanhedrin in Jerusalem, through appoint- ment of Herod I., 30 B. C. to 9 A. D., and was distinguished for his humility, gentleness, and humane spirit. He founded the Talmudic Judaism, and wrote extensively on law and morals. Died, 10 A. D. Hlllis QM'-ls), Newell Dwlght, clergyman, author, was bom in Magnolia, la., 1858. He was educated at Iowa college, Lake Forest university and McCormick theological seminary; M. A.; D. D., Northwestern university. He entered the Presbyterian ministry; was pastor at Peoria, lU., 1886-89; at Evanston, III., 1889-95; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 776 succeeded the late Professor David Swing as pastor of Central church, Chicago, 1895- pastor of Plymouth church, Brooklyn, since January, 1899. Author: The Investnient of Influence; A Man's Value to Society; How the Inner Light Failed; Foretokens of Immortality; Great Books as Life Teachers; Influence of Christ in Modern Life; Quest of Happiness; Success Through Self- Hdp; Building a Working Faith; The Quest of John Chapman; The Fortune of the Republic, etc. Hlncmar {hlngk'-mdr), French churchman of the family of the counts of Toulouse, was bom about 806. He was educated in the monastery of St. Denis, was abbot of Compidgne and St. Germain, and in 845 was elected archbishop of Rheims. His suffragan Rothadius deposed a priest whom Hincmar ordered him to restore. For his refusal to comply Hincmar excommunicated the bishop, who appealed to the pope, and the pope, Nicholas I., annulled the sentence. Hincmar helped to degrade and imprison Gottschalk, who died in 868 after eighteen years' captivity, for his pre- destinarian views; he strenuously opposed Adrian II. 's attempts to compel obedience in imperial politics by church censures; and with equal firmness he resisted the emperor's intruding vmwortliy favorites into benefices. He died in 882. Hinrlchs, Gustav, musical conductor, was bom in Ludwigslust, Mecklenburg, Germany, 1850. He was graduated at Ludwigslust gymnasium- studied music in Hamburg with AngeTo Reissland and Edward Marxsen, teacher of Brahms, and came to America in 1870. He was associate conductor for two years with Theodore Thomas at the National opera. New York; was for several years professor at the National conservatory of music. New York, and director of music at Columbia university and the Metropolitan opera. New York. He managed his own opera com- pany ten years in Philadelphia, where he intro- duced to America the operas Cavalleria Rusticana and Pagliacci. He also produced there his own opera in three acts, Onti-Ora, a romantic grand opera. He is the composer of operas, sympho- nies, songs, choruses, etc., which have been performed from MSS. Hlpparchus {hi-par'-kOs), first great Greek astrono- mer, was born at Nicaea in Bithynia, flourished between 160 and 125 B. C, and made observa- tions at Rhodes. He discovered the precession of the equinoxes and the eccentricity of the sun's path, determined the length of the solar year, estimated the distances of the sun and moon from the earth, drew up a catalo^e of 1,080 stars, and fixed the geographical position of places on the earth by giving their latitude and longitude. Hippocrates (hi^pdk'-rd-tez), Greek physician, the most celebrated of antiquity, was bom in the island of Cos, probably about 460 B. C. ; and there, after visiting Athens, he settled in practice. He died at Larissa in Thessaly in 377 or 359 B. C. Seventy-two works bear his name. He seems to have gathered up all that was sound in the past history of medicine, was good in diag- nosis and prognosis, and believed that the four fluids or humors of the body, blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile, are the primary seats of disease. His works were first printed, in a Latin translation in 1525. The first Greek edition appeared in 1526. Hlrsch (hUrsh, Ger. hlrsh), Emll Gustav, German- American clergyman, educator, was bom in Luxemburg, Germany, 1852. He received his education in Germany ; was graduated at univer- sity of Pennsylvania, 1872; student at univer- sities of Berlin and Leipzig, 1872-76; alumnus of high school for Jewish science, Berlin, 1872-76 ; rabbi, 1877; LL. D., Austin college, 111., 1896; L. H. D., Western university of Pennsylvania, 1900. Minister of Har Sinai congregation, Baltimore, 1877; Ardath-lsrael congregation, Louisville, Ky., 1878; Sinai congregation, Chicago, since 1880. President and member of public librarv board, Chicago, 1888-97 ; professor of rabbinical literature and philosophy, univer- sity of Chicago, since 1892. Editor Zeitgeist, Milwaukee, 1880-87, Reformer, New York, 1886, now of The Reform Advocate, Chicago. Editor of biblical department, Jevnsh Encyclopedia. Author of various monographs on biblical and religious subjects, and prominent as orator on public and patriotic occasions. Hitchcock, Charles Henry, American geologist, was born at Amherst, Mass., 1836. He was graduated at Amherst college, 1856; LL. D., 1896 ; Ph. D., Lafayette, 1870 ; was assistant state geologist, Vermont, 1857-61; state geologist, Maine, 1861-62; state geologist. New Hamp- shire, 1868-78; professor of geoloRy, Dartmouth college, 1868-1908, professor emeritus since 1908. He headed the expedition occupying Mt. Waah- iiigton, N. H., in winter of 1870-71, the first high mountain observatory in this country. Was one of the founders of the geological society of America. Best known as compiler of several geological maps of United States and for researches in ichnology, geology of the crystalline schists and glacial geology. Author: Elementary Geology, with Edward Hitchcock; Mt. Washington m Winter; Report on Geology of New Hampshire (3 vols.); Geological Map of the United States; and 150 other titles in reports, pamphlets, etc., on geology. Hitchcock, Edward, American geologist, was bom at Deerfield, Mass., 1793. He was educated at Yale and ordained to the Congregational min- istry, 1821 ; pastor of the Congregational church at Conway, 1821-25; professor of chemistry and natural history in Amherst college, 1825-45; president and professor of natural theology and geology, 1845-54, and subsequently held the chair of geology until his death. In 1824 he ?ubUshed The Geology of the Connecticut Valley. n 1830 he was appointed state geologist, and as such made a thorough survey of the geology and mineralogical resources, including also the botany and zoology, of Massachusetts in 1830, of part of New York in 1836, and of Vermont in 1857. In 1850 he was appointed agricultural commissioner for his native state, visited and examined the chief agricultural schools of Europe, and subsequently published his Report on the Agricultural Schools of Europe. Died, 1864. Hitchcocli, F'rank Harris, American politician, post- master-general, 1909-13; was bom at Amherst, Ohio, 1867. He was graduated at Harvard, 1891 ; at the Columbian university law school, 1894, LL. M., 1895; was admitted to bar of District of Columbia, 1894, and to that of the United States supreme court, 1897. He entered the government service in 1891 ; was chief of division of foreign markets, L^nited States department of agriculture; chief clerk department of commerce and labor; member of Keep commission, and was first assistant postmaster-general, 1905-08. He was chosen chairman of the republican national committee in 1908, and conducted the presidential campaign of that year ; was appointed postmaster-general by President Taft, 1909. Author of about fifty bulletins, reports, and circulars on foreign trade and customs tariffs. Hitcbcocit, Roswell Dwigbt, American clergyman and theologian, was bom in Maine, 1817. He was graduated at Amherst college in 1836; entered Andover theological seminary in 1838; was a tutor at Amherst, 1839—42; taught in several seminaries, and in 1845 became pastor of a Congregational church in Exeter, N. H. In 776 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 1852, having passed a year In study at Halle and Berlin, he resigned his pastorate and became professor of natural and revealed religion in Bowdoin college. He was professor of church history in Union theological seminary, New York, 1855-80; in 1866 traveled in Italy and Greece; in 1869 in Egypt and Palestine; in 1871 was chosen president of the American Palestine exploration society, and in 1880 became president of the Union theological seminary, still retaining his professorship. The degree of D. D. was conferred upon nim by the university of Edin- burgh in 1884. In 1885 he traveled in Spain and Norway. From 1863 to 1870 he was one of the editors of the American Theological Review, to which he furnished many papers, mostly upon ecclesiastical history. He published Complete Analysis of the Bible, Socialiam, etc. Died, 1887. Hoar, George Frlsble, American statesman, lawyer, was bom in Concord, Ma.ss., 1826. He was graduated from Harvard college, 1846, and after- ward from the Dane law school. Harvard He practiced law at Worcester, was elected to the state legislature, 1852, to the state senate, 1867 : was member of congress, 1869-77, and United States senator from 1877 until his death. He was an able lawyer, a keen debater, and a man of scholarly attainments. He left valuable Mem- oirs containing his observations during his long career. In the senate he was a steadfast op- ponent of President McKinley's policy in the Philippines. Died in Worcester, Mass., 1904. Hobart {ho'-bdrt). Garret AuKUstus, American legislator and vice-president of the United States, was bom at Long Branch, N. J., 1844. He was educated in Rutgers college, studied law. entered the New Jersey assembly, 1872, ana became speaker of the house in 1873. In 1876 he was elected to the state senate, and was made president of the senate in 1881. P'rom 1880 to 1891 he was chairman of the republican com- mittee of New Jersey, and in 1884 became a member of the republican national committee. He was nominated and elected vice-president by the republican party in 1896, and to a greater extent, perhaps, than any of his predeceasors made his office one of real influence and power. Died in office, 1899. Hobbes {hSbz), John Oliver, pseudonym of Mrs. Pearl Mary Teresa Craigie {nie Richards), novelist, was born at Boston, Mass., 1867, and died in 1906. She wrote Some Emotions and a Moral; The Sinner's Comedy; A Sttidy in Temp- tations; The Gods, some Mortals, and Lord Wickenham; The Hcrb-^moon; The Ambassador, a play; The School for Saints; Robert Orange, etc. Hobbes, Thomas, English philosopher, was bom at Malmesbury, England, 1588. He was graduated at Oxford, and in 1610 went abroad with the earl of Devonshire as his pupil, and made a tour of France and Italy. Meantime, he was occupied with classical, political, and philosophical studies, and prepared for publication his first work, a translation of Thucydides, which came out in 1628. His first original work, De Cive, after- ward entitled Elementa Philosophica de Cive, was printed in Paris, 1642. He published soon after two small treatises, entitled Human Nature and De Corpore Politico. After the meeting of the long parliament he went to Paris, from his dread of the civil troubles. In 1647 he was appointed mathematical tutor to the prince of Wales, after- ward Charles II. Then followed his Leviathan, embodying his famous "social compact" theory, and Liberty and Necessity. His old age was fruit- ful in additions to his writings, and was marked by some sharp controversies. His last works were a translation of Homer and a historj' of the civil wars. Died, 1679. Hobson, BIcbmond Peariwn, congressman, lecturer, was bom in Greensboro, Ala., 1870. He was grad- uated from the United States naval academy, 1889, studied at the Ecole National Superior des Mines and Ecole d' Application du G^nie Maritime, Paris. Served on flagship New York in blockade duty, in bombardment of Matanzas, in expedition against San Juan de Puerto Rico; commanded collier Merrimac and sunk her in Santiago harbor to prevent the exit of the Spanish fleet. As a result was captured and made a prisoner in Spanish fortress, June 3 to July 6, 1898. In 1899-1900 he was on naval duty in the far East; al Expansion; America Must be Mistress of the Seas, etc. Hodge, Charles, American theologian, was bom in Philadelphia. Pa.j 1797. He was graduated at Princeton college in 1815, and in 1822 became a professor in the Princeton thcolopical sominarj", where he remained until the cUjse of his life. He was founder and long the editor of the Princeton Review; and bosides numerous essays, etc^ was the author of Commentaries on Romans, Corin- thians, and Ephesians; Historyof the Presbyterian Church in America; What is Darwinismf and of the well-known Systematic Theology, a standard work of the Calvanistic churches. Died, 1878. Hodgea« George, American clerg^'man and writer, dean of the Episcopal theological school, Cam- bridge, Haas., since 1894. was bom in Rome, N. Y., 1856. He was graauated from Hamilton, 1877; D. D., Western university of Pennsyl- vania, 1892; D. C. L., Hobart, 1902. Was ordained prieat, 1882; assistant, 1881-89, and rector, 1889-04, Calvary church, Pittsburg, Pa. Author: The Episcopal Church; Christianity Between Sundays; The Heresy of Cain; In This PreserU World; Faith and Social Service; The Battles of Peace; The Path of Life; WHliam Penn, in the Riverside biographical series; Fountairu Abbey; The Human Nature of the Saints; When the King Came; The Cross and Passion; Three Hundred Years of the Episcopal Church in America; The Administration of an Instiiutiorud Church; The Happy Family; The Pursuit of Happiness; The Year of Grace; Hcidemess, etc Hodglns (W;'-ir«), John GeorRe, Canadian edu- cator and writer, ex-librarian and historiographer of the education department of Ontario since 1890, was bom in DubUn, 1821. He removed to Canada, 1833, and was educated at Upper Canada academy, Victoria college, Cobourg. He was graduated in law at Toronto university, 1860; LL. D., 1870 ; was admitted to the bar of Ontario, 1870; was secretary of the board of education for upper Canada, 1846; deputy superintendent in the department of education, 1855; deputy minister of education, 1876-90; hon. secretary of the international congress of educators at New Orleans, 1885. He was editor of the Upper Canada Journal of Education nearly thirty years ; Lovell's General Geography; First Steps in General Geography; School History of Canada and of the other British North American Provinces; Canadian School Speaker and Reciter; School THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 777 Manual; Lectures on the School Law; Sketches and Anecdotes of the Queen; The School House and its Architecture, etc. Hodglns, Thomas, Canadian jurist, judge of the admiralty division of the exchequer court and master-in-ordinarj', supreme court, Ontario, was bom in Dublin, 1828. He emigrated to Canada, 1848: was graduated from Toronto university, 1856; LL. B., 1858, M. A., 1860, hon. LL. D., 1906; was admitted to the bar, 1858; queen's coxmsel for Dominion, 1873; for Ontario, 1876; bencher of the law society, 1874 ; member of the senate of the university of Toronto, 1876 and 1893; arranged the affiliation of that university ■with the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. He was counsel with Sir Oliver Mowat in the Ontario boundary arbitration, 1878; member for West Elgin in the Ontario legislature, 1871- 78; contested West Toronto, 1878, and West York, 1882, for the Dominion house of commons; declined the county judgeship of York, 1875. Author: Reports on Election Cases; Bills of Exchange, Notes and Cheques; Manuals on Voters' Lists and Franchise Laws; British and American Diplomacy affecting Canada, 1782- 1899; articles in the Contemporary Review, Nineteenth Century, etc. Hodgkin {hd]'-kln), Thomas, English historian, was born at Tottenham, 1831. He was graduated at University college, London, and was a partner in the banking firm of Hodgkin, Bamett and Company, Newcastle-on-Tyne, now amalgamated with Lloyds' bank, 1859-1902. Since 1874 he has devoted his leisure time to historical writing, and has now completely retired fromi business. Author: Italy and her Invaders; Letters of Cassiodorus; Dynasty of Theodosius; Life of Theodoric; Life of George Fox; Think it Out, a pamphlet on the Home Rule question; Life of Charles the Great, in Foreign Statesmen series; Political History of England, etc. Hodzuml, Nobushige, Japanese educator and law writer, professor of law in the imperial university of Tokyo since 1881, was bom in 1855. He was educated at Tokyo university. Middle Temple, London, England, and at Berlin university. He was a member of the house of peers, 1890-92, and with two colleagues drafted the present Japanese civil code. Author: Ancestor Worship and Japanese Law; The New Japanese Civu Codes as Material for the Study of Comparative Jurisprudence; Hoten-ron, or Treatise on Codi- fication; Inkyo-ron, or Treatise on Retirement from Hoxise-headship; Gonin-gumi, or the System of Mnttial Help arid Supervision among Five Families, etc. Hoe, Robert, manufacturer, inventor, was bom in New York, 1839. He was educated in the public schools, entered printing press factory of R. Hoe and Company, founded by his grandfather, Robert, and developed the printing press from the "Hoe cylinder" of the 1846 patent to the present double-sextuple Hoe, and also presses of greatly improved type for printing in colors. He also engaged in the manufacture of circular saws and saw-bits, with large factories in New York and London. He was one of the founders of the Metropolitan museum of art. Died, 1909. Hofer (ho'-fer), Andreas, Tyrolese patriot, was bom at St. Leonard, 1767. In 1796 he led a body of Tyrolese against the French on the lake of Garda ; in 1808 secret deputies, among whom was Hofer, arrived at Vienna, to represent to the archduke John the sufferings of the people, and their wish to be reunited to Austria. By the desire of the archduke, Baron von Hormayr sketched for them a plan of insurrection, which met with such success that, in three davs, from the 11th to the 13th of April, 1809, nearly the whole country was liberated. Napoleon, however. at once marched three armiee to the Tyrol, to subdue the rebellious peasantry. At first Hofer concealed himself in a cave, but when Spech- bacher, Joachim Haspinger, a Capuchin, and Peter Mayer, at the heaid of the armed population, renewed the defense of the Tyrol, and repeatedly defeated the enemy, Hofer iasuod from his retreat, and took the leadership of the Tyrolese. At the battle fought August 13th on the Iselberg, Lefebvre was driven from the Tyrol. Hofer continued to conduct the civil and military administration until the peace of Vienna. The French and Bavarians poured into the country for the third or fourth time, and after a brief struggle Hofer was obliged to take refuge ia concealment. After a lapse of two months he was betrayed into the hands of the French by a priest named Douay, conveyed to Mantua, tried, and condemned to be shot. The sentence waa carried into execution in 1810. Hoff (Jidf), Jakobus Hendrlkus van't, Dutch chem- ist, was bom at Rotterdam, 1852. He waa appointed professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology at An^isterdam, and in 1896 became Srofessor of chemistry in the university of Berlin. [e made notable researches in physical chemis- try, and was the founder of stereo-chemistrv. Ia 1901 he received the Nobel prize for the most im- portant contribution to chemistry. Died, 1911. HOfTdlng (hUf'-dSng), Harold, Danish psychologist, philosopher, and educator, professor of philosophy, university of Copenhagen, was bom in 1843. He graduated from the university of Copenhagen, and received his Ph. D. in 1870; D. Sc, Oxford; LL. D., St. Andrews, Aberdeen. Was lecturer at the university, 1880, and became professor of philosophy, 1883. He is a member of the royal Danish society of letters and sciences; corre- spondent de rinstitut de France, etc. Author: Psychology, reprinted in German, Russian, French, English, Spanish, and Polish editions; Ethics; History of Modem Philosophy; Phil- osophical Problems; Modem Philosophers; The Philosophy of Religion, etc. Hoffmann, Emst Theodor Wilhelm, German writer, composer, critic, and caricaturist, was bom at Konigsberg, 1776. In 1797 he was appointed assessor at Posen; but his love of caricature got him into trouble, and he was degraded to an inferior post. For the next ten years he led a precarious existence, writing meantime a remark- able essay on Mozart's Don Juan, composing an opera on Fouqud's Undine, and for two months during 1808 was director of the theater at Bam- berg. In 1815 he resumed his career in the Prussian service, and from 1816 until his death held a position in the supreme court at Berlin. Hoffmann was the arch-priest of ultra-German romanticism. He wagecl incessant war upon the sticklers for routine and conventionalism. His wit bubbled over in irony, ridicule, sarcasm ; and his imagination was inexaustible, but utterly undisciplined, wild, and fantastic. His shorter tales were mostly published in the collections PhantasiestOcke, Nachtstucke, and Die Serapions- briider. His longer works include Die Eiixiere des Teufds; Scltsame Leiden einea Theater- direktors; Klein Zaches, and Lebensansichten des Katers Murr, partly autobiographical. Of his fairy tales, Der Goldene Topf was translated by Carlyle in 1827. Died, 1822. Hotmann, August Wilhelm von, German chemist, was bom at Giesscn, 1818. He became assistant there to Liebig, and, when the royal college of chemistry was established in London in 1845, Hofmann was made superintendent. From 1856 to 1865 he was chemist to the British roj'al mint. In 1865 he went to Berlin as professor of chem- istry, and, ennobled in 1888, aied there in 1892. His contributions to the scientific journals were 778 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT mainly on organic chemistry. In the course of these researches he obtained aniUne from coal- tar products. He devoted much labor to the theory of chemical types. His Introduction to Modem Chemistry led to great reforms in the teaching of chemistry. He wrote The Ldfe-^vork of lAebig; on the chemists Wohler and Dumas: and Chemische Erinnerungen. Hogarth (hd'-g&rth), WilUam, English painter, engraver, and pictorial satirist, was bom at London, 1697. He served an apprenticeship to a silversmith; about 1720 began business for himself, first being employed in engraving coats of arms, crests, etc., and designing plates for booksellers; and in 1724 studied art at Sir Jamies Thomhill's school in James street. He made the illustrations for Gray's edition of Butler's Hvdibras. He secretly married the daughter of Sir James Thornhill in 1729, and in 1730 began the painting of his satires, among them being: "Harlot's Progress"; "A Mid- night Modem Conversation " ; "A Rake's Prog- ress"; "The Distressed Poet " ; and his master- piece, the famous "Marriage k la Mode." He died at London, 1764. Holbein (hoi' -inn), Hans, or Johann, called "the younger," German painter, was bom at Augs- burg, 1497. He went to Basel with his brother, Ambrosius, also a painter. About 1526 he con- tracted an intimacy with Erasnms, whose por- trait he painted, and soon after visited England, where he passed the remainder of his life. Henry VIII. made him court painter. He is distin- guished as an historical and portrait painter, and engraver on wood. As an engraver he is chiefly known by the celebrated "Dance of Death," a series of fifty-three woodcuts engraved from lus own designs, although it is seldom found with more than forty-six. He also painted the "Madonna of the Burgomaster Meyer of Basel"; "The Ambassadors"; "The Last Supper"; "Tlie Dead Christ"; "The Nativity"; "The Adoration of the Magi," etc. Died, 1543. Holberg {hM'-bh-K), Ludvlg, Baron, creator of modem Danish literature, was bom at Bergen in Norway, 1684. He studied at the university of Copenhagen, became professor of metaphysics at Copenhagen in 1718, and maintained tus con- nection with the university up to the time of his death in 1754. His first notable works were satirical poems, among them Peder Poors, in which he ridicules the pedantic stiffness and stupidity of contemporarj' life and thought. In 1721 the first Danish theater was opened at Copenhagen, and Holberg began to write comedies with mars-elous success. After 1724 he turned to history, and wrote, among other books, a History of Denmark; General Church History; History of the Jews, and Convparative Biographies of Great Men and Women. In 1741 he proouced another classic, the romance Niels Khm's Sub- terranean Journey; and lastly the serious reflec- tive works, Moral Thoughts and Epistles, and his own Autobiography. Peder Poors, the Subter- ranean Journey, and the Autobiography have been translated into English. Holden (hol-den), Edward Singleton, American astronomer, was bom in St. Louis, Mo., 1846. He was graduated at the scientific school in Washington university in 1866, at West Point in 1870, and was appointed second Ueutenant of artillery. For a year he was at Fort Johnson, N. C, was assistant professor at West Point, and in 1872 became instructor of the engineer corps. In 1873 he became professor of mathematics in the United States navy, and was ordered to the naval observatory at Washington, D. C. In 1881 he became professor of astronomy in the university of Wisconsin and director of the Washburn observatory, where he remained with brief intermissions until 1885, and published four volimies of observations. In 1883 he visited the Caroline islands to observe a total eclipse of the sun. He was president of the university of California, 1885-88 • director of the Lick ob.serv- atory on Mt. Hamilton, 1888-98 ; and Ubrarian of the United States military academy since 1901. Holland, Sir Henry, English physician and writer, was born at Knutsford, Cheshire, 1788. He was graduated at Edinburgh, 1811, and in 1815 pub- ushed Travels in ACbania, Thessaly, etc. He settled in London in 1816; became one of the most eminent members of his profession; in 1840 was appointed physician to the prince consort, in 1852 to the queen; and in 1853 was created a baronet. He published Medical Notes and Reflections; Chapters on Mental Physiology; Essays on Scientific Subjects; RecoUeetioru of A Past Life, etc. He died in London, 1873. Holland, Josiab Gilbert, American writer, was born at Belchertown, Mass., 1819. He studied medi- cine and practiced for some three vears, and then became superintendent of public schools at Vicksburg, Miss. He was connected with the SpringMd Republican from 1849 until 1866; was one of the founders of Scribner's Magazine in 1870, and remained editor of it and of its suc- cessor, the Century Magazine, until his death. He was a prolific author, and all his books were of a high moral tone. Some of the best known of them are Letters to Young People, Married and Single; Bitter-Sweet; Gold Fod; Miss Gilbert" a Career; Arthur Bonnicastle; The Story of Seven Oak*; Nicholas Mintum, etc. Died at New York, 1881. Holland, Tbomas Erskine, English law writer and educator, professor of international law and diplomacy at Oxford, was bom in 1835. He was naduated at Oxford- D. C. L., Oxford; LL. D., Bologna, Glasgow, Dublin. He became a bar- rister in 1863, and Vinerian reader in English law, 1874. He is a fellow of the British academy ; associate of the royal academy of Belgium ; hon. professor in the university of Perugia; hon. member of the university of St. Petersburg, of the juridical society of Berlin, of royal academies of Bologna and Padua, and of the American societv of international law, etc. He was British plenipotcntiarv at the Geneva conference, 1906- bencher, Lincoln's Inn, 1907. Author: The Elements of Jurisprudence; The Institutee of Justinian; An Essay on Composition Deeds; Essays on the Form, of the Law; The European Concert in the Eastern Question; The Admiralty Manual of Naval Prize Law; Studies in Inter- national Law; The Laws and Customs of War on Land; Neutral Duties in a Maritime War, etc. Holland, William Jacob, educator, naturalist, was born in Jamaica, West Indies, 1848, of American parentage. He was graduated at Amherst, 1869, and Princeton theological scminarv, 1874 ; Ph. D., 1886, Sc. D., 1902, Washington and Jefferson; LL. D., Dickinson, 1896, New York university, 1897, St. Andrews university, 1905. He was a Presbyterian pastor at Pittsburgh, Pa., 1874-91 ; chancellor Western university of Pennsylvania, 1891-1901; since 1898 director of Carnegie institute, Pittsburgh, Pa. Was naturalist in United States eclipse expedition to Japan, 1887, and to West Africa, 1889. He is regarded as an authority on zoology and museum administration. Author: The Butterfly Book; The Moth Book; and of many scientific pap)er8 published by the United States government, the zoological society of London, etc. Editor of the Annals and Memoirs published by the Cam^ie museum. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, jurist, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1841. He was graduated from Harvard, 1861, and from Harvard law school, 1866; LL-D., THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 779 Harvard, 1895, Yale, 1886. He served three years in the 20th Massachusetts volunteers; was wounded at Ball's Bluff, 1861^ at Antietam, 1862 and at Marye's Hill, Fredcncksburg, 1803, ana received brevets as major, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel. After the war he engaged in practice at Boston, and was editor of the American Law Review, 1870-73. Was a member of the law firm of Shattuck, Holmes and Munroe, 1873-82 ; was professor of law. Harvard law school, 1882; associate justice, 1882-99, chief-justice, 1899- 1902, supreme judicial court of Massachusetts- associate justice of supreme court of Unitea States since December, 1902. Author: The Common Law, lectures at Lowell institute. Speeches, etc. Edited the twelfth edition of Kenfs Commentaries. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, American physician and poet, was bom in Cambridge, Mass., 1809. He was graduated at Harvard in 1829, studied law for a period, but subsequently devoted himself to meaicine, and, after attendance in the hospi- tals of Europe for several years, received his degree in medicine in 1836. In 1838 he became professor of anatomy and physiolo^ in Dart- mouth college, and in 1847 was appointed to the same chair at Harvard. He gained some repu- tation as an anatomist, and was, besides, an able microscopist and a skillful auscultator; but his widest fame is as a poet, a wit, and a man of letters. His wit and humor are transcendent, his poetry the perfection of conception and finish, and all his literary efforts of rare originality and excellence. He was also a fascinating and instructive lecturer, while his admirable social quaUties endeared him to the large and intel- lectual circle he so adorned. The first collection of his poems appeared in 1836, and attracted marked attention. Then followed his Phi Beta Kappa poems, Poetry; Terpsichore; Urania; and Astraa, all of which addea to his reputation. In 1857 he contributed his Autocrat of the Break- fast Table, a connected series of prose essays, to the Atlantic Monthly, which was followed by The Professor at the Breakfast Table; The Poet at the Breakfast Table; and Over the Teacups. This brilliant series, which was in his happiest vein, was interspersed with poems, and was fraught with humor, pathos, practical wisdom, and a healthy sentiment grateful and refreshing. His after-dinner poems and other short lyrics are not surpassea by any productions of their kind in the language. His various medical addresses, papers, and pamphlets are now a part of our scientific literature; and his other works include Currents and Counter-Currents in Medical Science; Elsie Venner, a romance; Songs in Many Keys; Soundings from the Atlantic; The Guardian Angel; and Mechanism in Thought and Morals. Died, 1894. Holmes, William Henry, American anthropologist, archaeologist, was born in Harrison county, Ohio, 1846. He was graduated at McNeely normal college, 1870; was a normal school teacher, 1871-72; assistant, 1872-80, geologist, 1880-89, United States geological survey; cu- rator department aboriginal pottery. United States national museum, 1882-93; archaeologist United States bureau ethnology, in charge of explorations, 1889-98; curator anthropology. Field museum of natural history, and professor anthropic geology, university of Chicago, 1894-97 ; head curator department anthropology, 1898- 1902; chief bureau American ethnology since 1902; curator prehistoric archaeology, 1903, and national gallery of art, 1907, United States national museum. Member of numerous scientific societies, foreign and domestic. Author: Archce- ological Studies Among the Cities of Mexico; Stone Implements of tfie Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater Province; and numerous papers in ethnology and archaeology, especially relating to ceramic, textile, and stone-working arts and ornaments. Hoist (hoist), Hermann Eduard von, Qerman- American historian, was bom in Fellin, Livonia, Russia, 1841. He came to the Unitetl States in 1867, engaged in literary work and lecturing for several years; returned to Europe, and became professor in the university of Strassburg, 1872, and at Freiburg, 1874. He was appointed pro- fessor of history in the university of Chicago, 1892, which post he retained until 1900, whenhe returned to Freiburg and retired. He published Constitutional and Political History of the United States; Constitutional Law of the United States; Life of John Calhoun, etc. Died, 1904. Holt, Henry, publisher and author, was bom at Baltimore, Md., 1840. He was graduated at Yale, 1862; Columbia law school, 1864; LL. D., university of Vermont, 1901. Began publishing business with G. P. Putnam, 1863, and is now president of Henry Holt and Company, pub- lishers, New York. Author: Catmire — Man and Nature; Talks on Civics; Sturmsee — Man and Man; On the Civic Relations. He has contributed many articles on social and literary subjects. Holyoake (hol'-yok; hol'-l-ok), George Jacob, English reformer, founder of "secularism," waa bom at Birmingham, 1817. He taught mathe- matics for several years at the mechanics' insti- tution in Birminghaim, lectured on Robert Owen's socialist system, was secretary to Garibaldi's British contingent, edited the Reasoner, and promoted the bill legalizing secular affirmations. Holyoake was the last person imprisoned in England on a charge of atheism. He wrote The Rochdale Pioneers; History of Co&peration m England; Self-help a Hundred Years Ago. Other works are The Limits of Atheism.; Trial of Theism; Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life; Public Speak- ing and Debate, etc. Died, 1906. Homer. See page 9. Homer, Wlnslow, American artist, was bom at Boston, 1836. While young he worked at lithog- raphy in Boston, and in 1859 went to New York and became a student of art at the academy of design. He obtained the notice of the public by two pictures entitled "Home, Sweet Home," and "The Last Goose at Yuletown." He pur- sued his studies in Paris, and won recognition as an artist of originality. Among his pictures are "Prisoners from the Front"; "Snap the Whip"; "Eating Watermelon"; "Flowers for the Teacher"; "Undertow"; "Eight Bells"; and the marine paintings: "A Northeaster"; "Stormbeaten " ; "The Maine Coast, " his master- piece; and "Wood's Island by MoonUght." The last named gained the medal of honor at the exhibition of the academy of fine arts at Phila- delphia in 1906. Died, 1910. Homiakoff, Nicholas Alexeievitch, Russian states- man, president of the Russian duma, was bom in 1850. His father was a well-known member of the Slavophil school, and he is the godson of Gogol. He was for some years director of the department of agriculture, and became a member of the second duma, taking his place among the "Octobrists." He is an ardent upholder of the constitution, and a strong believer in reform. Honorius {hd-nd'-rl-Hs), Flavlus, emperor of the West, was born at Constantinople, 384 A. D. He was the second son of Theodosius the Great, at whose death the empire was divide'land, receiving a wound at the battle of Antietam. His bravery in action brought him the nickname "Fighting Joe Hooker." In January, 18(>3, he was made commander of the army of the Potomac, and in May he fought the bloody battle of Chancellors- ville. Owing to a difference between Hooker and his commander-in-chief. General Halleck, the former resigned his command, June 28, 1863, but he still served as a major-general, and fought under Sherman at Atlanta. After the war he commanded in different departments, and in 1868 retired from the army. He died at Garden City, N. Y., 1879. Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, British botanist, was born at Haleswortb, Suffolk, in 1817. He gradu- ated as an M. D., but has always devoted his attention to botany. He joined the antarctic expedition of the Erebus and Terror. When he returned, in 1843, he brought with him 5,340 species of plants, which were described and pub- lished under the title of Flora Antarctica. His Himalayan Journals and the Rhododendrons of the Sikkim- Himalaya were important additions to our knowledge of botany. In 1871 he made an expedition to Morocco, ascended the Greater Atlas, the summit of which had never before been reached by a European, and secured a valuable collection of plants. He was appointed assistant- director at Kew gardens in 1855, and, on the death of his father in 1865, succeeded him as director, retiring in 1885. He was president of the British association in 1868, and was elected president of the royal society in 1872. His great work, which he undertook in conjunction with George Bentham, is the Genera Plantarum, the first part of which appeared in 1862; and the first part of the second volume, bringing down the work to the Compositae, was published in 1873. Died. 1911. Hooker, Blcbard!, English theologian and writer, was bom in Exeter, England, 1554. He was graduated from Oxford, 1574, was a fellow of Coqjus Christi college, Oxford, and deputv pro- fessor of Hebrew. The archbishop of York pro- moted liim to the mastership of the Temple in London, 1585. The morning and afternoon services belonged respectively to him and to Walter Travers, the one inclining to the Arminian view and maintaining the Anglican form of worship, the other maintaining Calvinistic opinions and inclining to the Presbj'terian form. A controversy arose, which W£is the occasion of Hooker's great work on Ecclesiastical Polity. In 1591 he became rector of Boscombe, Wilt- shire, where he completed the first four books of the work. From 1595 he was rector of Bishopsboume, Kent. Died, 1600. Hooker, Thomas, English clergyman and American colonist, was bom at Markfield, Leicester, about 1586. He became a fellow of Emmanuel collie, Cambridge, and was for three years a Puritan lecturer at Chelmsford. In 1630 he retired to Holland; in 1633 sailed for Massachusetts, and received a charge at Cambridge. In 1636 ho removed with his congregation to Connecticut, and founded Hartford. He was joint-author. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 781 with John Cotton, of the Survey of the Summe of Church Discipline. Died, 1647. Hopkins, Albert Jm lawver, ex-United States senator, was born in Dekalb county. III., 1846. He was graduated at Hillsdale college, 1870, studied law, and was admitted to the Illinois bar. He wiis state's attorney, Kane county, 1872-76; presidential elector, 1884: member of congress, 1885-1903, 8th Illinois district; United States senator from Illinois, 1903-09. He was sup- ported by the republican congressional delega- tion of Illinois as candidate for speaker, 56th congress. Hopkins, Edward Washburn, American oriental scholar, professor of Sanskrit, Yale university since 1895; was bom at Northampton, Mass., 1857. He was graduated at Columbia, 1878; Ph. D., Leipzig university, 1881; LL. D., Columbia, 1902. Was instructor at Columbia, 1881-85; professor of Greek, Sanskrit, and comparative philology, Bryn Mawr college, 1885-95. Author: Caste in Ancient India; Manu's Lawbook; Religions of India; The Great Epic of India; India, Old and New; and many special essays on oriental and linguistic subjects. He was editor of the Journal of American Oriental Society, 1897-1907. Hopkins, Mark, American educator, was bom in Massachusetts, 1802. He was graduated at Williams college in 1824, and received the degree of M. D. in 1828; was professor of moral phi- losophy and rhetoric in Williams college from 1830 until his death ; was president of the college, 1836-72; in 1857 became president of the American board of commissioners for foreign missions. He is the author of Evidences of Christianity, Law of Love and Love as a Law, and An Outline Study of Man. Died, 1887. fiopkinson, Francis, American politician and author, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1737. He was a delegate to the continental congress from New Jersey, and was one of the signers of the declaration of independence. He wrote The Battle of the Kegs; The Pretty Story; The Political Catechism, and other works in prose and verse. His son, Joseph, judge of the United States district court, wrote "Hail Columbia." Died, 1791. Hopper, De Wolf, comedian, was bom in New York, 1858. He made his first professional appearance in Our Boys, 1878; later with Daniel Frohman's Madison square company as Pittacus Green in Hazel Kirke and other r61es; studied vocal music and joined the McCaull opera company. For several years he starred in comedy roles at the head of his own company ; later with Weber and Fields company; then again starred at the head of his own companj^, playing Mr. Pickwick. He became famous m Wang and a later production, Happyland. Horace, Quintus Horatlus Flaccus, famous Roman poet, was bom at Venusia, Italy, 65 B. C. Athens was at this time regarded as the univer- sity of the world, and thither Horace repaired in his nineteenth year to complete his education by a course orf philosophy and science under Greek masters. But the civil wars which fol- lowed the death of Julius Csesar, in 44 B. C, interrupted him in his studies. The arrival of Brutus at Athens roxised the patriotic feelings of the youthful Romans, and along with others Horace ardently embraced the cause of the republic. Though entirely inexperienced in war, he was promoted to the rank of military tribune, with the command of a legion, and in this charac- ter shared in the defeat at Philippi, 42 B. C. After the battle he returned to Rome, and by acting as clerk in the quajstor's office he contrived to live until he found means of making himself known to the poets Varius and Virgil, by whom his name was first mentioned to Maecenas. Tha first interview with his future patron and friend seems not to have betm sati.sfactory. for it was not until after nine months had elapsed that MaH;enas requested him to repeat his visit. The friend of the prime minister found easy access to the emperor ; Horace was soon on terms of famili- arity with Augustus, and enjoyed his friendship and patronage during the remainder of his life. But the friendship of Maecenas, who gave him an estate in the Sabine territory, about thirty-four miles from Rome, made him independent for life. His admiration of the beautiful sccnerv in the neighborhood of Tibur (Tivoli) induced him to pass his life between his country residence and Rome. His works consist of two books of Satires, a book of Epodes, four books of Odea, two books of Epistles, and a treatise on the Art of Poetry. Died, 8 B. C. Homaday (hdr'^nd-dd), William Temple, American naturalist, director of the New York zoological park since 1896, was bom in Plainfield, Ind., 1854. He was educated at Iowa agricultural college; studied zoology and muscology in this country and Europe, and as collecting zoologist visited Cuba, Florida, the West Indias, South America, India, Ceylon, the Malay peninsula, and Borneo, 1875-79. He was chief taxidermist of United States national museum, 1882-90 ; in real estate business at Buffalo, N. Y., 1890-96. Author: Two Years in the Jungle; Free Rum on the Congo; The Extermination of the American Bison; Taxidermy and Zoological Collecting; The Man Who Became a Savage; The American Natural History; Camp-Fires in Canadian Rockies, etc. Homblower, William Butler, American lawyer, was bom in Paterson, N. J., 1851. He was graduated at Princeton university, 1871 ; LL. B., Columbia law school, 1875; LL. D., Princeton, 1895, and is now a member of the 6rm of Hom- blower, Miller and Potter of New York. He was a member of the commission appointed by Governor Hill, 1890, to propose amendments to the judiciary article of the New York constitu- tion; was appointed, 1893, by President Cleve- land, associate justice of the United States supreme court, but was not confirmed by senate owing to opposition by New York senators for political reasons. He is a member of the board of commissioners of statutory consolidation engaged in examining and consolidating all general statutes of New York from 1777. Homung {hdr'-nung), Ernest William, English noveUst and journalist, was bom at Middles- borough, England, 1866. He was educated at Uppingham school. Was in Australia, 1884-86, and has been engaged in literary work ever since. Author: A Bride from the Bush; Under Two Skies; The Rogue's March; My Lord Duke; The Amateur dracksman; Dead Men Tell No Tales; The Black Mask; The Shadow of the Rope; Denis Dent; Stingaree; A Thief in the Night; Mr. Justice Raffles, etc. Horsford {hdrs'-ferd), El>en Norton, American chemist, was bom in Livingston county, N. Y., 1818. He studied engineering and was engaged on the geological survey of the state of New York. In 1840 he was appointed professor of mathe- matics in the female academy at Albany, where he remained for four years. He afterward studied in Germany, under Liebig, and, on his return to the United States in 1847, was elected Rumford professor of science at Harvard. After sixteen years' service there he resigned to engage in chemical manufactures. He wrote exten- sively on scientific subjects. Died, 1893. Hoskin, Jobn, Canadian lawyer, one of the board of governors of the university of Toronto, was bom at Hols worthy, Devon, England, 1836. 782 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT He was educated in London; went to Canada, 1854, and was admitted to the bar, 1863. He was made a queen's counsel in 1873; elected a bencher of the law society of upper Canada, 1876, and was a member of the dominion senate for Toronto university; hon. LL. U., 1889; D. C. L., Trinity university. He was chairman of the board" of trustees of the university of Toronto until its reorganiration in 1906, and was then appointed by the government of the province chairman of the new board of governors. He is director of the bank of commerce, the British American assurance company, the Western assurance companv, the Toronto general trusts company, ana tlie Toronto gas company; president of the Canadian landed and natiotial mvestment company. Hosmer (jUizf^mlr), Harriet, American sculptor, was bom in Watertown, Mass., 1830. She early showed a talent for sculpture by modeling figures in clay. To prepare herself for her chosen career *he studied anatomy, first with her father, and afterward at the medical school at St. Louis. Returning to her home in 1851, she modeled her first work, "Hesper," which had so decided a success that she was sent to Rome, where she became the pjipil of Gibson. In his studio she modeled a bust of " Daphne," "ffinone," " Beatrice Cenci," etc. Her most ambitious work is a colossal statue of "Zenobia in Chains." "The Sleepine Faun," exhibited in Paris in 1867, is one of her best works. She devisetl a method for converting Italian limestone into marble. Died, 1908. Hosmer, James Kendall, American author, libra- rian of Minneapolis public library, 1892-1904, was born at Northfiekl, Mass., 1834. He was graduated at Harvard, 1855; Ph. D., university of Missouri; LL. D., Washington university. He was Unitarian pastor at Deerfield, Mass.. 1860-66; served in civil war as private in 52a Massachtisetts volunteers; after tiie war was Srofessor in Antioch college, in university of [issouri, and professor of English and German literature, Washington university, St. Louis, Mo., 1874-92. Author: Color Guard; Short History of German Literature; Story of the Jews; Life of Samuel Adams in American Statesmen series; Life of Sir Henry Vane; Short History of Anglo- Saxon Freedom; How Thankful teas Beuntched; Short History of the Mississippi Valley; History of the Louisiana Purchase; History of the Civil War in America, etc. Houdon (<}a'-d(5N'), Jean Antoine, French sculptor, was bom in Versailles, France, 1741. He studied in Paris and Rome, and executed numer- ous busts and statues of prominent persons, and other works, which placed him in the front rank of French sculptors. His statue of a muscula- skeleton of the human body has often been copied and used for the artistic study of anatomy. In 1785 he accompanied Franklin to the United States, to prepare the model for the statue of Washington ordered by the state of Virginia. The statue is in the capitol at Richmond, and according to Lafayette and others is the best representation of Washington ever made. He died in Paris, 1828. Hough (M/), Emerson, .American author, was bom at Newton, la., 1857. He was graduated at the state university of Iowa, 1880. He traveled over the wildest portions of the West ; explored Yellowstone park during the winter of 1895, and the act of congress protecting the park buffalo was due to this trip. He was for ten vears writer of ''Chicago and The West" "department of Forest and Stream, New York. Author: The Singing Mouse Stories; The Story of the Cowboy; The Girl at the Half-way House; The Mississippi Bubble; The Way to the West; The Law of the Land; Hearts Desire; The King of Gee Whiz; The Story of the Outlaw; The Way of a Man; The Sowing; The Purchase Price; Young Alaskans on the Trail, etc., and many short stories in magazines. Houghton {hd'-tiin; tum'-tUn), Richard Monckton Slllnes, Lord, English author, was bom in York- shire, 1809. He was graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, when twenty-two, and was elected to parliament six years later. In the house of com- mons he was the friend of the poor, wanted all religions to be equally free, was in favor of education for the rich and poor alike, and was on the side of Italy in her struggles for freedom. He traveled mucli in Europe and in the East, and published several volumes of travels, besides many poems. He was made a peer in 1863, with the title of Baron Houghton. Died, 1885. Houston (hu'stUn), Edwin James, American electrical engineer, was bom at Alexandria, Va., 1847. He is one of the inventors of the Thom- son-Houston system of arc lighting; emeritus professor of physical geographv and natural philosophv. Central high school^ Philadelphia, and of physics in Franklin institute, Philadel- phia; was chief electrician at international electric exhibition, 1884 ; for two terms president of the American institute of electrical engineers, and received the degree Ph. I), from Princeton university. Author: Elements of Physical Geog- raphy; Elements of Natural Philosophy; Ele- ments of Chemistry; Dictionary/ of Electrical Word Terms and Phrases; Outlines of Natural Philosophy; The Electric Transmission of Intdli- gence; The Measurement of Electric Current; Electricity and Magnetism; Electric Furnaces; Alternating Ctarrents; Electric Railways; Electro- Dynamic Machinery; Electro-Therapeutics; In- candescent Lighting; Interpretation of Malhe- maiical Formulae; Magnetism; Recent Types of Dynamo Electric Machinery; Telegraphy; Te- lephony; Electricity in Every Day Life; The Jaws of Death, etc. Houston, Sam, American soldier, was bom in Virginia, 1793. He enlisted in the war of 1812, was choeen ensign, and fought under Jack.son with a courage that won his lasting friendship. In 1823 he became a member of congress, and m 1827 governor of Tennessee. In 1829 he married the daughter of ex-Govemor Allen and in the following April, for reasons never made public, abandoned wife, country, and civilization, waa adopted as a son by the chief of the Cherokee nation, and was formally admitted as a chief. In 1832 he went to Washington and procured the removal of several United States Indian agents on chaises of fraud. The Texan war offered a new fieul to his ambition, and he was made commander-in-chief; fought the remarkable and decisive battle of San Jacinto, 1836, at one blow annihilated the Mexican army, and achieved the independence of Texas. The "hero of San Jacinto was elected first president of Texas, and reelected in 1841, and on the annexation of Texas to the United States in 1845 was sent to the United States senate, where he remained until 1859, when he was elected governor of Texas. He opposed secession, but retired to private life when he found that opposition was iruitless. Died, 1863. Howard, George Eaiiott. educator, historian, waa bom at Saratoga, N. Y., 1849. He was gradu- ated at the university of Nebraska, 1876, Ph. D., 1894 ; student of history and Roman law, Munich and Paris, 1876-78. Was professor of history, university of Nebraska, 1879-91 ; head of history department, Leland Stanford Jr. university, 1891-1901; professor of history, Cornell uni- versity, summer, 1902; professorial lecturer in history, university of Chicago, 1903-04; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 788 professor of institutional history, 1904-06, head professor of political science and sociology, since 1906, university of Nebraska. Author: Local Constitutional History of the United States; Devdopment of the King's Peace; History of Matrimonial I nstitiitions, 3 vols.; Preliminariea of the American Revolution; Social Control and ike Function of the Family. He has contributed many articles on modern English liistory and biography to New International Encyclopaedia; articles on marriage and divorce to Encydopcedia Americana; also on divorce to new editions o! Bliss's Encyclopcedia of Social Reform, and Schaff-Herzog Encyclopcedia of Religious Knowl- edge. Howard, John, noted English philanthropist, was bom near London, 1726. In 1756, after the Lisbon earthquake, he sailed for that city to relieve the sufferers, and on his voyage was captured by a French privateer and imprisoned. Appointed high sheriff of Bedford in 1773, his attention was called to the state of the prisons of the countrv, the condition of which, and the sufferings inflicted upon the prisoners, reminded him of sufferings he had himself undergone. His sympathies thus once aroused, he extended bis inquiries over the whole kingdom, bringing to light an amount of misery and degradation of which hitherto his countrymen had had no conception. In 1774 he was examined before a committee of the house of commons, and many reforms were the result. In 1775 he set out on an extended tour through France, Holland, and Germany, with the view of acquainting him- self with the state of continental prisons ; and in 1777 after another tour through England, he published a volume entitled, The State of the Prisons in England and Wales, with Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some Foreign Prisons. The philanthropic work thus entered upon engaged him wholly for the rest of his life. His later years were spent in visiting the principal lazarettos and hospitals of Europe, an account of which he published in 1789. Died, 1790. Howard, Lcland Ossian, American entomologist, chief of bureau entomology, United States depart- ment of agriculture, since 1894, was born at Rock- ford, III., 1857. He was graduated at Cornell, 1877; Ph. D., Georgetown university, 1896; was assistant entomologist, United States depart- ment of agriculture, 1878-94; hon. curator, department of insects. United States national museum, since 1895; consulting entomologist United States public health and marine hospital service, since 1904; member of many scientific societies. He was for some years editor of Insect Life, a journal of the department of agriculture; prepared definitions in entomology for Century and Standard dictionaries ; sometime lecturer on insects at Swarthmore college, and in the post- graduate school of Georgetown university. Author: Mosquitoes — How They Live, Etc.; The Insect Book, and many government publications. Howard, Oliver Otis, American soldier, was bom at Leeds, Me., 1830. He was graduated at Bowdoin college, 1850; at West Point 1854; LL. D., Waterville college, 1865; Shurtleff col- lege, 1865; Gettysburg theological seminary, 1866, and Bowdoin college. He served in the Florida war, and in many actions of the civil war; was special commissioner of Indian afifairs, 1865 ; lost an arm at the battle of Fair Oaks, 1862; was m.ade major-general of volunteers, 1862 ; accom- panied Sherman on his march to the sea. At the close of the civil war he was placed at the head of the freedmen's bureau. From 1869-73 he was president of How^ard university; became brigadier-general in the United States army, 1864; brevet major-general, 1865; superin- tendent of West Point military academy, 1881-82 ; commanded the department of the East, 1888, Founder, 1895, and president board of directors. Lincoln memorial university, Cumberland Gap, Tenn. ; chevalier legion of honor, France, 1884 ; commander medal of honor legion, 1904. Author: Donald's SchoU Days; Net Perces Joseph; Life of Agenor de Gasparin; Life of Zachary Taylor; Isabella of CastUe; Fighting for H umanity ; Henry in the War; Our Wild Indians; and Autobiog- raphy, 2 vols. Died, 1909. Howe, Ellas, inventor of the lock-stitch sewing- machine, was born at Spencer, Mass., 1819. He worked at Lowell and Boston as a mechanic. At the latter place he developed, constructed, and patented the sewing-machine, 1846. He made an unsuccessful visit to England to intro- duce his invention, and, returning in 1849 to Boston, found his patent had been infringed. Harassed by poverty, he yet entered on a five years' war of litigation to protect his rights, which was ultimately successful in 1854. By his royalties he in time obtained S200,000 per annum, and amassed a fortune of $2,000,000. During the ci\nl war he served as a private. Died, 1867. Howe, Julia Ward, American author, was bom in New York, 1819, daughter of Samuel Ward. She received a private education, and married in 1843 the eminent philanthropist. Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe. With him she conducted the Boston Commomvealth, an anti-slavery paper, prior to the civil war. After the slavery question was settled she became active in woman suffrage, prison reform, cause of peace, etc. She was a Unitarian preacher, lecturer, and writer. Her " Battle Hj^n of the Republic" is widely known. Author: Passion Flowers; Words for the Hour; A Trip to Cuba; The World's Own; From the Oak to the Olive; Sex and Education; Memoir of S. G. Howe; Life of Margaret Fuller; Modern Society; Is Polite Society Polite? From Sunset Ridge; Reminiscences; Sketches of Representa- tive Women of New England, etc. Died, 1910. Howe, Richard, Earl, British admiral, was bom in 1726. He left Eton at fourteen, and went to the south seas in the squadron under Anson. He was with Admiral Vernon in 1745, and took part in the siege of Fort William. In 1755 his ship, the Dunkirk, captured the Alcide. He next served under Sir E. Hawke in the expedition against Rochefort. He was commodore of the squadron which sailed in 1758 for St. Malo. In the same year he took Cherbourg, and succeeded to the Irish title of viscount. He took part in the defeat of the fleet under the Marquis de Con- flans, and captured the Hero. In 1776 he com- manded a fleet on the American coast, and in 1778 defended the American coast against a superior naval force under D'Estaing. He was made a viscount of Great Britain in 1782; was made first lord of the admiralty in 1783, and received an English earldom in 1788. When war with France broke out in 1793 he took the com- mand of the channel fleet, and next year gained a signal victory off Ushant. George III. visited him on board the Queen Charlotte, gave him a sword, and made him a knight of the garter. His last service was in bringing back the mutinous seamen at Portsmouth to their duty in 1797. Died, 1799. Howe, Samuel Grldley, American philanthropist, was bom in Boston, 1801. He was graduated from Brown university, 1821, and from Harvard medical college, 1824. He organized the medical staff of the Greek army in 1824-27, retumed to America to raise contributions, and, returning with supplies, formed a colony on the isthmus of Corinth. In 1831 he went to Paris to study the methods of educating the blind, and becoming involved in the Polish insurrection, spent five 784 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT weeks in & Pmssiaii prison. On hia return to Boston he established schools for the blind and for idiots, and was the teacher of the famous Laura Bridgman, who was blind, deaf, and dumb. In 1851-53 he edited the anti-slavery Common- wealth, and in 1867 revisited Greece with supplies for the Cretans. He was chairman of the Mas- sachusetts state board of charities, 1865-74. Died, 1876. Howe, Sir William, English general, was bom in 1729. He served at Quebec under Wolfe and succeeded General Gage in command of the royal troops during the American revolution. In 1775 he was made commander-in-chief of the English army in North America; had command at the battles of Bunker Hill, Long Island, White Plain.s, and Brandywine. He was superseded by Sir Henry Clinton in 1778, as he had failed to crush the rebellion. Died, 1814. Howe, William Wirt, Americiui jurist and law writer, was bom at Canandaigua, N. Y., 1833; received an academic education, studied law, and was admitted to the bar. He served in the Union army, 1861-65, becoming major. Sub- sequently he settled to the practice of law at New Orleans. He was judge, chief criminal court, New Orleans; associate justice supreme court of Louisiana; president American bar association, 1898; president board civil service commissioners, New Orleans, 1897-1900. Trus- tee Carnegie institution, Washington- professor of Roman and civil law, George Washington and Tulane universities, and United States dis- trict attorney of Louisiana, 1900-08. Author: Municipal History of New Orleans, Studies in the Civil Law, Comparative Juriaprudenee, etc. Died, 1909. Howeil, Clarif, editor, was bom in Barnwell county, S. C, 1863. He was graduated from the univer- sity of Georgia, 1883; entered newspaper work, succeeding Henry W. Grady as managing editor of the Atlanta Constitution, 18S9, and succo«ding his father as editor-in-chief in 1897. In 1901 he bought Colonel W. A. Hemphill's stock in the Constitution. He was member of the Georgia house of representatives six years; speaker, 1890-91 ; member from Georgia of democratic national committee since 1892; member and president of Georgia senate, Atlanta district, 1900-06 ; director of associated press of America since 1897. Howell, William Henry, American phvsician and educator, dean of Johns Hopkins medical school, 1899-1911; was born at Baltimore, Md., 1860. He was graduated at Johns Hopkins, 1881, Ph.D., 1884; M.D., university of Michigan, 1890; LL. D., Trinity, 1901 ; was associate professor of physiol- ogy, Johns Hopkins university, 1888-89; pro- fessor of physiology and histology', university of Michigan, 1889-92; associate professor of physi- ology, Harvard university, 1892-93, and professor of physiology, Johns Hopkins university, since 1893. He has contributea widely to both Ameri- can and foreign medical literature; is author of Text-Book of Physiology, etc. Howells, William Dean, American novelist, was born at Martins Ferrj-, Ohio, 1837. His early education was largely gained in newspaper offices, though he was given the degree A. M. by Harvard, 1867; Litt. D., Yale, 1901; Litt. D., Oxford. 1904; Columbia, 1906; LL. D., Adel- bert college, 1904. He was United States consul to Vemce, 1861-65; studied Italian language and literature there; was editorial writer on New York Nation, 1865-66; assistant editor. 1866-72. editor 1872-81, Atlantic Monthly; editorial contributor to Harper's Magazine, 1886-91; later editor Cosmopolitan Magazine for short toie; now writer of "Editor's Easy Chair" for Harper's. Author: Life of Abraham Lincdn; Venetian Life; Italian Journeys; Suburban Sketches; No Love Lost; Their Wedding Journey; A Chance Acquaintance; A Foregone Conclusion; Life of Rutherford B. Hayes; A Counterfeit Pre- sentment; The Undiscovered Country; Dr. Breen's Practice; A Modern Instance; A Woman's Reason; The Rise of Silas Lapham; Tuscan Cities; Modem Italian Poets; April Hopes; A Hazard of New For- tunes; The Shadow of a Dream; The Quality of Mercy; My Literary Passions; The Day of Their Wedding; Their Silver Wedding Journey; Literary Friends and Acquaintance; London Films; Cer- tain Ddightful English Towns; Between the Dark and the Daylig'nt, etc. Howlson (hou'-'L-sUn), GeoFKe Holmes, .\merican educator and writer. Mills professor of philosophy, university of California, 1884-1909, emeritus professor, 1909; was bom in Montgomery county, Md.. 1834. He was graom in 1792, at Ileanor, in Derby- shire. In 1823 he marrie' Ik>tham. a lady of literary acquirements, born 1799, ana whose family, like his own, was attached to the principles of (Quakerism. The Forest Minstrel, with their joint nuines on the title-page, was published during the year in which they were nuirried. For three or four years thereafter they emploved themselves in contributions to annuals aim magazines, and in 1827 a selection from these fugitive pieces appeared under the title of The Desolation of Eyam. From this date until 1837 William wrote The Book of Seasons, Popular History of Priestcraft, and Tales of the Pantika. During the same period Mary pro- duced The Seven Temptations and a country novel entitled Wood-Leighton. In 1837 they removed to Esher, in Surrey, and at that place William wrote Rural Life in England, Colonizer tion and Christianity, Boy's Country Book, and Visits to Remarkable Places, first series, ilary at the same time employed herself in writing Tales for Children, many of which are popular. In 1852 William went to Au.stralia, where he re- mained two years, and on his return published the following works: Land, Labor, and Gold; or. Two Years in Victoria, with Visits to Sydney and Van Diemen's Land, etc. William died in 1879; Mary died in 1888. Hnxie, Vinnie Beam, sculptor, was bom in Madison, Wis., 1847. After modeling one year she re- ceived a commission from congress, in 1862, to execute a life-size statue of Abraham Lincoln. He sat for his bust at the White House, and his statue is now in the rotunda of the capitol. Later congress commissioned her to make the heroic statue of Admiral Farragut which now stands in Farragut square, Washington. These are the only two statues ever ordered by the United States government from a woman. She executed ideal statues of "Miriam," "The West," "Sap- Eho," "The Spirit of the Carnival," etc.; also usts in marble of Mayor Powell, now in the city hall, Brookljm; President Lincoln, for Cornell imiversity, and other distinguished Europeans THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 785 and Americans. She married Colonel Richard L. Hoxie, United States engineers, 1878. Hoyles, Newman WriRiit, Canadian lawyer and educator, principal of law school, Osgoodc Hall, Toronto, since 1894, was bom at St. John's, Newfoundland, 1844. He was graduated from Trinity college, Cambridge, England, 1867; ad- mitted to Ontario bar, 1872; queen's counsel, 1889. He is president of the corporation and chairman oS the council of Wycliffe college, Toronto; member of the senate of the university of Toronto: president of Havergal college, 'Toronto, and lecturer in Canadian jurisprudence, George Washington university, Washington, D. C. He has written numerous articles in legal magazines, and is prominent in the auxiliary work of the church of England. Boytt Henry Martyn, American lawyer, solicitor general of the United States 1903-10, was born at Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 1856. He was graduated at Yale college, 1878 ; law department, university of Pennsylvania, 1881 ; was admitted to the bar and practiced at Pittsburg. He became assistant cashier United States national bank. New York, 1883; treasurer investment company of Phila- delphia, 1886 ; president of same, 1890 ; resumed his profession at Philadelphia, 1893. He was assistant attornev-general of the United States, 1897-1903. Died, 1910. Hubbard, Elbert, author, journalist, lecturer, was born in Bloomington, 111., 1859, and received a common school education; hon. M. A., Tufts college. He is editor of The Philistine, and proprietor of The Roycroft Shop, devoted to mak- ing de luxe editions of the classics. Author: No Enemy but Himself; Little Journeys to Homes of Good Men and Great; Little Journeys to the Homes of Am,erican Authors; Little Journeys to the Homes of Famous Women; Little Journeys to the Homes of American Statesmen; Little Jour- neys to the Homes of Eminent Painters; Ali Baba of East Aurora; As it Seem^ to Me; A Message to Garcia; Time and Chance; The Legacy; Forbes of Harvard; One Day; A Tale of the Prairies; Little Journeys to Homes of English Authors; Little Journeys to Homes of Great Musicians; Little Journeys to Homes of Eminent Orators; Little Journeys to Homes of Eminent Artists; Little Journeys to Homes of Great Philosophers; Old John Burroughs; Contemplations; Conse- crated Lives; The Man of Sorrows, etc. Hue (uk; hilk), £:Tariste R£gis, Roman Catholic missionary, was bom at Toulouse, 1813. In 1839 he joined the mission of the Lazarist fathers to China. In 1844 with Pere Gabet and a single native convert, he set out for Tibet, and in Janu- ary, 1846, reached Lhasa. Scarcely had a mis- sion been started there, when an order for their expulsion was obtained by the Chinese resident, and they were conveyed back to Canton. Hue's health having broken down, he returned to France in 1852. He wrote Souvenirs of his great journey, L'Empire Chinois, Le Christianisme en Chine, etc. Died, 1860. Hudson, Henry, English navigator, of whose early life nothing is known. In 1607 he sailed in search of a short route tb China and India by way of the northern ocean, but was stopped by the ice off the coast of Greenland and forced to return. In 1609, while in the service of the Dutch East India company, he discovered the Hudson river, and sailed up to where Albany now stands. On a fourth voyage, 1610, he discovered Hudson strait and bay, which are also named after him. Im- peded by ice, he determined to spend the winter on the shores of the bay. Here he and his men suffered terribly from want of food and started to return in 1611. The men mutinied on the return voyage, got piossession of the ship, put Hudson, his son John, and seven sailors into an open boat and turned them adrift. Nothing was ever known of their fate. Hufeland {had'-f64aTU)t Christoph Wilhelm, noted German physician, was bom at Langeiisalza, in Thuringia, 1762. He was educated in Germany, became court physician at Weimar, in 1793 pro- fessor of medicine at Jena, in 1798 president of^the medical college at Berlin, and in 18U9 professor in the university of Berlin. Ilia Makrobiotik, or the Art of Prolonging Life, has been translated into almost all the European languages; he also wrote a work on the physical education of the young, and an Enchiridion Medicum. Died, 1836. Huggins {hUg'-lm), Sir William, English astrono- mer and spectroscopist, was born in London, 1824. In 1852 he was elected a member of the British microscopical society, and for some years studied physiology with the microscope. But having in 1856 built an observatory near London, he began the study of the physical constitution of stars, planets, comets, and nebulaj. By re- searches on the sun's spectra and the spectra of certain comets, he ascertained that their luminous properties are not the same. He determined the amount of heat that reaches the earth from some of the fixed stars. He became a fellow of the royal society, 1865, and president, 1900. He was president of the British association, and received the order of merit in 1902. Died, 1910. Hugh Capet Qiu ka'-pU), founder of the third or Capetian dynasty of French monarclis, was born 939 and was king of France, 987-996. As count of Paris, on the death of Louis V., last of the Carlovingians, he usurped the throne and was confirmed in its possession by a confederacy of nobles. The race of Capet has given 119 sover- eigns to Europe, thirty-six kings to France, twenty-two to Portugal, five to Spain, eleven to Naples and Sicily, three to Hungary, and three to Navarre; three emperors to the East; seven- teen dukes to Burgundy, thirteen to Brittany, two to Lorraine, and four to Parma. Died, 996. Hughes, Charles Evans, lawyer, ex-governor, jurist, was born in Glens Falls, N. Y., 1862. He was graduated from Brown universitv, 1881, A. M., 1884; LL. B., Columbia law school, 1884; LL. D., Brown, 1906; Columbia, Knox, and Lafavette, 1907. He was a teacher in Delaware academy, Delhi, N. Y., 1881-82 ; admitted to New York bar, 1884; practiced in New York, 1884-91; prize fellow, Columbia law school, 1884-87; professor of contracts, evidence, etc., Cornell university school of law, 1891-93; active practice ii New York, 1893-1906, as a member of the law firm, Hughes, Rounds, and Schurman. He was special lecturer at Cornell university school of law, 1893- 95, New York law school, 1893-1900, and Yale university, 1909. Hewas the republican nominee for mayor of New York, 1905, but declined; at- torney for Armstrong commission of New York legislature, investigating methods of large life in- surance companies. Governor of New York,1907- 10; he drafted and led to a successful issue a bill for the creation of a state and a New York city public utilities commission ; vetoed a bill for a flat two cents a mile railroad rate as unconstitu- tional ; by an appeal to the people of the state forced the passage of anti-gambling bills in accordance with the state constitution. He began the fight for direct primaries, but resigned the governorship on his appointment by President Taft to the supreme court, 1910. Hughes, Charles James, Jr., lawyer, United States senator from Colorado, was bom in Kings- ton, Mo., 1853. He was graduated from Rich- mond college, 1871 ; was a law student at the university of Missouri, 1872-73; received degree of LL. D. from university of Missouri and uni- versity of Denver. He began the practice of law in 1877, and located at Denver in 1879. 784 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT weeks in a Prussiaii prison. On his return to Boston he e6tabli8he', university of Michigan, 1889-92; associate professor of piiysi- ology, Harvard university, 1892-93. and professor of physiology, Johns Hopkins university, since 1893. He has contributed widely to both Ameri- can and foreign medical literature; is author of Text-Book of Physiology, etc. Howells, William Dean, American novelist, was born at Martins Ferrj', Ohio, 1837. His early education was largely gained in newspaper offices, though he was given the degree A. M. by Harvard, 1867; Litt. D., Yale, 1901; Litt. D., Oxford, 1904; Columbia, 1906; LL. D., Adel- bert college, 1904. He was United States consul to Venice, 1861-65; studied Italian language and literature there; was editorial "WTiter on New York Nation, 1865-66; assistant editor, 1866-72. editor 1872-81, AUantic Monthly; editorial contributor to Harper's Magazine, 1886-91; later editor Cosmopolitan Magazine for short ^me; now writer of "Editor's Easy Chair" for Harper's. Author: Life of Abraham Lincoln; Venetian Life; Italian Journeys; Suburban Sketches; No Love Lost; Their Wedding Journey; A Chance Acquaintance; A Foregone Conclusion; Life of Rutherford B. Hayes; A Counterfeit Fre- seniment; The Undiscovered Country; Dr. Breen's Practice; A Modern Instance; A Woman's Reason; The Rise of Silas Lapham; Tuscan Cities; Modem Italian Poets; April Hopes; A Hazard of New For- tunes; The Shadow of a Dream; The Quality of Mercy; My Literary Passions; The Day of Their Wedding; Their Silver Wedding Journey; Literary Friends and Aaruaintance; London Films; Cer- tain Ddightftd English Towns; Between the Dark and the Daylight, etc. Howlson (hou'-l-siin), George Holmes, .\merican educator and writer, Mills professor of pliilosophy, university of California, 1884-1909, emeritus professor, 1909; waa bom in Montgomery county, Md., 1834. He was graiou'-{/), William and Mary, English authors, may properly be treated together. William Howitt was Ixjm in 1792, at Heanor, in Derby- shire. In 1823 he married Miss Mar>' Itotham. a lady of literary acquirements, born 1799, ana whose family, like his own. was attached to the principles of (Quakerism. The Forest Minstrel, with their joint iiumes on the title-page, wa» published during the year in which they were nmrried. For three or four years thereafter they employed themselves in contributions to annuals and magazines, and in 1827 a selection from these fugitive pieces appeared under the title of The Desolation of Eyam. From this date until 1837 William wrote The Book of Seasons, Popular History of Priestcraft, and Tales of the Pantika. During the same period Mary pro- duced The Seven Temptations and a country novel entitled W ood-Leighton. In 1837 they removed to Elsher, in Surrey, and at that place William wrote Rural Life in England, Coloniza- tion and Christianity, Boy's Country Book, and Visits to Remarkable Places, first series. Mary at the same time employed herself in writing Tales for Children, many of which are popular. In 1852 William went to Au.stralia, where he re- mained two years, and on his return published the following works : Land, Labor, and Gold; or. Two Years in Victoria, with Visits to Sydney and Van Diemen's Land, etc. William died in 1879; Mary died in 1888. Hoxle, Vlnnle Ream, sculptor, was bom in Madison, Wis., 1847. After modeling one year she re- ceived a commission from congress, in 1862, to execute a life-size statue of Abraham Lincoln. He sat for his bust at the White House, and his statue is now in the rotunda of the capitol. Later congress commissioned her to make the heroic statue of Admiral Farragut which now stands in Farragut square, Washington. These are the only two statues ever ordered by the United States government from a woman. She executed ideal statues of "Miriam," "The West," "Sap- Eho," "The Spirit of the Carnival," etc.; also usts in marble of Mayor Powell, now in the city hall, Brooklyn; President Lincoln, for Cornell university, and other distinguished Europeans THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 785 and Americans. She married Colonel Richard L. Hoxie, United States engineers, 1878. Hoyles, Newman WrlRJit, Canadian lawyer and educator, principal of law school, Osfroode Hall, Toronto, since 1894, was bom at St. John's, Newfoundland, 1844. He was graduated from Trinity college, Cambridge, England, 1867; ad- mitted to Ontario bar, 1872; queen's coimsel, 1889. He is president of the corporation and chairman of the council of Wycliffe college, Toronto; member of the senate of the university of Toronto: president of Havergal college, "roronto, and lecturer in Canadian jurisprudence, George Washington university, Washington, D. C. He has written numerous articles in legal magazines, and is prominent in the auxiliary work of the church of England. Boyt, Henry Martyn, American lawyer, solicitor general of the United States 1903-10, was born at Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 1856. He was graduated at Yale college, 1878 ; law department, university of Pennsylvania, 1881 ; was admitted to the bar and practiced at Pittsburg. He became assistant cashier United States national bank, New York, 1883; treasurer investment company of Phila- delphia, 1886 ; president of same, 1890 ; resumed his profession at Philadelphia, 1893. He was assistant attornev-general of the United States, 1897-1903. Died, 1910. Hubbard, Elbert, author, journalist, lecturer, was born in Bloomington, 111., 1859, and received a common school education; hon. M. A., Tufts college. He is editor of The Philistine, and proprietor of The Roycroft Shop, devoted to mak- ing de luxe editions of the classics. Author: No Enemy bvi Himself; Little Journeys to Homes of Good Men and Great; Little Journeys to the Homes of American Authors; Little Jo-wrneys to the Homes of Famous Women; Little Journeys to the Hom.es of American Statesmen; Little Jour- neys to the Homes of Eminent Painters; AH Baba of East Aurora; As it Seems to Me; A Message to Garcia; Time and Chance; The Legacy; Forbes of Harvard; One Day; A Tale of the Prairies; Little Journeys to Homes of English Authors; Little Journeys to Homes of Great Musicians; Little Journeys to Homes of Eminent Orators; Little Journeys to Homes of Eminent Artists; Little Journeys to Homes of Great Philosophers; Old John Burroughs; Contemplations; Conse- crated Lives; The Man of Sorrows, etc. Hue {uk; hilk), ^variste R^gis, Roman Catholic missionary, was bom at Toulouse, 1813. In 1839 he joined the mission of the Lazarist fathers to China. In 1844 with Pere Gabet and a single native convert, he set out for Tibet, and in Janu- ary, 1846, reached Lhasa. Scarcely had a mis- sion been started there, when an order for their expulsion was obtained by the Chinese resident, and they were conveyed back to Canton. Hue's health having broken down, he returned to France in 1852. He wrote Souvenirs of his great journey, L'Empire Chinois, Le Christianisme en Chine, etc. Died, 1860. Hudson, Henry, English navigator, of whose early life nothing is known. In 1607 he sailed in search of a short route tb China and India by way of the northern ocean, but was stopped by the ice off the coast of Greenland and forced to return. In 1609, while in the service of the Dutch East India company, he discovered the Hudson river, and sailed up to where Albany now stands. On a fourth voyage, 1610, he discovered Hudson strait and bay, which are also named after him. Im- peded by ice, he determined to spend the winter on the shores of the bay. Here ne and his men suffered terribly from want of food and started to return in 1611. The men mutinied on the return voyage, got possession of the ship, put Hudson, his son John, and seven sailors into an open boat and turned them adrift. Nothing was ever known of their fate. Hufeland (JUSD'-fl-l&rU)^ Cbrlstoph WUhclm, noted German physician, was born at Langensalza, in Thuringia, 1762. He was educated in Germany, became court physician at Weimar, in 1793 pro- fessor of medicine at Jena, in 1798 president of^the medical college at Berlin, and in 18U9 professor in the university of Berlin. His Makrobiotik, or the Art of Prolonging Life, has been translated into almost all the European languages ; he also wrote a work on the physical education of the young, and an Enchiridion Medicum. Died, 1836. Huggins (hUg'-lm), Sir William, English astrono- mer and spectroscopist, was born in London, 1824. In 1852 he was elected a member of the British microscopical society, and for some years studied physiology with the microscope. But having in 1856 Duilt an observatory near London, he began the study of the physical constitution of stars, planets, comets, and nebulas. By re- searches on the sun's spectra and the spectra of certain comets, he ascertained that their luminous properties are not the same. He determined the amount of heat that readies the earth from some of the fixed stars. He became a fellow of the royal society, 1865, and president, 1900. He was president of the British association, and received the order of merit in 1902. Died, 1910. Hugh Capet {hH k&'-pU), founder of the third or Capetian dynasty oi French monarclis, was born 939 and was king of France, 987-996. As count of Paris, on the death of Louis V., last of the Carlovingians, he usurped the throne and was confirmed in its possession by a confederacy of nobles. The race of Capet has given 119 sover- eigns to Europe, thirty-six kings to France, twenty-two to Portugal, five to Spain, eleven to Naples and Sicily, three to Hungary, and three to Navarre; three emperors to the East; seven- teen dukes to Burgundy, thirteen to Brittany, two to Lorraine, and four to Parma. Died, 996. Hughes, Charles Evans, lawyer, ex-governor, jurist, was bom in Glens Falls, N. Y., 1862. He was graduated from Brown universitv, 1881, A. M., 1884; LL. B., Columbia law schoo'l, 1884; LL. D., Brown, 1906; Columbia, Knox, and Lafayette, 1907. He was a teacher in Delaware academy, Delhi, N. Y., 1881-82 ; admitted to New York bar, 1884; practiced in New York, 1884-91; prize fellow, Columbia law school, 1884-87; professor of contracts, evidence, etc., Cornell university school of law, 1891-93; active practice ii New- York, 1893-1906, as a member of the law firm, Hughes, Rounds, and Schurman. He was special lecturer at Cornell university school of law, 1893- 95, New York law school, 1893-1900, and Yale university, 1909. Hewas the republican nominee for mayor of New York, 1905, but declined ; at- torney for Armstrong commission of New York legislature, investigating methods of large life in- surance companies. Governor of New York, 1907- 10; he drafted and led to a successful issue a bill for the creation of a state and a New York city public utilities commission ; vetoed a bill for a flat two cents a mile railroad rate as unconstitu- tional; by an appeal to the people of the state forced the passage of anti-gambling bills in accordance with the state constitution. He began the fight for direct primaries, but resimed the governorship on his appointment by President Taft to the supreme court, 1910. HuKhes, Charles James, Jr., lawyer, United States senator from Colorado, was bom in Kings- ton, Mo., 1853. He was graduated from Rich- mond college, 1871 ; was a law student at the university of Missouri, 1872-73; received degree of LL. D. from university of Missouri and uni- versity of Denver. He began the practice of law in 1877, and located at Denver in 1879. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 780 that have earned for him the title of the "modem Wagner." In 1900 he became professor of music at Berlin. Since 1911 principal of theory schoola of royal Hochschule fiir Musik. Humplireys {hum'-frlz), Milton Wylle» American educator and scholar, professor of Greek, univer- sity of Virginia, since 1887, was bom in Green- brier county, Va. (now W. Va.), 1844. He was graduated at Washington and Lee, A. M., 1869; Ph. D., Leipzig, 1874; LL. D., Vanderbilt. He was a gunner in the confederate artillery from March, 1862, to the end of the war. He was assistant professor of Latin and Greek, 1867-70, adjunct professor of ancient languages, 1870-75, Washington and Lee, except 1872-74, when he was in Europe; professor of Greek, Vanderbilt imiversity, 1875-83, and professor of Latin and Greek, university of Texas, 1883-87. President, 1882-83, of the American philological associa- tion, and was ten years American chief editor to Revue de PhUologie, Paris. Edited, with notes: The Clouds of Aristophanes, The Antigone of Sophocles, etc. Huneker (hiin'-^-kSr), James Gibbons, journalist, music critic, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., 1860. He was graduated at Roth's military academy, Philadelphia, 1873; studied law and conveyanc- ing at law academy, Philadelphia, five years. Was in Paris, 1878-80; studied piano there with Theodore Ritter, then returned to the United States; associated for ten years with Rafael Joseffy as teacher of piano at National conservatory, New York. Music and dramatic critic of New York Recorder, 1891-95, and of the Morning Advertiser, 1895-97. He was music and dramatic, now art, editor, of the New York Sun. Author: Mezzo-tints in Modern Music; Chopin — The Man and His Music; Melomaniacs; Over- tones; Iconoclasts — A Book of Dramatists; VisiorV' aries. He also wrote the article on music, N'ew International Encydopcedia, and has been a con- tributor to leading magazines. Hunt, Helen. See Jackson, Helen Hunt. Hunt, James Henry Leigh, English poet and essay- ist, was born at Southgate, near London. 1784. He was a school-fellow, at Christ's hospital, of Coleridge and Charles Lamb, and at one time the friend of Byron. In 1813, as editor of The Examiner, he wrote some articles severely criti- cising the prince regent, afterward George IV., and for these he was prosecuted by order of the government, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment in the Surrey jail. While in jail he wrote The Descent of Liberty, a Masque; The Story of Rimini, an ItaUan tale in verse; and The Feast of the Poets. In 1818 he commenced a small periodical called The Indicator, in which many of his essays appeared. In 1828 he pub- lished Lord Byron and some of his Contemporaries, in which, having quarreled with Byron during a visit to Italy, he indulged in some severe animadversions upon the character of that poet. All his life was devoted to literature, and all his writings have a fascination of their own. Among his last works was his Autobiography. He died at Putney, England, 1859. Hunt, Thomas Sterry, American chemist and geologist, was born in Connecticut, 1826. In 1845 he became assistant to Professor Silliman in his chemical laboratory at Yale college, and in 1847 was appointed chemist and mineralogist to the geographical survey of Canada. He held this post for more than twenty-five years, resign- ing in 1872 to accept the chair of geology in the Massachusetts institute of technology. His contributions to American and Eurof>ean scientific societies and journals are very numerous; and a collection of many of them was published in 1874. He furnished many important articles in his specialty to Appleton's American Cyclo- pedia, and was a member of the leading societies of both continents. lie published: Chemical and ecological Essays; The Domain of Physiology; A New Basis for Chemiatry, etc. He died in New York. 1892. Hunt, Walter, English painter, was bom in Middle- sex, England, 1861. He has been a constant exhibitor at the royal academy since 1881. The following are among his best pictures: "A Rainy Day"; "Pensioners"; "Toby": "The Dogs' Home"; "Waiting to be Fed'*; ''Foundlings^'; "Retribution"; '^The Dog in the Manger"; "Overmatched"; "To the Rescue"; "A Foster- Mother"; "The Orphan"; "The Otter Hunt — the Find"; "Puss at Bay"; "Babes in the Wood"- "Off the Scent"; "Motherless"; "An Old Offender" ; "Home from Work, " etc. Hunt, William Henry, creator of the English school of water-color painting, was born in London, 1790, the crippled child of a tinplate worker. He is ranked by Ruskin with the greatest colorists of the school. He generally chose very simple subjects for his pictures, such as: "Peaches and Grapes"; "Old Pollard"; "Wild Flowers"; "Too Hot"; "Fast Asleep," etc., but they are conceived in a finely poetical spirit, and present the perfection of finish. Died, 1864. Hunt, William Holman, EngUsh painter, was bom in London, 1827. In 1845 he was admitted a student of the royal academy, and next year exhibited his first picture, "Harkl" followed by scenes from Dickens and Scott, and by the "Flight of MadeUne and Porpliyro," in 1848. He shared a studio with D. G. Rossetti, and the two, along with Millais and a few others, inaugu- rated the "pre-Raphaelite brotherhood," which aimed at detailed and uncompromising truth to nature. Among the first of his pre-Raphaelite works was "Rienzi," in 1849. It was followed by "A Converted British Family sheltering a Christian Missionary"; "Valentine rescuing Sylvia"; "The Hireling Shepherd"; "Claudio and Isabella"; "Strayed Sheep"; and "The Light of the World," now in Keble college, Ox- ford. The result of several visits to the East appeared in "The Scapegoat"; "The Finding of Christ in the Temple, now in the Birmingham art gallery; "The Shadow of Death," in the corporation gallery, Manchester; and "The Triumph of the Innocents," to which must be added "Isabella and the Pot of Basil," "May Morning in Magdalen Tower." In 1905 he was nominated to the order of merit, and was made a D. C. L. by Oxford. Died, 1910. Hunt, William Morris, American genre and por- trait painter, was bom in Brattleboro. Vermont. 1824. He was educated at Diisseidorf, and under Couture at Paris; but made the technique of the French school subsidiary to his own original ideas, and was one of the first to introduce the characteristics of the French school into the United States. Among his productions are: "The Lost Kid"; "The Choristers"; "Girl at the Fountain " ; "Marguerite"; " Morning Star " ; "Bugle Call," etc. He also painted portraits of many celebrated persons, excelling in this department of art, but gaining his high reputa- tion through his skill and originality in genre- painting. He painted ''The Flight of Night," and other decorations in the state capitol at Albany, N. Y. Died, 1879. Hunt^, Jolin, noted British sur^eon^ anatomist, and physiologist, was bom in Lanarkshire, Scotlaiid, 1728. He spent five years at the university of Edinburgh, and, deciding to adopt the profession of medicine, went to London and studied at Chelsea hospital. His progress in anatomy and surgery was so rapid that in the second session he was able to undertake the directing of the pupils in their dissections. He 790 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT studied surgery under Cheselden at Chelsea hospital during" the summer months of 1749 and 1760, and subsequently under Pott. After ten years in the dissecting room his health gave way, and in 1759 he applied for an appointment in the British army, was immediately made staff-surgeon, and sent out to Belle isle, and after- ward to the peninsula. In 1763, peace having been proclaimed, he settled permanently in London as a surgeon. In 1767 he was elected a fellow of the royal society, and in the following year was appointed surgeon to St. George's hospital. In 1776 he was appointed surgeon- extraordinary to the king. In 1785 he built a museum, which became the place of meeting of the Lyceum Medicum, a society established by Hunter and Fordyce. His famous operation for the cure of aneurism, that of simply tying the artery at a distance from the tumor, and between it and the heart, has been more fruitful in important results than any since Ambroise Park's application of ligatures to divided arteries. He wrote Natural History of the Human Teeth; Treatise on Blood, Inflammation, and Gunshot Wounds, etc. He died in 1793, and was buried in the church of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, Lon- don, but was removed in 1859 to Westminster abbey. Huntingdon {hiin'-4lng-diin), Selina, Countess of, daughter of Earl Ferrers, was bom in 1707. She married the earl of Huntingdon, 1728, and be- came a widow in 1746. Joining the Methodists in 1739, she made Whitefield her chaplain in 1748, and assumed a leadership among his fol- lowers, who became known as " the countess of Huntingdon's connection." For the education of ministers she estabUshed in 1768 a college at Trevecca in Brecknockshire, and built or bought numerous chapels, the principal one at Bath. She died in London, 1791, bequeathing to four Eersons her sixty-four chapels, most of which ecame identical with the Congregational churches. Huntington, Daniel, American painter, was bom in New York, 1816, and was educated at Hamilton college. In 1835 he began to study art under Morse, and still later with Inman. In 1839 he visited Italy; returned the next year and com- menced work, but was compelled to desist in consequence of failing eyesignt. He was again in Europe in 1844, where he painted some note- worthy pictures. After his return he wa.s en- gaged chiefly on portraits, but painted also a few historical pictures. Among them are: "Henry VIII. and Catharine Parr," and "Marv Signing the Death Warrant of Lady Jane Grey.'' Thereafter he became a permanent resident of New York, and painted the portraits of many notable people. He is probably best known by his picture, "The RepubUcan Court in the Time of Washington," in which there are more than sixty figures, of which nearly all are accu- rate portraits taken from original paintings. He was for many years president of the national academy of design. Died, 1906. Hunyadi {hoon'-ydd-l), J&nos, Hungarian general, was born at Hunyad, Transylvania, about 1387. He was governor of Transylvania in 1442, and distinguished himself against the Turks, who at that time were the terror of the whole of Christendom. During the period of his rule he was the shield of Hungary, not only against external foes, but also against the lawless attempts of the nobles. During the minority of Ladislaus V. he was elected regent of Hungary. The most splendid of his deeds was the storming of Bel- grade, where the monk John Capistran, canying the holy cross, raised the enthusiasm of the Christian warriors to such a height that a most complete victory brought that fortress again into the possession of the Hungarians. Shortly after dvsentery broke out in the camp, and Hunyadi, after a short illness, died in 1456. Hurd, Henry Mills, American physician, superin- tendent Johns Hopkins hospital, 1889-1911; was bom in Union City, Mich., 1843. He was riuated at the university of Michigan, 1863, D., 1866, A. M., 1870, LL. D., 1895. Was superintendent eastern Michigan asvlum, Pontiac, 1878-89, and professor psychiatry, 1889-1906, Johns Hopkins. He was president of the American academy of medicine, 1896; secretary, 1892-97, and president, 1898-99, American medico-psychological association. Editor .Ameri- can Journal of Insanity since 1897 ; of Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin and of Johns Hopkins Hospital ReporU, 1890-1911. Author: Hints to Hospital Visitors, with Dr. John S. Billings; also editor, with same, Hospitals, Dispensaries and Nursing, 1893. Hurlbot, Jesse LTinaii* Methodist Episcopal clergy- man, editor, waa bom in New York, 1843. He was graduated at Wesleyan university^ Con- necticut, 1864. Was pastor Methodist Episcopal churches, 1865-79; agent Sunday school union, Methodist Episcopal church, 1879-84; assistant editor of Sunday school literature, 1884-88; editor of Sunday school literature and secretary of Sundav school union and tract society, 1888- 1900; pastor Morristown, N. J., 1901-04; South Orange, N. J., 1904-05; Bloomfield, N. J.. 1906- 09; district superintendent, Newark district, since 1909. Author: Outline Normal Lessons; Studies in the Four Gospels; Studies in Old Testa^ ment History; Revised Normal Lessons; Manual of Biblical Geography; Our Church; HurUnWs Story of the Bible, etc. Hurst {h&rst), Joiin Fletcher, American clerg^inan and writer, was bom in Maryland, 1834. He was graduated at Dickinson college, and became a Methodist Episcopal clergyman. In 1871, after some years of travel in Europe, he became Srofeesor of theology in Drew sfminary, Madison, I. J., and from 1873 until 1880 was president of that institution. At Cincinnati in the last- named year he was elected bishop. In 1891 he was made cliancellor of the American univer- sity, at Washington. He published : History of Rationalism; Outline of Church History; Sliort History of the Reformation; Short History of the Medical Church; The Success of the Gospel, etc. He died at Washington, 1903. Hubs, or Hub (hOs; Ger., hdbs)^ John, Bohemian religious reformer, was bom at Husinetz, in Bohemia, in 1369. He studied at the univer- sity of Prague, was appointed dean of the philo- sophical faculty in 1401, and rector of the univer- sity, 1402. He also became in the latter year preacher in the Bethlehem chapel in Prague, and labored with the greatest earnestness for the instruction of the people, and in the discharge of all his clerical functions. As a preacher he was greatly esteemed both by the common people and by the students, while as confessor to Queen Sophia he obtained access to the court. At this time he became acquainted •with the writings of Wycliffe, which exercised a great influence over him. Archbishop Sbinko burned the writings of Wycliffe in 1410, in compUance with a brief of Pope Alexander V., and com- plained to the pope of Huss as a Wycliffite. In 1412, Pope John XXIII. having published a bull of indulgence in order to organize a crusade against Ladislaus, the excommunicated king of Naples, whose kingdom the pope claimed as a papal fief, Huss boldly raised his voice against the whole procedure as unchristian, while Jerome of Prague also stood forth to condemn, in the strongest manner, both the bull and the venders of indulgences. An interdict against Hxiss in THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY From a photograph THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 793 1412 was the consequence. Huss, however, appealed from the pope to a general council and to Christ, and wrote a book On the Church, in which he condemned the abuses of the papacy, and denied the unconditional supremacy of the Roman pontiff. In 1414 he went to Constance to the general council, under a safe-conduct from the emperor, but his opponents procured his imprisonment as a heretic, and, on refusal to retract, he was burned at the stake, 1415. Hutcbeson (hitch' -e-sun), Francis, Scottish philoso- pher, was born in 1694. He studied for the church at Glasgow, 1710-16, and then started a successful private academy in Dublin. His "Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue, etc., attracted much notice, and was followed by his Essay on the Passions, 1728. In 1729 he was appointed professor of moral phi- losophy at Glasgow, where he died in 1746. His largest work is A System of Moral Philosophy. Hutcheson was a pioneer of the Scottish school in metaphysics, and his ethical system is a development of Shaftesbury's. Hutchins (huch'-lm), Harry Bums, American educator, president university of Michigan since 1910, dean of the department of law, 1895-1910; was bom at Lisbon, N. H., 1847. He was gradu- ated at the university of Michigan, Ph. B., 1871 ; LL. D., university of Wisconsin. He was assist-: ant professor of history and rhetoric, university of Michigan, 1872-76, professor of law, 1884-87; professor of law, Cornell, 1887-94; acting presi- dent of university of Michigan, 1897-98, and 1909-10. He revised and annotated five volumes Michigan Supreme Court Reports, under appoint- ment of the supreme court, 1882-83; edited American edition of Williams on Real Property, and contributes to legal periodicals. Hutchinson {huch'-ln-sun), Anne, religious enthu- siast, was bom about 1590, and emigrated from Lincolnshire, England, to Boston, Mass., 1634. Living in a community prone to religious excite- ment, she claimed to be a medium of divine revelations, and held meetings for women in which she held Antinomian doctrines. Great controversies arose, and a synod was called, in which her teachings were condemned and she was banished from the colony. She and her friends now obtained from the chief of the Narragansetts Uberty to reside in Rhode Island, where they set up a community on the highly commendable principle that no one was to be "accounted a delinquent for doctrine." After the death of her husband, who shared her opin- ions, she removed to a Dutch settlement in the colony of New York, where, in 1643, she and her whole family of fifteen persons were taken pris- oners by the Indians, and all but one daughter barbarously murdered. Hutctiinson, Thomas, American magistrate and historian, was bom in Boston, 1711. He was graduated at Harvard, and began the practice of mw. He was several times elected to the general court, and for three years served as speaker. In 1760 he held at one time four offices: judge of probate, councilor, chief-justice, and lieutenant- ?;ovemor. In tlie time of the stamp act he avored the British government, for which his house was sacked and many valuable manuscripts relating to the history of Massachusetts were destroyed. In 1769 he was made governor of the colony, but did not receive his commission until 1771. In 1774 he retumetl to England, w^here he died, 1780, having been pensioned by the government. He pubUshed The History of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, and A Brief, Statement of the Claims of the Colonies. Hntchlson, John, Scotch sculptor, was bom in Edinburgh, Scotland, 1832. He was appren- ticed to a wood-carver in Eklinburgh at the age of thirteen; executed wood carvings and other ilecorutions in rehef for the picture gallery at Ilospitalfield, Arbroath, 1852, and studied in Edinburgh and in Rome. Principal worka — statues: "Roman Dancing Girl Resting"; "King Robert Bruce"; "Greek Torch Racer"; "John Knox," a colossal bronze statue in Edin- burgh, etc.; and busts of Principal TuUoch- Norman Macleod; Queen Victoria, by commana of the queen; the prince consort, and other distinguished persons. He executed studies in bronze and marble of ideal subjects: "Hamlet," "Don Quixote," "Dante," etc. Died, 1910. Hutten (hoot'-en), Ulrlch von, German reformer and humanist, was born in 1488. When he was ten years of age he was placed in the monastery at Fulda; but, disliking this mode of life, he fled to Erfurt in 1506, where he associated with scholars and poets He then live-ptology, Roman seminary, Rome, W86-88; intrusted with scientific mission in Armenia by the French government, 1888-89; chief department Semitic and Egj-ptian literatures. Catholic university of America, since 1889. Author: Les Actes det Martyrs de I'Egypte; Album de Paliographis Copte; Du Caucase au Golfe Persique, with Dr. Paul MuUer-Simonis; and has been a contributor to Vigouroux's Dictionnaire de la Bible, The Jewish Encyclopcedia, and various American, French, and German reviews. Iberville d» (de'-bir'-vel'), Pierre le Moyne, Sleur, French-Canadian commander, was born at Mont- real, Canada, 1661, and was distinguished in the French service. In 1686 he joined the ex- pedition of De Troye from Canada against the English forts on Hudson's bay; in 1G90 took part in the Indian and French massacre of the inhabitants of Schenectady; in 1694 captured Fort Nelson on Hud.son's bay; in 1696 destroyed St. John's, Newfoundland, taking most of that province from the British ; and in 1697 defeated them in naval fights in Hudson's bay. Sailing from Brest in 1698 with two frigates he reached the mouth of the Mississippi with his brother Bienville; fortified Biloxi, the first post on the Mississippi, and in 1700 ascended the river. In 1701, on account of the unhealthiness of the climate, he tran.'^ferred the colony from Louisiana to Mobile, and began the settlement of Alabama. In 1702 he fortified Dauphin island, in Mobile bay; in 1706, with three ships, he captured the isle of Nevis, one of the Leeward group. Died at Havana, Cuba, 1706. Ibrahim Pasha (ib'-rd-him' pd-sh&'). Egyptiaa general, adopted son of Mehemet Ali, vicerov of Egypt, was bom in 1789. Mehemet Ali having conceived the design of adding Syria to his dominions, Ibrahim crossed the Egyptian THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 796 border with an army in 1831, took Acre by storm, and quickly made himself master of the whole of Syria. When war broke out between Mo- hemet Ali and the sultan in 1839, Ibrahim was again successful, totally routing the Turks in the great battle of Nisib. The interference of the great powers eventually compelled him to return to Egypt, suffering, during his passage through the desert, the most terrible hardships and losses, while the attempt to elevate Egypt to complete independence came to an end. " In 1848, when the aged pasha had sunk into abso- lute dotage, Ibrahim went to Constantinople and was installed viceroy of Egypt. Died, 1848. Ibsen (ib'-sen; Ip'sen), Henrlk, Norwegian poet and dramatist, was born at Skien, in south Nor- way, 1828. He studied medicine, was a chem- ist's ajssistant at Grimstad, 1842-50, but soon devoted himself wholly to literature. His first drama, Katilina, was a failure; but after a short period of study at Christiania, and nearly two years of journalism, he became director of Ole Bull's theater at Bergen, for which he wrote five romantic dramas. In 1857 he became director of the national theater in Christiania. His next dramas were The Warriors in Hdgeland, The Pretenders, Love's Comedy. The first two, repro- ducing the spirit of the old sages, placed Ibsen in the foremost rank of Scandinavian dramatists: the last was a precursor of his satirical social dramas. In 1862 the national theater became bankrupt, and Ibsen, enraged because Norway held aloof from the Danes in their struggle against the Germans, forsook his country, 1864-91, living in Rome, Dresden, and Munich. The Norwegian parliament granted him a pension in 1866. In 1866-67 appeared Brand and Peer Gynt, dra- matic poems. There followed Emperor and Galilean; Pillars of Society; A Doll's House; Ghosts; An Enemy of the People; The Wild Duck; Rosmersholm; The Lady from the Sea; Hedda Gabler; The Master Builder Solness; Little Eyolf; When We Dead Awaken; and John Gabriel Bork- man. These plays aroused a storm of controversy in the literary world from 1889, because of their author's passionate advocacy of individual liberty. The interest and method of his plays are almost exclusively psychological. Died, 1906. Ide, Henry Clay, diplomatist, was bom at Barnet, Vt., 1844. He was graduated at Dartmouth college, 1866; LL. D., same, 1900, Tufts college, 1903. He was a member of Vermont state senate, 1882-85; United States commissioner to Samoa, 1891 ; chief-justice of Samoa under joint appoint- ment of England, Germanv, and the United States, 1893-97; member Taft commission, on establishment of civil government in Philippmes, 1900; secretary of finance and justice, 1901, vice-governor, 1904-05, acting governor, 1905-06, governor general, 1906, Philippine islands; minister to Spain since 1909. Author: Code of Procedure in Civil Actions and Special Proceed- ings in the Philippine Islands, The Land Registra- tion Act, The Internal Revenue Law of 1904 of the Philippine Islands, etc. Ignatieft (Ig-na'-tySf), Nikolai Pavlovltch, Russian diplomat, was bom at St. Petersburg, 1832. In 1856 he entered the diplomatic service, and in 1858 induced China to give up the Amur province. In 1860, while ambassador at Peking, he secured another large strip of territory of tiie maritime province. With Khiva and Bokhara he con- cluded treaties. In 1864 he was made ambas- sador at Constantinople. An ardent panslavist, he intrigued with the Balkan Slavs, and took a principal part in the diplomatic proceedings before and after the Russo-Turkish war of 1877. The treaty of San Stefano was mainly his work. Under Alexander III. he was minister of the Interior, 1881-82, and subsequently retired to private life. Died, 1908. Ignatius de Loyola ^^(^-na'-ah^-ua dd l&-yd'-la). See Loyola, iKnatlos de, page 237. Ihmsen, Maximilian Frederick journalist, was bom at Pittsburgh, Pa., 1868. He was educated in the public schools in Stuttgart, Germany, in Allegheny, Pa., and the Pittsburgh Catholic college. He became clerk in the Pittsburgh post-office, 1887; reporter Pittsburgh Leader, 1888, Pittsburgh Post, 1889; was first newspaperman to reach the dam above South Fork, Pa., which, by bursting, caused the Johnstown flood ; Wash- ington corresDondent Pittsburgh Post, 1890; attached to Wasliington bureau. New York Herald, 1891; political reporter same, 1893; Albany correspondent New York Journal, 1895; city editor, 1896-98, and 1901-02, Washington correspondent, 1898-1900, later political editor New York American. He was largely interested and active in the movement to nominate William Randolph Hearst as presidential candidate, 1904; organized municipal ownership league of New York, 1905; was manager W. R. Hearst's mayoralty campaign. New York, 1905; organ- ized independence league and was chairman of independence league New York state com- mittee during governorship campaign, 1906. He is now publisher of the Los Anga.es Examiner. Ihne (e'-ne), Wllhelm, German historian, was bom at Fiirth in 1821, and was educated at Bonn. He was a private tutor in England, 1843-47, later had charge of a school at Liverpool, 1849-G3, and in 1873 became a profe8.sor at Heidelberg. He published his great History of Rome, in 8 vols., 1868-90; Early Rome^876; and a number of other historical works. Died, 1902. Illlngton, Margaret (Mrs. Bowes), former actress, was bom at Bloomington, III., 1881, daughter of I. H. and Mary Ellen Light. She was educated at Illinois Wesleyan university and studied at Chicago musical college. In 1903 she married Daniel Frohman, from whom she was divorced in 1909; married in the same year Edward J. Bowes. She made her d^but in The Pride of Jennico at the Criterion theater. New York, 1900; played in Daniel Frohman's stock company. Lyceum theater, New York, 1902-03; created leading r61e in The Japanese Nightingale, 1903; The Two Orphans, 1904; Mrs. LeffingweU'a Boots, 1905; The Lion and the Mouse, London, England, 1906; His House in Order, Empire theater. New York, 1906; The Thief, Lyceum theater, New York, 1907; retired from stage, 1909. Inchbald (Inch'-bdld), Elizabeth, English actress, dramatist, and novelist, daughter of John Simp- son, was born near Burv St. Edmunds, 1753. In 1772 slie went to London to seek a theatrical engagement, and married Joseph Inchbald, an actor. She made her d^but the same year at Bristol as Cordelia, became a widow in 1779, and in 1780 appeared at Covent Garden. Here she remained, without notable success, until 1789, when she found her true vocation — literature, and to it she thenceforth devoted herself. Her earliest efforts were plays, her first being The Mogul Tale, a farce. She wrote or adapted nineteen plavs, the best of which are the come- dies: Such things Are, The Midnight Hour, The Wedding Day; the farces: Appearance is Against Them, The Widow's Vow, and her adaptation from Kotzebue, Lovers' Vows. She edited Inch- bald's British Theater, a Modem Theater, and a Collection of Farces. But her fame rests mainly upon her novels, A Simple Story and Nature arid Art, which rank among English standard novels. She died in 1821. Ingalls, John James. .American lawyer, essayist, and statesman. United States senator, was bom 796 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT at Middleton, Mass., 1833. He was graduated at Williams college, studied law, and was admitted to practice in Massachusetts in 1857, and in 1858 settled in Kansas. In 1860 he was secretary of the territorial council, or legislature, and in 1861 was secretary of the state senate. Of that body he was elected a member in 1862. He was elected United States senator from Kansas in 1873, and was again elected in 1879 and 1885 During his last senatorial term he was president ■pro tern, of the senate. He was a man noted among his contemporaries for scholarly attain- ments and a quick and acute perception. Ho •was an eloquent speaker, his power of sarcastic rejoinder being a marked trait. As a writer of essays and a lecturer his diction was elegant and concise, and he excelled in the power of pictur- esque description. He was the author of the famous sonnet Oppftrtunity. He died at Las Vegas, New Mexico, 1900. Ingalls, Melville Ezra, railroad president, was bom in Harrison, Me., 1842. He was educated at Bridgeton academy, studied at Bowdoin college, and graduated at Harvard law school, 1863. He practiced first at Gray, Me., but soon removed to Boston. He was a member of the Massachu- setts senate, 1867 ; president in 1870, receiver in 1871, of the Indianapolis, Cincinnati and La- fayette railroad, and from a bankrupt condition, with the aid of reorganizations in 1873 and 1880, he put its successor, the Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Chicago, upon a sound footing, consolidating it with other roads into the Cleve- land, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis railroad, comprising the "Big Four" system, of which he became chairman. Resigned, 1912. He was also president of the Chesapeake and Ohio railway company from 1888 until 1900, and is now president of the Merchants' national bank, Cincinnati. He was democratic candidate for mayor of Cincinnati, 1903, and president of national civic federation, 1905. Ingelow (ln'-]e-l6), Jean, English poet and novelist, was bom at Boston, Lincoln.shire, England, 1820. A great part of her poetry is of a devotional type, sweet and simple, and filled with beautiful thoughts. Among her noted works is the ballad, The High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire, and the larger poem, A Start/ of Doom. Her works of fiction are Off the Skelligs; Fated to be Free; Sarah de Berenger; Don John; and others. She died, 1897. IngersoU (Ing'-gir-sol), Robert Green, American lawyer, orator, and writer, was bom at Dresden, N. v., 1833. He settled to the practice of law at Peoria, 111., 1857; became colonel of the 11th Illinois cavalry, 1862, was captured and exchanged; resigned and retired to private life, and, in 1866, was attorney-general of the state. He was a well-known orator, lecturer, and religious controversialist. He published The Gods, and Other Lectures; Some Mistakes of Moses; Great Speeches, etc. Died at Dobbs Ferry, N. Y., 1899. Ingraham {ing'-grd-am\ Joseph Holt, American clergyman and novelist, was bom at Portland, Me., 1809. After some years spent at sea, he became a teacher of languages in Mississippi, and was ordained Episcopal clergyman in 1855; prior to his ordination he wrote stories of adven- ture, Captain Kyd, etc., but subsequently con- fined himself to biblical subjects. His best known work is The Prince of the House of David. He died at Holly Springs, Miss., 1860. Ingram (Ing'-gram), Arthur Foley Wlnnington, bishop of London since 1901, dean of the Chapeb Royal, was bom in Worcestershire, 1858. He was educated at Marlborough college and Keble college, Oxford; was private tutor, 1881-84; curate at St. Mary's, Shrewsbury, 1884-85; private chaplain to the bishop of Lichfield, 1885-89; head of Oxford house, Bethnal Green, chaplain to the archbishop of York and to the bishop of St. Albans, 1889; rector of Bethnal Green, 1895; mral dean of Spitalfields, 1890; canon of St. Paul's cathedral, 1897-1901, and bishop of Stepnev. 1897-1901. Author: Work in Great Cities; Old Testament DimcuUies; New Testament Difficulties; Church DimcuUies; Mes- sengers, Watchmen, Stewards; The Men who Crucify Christ; Christ and His Friends; Bcm- ■ners of the Christian Faith, etc. Ingres {&ti'-gr'), Jean Dominique Auguste, French painter, was bom at Montaxiban, 1780. He studied under David, and after taking the grand prix in 1801, worked in Rome, 1806-20. At Florence, where he spent four years, he painted "The Vow of Louis XIII." To this period belong his best portraits, and his "CEdipus and the Sphinx," Venus Anadyomene," "Virgil reading the Mneid," "Raphael and the Foma- rina," etc. In 1825 he was made professor of fine arts at Paris, and became a member of the French institute. Dietl, 1807. Inman, Henry, American painter, was bom in Utica, N. Y., 1801. He was noted for his skill as a portrait painter, and bj-sides making por- traits of Chief-justice Marshall and many otlier distinguished Americans, he vi.sited England and paintMl portraits of Wordsworth and Macaulay. In 1845 no began a series of historical paintings for the capitoi at Washington, but before they were completed he died in New York, 1846. Innes (in'-ls), Cosmo, Scottish hi.storian and antiquary, was bom at Durris, Scotland, 1798. He was graduated both at Glasgow and Oxford, and in 1822 passed as an advocate. He became sheriff of Moray in 1840, then an official of the court of sessions, and in 1846 professor of con- stitutional law and history in the university of Ee its beliefs as well as its fornia of worship. Though unrelenting toward those whom he con- ceived to be the enemies of the faith, he was p)ersonally a man of blameless life, and did much to reform and universalize Roman Christianity. The papal power probably attained its greatest height during his pontificate. He died at Perugia, Italy, 1216. Ireland, John, American prelate, Roman Catholic archbishop of St. Paul since 1888, was born in Ireland, 1838. He came to the United States in boyhood; was educated in the cathedral school, St. Paul ; studied theology in France, and waa ordained priest in 1861; LL. D., Yale, 1901. He was chaplain of the 5th Minnesota regiment in the civil war; rector of the cathedral at St. Paul; secretary and later coadjutor to Bishop Grace, of St. Paul, and was consecrated arch- bishop in 1888. He has been active in establish- ing Roman Catholic colonies in the Northwest, and in the organization of total abstinence socie- ties. Author: The Church and Modem Society. Irene (Lat.. l-re'-ne; Eng., i-ren'), Byzantine empress, once a poor orphan girl of Athens, Greece, was bom about 752. Her beauty and talents drew the attention and love of the emperor Leo IV., and he married her in 769. After his death she ruled as regent, during the minority of her son Constantine VI. She was banished to Lesbos in 802, where she died in the foUo'wing year. The Greek church counts her among its saints. Irving, Edward, Scottish preacher, was bom at Annan, 1792. He was graduated at Edinburgh university, and in 1810 became a schoolmaster at Haddington, in 1812 at Kirkcaldy. Here three years later he was licensed to preach, and in 1819 was appointed assistant to Dr. Chalmers in Glasgow. In 1822 he was called to the Cale- donian church, Hatton Garden, London, and his success there as a preacher was phenomenal. In 1825 he began to announce his convictions in regard to the imminent second advent of Christ ; this was followed up by the translation of The Coming of the Messiah, professedly written by a Christian Jew, but really by a Spanish Jesuit. By 1828, when his Homolies on the Sacraments appeared, he had begun to elaborate his ^'iew8 oi the incarnation, and was charged with heresy. He was arraigned before the presbytery of Lon- don in 1830, convicted of heresy, ejected from his new church in Regent's square in 1832, and finally deposed in 1833 by the presbytery of Annan, which had licensed him. The majority of his congregation supported him, however, and a new communion, the Catholic Apostolic, was developed, commonly known as Irvingite, though Irving had little to do with its develop- ment. Shortly after his health failed, and he went to Glasgow, where he died of consumption, 1834. Irving, Sir Henry (John Henry Brodribb), English actor, was born in Keinton, near Glastonbury, 1838. He acted at the Theater Royal, Edin- burgh, 1856-59, 'and afterward for seven years at Manchester. He played in London, 1859, but attracted little notice until his appearance at St. James's theater, 1866. He soon established a connection with the Lyceum, of which he be- came manager in 1878. There he played his chief parts, in conjunction with Miss Ellen Terry, producing, among other plays, Hamlet, The Merchant of Venice, Faust, Macbeth, Henry VIII., The Bells, and other well-known productions. He first came to the United States in 1883, with Miss Terrj' and his Lyceum company, and made his d^but in New York, as Mathias, in The Bells. He made subsequent tours in 1884-85, 1887-88, , 1893. and several times thereafter. He died in England, 1906, and was buried in Westminster abbey. Irving, Isabel, actress, waa bom at Bridgeport, Conn., 1871. She made her d6but as Gwendolyn Hawkins in The Schoolmistress, with Rosina Vokes company, 1887 ; waa with Augustin Daly's company, 1888-94; leading woman at Lyceum theater, New York, and in John Drew's company several years; has also played leading rAles in England. She was selected by Charles Frohman to create the r61e of Lady Jocelvn Leigh in To Have and To Hold, at the Knickerbocker theater. New York; later starred under the management of James K. Hackett in The Crisis; played Louise in all-star cast of The Two Orphans, under the management of Liebler and Company, 1905 ; was engaged by Clyde Fitch to play the comedy Eart in The Toast of the Town, 1906; waB starred y Liebler and Company in Susan in Search of a Husband, and The Girl Who Has Everythino, 1907. Created title r61e in Water, 1908; played leading part in The Flag Lieutenant and The Commanding Officer, 1909. She married W. H. Thompson, 1899. Irving, Washington, distinguished American author, was bom in the city of New York 1783. He was the youngest son of William Irving, who had emigrated from Scotland, and settled in New York as a merchant before the revolution. Irving, at the age of sixteen, entered a law oflSice; but found greater profit from his father's well- stocked library, Chaucer and Spenser being his favorite authors. New York, at this period, was a town of about 50,000 inhabitants, many of whom were descendants of the original Dutch settlers, having quaint manners and customs, of which Irving was a curious observer. In 1804 he visited and traveled extensively in Europe; returned to New York in 1806, and contributed a series of genial and humorous essays to a periodi- cal called Salmagundi. In 1809 he wrote A History of New York, from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty, by Died- rick Knickerbocker, a burlesque chronicle written in so quiet a vein of humor that it has sometimes been taken for a veritable history. Having no inclination for law, he engaged in commerce. as a silent partner with his brothers, but devoted his time to literature, and in 1813 edited the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia. At the close of the war, in 1815, he visited England, where he was warmly welcomed by Campbell, whose biography he had formerly writtea, and was introduced by him to Walter Scott. In 1819 he published the well-known Sketch Book, containing The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle. He then went to Paris, and in 1822 wrote Bracebridge Hall^ and in 1824 the Tales of a Traveler. At the invitation of Edward Everett. American ambassador to Spain, he accompanied him to Madrid to translate documents connected with the life of Columbus. With these materials he wrote his History of the Life and Voyages of Columbus, Voyages of the Companions of Colum- bus, The Conquest of Granada, and many Spanish works. In 1842 he was appointed United States minister to Spain. In 1849 was published his Life of Goldsmith, and his great work, the Life of Washington, was published in 1855-59. He spent the last years of his life at Sunnyside, in his own "Sleepy Hollow," on the Hud.son, near Tarrytown, where be died, 1859. Irwin, Agnes, American educator, was bom at Washington, D. C, 1841, daughter of William W. Irwin. She was educated in private schools; Litt. D., universitv of Pennsylvania, 1898 ; LL. D., St. Andrew's, Scotland, 1906. She first taught in the school of Mrs. Hoffman, New York, later conducted a private school in Philadelphia, and from 1894 to 1909 was dean of RadcUfife college, Cambridge, Mass. 798 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENt Irwln, May, actress, was bom at Whitby, Ontario, 1862, daughter of Robert E. Campbell. She made her d6but at the Adelphi theater, Buffalo, 1876 ; waa a member of Tony Pastor's company, 1877-83, Augustin Daly's company, 1883-87; later with Charles Frohman, and Rich and Harris; subsequently starred in The Widow Jones; The Swell Miss FitzweU; Courted Into Court; Kate Kip — Buyer; Sister Mary; Belle of Bridgeport; Madge Smith, Attorney; Mrs. Black is Back; Mrs. Wilson — Andrews; Mrs. Peckham's Carouse, etc. She mdrried Frederick W. Keller, 1878, who died in 1886. Married Kurt Eisfeldt, 1907. Irwin, Wallace, author, was bom at Oneida, N. Y., 1875. He studied at Stanford university, 1896- 99, and became a special writer on San Francisco Examiner, 1900 ; waa editor San Francisco News Letter, 1901; editor Overland MorUhly, 1902. Burlesque writer Republic theater, 1903 ; writer of topical verse. New York Globe, 1904-05, and on staff Collier's Weekly, 1906-07. Author: The Love Sonnets of a Hoodlum; The Rubaiyai of Omar Khayyam, Jr.; Fairy Tales Up to Now; Nautical Lays of a Landsman; ^t the Sign of the Dollar; Chinatoum Ballads; Random Rhymes of Odd Numbers, etc. He is a prolific contributor to magazines and weeklies. Isabella (Iz'-d-bW-d), c^ueen of Castile, daughter of John II., was born in 1451, and united in 1469 to Ferdinand V., king of Aragon. On the death of ^er brother, Henry IV., in 1474, she took possession of the throne of Castile, to the exclu- sion of Joanna, the true inheritor of the crown. When a union of the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile took place, Ferdinand and Isabella to- gether assumed the royal title of Spain. She was a woman of fine intellect, a wise and humane ruler, was always present during the tran.saction of state business, and her name was placed beside that of the king in state ordinances. She proved also a stanch supporter of Columbus in his search for the western route to India. Died, 1504. Isabey (e'-zd'-bi'), Jean Baptiste, court painter and favorite of Napoleon, was born at Nancy, 1767. He was a pupil of Girardet, Claudet^ Du- mont, and David. He painted the portraits of Josephine, Napoleon, his marshals, and the chief personages of Europe. He visited the Russian court at the invitation of Alexander. Died at Paris, 1855. Isaiah (l-zd'-yd, X-z&'-yd), one of the most eminent of the Hebrew prophets, flourished about 740- 701 B. C. He was the son of Amos, but of his p>ersonal history very little is known. He prophe- sied under Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. His prophecies, though de- livered later in point of time than several of those uttered by other prophets, occupy, in our Bible, the first place, both on account of their bulk, and for the sublimity and imp>ortance of the predictions. Isidore (W-i-dor) of Seville, or Isidorus Hispalensls, one of the most distinguished ecclesiastics of the seventh century, was bom at Cartagena, Spain, about 560. He is particularly remarkable as among the earliest representatives of the church of Spain, and of that great movement in the western church by which the doctrinal and moral system of Christianity was brought into harmony with the habits and institutions of those various races and nationalities which, by successive im- migrations and wars, were eventually erected into the Hispano-Gothic kingdom, which exer- cised so powerful an influence on what is called Latin Christianity. The episcopate of Isidore, which began in 600, is rendered notable bv the half-ecclesiastical, half -civil councils of Seville in 619, and of Toledo in 633, which were held under his presidency, and the canons of which may almost be said to have formed the basis of the constitutional law of the Spanish kingdoms, both for church and for state, down to the great constitutional changes of the fifteenth centurv'. He also col- lected with the same object all the decrees of councils and other church laws anterior to his time. Died, 636. Ismail Paslia {W-mOril' pi-sha'), khedive of Egypt, was born in 1830. He succeeded Said Pasha as fifth viceroy of Egypt, 1863; promoted the Sue* canal project, and gained wealth by the cultiva- tion of cotton during the American war. The sultan settled the direct succession in his line in 1866, and his ambition afterward made him master of the upper and white Nile, Darfur, and surrounding territory. He almost rebuilt Cairo, preatly improved Alexandria, and constructed immense public works. Financial disaster coeo- ing in 1879, he abdicated in favor of his son, Mohammed Tewfik, and lived after 1888 in Constantinople. Died, 1895. laoerates (i-«dV-ra-tfz), Greek orator and teacher, was bom in Athens, 436 B. C. He received aa excellent education, in his youth heard the orator Gorgias, and joined the circle of Socrates, but abandoned philosophy for speech-writing, which also he gave up when tie found, after six speeches, that he had not the practical gifts for winning cases in a law court. About 390 B. C. he set up as a teacher of oratory, though he professed also to give a general practical education. He drew to him pupils subsequently distinguished as statesmen, historians, and orators. He himself composed model speeches for his pupils, such as the Panegyricus and the PUUaricus. But he also wrote speeches intended to be practical; the Arehidatnua may actually have been composed for the Spartan king Archidamus. But the majority, for instance the Symmachicus, the Areopaifiticus, the Panathenaicus, and the letters to Philip of Macedon, were designed to be circu- lated and read — tbev are in fact the earliest political pamphlets known. As a politician, Isocrates' one idea was to unite all Greeks to- f ether in a joint attack upon the common foe, 'ersia. The outcome was the destruction of Greek freedom at Chasronea bv Philip, a blow which "killed with report that old man eloquent." For melody, artistic merit, perfection of form and literary finish, Isocrates stands unrivaled, though his work is labored and his style is apt to become monotonous. Died, 338 B. C. Israels (^s'-rd-^«'), Josef, Dutch painter, was bom at Groningen, 1824. He studied at Amsterdam, under Kruseman, and next at Paris, under Picquet, and received gold medals of honor at Paris, Brussels, and Rotterdam. He also had conferred upon him the Belgian order of Leopold, and was nominated a member of the French legion of honor. Principal works: "Old and Worn-out"; "Silent Conversation"; "The Frugal Meal"; "Past Mother's Grave"; "Do- mestic Sorrow"; "The Eve of the Separation"; "From Darkness to Light"; "The Pancake"; "The Poor of the Village"; "The Shoemaker"; "A Cottage Madonna"; "The Tranquil House"; "The Cradle"; " Interior of the Orphans' Home at Katwvk"; "The Tme Support"; "The Mother";* "The Children of the Sea"; "Mind- ing the Flock"; "The Little Sick Nurse"; "The Sower." Died, 1911. Ito (e'-to). Marquis Hirobumi, Japanese statesman, was bom in the province of Choshu, 1841. In 1871 he visited the United States for the purpose of examining the coinage system, and on his return to Japan was successful in establishing a mint at O.saka. In 1878 he was transferred from the office of minister of public works to that of minister of the interior. He became prominent in the Japanese cabinet in 1886, made many reforms, and in 1888 prepared the written THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 790 constitution of Japan which was promtilgated In 1889. In 1897-98 he made a tour of the United States and Europe. In tiie latter year he visited China to arrange an alliance between that country and his own, and, in 1900, on the rosiRnation of the Yainagata ministry, he was summoned bv the emperor to form a cabinet. He revisitecf the United States in 1901, and subsequently became the chief administrative officer of Ck>rea. Assas- sinated, 1909. Ito, Count Tuko, Japanese admiral, chief of the naval general staff, was bom in Satauma province, 1843. He was educated at the Tokyo Kaisei college. Entered the imperial Japanese navy, 1868 ; attained the rank of lieutenant-commander, 1872; commanded the Adzuma, Nisshin, Fuso, and Hiyei in succession; took part in the civil war of 1877 in command of Nisshin, and with the Hiyei went to the Persian gulf, 1880; was promoted rear-admiral and commander of the standing sciuadron, 1886 ; vice-admiral and chief of Yokosuka naval station, 1892; fought the battle of Yalu with all the combined sauadrons under command, 1894 ; chief of the naval general staff, 1895; created viscount for services in the war, and made a full admiral in 1898. Ivan III. (e-vdn', i'-v&n), Vasilevitch, czar of Russia, sometimes named "the great," may be regarded as the founder of the Russian empire. He was born in 1440, was at first only grand-duke of Moscow, but succeeded in shaking off entirely the yoke of the Tartars, and in subjecting a num- ber of the Russian principalities to his own sway. In 1472 he married Sophia, a niece of Constantine Palseologus, assumed the title of "ruler of all Russia, and adopted the two-headed eagle of the Byzantine empire. Died, 1505. Ivan IV., Vasilevitch, czar of Russia, called "the terrible," was bom in 1530. He did much for the advancement of his country in arts and com- merce, as well as for its extension by arms. He subdued Kazan and Astrakhan, and made the first annexation of Siberia. He concluded a commercial treaty with Queen Elizabeth of England, after the English had discovered the way to Archangel by sea. But his hand fell with merciless cruelty upon the boyars of his kingdom, and upon some of his towns, as Moscow, Tver, and Novgorod. Ivan died of sorrow for his son, whom three years before he had slain in a mad fit of rage. Died, 1584. Ives (ivz), Frederic Euf^ene, American inventor, was born at Litchfield, Conn., 1856. He was educated in the public schools at Litchfield, Norfolk, Newtown, Conn. In charge of photo- graphic laboratory, Cornell university, 1874-78, he realized the first practically successful process of orthochromatic photography, and invented the process of half-tone photo-engraving now universally employed, 1886. His experiments in color photography on the so-called trichromatic principle, commenced in 1878, culminated in the three-color printing process in the typographic press, now an important industry, and in the Kromskop and Tripak systems. His recent inven- tions include gla.ss sealed spectroscope gratings, the diffraction chromoscope, and the universal colorimeter. He has lectured before scientific societies in America and England, and is a member of many scientific societies. Author: Isochromatic Photography with ChorophyU, A New Principle in Heliochromy. Contributor to tech- nical and educational journals on photographic processes. IztlilxochitI (esh'-tlU-sho'-chefl), Fernando de Alva, Mexican antiquarian, was bom in Mexico, about 1568. He was a descendant of the kings of Tezcuco, was interpreter of the native lan- guages to several viceroys of Mexico, and a laborious collector of the ancient MSS. and traditions of his country. Both Presscott and Lord Kingsborough made use of his writings in the compilations of their histories. Many valuable manuscripts of his are in the archives of Mexico. Died, 1648. Jackson, Abraham Valentine Williams, American educator and scholar, professor Indo-Iranian languages, Columbia university, since 1895, was born in New York, 1862. He was graduated at Columbia, 1883; L. H. D., 1885, Ph. D., 1886, LL. D., 1904. Was university student, Halle, Germany, 1887-89; instructor in Anglo-Saxon and Indo-Iranian languages, Columbia, 1889-91 ; adjunct professor English language and literature, Columbia, 1891-95, and has done much public lecturing. He traveled in India, 1901 and 1911, Persia and Central Asia, 1903, 1907, and 1910. Author: A Hymn of Zoroaster; An Aveatan Gram- mar; An Avestan Reader; Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran; Persia, Past and Present; and many articles in Journal American Oriental Society since 1886, and other journals of learning, maga- zines, etc. He edited A History of India, 9 vols., and the Columbia university Indo-Iranian series, in five volumes. Jackson, Andrew, seventh president of the United States, was born in North Carolina, 1767. Hia father, a Scotch-Irishman, emigrated to America in 1765. When Jackson grew up he was sent to study for the church, but on the outbreak of the American revolution he and his brothers were summoned to the field. Though but thirteen years old, he fought under Sumter, and remained with the army until the end of the war. In 1784 he commenced the study of law, and in 1788 was appointed solicitor for the western district of South Carolina, now the state of Tennessee. In 1796 he was a member of the convention which modeled the constitution and organized the state of Tennessee, and was elected, respectively, representative, United States senator, judge of the state supreme court, and major-general of state militia. In 1813, at an outbreak of hostili- ties with the Creek Indians, he raised a volunteer force of 3,000 men and defeated them. Jack- son's final victory on March 27, 1814, broke the power of the Indian race in North America. He was appointed major-general of the United States army; defended New Orleans against the attack of the British under General Packenhara, December, 1814. The result of this action gave General Jackson a great and enduring popularity. After Spain had ceded Florida to the United States he was made governor of the territory, and subsequently was chosen United States senator from Tennessee. He was, in spite of opposition, elected president of the United States by the democratic party in 1828, and in 1832 reelected by a still more overwhelming majority. His administration was marked by singular firmness. He vetoed impiortant measures against large majorities, destroyed the bank of the United States, and took the first steps toward a specie currency and an independent treasury. He retired with undiminished popularity after witnessing the election of his favorite, President Van Buren. Died, 1845. Jackson, Helen Hunt, American author and poet, was bom in Amherst, Maas., 1831. Her maiden name was Helen Maria Jlske. She studied at Ipswich female seminary, and in 1852 was mar- ried to Major E. B. Hunt, of the United States engineers. She afterwara married William 8. Jackson, and lived most of the latter part of her life at Colorado Springs, Colo. She began to write verses about 1870 over the signature "H. H.," which soon became familiar to magazine readers. She had always been interested in the welfare of the Indians, and her book, A Century 800 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT of DishoTun, made her their champion. In 1883 Mrs. Jackson was made a commissioner by the government to look into the condition of the Mission Indiana of California. Her last book, Ramona, which deals with Indian life, leaped at once into great popularity. She died at San Francisco, 1885. Jackson, Samuel Macaulay, American educator and writer, professor of church history, New York university, 1895-1912; was born in New York city, 1851. He was graduated from the college of the city of New York, 1870, Union theological seminary, 1873; LL. D., Washington and Lee uni- versity, 1892; D. D., New York university, 1893. He was a Presbyterian pastor, Norwood, N. J., 1876-80; assistant editor Schaff'a Bible Dic- tionary, 1880; associate editor, Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge, 1884; joint- editor. Encyclopaedia of Living Divines, 1887; editor. Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowledge, 1891; church terms in the Standard Dictionary, 1895, and of the same in the supplement to Wef>- ster'a International Dictionary, 1900; church his- tory department, Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia, 1893-95 ; religious editor. New International Ency- dopcedia, 1902-04, and was chief editor of new edition of Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia, 1907-11. His other publications include : Hiddreich Zwingli, Handbooks for Practical Workers in Church and Philanthropy, etc. Died, 1912. Jackson, Thomas Jonathan, better known the world over as "Stonewall Jackson," American general, was bom in Lewis county, Virginia (now West Virginia), 1824. He was graduated at West Point academy in 1846, and after serving with distinction in the Mexican war, he became a professor in the military institute at Lexington, Va. At the outbreak of the civil war he was appointed brigadier-general in the confederate service. At the battle of Bull Run, July, 1861, his command on that occasion "stood like a stone wall," hence the sobriquet. In September he received the rank of major-general; defeated General Banks at Front Royal, 1862; fought an indecisive battle with Fremont at Cross Keys; commanded a corps in the battle of Gaines' Mill and Malvern Hill ; again defeated General Hanks at Cedar mountain; captured Harper's Ferry with 11,000 federal prisoners; commanded a corps at Antietam; and was made lieutenant- general for his services in largely contributing to the federal defeat at Fredericksburg. In 1863, by a clever Sank movement, he defeated the 11th corps of General Hooker's army at Chancellorsville ; and on the evening of the same day was fired at by a patrol party of his own men, who mistook him and his staff, in the darkness, for a detachment of Union cavalry, and died of his wounds on May 10. 1863. Jacob! (Ger. y&-ko'-i>e), Abraham, American physi- cian, was born at Hartum, Westphalia, 1830. He studied at the universities of Greifswald and Gottingen; was graduated from Bonn, M. D., 1851; LL. D., university of Michigan, 1898, Columbia, 1900, Yale, 1905, Harvard, 1906. He became identified with German revolutionarj' movement; was held in detention at Berlin and Cologne, 1851-53, for "high treason," and settled in practice in New York, 1853; was professor of diseases of children, New York medical college, 1860-65, and at New York university, 1865-70; later professor of diseases of children, college of physicians and surgeons. He was co-editor of American Journal of Obstet- rics and Diseases of Women and Children, 1868-71. Author: Dentition and Its Derangements; The Raistng and Education of Abandoned Children xn Europe; Infant Diet; Diphtheria; Treatise on Diphtheria; Pathology of the Thymus Gland; Therapeutics of Infancy and Childhood; Intesiinal Diseases, etc. Member of many medical societies. Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrlcb, German philosopher, was born at Diisseldorf, 1743. He was trainea for a mercantile career, but in 1772 was appointed finance officer for Jtilich and Berg, and devoted himself to literature and philosophy. He elabo- rated no system of philosophy, but criticised all other philosophies from his special doctrine — that by the "reason," not the understanding, we have immediate conviction or belief not only of the reaUty of objects perceived by the senses, but also of the reality of the highest verities that lie beyond the apprehension of sense. From this standpoint he examined Spinoza, Hume, Kant, and Schelling. He also expounded bis view in philosophical romances — Woldemcw and AUxvills Briefsammlung — in an Open Letter to Fichte, and in other writings. Died, 1819. Jacob!, Karl Gustav Jakob, celebrated German niathernalician, was born in Prunsia, 1804. In 1829 hi" Ix^canie a professor at Konigsberg, and published hip celebrated work, Fundamenta nova Theoria Functionum Ellipticarum, for which he received the great medal of the academy of sciences of Paris. He also wrote a great number of memoirs on the different branches of the higher mathematics, chiefly on Series and Definite Integrals, and was a regular contributor to the celet>rated Journal fur reine und angewandt Mathc- matik of Crelle. Died. 1851. Jaeobr (/o-Ard'-^t), Harold, American astronomer, professor of astronomy at Columbia university, since 1894, was born at New York, 1865. He was graduated at Columbia, 1885 : Ph. D., same. Was assistant astronomer United States eclipse expedition to West Africa in United States sUnuner Penaacola, 1889-90; acting director. 1903-06, director since 1906, Columbia observa- tory. Author: Practical Talks by an Astronomer, technical papers on astronomical photography, stellar parallax and star clusters, publisnea by leading European and American societies; also contributes articles on astronomical subjects to daily pajK-rs of principal cities. Public lecturer on astronomy and other subjects. Jacotot {zhd'-ko'-to'), Jean Josepli, inventor of the "universal method" of education, was bom at Dijon, France, 1770. He was successively sol- dier, military secretary, and holder of various professional chairs. The principles of his system are that the mental capacities of all men are equal; the unequal results of education depend almost exclusively upon will; everyone is able to educate himself, provided he is once started in the right way; knowledge should first be acquired through instinctive experience, or by the memory. He expounded his views in En- seignement Universel. Died, 1840. Jacquard (zhd'-kdr*), Joseph Marie, French in- ventor, was bom at Lyons, 1752. He attempted to establish a manufactory for weaving figured fabrics, planned several ingenious improvements in machinerj', and brought to perfection the apparatus for figured weaving, which now per- petuates his name — the Jacquard loom. Among his contrivances may be mentioned also a ma- chine for weaving nets for fishing. His machine was discovered, he was arrested, and sent to Paris; but upon examination the inspectors. Napoleon and Camot being two of them, awarded him a gold medal. He resided at Lyons for many years, encountering much opposition from a prejudice excited against machinery, but eventually triumphed. He passed his latter years in tranquil retirement, and died in 1834. During his Ufe he received the cross of the l^oa of honor, and in 1840 a public statue was erected to his memory at Lyons. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 801 Jahn (ydn), Frledrlch Ludwtg, the "Tumvater" or father of gymnastics, was born at Lanz in Prussia, 1778. In 1811 he started the first gymnasium in Berlin. His systeui, meant to revive patriotism, attracted the Prussian youth, and to the training thus obtained must be largely attributed the expulsion of the French. Jahn received the command of a volunteer corps; and after the peace of 1815 resumed his teaching, and publishecl Die DeiUsche Turnkunst. But the gymnasiums began to witness political gather- ings, too liberal to please the Prussian govern- ment, and they were closed in 1818. Jahn, who had taken a prominent part in the movement, was arrested in 1819 and suffered five years' imprisonment. He was elected to the Frankfort national assembly in 1848. Died, 1852. Jahn, Otto, German philologist, archi£ologist and classical editor, was born at Kiel, 1813. He lectured at Kiel, Greifswald, and Leipzig. De- prived of his chair in 1851 for his part in the political movements of 1848-49, he became in 1855 professor of archaeology at Bonn. He published works on Greek art, representations of ancient life on vases, a number of Latin and Greek classics, besides a Life of Mozart, and a number of masterlv essavs on music. Died, 1869. James I. of England, VI. of Scotland, the only son of Mary, queen of Scots, and Henry, Lord Darn- ley, was born in Edinburgh, 1566. When his mother was forced to resign the crown, James was proclaimed king of Scotland, 1567. The training of his childhood was under the care of the earl of Mar. His tutor was the famous scholar, George Buchanan. In 1578 the earl of Morton, then regent, was driven from power, and James assumed full control. The new government was unpopular, and Morton was once more made regent. He was at length con- demned and executed, as one of the murderers of Lord Darnley. In the winter of 1589 James went to Denmark, where he married Princess Anne, daughter of Frederick IT., king of that country. By the death of Elizabeth in 1603, James succeeded to the throne of England. He soon became unpopular with his new subjects. The anger of the Roman Catholics toward him, because of his severities, led to the famous gun- powder plot. He really governed through his favorites, Kerr and Buckingham, both of them unpopular; and England's prestige as a power, whnch had been gained under Elizabeth, soon disappeared. The so-called King James Bible was completed during his reign. He has been described as two men in one — "a witty, well- read scholar, who wrote, disputed and harangued, and a nervous, driveling idiot who acted." He has been called by one historian "the wisest fool in Christendom." Died, 1625. James II. of England and VII. of Scotland, son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born in 1633. In 1648, during the civil war, he made his escape to France. For some time he served in the French army under Turenne ; but on peace being made with Crosawell he was obliged to leave both the army and territory of Louis XIV. He then entered the military service of Spain. At the restoration he was made lord high admiral of England. On the death of Charles II., 1685, James succeeded to the crown without opjxjsition. On becoming king he promised to maintain the church and to respect the liberties of the people, but his government, nevertheless, was arbitrary and tyrannical; he paraded his Catholicism, persecuted the covenanters, subordinated Eng- lish interests to French, permitted the "bloody assize," suspended the test act, violated the rights of the universities, gave church offices to Roman Catholics, and by these and many other acts of despotism made his deposition necessary; leading slutesmcn invited William of Orange to assume the throne, and James fled to France; an invasion of Ireland in 1689 ended in his defeat at the battle of the Boyne. He retired again to France, and lived at St. Qcrmaina until his death, 1701. James IV. of Scotland, son of James III. and Mar- garet of Denmark, was born in 1473. His rule gave promise of being both vigorous and popular, while the personal beauty ho possessed and his open frankness won the hearts of liis people. He exhibited great energy and good sense in the management of public affairs, in vindicating the law. and punislung crime, in encouraging ship- building, and in developing the agriculture and the manufactures of the country. In 1503 the king married Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII. of England, an alliance which led to the union of the two crowns just one hundred years later. Henry VIII. came to the English throne in 1509, and, m the disputes which followed, James invaded England with an army. He was met by the earl of Surrey, and in the battle which took place at Flodden, 1513, the king and many of his nobles were killed. He was forty years old, and had reigned twenty-six years. James, Edmund Janes, American educator, was born in Jacksonville, 111., 1855. He was edu- cated at the Illinois state normal school and at the Northwestern and Harvard universities; Ph. D., 1877, university of Halle; LL. D., Cornell college, Weslevan, Queen's college. He was principal of the high school, Evanston, 111., 1878-79; principal Model high school, Normal. 111., 1879-82; professor of public finance and administration, Wharton school of finance and economy, university of Pennsylvania, 1883-95; professor of political and social science, university of Pennsylvania, 1884-95; professor of public administration, and director of extension division of the university of Chicago, 1896-1901 ; presi- dent of the Northwestern university, 1902-04, and president of the university of Illinois since 1904. Author: Relation of tJic Modern Munici- pality to the Gas Supply; The Legal Tender De- cisions; The Canal and the RaUway; Federal Constitution of Germany; Federal Constitution of Switzerland; Ediication of Business Men in Europe; Charters of City of Chicago; Growth of Great Cities in Area and Population; Government of a Typical German City — Halle; also over 100 papers, monographs, and addresses in trans- actions of societies, etc. James, George Payne Bainsford, English historical novelist, was bom in London, 1801. He was educated at Putney and in France, and by seven- teen had written some Eastern tales, which found favor with Washington Irving. Thereafter he ceased to write, dictating instead to an amanu- ensis his "thick-coming fancies." In all he published seventy-seven works, historical ro- mances mostly, but also biographies, poems, etc. The best were among the earUest : Riche- lieu and Henry Masterton. He was British con- sul at Richmond, Va., 1852-56, and then at Venice until his death in 1860. James, Henry, American author, was bom in New York, 1843. He was educated in France and Switzerland, and at Harvard law school. He began his literary career as contributor to periodi- cals, 1866, and since 1869 has lived in England. Author: Watch and Ward; A Passionate Pil- grim; Roderick Hudson; Transatlantic Sketches; The American; French Poets and Novelists; The Europeans; Daisy Miller; An International Episode; lAfe of Hawthorne; A Bundle of Letters; Confidence; Diary of a Man of Fifty; Washir^g- ton Square; The Portrait of a Lady; Siege of Lon- don; Portraits of Places; Tales of Three Cities; 802 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT A Little Tour in France; The Author of Bdtraffio; 1 The Bostonians; Princess Casamaasima; Partial Portraits; The Aapem Papers; The Reverberator; I A London Life; The Tragic Muse; Terminations; j The Spoils of Poynton; What Maisie Knew; > In the Cage; The Two Magics; The Awkward \ Age; Th^, Soft Side; The Sacred Fount; The j Wings of the Dove; The Better Sort; Question | of our Speech; The Lesson of Balzac; American Scene, etc. James, William, eminent American psvchologist and philosophical writer, was born in >Jew York, | 1842. He was educated privately, and at Law- | rence scientific school, 1861-63; M. D., Harvard medical school, 1869; Ph. D. and Litt. D., Padua, 1893; LL. D., Princeton, 1896, Edin- burgh, 1902, Harvard, 1903. He was instructor and later assistant professor of comparative anatomy and physiology, 1872-80, assistant professor of philosophy, 1880-85, professor of same, 1885-89, professor of psychology, 1889-97. and professor of^ philosophy, 1897-1907, Harvard university. He was GifTord lecturer on natural religion, university of Edinburgh, 1899-1901. Corresponding member of the French institute, Paris, royal Prussian academy of sciences; mem- ber national academy of sciences, etc. Author: Principles of Psychology, 2 vols. • Psychology — Briefer Course; The Will to Believe, and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy; Talks to Teacher » on Psychology and to Stuaenta on Life's Ideals; Human Immortality — Tvix) Suppoaed Objections to the Doctrine; The Varieties of keligious Exper- iences; Pragmatism — A New Name for some Old Ways of Thinking, etc. Died, 1910. Jameson (jam'-sun), Mrs. (Anna Brownell Murphy), British writer, was bom in Dublin, 1794. She was the daughter of an artist, and nxany of her books are about pictures, painters, and other art matters. In 1823 she married Robert Jameson, and went with him to Canada, where he held a government office. The marriage was not a happy one, and she separated from her husband, and gave herself up to writing. Among her books are: Memoirs of Cdebrated Female Sovereigns; Characteristics of Women; Memoirs of Italian Painters; The History of Sacred and Legendary Art; and Legends of the Madonna. She died in London, 1860. Jameson* John Franklin, American educator, historian, was bom in Boston, 1859. He gradu- ated at Amherst college, 1879; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins. 1882, LL. D., 1902; LL.D., Amherst, 1898; was assistant and associate professor of I history, Johns Hopkins, 1882-88; professor of history. Brown, 1888-1901 ; head of department of history, university of Chicago, 1901-05, and director department of historical research, Carnegie institution, Washington, since 1905. He was managing editor of American Historical Review, 1895-1901 and since 1905; president American historical association, 1906-07. Author: WHlem Usselinx, Founder of the Dutch and Swedish West India Companies; History of Historical Writing in America; Dictionary of United States History, etc. He edited the Correspondence of John C. Calhoun, and has been editor of historical publications of Carnegie institution since 1905. Jameson, Rt. Hon. Sir Leander Starr, South African politician, was bom at Edinburgh, 1853. He studied medicine there and at London, and began practice at Kimberley in 1878. Through Cecil Rhodes he engaged in pioneer work, was in 1891 made administrator of the South African company at Fort Salisburv, and won enormous popularity. During the troubles at Johannes- burg between the Uitlanders and the Boer government, Jameson, who by order of Rhodes had concentrated the military forces of Rhodesia at Mafeking on the Transvaal frontier, started with six hundred troopers to support the Uitlanders, 1895. At Doornkoop they were over- powered by an overwhelming force of Boers, and. sleepless and famishing, were comp>elled after a sharp fight to surrender, January 2, 1896. Handed over to the British authorities, Jameson was in Mav condemned in London to fifteen months' imprisonment, but was released in December. In 1900 he was elected to the legislative assembly, and was, from 1904 to 1908, premier of Cape Colony. Member of parliament. Harbor division. Cape Town, 1910-12. Created baronet, 1911. Janet {zhd'-ni'), Paul, French philosopher, was bom in Paris, 1823. He was professor at Bourges, Strassburg, the Lyc^'e of Louis-le- Granu, Paris, and mially, in 1864, he became professor of the history of philosophy at the Sorbonne, and a member oi the academy of moral and pK>litical sciences. Among his works are: Histoire de la Science Politique; Les Prob- Ihnea du XIX. Siide; Philosophte de la Rivolu- ttoh Franfaiae; Lea Cauaea Finalea; La Philoao- phie Franfaiae Contemporaine; Lea MaUrea de la Penaie Modeme; etc. He alao contributed to the Revue dea Deux Mondea, Dictionnaire dea Seieneea Philoaophi^uea Le Tempa, etc.. and waa an officer of the legion of honor. Died, 1899. Janewmy (/dn'-tM), Edward Gamaliel, American physician, was bom in New Jersey, 1841; grad- uated at Rutgers college, 1800; acting medical cadet, Unitea States army hospital, Newark, N. J., 1862-63; graduated at the college of physicians and surgeons. New York, 1864 ; LL. D. From 1864 he was In practice In New York; identified with the Beilevue hospital medical college after 1868, first as curator, in 1872 as professor of pathological anatomy, and later as professor of medicine and dean. He held many nospital appointments, and was health com- missioner of New York, 1875-82. Died, 1911. Jans«n {j&n'-aen; D., yOn'-aen), Cornelius, some- times called Jansenius, bishop of Ypres, in the Netherlands, and founder of the Jansenists, was born at Acquoi, near Leerdam in Holland, 1585. He studied at Utrecht, Louvain, and Paris; filled a chair at Bayoune* and in 1630 became professor of theology at Louvain. In 1636 he was made bishop of Ypres. He died in 1638, just as he had completed his great work, the Augxutinua, in 4 vols., which sought to prove that the teaching of St. Augustine against the Pelagians and semi-Pelagian.s on grace, free-will, and predestination was directly opposed to the teaching of the Jesuit schools. Jansen repudi- ated the ordinary Catholic dogma of the freedom of the will, and refused to admit merely sufficient g^ace, maintaining that inferior grace is irresist- ible, and that Christ died for alL On the pub- lication of the Augustinua in 1640, it was received with loud clamor, especially by the Jesuits, and was prohibited by a decree of the inqui.sition in 1641 ; in the following year it was condemned by Urban VIII. in the buU'/n Eminenti. Jansen was supported by such writers as Amauld, Pascal, and the Port-royalists. The controversy raged in France with more or less violence for nearly a century, when a large number of Jansemsts emigrated to the Netherlands. Jastrow (y&s'-trd), Joseph, American educator, professor of psychology', university of Wisconsin, since 1903, was born at Warsaw, Poland, 1863. He was graduated at the university of Pennsyl- vania, 1882; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins. 1886. He was in charge of the psychological section of World's Columbian exposition. 1893, and presi- dent of American psychological association, 1900. Author: Time-Relations of Mental Phenomena; Epitomes of Three Sciences, part author; Fact and FcMe in Psychology; The Subconacious, etc.. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 808 and a frequent contributor on psychological subjects in scientific journals and magazines. Jastrow, Morris, Jr., American orientalist, profes- sor of Semitic languages, and librarian, univer- sity of Pennsylvania, was born in Europe, 1861. He was graduated at the university of Pennsyl- vania, 1881; Ph. D., university of Leipzig, 1884, and also studied at other universities of Germany and P'rance. He is a recognized authority on Semitic religions, languages, and literatures. Author: Religion of the Babylonians and Assyr- ians; The Study of Religion; etc. Editor, with memoir. Selected Essays of James Darmesteter, translated by Helen Bachman Jastrow; series of Handbooks on the History of Religion, and of the Semitic department of the Internxitional Enci/do- paedia. He was also a contributor to Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; the Encydopcedia Biblica; Jewish Encyclopaedia; Encydopcedia Britannica; Hastings' s Dictionary of Religions; Journal American Oriental Society, and various other technical publications. Jay, John, American statesman and jurist, was born in New York city, 1745, and was there admitted to the bar in 1768. In 1774, as a member of the first continental congress, he formed one of the committee of three which drew up the celebrated address to the people of Great Britain. He largely assisted in framing the New York state constitution, in 1777 was appointed chief-justice of New York, and in the following year became president of congress. He next took part in negotiating the treaty of peace entered into at Paris, 1783, between Great Britain and the United States. On his return he was appointed secretary of foreign affairs, and in 1789 chief-justice of the United States supreme court. In 1794 he proceeded on a special mission to England, where he concluded a treaty which met with violent opposition from the anti-federalist party. He afterward held the governorship of New York state, and, after refusing a second nomination to the chief- justiceship, died, 1829. Jebb, Sir Bichard Claverhouse, British Greek scholar, was bom at Dundee, Scotland, 1841. He was graduated from Trinity college, Cam- bridge, as senior classic in 1862, and was elected fellow. He took a prominent part in organizing inter-collegiate classical lectures, and was secre- tary to the newly-founded Cambridge philological society. In 1869 he became public orator of the university, in 1875 professor of Greek at Glasgow, and in 1889 regius professor of Greek at Cam- bridge. In 1891 he was elected member of par- liament for Cambridge university. His books include Characters of Theophrastv^; The Attic Orators; Primer of Greek Literature; Modern Greece; Translations into Greek and Latin Verse; Richard Bentley; Introduction to Homer; Erasmus; Influence of Classical Greek Poetry; and his Bacchylides. But his greatest work is his trans- lation of Sophocles. Died, 1905. Jeejeebhoy (je-jeb-hoi'). Sir Jamsetjee, Hindu philanthropist, was born at Bombay, India, 1783. He was taken into partnership by his father-in- law, a Bombay merchant, in 1800. When peace was restored in Europe in 1815 Indian trade with Europe increased enormously. By 1822 he had amassed 2,000,000 pounds, and began to exhibit a magnificent liberaUty. He contributed gen- erously to various educational and philanthropic institutions in Bombay, and spent upward of a quarter of a million pounds in benevolence. Parsee and Christian, Hindu and Mussulman were alike the objects of his beneficence. Queen Victoria knighted him in 1842, and in 1857 he was made a baronet. Died, 1859. Jefferson, Charles Edward, Congregational clergy- man, was born at Cambridge, Ohio, 1860. He was graduated at Ohio Weslcyan university, 1882, school of theology, Boston university, 1887; D. D., Oberiin, 1898, Union, 1898, Yale, 1903. He was ordained to the Congregational ministry, 1887; now pastor of Broadway taber- nacle. New York. Author: Quiet Talks with Earnest People in My Study; Quiet Hints to Growing Preachers in My Study; Doctrine and Deed; Things Fundamental; The Minister as Prophet; Faith and Life; Tlie World's Christmas Tree; The Old Year and the New; The New Crusade, etc. Jefferson, Joseph, American actor, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1829. He came from a family of actors, and made his first appearance as a child in Pizarro. From 1850 to 1858 ho played minor parts, and managed several theaters in the South, meanwhile visiting London. Shortly after he made his first substantial success as Dr. Pan- gloss in The Heir at Law, at New York. He toured Australia and New Zealand, 1861-65, returned by way of London, and played an engagement at the Adelphi theater in that city in an adaptation of Rip Van Winkle. lie pre- sented the same play m New York, 1806, and confined himself almost solely to it for fifteen years. In 1880 he produced. The Rivals with himself as Bob Acres, and in the two last-named characters his great reputation was made on the American stage. He published his Autobiography in 1890, and made his last appearance at Pater- son, N. J., 1904. He died at Palm Beach, Fla., 1905. Jefferson, Thomas. See page 479. Jeffrey, Francis, Lord, Scottish critic and jurist was born at Edinburgh, 1773. He studied at Glasgow and Oxford, and in 1794 was admitted to the Scottish bar, but as a whig made little progress for many years. In the trials for sedition, 1817-22, he acquired a great reputation; in 1820 and again in 1823 he was elected lord rector of Glasgow university; in 1829 dean of the faculty of advocates. In 1830 he was elected to parliament for Perth, and on the forma- tion of Earl Grey's ministry became lord ad- vocate. After the passing of the reform bill he was returned for Edinburgh, which he repre- sented until 1834, when he was made a judge of the court of sessions. From 1815 he liv^ at Craigcrook, where he died in 1850. It is as literary critic and leader in a new departure in literary enterprise that Jeffrey holds his title to fame. Together with Sydney Smith, Francis Homer, and a few others, he established the Edinburgh Review, of which he was editor until 1829. His own contributions were very numer- ous and brilliant, if biased. A selection of them was published in 1844. Jeffreys, George, Baron, English judge, was bom at Acton near Wrexham, 1648, and was called to the bar in 1668. He rose rapidly, and became in 1671 common sergeant of the city of London. Hitherto nominally a Puritan, he now began to intrigue for court favor, was made solicitor to the duke of York, was knighted in 1677, and became recorder of London in 1678. Actively concerned in the popish plot prosecutions, he was made chief-justice of Chester and king's sergeant in 1680, baronet in 1681, and chief- justice of king's bench, 1683. His first exploit was the judicial murder of Algernon Sidney, but in every state-trial he proved subservient to the crown, thus earning the favor of James, who raised him to the peerage in 1685. Among his earliest trials were those of Titus Gates and Richard Baxter; later he was sent to try the followers of Monmouth, and hanged 331, trans- ported 849 to the American plantations, and whipped or fined thirty-three others. He was lord chancellor from 1685 until the downfall of 804 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT James, and supported all the kin^s measures as president of the newly-revised court of high commission, and in the trial of the seven bishops. On James's flight he tried to follow his example, but was caught at Wapping, dis- guised as a sailor, and sent to the Tower to save him from the mob. Here he died in 1689. Jelliffe, Smith Ely, American physician, was bom in New York, 1866. He was graduated at the Brooklyn polytechnic, 1886; medical depart- ment of Columbia university, 1889; Ph. D., Columbia, 1899. He began practice, 1889, spent one year in Europe, and since 1895 has practiced in New York. He is professor of mental diseases at Fordham university; visiting neurologist to the city hospital ; and an authority in mental and nervous diseases. Author: Essentials of Vegetable Pharmacognosy, with Dr. H. H. Rusby; Morphology and Histology of Plants, with same; Nerixms Diseases in BuUer's Diagnostics; Outlines of Pharmacognosy; reviser of: May's Physiology; Butler's Materia Medica; Shaw on Nervous Diseases. Editor and transla- tor: Dubois' Psycfioneuroses; co-editor: Ency- clopedia Americana; managing editor : Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease; contributor to medical, botanical, and pharmaceutical press. Jenkln, Henry Charles Flcemlng, British engineer and electrician, was born in England, 1833. Educated at Elidinburgh and at the university of Genoa, Italy. Later he entered Fairbaim s shops at Manchester, and took a practical course in mechanics and engineering. In 1859 he bc^an experiments in conjunction with Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in electricity, and was specially occupied with practical work in cable telegraphv, 1858-73. He was made fellow of the royal society, 1865, became professor of engi- neering in University college, London, same year, and in 1868 professor at Edinburgh university. He published Magnetism, and Electricity, Mt»- eellaneous Papers, etc. Died, 1885. Jenks, Jeremiah Whipple, American economist and educator, professor of political economy and politics, Cornell, 1891-1912, professor of economics and finance. New York university, since 1912, was born in St. Clair, Mich., 1856. He was graduated from the university of Michigan, 1878; LL. D., 1903; Ph. D., university of Halle, 1885. Studied law, and was admitted to the Michigan bar. Taught Greek, Latin, and German at Mt. Morris college ; professor of political science and English literature, Knox college, 1886—89; professor of political economy and social science, Indiana uni- versity, 1889-91 ; expert agent of United States industrial commission on investigation of trusts and industrial combinations in the United States and Europe, 1899-1901 ; and consulting expert of United States department of labor on same sub- ject. Special commissioner of war department, United States, to investigate questions of cur- rency, labor, internal taxation and police in the Orient, 1901-02. Appointed financial adviser to Chinese republic, 1912. Author: The Trust Problem; Report on Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch Colonies in the Orient. Editor and part author: Trusts and Industrial Combinations. Compiler: Statutes and Digested Decisions of Federal, State, and Territorial Law Relating to Trusts and Industrial Combinations. Part author and compiler of Reports of Commission on International Exchange,ctc., and frequent con- tributor to periodical literature on economic and political questions. He was special expert on currency reform to the government of Mexico; member of the United States commission on inter- national exchange in special charge of reform of currency in China, and since 1907 a member of the United States inamigration conunission. Jenner (jhi'-ir), Edward, English physician, dis- coverer of vaccination^ was bom at Berkeley vicarage, Gloucestershire, 1749. He was ap- prenticed to a surgeon at Sodbury, in 1770 went to London to study under John Hunter, and in 1773 settled at Berkeley, where he acquired a large practice. In 1775 he began to investigate the truth of the traditions respecting cow-pox, became convinced that it was efficacious as a protection against small-pox, and was led to hope that he would be able "to propagate it from one human being to another, until he had disseminated the practice over all the globe, to the total extinction of small-pox." Many inves- tigations delayed the actual discovery of the prophylactic power of vaccination, and the crowning experiment was made on May 14, 1796. This exiKTiinent was followed by many others; and in 1798 Jenner published his Inquiry intt> the Causes and Effects of the Variolar Vaccina. Yet the practice met with violent opposition for a year, when upward of seventy of tne principal physicians and surgeons in London signed a declaration of their entire confidence in it. Jermer's discovery was soon promulgated through- out the civilised world. Honors were conferred upon him, and he was elected an honorary mem- ber of nearly all the learned societies of Europe. Parhament voted him in 1802 a grant of 10,000 pounds, and in 1807 a second grant of 20,000 pounds. He died at Berkeley, 1823. Jeremiah, one of the four great prophets of Israel, author of the book in the Bible which bears his name, and of the book of Lamentations, flourished about 62^580 B. C. The writings of this prophet, dictated by him to Baruch, although arranged with little regard to order, exhibit great tender- ness and elfgiac beauty of sentiment, but lack the sublime grandeur of Isaiah. He often bor- rows from his poetic predecessors. Several of the Psalm* have l>ecn attributed to him, especially by modem critics. Hitzig numbers thirty-four, which he believes to be the composition of Jeremiah. There is no reason to douot that the Lamentation* are properly ascribed to him, while the apocr>'phal work of his, mentioned by Jerome, deserves little notice. Jeroboam (jir-(i-b6'-am), first king of the divided kingdom of Israel, ruled about 937-915 B. C. He was made by Solomon superintendent of the labors and taxes exacted from his tribe of Eph- raim at the construction of the fortifications of Zion. The growing disaffection toward Solomon fostered his ambition ; but he was obliged to flee to Egj'pt. After Solomon's death he headed the successful revolt of the northern tribes against Rehoboam, and, as their king, estab- lished idol shrines at Dan and Bethel to wean away his people from the pilgrimages to Jeru- salem. He reigned twenty-two years. Jerome (je-rdm'), Jerome Klapka, English humorist, writer, and lecturer, was bom at Walsall, Eng- land, 1859. He has been at various times clerk, school-master, actor, and journalist; editor of Idler, with Robert Barr, 1892-97, and of To-Day, 1893-97. Author: On the Stage and Off; Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow; Three Men in a Boat; Diary of a Pilgrimage; Novel Notes; John Ingerfidd; Barbara; Fennel; Sunset; New Lamps for Old; Ruth; Wood Barrow Farm; Pruae's Progress; Rise of Dick Halward; Sketches in Lavender; Letters to Clorinda; The Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow; Three Men on the Bumm^; Miss Hobbs; Paul Kelver; Tea Table Talk; Tommy and Co.; Idle Ideas in 1905; Susan in Search of a Husband; Passing of the Third Floor Back; The Angel and the Author, etc. Jerome of Prague, the friend of Huss, was bom at Prague between 1360 and 1370. He studied at Oxford, became a convert there to Wycliffe's DOCTOR JENNER PERFORMING HIS FIRST VACCINATION From the painting by Georges-Gaston Alclinguc THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 807 doctrines, and zealously taught them after his return home in 1407. The king of Poland employed him to reorganize the university of Cracow in 1410; the king of Hungary invited him to preach before him at Budapest. Jerome entered with his whole soul into the contest carried on by IIuss. When Huss was arrested at Constance. Jerome hastened to his side to defend him, but, being refused a safe-conduct, he set out to return to Prague, was arrested in Bavaria, 1415, and was brought back to Con- stance. He recanted, but withdrew his recanta- tion, and went to tlie stake, 1416. Jerome, Saint, Sophronlus Euseblus Hicronymus, was bom at Stridon Dalmatia, at some period between 331 and 345. He studied Greek and Latin, rhetoric and philosophy under ^Uus Donatus at Rome, where he was also admitted to the right of baptism. After a residence in Gaul he seems to have revisited Rome; but in the year 370 he had settled in Aquileia with his friend Rufinus, and retired in 374 to the desert of Chalcis, where he spent four years in peniten- tial exercises and in study, especially of the Hebrew language. In 379 he was ordained and went in 382 to Rome, where he resided until 385, a£ secretary of the pope Damascus, and where, although already engaged in his great work of the revision of the Latin version of the Bible, he attained to great popularity and influence by his sanctity, learning, and eloquence. Many pious persons placed themselves under his spiritual direction, the most remarkable of whom were Lady Paula and her daughter Eustochium. These ladies followed him to the holy land, whither he returned in 385. He permanently fixed his residence at Bethlehem in 380, Lady Paula having founded three convents and a monastery, the latter governed by Jerome him- self. His conflict with the Pelagians rendering even his life insecure at Bethlehem, he was com- pelled to go into concealment for over two years ; and soon after his return to Bethlehem, in 418, he was seized with a lingering illness, which terminated in his death, 420. He is universally regarded as the most learned and eloquent of the Latin fathers. Jerome, William Travers, American la^'yer, was born at New York, 1859. He was educated at Williston seminary and Amherst college; was graduated at Columbia law school, 1884; ad- mitted to the bar, 1884. He was justice of special sessions, 1895-1902. Elected district attorney. New York county, 1901, and reelected as inde- pendent candidate, 1905. During his career as district attorney he appeared in many noted trials, and attained a high rank as a lawyer and pleader. Author : Liquor Tax Law in New York. Jerrold Q'Sr'-vM), DouRlas William, English jour- nalist, author, and wit, was born in London, 1803. He was in the main self-educated, served as a midshipman in the royal navy, and about 1821 produced a successful comedy. He is chiefly remembered, however, for his contributions to Punch, with which he was connected from 1841 until within a short time of his death. His best play is Black-eyed Siisan, published in 1829 ; his best novels are St. Giles and St. James, and The Chronicles of Clovernook. The most popular of his works, however, is Mrs. Caudle 8 Curtain Lectures, originally published in Punch. An edition of his Works was published during his lifetime; and his Life and Remains was edited by his son, Blanchard Jerrold, about a year after the father's death in 1857. Jerrold, William Blanchard. son of Douglas Jerrold, was bom in London, 1826. He was a writer for many of the principal newspapers of London, and wrote also many plays, novels, books of travel, and other works. Among his best books are i Tripn through the Vin*yard« of Spain; The Story of Madge and the Fairy Content; London, illus- trated by Dor6, and Life of Napoleon III. He died in 1884. JeTons (jiv'-um), Frank Byron, English classical writer, subwarden, 1902-09, professor philosophy since 1910, Durham university; was bom in 1858. He was graduated at Wadham college, Oxford, and was university treasurer, 1898- 1902. Author: The Dcvdoprnent of the Athenian Democracy; A History of Greek Literature; The Prehistoric Antiquities of tlie Aryan Peoples: Plutarch's Romane Questions; A Manual of Greek Antiquities: An Introduction to the History of Religion; Religion in Evolution, etc. Jevons, William Stanley, English economist and logician, was bom in Liverpool, 1835. Ho studied there and at University college. London. He was assayer to Sydney,' Australia, mint. 1854-59, in 1866 became professor of logic ana political economy at Owens college, Manchester, and in 1876-81 held the chair of political economy at University college, London. He was drowned in 1882 while bathing at Bexhill, near Hastings. He popularized the mathematical methods of Boole, and wrote Elementary Lessons in Logic; Principles of Science; Studies in Deductive Logic; Theory of Political Economy; Pure Logic and other Minor Works. Jewett, Sarah Ome, American author, was bom at South Berwick, Me., 1849, daughter of the late Dr. Theodore H. Jewett. She was educated at Berwick academy; Litt. D., Bowdoin college. Author: Deephaven; Play Days; Old Friends and New; Country By-Ways; The Mate of the Daylight and Friends Ashore; A Country Doctor; A Marsh Island; A White Heron, and Other Stories; The Story of the Normans; The King of Folly Island, and Other People; Betty Leicester — A Story for Girls; Strangers and Wayfarers; A Native of Winby, and Other Tales; The Life of Nancy; The Country of the Pointed Firs; Betty Leicester's English Christmas; The Queen's Tunn; The Tory Lover, etc. She traveled extensively in the United States, West Indies, and Europe. Died, 1909. Joan of Arc (jo-dn'; jon uv drk'\ or Jeanne d'Arc, the maid of Orleans, French national heroine, was bom of poor but devout parents, in the village of Domrem-y, 1412. Her rehgious faith was ardent almost from her cradle. During that unhappy time of national degradation a proph- ecy, ascribed to Merlin, was current in Lorraine, that the kingdom lost by a woman — Queen Isabella — should be saved by a virgin, and no doubt this together with her visions helped to define her mission to the brooding and enthusi- astic mind of the young peasant girl. She put on male dress and a suit of white armor, mounted a black charger, bearing a banner of her own device. Her sword was one that she divined would be found buried behind the altar in the church of St. Catharine de Fierbois. Thus equipped she put herself at the head of an army of 6,000 men, dictated a letter to the English, and advanced to aid Dunois in the relief of Orleans. Her arrival fired the fainting hearts of the French with a new enthusiasm, and, on April 29, 1429, she threw herself into the city, and, after fifteen days of fighting, the English were compelled to raise the siege and retreat. At once the face of the war was changed, the French spirit again awoke, and within a week the enemy were swept from the principal positions on the Loire. But all thoughts of self were lost in devotion to her mission, and now, with resistless enthusiasm, she urged on the weak-hearted dauphin to hia coronation. On May 24, 1430, with a handful of men she forced her way into Compi6gne, which was then b^eged by the forces of Burgimdy; 808 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT was left behind by her men, taken prisoner, and sold to the English by John of Luxembourg. In December she was carried to Rouen, the headquarters of the English, heavily fettered and flung into a gloomy prison, and at length she was arraigned before the spiritual tribunal of Pierre Cauchon. Her trial was lone, and was disgraced by every form of shameful brutality. She was burned at the stake on May 30, 1431. JTohn, Saint, the apostle, was bom about 4 A. D., and was one of the earliest of Christ's disciples. During the crucifixion our Lord commended His mother to his care, and the apostle "took her to his own home." John afterward became bishop of Ephesus. According to TertuUian, he was plunged into a caldron of boiling oil during the persecution under Domitian, but received no injury. He was subsequently exiled to the island of Patmos, where he is said to have written the book of Revelation. He was also author of the gospel and epistles which bear his name. Died about 99. John the Baptist, forerunner of Christ, was the son of the priest Zacharias and Elizabeth, the cousin of Mary, mother of our Lord. He was baptized and preached repentance and forgiveness of sins. When he had baptized Jesus, the office of the forerunner ceased. He had denounced Herod Antipas for taking Herodias, his brother Philip's wife, was flung into prison, where he was executed at the request of Salome, daughter of Herodias. John IIm Casimir, king of Poland, was bom in 1C09, the younger son of Sigismund III. Having embarked for Spain for the purpose of persuading Philip III. to form a league again.st France, he was shipwrecked, and imprisoned for two years at Vincennes. Being released on a promise given by his brother, king of Poland, never to wage war against France, he traveled through western Europe, became a Jesuit, and was made cardinal by Innocent X. Returning to Poland he succeeded his brother Ladislas in 1648, and married his widow, Maria Luisa Gonzaga. Dur- ing his reign Poland was attacked by Russia and Sweden, resulting in wars which terminated in the cession of several provinces on the Baltic and Dnieper. His wife intriguing for the son of the prince of Cond6 as successor to the throne, and the nobles contending among themselves, he abdicated at the diet of Warsaw, 1668, and retired to France, where he was kindly received by Louis XIV, Died, 1672. John III., Sobleski, king of Poland, was bom about 1624. He was sent to Paris to complete his education, and entered the musketeers of Louis XIV. under Cond6; but in 1648 he returned to combat the revolted Cossacks. He fought bravely against them and against the Swedish and other invaders, and next to Czamiecki he was foremost in saving the country from ruin. Shortly before the abdication of John Casimir he received the chief command of the army. In 1672 he defeated the Turks and Tartars, and when King Michael, being besieged by the Turks in Kamenetz, con- cluded an ignominious treaty, he caused its rejection by the senate, hastened to Podolia, and routed the Turks at Khotin 1673. The king had died a few days before, and Sobieski was elected his successor in 1674. He resumed the war, and rescued the fortress of Trembowla, but subse- quently, at Zurawno. barely escaped surrender. In 1683 he hastened to tHe rescue of Vienna, which was besieged by an army of 300 000 Turks. The Poles, numbering about one-tenth as many, were joined by a somewhat larger body of Ger- man troops. Scarcely had they arrived before Vienna when Sobieski gave the signal for attack. The Turks were driven within their intrench- ments, and attacked there on the next day. The charge was terrible, and after a short struggle the Turks were completely routed. Sobieski, after a triumphal entry into Vienna, pursued the enemy into Hungary, which was soon restored to the emperor. He afterward made attempts to conquer Wallachia, but failed. The last years of his life were embittered by civil as well aa doniestic troubles. Died, 169G. John, king of England, sumamed Lackland, was born in 1167. He was the youngest son of Henry II., and the successor, in 1199, of Richard I., his brother. He had several wars with PhiUp II. of P'rance, who espoused the cause of Arthur, the son of Geoffrey. John's deceased elder brother, and the rightful heir to the throne. In 1203 he murdered his nephew Arthur at Rouen, and imprisoned Arthur's sister Eleanor, known as the damsel of Brittany, in Bristol castle. In 1207 Pope Innocent III. appointed Stephen Langton to the archbishopric of Canterbury, but John refused to sanction the nomination; whereupon the pontiff laid England under an interdict in 1208, excommunicated Jolin, and absolvetl the people from their allegiance to the king in 1212, and authorized Philip of France to dethrone him. Terrified at this, John yielded to the pope, and swore that he would hold his kingdom as the pope's vassal, paying an annual tribute. In 1215, on the demand of his barons, who were beaded by Stephen Langton, now archbishop of Canterbury, he signed Magna Charta. Though John thus accept^ the charter which has been solemnly ratified on thirty-eight different occa.sion8 by subsequent kings, yet he had no intention of being bound by it. Ho actually procured from the pope a bull annulling the charter, and introduced foreign soldiers to fight against the barons, who immediately offered the throne to Louis, son of Philip of France, an offer which was readily accepted, but which led to no result. In the following year, while the king was marching into Lincolnshire, he had the miraortune to lose all his baggage in crossing the Welland, and died a few days later, of acute fever, in the castle of Newark, on the Trent. He was succeeded by his son, Henry III. During this rei^ the English lost nearlv all their I'rench pos.sessions, even Normandv falling to the crown of France. Died, 1216. John II~ king of France, sumamed "the good," the second son of the Valois family, was bom in 1319. He succeeded his father, Philip VI. of Valois, in 1350. He commenced his reign by acts of despotism and cruelty. England, being appealed to by the friends of those whom he nad slain, invaded France, when John was defeated by £xiward, the black prince, at Poitiers in 1356, and carried to Bordeaux and then to London, where he was a prisoner for three vears. His ransom, by a treaty with Edward III. at Bretigny, was the surrender to the English of eight of the best French provinces and the payment of an immense sum in gold. His son, the duke of Anjou, who had been left in London as a hostage for the fulfilment of the treaty, escaped in violation of his parole, and John voluntarily returned as a prisoner to London in 1364, where he suddenly died in that year. John, king of Saxony, was bom in 1801. He was the youngest son of Duke Maximilian of Saxony and Princess Carolina of Parma. He was com- mander of the national guard, 1831—46. His brother, Frederick Augustus II., dying without issue, in 1854, he became king. In the war of 1866 he took the side of Austria. The Prussians entered Saxony, and the Saxon army, having withdraTvn to Bohemia, fought against them in the battle of Koniggratz. Peace was concluded between Prussia and Saxony, and the king agreed to pay a large sum, and to cede the fortress of £u>nigstein. Subsequently Saxony entered THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 809 the North German confederation, and her troops took part in tlie Franco-Pnis-siiui war of 1870-71. Under the pseudonym Philaicthes, John pub- lished a translation of Dante's Divina Commedia, with critical and historical notes, and left manu- script translations of seventy English i>oems. Died, 1873. John of Austria, or Don Juan d* Austria, natural son of the emperor Charles V., was born at Regensburg, about 1547. He was early taken to Spain, and after the death of his father was acknowledged by his half-brother PhiUp II. In 1570 he was sent with an army against the Moors in Granada, whom he completely expelled from the country. In 1571, with the fleets of Spain, the pope, and Venice, he defeated the Turks in the great sea-fight of Lepanto. In 1573 he took Tunis, and conceived the scheme of forming a kingdom for himself. But Philip, jealous of this design, sent him to Milan, and in 1576 as viceroy to the Netherlands. He sought to win the favor of the people by mildness; hard pressed for a time by William the Silent, he with the help of Parma s troops won the victory of Gembloux in 1578 But Philip now feared he might make himself king of the Netherlands, and Don John's death at Namur, 1578, was not without suspicion of poison. John of Gaunt {g&nt; gdtit), or Ghent, fourth son of Edward III., who made him duke of Lancaster, was bom in 1340, at Ghent. In the French wars he served with great bravery under his brother, Edward, the black prince. In 1359 he married Blanche, heiress of the duke of Lancaster, and himself became duke in 1362. In 1371 he married Constance, daughter of Peter the Cruel, king of Castile. On the death of Peter, John claimed the kingdom in the name of his wife, but the military expedition organized to obtain the throne of Castile proved unsuccessful. Toward the end of his father's reign he became the chief man in the kingdom, and perhaps wished to succeed him; at any rate, the young king, Richard II., distrusted him and sent him on another wild expedition to recover his Castilian kingdom. This resulted in a treaty between John and Henry Trastamara, who had possession of the throne, by which John's daughter Catharine should succeed as queen of Castile. On the death of his second wife, he married Catharine Swyn- ford, by whom he had already had three sons and a daughter. From the eldest child Henry VII. was descended. John of Gaunt died at London, 1399. John of Salisbury, English schoolman, by Bishop Stubbs styled "for thirty years the central figure of English learning," was bom at Old Sarum, about 1118. He studied at Paris and Chartres, and from 1150 lived at Canterbury, meanwhile often visiting Italy. From 1164 to 1170 he had to take refuge at Rheims, but he returned in time to witness Becket's murder. In 1176 he became bishop of Chartres. His Latin works include over 300 letters, the Policralicus, etc. Died, 1180. John XXII., popej otherwise Jacques d'Use, was bom at Cahors, France, about 1244. Attempt- ing, after his election as pope in 1316, to carry out the vast policy of Gregory VII., he inter- posed his authority in the contest for the impe- rial crown between Louis of Bavaria and Fred- erick of Austria, supporting the latter and excommunicating his rival. A long contest ensued both in Germany and Italy, where the Guelph or papal party was represented by Robert, king of Naples, and the Ghibelline by Frederick of Sicily. The latter was also excom- municated by John; but in 1327 Louis entered Italy, and, crowned at Milan with the iron crown, advanced upon Rome, expelled the papal legate, and was crowned emperor by two Lombard bishops. He now causod the popo to bo deposed on a charge of heresy and breach of fealty. When Louis returned to Germany, Guolphio predominance at Rome was restored; but Jolm died at Avignon in 1334, having accumulated 18,000,000 gold florins. John XXIII., pope, a Neapolitan named Balthazar Cossa. was born at Naples about 1360. After completing his education at Bologna, he went to Rome, where he became chamberlain to Boniface IX., who in 1402 made him a cardinal. Ho promoted the election of Alexander V., when Gregory XII. was deposed. The plague driving Alexander from Rome, he was invited to Bologna by Cardinal Cossa. The pope fell ill and died in the house of his entertainer, who succeeded Alexander in 1410. By the decree of a council held at Constance in 1414, John was deposed and imprisoned for four years under charge of Lewis, duke of Bavaria. At the end of that time he was liberated, and found such favor with the existing pope, Martin V., that he was created by that pontiff cardinal-bishop of Tusculum, and dean of the sacred colleges, and allowed prece- dence over the other cardinals. He was author of an admired poem, De Varietate Fortunoe. He died at Florence, Italy, 1419. Johnson, Andrew, seventeenth president of the United States, was bom at Raleigh, N. C, 1808. He was self-educated, a tailor by trade, and made his entry into politics in 1840 as a presi- dential elector in Tennessee for Van Buren, the democratic candidate. In 1841 he was elected to the senate of Tennessee, and in 1843 became a member of congress, where for ten years he sup- ported the policy of the democratic party. In 1853 he was elected governor of Tennessee, and again in 1855. In 1857 he was elected to the United States senate, in which he advocated the Union policy of the republican party ; and on the occupation of Nashville by the federals, 1862, was appointed by President Lincoln military governor of Tennessee. In this position he gave such satisfaction to the North that in 1864 he was nominated by the republican party for the office of vice-president, and was elected with President Lincoln, then reelected for his second term. On April 14, 1865, by the assassination of President Lincoln, he succeeded to the presidency. Some indiscreet and violent speeches, during a tour to Chicago and St. Louis, turned the tide against him, and in the congressional elections his opponents triumphed by increased majorities. His vetoes were generally nullified by the two- thirds vote of both houses. In 1867 Jackson suspended Stanton, secretary of war, who was reinstated by the senate the following year. An attempt to gain possession of the war depart- ment during this quarrel led to the impeach- ment of the president in 1868, but he was ac- quitted by a single vote. Chief-justice Salmon P. Chase, one of the most eminent American statesmen and jurists, presided at this remarka- ble trial. His term of office expired in 1869; and afterward he was elected United States senator, taking his seat in 1875. Died, 1875. Jolinson, Clifton, author, illustrator, was bom at Hadley, Mass., 1865. He was educated in the conunon schools there, 1870-80, and ten years later entered upon a literanf career. Author: The New England Country; The Country School; The Farmer's Boy; What They Say in New England; Country Clouds and Sunshine; Among English Hedgerows; Alona French Byways; Tm Isle of the Shamrock; New England and Its Neighbors; The Land of Heather; Old-Time Schools and School-Books; Highvxiys and Bytoaya of the South; Hmhways and Byways of the MissxS' sippi Valley. Editor of school editions of Jacob 810 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Abbott's A Boy on a Farm; Maria Edgeworth's Waste Not Want Not Stories. Illustrator: White's Natural History of Selbourne; Barrie's Window in Thrums; Burroughs's Year in the Fields; Warner's Being a Boy; Dickens's Child's History of England; Blackmore's Lorna Doone; Jefferies' An English ViUage. Johnson, Eastman, American artist, was bom in Lovell, Me., 1824. He studied two years in royal academy, Diisseldorf. Among many notable genre pictures are: "The Old Kentucky Home" ; "Husking Bee"; "The Old Stage Coach"; "Pen- sion Agent"; "Prisoner of State." Among his sitters were many prominent men and women. He is represented in the Metropolitan museum of art ana Lenox galleries, New York ; Corcoran gallery. White House and treasury building, Washington; capitol at Albany; Knickerbocker, Century, and Union League clubs, chamber of commerce, etc.. New York. Died, 1906. Johnson, Hiram Y/^ governor of California, 1911-15, was born in Sacramento, California, 1867; studied law. In 1906 was associated with Francis Heney in the San Francisco graft prose- cutions. When Heney was shot down in open court, Johnson took his place and sent Abe Ruef , leader of the grafters, to the penitentiary for fourteen years. Elected governor of California on a platform designed to free the stjite of the domination of the Southern Pacific railroad and similar influences. Procured passage of twenty- three progressive amendments to state consti- tution. In 1912 nominated vice-president on the progressive ticket. Signed Anti-alien land bill in 1913. Johnson, John A„ American politician, late gov- ernor of Minnesota, was bom in St. Peter, Mmn., 1861. He was educated in the public schools, St. Peter; LL. D., university of Pennsylvania, 1907. He went to work at an early a^e in a printing office in St. Peter, continued m that business, and became a member of the firm of Essler and Johnson, publishers of the St. Peter Herald, of which he was editor. He served seven years in Minnesota national guard, becoming captain. Was state senator from St. Peter dis- trict ; governor of Minnesota, 1904-09, and was a prominent candidate for the democratic presi- dential nomination, 1908. Died, 1909. Johnson, Joseph French, American educator and economist, was bom at Hardwick, Mass., 1853. He was graduated at Harvard, 1878; studied political economy and history in Germany for one year, and entered journalism, 1881. He was engaged on the Springfield Republican, later as financial editor of the Chicago TrUmne, and established at Spokane, Wash., the Spokesman, 1890, which he sold in 1893. He was professor in Wharton school of commerce, university of Pennsylvania, 1893-1901; lecturer on finance, Columbian university, Washington, D. C, 1899- 1903; has been professor of political economy. New York university, since 1901, and dean of the school of commerce, accounts and finance, since 1903. Author: Money and Currency; Syllabus of Money and Banking: and articles on financial and economic topics in leading reviews. He is also editor of the Journal of Accountancy. Johnson, Beverdy, American lawyer and politician, was bom in Annapolis, Md., 1796. He was educated at St. John's college, Annapolis, Md., studied law with his father, and was admitted to the bar in 1815. He began to practice in Upper Marlboro, and in 1817 removed to Balti- more. From 1821 until 1825 he was a state senator. From 1845 to 1849 he sat in the United States senate as a whig, but he supported the Mexican war beyond the lines of the political party to which he belonged. Later he was appointed attorney-general in President Taylor's cabinet. He opposed the doctrines of the Ameri- can or know-nothing party, in 1856 united with the democrats, and supported the administration of James Buchanan. He again entered the United States senate in 1863, sustained the gov- ernment throughout the civil war. and, when peace was restored, argued in favor of the prompt readmission of the southern states. Min- ister to Great Britain, 1868-69. Died, 1876. Johnson, Dr. Samuel, English writer and lexicog- rapher, waa bom at Lichfield, 1709, where hw father was a bookseller. He was educated partly at Lichfield and partly at Stourbridge, and entered Pembroke college, Oxford, 1728. Here he remained for three years, and was compelled to leave the university without a degree. In 1731 his father died, greatly involved in debt; and, to procure a living, Johnson became usher in s school in Market Bosworth, Leicestershire. Disgusted with the ill-treatment be received there, he left, and was next employed in Bir- mingham in translating for a bookseller. Here in 1735 he married the widow of Mr. Porter, a mercer. His wife was twenty years his senior, but this disparity she compensated for by bring- ing her husband 800 pounds. Relying upon this capital, he opened a classical boarding school, but procured only three pupils, one of wliom was the celebrated Garrick. i)i8appointeendcnt ticket in 1899, 1901, and 1903; used his oQice to defeat graft and dishonesty and to secure the rights of the common citizen. Died, 1904. Jones, Wesley I*, lawyer. United States senator, was bom near Betuany, 111., 1863. He was graduated at Southern Illinois college, 1886; read law in Chicago, and moved to the territory of Washington just before its admission as a state, 1889. He first worked in a real estate office; began law practice, 1890. He took part as speaker in Blaine campaign, 1884, and Harrison campaign, 1888, in Illinois, and since that in every campaign in Washington. He was mem- ber of congress from the stat©-at-large, 1899- 1909, and was elected to the United States senate for the term 1909-15. Jones, Sir William, English orientalist, was bom in London, 1746. He was educated at Harrow and at University college, Oxford, where his remark- able attainments attracted attention. In 1765 he became tutor to the son of Earl Spencer; in 1774 was called to the bar, and in 1776 became commissioner of bankrupts, publishing mean- while a Persian Grammar, 1772, Latin Commen- taries on Asiatic Poetry, 1774, and a translation of seven ancient Arabic poems, 1780. In 1783 he obtained a judgeship in the supreme court of judicature in Bengal, and was knjghted. He at once devoted himself to Sanskrit, whose startling resemblance to Latin and Greek he was the first to point out in 1787. He established the Asiatic society of Bengal in 1784, and was its first presi- dent. He had finished his translation of Sakun- tala, the Hitopadesa, parts of the Vedas, and Manu, when he died at Calcutta, 1794. There is a monument to his memory, erected by the Kaat India company, in St. Paul's cathedral. Jonson, BenJamliL, or Ben, English dramatist, was bom at Westminster, about 1573, and was • THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 818 educateeror declared war against Judrez, who retreated to the northern frontier; but, on the withdrawal of the French, he reen- terwi Mexico city in 1867, the emperor, Maxi- milian, having meanwhile been shot by court- martial. Judrez was elected president again in 1871. He died in 1872. Juch (yOdK), Emma Johanna Antonla (Mrs. Francis L. Wellman), operatic singer, was bom during the sojourn of her parents in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1863, daugiiter of Justin Juch. They returned to the United States when she was two years old, making their home in New York. She was graduated at the normal school, 1879, and marriM, in 1894, Francis L. Wellman, New York. She studied three years with Murio-Celli; made her ddbut in concert at Chickering hall, N. Y., and her operatic ddbut in her majesty's ^rand Italian opera, London, 1881, as Felina in Mianon. Later she sang during three seasons under Colonel Mapleson in Boprana rAles, alternating ^ith Nilsson as Elsa in Lohengrin under management of Theodore Thomas. Was prima donna with the American opera company three seasons, and since then has sung in festivab, orchestral symphonic con- certs, and in the Emma Juch grand English opera company. JudHon, Adonlram, American missionary, was born in Maiden, Mass., 1788. He first contemplated becoming a playwright, but in 1812, having married, sailed for India. Settling in Rangoon as a Baptist missionary, he began to preach and write in Burmese, translating portions of the new testament. During the Burmese war he was irapri.soned at Ava; and he subsequently labored in various towns of British Bumiah and among the Karens with remarkable success. In 1833 his translation of the Bible was completed, and there followed a Burmese-English dictionary. He died at sea, 1850. Judson, Harry Pratt, American educator, president of the university of Chicago since 1907, was born in Jamestown, N. Y., 1849. He was graduated at WiUiams college, 1870, LL. D., 1893; LL. D., 1903, Queens university, Canada. He was teacher and principal of high school, Troy, N. Y., 1870-S5; professor of history, university of Minnesota, 1885-92; and h^ad professor of poUtical science and dean of the faculties of arts, literature and science, Chicago university, 1892- 1907. Author: History of the Troy Citizens' Corps; Caesar's Army; Ccesar's Commentaries (co-editor) ; Europe in the Nineteenth Century; The Growth of the American Nation; The Higher Education as a Trainina for Business; The Latin in Eriglish; The Mississippi Valley, in Shaler's United States of America; The Young American; The Government of Illinois; Graded Literature Readers, co-editor; The Essentials of a Written Constitution, etc. Julian {jeU'-yan; jSb'-ll-an), or Julianus, Flavius Claudius, sumamed the Apostate, Roman emperor, 361-63, was bom in Constantinople, probably 331 A. D. He was the youngest son of Constantine the Great, and was educated in the tenets of Christianity, but apostatized to paganism. In 355 he was declared Caesar, and sent to Gaul, where he obtained several victories over the Germans; and in 361 the troops in Gaul revolted from Constantius and declared for Julian. He took from the Christian churches their riches, and divided them among his soldiers. He sought likewise to induce the Christians, by flattery or by favor, to embrace paganism. _ His malice was further evinced by extraordinary indulgence to the Jews, and an attempt to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem, that the prophecy of Christ might be falsified; but the design was THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 815 fnistrated. He did not long survive hia disap- pointment, being killed in 363 in his expedition against the Persians. Jullen (zhii'-ly&N'), Stanislas Algnan, Chinese scholar, was born at Orleans, France, 1799. He became at twenty-one assistant professor at the College de France. He gave himself with such zeal to the study of Chinese that in less than a year he was able to make a Latin translation of Mencius. He succeeded Abel R^musat as pro- fessor of Chinese at the College de France, 1832, and became head of the College Inip^riale, 1854. He was also keeper of the Biblioth^que Imp^riale. Julien produced admirable French versions of specimens of the Chinese drama and of Chinese romances, as well as a collection of Indian novels. Among his translations were the great manuals of Chinese religion and philosophy con- taining the doctrines of Laotse and others; and the life and journeys of Hiouen-Tsang. His Syntaxe Nouvelle de la Langue Chinoise appeared 1869-70. Died, 1873. Julius 11^ Pope (Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere), was born in Italy, 1443, became pope in 1503. He endeavored to extend the papal territory, and, after drivine Cesare Borgia from the Romagna, formed the league of Cambrai with Maximilian and Louis XII. against Venice in 1508. After the submission of the republic, he turned his arms against France in 1510. In 1511 the holy league was formed, and the French army driven back over the Alps. He sanctioned the marriage of Henry VIII. with Catharine of Aragon, com- menced to rebuild St. Peter's at Rome, and was the patron of Michaelangelo and Raphael. Died, 1513. Junker (yddng'-kSr), Wllhelm, African traveler, was bom of German parents in Moscow, 1840. He studied medicine in Germany, and in 1876-78 traveled among the western tributaries of the upper Nile. In 1879 he explored the Welle- Makua, afterward proved to be identical with the Ubangi, an afSuent of the Congo. After four years among the Mangbuttu and Niam-Niam, and some time with Emin Pasha, he reached Cairo in 1887. He died at St. Petersburg, 1892. Pub- lished Reisen in Afrika, etc. Jimot {zhu'-nd'\ Andoche, marshal of France, was born at Bussy-le-Grand, 1771, and distinguished himself in the early wars of the republic. Napo- leon took him to Egypt as adjutant. Later he was made governor of Paris, and in 1807 was ap- pointed to the command of the army of Portugal. He quickly made himself master of all the strong places in the kingdom, was created Due d'Abrant^s, and app>ointed governor of Portugal; but, defeated by Wellington at Vimeiro, was obliged to conclude the treaty of Cintra and retire from Portugal. He served in Germany and Russia, and, made one of the scapegoats for the Russian disaster, was sent to govern Illyria. Becoming deranged, he was taken to his father's house near Dijon, threw himself from a window, 1813, and died seven days afterward. Josserand (zhu's'-rd^'), Jean Adrlen Antoine Jules, French diplomat and man of letters, French ambassador at Washington since 1902, was born at Lyons, 1855. He was educated at Lyons and Paris, and entered the foreign office in 1876. LL. D., Chicago university, Columbia, university of Pennsylvania, McGill, and Harvard. He was councillor of the French embassy at Lon- don, 1887-90; member of the legion of honor, 1883, and minister at Copenhagen, 1898. Author: Les Anglais au moyen Age; La Vie Nomade et lea Routes d' Angleterre au xiv. siicle; Le Roman au temps de Shakespeare; Histoire liitSraire du Peuple anglais; Shakespeare en France; Lea sports et jeux d'exercice dans I'ancienne France, etc. Jussleu (zha'-ayH'), Antoine Laurent de, French botanist, was born at Lvons, I"' ranee, 1748. At the age of seventeen he began his botanical studies under his uncle liemard, and four years later was nominated demonstrator and assistant to Lemonnier, the professor of botany in the Jardin du Roi. He reformed the arrangement of the gardens and collections of plants under hia charge, and applied to them his own and his uncle's ideas in regard to the natural method. For thirty years he continued to develop his novel views; and when his Genera Flantarum, which he began in 1778, was completed in 1789, the natural system was finally established as the true basis of botany. In 1793 he became pro- fessor of botany in the newly organized Jardin des Plantes, where he continued to teach until 1826, when blindness compelled him to resign hia chair to his son Adrien. He founded the library of the museum, one of the best in Europe. Hia papers in the Annales du Mus&um and hia articles in the Dictionnaire des Sciences NatureUea rank among the most valuable contributions to the literature of botany, and embody all the results of his own investigations. Died in Paris, 1836. Justin, surnamed the Martyr, was bom at Shechem in Samaria about 100 A. D., and was successively a stoic and a Platonist ; and after his conversion to Christianity wandered about, arguing for the truth of the new faith. At Rome between 150 and 160 he wrote the Apologia of Christianity addressed to the emperor, followed by a second one. He is said to have been martyred about 165 A. D. Justinian {]iis-tln'-l-an) the Great (Flavins Anicius), nephew of the emperor Justin, was bom 483 A. D., in the village of Tauresium. His reign, which extended from 527 over a period of thirty- eight years, was the most brilliant in the history of the eastern empire. He had the fortune or the skill to select the ablest generals of the last days of Roman military ascendancy. In Ida first war — that with Persia — he concluded a treaty by which the long impending crisis was at last warded off; but the rejoicings which celebrated its termination had almost proved fatal, by a domestic revolution, to the authority of Justinian himself. Belisarius, with a relentless hand, repressed the tumult, 30,000 victims hav- ing, it is said, fallen in a single day. He then reannexed the Vandal kingdom of Africa to the empire, and, conjointly with Narses, restored the imperial authority as well in Rome as in northern Italy and a large portion of Spain. Justinian constructed or renewed and strength- ened the vast line of fortifications along the eastern and south-eastern frontier of his empire. These works of defense and the construction of many public buildings, both in his capital and in other cities of the empire, involved an enormous expenditure, and the fiscal administration of Justinian pressed heavily on the public resources ; but it is admitted to have been ably and uprightly conducted. It is, however, as a legislator that Justinian has gained renown. Immediately on his accession he compiled a code which com- prised all the constitutions and laws of his pred- ecessors, now known as the Code of Justinian. The authoritative commentaries of the jurists were next harmonized and published under the title Digesta or Pandectce. The code was repub- lished in 534 with the addition of Justinian's own constitutions. His third great legal undertaking was the composition of a systematic treatise on the laws for the guidance of students and lawyers, published a short time before the Digest under the title of Inatitutionea. His personal virtues were of a high degree, and his public adminis- tration, with the single exception of that of 816 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT ecclesiastical affairs, in which he was an arbi- trary and imperious intenneddler, exhibits great ability and just and upright intentions. He died in 666. Juvenal, or Juvenalls, Declmus Junius, celebrated Latin poet and satirist, was bom in Aquinum, about 60 A. D He was a friend of Martial and contemporary of Statius and Quintilian. His satires, sixteen in number, are written in indig- nant scorn of the vices of the Romans under the empire, in the descriptions of which the historian finds a portrait of the manners and morals of the time. He practiced at Rome a* an advocate, and, it is thought, also visited Egypt. Died about 140 A. D. Juxon (jUk'-sun), William, English prelate, was born at Chichester, 1582. He was graduated at St. John's college, Oxford, succeedfed Laud aa its president in 1621, and became a prebendary of Chichester and dean of Worcester, 1628; bishop of London, 1633, and lord high treasurer, 1635. In Charles's vacillation about the fate of Strafford, Juxon advised him to refuse his assent to the bill. He ministered to the king in his last moments, and it was into his hands that Charles delivered his son George with the word "Remember." After the restoration Juxon was appointed archbishop of Canterbury. He died in 1663. Kalakaua (fca'-id-fcou'-d), David, king of the Hawaiians, 1874-91, was bom in Honolulu, 1836, and was descended from Keawe, an ancient king of the islands. He received an English education with Prince Lunalilo and fifteen other hereditary chiefs in the royal school at Honolulu. In 1860 he visited Cali- fornia. On the death of Lunalilo, who ap- pointed no successor, Kalakaua was elected king m 1874 by the legislature, over Enuna, queen dowager and reUct of Kamehameha IV. The partisans of Emma, on hearing the result, broke into the courthouse and attacked the legislature which had elected her rival. Assistance being asked from the English and American ships in port, the rioters were dispersed, and Kalalcaua was crowned the seventh king of the Hawaiians. In 1887 he granted a new constitution restricting the royal prerogative. Died, 1891. Karnes (kdtnz), Henry Home, Lord, Scottish phi- losopher and critic, was bom at Kames in Ber- wickshire, 1696. He was admitted to the bar in 1723, and appointed to the bench as Lord Kames in 1752. Besides books on Scotch laws he published Essays on Morality; An Introdvic- tion to the Art of Thinking; Elements of Criticism, his best-known work ; and Sketches of the History of Man. Died, 1782. Kamlmura, Hikonojo, Japanese admiral, was bom in Satsuma, 1850. He commanded a cruiser in the Chino-Japanese war, 1894-95, was promoted vice-admiral, 1903, and at the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war was placed in conunand of the second Japanese squadron. In 1904 he sank the Russian cruiser Rurik off Ulsan, Korea, and gained a decisive victory over the Russian squadron. Kane, Ellsha Kent, arctic explorer, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1820. He entered the United States navy as a surgeon, in which capacity he visited China, India, the East Indies, and, under leave of absence, Arabia, Egypt, Greece, and western Europe. In 1850 he commenced his career of arctic discovery as surgeon, naturalist, and historian to the first Grinnell expedition. In the spring of 1853 he was again sent out, this time as commander of a second Grinnell expedi- tion, in which he achieved important results. Died, 1857. Kant, Immanuel. See page 306. Kasson {k&a'-un), John Adam, American lawyer, diplomat, was bom at Charlotte, Vt., 1822. He was graauated at the university of Vermont, 1842; was admitted to the Massachusetts bar, 1845, and removed to Iowa and engaged in prac- tice of law, 1857. He was a delegate to the free soil convention, Buffalo, 1848, national republi- can convention, Chicago, 1860; first assistant postmaster-general, 1861-62; commissioner to international postal congress, Paris, 1803; mem- ber of Iowa legislature, 1868-72; member of congress from Iowa, 1863-67, 1873-77, 1881-84; United States minister to Austria, 1877-81, to Germany, 1884-85; commissioner to Congo international conference, 1886; special envoy to Samoan international conference, 1893; United States special commissioner plenipotentiary to negotiate reciprocity treaties, 1897-1901 ; mem- ber of American-Canadian joint high commission, 1898. Author: Evolution of the United StcUea Constitution and History of the Monroe Doctrine; and numerous essavs and sp>eeches. Died, 1910. Katsura (k&'-tsdb-ra). Marquis Taro, Japanese statesman, four timeepremier of Japan, was bom in the province of Cnoshu, 1847. Duriiig the restoration era, in 1867. he distinguished himself in the civil war; studied military science in Germany, and for some time was military attach6 in Berlin. On his return home he was gazetted major-general, was appointed vice-minister of the war omce, under General Oyama, and took a prominent part in the reform of the Japanese army. In 1891 he was promoted to lieutenant- general, and in the following year was appointed to the command of the third division of ttie army. During the Chino-Japanese war he marched with his division through Korea to Manchuria; and later on served under General Nodsu. For his services he was created a viscount, and two years after promoted to the rank of general. In 1898 he was appointed war minister, and held that post until the downfall of the Yamagata cabinet in 1900. He was premier of Japan from 1901 until 1906, covering the period of the war with Russia, arid in 1906 was appointed a member of the high military council of Japan. Grand cross of the bath^ 1906, marquis, 1907. He became premier again in 1908, 1909, and 1912. Resigned, 1913. Kauffmann (kouf-mAn\ Angelica, Swiss historical and portrait painter, was bom at Coire, Grisons, in the Tyrol, 1741. She began to paint portraits when a mere child. In 1765 Lady Wentworth persuaded her to go to London, where she became famous as a painter of portraits and of classical and mythological pictures. She was also an accomplished singer. In 1781 she married the Italian painter Zucchi, and, return- ing to Rome, spent remainder of her life in a circle of poets, artists, and scholars. Died, 1807. Kaulbach (kovl'-b^K), W'ilhclm von, German painter, was bom at Arolsen, 1805. He studied at Diisseldorf, Munich, Euid Rome, and from 1849 was director of the Munich academy of painting. His realistic tendencies came out in his illustra- tions of Schiller, Goethe's Faust, and Reineke Fuchs, and in his Madhouse. In 1834 he com- pleted his grandiose "Battle of the Huns"; in 1838 the "Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus." For several years he was painting the vestibule of the new museum at Berlin with a cycle illus- trating the progress of civilization. His last gigantic painting was the "Sea-fight of Salamis" at Munich. Died, 1874. Kaunltz (kou'-nUs\ Wenzel Anton, Prince von, Austrian statesrnan, was bom at Vienna, 1711. He distinguished himself in 1748 at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, and as Austrian ambassador at the French court in 1750-52 converted old enmity into friendship. In 1753 he was THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 817 appointed chancellor, and for almost forty years had the principal direction of Austrian politics. He took an active part in the ecclesiastical reforms of Joseph II., and was a liberal patron of arts and sciences. Died, 1794. Kean, Charles John, British actor, was born in Waterford, Ireland, 1811, son of Edmund Kean. He was educated at Eton, and made his d6but at Drury Lane. 1827, but did not establish his reputation until 1838, when he acted as Hamlet, Richard III., and Sir Giles Overreach. In 1842 he married Miss Ellen Tree, a celebrated actress. From 1850 to 1859 he was manager of the Prin- cess's theater, London. His last appearance was as Louis XI. at Liverpool in 1867. Died, 18G8. Kean, Edmund, English actor, was bom in London, 1787, son of Nance Carey, a strolling actress. A stage cupid and a cabin-boy to Madeira, he himself about sixteen turned a "stroller," and after ten years in the provinces made his first appearance at Drury Lane as Shylock in 1814. He at once took rank as the first actor of the day. A period of wonderful success followed; but by his irregularities he gradually forfeited public approval. He was cordially received in 1827 after a twelve-months' visit to America; but both mind and body gave way, and, breaking down hopelessly in 1833, he died at Richmond in May of that year. His greatest successes were as Shylock, Hamlet, lago, Othello, and as Luke in Riches. Kean, John, capitalist, ex-United States senator, was born at Ursino, near Elizabeth, N. J., 1852. He entered Yale college in the class of 1876, but left to study law ; graduated at Columbia college law school, 1875; M. A., Yale, 1890. He was admitted to the New Jersey bar, 1877; was elected to the forty-eighth and fiftieth congresses ; was member of the committee to revise the judiciary system of the state. He is president of the National state bank of Elizabeth, N. J., and vice-president of the Manhattan trust company, of New York. In 1899 he was elected to the United States senate to succeed James Smith, Jr., and was reelected in 1905. Keane, Augustus Henry, British ethnologist and geographer; was emeritus prof essor of Hindustani, University college, London; was bom at Cork, Ireland, 1833. He was educated in Jersey, Italy, Dublin, and Hanover, Germany, and traveled extensively in Europe, Asia, and North America. LL. D., St. Andrews university. Author and editor: Stanford's Asia, Africa, Central and South America; Ethnology; Man, Past and Present; The Gold of Ophir; The Boer States; The World's Peoples, and other anthropological works; also contributions to Encyclopedia Britannica; Nature; Academy; Edinburgh Review; International Monthly; Geographical Journal; Hibbert Journal; Harmsworth's Encyclopcedia; Anthropological Journal, etc. Died, 1912. Keane, John Joseph, American scholar and edu- cator, Roman Catholic archbishop of Dubuque, la., since 1900, was bom in Ballyshannon, Ireland, 1839. He came to the United States in 1846; was educated -at St. Charles's college and St. Mary's seminary, Baltimore, Md. Ordained priest, 1866; assistant pastor of St. Patrick's church, Washington, D. C, 1866-78; consecrated bishop of Richmond, Va., 1878. Was active in organizing Roman Catholic societies, and was rector of the Catholic university of America, at Washington, 1886-97, when he resigned and went to Rome. Upon his return to America he was installed as bishop of his present see. Author: Onward and Upward, etc. Kearny (fcdr'-ni). General Philip, American soldier, was bom in New York, 1815. He was attached to the staff of General Scott, 1841-44, and dis- tinguished himself in the Mexican war. He then served as a volunteer in the French army in the war against Austria, and was present at the battle of Magenta and Solfcrino; commanded the cavalry of the army of the Potomac in the peninsular • campaign during the civil war, in which he won an enviable reputation for courage and gallantry. He took an active part in the second battle of Bull Run and also at Chantilly, Va., where he was killed in 1862 by a confederate soldier while reconnoitering in front of his command. Keats, John, English poet, was bom in London, 1795. He was apprenticed to a surgeon at Edmonton, near Lotidon, and found time to cultivate that taste for poetry which he had exhibited from his boyhood; in 1817 he pub- lished a volume of juvenile poems, having already made several contributions to the London Examiner, then under the editorship of Leigh Hunt. In 1818 appeared his Endymion, a poetic romance founded in part on the model of Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess. This work, though the production of a youth of little more than two- and-twenty, was severely criticised in the Quarterly Review, and in BlackvMod's Magazine, the wrath of the reviewers bein^ probably inspired by their hatred of the political party with which Keats had identifiecf himself, and which was represented by Keat's friends, Hazlitt and Hunt. He profited, however, by the criti- cisms of his reviewers^ and in 1820 published his Eve of St. Agnes; his odes to The Nightingale and Tfie Grecian Urn; and the fragments of Hyperion, taken, like Endymion, from mythologi- cal sources, and written in an airy strain of classic imagery, characterized by much pensive qviiet beauty. These works, and especially the Hyperion, were far superior both in conception and execution to anything which Keats had yet produced, and he was encouraged at this time by a more kindly review of his earlier poem, which appeared in the Edinburgh Review from the pen of Francis Jeffrey. But already consumption had taken hold of the poet; he went to Naples, from there to Rome, where he died, 1821. Keble (ke'-b'l\ John, English clergyman and poet, was bom in 1792. His early education was directed by his father, and at the age of fifteen he entered Corpus Christi college, Oxford, where he won several prizes and otherwise distinguished himself. In 1827 he published his volume of sacred poetry entitled the Christian Year, which attained a very large circulation and an influence that can hardly be overestimated. He was one of the leading spirits in what was known as the "tractarian movement" in the English church, and for several years was actively engaged with Pusey, Newman, and others in issuing Tracts for the Times, which culminated with tract No. 90, which appeared in 1841. He died at Bourne- mouth, 1866. Keen, WUllam Williams, American surgeon, was bora in Philadelphia, Pa., 1837. He was gradu- ated at Brown university, 1859; M. D., Jefferson medical college, Philadelphia, 1862; LL. D., Brown, 1891, Northwestern and Toronto. 1903, Yale, 1906 ; M. D., university of Griefswald, 1906. He was assistant surgeon of 6th Massachusetts regiment, 1861 ; acting assistant surgeon of United States army, 1862-64 ; studied in Europe, 1864-66, and since 1866 has been in practice in Philadelphia. He conducted the Philadelphia school of anatomy, 1866-75, was lecturer on pathological anatomy, Jefferson medical college, 1866-75; professor of artistic anatomy at Penn- sylvania academy of fine arts, 1876-89; professor of surgery, Woman's medical college, 1884-89; professor of surgery, 1889-1907, emeritus professor, 1907, Jefferson medical college. Member of many medical, scientific, educational, and other bodies. Author: Keen's Clinical Charts; History of the 818 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Philadelphia School of Anatomy; Early^ History of Practical Anatomy; Surgical Complicaiiona and Sequela of Typhoid Fever; Addresses and Other Papers. Editor: Heath's Practiced Anat- omy; Diagrams of the Nerves of the Human Body, by W. H. Flower; American Health Primers; Holden's Medical and Surgical Landmarks; GTa,y's Anatomy; American Text-Book of Surgery; Keen's System of Surgery; and a prolific contribu- tor to medical journals. Keifer {ke'-fer), Joseph Warren, congressman, ex-speaker of United States congress, was born in Clark county, Ohio, 1836. He was educated at Antioch college, and since 1858 has practiced law at Springfield, Ohio. He served in the Ohio volunteers in the field, 1861-65; four times wounded; declined appointment as lieutenant- colonel of 26th United States infantry, 1866. Was member of the Ohio senate, 1868^9; de- partment commander of Ohio G. A. R., 1868-70 ; vice-commander-in-chief G. A. R., 1871-72; member of congress. 1877-85, and, 1905-11; speaker of congress 1881-83; president of La- gonda national bank, Springfield, Ohio, since 1873. He was appointed and served, 1898-99, as major- general of volunteers in the war against Spain. Author : Slavery and Four Years oflVar. Keith (kith), George Kelth-Elphinstone. Viscount, British admiral, son of the tenth Lord Elphin- stone, was bom at Elphinstone Tower, Stirling, 1746. He entered the British navy in 1761, saw service in most parts of the world, and fought in the American and French wars. He commanded the expedition in 1795-97 which took Cape Town, and the fleet which landed Abercromby's army in Aboukir bay in 1801. He was maide Baron Keith in 1797, and a viscount in 1814. Died, 1823. Kellar, Harry, public entertainer, magician, was born in Erie, Pa., 1849. He was graduated from Painesville, Ohio, high school, 1866. When a young man was assistant to the "fakir of Ava," the magician ; joined Davenport Brothers, spirit mediums, as business manager, 1867; with Fay toured South America and Mexico as Fay and Kellar, 1871-73; with Ling Look and Yamadura, under name of Kellar, Ling Look and Yamadura, royal illusionists, plaved through South America, Africa, Australia, India, China, Philippine islands, and Japan. Ling Look and Yamadura died in China, 1877. He was then with J. H. Cunard, as Kellar and Cunard ; traveled five years through India, Burmah, Siam, Java, Persia, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Mediterranean ports; since 1884 has performed in leading American cities. Keller, Helen Adams, American author, was bom at Tuscumbia, Ala., 1880, daughter of Captain Arthur H. Keller. She is descended on her father's side from Alexander Spottswood, colonial governor of Virginia, and through her mother related to Adams and Everett families of New England. She has been deaf and blind since the age of nineteen months as result of illness. At the age of seven she was placed under the instruc- tion of Miss Anne Mansfield Sullivan, her teacher from the beginning of her education to the present time. She entered Radcliffe college, 1900, and graduated, A. B., 1904. She has contributed occasional papers to Century Maga- V'r'% ^"'"■^^'^ Companion; Ladies' Home Journal; McClure's Magazine, etc., and is the author of The Story of My Life; Optimism, an essay; The World I Live In, etc. Kellermann {kU'-er-man), Francois Christophe, 1- ranch soldier, was bora in Bavaria, 1735 and entered a regiment of French hussars at the early age of seventeen. When the revolution broke out, he had risen to the rank of brigadier- general. For his services in Italy, he was made duke of Valmy and marshal of the empire by Napoleon. The Bourbons, whose party he joined at the restoration, confirmed his title of duke, and also createeer of France. He died in 1820. Kellogg, Clara Louise, American prima donna, was bom at Sumterville, S. C, 1842. Her professional education was acquired in New York, except a few lessons received in London, England. She made her dftbut in o{>era, 1861-62, as Gilda in Rigoletto at the academy of music, New York, and from that time rose steadily and securely in the estimation of the public, until she secured the confidence and esteem of managers and opera-goers on both sides of the Atlantic. She sang repeatedly in London, and once or twice before Queen Victoria, at Bucking- ham palace. She toured the United States, 1868-72; reappeared in London, 1872. She sang in Italian opera for several years and organized her own English opera company, and has appeared principally at concerts of late years. She married, 1887, Carl Strakosch, nephew of the well-known impressarioe, Max and Maurice Strakosch. KelloiCK, Prank B., American lawyer, was bom at Potsdam, N. Y., 1856. He went to Minnesota with his parents in 1865; studied law, and was admitted to the bar. He was city attorney in Rochester, Minn., three years; county attomey, Olmsted county, five years. He removed to St. Paul in 1887, formed a partnership with Senator Cushman Kellogg Davis and Cordenio A. Severance, as Davis, Kellogg and Severantie, which firm name is still retained. General counsel, Duluth and Iron Range railroad com- pany, Duluth, Missabe and Northern railway company, Minnesota iron company, Oliver iron mining company, etc. ; special counsel for United States in the case against the paper and Standard oil trusts, and special counsel for interstate commerce commission in the inves- tigation of the Harriman railroads. Kelly, Howard Atwood, American physician, was born at Camden, N. J., 1858. He was graduated at the university of Pennsylvania, 1877; M. D.. 1882; LL. D., Aberdeen, Washington and Lee, 1906, university of Pennsylvania, 1907; F. R. C. S., Edinburgh. He was founder of the Kensington hospital, Philadelphia; was asso- ciate professor of obstetrics, university of Penn- sylvania, 1888-89; professor of gynecology and obstetrics, Johns Hopkins university, 1889-99; now professor of gynecology, Johns Hopkins university, and gynecological surgeon, Johns Hopkins hospital. He is a member of many medical and scientific societies, both foreign and American. Author: Operative Gynecology, 2 vols.; Tfie Vermiform Appendix and Its Diseases; Water Reed and Yellow Fever; and about 300 articles in medical journals. Kelly, James Edward, American sculptor, was bom at New York, 1855. He studied art at the National academy of design; studied wood engraving, 1871; in Harper's art department, * 1874 ; illustrator for Scribner's, St. Nicholas, etc., until 1881, and since then has devoted his time exclusively to sculpture. His first piece of sculpture was "Sheridan's Ride," 1878; forty generals, including Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and Hancock, gave him sittings for a series of bronzes. Prominent works: "Monmouth Battle Monu- ment," "Call to Arms," Troy, N. Y. ; "General John Buford at Gettysburg;" "Battle of Harlem Heights," memorial, Columbia college: equestrian figures of General Sherman, Colonel Roosevelt at San Juan hill; busts from Ufe of Adniirals Dewey, Sampson, and C. E. Clark, and President Roosevelt as colonel of the Rough Riders; pejiela from life of Dewey's captains. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 819 Sampson's captains, and Generals Joseph Wheeler, Leonard Wood, J. H. Wilson, and equestrian statue of General Fitz John Porter at Portsmouth, N. H.; Washington at Valley Forge: McKinley memorial at Wilmington, Del., etc. lie was one of the founders of the art students' league. Kelvin, Ix>M. See page 415. Kemble, Charles, English tragedian, was born at Brecknock, in South Wales, 1775. He received his education at Douai, and on his return to England devoted himself to the stage. In 1794 he made his first appearance at Drury Lane, London, in the character of Malcolm in Macbeth. In 1806 he married Miss De Camp, a lady who had distinguished herself in high comedy. He visited the United States in 1832. Appointed examiner of plays in 1836, he performed the duties of his office by proxy until he relinquished the stage in 1840. Died, 1854. Kemble, Frances Anne, English actress and Shakespearean reader, was bom in London, 1809. She was the daughter of the celebrated Charles Kemble, and was commonly known by the name of "Fanny." She made her d6but at Covent Garden in 1829, and in 1832 came to the United States with her father, where she met with great success. In 1834 she married Pierce Butler, an American, and retired from the stage: but, the marriage being unhappy, she separatea from her husband in 1847, obtained a divorce, and resumed her maiden name. In 1860 she left America, and from that time her residence was partly in Eng- land, partly in the United States. Died, 1893. KemUe, John Philip, English tragedian, was born at Prescott, 1757. His father intended him for the Catholic priesthood, and sent him to a semi- nary at Sedgley Park, Staffordshire, and to the English college at Douai. His first appearance was at Wolverhampton in 1776. The success of his sister, Mrs. Siddons, gave him his opportunity, and in 1783 he played Hamlet at Drury Lane, and aroused the keenest interest. He continued to play leading tragic characters at Drury Lane for many years, and in 1788 became Sheridan's manager. In 1803 he purchased a share in Covent Garden theater, became manager, and made his first appearance there in the same year as Hamlet. He retired in 1817, and afterward settled at Lausanne, where he died, 1823. Kemble had no superior in his own time, as a tragedian. He was magnificently handsome; stately, if rather stiff, in bearing; and a man of remarkable intellectual power. Kemmerer, Edwin Walter, American educator and economist, was bom at Scranton, Pa., 1875. He was graduated at Wesleyan university, Connecti- cut, 1899 ; was a fellow in economics and finance, Cornell, 1899-1901; Ph. D., 1903. He was assistant to expert on trusts and industrial com- binations. United States industrial commission, 1901 ; instructor of economics and history, Purdue university, 1901-03; financial adviser to United States Philippine commission, with special reference to establishment of gold stand- ard in Philippine islands, 1903; chief of division of currency, Philippine islands, 1904-06 ; special commissioner Philippine government to Egypt, 1906, and assistant professor, political economy, 1906-09, professor since 1909, economics and finance, Cornell university. Managing editor Economic Bulletin, 1907-10. Author: Report on the Advisability of Establishing a Government Agricvltural Bank in the Philippines; Report on the Agricidtural Bank of Egypt; Money and Credit Instruments in Their Relation to General Prices, etc. Kempis, Thomas k, German mystic and writer, so called from Kempen, a town in the Prussian Rhine provinces, where he was bom about 1380. He was educated at Deventer, and in 1400 entered the monastery of Mount St. Agnes, near ZwoUe. Here he took the vows in 1406. He entered into priest's orders in 1413, and was chosen sub-prior in 1425, to which office he was reelected in 1448. His whole life appears to have been spent in the seclusion of this con- vent, where he lived to an extreme old age. His death took place in 1471, at which time he cer- tainly had attained his ninetieth year, and most probably his ninety-second. The character of Kempis for sanctity and ascetic learning stood very high amon^ his contemporaries, but his historical reputation rests almost entirely on his writings, which consist of sermons, ascetical treatises, pious biographies, letters, and hymns. Of these, however, the only one which deserves special notice is the celebrated ascetical treatise. Imitation of Christ, a work that in the regard of many ranks second to the Bible, and is tnought likely to survive in the literature of the world as long as the Bible itself. It has been trans- lated into all languages within, as well as others outside, the pale of Christendom. The author- ship of the work was long disputed but the balance of opinion credits it to Thomas h Kempis. Kendal, Mr. (William Hunter Grimston), English actor and manager, was bom in London, 1843. He commenced his career on the stage in London, 1861, at Glasgow in 1862, where he remained until 1866, in which year he made his second appearance in London at the Haymarket theater in A Dan- gerous Friend. He remained there five or six years, playing such parts as Charles Surface, Captain Absolute, Romeo, Orlando, Pygmalion, etc. ; went to the Court theater for a couple of seasons ; from there to old Prince of Wales theater in Diplomacy, etc., back to Court theater for a season, and then became lessee and manager with John Hare, of St. James's theater 1879-88. He produced there The Queen's Shilling; The Squire; Impidse; The Iron Master; A Scrap of Paper; Lady of Lyons; As You Like It; William ana Susan; Ladies' Battle, etc. He toured with Mrs. Kendal in the United States and Canada, 1889-95, with phenomenal success. Kendal, Mrs. (Margaret Brunton Robertson), English actress, was bom at Cleethorpes, Lines, 1849. She married William Hunter Kendal (Grimston), 1869. She made her d<5but in London, in July, 1865, as Ophelia to the Hamlet of Walter Montgomery, and in the following month she played, at the same theater, Desdemoua to the Othello of Ira Aldrid^e. In 1867 she appeared at Drury Lane as Edith in the Great City. In 1868 she made her first decided success in London as Blanche Dumont, in the Hero of Romance. In the ensuing five years she appeared at the Haymarket as Galatea in Pygmalion and Galatea, as Selene in The Wicked World, and as Mrs. Van Brugh in Charity. The creation of the character of Lilian Vavasour in New Men and Old Acres gave Mrs. Kendal a position among the leading comediennes of the day. In 1875 she began a short engagement at the Op^ta Comique. Afterward she joined the Prince of Wales theater, where she achieved her greatest triumph as Dora in the adaptation from M. Sardou called Diplomacy. During the period 1889-95, Mr. and Mrs. Kendal played highly successful engagements in the United States and Canada. Kennan (A:M'-an), George, American author and lecturer, was bom at Norwalk, Ohio, 1845. He became telegraph operator and later manager of the Western Union office, Cincinnati, 1863-64; went to northeast Siberia as explorer and tele- graphic engineer, 1865; supyerintendent of con- struction of middle division of Russo-American telegraph line, 1866-68; explored eastern Cau- casus, 1870-71; night manager of associated 820 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT press, Washingtoiij 1877-85; investigated Rus- sian exile- system m Siberia, 1885-86, and since then has been a lecturer in the United States and Great Britain. In 1898 he went to Cuba on the steamship State of Texas, with American national red cross society, and as special com- missioner for The Outlook; went to Martinique for The ChiUook to study volcano Mont Pel^e, 1902. Went to Japan, 1904, to report on Russo- Japanese war for TheOtUlook ; on staff of McClvrc'a Magazine, 1907, and The OiUlook since 1909. Aathor: Tent Life in Siberia; Siberia and the Exile System, 2 vols. ; Campaigning in Cuba; Folk Tales of Napoleon; The Tragedy of PeUe. Kent, Charles Foster, American biblical scholar, Woolsey professor of biblical literature, Yale university, since 1901, was bom at Palmyra, N.Y., 1867. He was graduated at Yale university, 1889, Ph. D., 1891; BerUn university, 1891-92. He was instructor at the university of Chicago. 1893-95; professor of biblical literature ana history. Brown university, 1898-1901. Author: Outlines of Hebrew History; The Wise Men of Ancient Israel and Their Proverbs; A History of the Hebrew People, the United Kingdom; A His- tory of the Hebrew People, the Divided Kingdom; A History of the Jewish People, the Babylonian, Persian and Greek Periods; The Messages of the Earlier Prophets; The Messages of the Later Prophets; The Messages of Israel's Lawgivers; Narratives of the Beginnings of Hebrew History; Israel's Historical and Biographical Narratives; Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testa- ment; Israel's Laws and Traditional Precedents; Work and Teachings of the Earlier Prophets, etc. Editor: The Historical Series for Bible Students; The Message of the Bible; Library of Ancient Inscriptions; Student's Old Testament, etc. Kent, James, American lawyer and jurist, was bom in Philippi, N. Y., 1763. He was graduated at Yale college, 1781, was admitted to the bar when twenty-two years old, and soon became noted for his legal learning. He was several times elected to the New York legislature, and in 1793 became professor of law m Columbia college. Afterward he was chosen to many important offices, becoming chief-justice of New York in 1804, and chancellor, or judge of the court of chancery, in 1814. His decisions in hundreds of law cases are still often cited; but he is best known for his Commentaries on American Law, which were published from 1826 to 1830, and are now used by every American lawyer, as well as by many in other countries. He died in New York, 1847. Kepler, Johann. See page 351. Kerens, Richard C, American capitalist, railroad builder, and diplomat, was bom at Killberry, Ireland, 1842. He came to the United States in infancy, and was educated in the public schools of Jackson coimty, la. He served in the Union army, 1861-65; lived in Arkansas after the war; became contractor for the Southern Overland Mail, controlling many frontier routes, residing at San Diego, Cal. ; removed to St. Louis, 1876, and acquired railroad interests; identified with construction of Cotton Belt system. West Vir- finia. Central and Pittsburgh railway system, t Louis and North Arkansas railroad, San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake railway system. Coal and Coke railroad of West Virginia, and also interested in the Atchison, Topeka and Santa F6 system. He has been active in pohtics, was one of three United States commissioners for the mter-contmental railway commission, 1892-1900. ?? -x 'i* o"^^^ ^^ appointed by President Taft Umted States minister to Austria-Hungary. Kern, John Worth, American lawyer and politician, was bora in Howard county, Ind., 1849 He was graduated from the university of Michigan 1869; wsfl reporter of the supreme court of Indiana, 1885-89; state senator, 1893-97; city attorney Indianapolis, 1897-1901; unsuccessful candidate for governor of Indiana, 1900, 1904: received complimentary vote of party for Unitcsd States senator, 1905, and was the democratic candidate for vice-president, 1908. United States senator from Indiana, 1911-17. Kester, Paul, American dramatist and author, was bora at Delaware, Ohio, 1870. He was educated in private schools and by tutors. Author: Tales of the Real Gypsy. Plays: The Countess Roudine, with Minnie Maddem Fiske; Zamar; What Dreams May Come; Eugene Aram; Sweet Nell of Old Drury; When Knighthood Was in Flower; Mademoiaelie Mars; The Cavalier, with George Middleton ; Dorothy Vernon; Friend Hannah, etc. Key, Francis Scott, American poet, author of "The Star-Spangled Banner," was bom in Mary- land, 1780. He was a lawyer of note, and broth- er-in-law to Chief-justice Taney. Being detain^ bv the British during the bombardment of Fort McHenrv, September 13, 1814, liis feelings found vent in the verses which have become our national lyric. They were printed on his return to Balti- more, and soon diffused widely through the coun- try. Dietl, 1843. Kldd, Benjamin, English philosopher and sociolo- gist, was bom in 1858. He first entered the Britisli civil service, and was little known until the publication of Social Evolution, in 1894. This work has been translated into nearly every modem language. He has also published: The Control of the Tropics; Principles of Western Civilization, and is the author of articles on the application of the doctrine of evolution to socio- logical theory and sociology, in the supplement to the 9th edition of Encydopcedia Bntannica. He delivered the Herbert Spencer lecture before the university of Oxford, 1SND8. He traveled for economic study in the United States and Canada in 1898, and in South Africa in 1902. Kilpatrick, Hush Judson, American cavalry officer, was bom in New Jersey, 1836. He was gradu- ated at West Point in 1861, and was appointed to the first United States artillery. He wps wounded at the battle of Big Bethel, and received rapid promotion, being a colonel of cavalry in 1862, and commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers the following year. He was in com- mand of a division at Gettysburg, and the fol- lowing spring, 1864, joined General Sherman, with whom he continued until the close of the war, being severely wounded during the battle of Resaca. He was commissioned major-general in 1865, and resigned from the regular army in that year and from the volunteer service, 1866. From 1865 to 1868, and again in 1881 he was United States minister to Chili. Died, 1881. King, Charles, American soldier and author, was born at Albany, N. Y., 1844. He was graduated at West Point, 1866, and served in artillery and cavalry until retired as captain, 1879, for wounds received in action. He was inspector and instruct- or of Wisconsin national guard, 1882-89. In 1898 he was app>ointed brigadier-general of the United States volunteers in the war against Spain; served in the Philippines under General Lawton, and was commandant of Michigan military academy, 1902. Author: Famous and Decisive Battles; Betrveen the Lines; The Colond's . Daughter; Marion's Faith; Captain Blake; The General's Double; The Iron Brigade; A Conquer- ing Corps Badae; Medal of Honor; and otnerB, over fifty in all. King, Henry Churchill, American educator, presi- dent of OberUn college since 1902, was bom at Hillsdale, Mich., 1858. He was graduated from Oberlin, 1879; Oberlin theological seminary, 1882; post-graduate at Harvard, 1882-84; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 821 i A. M^1883; Berlin, 1893-94; D. D., Oberlin, 1897, Western Reserve, 1901, Yale, 1904. He was tutor in Latin, Oberlin academy, 1879-81 ; tutor of mathematics at Oberlin college, 1881-82; associate professor of mathematics at Oberlin college, 1884-90; associate professor of philoso- phy. 1890-91; professor of same, 1891-97; professor of theologv since 1897, and dean of Oberlin college, 1901-02. Author: Outline of ErdTnann's History of Philosophy; Outline of the Microcosmus of Hermann Lotze; The Avpeal of the Child; Reconstruction in Theology; TneUogy and the Social Cons^ousness; Personal and Ideal Elements in EdtuxUion; Rational Living; and various pamphlets on philosophy, etc. King, Rufus, American statesman, was bom in Scarborough, Me., 1755. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1777, immediately entered as a student at law in the office of Theophilus Parsons, at Newburyport, and was admitted to the bar, 1780. In 1783 he was sent to repre- sent Newburyport in the state legislature, and in the following year was elected a delegate to the old congress. In 1787 he was appointed a delegate to the general convention assembled at Philadel- phia, and in 1788 removed from Massachusetts to the city of New York. In 1796 he was appointed minister to the court of Great Britain, and remained there for seven years with equal honor to the country and himself. In 1813 he was chosen by the legislature of New York as United States senator, and continued until the expiration of his second term in 1825. Upon his retirement from the senate, he accepted from President Adams an invitation again to represent the United States at the court of Great Britain. During the voyage to England his health was seriously impaired, his illness induced him to return in about a year, and he died in 1827. King, Thomas Starr, American clergjrman and author, was born in New York city, 1824. He studied theology and became pastor of a Unita- rian church at Charlestown, Mass., 1846. He removed to Boston, 1848, and occupied the pastorate of the Hollis Street church until 1860, when he was called to a church in San Francisco, Cal. He gained wide popularity as a lecturer, and his activity in the presidential campaign of 1860 had an important part in preserving Cali- fornia to the union. He wrote: The White Hills: Their Legends, Landscapes, and Poetry; Christianity and Humanity; and several volumes of lectures. Died, 1864. King, William Frederick, chief astronomer of the department of the interior of Canada since 1890, was bom at Stowmarket, England, 1854. He was graduated from the university of Toronto, 1875; LL. D., 1904. Was Dominion land and topographical surveyor, 1876; inspector of surveys, department of the interior, 1881; chief inspector, 1886; her majesty's commissioner for the international boundary between Canada and the United States under treaties of 1892, 1903, 1906, and 19(J8; and also under agreements entered into in 1899, 1901, and 1906; member of the international waterways commission, 1904-07, and director of the Dominion astronomical observ- atory from its opening in 1905. King, WiUlam Bufus, American statesman, was bom in North Carolina, 1786. He was a member of the North Carolina legislature for three years; entered congress from North Carolina in 1810; represented Alabama in the United States senate, 1819-44. He was then minister to France from 1844 to 1846; and again United States senator from 1848 to 1853, when, shortly before his death, he became vice-president of the United States. He died in Alabama, 1853. Klnglake, Alexander William, English historian, was bom in Taunton, 1809. He was educated at Cambridge, was called to the bar In 1837; went to Algiers in 1845, and in 1854 followed the fortunes of the British army in Crimea until the siege of Sebastopol. Ho represented Bridge- water in parliament, 1857-68. His works are Eothen, and The Invasion of the Crimea. Died, 1891. Kingsley, Charles, English divine and author, chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Victoria, waa born in Devonshire, 1819. He was educated at King's college, London, and at Cambridge uni- versity, and in 1842 became curate and shortly after rector of Eversley. In the same year he published Village Sermons. In 1848 appeared The SairU's Tragedy, or The True Story of Elizabeth of Hungary, an admirable illustration of mediaeval piety. His opinions on the social anarchy of modern times are to be found in his Alton Locke, Tailor and Poet, a novel of extraor- dinary power. This was followed, in 1851, by Yeast, a Problem, in which he handles the con- dition of the English agricultural laborer; and in 1853 by Hypatia, or New Foes with an Old Face, a most vigorous and brilliant delineation of Christianity. Two years after he published Westward Hoi probably the greatest of his works. He was appointed professor of modem history at Cambridge in 1860, and after resigning waa made canon of Chester, 1869. Died, 1875. Kipling, Joseph Budyard, English author, was bom in Bombay, India, 1865. He was educated in United Services college. North Devon, England, and was assistant editor of Citnl and Military Gazette and Pioneer in India, 1882-89. LL. D., McGill university, 1899; Litt. D., Durham, Oxford, and Cambridge. He was awarded the Nobel prize for literature in 1907. He has traveled extensively in Japan, China, Africa, Aus- tralia, and America. Author : Departmental Dit- ties; Plain Tales from, the HUls; Soldiers Three; In Black and White; The Story of the Gadsbys; Under the Deodars; Phantom 'Rickshaw; Wee Willie Winkie; Life's Handicap; The Light that Failed; Barrack-Room, Ballads; Many Inventions; The Jungle Book; Second Jungle Book; The Seven Seas; Captains Courageous; The Day's Work; Stalky and Company; From Sea to Sea; The Brushwood Boy; The Absent-Minded Beggar; Kim; Jtist So Stories; The Five Nations; Traffics and Discoveries: Puck of Pook'a Hill, Actions and Re-actions; Rewards and Fairies, etc. Ktrkland, James Hampton, American educator, chancellor Vanderbilt university since 1893, was born in Spartanburg, S. C, 1859. He was graduated at Wofford college, 1877, Ph. D., Leipzig, Germany, 1885; LL. D., university of North Carolina, 1894; D. C. L., university of the South, 1902 ; was professor of Greek and German. Wofford college, 1881-83; traveled and studied abroad, 1883-86; professor of Latin 1886-93, Vanderbilt university. Editor of the Satires and Epistles of Horace, and author of many monographs, philological review articles, etc. Kitchener (kich'-en-lr), Horatio Herbert, Lord, British general, his majesty's agent and consul- general in Egypt since 1911; was bom in Ireland, 1850. He was educated at the royal military academy at Woolwich, and entered the British army in 1871. In 1882 he served as major of cavalry in the Egyptian army, was with the Nile expedition in 1884, and was made governor of Suakim in 1886. In the action at Handub, in 1888, he led the Egyptian troops against Osman Digna. For subsequent service in Sudan campaigns be was made companion of the bath. In 1888 he was made adjutant-general in the Egyptian army, and held that position until 1892. In the latter part of that year he was appointed Sirdar. He commanded at the taking of Dongola in 1896, and was then made K. C. B. 822 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT In 1898 he was in command of an English and Egyptian army near Omdurman, opposite the site of Khartum, where he gained a noted victory. For this he was raised to the peerage and received a grant of 30,000 pounds. He was chief of staff of forces in South Africa, 1899-1900 ; commander-in-chief, 1900-02; was promoted to lieutenant-general and general, created viscount, received a grant of 60,000 pounds, and the thanks of parliament. Kltchin, George William, English historian, was born at Naughton rectory, Suffolk, 1827. He was educated at Ipswich, King's college, London, and Christ Church, Oxford. He became dean of Winchester in 1883. of Durham in 1894. IHis chief work is his History of France. Died, 1912. Kitto (fctt'-o), John, biblical writer, was bom at Plymouth, England, 1804. In 1817 he became stone-deaf through a fall, and learned shoe- making. In 1824 he went to Exeter to learn dentistry; in 1825 published Essays and Letters; and at the Islington missionary college he learned printing. In 1829-33 he accompanied a patron on a tour to the East. The rest of his life was spent in the service of Charles Knight and other publishers. In 1850 he received a pension of 100 pounds. His works include The Pictorial Bible; T'ictorial History of Palestine; History of Pales- tine; The Lost Senses — Deafness and Blindness; and Daily Bible Illustrations. He also edited the Journal of Sacred Literature. In 1844 the uni- versity of Giessen made him a D. D. He died at Cannstadt near Stuttgart, 1854. Klaw, Marc, theatrical manager, was bom at Pa- ducah, Ky., 1858. He was educated in the public and high schools of Louisville, Ky. ; studied law and was admitted to the bar. Since 1881 he has been engaged as theatrical manager, and is now a member of the theatrical firm of Klaw and Erlanger of NeW York. K16ber (kla'-bdr'), Jean Baptlste, French general, was born at Strassburg, 1753, and in 1776 ob- tained a commission in the Austrian army. Inspector for a time of public buildings at Bel- fort, in 1792 he enhsted as a volunteer in the French army, and by 1793 had risen to a general of brigade. As such he commanded in the Ven- dean war, but was recalled for leniency. In 1794 he led the left wing at Fleurus, and cap- tured Maestricht; in 1796 he gained the victory of Altenkirchen. He accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, was wounded at Alexandria, and won the battle of Mount Tabor, 1799. When Bona- parte left Egypt he intrusted the chief com- mand to Kl^ber, who concluded a treaty with Sir Sidney Smith for its evacuation ; but on Admiral Keith's refusal to ratify it Kl^ber resolved to reconquer Egypt, and destroyed the Turkish army at Heliopolis. He was assassinated by a Turkish fanatic at Cairo, 1800. Klein {tdln), Charles, playwright, was bom in Lon- don, England, 1867, and was educated at North London college. He was formerly censor of plays for Charles Frohman. Author: A Mile a Mynute; By Proxy; A Paltry Million; The Dis- trust Attorney; El Capitan; Heartsease; The Charlatan; The Hon. John Grigsby; Dr. Bdgraff; A. Royal Rogue; The Cipher Code; The Auc- tioneer; Mr. Pickwick; Red Feather; The Music Master; The Lion and the Mouse; The Dauahters of Men; The StepchUd; The Third Degree. Kline, Virgil P,, American lawyer, was bom in r^^-^r^.?^'^^^' ^hiO' 1844. He was graduated from Williams college, 1866, was admitted to the umo bar 1870, and has since engaged in practice at Cleveland. He was twice the democratic CMididate for judge of the supreme court of Uhio, and also candidate for judge of the circuit court and common pleas court. For many years be has been a noted corporation lawyer Klopsch (kldpsh), Louis, journalist and philan- thropist, was bom in Germany, 1852. He was educated in the public schools of New York city, and in 1877 became proprietor of the DaUy Reporter of New York. He was proprietor of the pictorial associated press, 1884-90; pro- prietor of the Talmage sermon sjmdicate after 1885, and on his return from Palestine, 1890, became interested in The Christian Herald, of which he became proprietor in 1892. Through his paper he raised and distributed over $3,300,- 000 in international charities, especially during the famine and distress in Russia, India, Cuba, China, and Japan. He was received in private audience by Queen Alexandra, King Christian of Denmark, king and queen of Sweden, and the dowager empress of Russia. Kin^ Edward conferred on him the gold Kaiser-I-Hind medal of the first-class, 1904. He was the originator of the red letter testament and red letter Bible. Decorated order of the rising sun bv emperor of Japan, 1907. Died, 1910. Klopstock (kl6j/-aht6k), Priedrich Gottlieb, German poet, was bom at Quedlinburg, 1724. Incited by Virgil's JEneid and Milton's Paradise Lost, he resolved to write a great epic, and as a student at Jena, in 1745, he began The Messiah. In 1746 he passed to Loi[>zig, where the first three cantos of The Messiah appeared in 1748. He settled in Hamburg in 1771 with a sinecure appointment, and pensions from Frederick V. of Denmark ana the margrave of Baden. The last cantos of The Messiah were published in 1773. Regarded in his own time as a great religious }x>et, he helped to inaugurate the goUlen age of German literature. Odes, tragedies, biblical dramas, and hymns make up the rest of his f>oetry. Of these his odes alone possess interest now. The Messiah was translated into both English verse and prose. Died, 1803. Knapp, Martin Augustine. American lawyer, was born in Spafford, N. Y., 1843. He was graduated from Wesleyan universitv, Connecti- cut, 1868; LL. D., 1892; hon. A. M., Syracuse university, 1892. He was admitted to the New York bar, 1809; practiced at Syracuse, N. Y.; corporation counsel, 1877-83; appointed inter- state commerce commissioner by President Har- rison in 1891. He was reappointed by Cleve- land, 1897; by Roosevelt, 1902 and 1908; was elected chairman of the commission, 1898. In 1910 he was appointed first chief judge of the court of commerce by Taft. For a number of years he lectured on interstate commerce law at George Washington university. Knelsel (k'nV-zel), Frans, German-American musi- cian, director of Kneisel quartette, was bom in Rumania, of German parentage, in 1865. He studied violin instruction under Griin and Hellmesberger; was concertmaster of Hofbuig theater orchestra, Vienna; later of Bilse's orchestra, Berlin, and concertmaster of the Boston sjTnphonv orchestra. He is especially prominent as violin soloist. Since 1905 he has been head of violin department in the institute of musical art. New York. Kneller (ng/'-gr). Sir Godfrey, noted portrait- painter, was bom at Liibeck, 1646. He studied at Amsterdam and in Italy, went to London, 1675, and in 1680 was appointed court-painter. In 1693 William III. knighted him, and in 1715 George I. made him a baronet. His best-known works are the "Beauties of Hampton Court," painted for WiUiam III. ; his portraits of the "Kit-Cat Club"; and of fourteen sovereigns, including Charles II. to George I., Louis XIV., Peter the Great, and the emperor Charles VI. He died at Twickenham, 1723. Knight, Charles, English pubUsher and author, was bom at Windsor, 1791. He early turned his THROUGHOUT THE WORLD attention to publishing. Among his first at- tempts in this department was The Etonian, a periodical supported by the Eton boys. In 1823 he started Knight's Qiiarterly Magazine, and con- tinued it for some time in London. The whole of his noteworthy career was devoted to popular literature, of which he was one of the earliest and most accomplished advocates. Among the works •which he published or edited are the Penny Magazine, which was started only a month or two after Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, and at one time enjoyed a circulation of nearly 200,000 copies weekly; the British Almanac, and Com- panion to this Almanac; Penny Cyclopcedia; Library of Entertaining Knowledge; History oj England, etc. He died in 1873. Knight, William An^us, Scotch educator and writer, professor of moral philosophy, university of St. Andrews, 1876-1902, was born in Scotland, 1836. He was graduated from the university of Edin- burgh; Ll. D., Glasgow. Author: Studies in Phuosophy and Literature; Essays in Philosophy, Old ana New; Selections from Wordsworth; The Philosophy of the Beautiful; Aspects of Theism; The Christian Ethic; The English Lake District, as Interpreted m the Poems of Wordsworth; Some Nineteenth Century Scotsmen; Coleridge and Wordsworth in the West Country, their Friendship and Surroundings, etc. Knotty James Proctor, lawyer, governor, was born in Washington (now Marion) county, Ky., 1830. He was educated at home; LL. D., Centre college, 1885. He removed to Missouri in 1850 ; was a member of the Missouri legisla- ture, 1858; attorney-general of Missouri, 1859- 61. He returned to Kentucky in 1862, and engaged in the practice of law; was a member of congress, 1867-71 and 1877-83; governor of Kentucky, 1883-87, and delegate to Kentucky constitutional convention, 1891. He was profes- sor of civics and economics, Centre college, 1892-94; professor of law and dean of the law faculty of same, 1894-1901. Died, 1911. Knowles, James Sheridan, British dramatist, was born at Cork, 1784. He was the son of James Knowles, lexicographer and teacher of elocution. After serving in the militia and studying medicine, he first appeared on the stage at Bath and then at Dublin. He never attained much eminence as an actor, and subsequently conducted schools in Belfast and in Glasgow. His Caius Gracchus was first performed at Belfast. Virginius, his most effective play, had been a success in Glasgow before Macready in 1820 produced it at Covent Garden. Besides William Tell, in which Mac- ready achieved one of his greatest triumphs, Knowles' other best plays are Love, The Hunch- hack, The Love Chase, and The Wife. He ap- peared with fair success in many of his own pieces; but about 1844 became a Baptist preacher, drew large audiences to Exeter hall, and published two anti-Roman Catholic works. He died at Torquay, 1862. Knox, Henry, American general, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1750. He had only a common school education, and became a bookseller in Boston, his store being a favorite resort of culti- vated people. He was also an officer in a mili- tary company, and, when the revolution broke out, he escaped from the city with his wife, who hid his sword in the folds of her dress. He took part in the battle of Bunker Hill, soon attracted the attention of Washington by his skill in planning fortifications and his knowledge of artillery, and throughout the war he com- manded the artillery in various battles. After the capture of Yorktown, congress made him a major-general, and from 1785 to 1795 he was Becretary of war. He afterward lived in Maine, and died at Thomaston, in that state, 1806. Knox, John, Scottish divine and reformer, was bom at Giffordgate, in Haddingtonshire, 1505. He became a priest and notary in the diocese of St. Andrews before he had attained the age of twenty-five. Having studied the writings of St. Augustine and St. Jerome, he renounced Catholicism about 1543, and openly preached the new faith. Engaged with other reformers in defending St. Andrews against the French, he was taken prisoner, and sent to the galleys. After a detention of nineteen months, he re- turned to England, and was appointed chaplain to Edward VI. ; but he declined to accept a bishopric at the hands of that monarch, on account of his objection to the common prayer and to Episcopacy. In the reign of Mary, he retired to Frankfort, and thence to Geneva, where he became acquainted with Calvin. Hav- ing returned to his own country in 1569, he denounced the priesthood, and especially the mass and image-worship, and declaimed against the queen of Scots, whom he called Jezebel. The queen sent for him, and sought to influence him, but in vain; and his preaching was so powerful that many of the cathedrals and parish churches were demolished by the excited populace as a result of his vigorous invectives. With tireless perseverance and vehement eloquence he labored until his death for the establishment of Protes- tantism in Scotland. The person of Knox was diminutive, and his frame wasted and feeble, but his energy was inexhaustible. He was the author of several works, notably of a Historic oJ the Reformation of Religion in Scotland. But the influence he exerted was by the tongue rather than by the pen. Died, 1572. Knox, Philander Chase, American lawyer and statesman, was bom in Brownsville, Pa., 1853. He was graduated at Mt. Union college, Ohio, 1872; LL. D., university of Pennsylvania, 1905, Yale, 1907. He was admitted to the bar, 1875; was assistant United States district attorney. Western district of Pennsylvania, 1876-77; resigned and engaged in practice since 1877 with James H. Reed under the firm name of Knox and Reed, representing many large corporations, including the Carnegie company. He was attorney-general of the United States, 1901-04; United States senator, 1904-09, and secretary of state, 1909-13. Represented United States at funeral of Emperor Mutsuhito, 1912. Kobb6 (kdb'-d), Gustav, American author and journalist, was bom in New York, 1857. He was graduated at Columbia university, 1877; Columbia law school, 1879. He engaged in newspaper and magazine work, chiefly on musical and dramatic subjects. Author: The New Jersey Coast and Pines; The New Jersey Central; The Ring of the Nibdung; Wagner's Life and Works, 2 vols. ; New York and Its Environs; Plays for Amateurs; My Rosary, and Other Poems; Miriam; Opera Singers; Signora, a Child of the Opera House, a novel; Famous Actors and Actresses and Their Homes; Wagner's Music Dramas Analyzed; Loves of the Great Com- posers; Opera Singers; Wagner and His Isolde; Famous American Songs; How to Appreciate Music; The Pianolist, etc. Koch (koK), Bobert, German physician and bacteri- ologist, was bom at Clausthal, Prussia, 1843. He studied medicine at Gottingen, receiving his doctor's degree in 1866. His first substantial achievement was the result of the penetration, skill, and thoroughness of his researches on the contagion of splenic fever in cattle. This gained for him a seat on the imperial board of health in 1880. In 1879 he had begun his investiga- tions into the causes of consumption, and in 1882 be announced the discovery of the tubercle bacillus before the physiological society of Berlin. 824 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT In 1883 he waa made a privy-councilor, and placed in charge of the German expedition sent to Egypt and India to investigate the causes of cholera. This journey resulted in the dis- covery of the comma bacillus, or cholera germ, in 1884. He was rewarded with a gift of 100,000 marks by the government, and imperial titles and honors were showered upon him. In 1885 he was appointed a professor in the university of Berlin, the new chair of hygiene being created for him, and was made director of the hygienic institute. He subsequently re- turned to the investigation of tubercular diseases, but five years of patient research were reauired before he was able to announce to the world his treatment for consumption and its allied dis- eases. In 1905 he was awarded the Nobel prize for achievements in physiology. Died, 1910. Kohlsaat {kol'-s&t), Hermann Henry, capitalist, journalist, was bom in Albion, 111., 1853. He was educated in the common schools, and began business life as cash boy and later cashier in dry-goods store. He was traveling salesman, 1875-80, for Blake, Shaw and company, whohv sale bakers; became junior partner, 1880, and had charge of a bakery lunch established by this firm. He bought that branch of the business, 1883, greatly enlarged it, and the firm of H. H. Kohlsaat and company now owns several large establishments devoted to the wholesale bakery business. He waa part owner of the Chicago Inter-Ocean, 1891-93: was editor and publisher of Chicago Timea-Hercdd, 1894, amalgamated with Chicago Record, becoming Record-Herald in 1901, also of Chicago Evening Post, 1894-1901. He retired from the Record- Herald, 1902, but again became editor in 1910. Bought Chicago Inter-Ocean, 1912. He presented a statue of General Grant to the city of Galena, 111., and has contributed largely to charities. Komura (ko'-mdd-rd). Count Jutaro, Japanese statesman, minister for foreign affairs, 1908-11; was born at Hyuga, 1855. He was educated at the university of Tokyo, and at Harvard univer- sity law school. Was chargS d'affaires in China, 1893-94; minister to Korea, 1895-96; vice- minister for foreign affairs, 1896-98; minister to United States, Russia, China, 1898-1901; minister for foreign affairs, 1901-06; senior plenipotentiary to the peace conference, and signed, with Takahira, peace treaty at Ports- mouth, N. H., 1905; sent to China as special ambassador, 1905, and Japanese ambassador to Great Britain, 1906-08. Died. 1911. K5mer (Mr'-ner), Karl Theodor, German lyric poet, was bom at Dresden, 1791. He studied at Freiberg, Leipzig, and Berlin, and in 1811 settled at Vienna. Here he was dramatist to a Vienna theater, and wrote some light comedies, among them Der GrUne Domino and Der Nacht- wachter, and some tragedies, of which Zriny was the most successful. The uprising of the German nation against Napoleon inspired him with patriotic ardor, and in 1813, joining Liitzow's corps, he distinguished himself by his valor and encouraged his comrades by fiery patriotic songs, published in 1814 under the title of Leier und Schwert. The most famous. Das Schwert-Lied, was dashed off in a pause of battle only a few hours before the author fell at Gadebusch near Schwerin, 1813. Kosciusko (kds'^-us'-kd), Thaddeus, Polish general ?'?7cP w°l' ^^ ^^^^ ^^ Minsk, West Russia, 174b. He became a captain in the Polish army, came to America and served in the war of inde- pendence, and returned to Poland in 1786, with the rank of general. Having become commander of the Polish army, Kosciusko resigned his com- mand at the second partition of Poland, and retired to Leipzig, but returned in 1794, and put himself at the head of the national movement in Cracow, and afterward in Warsaw. With 20,000 regular troops and 40,000 ill-armed peasants he resisted for months the united Russian and Prussian army of 150,000 men. Overpowered by superior numbers in the battle of Maciejowice, 1794, he was captured and kept a prisoner until after the accession of the emperor Paul. When Napoleon, in 1806, formed a plan for the restoration of Poland, Kosciusko felt him- self restrained from taking an active part in it by his promise to the emperor Paul. In 1814 he wrote to the emperor Alexander, entreating him to grant an amnesty to the Poles in foreign countries, and to make himself constitutional king of Poland. He released from servitude, in 1817, the peasants on his own estate in Poland. His deatn took place in 1817, in consequence of a fall from his norse. Kossuth (kdsh'-dbl), Francis, son of Louis Kossuth, leader of the independence party in the Hunga- rian parliament, was bom in 1841. He suffered exile with his father, was partly educated in England, and lived in France and Italy. After his father's death in 1894 he went back to Hun- gary, took the oath of allegiance as a Hungarian subject, and soon became leader of those aspiring to national independence. In 1903 he resigned the lemlcrship, but was soon back at his post, and in 1904 he united his opposition forces with those of Count Apponjn, and won the elections in 1905. When the coalition came into office in 1906 he became minister of commerce in the Wekdrle cabinet. Kossuth, Louis, Hungarian patriot, orator and leader, was bom at Monok, 1802. In 1832 he commenced his political career as editor of a liberal paper. In 1847 he was sent by the county of Pestn as deputy to the Hungarian diet. To his speeches must in part be ascribed not only the Hungarian revolution, but the insurrection in Vienna in 1848. On the di.ssolution of the ministry in 1848, he found himself at the head c4 the committee of national defense, and now prosecuted with extraordinary energy the measures necessary for carrying on the war. To put an end to all the hopes and schemes of the moderate party he induced the national assembly at Debreczin, in 1849, to declare the independence of Hungary, and that the Hapsburg dynasty had forfeited the throne. He was then appointed provisional governor of Hungary. In 1849 he was compelled to abandon his position, and to flee into Turkey, where, however, he was made a prisoner. In 1851 he was liberated, and the government of France refusing him a passage through their territory, he sailed in an American frigate to England, where he was received with every demonstration of public respect and sym- pathy. In December of the same year he landed in the United States, where he met with a most enthusiastic reception. He returned in 1852 to England, and there he chiefly resided until the Italian war broke out against Austria, when he organized an Hungarian legion in Italy. Later he lived in Turin until his death in 1894. Kotzebue (ko^se-b^), Augustus Frederic Ferdinand von, German dramatist and historic writer, was born at Weimar, 1761, and was educated at Jena and Duisburg. In his twentieth year he was invited to St. Petersburg by the Prussian ambas- sador, and was patronized by Catharine, who raised him from post to post, until he became president of the civil government at Revel, a station which he held for ten years. From 1795 until 1800 he resided, variously occupied, in Germany and France. In the latter year he returned to Russia, but had no sooner set foot on its territory than he was seized and banished THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 825 to Siberia. The capricious tyrant Paul soon, however, recalled him, and took him into favor. In 1801 he again left Russia and spent the remain- der of his life in innumerable literary productions, and in politics. He is said to have written many of the Russian state papers and proclamations. The emperor Alexander subsequently employed him in various posts, and in 1817 appointed him his literary correspondent in Germany. This invidious office Kotzebue is said to have filled in a manner hostile to the freedom of his native country; and for this supposed crime he was assassinated in 1819 by a youthful fanatic named Sand. His dramas amount to nearly three hundred. Among his other works are: History of the German Empire, History of Ancient Prussia, and various narratives and recollections of his travels. Krauskopf (krous'-kdpf), Joseph, rabbi, lecturer, and author, was bom in Ostrowo, Prussia, 1858. He came to America in 1872, worked as clerk at Fall River, Mass. He was graduated at the university of Cincinnati, 1883, and as rabbi from Hebrew Union college, 1883; D. D., 1885. Soon after graduation he accepted a call from a Hebrew congregation at Kansas City; was rabbi of the reform congregation, Keneseth Israel, Philadelphia, 1887; founded the Jewish publica- tion society of America; founded, and has been president since organization of the National farm school, in which Jewish boys are trained in practical and scientific agriculture. Author: The Jews and Moors in Spain; Evoltition and Judaism; A Rabbi's Impressions of the Oberam- mergau Passion Play; The Seven Ages of Man; Old Truths in New Books; Society and its Morals; Some Isms of To-day; Gleanings from Our Vine- yard; The Service Manual; The Service Ritual; The Mourner's Service; The School Service; Sun- day Lectures, etc. Krehbiel (kra'-bel), Henry E., musical critic, was born at Ann Arbor, Mich., 1854; studied law in Cincinnati, 1872-74; musical critic, Cincinnati Gazette, 1874-80; musical critic. New York Tribune, since 1880 ; chevalier of legion of honor, 1901. Author: Studies in Wagnerian Drama, How to Listen to Music, etc. Editor: Annotated Bibliography of Fine Arts. Kropotkin (krd-pdf-ken). Prince Peter, Russian socialist, writer, was bom at Moscow, 1842. At fifteen he entered the corps of pages at St. Peters- burg, where, after five years' service and explo- ration in Siberia, he returned in 1867 to study mathematics at the university, while acting as secretary to the geographical society. In 1871 he explored the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden; in 1872, wlaile on a visit to Belgium and Switzerland, he associated himself with the extremest section of the International. In 1874, after his return to Russia, he was arrested, but in 1876 effected his escape to England. In France at Lyons he was condemned, in 1883, to five years' imprisonment for anarchism, but was released in 1886 and returned to England. Author: In Russian and French Prisons; The State, its Part in History; Fields, Factories, and Workshops; Mutual Aid, a Factor of Evolution; Modern Science and Anarchism; Ideals and Realities in Russian Literature; The CoTiquest of Bread; The Great Revolution, 1789-1903; etc. Kruger (krod'-ger), Stephanns Johannes Paulus, Boer statesman, was bom in Colesbere in Cape Colony, 1825. With his family he 'Nbrekked" to Natal, the Orange river free state, and the Transvaal, and won such a reputation for clever- ness, coolness, and courage that in the war against England, in 1881, he was appointed head of the provisional government. In 1883 he was elected president of the Transvaal or South African republic, and again in 1888, 1893, and 1898. "Oom Paul" was the soul of tho policy that issued in the so-called Boer war of 1899- 1902, showed consummate resolution and energy, and, after the tide had fairly turned against the Boers, went to Europe to seek alliances against Britain. He made his headquarters at Utrecht, and thence issued The Memoirs of Paul Kruger, told by Himself. He died, 1904. Krupp (krddp), Alfred, German ironmaster, was born at Essen, Prussia, 1812. He succeeded his father, Friedrich Krupp, who had founded a small iron-forge there in 1810. Krupp established the first Bessemer steel works and the first forging- hammer erected in Germany. The first steelgun manufactured by him, in 1847, was a 3-pounder muzzle-loader; in 1880 at the Diisseldorf exhi- bition he showed the first 100-ton steel gun. He acquired large mines and collieries, every year saw additions made to his works, and they are now the chief American competitors in the manufacture of armor for warships. They now employ about 50,000 persons, and are possibly the most extensive works of the kind in the world. Krupp died in 1887. Kubelik (k6l>'-bi-llk), Jan, Bohemian violinist, was bom in 1880 at Michle, near Prague. He received his first musical lessons from his father, a market gardener, and at twelve entered the Prague conservatoire, where his natural talent, coupled with assiduity, attracted attention. He was very successful at concerts in Austria- Hungary prior to appearing in Berlin with the Philharmonic orchestra, 1900. He was then invited to England by Dr. Richter, and made hia d6but at St. James's hall. In 1905 he began a two years' tour round the world, and met with high favor throughout Europe and America. Kuenen {kii'-nen), Abraham, Dutch theologian, was born at Haarlem, 1828. He studied at Leyden and became, in 1853, a professor there. His first important work was his Historico- Critical Inquiry into the Old Testament, the result of which was to reconstruct the history of Israel, the priestly code and the historical portions con- nected with it being made the latest element in the pentateuch. This view was developed further in a succeeding volume. He also deliv- ered a series of lectures on the Hibbert founda- tion, since published under the title National Religions and Universal Religions. He died at Leyden, 1891. Kugler (kodg'-Ur), Franz Theodor, German histo- rian of art, was born at Stettin, 1808, and studied at Heidelberg and Berlin. After the completion of a very diversified course of study he devoted himself to the study of the fine arts. In 1833 he became a professor at the art academy in Berlin. His most valuable work is the Manual of the History of Art. He is also favorably known as a poet and as the author of several dramas. Died, 1858. Kurokl (k6b'^o-ke). General, Count, noted Japanese general, was bom at Satsuma, 1844. He was a colonel on the imperialist side during the Satsuma rebellion of 1877, distinguished himself in the war with China in 1895, and was promoted a general in 1903. He commanded the first army in the Russo-Japanese war, 1904-05, and was victorious at Yalu, Kliu-lien-ling, Liao-Yang, Mukden, etc. In 1906 he became inspector- general of the Japanese army, and subsequently made a tour of the United States. Kuropatkin (kdi>'-r5-p&t'-kln\ Alexel Nicholae- vitch, Russian general, was bom in the govern- ment of Pskov, 1848. After receiving an excel- lent education in the Russian military schoob, he entered the army and distinguish^ himself in the war against the Bokharans. He served in the Russo-Turkish war; was governor of Transcaspia, 1890-98; and in 1904 was made MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT commander-in-chief of the Russian army during the Russo-Japanese war. In 1905 he was suc- ceeded by General Linevich, and was appointed to command the first Manchurian army. He wrote worlcs on the Balkan campaign, and on the central Asian wars. Kutusoff (Jcdb-tdb'-zof), Mikhail, I. G^ prince of Smolensk, Russian field-marshal, was bom in 1745. He early entered the Russian army, distinguished himself in the Turkish wars, aJid m 1787 was appointed governor-general of Crimea. After various other services he was appwinted in 1805 to the command of the first corps d'armie against the French. In that year he was victo- rious over Marshal Mortier at Diirenstein, He was second in command of the allied army, of which Emperor Alexander himself was com- mander-in-chief, at Austerlitz. In 1811-12 he commanded the Russian army in the war against the Turks, and, notwithstanding his advanced age, succeeded Barclay de Tolly m 1812 as com- mander-in-chief of the army against the French, and obtained a great victory over Davout and Ney at Smolensk. He carried on the campaign to its successful termination, but his strength was exhausted, and he died in 1813. Kuyper {koi'-pir\ Abraham, Dutch theolonaii, statesman, and writer, was bom at Maassluis, 1837. He was graduated at the university of Leyden; D. Sc, Delft; Ph. D., Hope college; LL. D., Princeton; D. D., Leyden. He was pastor of the Reformed church at Beest, 1863; Utrecht, 1868; Amsterdam, 1870; member of the states-general for Gonda, 1874-77; for Sliedrecht, 1894-1901, and prime minister, 1901- 05. He founded the free university at Amster- dam, 1880; became professor of theology and literature there ; founded the daily Standard and became its chief editor, 1872 ; the Heraui, 1878 ; and founded the Reformed Free churches, 1886. He lectured in America, England, and Belgium, and in 1897 was president of Netherland press association. He edited the Encyclopaedia oj Sacred Theology, and is the author of the following works : The Work of the Holy Spirit; Calvinism; From the Scriptures; The Common Grace; Political Platform of the Anti-Revolutionary Party; The Incarnation; Socialism and Christianity; The Evolution; The South African Crisis; Common Grace, 3 vols.; Varia Americana; Around the Old World, etc. Lackaye, Wilton, actor, was bom in Virginia, 1864. He studied law for one year; began his stage career in Francesca da Rimini in New York^ 1883. His principal r61es have been Prince Saviani in Jocetyn; ^on Stepha.no in Featherbrain; Jefferson Stockton in Aristocracy; Solomon Strong in The Idler; Svengali in Trilby; Curtis Jadwin in The Pit; Jean Valjean in The Law and the Man; John Haggleton in The Battle. Lacordaire (Id'-kdr'-ddr'), Jean Baptiste Henri, French divine, was bom at Recey-sur-Ource, 1802. He went to Paris in 1821 to continue his legal studies. In 1824 he gave up law for theology, and after three years at the seminary of St. Sulpice, he was ordained priest in 1827, and became chaplain to a convent and to the College Henri IV. He assisted Lamennais and Montalembert to found the Avenir, and was once svunmoned for opposing the government. A free school opened in Paris by him. and Montalembert was closed by the pohce; and the Avenir, con- demned by the pope, was given up. In 1834 Lacordaire gave a series of "conferences" or lectures to students which attracted great atten- tion, and led the way to his famous conferences m Notre Dame, Paris, in 1835-36. His success as a preacher was at its height, when he with- drew and went to Rome. In 1839 he entered the Dominican order, and in 1840 reappeared in the pulpit of Notre Dame, where, from 1843 to 1851 he continued his conferences. In 1848 Lacordaire accepted the republic, and was elected to the constituent assembly, but resigned in ten days. His last conferences, delivered at Toulouse in 1854, are the most eloquent of all Thenceforward until his death, iu 1861, he wa« director of the military school of Sorr^ze. He was a member of the academy. LacreteUe {Id'-kri-tll')., Jean Charles Dorainiqus de, French historian and journalist, was born at Metz, 1766. He was attracted to Paris on the outbreak of the revolution; and, taking up journalism, helped to edit the Journal dea DSmU and the Journal de Paris. In 1809 he was made professor of histoiy at the university of Paris where he remained until 1848. In 1810 censor of the press, and in 1808-12 published his History of France in the Eighteenth Century, a work of high merit. From 1811 a member of the French academy, he became its president in 1816. He died near M&con, 1855. Lacroix (ld'-krw&'). General de, French general. vice-president of the supreme council of war ana commander-in-chief of the French army, was born in 1844. He was educated at St. Cyr, which he left to serve in Italy. In the Franco- Prussian war he was taken prisoner at Sedan. He served in the French expedition to Tonquin, ajid in 1902 succeeded General Bonnal at the Ecole de Guerre. In 1903 he was appointed military governor of Lyons and commander of the fourteenth army corps. He succeeded Gen- eral Hagron in his present post in 1907. Lartantlus (l&k-t&n' -shl-us), Lucius Caellus, Firmianus, Christian ap>ologist, was bom in the latter part of the third century. He was brought up in Africa, and settled as a teacher of rhetoric in Nicomedia in Bithjiiia, where he was con- verted by witnessing the constancy of the Christian martyrs under the persecution of Diocletian. About 313 he was invited to Gaul by Constantine, to act as tutor to his son Crispus, and died about 325. His most important work is Divinarum Institutionum libri vit., which is a vindication of Christianity, and an exposure of the paganism he had formerly professed. His other writings include the treatises De Ira Dei and De Mortibua Persecutorum. Ladd, GeorKC Trumbull, American educator, pro- fessor of philosophy at Yale university, 1881-1905, emeritus professor, 1905; was bom in Painesville, Ohio, 1842. He was graduated at Western Reserve college, 1864, Andover theological semi- nary, 1869; D. D., 1879, LL. D., 1895, Westem Reserve; LL. D., Princeton, 1896. He preached at Edinburg, Ohio, 1869-71 ; was pastor of Spring Street Congregational church, Milwaukee, Wis., 1871-79 ; professor of philosophy, Bowdoin col- lege, 1879-^1 ; lecturer on church poUty and on systematic theology, Andover theological semi- nary, 1879-81 ; several times lecturer and con- ducted graduate seminary in ethics, 1895-96, Har- vard ; lectured at Doshisha and in summer school in Japan, 1892 and 1899, on invitations from imperial educational society and imperial univer- sity of Tokvo; lectured on philosophy before umversity of Bombay, India, 1899-1900, and on philosophy of reUgion at Calcutta, Madras, Benares, etc. Author: Principles of Church Polity; Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, 2 vols.; Lotze's Outlines of Philosophy, translated, 6 vols. ; Elements of Physiological Psychology; What is the Biblet Introduction to Philosophy; Outlines of Physiological Psychology; Philosophy of Mind; Primer of Psychology; Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory; Philosophy of Knouiedge; Outlines of Descriptive Psychology; Essays on the Higher Education; A Theory of Reality; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 827 Lectures to Teachers on Educational Psychology, in Japanese only; Philosophy of Conduct; and articles in various magazines. Several of his books have been translated into Japanese and into the language of the blind. La Farge {Id fdrzh'), John, American artist, was born in New York, 1835. He studied archi- tectural decoration, then painting with Couture and WilUam M. Hunt. He began painting with religious subjects and decorative work; painted flowers, a few portraits, and many landscapes: for a short time made illustrations for books and magazines; then devoted himself to mural painting, mostly of religious or ecclesiastical character; afterward was for years devoted to the making of stained glass windows, for which he invented the new methods known in Europe as "American," changing and reforming entire art of the glass-stainer, from the making of the new glass by new methods to the painting of same; much of his work is in churches and residences in Boston, New York, Chicago, Cleve- land, Philadelphia, Washington, Detroit, and elsewhere. Author: Lectures on Art, Letters from Japan, etc. Died, 1910. Lafayette (l&'-fa-yW), Marie Jean Paul Soch Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis de, French general and statesman, descended from an ancient family of Auvergne ; he was born in the castle of Chavagnac, now in the department of upper Loire, 1757. He became a «oldier at an early age, and in 1777 came to America to take part with the colonists in the war of independence. The friendship of Washington exercised a great influence over the development of his mind and the formation of his opinions. The declaration of war between France and Britain gave him an opportunity of aiding the new republic efifectually by returning to France, where he was received with honor by the court, and with enthusiasm by the people. He again came to America in 1780, and was intrusted by congress with the defense of Virginia, where he rendered important services. He had imbibed liberal principles, and on his second return to France eagerly sought to promote a thorough reform in his native country. He was called to the assembly of notables in 1787, and was one of those who most earnestly urged the summoning of the states-general. He took part also in the movements which converted the assembly of the states into the national assembly in 1789. He took a very active part in the proceedings of the assembly, and, being appointed to the chief conmiand of the armed citizens, laid the foundation of the national guard, and gave it the tricolor cockade. The extreme French republicans soon came to dislike him, because he advocated a constitutional kingdom; and the court-party, especially the queen, did the same — in spite of the services he rendered them — because of his zeal for the new order of things. Along with Bailly he founded the club of the Feuillants. After the adoption of the constitu- tion of 1790 he retired to his estate of Lagrange until he received the command of the army of Ardennes, with which he won the first victories at Philippeville, Maubeuge, and Florennes. Nevertheless, the calumnies of the Jacobins rendered him exceedingly unpopular, and he was accused of treason, but acquitted. After several vain efforts to maintain the cause of national Uberty, he left Paris for Flanders, but was taken prisoner by the Austrians, and remained at Olmiitz until Bonaparte obtained his liberation in 1797; but he took no part in public affairs during the ascendancy of Bonaparte. He sat in the chamber of deputies from 1818 to 1824, and from 1825 to 1830. In 1824 he revisited America by invitation of congress, which voted him a grant of $200,000 and a township of land. In 1830 he took an active part in the revolution, and commanded the national guards. Died, 1834. Laffltte (JA'-fef), Jacques, French banker and statesman, was bom at Bayonne, France, 1767. He acquired great wealth as a Paris banker, and in 1814 became governor of the bank of France. After the second restoration he joined the oppo- sition in the chamber of deputies, and was elected by all twenty sections in Paris, 1817. In 1830 his house was the headquarters of the revolution, and he supplied a great part of the funds needed. In November he formed a cabinet, but he held power only until March. Meanwhile he had to sell his property to pay his debts. A national subscription preserved him his house in Paris; and from the ruins of his fortune he founded a discount bank in 1837. As the gov- ernment became less liberal, Lafiitte became more active in opposition ; in 1843 he was elected president of the chamber of deputies. Died, 1844. La Follette Qa, flU'-Ht)^ Robert Marion, lawyer, statesman, was bom in Primrose, Wis., 1855. He was graduated at the university of Wiscon- sin, 1879; LL. D., 1901; was admitted to the bar, 1880, and became district attorney of Dane county, 1880. He was a member of congress, 1885-91, and as member of the ways and means committee took a prominent part in framing the McKinley bill. He was elected governor of Wisconsin in 1901, 1903, and 1905; and led the movement to nominate all candidates by direct vote, adopted by his state, 1904; to tax railway property by same system and at same rate as other taxable property, adopted, 1903; and also for the control of railway rates within the state by state commission enacted into a law by the legislature of 1905. He resigned the governor- ship on being elected United States senator in 1905. He has made important contributions toward railroad and other public reforms, and is regarded as one of the ablest debaters and orators in the United States senate, to which he was re-elected, 1911. He is now editor and pro- prietor of a weekly periodical known as La Pol- tette's Magazine. Lafontaine {ld-f6ii'-ttn'), Jean de, French poet and fabulist, was bom at Chiteau Thierry in Cham- pagne, 1621. He early devoted himself to the study of the old writers and to verse writing. In 1654 he published a verse translation of the Eunuchv^ of Terence, and then went to Paris, where Fouquet awarded him a pension of 1,000 francs for a piece of verse quarterly. His Contea et NouveUes en Vers appeared in 1665, his Fables Choisies raises en Vers in 1668, and his Amours de Psych6 et de Cupidon in 1669. For nearly twenty years he was maintained in the household of Mme. de la SabUfire. In 1684 he read an admir- able Discourse en Vers on his reception by the academy. The subjects of the Contes are taken from Boccaccio, Ariosto, Machiavelli, Rabelais, the Heptameron, Apuleius, Athenseus, and other writers ; and the stories are retold with inimitable skill and wit. He was a great and brilliant writer, but not a great poet. Died, 1695. Lagrange (Id'-grdNzh'), Joseph Louis, Count, mathematician, was born in Turin, 1736, of French extraction. He became professor of mathematics in Turin at the age of nineteen. In 1766 he succeeded Euler as director of the academy of BerUn. Removing to Paris in 1787, he remained there during the revolution, was afterward patronized by Napoleon, and created by him a count and a senator. Of his well- known works the Micanique Analytique is the most celebrated. Died, 1813. Lalande {ld'4aNd'), Joseph J£r6me Le Francals de, French astronomer, was bom at Bourg-en- Bresse, 1732. He devoted himself with such 828 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT success to mathematics and astronomy that the French academy sent him to Berlin, 1751, to determine the moon's parallax. He became on his return an astronomer-royal, and from 1762 pro- fessor of astronomy in the College de France, from 1795 director of the Paris observatory. His chief work is Traits d' Astronomic. Died, 1807. Lally-Tollendai {Id'-le' t6'4ai^-ddl'), Thomas Arthur, Comte de Lally and Baron de ToUendal, French general, of Irish descent, was born at Romans in Dauphin4, 1702. His father, Sir Gerard Lally, was an Irish Jacobite refugee in the French service. Lally distinguished himself at Flanders, accompanied Prince Charles Edward to Scotland in 1745, and in 1750 became command- er-in-chief in the French East Indies. He commenced vigorous hostilities against the British, and besieged Madras ; but, being defeated, retreated to Pondicherry, which was attacked in 1760 by a superior British force. Lally capitu- lated in 1761, after ten months' siege, and was conveyed to England. Accused of cowardice, he returned to France, and was thrown into the Bastille. The parliament of Paris at last condemned him, and he was executed in 1766. But his son, supported by Voltaire, procured a royal decree in 1778, declaring the condemnation unjust, and restoring all the forfeited honors. Lamar {lom&r'), Joseph Rucker, jurist, was born at Ruckersville, Ga., in 1857. He was educated at the university of Georgia, Washington and Lee university, and Bethany college. He was ad- mitted to the bar, 1879, and practiced at Augusta, Georgia, until 1903. He was a member of the Georgia house of representatives, 1886-89; appointed commissioner to codify the laws of the state, 1895. In 1901 he became associate judge of the supreme court of Georgia, and in 1910 was appointed by President Taft associate jus- tice of the United States supreme court. Lamar, Lucius Quintus Cinclnnatus, American lawyer and statesman, was bom in Putnam county, Ga., 1825. He was educated at Emory college, studied law and was admitted to the bar, 1847. He was elected a member of the Georgia state legislature, 1853; removed to Mississippi, 1854, and was a member of congress from that state, 1857-60; served in the confed- erate army during the civil war, and was sent to Europe as agent of the confederacy. In 1866 he was made professor of political economy at the university of Mississippi; was a member of congress, 1872-77, and of the United States senate, 1877-85. President Cleveland made him secretary of the interior during his first term, and in 1888 made him associate justice of the United States supreme court. Died, 1893. Lamarck (Id'-mark'), Jean Baptlste Pierre Antoine de Monet de, celebrated French naturalist and pre-Darwinian evolutionist, was bom at Bazentin, 1744. At sixteen he joined the French armv in Germany. Stationed as an officer at Toulon and Monaco, he became interested, in the Mediterranean flora; and, resigning after an injury, he held a post in a Paris bank, and mean- while pursued the study of botany. In 1778 he published a Flore Fran^aise. In 1779 he became a member of the French academy and keeper of *tie royal garden, afterward the nucleus of Jardin des Plantes, and here he lectured for twenty-five years on invertebrate zoology. About 1801 he had begun to think about the relations and origin of species, expressing his conclusions in his famous PhUosophie Zodlogique, m 1809. His Histoire des Animaux sans Vertibres appeared in 1815-22. Hard work and ilhiess enfeebled his sight and left him bUnd and poor. He broke with the old notion of species, expressly denied the unchangeableness of species, sought to explain their transformation and the evolution of the animal world, and prepared the way for the now accepted theory of descent. Died, 1829. Lamarttne (Id'-mdr'-ten'), Alphonse, French author and poUtician, waa born at M&con, 1790. He was educated at the Jesuit college at Belley, traveled in Italy, and, after the fall of Napoleon, entered the army. He exercised a most impor- tant influence upon the revolution, restraining the populace from many of the excesses into which they might otherwise have been led. He was afterward an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency, and after the coup d'itat of 1851 he retired altogether into private Ufe. Though thus for a short time prominent in the affairs of his country, the greater part of his career was devoted to literature, in wliich be attained great eminence. His History of the Girondists, pub- lished in 1847, undoubtedly did much to hasten the revolution; and his History of the Revolution of 1848, which appeared in the following year, is a deeply interesting account of a movement which, if it had not been turned into another direction by the temporarily successful ambition of Louis Napoleon, might have gained for France at once that free government which she gained only after the fall of the empire. Of Lamartine's earlier works, one of the best known is his Voyage en Orient. His Works extend over forty volumes. Died, 1869. Lamb, Chartes, English essayist and poet, was bom in London. 1775. He was the son of a clerk to one of the benchers at the Inner 'i'emple, and waa educated at Christ's Hospital, where he was the schoolfellow and friend of Samuel Taylor Cole- ridge. From 1702 to 1825 he was a clerk in the accountant's oflice of the East India company, retiring at last on a pension; but, during most of these years, and indeed up to the close of his life, he devoted himself, in a spirit of noble self- sacrifice, to the care of his sister Mary, who, like himself, had inherited a taint of insanity. Lamb's earliest literary efforts were in verse. In 1807 he pubUshed, in conjunction with his sister, a series of Tales from Shakespeare; and in 1808 two volumes of Speeimeru of En^ish Dramatic Poets tctio lived about the time of Shakespeare, with short but felicitous notes. On the estab- lishment of the London Magazine in 1820, he began that series of essays, signed Elia, which are the chief foundation of his fame. He died in 1834, his sister Blary surviving him until 1847. Lambert, John, British general, was bom at Calton near Settle, Yorkshire, 1619. He studied at the Inns of Court, but, on the outbreak of the great rebellion in 1642, he became a captain under Fairfax, and at Marston Moor 1^ Fairfax's cavalry. Commissary in general of the army in the north in 1645, and major-general of the northern counties, 1647, he helped Cromwell to crush Hamilton at Preston, and captured Ponte- fract castle in 1649. In 1650 he went with Cromwell to Scotland as major-general, led the van at Dunbar, won the victory of Inverkeithing, followed Charles to Worcester, and at the battle commanded the troops on the eastern bank of the Severn. He helped to install Oliver Cromwell as Erotector, but opposed the projxieition to declare im king, and became completely estranged from him. He headed the cabal which over- threw Richard Cromwell; was now looked uf)on as the leader of the fifth monarchy or extreme republican party; suppressed the rovalist insur- rection in Cheshire, 1659 ; and virtually governed Great Britain with his officers as the "committee of safety." He was sent to the Tower, tried in 1662, and banished to Guernsey. Died, 1683. Landor, Arnold Henry Savage, English artist and traveler, was bom at Florence, Italy, 1865, and was educated there and at Paris. He traveled in the East several years; also in America, Australia, THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 829 Azores, and northern Africa. Hewasthe firstwhite man to reach both sources of the great Brahma- putra river and establish their exact position; to settle the geographical problem that no range higher than the Himalayas existed north of the Brahmaputra river; and to explore central Mindanao island, where he discovered the "white tribe," Mansakas. He holds the world's record in mountaineering, having reached an altitude of 23,490 feet on Mount Lumpa, Nepal, 1899. Author: Alone with the Hairy Ainu, or 3,800 Miles on a Pack-saddle; Corea, or the Land of the Morning Calm; A Journey to the Sacred Mountain of Siao-ou-tai-shan; In the Forbidden Land; China and the Allies; Across Coveted Lands; The Gems of the East; Tibet and Nepal; Across Widest Africa, etc. Lander, Walter Savage, English poet and prose writer, was born at Ipsley Court, Warwickshire, 1775. He studied at Oxford where he won high reputation as a scholar; and in 1808 raised a body of men, at his own expense, and joined the Spanish patriots under Blake. He was made a colonel in the service of Spain, but resigned his commission on the restoration of King Ferdinand. He first became known as the author of a poem called Gebir, in 1798, which was followed by Count Julian. In 1820 appeared Idyllia Heroica, and in 1824-29 his Imaginary Conversations of Literary Men and Statesmen, in 5 vols. He was a thorough classical scholar, and his Greek and Roman characters speak as we should expect the ancient heroes to have spoken. He is greater as a prose writer than as a poet; but, according to Emerson, who visited him in 1833, nature meant him rather for action than for literature. "He has," says Emerson, "an English appetite for action and heroes." Died in Florence, Italy, 1864. Landseer, Sir £dwin Henry, English painter, was bom in London, 1802. The first work that brought him prominently before the public was "Dogs Fighting," exhibited in 1819. It was succeeded by the "Dogs of St. Gothard," the popularity of which was very great. The scene of several of his finest pictures is laid in the highlands of Scotland. For upward of thirty years every London exhibition witnessed his success. In 1830 he was elected a royal academician, and in 1850 was knighted. Among his most celebrated achievements are: "The Return from Deer- stalking"; "The Illicit Whiskey-still"; "High Life " ; "Low Life " ; "Poachers Deer-stalking " ; "Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time"; "The Drover's Departure"; "Return from Hawk- ing"; "The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner"; " Dignity and Impudence " ; "Peace"; "War"; "Stag at Bay"; "The Drive — Shooting Deer on the Pass''; "A Random Shot"; "Night"; "Morning"; "The Children of the Mist"; "Saved"; "Highland Nurses"; "Deer-stalk- ing"; "Flood in the Highlands"; "Windsor Park"; "Squirrels Cracking Nuts"; and "Man Proposes, but God Disposes." He was elected president of tUe royal academy in 1865, but declined the honor. He was the most superb animal-painter of his time. Died, 1873. Lane, Edward William, English orientalist and Arabic scholar, was bom at Hereford. 1801, the son of a prebendary. He began life as an engraver, but the condition of his health took him to Egypt, and with Egypt the whole of his subsequent work was connected. The result of his visits was his Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, still a standard authority. This was followed by the annotated translation ofithe Thousand and One Nights, which was the first accurate rendering, and by Selections from the Koran. His later years in Egypt were devoted to laborious preparation for the great work of his life, the Arabie-Engliah Lexicon, completed by his grand-nephew, who also wrote his life. Died, 1876. Lanc-Poolc, Stanley, English historian and archtc- ologist, profes.sor of Arabic at Trinity college, Dublin, 1898-1904, was bora in London, 1864. He was educated by private tutors, and at Corpus Christi college, Oxford ; M. A., Oxford and Dublin; Litt. D., Dublin. He was employed in the coin department of the British museum, 1874-92; was sent by the government on archaeological missions to Egypt, 1883, and Russia, 1886 ; visited Australia, 1890 ; employed by Egyptian government on archoKHogical research at Cairo, 1895-97 ; lecturer at the royal institution, 1900, and examiner in Arabic to the university of Wales, 1901-02. Author: Cata- logue of the OrientM and Indian coins in the British Museum, 14 vols. : Saladin; The Moors in Spain; The Barbary Corsairs; The Moham- medan Dynasties; The Mogul Emperors; Egypt in the Middle Ages; Mediaeval Iridia; Story of Cairo; Islam; Egypt; Social Life in Egypt; Studies in a Mosque; The Art of the Saracens of Egypt; Speeches and Table-talk of Mohammed; Essays in Oriental Numismatics, 3 vols., etc. Edited: Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon; The People of Turkey, 2 vols. ; Lane's Koran; Arabian Society in the Middle Ages. etc. Lanfranc (l&n'-frdngk), prelate and scholar, arch- bishop of Canterbury, was bom in Pavia, Italy, about 1005. In 1045 he was chosen prior of the Benedictine abbey of Bee. William oi Normandy appointed him a councillor of state, and in 1066 abbot of a monastery in Caen, where he estab- lished a school. Afterward William caused hina to be elected to the see of Canterbury, and he was consecrated in 1070. On the accession of William Rufus he was intrusted with the gov- ernment. He improved discipline, established schools, convents, and hospitals, and built churches and cathedrals. His works consist of commentaries, letters, and sermons. Died, 1089. Lang (l&ng), Andrew, Scottish writer and critic, was born at Selkirk, Scotland, 1844. He was educated at St. Andrews university and Balliol college, Oxford. Litt. D., Oxford; LL. D., St. Andrews. He was elected a fellow of Merton college, 1868, and shortly became one of the busiest and brightest writers in the world of London journalism. He took a prominent part in the controversy with Max Miiller and his school about the interpretation of mythology and folk-tales. He wrote Ballads and Lyrics of Old France; Ballads in Blue China; Helen of Troy; Rhymes h la Mode; Grass of Parnassus; Ballads of Books; volumes of graceful verse. Custom, and Myth; Myth, Ritiud, and Religion; Modern Mythology; The Making of Religion; contributions to the study of the philosophy and religion of primitive man. Among his other works are : Tfie Library; In the Wrong Paradise; Books and Bookmen; Letters to Dead Authors; Lost Leaders; Homer and the Epic; The Monk of Fife; Life of Lockhart; Pickle the Spy; Com- panions of Pickle; History of Scotland, 2 vols.; Prince Charles Edward; The Mystery of Mary Stuart; Magic and Religion; Homer and hit Age, etc. He has translated Theocritus and, with others. Homer, besides editing Scott, Burns, the Fairy Books, etc. Died, 1912. Langevin {laiizh'-v6,n'\ Louis Ptiilip Adelard, Canadian prelate, Catholic archbishop of St. Boniface, Manitoba, since 1895, was born at St. Isidore, La Prairie, province of Quebec. Canada, 1855. He was educated at Montreal college; studied theology at the Sulpician grand seminary. Montreal; completed his course of theological study at St. Mary's college, Montreal entered the order of oblates of Mary Immaculate, 1881, 83d MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT and was ordained priest, 1882. He was preacher for diocesan missions, 1882-85; professor of moral theology in the Catholic university of Ottawa, where he soon became vice-dean of the theological faculty, 1885; D. D, 1892; went to Manitoba as superior of the oblates in the arch- diocese of St. Boniface, and rector of St. Mary's church, Winnipeg, 1893. He visited England, France, Belgium, Germany, in 1890; Rome in 1896, 1898, and 1904, and in 1908 visited the holy land. He also visited Austria in the interest of 100,000 GaUcians, Poles, and Ruthe- nians coming from this empire; has founded eighty parishes, fifty educational convents, six hospitals, four orphanages, six Indian boarding schools, and has doubled the number of priests and the number of mis-sionaries among the Indiana. Langland, William, one of the great figures in early English literature, was bom about 1330, near Malvern. He lived most of his life in Lon- don in poverty, a clerk and singer of masses for the dead in the churches. His allegorical poem, The Vision of Piers Plowman, containing much vigorous satire on the abuses of the church and the state, is one of the earliest and most eloquent cries from an oppressed people. Excepting Chaucer, Langland was the greatest English poet of the fourteenth century. He died about 1400. Langton, Stephen, English prelate, was bom about 1160. He studied in Paris, and became there canon of Notre Dame and chancellor of the university. He was made a cardinal in 1206 by his former fellow student Innocent III., and in 1207 was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury. In 1213 he joined the barons opposed to the mis- government of John, and his name stands first among the subscribing witnesses to magna charta. For his refusal to excommunicate the barons at the command of Innocent, he was suspended from the exercise of his archiepiscopal functions until 1216. He again placed himself at the head of the barons, in 1223, to demand from Henry III. the confirmation of their liberties. His writings have perished; but to him is due the division of the Bible into chapters. Died, 1228. Lanier (la-mer'), Sidney, American poet, was bom in Macon, Ga., 1842. He was graduated at Oglethorpe college, Ga., 1860, and served in the confederate army during the war. Toward its termination he was captured and held prisoner for five months at Pomt Lookout, Fla. From 1865 to 1867 he was a clerk in Montgomery, Ala., had a school in Prattville, Ala., and from 1868 to 1872 practiced law in company with his father at Macon. In 1876 he prepared an ode for the centennial exhibition at Philadelphia, and in 1877 settled in Baltimore, where he delivered lectures on English literature. In 1879 he was appointed lecturer on English literature at Johns Hopkins university. In the summer of 1880, enfeebled by the progress of consumption, he sought reUef in the mountains of North Carolina, where he died. His two notable books are his Science of English Verse, and his Poems. The former is an ingenious, well worked out theory, treated somewhat in accordance with the musical system of Marx. Little of his poetry has become particularly noted; but it contains elevated passages that mark the tmly endowed poet. Died, 1881. Lankester (l&ng'-kis-ter). Sir Edwin Ray, English zoologist, was bom in London, 1847. He was educated at Downing college, Cambridge, and at Christ Church, Oxford; D. Sc, Oxford and Leeds; LL. D., Cambridge. He was fellow and tutor of Exeter college, and was professor of zoology, University college, London, 1874-90 ; regius professor of natural history, Edinburgh, 1882 ; Linacre professor of comparative anatomy, Oxford, 1891-98, and director of the natural history departments of the British museum, 1898-1907. He is a member of many scientific and learned societies, and has been ed.itor of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science since 1869. Author: A Mono^aph of the Cephalaspid- ian Fishes; Comparative Longevity; Devdop- mental Hilary of the MoUusca; Degeneration; The Advancement of Science. Editor of A Trea- tise on Zoology; Extinct Animals; The Kingdom of Man, etc. Lanman, Charles Rockwell, American orientalist, professor of Sanskrit, Harvard, since 1880, waa Dom at Norwich, Conn., 1830. He was gradu- ated at Yale, 1871; Ph. D., 1873, LL. D., 1902, Yale; LL. D., Aberdeen, 1906. He studied Sanskrit under Weber, Berlin, and Roth, Tubin- gen, and comparative grammar under Curtius and Leskien of Leipzig, 1873-76. Called to Johns Hopkins the year of its opening, 1876; thence to Harvard, 1880. He was lecturer at Lowell institute, Boston. 1898; traveled in India, 1889, and accjuired valuable books and about 500 manuscripts for Harvard. He is the author of numerous works on the Sanskrit language and literature. Lannes (Idn), Jean, duke of Montebello, French marshal, was bom at Lectoure, 1769. He entered the armv in 1792, and by his conspicuous bravery in the Italian campaign fought his way up to the rank of brigaFltsmaurice. fifth Marquis ot, English statesman, was bom in 1845. He was educated at Eton and Balliol college, Oxford; D. C. L., Oxford. He succeeded to the marquisate in 1866, from 1869 held minor offices in the liberal administration, and in 1872-74 was under- secretary of war. In 1880 he became under- secretary for India, but resigned owing to a difference with Gladstone over the compen- sation for disturbance bill. He was governor- general of Canada, 1883-88, of India, 1888-93, war secretary in 1895-1900, and in 1900^5 foreign secretary', promoting the entente with the United States and France and the treaties with Japan. Laotse {la-o-tsd'), Chinese sage, founder of Taoism, was bom in the province of Ho-nan about 604 B. C. He was a contemporary of Confucius, and wrote the celebrated Tao-teh-King canon, that is, of the Tao, or divine reason, and of virtue, one — and deservedly so on account of its high ethics — of the sacred books of China. He was the founder of one of the principal religions of China, Confucianism and Buddhism being the other two, although his followers, the Tao-sze, as they are called, are now degenerated into a set of jugglers. Laplace {Id'-jias'), Pierre Simon, Marquis de, eminent French mathematician and astronomer, was bom at Beaumont-en-Auge, in Normandy, 1749. He was for some time a teacher of mathe- matics in the military school there, and after- ward went to Paris, where he attracted the notice of D'Alembert, and was, through his influence, appointed professor in the military school, and admitted to the academy of sciences. He waa gifted with wonderful scientific sagacity and solved several problems which had for many years defied the attempts of geometers. He waa the author of the nebular hypothesis, and THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 831 together with Lagrange did much to verify New- ton's theory. His TraiU de la Micanique Cilesie, and supplements to it, are, next to Newton's Principia, the greatest of astronomical works. His Exposition du Systdme du Monde is intended for those who can not follow the difficult demonstrations and calculations in his great work. Most of his important investigations were made for the purpose of testing the gener- ality of the law of gravitation and the cause of sundry irregularities in the motions of the planets. Died at Paris, 1827. Lardner (lard'-ner), Dionysius, British clergyman and scientific writer, was bom in Dublin, Ireland, 1793. He was graduated at Trinity college, Dublin, 1817, and in 1827 became professor of natural philosophy in the university of London. He subsequently visited the United States, and in 1845 established himself in Paris. He pub- lished the Cabinet Encyclopaedia, 1830-44, and numerous works and papers on natural science and railway economics. He died at Naples, 1859. Lardner, Nathaniel, English divine, was bom in Hawkhurst, Kent, England, 1684. He studied at Utrecht and Leyden ; became a minister in his twenty-fifth year; and, after having been chaplain and tutor in the family of Lady Treby, acquired equal reputation as a preacher and writer. His most celebrated work is The Credi- bility of the Gospel History. He was also the author of a Collection of Jewish and Heathen Testimonies. These two works — the value of which in Christian apologetics can hardly be over-estimated — occupied him for the greater part of forty-three years. Died, 1768. Lamed, Josephus Nelson, author and journalist, was born in Chatham, Ont., 1836. He was e4ucated in the public schools of Buffalo; was on editorial staff of Buffalo Express, 1859-72; superintendent of education, Buffalo, 1872-73; and superintendent of Buffalo library, 1877-97. Author: Talks About Labor; History for Ready Reference; Talk About Books; History of England for Schools; A Multitude of Councilors; Primer of Right and Wrong; History of the United States for Secondary Schools; Seventy Centuries — a Survey. Editor: Tfie Literature of American History. La Bochefoucauld (Id rosh'-fdd'-ko'), Francois, Due de, French moralist, was bom at Paris, 1613. At an early age he joined the army, placed him- self in opposition to Richelieu, and became entangled in a series of love adventures and political intrigues, the result being that he was forced to live in exile from 1639 to 1642. He then joined the Frondeurs and was wounded at the siege of Paris. In 1652, wounded again, he retired to the country. On Mazarin's death in 1661 he repaired to the court of Louis XIV. A surreptitious edition of his Mimoires, written in retirement, was published in 1662; as it gave wide offense he disavowed its authorship. His Reflexions, on Sentences et Maximes Morales appeared in 1665. His last years were brightened by his friendship with Mme. de La Fayette, which lasted until he died. For brevity, clear- ness, and finish of style the Maximes could hardly be excelled. Died, 1680. Larrey (Zd'-rd'), Dominique Jean, Baron, noted French surgeon, was bom at Baud^an in 1766. He went to Paris, and entered the navy as sur- geon, and afterward became a surgeon in the army. He invented the ambulance volante, or flying hospital, an easy wagon for carrying the wounded, and for this was made surgeon-in- chief. He served under Napoleon in the wars of Egypt, Germany, and Spain, and was much loved by the soldiers because of his bravery and skill as a surgeon. Once he killed his own horses to make soup for the wounded men under his care. Napoleon said of him: " If the army ever erect a monument of gratitude, it should be to Larrey;" and in his will said: "I leave 100,000 francs to the surgeon-in-chief Larrey, the most virtuous man I know." There is a bronze statue of Larrey in Paris, in which he is shown standing, and holding Napoleon's will in his hand, open at these words. He died in Lyons, 1842. La Salle (Id sdl'), Ben6 Robert Caveller, Sleur de, noted French navigator, was bom in Rouen, 1643. He came to America in 1660, and became a trader in furs, and the owner of a great tract of land in Canada. After a voyage of exploration from Lake Erie to Lake Superior and down the Mississippi, he took possession of the land around the gulf of Mexico, called it Louisiana, after the French king, and went to France to get men and means to colonize it. He succeeded in bringing oyer four vessels. But quarrels arose between him and the commander of the fleet, which ended in the return of the ships, with fifty of the people, to France. With the others La Salle kept on his way, but failed to find the Mississippi a«ain, and wandered from place to place, until hia followers were nearly all dead. At last, giving up hope of reaching the land he was looking for, he started for Canada with sixteen men in 1687. On the way two of the men, who hated La Salle, agreed to kill him ; and having first murdered hia nephew, they shot him in 1687. He was the first European to travel from the headwaters to the mouth of the Mississippi. Lassalle (Id'-sdl'), Ferdinand, founder of socialism in Germany, was bom in Breslau, 1825, of Jewish parents. He attended the universities of Breslau and Berlin, became a disciple of Hegel, took part in the revolution of 1848, and was sent to pnson for six months. In 1861 his System of Acquired Rights startefl an agitation of labor against capital, and he was again thrown into prison. On his release he founded an association to secure universal suffrage and other reforms. Returning to Switzerland, he conceived a passionate affec- tion for a lady betrothed to a noble whom she was compelled to marry, and whom he challenged, but by whom he was mortally wounded in a duel in 1864. Latimer, Hugh, EnglisU bishop and martyr, was bom at Thurcaston, in Leicestershire, about 1485, the son of a yeoman. He was educated at Christ's college, Cambridge. In early life he was a zealous Catholic, but. being converted, he ^|( became an equally zealous champion of the reformation. After having encountered many Eerils, he was made bishop of Worcester, 1535, y Henry VIII. The bishopric, however, he resigned, on the passing of the act of the six articles; and was punished by being imprisoned during the remainder of Henry's reipi. The accession of Edward VI. set Latimer at liberty, and he resumed his preaching, but refused to resume the mitre. On MarjPs ascending the throne, he was again incarcerated ; and, in 1555, was brought to the stake, where he suffered with unshaken courage. Ridley was his fellow martyr. Latour d'Auvergne (Id'-UXir' dd'-vSrn'-y')t Th6- ophile Malo Corret de, noted French soldier, was bom at Carhaix, Brittany, 1743. He entered the French army when twenty-four years old. He was a man of extraordinary bravery, became distinguished in the wars of 1792-1800, and was commander of the troop called the "infernal column." He refused the rank of g;eneral. Napoleon sent him a sword, with an inscription saying that he was the first grenadier of France; but he sent the sword back, saying, "Among us soldiers there is neither first nor last." Wnen peace came, Latour went to his home and lived quietly until the war again broke out; then he 832 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT joined the army again in place of the only son of a friend. After his death hie name was called at roll for many years, and the oldest sergeant used always to answer for him, "Died on the field of honor." Killed at Oberhausen, Bavaria, 1800. Latrobe {la-trob'), Benjamin Henry, American archi- tect and engineer, was bom in Yorkshire, Eng- land, 1764 In 1785 he entered the Prussian army in a regiment of hussars, and was twice wounded in battle. Returning to England, he studied architecture, and in 1789 was made surveyor of the public offices of London. In 1796 he came to the United States, when he was made engineer of the James river and Appomattox canal, and superintended the building of the penitentiary in Richmond. In 1798 he settled in Philadelphia, where he designed the bank of Permsylvania, the old academy of art, and the bank of the United States. In 1811 he completed the capitol at Washington, and after its destruction by the British in 1814, superintended its recon- struction. Died at New Orleans. 1820. LAud {I6d), William, English prelate, archbishop of Canterbury, was bom at Reading, 1673. son of a clothier. He studied at St. John's college, Oxford, and became a fellow; was ordained in 1601, and early gave evidence of his high-church proclivities and his hostility to the Puritans, whom for their disdain of forms he regarded aa the subverters of the church. He rose by a succession of preferments to the primacy, out declined the offer of a cardinal's hat at the hands of the pope, and became along with Strafford a chief adviser of the unfortunate Charles I. His advice did not help the king out of his troubles, and his course of action bt'ought his own head to the block in 1645. Laughlln (Id/'-lin), James Laurence, American educator, economist, head professor of poUtical economy, university of Chicago, since 1892, was bom at Deerfield, Ohio, 1850. He was graduated at Harvard, 1873; Ph. D., 1876. He taught in Hopkinson's classical school, Boston, 1873-78; was instructor, 1878-83, assistant professor, 1883-87, of political economy at Harvard ; presi- dent of Manufacturers' mutual fire insurance company, Philadelphia, 1887-90; and professor of political economy, Cornell, 1890^-92. In 1894-95 he prepared for the government of San Domingo a scheme of monetary reform, which was afterward adopted. He was a member of the monetary commission created by the Indian- apoUs monetary conference, 1897. Author: Anglo-Saxon Legal Procedure in Anglo-Saxon Laws; Study of Political Economy; History of Bimetallism in United Stutes; Elements of Politi- cal Economy; Gold OTid Prices Since 1873; Facta About Money; Principles of Money; Reciprocity; Industrial America, etc. He is editor of Journal of Political Economy; was lecturer |in Berlin on invitation of Prussian cultus ministeriim:!, 1906. Laurens {l6'-^ens), Henry, American statesman, was bom in Charleston, S. C, 1724. He was educated for a merchant, was very successful, and accumulated a large fortune. When the war of the revolution broke out, he showed him- self to be a true patriot. In 1776 he became a member of the continental congress from South Carolina, and in the following year was elected its president. In 1779 he was sent on important state business to Holland, but was captured on the way by a British ship-of-war, and taken to London, where he was kept prisoner in the Tower for fifteen months. When the war ended, he was freed and became one of the ministers to Paris, 1782, to conclude the terms of peace. He died in Charleston, 1792. Laurie (lou'-re), Simon Somerville, Scotch educator, was bom at Edinburgh, 1829. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh; LL. D., Edin- burgh, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews. He was secretary to the endowed schools of Scotland commission, 1872; hon. secretary to association for promoting secondary education in Scotland, founded in 1876; and at one time president of the teachers' guild. He was Gifforcf lecturer at Edinburgh, 1905-06, and professor emeritus of the institutes and history of education. Author: Philosophy of Ethics; Primary Instruction in Relation to Education; Notes on British Theories of Morals; Life and Educational Writings of John Amos Comenius; MeduBval Education and Rise and Constitution of Universities; Institutes of Education; Historical Survey of pre-Christian Education; The Training of Teachers and Methods of Instruction; Sttidies in the History of Educa- tional Opinion from the Renaissance; and many philosopnical and educational articles. Died, 1909. Laurier (fo'-rl-d'). Sir Wilfrid, Canadian statesman, first French-Canadian premier of the Dominion, was bom in St. Lin, 1841; educated for the bar at L'Assomption college, and at McGill uni- versity; B. C. L., McGill, 1864; D. C. L, LL. D., etc. He rose rapidly in his profession, and in 1871 was elected as a liberal to the Quebec provincial assembly. In 1874 he was elected to the federal assembly, and his high personal character, his undoubted loyalty and attach- ment to the connection of the colony with Great Britain, together with his great oratorical powers, which have earned for him the title •'silver-tongued Laurier," soon gave him high rank in the liberal party. On the retirement of Blake in 1891 he was chosen leader of the liberal party, and at the general election of 1896 he led his followers to a notable victory. His tariff legislation during 1897, giving Great Britain the benefit of preferential trade with Canada, aroused much enthusiasm both in the colony and at home, and he was warmly wel- comed when he went to London to attend the jubilee festivities. He was then appointed a member of the privy council and made a G. C. M. G. In 1900 he again secured the approval both of the Dominion and of the empire by the prompt despatch of Canadian troops to aid the mother country in South Africa, and led his party to another victory at the f>olls in Novem- ber. He attended the colonial conference and the coronation in England in 1902. He was again returned to power in 1904 and 1908, and in 1907 attended the imperial conference in London. The liberal ministry under the leadership of Laurier for fifteen years was defeated in 1911, and Robert Borden as head of the conservative party became premier. Lauterbach (lou'-tir-baK), Edward, American law- yer, was bom in New York, 1844. He was educated at the college of the city of New York, A. B.. 1864, A. M., 1867; was admitted to the bar, 1866, and is now a member of the law firm of Hoadly, Lauterbach and Johnson. He was chairman of the republican county committee, 1895-97; is vice-president and director of the Maurice Grau opera company, and also director in several New York street railway companies. He has been prominent in important railway, telegraph, and maritime cases ; is vice-president and counsel to the Pacific Mail steamship com- pany; director of numerous charitable institu- tions; chairman of board of trustees, college of city of New York. Laveleye {IdiZ-lS'), £;mile Louls'Vlctor de, Belgian poUtical economist, was bom at Bruges, 1822. He studied at Ghent, and in 1864 became pro- fessor of poUtical economy at Li^e. His works include : De la ProprUti; Lettres d'ltalie; Le Socialisme CorUemporain; Elements d'Economie Politique; La P&nxnsule des Balkans; and works on rural economy in the Netherlands, and on SIR \<^ILFR1D LAURIER From a photograph by Pittaway, Ottawa .,-t v»' THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 836 current topics of the day. His contributions to the Revue des Deux Mondes, Athenoeum, etc., were collected and pubHshed in his Essais et Etudes. He was made a baron a few weelts before hia death. Died, 1892. Lavelle, Michael J^ American Roman Catholic priest, was bom in New York, 1856. He was graduated at Manhattan college, 1873, St. Joseph's seminary, Troy, N. Y., 1874, and was ordained to the priesthood, 1879. He was assistant, 1879-86. and rector since 1886, St. Patrick's cathedral; was appointed vicar general, New York, 1902, and domestic prelate to Pope Pius X., 1903. He has been prominent in edu- cational and philanthropic movements. Lavoisier (Id'-viod'-zyd'), Antolne Laurent. See page 380. Lawrence, Abbott, American merchant and philan- thropist, was bom at Groton, Mass., 1792. In partnership with his brother Amos, he acquired a large fortune, a part of which was invested in the cotton factories of Lowell, which city owes its prosperity in great part to them. He was elected to congress in 1839, and in 1842 was one of the commissioners to settle the northeast boundary question with Great Britain. He founded the Lawrence scientific school at Harvard university, and made a bequest for model lodging houses. Died at Boston, Mass., 1855. Lawrence, Amos, American philanthropist, and brother of Abbott, was bom at Groton, Mass., 1786. Having acquired an immense fortune in trade, he? devoted $639,000 of it to charities and donations, among other institutions to Ken- yon and Williams colleges, and the theological seminary at Bangor, Me. He died at Boston, Mass., 1852, and his son published his Life and Correspondence in 1855. Lawrence, James, American naval officer, was born at Burlington, N. J., 1781. In the war of 1812 he served under Commodore Decatur, and by brave conduct rose successively to the command of the Argus, the Vixen, the Wasp, and the Hornet. In 1813, after a short engagement, he captured the British ship Peacock, and soon after was made commander of the frigate Chesa^ peake. After he had been in command of its undisciplined crew for only a few days, in June, 1813, he met the British frigate Shannon just out of Boston, and after a hard fight he was mortally wounded and his ship was captured. It was here that he uttered the words, "Don't give up the ship!" Lawrence, Sir Thomas, English portrait painter, was born in Bristol, 1769; succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds in 1792 as first painter to King George III. In 1820 he became president of the royal academy. He painted nearly all the monarchs and notabilities of Europe; his pictures are distinguished by fidelity of touch, and by a peculiar softness and grace of fini.sh. Died, 1830. Lawrence, William, American prelate, Protestant Episcopal bishop of Massachusetts since 1893, was born in Boston, 1850. He was graduated at Harvard, 1871; S. T. D., 1893; S. T. D., Hobart, 1890; LL. D., Princeton, 1904; and S. T. B., Episcopal theological school, Cambridge, Mass., 1875. He was rector of Grace church, Lawrence, Mass., 1876-84; professor of homiletics and pastoral theology, Episcopal tlieological school, Cambridge, 1884-93; dean of same, 1888-93. Author: Life of Amos A. Laterence; Propor- tional Representation in the House of Clerical and Lay Delegates; Visions and Service; Life of Roger Wolcott, Governor of Massachusetts; Study of Phillips Brooks, etc. Lawson, Thomas William, American banker, yachtsman, and author, was born in Charlestown, Mass., 1857. He was educated at the public schools of Cambridge, has been in business as banker and broker since 1870, and was formerly senior member of the firm of Lawson, Arnold, and Company, members of Boston and New York stock exchanges. He is prominent as yachtsman and as a contributor to magazines, reviews, and newspapers. Author: The Krank; History of the Republican Party; Secrets of Success; ejec- tion of Poems and &iicrrt Stories from Magazines; Lawson History of the America's Cup; Frenzied Finance; Friday the Thirteenth, etc. Layard (la'-ard). Sir Austen Henry, English archajological diplomat, was bom in Paris, 1817. He passed his boyhood in Italy. Traveling along the Tigris on his way to Ceylon in 1840, he was struck with the ruins of Nimrud, the supposed site of Nineveh; and in 1845-47 carried on excavations there, finding the remains of four Ealaces. The walls of the northwest palace, uilt by Sardanapalus, were lined with large slabs covered with basreliefs and cuneiform inscriptions. Many of these, together with gigantic winged human-headed bulls and lions, were sent by Layard to the British museum, London. He published Nineveh and its Remains. Monuments of Nineveh, etc. He was presented with the freedom of the city of London, was made D. C. L. by Oxford, and was lord rector of Aberdeen university, 1855-56. He was member of parliament for Aylesbury, 1852-57, for Southwark, 1860-69, foreign under-secretary, 1861-66, chief commissioner of works, 1868-69, and in 1869 went as British ambassador to Spain, from 1877 to 1880 to Constantinople, being made G. C. B. in 1878. Died, 1894. Lea (le), Henry Charles, American author and historian, was born in Philadelphia, 1825. He received a private education; LL. D., university of Pennsylvania, Harvard, and Princeton, and was made a member of many learned societies in Europe and the United States. He was in the publishing business, 1843-80; then retired, and devoted himself to literary and historical research. Author: Superstition and Force; An Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Christian Church; Studies in Church History; A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages; Chapters from the Religious History of Spain; Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in the Thirteenth Century; A History of Auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church; The Moriscos of Spain: Their Conversion and Expulsion; History of the Inquisition of Spain; and also many articles in periodicals. Died, 1909. Le Brun {U briiN'), Charles, French historical painter, was bom in Paris, 1619. He studied four years in Rome, and for nearly forty years, 1647-83, exercised a despotic influence over French art and artists, being usually considered the founder of the French school of painting. He was the first director of the Gobelins tapestry works, in 1662, and from 1668 to 1683 was employed by Louis XIV. in the decoration of the palace of Versailles; but, being superseded, he became ill and died, 1690. He wrote Treatise on the Passions and Phy.tiognomy. Le Brun, Marie Anne Elisabeth Vlg£e, French painter, was born in Paris, 1755, daughter of one Vig6e, a painter. In 1776 she marned J. B. P. Le Brun, picture dealer and grand-nephew of Charles Le Brun. Her great beauty and the charm of her painting speedily made her the fashion. Her portrait of Marie Antoinette, in 1779, led to a lasting friendship with the queen. She painted numerous portraits of the royal family, but leit Paris for Italy at the outbreak of the revolution, and after a tour of triumphal progress through Europe, arrived in London in 1802. There she painted portraits of the prince of Wales, Lord Byron, and others. In 1805 she returned to Paris. Died, 1842. 836 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Lecky (lik'-l), WUllam Edward Hartpole, British historian and philosopher, was born near Dublin, Ireland, 1838. He was graduated in 1859 at Trinity college, Dublin. In 1861 he published anonymously The Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland, four brilliant essays on Swift, Flood, Grattan, and O'Connell. His later works were Rationalism in Europe; History of European Morals; History of England in the I8th Century; and Democracy and Liberty, with a volume of poems in 1891. A decided unionist, he became minister plenipotentiary for Dublin university in 1895, a privy councilor in 1897, and a member of the order of merit in 1902. He was elected to parliament for Dublin university in 1895 and again in 1900. Died, 1903. Le Conte (le kdnt'), Joseph, American naturalist and physici.st, was born in Liberty county, Ga., 1823. "He was graduated at Franklin college, university of Georgia, in 1841, and the New York college of physicians and surgeons in 1845, and practiced his profession at Macon, Ga. In 1850 he went to Cambridge, Mass., where he studied under Agassiz. He subsequently held several professorships, and in 1869 became professor of geology and natural history in the university of California. He published several essays on education and the fine arts : The Mutual Relations of Religion and Science; Elements of Geology; Sight; A Compend of Geology; Evolution, etc. He died in the Yosemite valley, California, 1901. Lee, Fitzhugh, American soldier, nephew of Robert E. Lee, was born in Fairfax county, Va., 1835. He was graduated at West Point military academy, 1856, and became a lieutenant in the second United States cavalry. At the opening of the civil war he resigned and entered the confederate service, advancing to the rank of major-general. At the close of the war he was in command of the cavalry corps of the army of northern Virginia. In 1885 he was elected governor of Virginia, serving until 1890. He was appointed consul-general to Havana by President Cleveland, and was retained at that Eost by President McKinley. He administered is office with signal ability during the investiga- tion of the explosion of the battleship Maine, and throughout the trying times preceding the Spanish-American war. In that war he served as major-general of volunteers and after peace was declared he was made governor of the province of Havana. He was later appointed brigadier-general in the regular army, retiring in 1901. Died. 1905. Lee, Henry, distinguished American general, was born in Virginia, 1756. He was one of the most daring, vigilant, and successful cavalry officers on the side of the colonists. "Lee's legion" was probably the most effective and courageous body of troops raised in America. In the famous retreat of Greene before Lord Comwallis it formed the rear-guard, the post of honor, and covered itself with glory. At the battles of Guil- ford Court House and Eutaw Springs, at the sieges of Forts Watson and Motte, at Granby and Augusta, and at the storming of Fort Grierson, Lee particularly signalized himself. After the war he was sent to congress as a delegate from Virginia, advocated the adoption of a federal constitution, and in 1792 was chosen governor of Virginia. When Washington died, Lee was chosen by congress to write a eulogy of him ; in it occurs the famous words, "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.?' Died, 1818. "^ Lee, Bichard Henry, eminent American patriot, and signer of the declaration of independence was bom m Virginia, 1732, and received his education in England. He returned to hb native country in 1752, and at the age of twenty-five was chosen a delegate to the house of burgesses, where he soon distinguished himself by his powers in debate. In 1764 he was appointed to draft an address to the king, and a memorial to the house of lords, which are among the best state papers of the period. His efforts in resisting the various encroachments of the British government were indefatigable, and in 1774 he attended the first continental congress at Philadelphia, as a delegate from Virginia. The memorial of congress to the people of British America, and the second address ot congress to the people of Great Britain, were both from his pen. In June, 1776, he introtiuced the measure that declared the colonies free and independent states, and supported it by a speech of the most brilliant eloquence. He continued to hold a seat in congress until 1780, when be declined a reelection until 1784. In that year he was chosen president of congress, but retired at its close, and in 1786 was again chosen a member of the Vir- ginia assembly. He was a member of the con- vention which adopted the present constitution of the United States, and one of the first senators under it. In 1792 he again retired from public life, and died in 1794. Lee, Robert Edward, American general, was bom in Westmoreland county, Va., 1807. At eighteen he entered West Point, was graduated second in his class in 1829. and received a commission in the corps of engineers. In the Mexican war he was chief-engiiiM-r of the central army in Mexico, and at the storming of Chapultepec was severely wounded. In 1852-65 he was superintendent of the United States military academy, and greatly improved its efficiency. His next service was as cavalry officer on the Texan border, 1855-59. At the John Brown raid he was ordered to Harper's Ferry to capture the insur- gents. He was in command in Texas in 1860, But was recalled to Washington in March, 1861, when seven states had formed the southern con- federacy. Virginia seceded on April 17th, and Colonel Lee, believing that his alh'giance was due to his state, sent in his resignation. Within two days he was made commander-in-chief of the forces of Virginia. At Richmond he superin- tended the defenses of the city until the autumn, when he was sent to oppose General Rosecrans in West Virginia. Ift the spring of 1862 he was working at the coast defenses of Georgia and South Carolina, but on McClellan's advance was summoned to Richmond. Greneral J. E. Johnston, chief in command, was wounded at Seven Pines in May, and Lee was put in command of the army around Richmond. His masterly strategy in the seven days' battles around Richmond defeated McClellan's purpose; his battles and strategy in oppK>sing General Pop>e, his invasion of Maryland and Pennsylvania, and other achievements are cardinal to the history of the war. The increasing resources of the North and the decreasing resources of the South could only result in the final success of the former. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered his army to General Grant at Appo- mattox Court House, Virginia, and the war was practically ended. After the close of the war he frankly accepted the result, and, although deprived of his former property at Arlington on the Potomac, and the White House on the Pamunky, he declined proffered offers of pecu- niary aid, and accepted the presidency of what came to be called the Washington and Lee univer- sity, at Lexington, Va., at whose head he re- mained until his death in 1870. Numerous military critics regard Lee as the greatest mili- tary leader produced by the civil war, and one of the very first produced by the nineteenth century. ROBERT EDWARD LEE From a photograph THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 839 Le GalUenne (IS gdi'-i-in'), Richard, journalist, was born in Liverpool. Eneland, 1866. He was educated at Liverpool college, and engaged in business seven years, but abandoned it for litera- ture. For a few montlis he was private secretary to Wilson Barrett, then became literary critic for several papers, and settled in London. For some years his journalistic and literary work has been confined to the United States. Editor: Isaak Walton's The Com-pleat Angler; Hazlitt's Liher Amoris; Hallam s Remains. Author: My Ladies' Sonnets; Volumes in Folio; George Meredith; The Book-Bills of Narcissus; English Poems; The Religion of a Literary Man; Prose Fancies; Robert Louis Stevenson and Other Poems; Retrospective Reviews; Prose Fancies; The Quest of the Golden Girl; If I were God; Omar Khayrjam, a Paraphrase; The Romance of Zion Chapel; Young Lives; Worshiper of the Image; Travels in England; The Beautiful Lie of Rome; Rudyard Kipling, a Criticism; The Life Romantic; Sleeping Beauty; Mr. Sun and Mrs. Moon; Perseus and Andromeda; An Old Country House; Odes from the Divan of Hafiz; Painted Shadows; Little Dinners with the Sphinx, etc. Legar6 (Jie-gre'), Hugh Swlnton, American states- man, was born in Charleston, S. C, 1797. He studied law, traveled in Europe, and was a mem- ber of the South Carolina legislature, 1820-22 and 1824-30. In 1830 he was elected attorney- general. During the nullification excitement he ardently supported the cause of the Union in public speeches. He was charg6 d'affaires at Brvissels, 1832-36, and took his seat as a member of congress during the session of 1837. He took a prominent part in the debates, but his opposi- tion to the sub-treasury project led to his defeat at the next election. After the accession of President Tyler in 1841, Legar6 was appointed attorney-general of the United States, and in the spring of 1843 he succeeded Webster as secretary of state. He was distinguished as a scholar, and contributed largely to periodicals. Died, 1843. Leibnitz {Up'-nUs), Gottfried Wilhelm von. See page 298. Leighton (la'-tun), Frederick, Lord, English painter, was bom at Scarborough, England, 1830. His early years were spent in the study of art, under the best masters in Rome, Florence, Frankfort, Paris, and Brussels. His famous picture, "Cimabue's Madonna carried in Procession through the Streets of Florence," was his first appearance in the royal academy in 1855, and was at once purchased by the queen. Among his other paintings are "Ariadne," "Hercules Wrestling with Death," "Captive Andromache," "The Harvest Moon," "Helen of Troy," "Romeo and Juliet," "Wedded," etc. He was also known as a sculptor. In 1878 he became president of the royal academy, was made a baronet in 1886, and raised to the peerage in 1896. In his life- time he received almost every honor possible to an artist. Died, 1896. Lemlenx, Bodolpbe, French statesman, postmaster- general, and mipister of labor of Canada since 1906, was bom at Montreal, 1866. He was educated at the seminary of Nicolet, and at Laval university, Montreal; barrister, 1891; professor of law at Laval university, 1897; Q. C, Quebec, 1898, and K. C, Ottawa, 1904. He was a mem- ber of parliament for Gasp6, 1896; reelected, 1900 and 1904; represented Canada before the privy council in England, 1904; appointed substitute to the attorney-general for the district of Montreal; solicitor-general of Canada, 1904— 06; fellow of the royal society, Canada, 1908. He is the author of several works on law and a number of addresses. Lenbach (iSn'-ba'K), Franz von, noted German portrait painter, was bom at Schrobenhausen, Bavaria, 1836. He studied at the Munich academy under Grafle, and Piloty, and in 1858 went to Rome. In 1860 he became professor of art at Weimar, but resigned in 1862 and went to Italy and Spain. On his return to Munich ho devoted himself exclusively to portraiture, but after 1872 spent much time in travel and work in Vienna, Morocco, and Egypt. His portraits of Bismarck are specially famous. Died, 1904. Leo I„ the Great, pope of Rome 440-461, was bom about 390. He succeeded Sixtus III. in 440; zealously opposed the Manicha^ans and Pelagians, and secured the condemnation of the Eutychian heresy at the general council of Chalcedon; extended the Roman see. and induced Attila to spare Rome. He publisned several volumes of letters and sermons. Died at Rome, 461. Leo X., Pope (Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici), son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was born in Florence, Italy, 1475. He was banished with his family in 1494; traveled in Germany and Flanders, and formed a friendship with Erasmus. On his return to Italy he became legate to Julius II.: was taken prisoner at Ravenna in 1512, escapea and became pope in 1513. In his efforts to extend the papal dominions he allied himself at one time with France, at another with the empire. In 1515 he signed the famous concordat with Francis I. His pontificate is one of the most brilliant periods m the history of art and literature, and is also memorable as the time when the reformation began. Died, 1521. Leo XIIL, Pope (Gioacchino Pecci), son of Count Ludovico Pecci, was bom in Carpineto, in the papal states, 1810. He was educated at the Collegio Romano and the academy of Noble Ecclesiastics; appointed by Gregory XVI. a domestic prelate in 1837, received the title of prothonotary apostolic, and was a vigorous apostolic delegate at Benevento, Perugia, and Spoleto. He was made archbishop of Damietta in partibus and sent to Belgium as nuncio in 1843, nominated archbishop of Perugia in 1846, and in 1853 created a cardinal by Pius IX. Upon the death of Pius IX. in 1878 he was elected to the papacy under title of Leo XIIL He restored the hierarchy in Scotland and com- posed the diflSculty with Germany. In 1888 he denounced the Irish plan of campaign. He manifested enlightened views, but on questions affecting the church and his own status held firmly to his rights. He regarded himself as the despoiled sovereign of Rome, and as a prisoner at the Vatican; and persistently declined to recognize the law of guarantees. He protested against heresy and "godless" schools, and in his encyclicals affirmed that the only solution to the socialistic problem is the influence of the papacy. In 1894 he constrained the French clergy and the monarchists to accept the republic. In 1883 he opened the archives of the Vatican for histori- cal investigations, and made himself known as a poet, chiefly in the Latin tongue. The jubilee of his episcopate in 1893 was marked by pilgrim- ages, addresses, and gifts, as was thiat of his priesthood in 1887. In 1896 he issued an ency- clical pronoimcing Anglican orders null and void. Died, 1903. To the time of his death he was one of the foremost figures of modern times, and a potent force in religion, education, and morals. Leonardo da Vlncl (id'-d-nar'-dd da ven'-che). S page 124. Leonidas I. Qe-Hn'-Kr^as), king of Sparta, succeeded his half brother, Cleomenes I., 491 B. C. When the Persian monarch, Xerxes, approached with an immense army, Leonidas oppoised him at the narrow pass of Thermopylae, 480 B. C, with a force of 300 Spartans and more than 6,000 aux- iliaries. The treachery of one Ephialtes having made it impossible to bar any longer the progress See 840 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT of the foe, Leonidaa and his little band threw themselves on the swarming myriads, and found a heroic death. Lepsius (ISp'se-dds), Karl Richard, noted German Egyptologist, was bom at Naumburg, 1810. His first work on palaeography as an instrument of philosophy, in 1834, obtained the Volney Erize of the French institute. In 1836 at Rome e studied Egyptology, Nubian, Etruscan, and Oscan, writing numerous treatises. In 1842—45 he was at the head of an antiquarian expedition sent to Egypt by the king of Prussia, and in 1846 was appointed professor in Berlin. His Denkmaler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien remains a masterpiece. His Chronologic der Aegypter laid the foundation for a scientific treatment of early Egyptian history. His other works consist of letters from Egypt, Ethiopia, ' and Sinai, 1852; A Standard Alphabet, in which he expounds a modified Roman alphabet for hitherto unwritten languages; the Kdnigabuch, and the Todlenbttch, or the Egyptian " Book of the Dead." He wrote on Chinese, Arabic, and Assyrian philology ; and was a member of the royal academy, director of the Egyptian section of the royal museum, and director of the royal library at Berlin. Died, 1884. Lesage (le sazh'), Alain Ren£, French novelist and dramatist, was bom in Sarzeau, in Brittany, 1668, and studied at the Jesuits' college at Vannes. After having held a situation under the farmers-general in his native province, he went to Paris in 1092, tried the bar for a short time, and then adopted the profession of an author. For some years he continued to be little known as a writer; but in 1707 he rose at once into popularity by his comedy of Crispin the Rival of his Master, and his romance of Le Diable Boiteux. The comedy of Turcaret, in 1709, added to his fame, which subseauently was rendered imperishable by his admirable Gu Bias. He was endowed with great literary fertility. Among his other novels are: The AaverUvurea of Guzman d'Alfarache; The Adventures of the Chevalier Beau^hesne; The History of Estivanille Gonzales; and The Bachelor of Salamanca. He composed twenty-four dramatic pieces, and had a share in the composition of seventy-six others. He died in Paris, 1747. Leslie, Mrs. Frank (Miriam Florence Folline), was born in New Orleans, La., 1851, of noble French Huguenot family, from whom, now that she has retired from the publishing business, she takes her title of the Baroness de Bazus. She married Frank Leslie, publisher, who died in 1880; suc- ceeded to his business, then badly involved; personally managed it and put it on a payine basis. Leased her business to a syndicate and made extended European tour. On her return, the syndicate having been unsuccessful, the busi- ness was put into a company, she being president and editor of the Popular Monthly, which increased 200,000 copies in four months under her management. She severed her connection with the publishing company, and now devotes her time to writing books and contributing to European magazines exclusively. Lesseps {W-s^ps')^ Ferdinand, Viscount de, French engmeer and diplomat, was bora at Versailles, 1805. He held various consular offices; in 1854 proposed to the viceroy of Egypt the cutting of the Suez canal, and completed the work in 1869. After its accomplishment he entertained other great projects, such as a central Asian railroad and the conversion of the Sahara into an inland sea, and entered practically upon the construc- tion of the canal across the isthmus of Panama, since taken over by the United States. The sentence of imprisonment pronounced upon him by the French government in 1893, as one of the officers of the French Panama canal company, was never enforced. Until extreme old age be manifested unabated vigor. Died, 1894. Lesslng (i^-iny), Gottbold Ephralnu See page 71. Leutze {loit^-sl\ Emanuel, Germ an- American painter, was bom at Gmiind in Wiirttemberp, 1816. He was brought up in America, studied m Europe, 1841-59, then settled in New York. Among his works are: "Washington crossing the Delaware"; "Washington at Monmouth": "Landing of the Norsemen": "Cromwell and his Daughter," etc Died at Wafihington, D. C, 1868. Lever (U^-vir\ Cbaries James, Irish novelist, was bom at Dublin, 1806. He was graduated at Trinity college in that city, 1827; studied medi- cine at Gottmgen, and then returned to Dublin. His most popular work. Charles O'MaUey, is a reflex of his own college life at Dublin, and many of the incidents in this novel are no doubt drawn from his own experience in the world. His other notable novels mclude: Harry Lorremusr; Con Cregan; Roland Caahel; Lord Kilgobbin; Tom Burke of Ours. He died at Trieste Italv, 1872. Lewea (/u'-b), George Heniy, English philosopher and critic, was bom in London, 1817. He was educated partly at Greenwich under Dr. Bumey. and partly in Jersey and Brittany; left school early to enter first a notary's office, and then the house of a Russian mercbiant. In 1838 he pro- ceeded to Germany, and remained there nearly two years, studying the life, language, and litera- ture of the country. On his return to London be became a miscellaneous writer, and contributor afterward to a dozen journals, reviews, and maga- zines. He was editor of the Leader, 1849-54, and of the Fortnightly, which he himself founded. 1865-66. He was married unhappily and hau children when his connection with George Eliot began in 1854 ; it ended only with his death at their house in Regent's Park, 1878. Lewes was one of the best of critics and biographers; as a popularizer of philoeopbjr he was inferior to none, as a popularizer of science he was inferior to few. His works, besides a tragedy and two novek, include : Biographical History of Philoso- phy; The Spanish Drama; Life of Robesvierre; Comte's Phuosoj^y of the Sciences; Life and Works of Goeihe; Seaside Studies; Physiology of Common Life; Studies in Animal Life; Aristotle; On Actors and the Art of Acting; Problems of Life and Mind. Lewis, Meriwether, American explorer, was bom near Charlottesville, Va., 1774. He was a volunteer at the time of the whisky insurrection of 1794, an ensign in the regular army in 1795, and a captain in 1800. Shortly afterward he became Jefferson's private secretary. In 1803— 06 he was engaged with Captain WiUiam Clarke in an expedition to the Pacific ocean, the results of which were important to geograpnical science; and in 1807 he was made governor of the territory of Louisiana. He was subject to periods of mental depression, in one of which ne is said to have taken his own life near Nash- ville, Tenn., 1809. His memoir by Jefferson was published, together with Biddle and Allen's Narrative of the Lewis and Clarke Expedition, in 1814. Lewis, William Draper, American educator and law writer, dean of the law department, univer- sity of Pennsylvania, since 1896, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1867. He was graduated at Haverford, 1888; university of Pennsylvania, LL. B., Ph. D., 1891. He was instmctor in le^ historical institutions, Wharton school, university of Pennsylvania, 1891 ; lecturer on economics, Haverford college, 1890-96. Author: Federal Power Over Commerce and Its Effect on State THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 841 Action; Our Sheep and the Tariff; RestraiTit of Infringement of Incorporeal RiglUs; and numerous articles on legal, economic, and historical topics for periodicals. Editor: Lewis's Greenleaf's Evidence, 3 vols. ; Wharton's Criminal Law; Lewis's Blackstone's Commentaries, 4 vols. ; Digest of Decisions of United States Supreme Court and Circuit Court of Appeals; Pepper and Lewis's Digest of Statutes of Pennsylvania, 3 vols. ; Digest of Decisions and Encyclopedia of Pennsylvania Laws, etc. L'Hdpltal (l6'-pe'-tdl'\ Michel de, French states- man, was bom about 1507. He was president of the court of accounts, 1554-60, ana afterward chancellor of France until 1568. He promoted the edict of Romorantin, which excluded the inquisition from France; the ordinance of Orleans, an administrative, judicial, and religious code; the edict of pacification, for the free exer- cise of Protestant worship ; and the ordinance of Moulins, to reform the administration of justice. As his wife and family had all become Protes- tants, a troop was sent to protect him at the time of the St. Bartholomew massacre. He died in 1573. Llddon (lld'-un), Henry Parry, English clergyman, was born at North Stoneham, Hampshire, 1829. He was graduated at Christ Church, Oxford, 1850; was ordained in 1852 as senior student of Christ Church; from 1854 to 1859 was vice- principal of Cuddesdon theological college, and in 1864 became a prebendary of Salisbury, in 1870 a canon of St. Paul's, and Ireland professor of exegesis at Oxford, until 1882. In 1866 he delivered his Bampton lectures on the Divinity of Our Lord. He strongly opposed the church discipline act of 1874, and as warmly supported Gladstone's crusade against the Bulgarian atrocities in 1876. In 1886 he declined the bishopric of Edinburgh, and in 1887 visited the holy land. Canon Liddon was a most able and eloquent exponent of liberal high church principles. He published several series of sermons and other works. He died suddenly at Weston-super-Mare, 1890. Lieber (Ze'-feer), Francis, German-American pub- licist, was born in Berlin, 1800. After suffering imprisonment for his political opinions, he came to America in 1827, and w^as made professor of history in South Carolina college, 1835-56, of political economy in Columbia college, 1857-60, and of political science in Columbia law school, 1860-72. He edited the Encydopcedia Americana, and wrote Political Ethics; Civil Liberty and Self- Government; Guerilla Parties, etc. Died, 1872. lilebig (le'-blK), Justus, Baron von, German chemist, was bom in Darmstadt, 1803. He studied at Bonn and Erlangen; then went to Paris, and attracted the attention of Humboldt by a paper on the fulminates. He was appointed professor at Giessen in 1824, where he established a labora- tory celebrated for researches in organic chemistry and the application of chemistry to agriculture, food, etc. Among his chief works are: Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agrictdture; Animal Chemistry, or Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and Pathology; Familiar Letters on Chemistry; Dictionary of Chemistry, etc. He died at Munich, 1873. lil Hung Chang (le' hddng'-chdng'), Chinese states- man, was born in 1823, and studied at Hanlin college. In 1853, in the Taiping rebellion, he joined the imperial army as secretary, was app)ointed a provincial judge, and in 1861 gov- ernor of Kiangsu, out of which, in conjunction with "Chinese" Gordon, he drove the rebels in 1863. In 1864 he was appointed governor- general of the Kiang provinces, and in 1872 of Chi-H, and senior grand secretary. He founded the Chinese navy and promoted a native mercan- tile marine. On the outbreak of the war with Japan in 1894, Li, in supreme command of the military and naval forces in Corea, was thwarted by the incompetence, dishonesty, and cowardice of inferior officers. The Chinese forces were swept out of Corea, and Li, whose policy was that of peace, was deprived of his honors and sum- moned to Peking. With this last command he refused to comply, and the disastrous course of events soon compelled the emperor to restore him to honor. Through his efforts the war was brought to a termmation in 1895, China ceding Formosa and paying a war indemnity of $175,- 000,000. Professedly friendly to foreigners, and well aware of the value of western culture and industry, he visited Russia, Germany, France, England, and America in 1896. Intriguing with Russia, he fell from power in 1898, but was later appointed by the government with full power to settle tne Boxer troubles with the European governments. He died in 1901. Lincoln, Abraham. See page 500. Lincoln, Robert Todd, American lawyer, was bom at Springfield, 111., 1843, eldest son of Abraham Lincoln. He was graduated at Harvard, 1864; entered Harvard law school, but left to enter the army, serving until end of war as captain on staff of General Grant. He then finished his law studies, was admitted to the Illinois bar, 1867, and practiced at Chicago. He was presi- dential elector, 1880; secretary of war, 1881-85, and United States minister to Great Britain, 1889-93. He was special counsel for and, after the death of George M. Pullman, became president of the Pullman company; resigned, 1911, and became chairman of board of directors. He is also vice-president of the Commonwealth Edison company ; director of Chicago telephone company. Continental and Commercial national bank, Pullman trust and savings bank, etc. Llnd, Jenny (Madame Otto Goldschmidt), the Swedish singer, was born in Stockholm, Sweden, 1820. At three years of age she could sing cor- rectly any piece she had once heard, and at nine was placed under Croelius, a famous teacher of music. Later she studied in Paris and in 1844 went to Dresden, and afterward to Frankfort, Cologne, Vienna, and London. She visited New York in 1850, under the auspices of P. T. Bamum, and was enthusiastically received, but dissolved the engagement prematurely in 1851, was married to M. Otto Goldschmidt, a skillful pianist and conductor, and retired from the stage. She re- appeared in 1855, in 1861, in 1863, and in 1880 for a limited period. She was professor of singing at the royal college of music, London, 1883-86. She died in Wynd's Point, Malvern, England, in 1887. Llndsey, Benjamin Barr, jurist, reformer, was bom in Jackson, Tenn., 1869. He was educated in the public schools, studied law and was admitted to the bar. Judge of the county court and juvenile court of Denver, Colo., since 1901. He is the originator of the juvenile court system, and has an international reputation as an authority on juvenile delinquency. In 1906 he was a candi- date for governor of Colorado. Author: The Beast and the Jungle. Llnevicb (ll-ii£v'-lch), Nlcolay Petrovlch, Russian general, was bom in the government of Tchemi- goff in 1838. He served in the Russo-Turkish war, and in 1900 succeeded to the command of the Siberian troops in Manchuria. In 1905 he com- manded the Russian left at the battle of Mukden, in the Russo-Japanese war, and succeeded General Kuropatkm in the same year, as com- mander-in-chief in the far East. Died, 1908. Llngard, John, noted English historian, was bom in Winchester, 1771. He studied for the Roman 842 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Catholic priesthood, and took orders when twenty-four years old. For some years he was vice-president of the Roman Catholic college at Crookhall, near Durham, but retired to Hornby in 1811. His greatest work is the History oj England in 10 vols. It has been translated into several languages, and ranks among the best histories. He also wrote Anfiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church, etc. After his History oJ England was published Lingard was offered a cardinal's hat, which he refused. He died at Hornby, near Lancaster, 1851. Linnaeus {ll-ne'-us), Carolus (Carl von Linn6). See page 367. Lipton, Sir Thomas Johnstone, British sportsman and merchant, was bom in - Glasgow, of Irish parentage, 1850. He started life as a retail merchant, acquired extensive tea, coffee, and • cocoa estates in Ceylon, and accumulated a large fortune. He is chairman of Lipton, ltd., and is also largely interested in business enter- prises in the United States and Canada. He is the owner of the yachts Erin and Shamrock, and challenged for the American cup 1899, 1901, 1903 and 1913. He founded the Alexandria trust for providing the poor with cheap whole- some meals; is a member of many cluDs; was knighted in 1898, and created a baronet in 1902. Lister, Joseph, Lord, English surgeon, was bom in Upton, England, 1827. He was graduated at London university in 1847, and in medicine, 1852. He was successively lecturer on surgery. Edin- burgh; regius professor of surgery, Glasgow; professor of clinical surgery, Edinburgh ; pro- fessor of clinical surgery. King's college hospital, London, and surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria. In addition to important observations on the coagulation of the blood, inflammation, etc., his great work was the introduction of the antiseptic system, which has revolutionized modem surgery. He was president of the British association in 1896; received many foreign honors, and was made a baronet in 1883 and a peer in 1897. Died, 1912. Liszt (list), Franz, noted Hungarian pianist and composer, was bom at Raiding, 1811. He made his first appearance at a concert in his ninth year; studied under Czemy and Salieri at Vienna, and from 1839 to 1847 traveled throughout Europe as a virtuoso. In 1849 he became con- ductor of the court theater at Weimar; in 1861 was made commander of the legion of honor, and in 1865 took orders and received the tonsure. In 1871 his native country granted him a pension of 600 pounds a year, and in 1875 he was named director of the Hungarian academy of music. One of his two daughters married Richard Wagner, his lifelong friend. Though Liszt's fame as a pianist overshadows his name as a com- poser, yet he was the creator of the symphonic poem, and his Hungarian Rhapsodies for the piano are unrivaled. He ^ed at Bayreuth, Bavaria, 1886. Little, Richard Henry, war correspondent, journal- ist, was born at Le Roy, 111., 1869. He graduated at the Illinois Wesleyan college of law ; practiced law at Bloomington, 111., one year and began newspaper work on the Bloomington Bulletin. He was reporter on the Chicago Tribune, 1895; war correspondent of Chicago Tribune during the Spanish-American war, in Cuba, and Philippine islands; was with Major Marsh's column in pursuit of Aguinaldo and with General Bates's expedition in Sulu; traveled in China afterward, writing to the Tribune; went to Manchuria for the Lhicago Daily News at the beginning of the Russo-Japanese war; in charge of dispatch boat i^awon when captured by Russians; joined Russian army as correspondent and was present at the battles of Ping Yang, Liao Yang, Sha ho, Grippenberg's advance on Mukden, etc. Was captured by the Japanese after the battle of Mukden and taken to Shidzuoka and interned in Russian officers' prison six weeks. On his return he lectured and wrote for periodicals on the war. He was special writer on the Chicago Record-Herald several years, and is now on Chicago Tribune, Llttlefleld, Charles Edgar, American lawver, ex-congressman, was bom in Lebanon, York county, Me., 1851. He received an academic education, was admitted to the bar, 1876, and rapidly acquired a high reputation for legal and forensic ability. He was a member of the Maine legislature, 1885-89, speaker, 1887-89; attorney- general of Maine. 1889-93; elected to 56th con- gress, 1899, to fill vacancy caused by the death of Nelson W. Dingley, and was reelected to the 57th, 58th, 59th, and 60th congresses from second Maine district. In 1908 be retired from conKress and took up the practice of law in New YorK city. Littleton, Martin W^ American la^t^yer, was bom in Roane county, Tenn., 1872. He was practi- cally self-educated and began practicing law in 1891. He was assistant prosecuting attorney, Dallas, Texas; later removed to Brooklyn; was assistant-district attorney of Kings county four years; president of BrookljTi borough, 1904-05: delegate from New York to democratic national convention, 1904, presenting name of Alton B. Parker for presidential noBunation on behalf of state of New York; has appeared in many famous legal trials. Elected to congress, 1910. Littleton, Sir Thomas, EngUsh jurist, was bom in Worcestershire, England, 1402. He was recorder of Coventrj' in 1450, king's sergeant in 1455, in 1466 judge of common pleas, and in 1475 a knight of the bath. His reputation rests on his treatise on Tenures, written in law French, and turned into EngUsh about 1500. It was the text that Coke commented on in his Coke upon Lit- tleton. Died, 1481. Littr« (U'-ir&'), MaxlmUien Paul £mlle, French philosopher and philologist, was born in Paris, 1801. He studied at the Lyc6e Louis-le-Grand, then graduated in medicine, and finally turned to philolo^. His translation of Hippocrates procured his election in 1839 to the academy of inscriptions. He fought on the barricades in 1830, was one of the principal editors of the National down to 1851, and became an enthusi- astic follower of Comte. His La Poisie Homer- ique et I'Ancienne Poisie Franfaise was an attempt to render the first book of the Iliad in the style of the Trouvferes. In 1854 he became editor of the Journal des Savants. His splendid Dictionnaire de la Langue Franfaise did not prevent the academy in 1863 from rejecting its author, whom Bishop Dupanloup denounced as holding impious doctrines. In 1871 Gambetta appointedhim professor of history and geography at the Ecole Polytechnique ; he was chosen representative of the Seine department in the national assembly; and in 1871 the academy at last admitted him. He was one of the first linguists and scientists of his century. Died, 1881. Livingston, Edward, American jurist and states- man, was bom at Clermont, N. Y., 1764. He was elected a member of congress in 1794, and became federal attorney and mayor of New York in 1801. He joined the New Orleans bar in 1804, and speedily acquired a commanding position. In the dispute with England in 1814-15 he became aide-de-camp and secretary to General Jackson. In 1821 he was appointed to draw up a code of civil procedure for Louisiana. It was the simplest known up to that time, and received THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 848 the wannest approval from Bentham and other jurists. He was thereafter United States senator for Louisiana, 1829-31: secretary of state, 1831-33; minister to France, 1833-35, and supported the demand of $5,000,000 made by the United States government for indemnity on account of French spoUations, and succeeded in securing its payment. Died at his own estate on the Hudson, 1836. Livingstone, David, African explorer and mis- sionary, was bom at Blantyre, in Lanarkshire, Scotland, 1813. He worked during childhood and youth in a cotton mill ; was sent to southern Africa by the London missionary society in 1840 ; resided for several years at various stations near the Limpopo, discovering Lake Ngami in 1849, and penetrating to the Makololo country in 1851 ; in 1853-54 crossed Africa from the Zambezi to the Congo, and in 1854—56 made his way from Loanda to Quilimane, following the course of the Zambezi, and discovering the Victoria falls. He returned to England in 1856, and published Missionary Travels, 1857; returned to Africa as consul at QuiUmane in 1858; explored the country north of the Zambezi, 1858-64, dis- covering Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa, and in 1865 published a narrative of the journey. He under- took his third expedition in 1866, and spent the remainder of his life endeavoring to ascertain whether the Nile flowed from the water-system west of Lake Tanganyika. In 1871 he was found bv Stanlev at Ujiji. He died in central Africa, 1873. LIvy, or Titus Livius, Roman historian, was born at Patavium (Padua), in the north of Italy, 59 B. C. He was the most eminent of the Roman historians, distinguished for the animation of his narrative and for the purity of his style, though not for the reliability of his historical statements. His history of Rome was written partly at Rome and partly at Naples, under the patronage of the emperor Augustus. It consisted originally of 142 books; but of these only thirty-five have come down to us and some of these in a very imperfect state. Of all but two, however, we possess fragments, with short epitomes from another hand. The history, or as it was called by its author, Tfie Annals of the Roman People, begins with the foundation of the city, and ends with the death of Drusus, the younger brother of the emperor Tiberius, 9 B. C. Died, 17 A. D. Lloyd-George, David, English statesman, chancel- lor of the exchequer since 1908, was born in Man- chester in 1863. He was educated at Llan- ystymdwy church school and privately. He became solicitor in 1884. Member of parliament since 1890. From 1905 to 1908 he was president of the board of trade. In 1906 his settlement of the railway dispute was generally applauded. He was the author of the old age pension law of 1908 and the insurance act of 1912 insuring working people against illness or disability; he strongly supported the minimum wage law of 1912 which settled by intervention of the government the great coal strike involving a million miners. Locke, George Herbert, Canadian educator, pro- fessor of education and dean of training school for teachers, Macdonald college, McGill univer- sity, Montreal, Canada, 1907-08, was bom in Ontario, Canada, 1870. He was educated at Victoria college, university of Toronto, and university of Chicago; was lecturer in Greek and ancient history, Victoria college, university of Toronto, 1893-94; fellow in education, university of Chicago, 1895-96; instructor in history and art of teaching. Harvard university and Rad- cliffe college, Cambridge, Mass., 1897-99; asso- ciate professor of education, university of Chicago, 1899-1905 ; dean of college of education. 1903-06; editor of The Scfiool Review, 1900-06; in editorial department of Ginn and Company, Boston, 1906-07: associate editor of The Quar- terly Journal of Pedagogy, 1907. He is the author of many contributions to educational periodicals, notably The School Review during the six years as editor. Locke, Jolm. See page 295. Lockbart, John Gibson, Scottish biographer, waa bom in Scotland, 1794. He was graduated at Oxford, studied law at Edinburgli, and waa admitted to the Scottish bar in 1816. He early, •however, adopted the profession of letters. He and John Wilson were long the chief supporters of Blackwood's Magazine. It was this connection which led to his acquaintance with Sir Walter Scott. In 1820 he married Sophia Scott, eldest daughter of Sir Walter. After the publication of other works, and from 1836-38. appeared his Life of Scott, a production of undouDted merit, which has given rise to much bitter contro- versy. In 1837 his wife died, having been pre- deceased by their eldest son Hugh. His second son died at a later period. In 1843 Lockhart was appointed auditor of the duchy of Cornwall. He died in 1854. Loclcwood, Belva Ann Bennett, American lawyer, was born in Royalton, N. Y., 1830, daughter of Lewis Johnson Bennett. She waa graduated at Genesee college, Lima, N. Y., 1857. She then studied law in Washington and graduated at the National university law school, 1873; was admitted to District of Columbia bar; secured passage of a bill admitting women to United States supreme court, 1879, and was herself admitted under it the same year. She has been engaged in many important law cases, several before the United States supreme court. She has also been prominent in temperance, peace, and woman suffrage movements; waa nominated, 1884 and 1888, ty equal rights party for president of the United States ; commissioned by state -department to represent United States at congress of charities ana corrections, Geneva. Switzerland, 1896; one of committee appointed by federation of women's clubs which secured law giving equal property rights for women and equal guardianship of their children in District of Columbia. She has been a prolific writer on peace and arbitration and on political and social subjects. Lockyer (Idk'-ySr), Sir Joseph Norman, English astronomer, director of Solar physics observatory, South Kensington, was bom at Rugby, 1836. He became a clerk in the war office, 1857; in 1869 was made a fellow of the royal society; in 1870 lecturer on astronomy at the normal school of science at South Kensington; in 1894 a C. B., and in 1897 a K. C. B. President of British Association for advancement of science, 1903-04. He headed eclipse expeditions to Sicily, India, Egj^pt, and the West Indies. He has written Elementary Lessons in Astronomy; Contributions to Solar Physics; The Spectroscope; Star-Gazing; The Chemistry of the Sun; The Dawn of Astrortr- omy, etc., and is editor of Nature. Lodge, Henry Calxtt, American author, statesman, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1850. He was gradu- ated from Harvard college, 1871; from Harvard law school in 1874, was admitted to the Suffolk bar in 1876, and received the degree of Ph. D. from Harvard university for his thesis on The Land Law of the Anglo-Saxons; LL. D., Williams, 1893, Clark university, Yale, 1902, Harvard, 1904. He was a member of the Massachusetts legislature, 1880 and 1881; placed Thomas B. Reed in nomi- nation for presidency, 1896 ; was member of Alas- kan boundary commission ; editor North American Review, 1873-76 ; university lecturer on American history, Harvard, 1876-79, and lecturer before 844 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Lowell institute, Boston, 1880. He was elected a member of congress, 6th Massachusetts district, 1887-93, and United States senator since 1893; present term expires 1917. Editor: Ballads and Lyrics; Complete Works of Alexander Hamilton, 9 vols. Author: Life and Letters of George Cabot; Short History of the English Colonies in America; Idfe of Daniel Webster; Studies in History; Life of Washington, 2 vols. ; History of Boston, in Historic Towns series; Historical arid. Political Essays; Speeches; Hero Tales from American History, with Theodore Roosevelt; Certain Accepted Heroes and Other Essays in Literature and Politics; Story of the Revolution, 2 vols. ; Story of the Spanish War; A Fighting Frigate and Other Essays; A Frontier Tovm and Other Essays, etc. Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph, British educator and Ehysicist, principal of the university of Birming- am since 1900, was born at PenkhuU, Stafford- shire, 1851. He was graduated at Universitv college, London; D. Sc, London, Oxfora, Victoria, and Liverpool; LL. D., St. Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen. Was professor of physics, University college, Liverpool, 1881- 1900; Rumford medallist of the royal society, 1898 ; Romanes lecturer at Oxford, 1903. Author : Elementary Mechanics; Modern Views of Elec- tricity; Pioneers of Science; Signalling Without Wires; Lightning Conductors and Lightning Guards; School Teaching and Sc?ux>l Reform; Easy Mathematics for Parents and Teachers; Life and Matter; Electrons; The Substance of Faith; Ministers and Stewards; Man and the Universe, etc. Loeb (lob), Jacques, German-American phjyBioIo- gist, head department of experimental biology, Rockefeller institute for meaical research, since 1910, was born in Germany, 1859. He studied medicine at Berlin, Munich, and Strassburg; M. D., Strassburg, 1884; was state examiner, Strassburg, 1885; assistant in physiology, uni- versity of Wiirzburg, 1886-88 ; same, university of Strassburg, 1888-90 ; biological station, Naples, 1889-91; associate in biology, Bryn Mawr, 1891- 92 ; assistant professor of physiology and experi- mental biology, 1892-95, associate professor, 1895-1900, professor, 1900-02, university of Chicago; professor of physiology, university of California, 1902-10. Author: The Heliotropism of Animals and Its Identity vnth the Helio- tropism of Plants; Physiological Morphology; Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Com- parative Psychology; Studies in General Physi- ology, etc. Logan, John Alexander, American soldier, was bom in Illinois, 1826. He served in the Mexican war was admitted to the bar in 1852, and was elected to congress as a democrat in 1858. He raised an Illinois regiment in the civil war, and retired at its close as major-general. He returned to con- gress as a republican in 1866, was United States senator from Illinois, 1871-77 and 1879-86. He was nominated for the vice-presidency in 1884, but was defeated with the rest of the Blaine ticket. Died, 1886. Lombroso (lom-bro'-zo), Cesare, famous Italian ahenist and criminologist, was bom at Verona, t}^' ^^^6. He was educated at the university of Turin, became professor of mental diseases at the university of Pavia, 1862, and finally pro- ^or of forensic medicine and psychiatry at lurm. Lombroso was the author of many books on his special subject, particularly the pathology of genius, and his investigations- of msanity and criminology led the way to great reforms m the treatment of these classes in i^urope and elsewhere. He was also a noted hnguist and a keen student of the occult. He visited England m 1908, and died in 1909 London, Bishop of. See Ingram, A. F. W. London, Jack, American author and socialistic lecturer, was bom in San Francisco, Cal., 1876. He was educated at Oakland high school and the university of California. He left college to go to the Klondike and never completed has course; went to sea before the mast, 1892; went to Japan and seal hunting in Bering sea, 1893: tramped throughout the United States ana Canada for sociological and economic study, 1894, and has traveled widely at various times. Author: The Son of the Wolf; The God of Hia Fathers; A Daxwhter of the Snows; The Children of the Frost; The Cruise of the Dazzler; The People of the Abyss; Kempton-Wace Letters; The CaU of the WUd; The Faith of Men; The Sea Wclf; The Game; Wax of the Classes; Tales of the Fish Patrol; White Fang; Before Adam; Love of Life; The Iron Heel; The Road; Martin Eden, etc. He is also a frequent contributor to magazines. Long, GeoFKe, English scholar, was bom at Poulton, Lancashire, England, 1800. He was graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, 1822, and in 1823 was made fellow over Macaulay's head. In 1824 he became professor of ancient languages at the university of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va., and in 1828 of Greek in London university. Sub- sequently he was professor of Latin at University coliege, London, 1842—40, reader in jurisprudence to the Middle Temple, 184(>-49, and classical lecturer at Brighton college, 1849-71. His great work was the editing of the Penny Cyclopcedia. He died at Portfield, Chichester, 1879. Long, John Davis, American lawyer and publicist, was bom at Buckfield, Me., 1838. He was graduated at Harvard, 1857; LL. D., Harvard, 1880; studied law in Harvard law school and private law offices, and was admitted to the bar, 1861. He practiced at Buckfield, Me., 1861-62, and since then at Boston, Mass. ; was a member of the Massachusetts legislature, 1875-78; speaker, 1876-78; lieutenant-governor of Mas- sachusetts, 1879; governor, 1880-82; member of congress, 2d Massachusetts district, 1883-89, declined renomination, 1888; was for several years on statehouse construction commission of Massachusetts, and secretary of the United States navy, 1897-lflk)2. Is now senior member of the law firm of Long and Hemenway, Boston, and president of the board of overseers of Har- vard college. Author: After-Dinner and Other Speeches; The Rejmblican Party — Its History, Principles and Policies; The New American Navy, 2 vols. ; and also a translation of Virgil's ^neid. Long, John Luther, lawyer, author, was bom in Pennsvlvania, 1861. He studied law. was ad- mitted to the Pennsylvania bar, traveled exten- sively, and about 1898 turned to dramatic writing. Author: Madam. Butterfly; Miss Cherry-Blossom of Tdkyd; The Fox-Woman; The Prince of Illusion; Naughty Nan; Heimweh, and Other Stories; Billy Boy; The Way of the Gods, etc. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, distinguished American poet, was bom in Portland, Me., 1807, at which period Maine formed part of the com- monwealth of Massachusetts. He was graduated in 1825 from Bowdoin college, when but eighteen years old, and began his poetical career while he was in college. When nineteen he was made professor of modem languages and literature in Bowdoin college, and passed the next three years in Europe, preparing himself for his professional duties. That time was spent in Germany, France, Spain, and Italy. He then held the chair to which he had been appointed from 1830 until 1835. During this period he wrote for the North American Review, and translated the Coplas de Manrique, a most perfect production. His suc- cess with the Coplas de Manrique placed him, at THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 846 the age of twenty-six, in the front rank of great living poets. Outre-Mer: A Pilgrimage beyond the Sea, came out two years later, and after its publication he was appointed to the professor- ship of modem languages and belles-letters in Harvard college, succeeding George Ticknor. He again visited Europe, where he remained a year, traveling in Germany, Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, Sweden, and Denmark. He began his official duties at Cambridge in 1836, and held the professorship until 1854, when he resigned. Meantime his career as an author went steadily on. Hyperion was published in 1839, and became immediately popular; in the same year appeared Voices of the Night. Ballads and Other Poems dates from 1841. The Spanish Student was pub- lished in 1843, and in 1845 he prepared Poets and Poetry of Europe, a critical compilation. Then came The Belfry of Bruges, and other Poems, in 1846, and Evangeline in 1847, which is commonly held to be his greatest production. His novel, Kavanagh, appeared in 1849, and The Seaside and tfie Fireside, in 1850. The Golden Legend has the date of 1851. Four years passed, and in 1855 he published l^he Song of Hiawatha, said to have had the largest sale of any of his poems. Three years later, in 1858, The Courtship of Miles Standish met with the applause it deserved. Tales of a Wayside Inn appeared in 1863, Flower- de-Luce in 1867, and New England Tragedies in 1868. The publication of his translation of Dante's Divine Comedy took place in 1867-70, and filled three superb and massive volumes. His Three Books of Song appeared in 1872, The Hanging of the Crane in 1874, and Morituri Salidamus in 1875. In 1869 he received the degree of D. C. L. from Oxford university, and in 1874 a large complimentary vote for the lord rec- torship of the university of Edinburgh. Died, 1882. Longford, Joseph Henry, British scholar, professor of Japanese, King's college, London, since 1903, was bom in 1849, in County Dublin, Ireland. He was graduated at Queen's college, Belfast, Ireland, entered the British consular service in Japan as student interpreter, 1869, and was subsequently called to the British bar. He served for thirty-three years, traveling during this period throughout the whole of the Japanese empire, from the Kurile islands in the extreme north to Formosa in the extreme south, and was successively consul and judge of consular courts at Tokyo, Hiogo, Hakodate, Tainan, Tamsui, and Nagasaki. He retired on a pension in 1902. Author: Penal Code of Japan; many contribu- tions to the transactions of the Asiatic society of Japan, and on Japanese subjects to the Quarterly and National reviews, the Nineteenth Century, and other journals. Longlnus (I6n-fl'-nus), Dionysius Casslus, one of the greatest of Greek critics and philosophers, flourished during the third century. After founding a celebrated school of rhetoric and Platonic philosophy at Athens, he resorted to the court of Zenobia, the famous queen of Palmyra, where he acted as her chief adviser during the war carried on 'against Aurelian. After the latter had triumphed, he put Longinus to death, 273 A. D. The only work of this eminent writer which has been preserved is the celebrated treatise On the Sublime. Longstreet, James, American general, was bom in South Carolina, 1821. He was graduated at West Point, 1842, and was on duty on the Mexican frontier until 1846; took part in the Mexican war, 1846-48, where he was wounded; attained the rank of captain and a major's brevet; served subsequently in Texas and as paymaster in the United States army, being promoted major on the staflf in 1858. He resigned his commission to take part with the South in the civil war, 1861; commanded the fourth brigade of Beauregard's first corps, near Centerville, and was present at the isattle of Bull Run, 1861. In 1862 he was made major-general, and after the battle of Fredericksburg, 1862, Longstreet was promoted to the command of a corns, with the rank of lieutenant-general. He took an active part in the battle of Gettysburg, July lst-3d, in the campaign of the Wilderness, May lst-6th, and was severely wounded, but recovered in time to take command of his corps during the siege of Petersburg. He surrendered with General Lee in April, 1865. After the war General Longstreet acted zealously for the restoration of harmony between the two sections. He made New Orleans his residence, and, having been amnestied by President Johnson, he was so cordial toward the administration that President Grant appointed him surveyor of the port of New Orleans. In 1875 he took up his residence in Georgia, and in 1880 was sent as minister to Turkey, where he remained until 1881. He was United States marshal for the northern district of Georgia, 1881-84; and United States railroad commissioner from 1898 until his death in 1904. Liongworth, Nicholas, congressman, capitalist, was born at Cincinnati, Ohio, 1869. He was graduated at Harvard, 1891, student Harvard law school, 1893, LL. B., Cincinnati law school, 1894, and was admitted to the bar in the same year. He was a member of the board of education, Cin- cinnati, 1898; Ohio house of representatives, 1899-1901, Ohio senate, 1901-03, and member of congress, 1st Ohio district, 1903-13. In 1906 he married Miss Alice Roosevelt, daughter of ex-President Roosevelt, at the White House, Washington. He inherited a large estate from his father. Judge Nicholas Longworth. Loomis, EUas, American mathematician and physicist, was born in Connecticut, 1811, and was graduated from Yale college in 1830. He was tutor there from 1833 to 1836; was pro- fessor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Western Reserve college, Ohio, 1837—44- professor in New York university, 1844-60; and in 1860 was appointed professor of natural philosophy and astronomy in Yale college. He published a series of text books embracing the whole range of mathematics, natural philosophy, astronomy and meteorology. These books attained an aggregate circulation of over half a million copies. His Treatise on Analytical Geometry and Calculus has been translated into the Chinese language, and his Treatise on Meteor- ology into Arabic. His scientific papers embrace the various departments of meteorology, the phenomena of auroral exhibitions and atmos- pheric electricity, territorial magnetism, astro- nomical observations, shooting-stars, solar-spots, etc. He was a member of the principal scientific societies of the United States and also of several scientific academies of Europe. Died, 1889. Lope de Vega (Id'-pd da vd'-gd), Felix. See Vega. Lorenz (lO'-rSnts), Adolf, Austrian surgeon, surgeon- in-chief of the orthopedic department in the imperial royal general hospital, Vienna, was born in Silesia, 1854. He was graduated at Vienna university, M. D., 1880; was docent of general surgery, 1885; professor of general surgery in Vienna university since 1889. He is especially famous for his bloodless methods in orthopedic surgery, and has taught the cure of hij)-deformi- ties and all forms of club foot in a rapid bloodless way, without bone resections. In the same way he taught the cure of congenital dislocation of the hip joints by reducing the dislocated head of the femur without opening the joint and without deepening the socket. In 1895 he published a treatise on Didocation of the Hip which has 846 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT received wide scientific approval. He visited the United States in 1902. Lorenzo de' Medici. See Medici. Lorimer (Idr'-i-mer), George Horace, American journalist and writer, editor-in-chief of the Saturday Evening Post since 1899, was bom in Louisville, Ky., 1868. He pursued a college course at Colby and Yale, and immediately entered upon a journalistic career. Author: Letters from a Self-Made Merchant to His Son; Old Gorgon Graham; The False Gods; Jack Spurlock — Prodigal, etc. Lorimer, Wiiiiam, United States senator from Illinois, contractor, was bom in Manchester, England, 1861. When five years old he carne with his parents to the United States, and in 1870 settfcd in Chicago. At ten he became a sign-painter's apprentice; later worked in pack- ing houses and for a street railroad company; entered real estate business, 1886, and later became a member of the firm of Murphy and Lorimer in building and brick manufacturing business. He is now a member of the firm of Lorimer and Gallagher, contractors. He was superintendent of water-main extensions and later superintendent of water department for the city of Chicago; defeated for clerk of superior court, 1892; member of congress, 1895-1901, 2d Illinois district, and 1903-09, 6th district; was elected to the United States senate, 1909. Expelled from the senate, 1912. Lossing {I5s'-ln^), Benson John, watchmaker; wood-carver, journalist, editor, and historian, was born in Dutchess county, N. Y., 1813. He edited some magazines and prepared several illustrated works, among which are an Ottdine History of the Fine Arts, Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, and Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution. The last is the result of journeys to every place of note in con- nection with the American war for independence. Its popularity caused the author afterward to prepare along similar lines the Pictorial Field- Book of the War of 1812. He also published a History of the United States, The Civil War in America, several biographies of distinguished Americans, and a Cyclopedia of United States History. Died, 1891. Lotze (lof-se), Budolf Hermann, German philoso- pher, was born in Bautzen, Saxony, 1817. He was educated at Leipzig, where he studied medicine and philosophy, and was appointed to a professorship there in 1842. From 1844 to 1881 he occupied the chair of philosophy at Gottingen, and in the latter year was transferred to the university of Berlin. He ranks among the first metaphysicians, and gave a strong impulse to the development of physiologic^ psychology. Among his works are: Meta- physics; Universal Pathology; Logic; Chi the Idea of Beauty; Medical Psychology; Micro- cosmus; Ideas for a History of Nature; Humanity, and System of Philosophy. Died in Berlin, 1881. Loubet (loo'-b&'), Emlle, French statesman, ex-presi- dent of France, was born at Marsanne, in the department of the Dr6me, 1838. He became a barrister, practicing at Mont^limar, and steadily rose step by step from the municipal council of Mont61imar to the presidency. He was mayor of Mont^limar, 1870; member of the house of deputies, 1876; senator of France, 1885; minister for public works, 1887; prime minister, 1892; and elected president of the senate, 1895. It was the Panama affair which caused the fall of his ministry, but he was in no way implicated. As president of the senate he was kept more or less outside of parties, though he was known to be a moderate with radical tendencies. On the sudden death of President Faure, in 1899, he was elected by a large majority to succeed him, and held office until 1906. His uprightness, patriot- ism, and simplicity of demeanor made him the most popular president France has ever had. He was visited at Paris by the king of Sweden, the queen-dowager and queen of Holland, the king of Belgium, the king of Greece, the czar and czarina, the king of Portugal, the king and queen of Italy, the king of Spain, and King Edward VII.; he himself paid visits to the czar at St. Petersburg, to King Edward V'll. at Windsor, and to the kings of Italy, Spain, and Portugal. Louis IX. (Fr., Isb'-e'), or Saint Louis, of France, was born in Poissy, 1215, and succeeded his father, Louis VIII., in 1226. When he attained his majority he became involved in a war with Henry III. of England, and defeated the English at Taillebourg, at Saintes, and at Blaye, 1242. During a dangerous illness he made a vow that if he recovered he would go in person as a crusader, and accordingly, having appointed his mother regent, he sailed in 1248 with 40.000 men to Cyprus whence, in the fol- lowing spring, he proceeded to Egypt, thinking by the conquest of that country to open the way to Palestine. He took Damietta, but was after- ward defeated and taken prisoner by the Moham- medans. A ransom of 100,000 marks of silver procured his release in 1250, with the relics of his army. He proceeded by sea to Acre, and remained in Palestine until the death of his motlker, in 1252, compelled his return to France. A coet and diplomat, was bom in Cambridge, Mass., 1819. He waa educated at Harvard university, spent several years abroad studying languages, and, in 1855, succeeded Longfellow as professor at Harvard. LL. D., Harvard, and Cambridge, England; D. C. L.^ Oxford. His Legend of Brittany appeared m 1844, and in 1S45 he published a prose work entitled Conversations on Some of the Old PoeU. From 1857 to 1862 he was editor of the Atlantic Monthly, from 1863 to 1872, of the North American Review; waa United States minister to Spain, 1877-80, and ambassador to Great Britain, 1880-85. In 1869 he published Under the Willows, and Other Poema, and The Cathedral, an epic; in 1870, a collection of essays; in 1871, My Study Windowa; in 1887. Democracy; in 1888, Political Eaaaya, Heartaeaae and Rue, etc. Among his poems the best known are The Vision of Sir Launfal, The First Snowfall, and the Commemoration Ode. Died, 1891. Lowell, Perclval, author, ai^tronomer, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1855. He was graduated at Harvard, 1876; LL. D., Amherst, 1907. He went to Japan in 1883, and lived there from time to time until 1893; was counsellor and foreign secretary to Korean special mission to the United States; established the Lowell observatorj-, 1894, and undertook an eclipse expedition to Tripoli, 1900. He received the Janssen medal of the French astronomical society, 1904, for researches on Mars, and has made discoveries on the planets, especially Mars; apix)inted non- resident professor of astronomy, Massachusetts institute of technologj', 1902. Author: Chosdn; The Soxd of the Far East; Noto; Occult Japan; Mars; Annala of the Lowell Observatory; The Solar System; Mars and its Canals, etc. Lowther (lou'-Tiilr), James 1^'llliani, British statesman, speaker of the house of commons since 1905, was born in 1855. He was graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, and called to the bar, 1879. In 1883 he was elected to parliament for Rutland; contested Mid-Cumberland, 1885; was under-secretary for foreign affairs. 1891 ; represented Great Britain at international con- ference at Venice, 1892; chairman of committee on ways and means and deputy speaker, 1895- 1905. Loyola (lo-yo'-la), Ignatius de. See page 237. Lubbock (lub'-uk). Sir John, Lord Avebury, English naturalist and politician, was bom in London, 1834. He was educated at Eton college, then entered his father's banking house, and in 1858 became a member of parhament, where he served at intervals until elevated to the peerage, in QUEEN LOUISE OF PRUSSIA From a painting by G. Richtcr THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 851 1900, as Lord Avebury. In parliament he accomplished several economic reforms, but was chiefly noted for his achievements in science. He is the author of Prehistoric Times; The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condi- tion of Man; Fifty Years of Science; Pleasures of Life, etc. Died, 1913. Lucretius {lU-kre'-shi-us), or Titus Lucretius Cams, Roman poet of the first rank, was born about 95 B. C. His principal work, De Rerum Natura, is a philosophical didactic poem in six books, which appeared 56 B. C. He was a follower of Epicurus, and his poem is, to a large extent, an exposition of the tenets, physical and moral, of that philosopher. Regarded merely as a literary composition, this work stands unrivaled among didactic poems, and, however objectionable its subject matter, takes a high position as a work of art. Died about 55 B. C. Lucullus (la-kiil'-us), Lucius Licinius, celebrated Roman general, was born about 110 B. C. He commanded the fleet in the first Mithridatic war, as consul in 74 B. C. defeated Mithridates, and introduced admirable reforms into Asia Minor. He twice defeated Tigranes of Armenia; but his legions became mutinous, and he was superseded by Pompey in 66 B. C. He attempted to check Pompey's power, and was one of the first triumvirate, but soon withdrew from poli- tics. He had acquired prodigious wealth; and spent the rest of his life surrounded by artists, poets, and philosophers, exhibiting a luxury which became proverbial. He died about 57 B.C. Lulnl (Idd-e'-ni), or Luvlno, Bernardino, painter of the Lombard school, was born at Luino, about 1475. His skill was developed in the school of Leonardo da Vinci; indeed, many of his works were at one time attributed to that great artist. Luini's principal charm is a certain poetic grace and beauty ; he is one of the five great painters whose "supremacy" Ruskin affirmed. Died about 1533. Lummis (lUm'-ls)^ Charles Fletcher, American author, explorer, was born at Lynn, Mass., 1859. He was educated at Harvard, class of 1881 ; Litt. D., Santa Clara college. Edited newspaper in Ohio, 1882-84; in 1884 walked from Cincin- nati to Los Angeles, Cal., by roundabout route, purely for pleasure, 3,507 miles in 143 days. He was city editor Los Angeles Daily Times, 1885— 87 ; lived five years in Indian pueblo of Isleta, New Mexico, learning Indian languages and cus- toms ; traveled all over the Southwest on horse- back; also in Mexico and South America; has explored entire continent from Canada to Chile. Editor: Out West Magazine; hbrarian Los Angeles public library, 1905-10. Author: A New Mexico David; A Tramp Across the Con- tinent; Some Strange Corners of our Country; The Land of Poco Tiempo; The Spanish Pioneers; The King of the Broncos; The Enchanted Burro; The Awakening of a Nati-on: Mexico To-Day; and many articles, historical and critical, reviews in The Nation, etc. Lurton, Horace Harmon, American jurist, was bom at Newport, Ky., 1844. He was graduated at Cumberland university, Tennessee, 1867; D. C. L., university of the South, 1899. He was admitted to the bar, 1867; was chancellor of 6th division, Tennessee, 1875-78 ; justice supreme court of Tennessee, 1886-93; chief-justice, January to April, 1893, and judge of the United States circuit court, 6th judicial circuit, 1893- 1910, and became associate justice of the United States supreme court in 1910. He was for a number of years professor of constitutional law and dean of the law department, Vanderbilt universitv. Luther {l6i>' -thtr)^ Martin. See page 230. Luxembourg {lilk'-sfivs'-ba^'), Francois Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, Duke of, marshal of France, was born in Paris, 1628. He was trained by his aunt, mother of the great Cond6, and adhered to Cond6 through the wars of the Fronde. After 1659 he was pardoned by Louis XIV., who created him Duke of Luxembourg in 1661. In 1667 he served under Cond6 in Franche-Comt^ ; in 1672 he himself successfully invaded the Netherlands, and, driven back in 1673, con- ducted a masterly retreat. During the war he stormed Valenciennes and twice defeated the prince of Orange. Made a marshal in 1675, soon after the peace of 1678 he quarreled with Louvois, and was not employed for twelve years. In 1690 he commanded in Flanders, and defeated the allies 'at Fleurus, and in 1691 twice more routed his old opponent, now William III., at Steenkerke and Neerwinden. Died, 1695. Lyall Ql'-al), Edna, pen-name of Ada Ellen Bayly, English novelist, daughter of a London barrister and bencher of Gray's Inn. She was bom at Brighton, Sussex, and at an early age took to writing as a profession. Her first story, Won by Waiting, was published in 1879, and was followed by Donovan; We Two; In the Golden Days; Knight Errant; and A Hardy Norseman. In 1899 she published Derrick Vaughan, Novelist; this was followed by Max Hereford's Dream; To Right the Wrong; Doreen, the Story of a Singer; How the Children raised the Wind; Wayfaring Men; Hope, The Hermit; In Spite of All; The Hinderers, etc. Her books have attained a wide-spread popularity. Died, 1903. Lycurgus {Iv-kHr-gus), lawgiver of Sparta, flour- ished in the ninth century B. C. He was uncle of the young king Charilaus, and governed wisely during his nephew's infancy, then traveled in Crete, Ionia, and Egypt. On his return, findins Sparta in anarchy, he redivided property, and remodeled the constitution, military and civil. Lycurgus was afterward honored as a god at Sparta. His laws remained in force for about seven hundred years. Lyell, Sir Charles, British geologist, was bom in Scotland, 1797. He was graduated at Oxford, and studied law, but left his practice and gave himself to the study of geologv, to which he had been attracted by William fiuckland's lectures when he was at Oxford. He made geological tours in 1824, and again in 1828-30, over various parts of Europe, and published the results of his investigations in the Transactions of the Geologi- cal Society and elsewhere. The first volume of his great work. The Principles of Geology, ap- peared in 1830, the secona in 1832, and the third in 1833. He also published A First and Second Visit to North America, Canada, Nova Scotia, etc., ivith Geological Observations, in 4 vols.; besides a number of irnportant geological papers in the Proceedings and Transactions of the GeMogi- cal Society, the Reports of the British Association, etc. In i863 appeared The Antiquity of Alan, in which he gave his assent to the Darwinian theory. Died, 1875. Lyon, Mary, American educator, founder of Mount Holyoke college, was bom at Buckland, Mass., 1797. By great effort and perseverance she gained a good education, and for several years taught in the public schools of the state. In 1837 she founded the famous seminary, now Mount Holyoke college, at South Hadley, Mass., upon the plan of uniting domestic service with intellectual culture. Her success as president of this institution caused many similar institu- tions to be established throughout the country, and the name of Mar>' Lyon has become a house- hold word among all friends of the education and elevation of women. She died at South Hadley, Mass., 1849. 852 MASTERS OF ACHIEVI^ENT Lysander {llsHn'-dir), Spartan soldier, son of Aristoclitus. In 407 B. C. he became coininander of the Spartan fleet in the ^gean, and defeated the Athenian fleet off No''um. His term of service having expired, he was succeeded in 406 by Callicratidas, who was killed at the battle of the Arginusae. As the Lacedaemonian law did not allow the office to be held twice by the same person, he was now named vice admiral, nomi- nally subordinate to Aracus. He captured, at iEgospotami in the Hellespont, the entire navy of Athensj except eight or nine galleys, which escaped with Conon to Cyprus, and in 404 ended the Peloponnesian war by the capture of Athens. In 395 he was placed in command of a military force to cooperate with the army of Pausanias, entered Boeotia, and laid siege to Haliartus, but was surprised by the Thebans under the walls of that city, and slain, 395 B. C. Lysias {IW-l-as), Greek orator, was bom about 450 B. C, son of a rich Syracusan, who settled in Athens about 440. He was educated at Thurii in Italy. The thirty tyrants in 404 stripped* him and his brother Polemarchus of their wealth, and killed the latter. The first use to which Lysias put his eloquence was, on the fall of the Thirty in 403, to prosecute Eratosthenes, the tyrant chiefly to blame for his brother's murder. He then practiced with success as a writer of speeches for litigants. His thirty-four surviving speeches show Lysias delightfully lucid in thought and expression, and strong in character drawing. Died, 380 H. C. Lysbnachus {li-slm'-d-kus), Greek general, king of Thrace, was born about 360 B. C. On the division of the provinces, after the death of Alexander in 323 B. C, Thrace and the region bordering on the Danube were allotted to him. In 315 he joined the coalition formed agaiii.st Antigonus by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Cassander. In 306 he assumed the title of king. In 302 he invaded Asia Minor, and in 301 he and his allies vanquish^ Antigonus in the battle of Ipaus and shared his dominions. Lysimachus so improved and enlarged New ilium and the Mysian Alexan- dria that he came to be regarded as their founder In 292 he undertook an expedition against the Gctse, and was compelled by famine to surrender with his whole army, but was soon set at liberty. In 288 he formed a confederacy with Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Pyrrhus against Demetrius Polior- cetes, and acquired Macedonia. Having con- sented to the death of his son Agathocles at the instigation of his new wife Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy, his Asian subjects rebelled, and with the aid of Seleucus defeated and slew Lysimachus at Corns in Phrygia, 281 B. C. Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer, Lord, eminent English novelist, was bom in London, of an ancient family, 1803. In 1826 he was graduated at Cambridge, and published in 1827 his first novel, Falkland. In the year following Pelham appeared — a work which placed him at once in the first rank of contemporary writers of fiction. Thenceforward his hterary career was one of meteoric brilliancy ; novel after novel, drama after drama, flowed from his pen almost without intermission. For a quarter of a century he reigned the great master of English fiction -^ the successor to Scott, the predecessor of Dickens. In 1866 he was created a peer of the realm. Among his principal novels are: The Disovmed; Devereux; Paul Clifford; Eugene Aram; The PUgnma of the Rhine; The Last Days of Pompeii; .fften«, the Last of the Roman Tribunes; Ernest Maltravera, and its sequel, Alice, or the Myster- tes; Night and Morning; Zanoni; The Last of the Barons; Lucretia, or the Children of the Night; Harold the Last of the Saxon Kings; The Cox- tons; My Novel; A Strar^e Story; What WiU He Do With Itf The Coming Race; Kenelm Chillingly, etc. He is also author of the plays, The Lady of Lyons, Richelieu, and Monei/, and of the poema. The New Timon, and King Arthur. Died, 1873. Lytton, Edward Robert, Earl ol, "Owen Meredith," Ct, diplomat, and statesman, was bom at idon, 1831. He was educated at Harrow and at Bonn. In 1849 he came to Washington as an attach<^ and private secretary to his uncle Sir Henry Bulwer, and subsequently was sent in a diplomatic capacity to Florence, 1852, to The Hague, 1856, to St. Petersburg and Constanti- nople, 1858, Vienna, 1859, Belgrade, 1860, Copenhagen, 1863, AthenB, 1864, Lisbon, 1865, Madrid, 1868, Vienna again, 18('>9, and Paris, 1873. In the last named year he suc- ceedeid his father aa second Lord Lytton, and in 1876 became viceroy of India. In 1880, on the fall of the Beaconsfield government, he resigned, and, returning to England, was made earl of Lytton. In 1887 he was appointed English ambassador to France. His uterary workit, of wliich perhaps the most popular is Lucile, have been published under his pseudonym. He also wrote Clytemneatra; The Wanderer; The Ring of Amasia; and Fablea in Song. He died at Paris, 1891. Maartens (mOr'-tftu), Slaarten, pen name of J. M. W. van der Poorten-Schwartz, Dutch author, waa bom at Amsterdam, 1858. He attended school in Germany, and studied law at Utrecht univer- sity. He IS the author of a series of powerful novels, including The Sin of Jooat Avelingh; A Question of TatU; God' » Fool; The Or eater' Glory; My Lady Nobody; Her Memory; Some Women I Have Known; My Poor Relationa; Dorothea; T^Jailbird, a one-act play : The Healers; The W^puin'f Victory; The New Religion, etc. Slable, Hamlltow Wright, American journalist and writer, aosociate editor of The Outlook, was bom at Cold Spring, N. Y., 1846. He was graduated at Williams college and Columbia law school; L. H. D., Williams; LL. D., Union college and Western Reserv'e university. Author: Norae Stories Retold from the Eddas; Nature in New England; My Study Fire; Short Studies in Literature; Under the Treee and Elsewhere; Essays in Literary Interpretation; Nature and Culture; Books and Culture; Work and Culture; The Life of the Spirit; William Shakespeare — Poet, Dramatist, and Man; Works and Days; Parables of lAfe; Backgrounds of Literature; Myths Every Child Should Know; Fairy Tales Every Child Should Know; The Great Word; Heroes Every Child Shotdd Know; Legends Every Child Shmdd Kruno, etc. MablUon (wid'-W-y<)N'), Jean, French scholar and historian, was blom at St. Pierremont in Cham- pagne, 1632. In 1653 he entered the Benedictine order, io 1663 became keeper of the monuments at St. Denis, and from 1664 worked in the abbey of St. Germain-des-Pr^ at Paris. He edited St. Bernard's works, and wrote a history of his order; also De Re DiplomaticA; Vetera Analecta; Muscntfn Italicum, etc. Died, 1707. Hacaulay (nui-kd'-ll), Thomas Babington, Lord, British historian and statesman, waa bom at Rothlev Temple, Leicestershire, 1800. He en- tered Trinity college, Cambridge, at the age of eighteen, where he acquired a brilliant reputation both as a scholar and debater. The periodical to which he first contributed was Knights Quarterly Magazine; for this he wrote several of his ballads; e. g., The Spanish Armada, Moncon- tour, and T?ie Battle of Ivry, besides essays and critiques. In 1825 he contributed to the Edin- burgh Review his famous essay on Milton, the learning, eloquence, penetration, brilliancy of fancy, and generous enthusiasm of which quite THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 853 I fascinated the educated portion of the public. He was elected to parliament in 1830, where he made a brilliant reputation; and in 1834 went to India as legal adviser of the supreme council. Here he remained until 1838. His chief labor was the preparation of a new Indian penal code. In 1839 he was appointed war secretary. While holding this office he composed the Lays of Ancient Rome, which appeared in 1842. In the following year he published a collected series of his Essays, in three volumes. In 1846 he was made paymaster-general. In 1848 appeared the first two volumes of his History of England from the Accession of James II. The following year , he was chosen lord rector of the university of Glasgow. The third and fourth volumes of his History were published in 1855. He died in 1859, and was buried in Westminster abbey. McAdoo {tn&k-d-d^Jd'), William Gibbs, lawyer, rail- way official, was born near Marietta, Ga., 1863, and was educated at the university of Tennessee. He was deputy clerk of United States circuit court of Tennessee, 1882; studied law, and was admitted to the bar, 1885; practiced at Chatta- nooga. He removed to New York to practice UJ 1892. In 1902 he was elected president of -the Hudson and Manhattan railroad, which o^n- pleted in 1909 the fourth tunnel under the Hudson river. Appointed secretary of the treasury, 1913. MacArthuT, Arthur, American soldier, was born in Springfield, Mass., 1845. He was educated in the public schools of Milwaukee and by private tutors. He entered the union army in 1862 as first lieutenant, served throughout the civil war, and entered the United States army, 1866. He was brevetted lieutenant-colonel of volunteers, 1865, for battles of Perryville, Ky., Stone river. Missionary Ridge, and Dandridge, Tenn., and colonel for battle of Franklin, Tenn., and Atlanta campaign- awarded medal of honor, 1890, for seizing colors of regiment at critical moment and planting them on captured works on the crest of Missionary Ridge, 1863. Participated in battles of Perryville, Stone river, Dandridge, Missionary Ridge, Resaca, Adairsville, New Hope church, Kenesaw mountain, Peach Tree creek, Jonesboro, Lovejoy's station, Atlanta, and Franklin, and was twice wounded. He conunanded the third expedition to Manila, and took part in the battle of Manila, August. 1898. He was subsequently commander of the division of the Philippines and military governor, 1900-01, and was created lieutenant-general of the United St^es army, 1906. Retired, 1909. Died, 1912. MacArthur, Robert Stuart, American clergyman, was born at Dalesville, Quebec, Canada, 1841. He was graduated at the university of Rochester, 1867; Rochester theological seminary, 1870; LL. D., Columbian (now George Washington), 1896. He was for years correspondent of the Chicago Standard; long editorially connected with Christian Inquirer, and Baptist Review, and is also a well-known lecturer on foreign travel. He has been pastor of Calvary Baptist church, New York, since 1870. Author: Calvary Pulpit; Divine Balustrades; The Attractive Christ and pther Ser- mons; Quick Truths in Quaint Texts; Current Questions for Thinking Men; On Bible Difficulties; Lectures on the Land and the Book; Celestial Lamp; Old Book and Old Faith; Sunday Niqht Lectures; Around the World; Palestine; Old Testament Difficidtie^; The Preeminence of Christ, and Other Sermons; Advent, Christmas, Easter, and Other Sermons, etc. McBumey, Charles, American sui^eon, was bom in Roxbury, Mass., 1845. He was graduated at Harvard, 1866, and from the college of physicians and surgeons. New York, 1870. He has been in practice as surgeon in New York since 1870; professor of clinical surgery, college of physi- cians and surgeons, 1892-1907; was oonault- ing surgeon to President McKinley after he was shot by an assassin in 1901. McCall, Samuel Walker, American congressman, lawyer, was bom in East Providence, Pa., 1851. He was graduated at Dartmouth college, 1874, and was admitted to the bar, 1876. He was a member of the Massachusetts house of representa- tives, 1888, 1889, and 1892; member of congress, eighth Massachusetts district, 1893-1913. Author : Life of Thaddeus Stevens, etc. McCarthy, Justin, British novelist and historian, was born at Cork, Ireland, 1830. He was edu- cated privately at Cork, and engaged in journal- ism there, 1848-52; in Liverpool, 1852-60; and London, 1880. He was editor of the Morning Star, 1864-68; editorial writer for Daily News from 1870; member of parliament for Longford county, 1879; Derry city, 1886-92 ; North Long- ford, 1892-1900; was chairman of Irish parlia- mentary party, 1890-96. Author of many novels, including : Miss Misanthrope; Dear Lady Disdain; Donna Quixote; Maid of Athens; Red Diamonds; Mononia, etc.; histories: A History of Our Own Times ; A History oj the Four Georges and William IV.; Epoch of Reform; Life of Sir Robert Peel; Life of Pope Leo XIII.; The Story of Mr. Gladstone's Life; Modem England; Reminiscences; The Reign of Queen Anne; Por- traits of the Sixties; The Story of an Irishman; and other works. Died, 1912. McClellan, George Brinton, American general, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1826. He was grad- uated at West Point, 1846 ; distinguished himself in the Mexican war, and drew up a report on the organization of European armies after a visit to the Crimea. In 1861 he was commissioned major-general of the United States army, and appointed in command of the department of the Ohio. He subsequently commanded the army of the Potomac, but after indecisive engagements, was superseded by General Bumside, 1862. In 1864, as a democrat, he was the unsuccessful opponent of Lincoln for the presidency. In 1877 he was elected governor of New Jersey. Died, 1885. McClellan, George Brinton, lawyer, public official, was bom at Dresden, Saxony, 1865, during the residence of his parents. General George Bnntoa and Ellen M. McClellan, in that city. He was graduated at Princeton, 1886, LL. D., 1905; LL. D., Fordham university, 1905, Union college, 1906. He worked as reporter and in editorial positions on New York dailies; was treasurer of New York and Brooklyn bridge, 1889-92; admitted to the bar, 1892 ; president of board of aldermen. New York, 1893 and 1894 ; member of congress, 1895-1903, and mayor of New York, 1903-10. Stafford Little lecturer pubhc affairs, 1908-10, university lecturer public affairs since 1911, Princeton university. McCloskey, John, American prelate, first cardinal of the Roman Catholic church in America, was bom at Brooklvn, N. Y., 1810. After pursuing a collegiate and theological course at Mount St Mary's college, Emmitsburg, Maryland, he was ordained a priest at St. Patrick's cathearal. New York, 1834. He was the first president of St. John's college (now Fordham universitv). Ford- ham, N. Y., 1841-42; was consecrated bishop of Albany in 1847 ; archbishop of New York in 1864, and in 1875 was created cardinal. He built the cathedral at Albany, the theological seminary at Troy, was an effective preacher, and otherwise noted as an able executive and administratot. He died at New York. 1885. McCormlck, Robert Sanderson, American diplomat, was bom in Rockbridge county, Va., 1849. He was educated at the university of Virginia; weis secretary of legation in London, 1889-92; 854 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT official representative of World's C!oIumbian exposition in London, 1892-93; envoy extraor- dinary and minister plenipotentiary, 1901-02, and first ambassador, 1902, to Austria-Hungary ; United States ambassador to Russia, 1902-05, to France, 1905-07. McCosb, James, Scottish-American educator and philosopher, was born in 1811, in Ayrshire, Scot- land. He was educated at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh; was ordained at Arbroath a minister of the church of Scotland in 1835, biit joined in the free-church movement in 1843. He was appointed to the chair of logic and metaphvsics in Queen's college, Belfast, 1851, and remained there until 1868, when he was elected president of the college of New Jersey, at Princeton. He was president at Princeton until 1888, and wrote many imr>ortant philo- sophical works, among them: The Method of Divine Government, Physical and Moral; Typical Forma and Special Ends in Creation; Intuitions of the Mind Inductively Investigated; An Exami- nation of Mill's Philosophy; Laws of Discursive Thought; Logic; Christianity and Positivism; The Scottish Philosophy; besides papers on ed- ucation and the relation of science to religion. In 1888 he resigned his office as president, to give his attention more closely to philosophical writing, and published First and Fundamental Truths, and Religious Aspects of Evolution. Died at Princeton, N. J., 1894. MacCracken, Henry Mitchell, American educator, chancellor of New York university, 1891-1910, emeritus chancellor since 1910; was born at Oxford, Ohio, 1840. He was graduated at Miami university, 1857; D. D., Wittenberg^ 1878, LL. D., Miami, 1887; studied at United Presbyterian theological seminary, Xenia, Ohio, Princeton theological seminary, Tubingen and Berlin uni- versities; teacher of classics and school superin- tendent, 1857-61 ; pastor of Westminster church, Columbus, Ohio, 1863-67, First Presbvterian church, Toledo, Ohio, 1868-81; chancellor of Western university, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1881-84; professor of philosophy. New York university, since 1884, vice-chancellor, 1885-91 ; delegate to general assembly. Free church of Scotland, 1867, and to Irish Presbyterian general assembly, 1884. Author: Tercentenary of Presbyterianisrn; Kant and Lotze; A Metropolitan University; The Scotch^ Irish in America; John Calvin; The Three Essen- tials; The Hall of Fame; Leaders of the Church Universal, 3 vols., etc. McCrea, James, American railway president, was born in Philadelphia, 1848. He entered the railway service in 1865. as rodman and assistant engineer of Connellsville and Southern Pennsyl- vania railroad until 1867; rodman on construc- tion, Wilmington and Reading railroad, 1867-68; assistant engineer, AUeghenv Valley railroad, 1868-71; with Pennsylvania' railroad, 1871-82, consecutively as assistant engineer and division superintendent; manager, general manager, and fourth vice-president, Pennsylvania lines west of Pittsburgh, 1882-90; second vice-president, 1890-91, first vice-president, 1891-1907, and president of Pennsj'lvania railroad company, 1907-13. He was also president of numerous other railway companies. Died, 1913. McCumber, Porter James, lawyer. United States senator from North Dakota, was born in Illinois, 1858. He removed to Rochester, Minn., the same year; was brought up on a farm and edu- cated in the district schools, afterward in the city schools; taught school for a few vears, and took a law course in the universitv of'Michigan, graduating in 1880. He removed" to Wahpeton, North Dakota, 1881, where he has since practiced his profession. He was a member of the terri- torial legislature, 1885-89; was elected to the United States senate, 1899, and reelected in 1905 and 1911. HcCutcheon, George Barr, journalist, author, was born on a farm in Tippecanoe county, Indiana, 1866. He was educated at Purdue university, and was city editor of the Lafayette Courier, 1893. Author: Graustark; Beverly of Graustark; Brewster's Millions; Nedra; Castle Craney- erow; Jane Cable; The Husbands of Edith; Man from Brodney's; Purple Parasol; Cowardice Court; The Flyers; The Daughter of Anderson Crow; Truxton King; The Butterfly Man; The Rose in the Ring; Mary MuUhorne, etc., and numerous short stories in various magazines. Macdonald, George, Scottish poet and novelist, was bom at Iluntly. 1824; was educated at Alwrdeen and the Independent college at High- bury, and became pastor at Arundel and at Manchester, but ill-health drove him to literature. His first book was one of verse, and a long series of novels followed, including David Elginbrod; The Portent; Alec Forbes; Annals of a Quiet Neighbor flood; Guild Court; The Sealtoard Parish; Robert Falconer; Wilfred Cumhcrmede; Malcolm; 8i. George and St. Michael; The Marquis of Lossie; Sir Gibbie; What's Mine's Mine; Lilith; Salted urith Fire, etc. These novels reveal deep spiritual instincts of their author in reaction •gainst Calvinism. He also published the fol- lowing books for the young: Dealings with the Fairies; Ranald Bannerman's Boyhood; At the Back of the North Wind; The Princess and the Goblin; besides Unspoken Sermons; The Miradea of Our Lord; and Poetical Works. In 1872-73 he made a lecturing tour in the United States; in 1877 received a pension of 100 pounds. Died, 1905. Macdonald, 8lr Jubn Alexander, distinguished Canadian statenman, was bom in Glasgow, 1815. His parents settled in Canada during his child- hood, and he was educated at Kingston grammar school, studied law, and was admitted to the Canadian bar in 1836. He entered the Canadian parliament in 1844; became receiver-general of Canada, 1847; commissioner of crown lands, 1847-48; attorney-general, 1854-62 and 1864-67; prime minister, 1857; government leader in the assembly, 1864-67; and minister of militia affairs, 1862-65-67. He was chairman of the London colonial conference of 1866-67, and more than any other person was responsible for Cana- dian federation. After its establishment, he was head of the new Dominion government, as minister of justice and attornev-general, 1807-73, when he resigned from the cabinet. From 1878 until his death he was premier of the Dominion. He died at Eamscliffe Hall, near Ottawa, 1891. Macdonald, J. A^ Canadian journalist, managing editor of The Globe, Toronto, since 1902, was bom in Middlesex, county of Ontario, Canada, 1862. He was graduated at Knox college, Toronto, 1887 ; edited The Knox College Monthly during his college course and until 1891 ; was ordained to ministry of the Presbyterian church, and inducted pastor of Knox church, St. Thomas, Ontario, 1891 ; resigned pastoral charge, 1896, and removed to Toronto to become first editor of The Westminster, a religious monthly magazine; subsequently acquired the Canadian Presbyterian, The Presbyter, The Presbyterian Review, and The Western Presbyterian, which were consolidated under his editorship and issued as The Presbyte- rian, a weekly devoted to Presbyterian church interests. He was principal of the Presbyterian ladies' college, 1896-1901 ; he was appointed by Ontario government to serve for six years on first board of governors of the university of Toronto, 1906. Author: From Far Formosa, a volume on life-work of Dr. G. L. MacKay, and many fugitive articles on literary, social, political, and religious subjects. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 855 HcEnery, Samuel Douglas, United States senator, was born at Monroe, La., 1837. He was educated at Spring Mill college, near Mobile, Ala., the United States naval academy, and the university of Virginia. He served in the confederate army, studied law, and was admitted to the bar; was elected lieutenant-governor of Louisiana, 1879, and on the death of Governor Wiltz, 1881, suc- ceeded him in the executive office. He was then nominated for governor and elected in 1884; was associate justice of the Louisiana supreme court, 1888-97 ; was elected United States senator for the terms 1897-1915. Died, 1910. McGee, Anita Newcomb, American physician, was bom at Washington, D. C, 1864, daughter of Professor Simon Newcomb. She was educated in private schools, Washington, followed by special courses at Newnham college, Cambridge, England, university of Geneva, etc., and gradu- ated at Columbian university, M. D., 1892; took special post-graduate course in gynecology, Johns Hopkins hospital, and was in practice in Washington, 1892-96. In 1888 she married W. J. McGee, the anthropologist. She was appointed, in 1898, acting assistant surgeon of United States army, being the only woman to hold such a posi- tion, and was assigned to duty in the surgeon- general's office, in charge of the army nurse corps, which she organized. When United States congress approved this work by making the nurse corps of trained women a permanent part of the army, the pioneer stage was passed, and she resigned in 1900. In 1904, acting as president of the society of Spanish-American war nurses and as representative of Philadelphia red cross society, and by agreement with Japanese government, she took a party of trained nurses, formerly in the United States army, to serve in the Japanese army for six months gratuitously. Was appointed by minister of war as siipervisor of nurses, which placed her in the same rank with officers of the Japanese army, and inspected and reported on relative nursing conditions. She has lectured throughout the United States and written for various magazines. HcGiffert, Arthur Cushmaa, American theological writer and critic, professor of church history. Union theological seminary. New York, since 1893, was born at Sauquoit, N. Y., 1861. He was graduated at Western Reserve college, 1882 ; Union theological seminary, 1885; university of Marburg, Germany, Ph. D., 1888; studied in Germany, 1885—87, and in France and Italy, 1887-88. He was instructor in church history. Lane theological seminary, Cincinnati, 1888-90; professor in the same, 1890-93. Author: Dio- togric Between a Christian and a Jew; translation of Eusebius' Church History; A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; The Apostles' Creed; and joint author of The Christian Point of View, etc. McGrath, Harold, journalist, author, was bom in Syracuse, N. Y., 1871, and has been engaged in journalism since 1890. Author: Arms and the Woman; The Man on the Box; Hearts and Masks; Half a Rogue; The Best Man; The Dure of the Mask; The Puppet Crown; The Grey Cloak; The Princess Elopes; Enchantment; The Watteau Shepherdess, an operetta; The Goose Girl; and numerous magazine stories. HachlavelU {maf -kya-vU' -le), Niccolo dl Bernardo del, Italian statesman and author, was bom in Florence, Italy, 1469, son of a jurist of good family. He was secretary of state at Florence from 1498 to 1512, went on several important missions, but was deprived of office and exiled in the latter year by the Medici. Subsequently released, he retired to a country estate near San Casciano, and devoted himself to literary pur- suits. His chief works were II Principe; Istorie Fiorentine; Arte deila Guerra; some comediee and poems; and Discorsi anile Deche di Tito Livio. In 1521 he again took part in affairs for a short time, but died in poverty, 1527. Mack, Norman Edward, American journalist and politician, editor and publisher of the Buffalo Times, was bom in Canada, 1858. He was educated in the public schools; went West and engaged in business pursuits; established the Sunday Times in Buffalo, 1879 ; the Daily Timet, 1883; and the National Monthly, 1909. He was a delegate to the democratic national conventions of 1892, 1896, 1900, 1904, and 1908 ; has been a member of the democratic national committee and member executive committee of the same, since 1900, and chairman since 1908. McKenna, Joseph, American lawyer and jurist, was born at Philadelphia, Pa., 1843. At the age of twelve he removed to California with his parents. He was educated at the Benicia collegiate insti- tute, at which he studied law, and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1865. He was soon after elected county attorney of Solano county, and in 1875 was sent- to the state legislature. Although twice defeated for congress, he ran again in 1884 and was elected, serving four con- secutive terms. During his career in congress he was an intimate friend of William McKinley and assisted in the framing of the McKinley tariff of 1890. He was appointed to the United States circuit bench of the Pacific slope in 1892; was attorney-general of the United States, 1897-98, and associate justice of the supreme court of the United States, since 1898. Mackenzie, Alexander, Canadian statesman, was bom near Dunkeld, Scotland, 1822. He moved to Canada in 1842, and engaged in business as a con- tractor and journalist until 1861. He was elected to the assembly of Canada, 1861-67, and was a member of the Dominion parliament representing the same constituency for twenty-five years. He was offered a seat in the Canadian cabinet in 1865, but declined it. Upon the resignation of Sir John Macdonald he became premier of the Dominion and minister of public works. Upon the election of a conservative majority to parlia- ment in 1878, he, with his cabinet, resigned. He possessed great ability as an administrator, was a gifted orator, and his influence throughout the Dominion was salutary. Died, 1892. McKenzle, Alexander, Congregational clergyman, was born at New Bedford, Mass., 1830. He was graduated at Harvard, 1859, Andover theological seminary, 1861 ; D. D., Amherst, 1879, S. T. D., Harvard, 1901 ; was pastor of South church, Augusta, Me., 1861-67, First church, Cambridge, Mass., 1867-1910, pastor emeritus since 1910. He is a trustee of Phillips academy, Andover, and Hampton institute, Virginia; lecturer at .Andover theological seminary, 1881-82 and 1894-97; emeritus president of trustees of Wellesley college. Author: Two Boys; Lectures on the History of the First Church in Cambridge; Cambridge Sermons; Some Things Abroad; Christ Himself; The Divine Force in the Life of the World; A Door Opened; Now; Getting One's Bearings, etc. McKim, Charles FoUen, American architect, was born in Chester county, Pa., 1847. He was edu- cated at Lawrence scientific school, Harvard, 1866-67; Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, 1867-70; hon. A. M., Harvard, 1890, Bowdoin, 1894. He began practice, 1872, joined in partnership by William R. Mead, 1877, and by late Stanford White in 1879 as McKim, Mead and White. Among the notable buildings erected by the firm are: Columbia university; state capitol, Rhode Island; Brookljrn institute of arts and sciences; Walker art gallery, Bowdoin college ; department of architecture, Harvard; music hall, public library, Boston; Newport casino; university, 856 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Harvard, Century clubs, New York, etc. He was a member of the congressional commission for the improvement of Washington park system ; member of New York art commission; member Accademia di San Lucca, Rome, 1899; American academy in Rome. He was awarded the royal gold medal by King Edward for promotion of architecture, 1903. Died, 1909. McKinley, William, American statesman, twenty- fifth president of the United States, was born m Niles, Ohio, 1843. He was educated in the pub- lic schools, at the Poland, Ohio, academy, and entered Allegheny college, though he never fin- ished the course. In 1861 he volunteered in the Union army, and entered the 23d Ohio infantry as a private. He served four years, rising b^ merit and faithfulness to the captaincy of his company, and to the rank of major when mus- tered out in 1865. He then at once began the study of law; in 1867 he was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice at Canton, Ohio, where he afterward had his residence. In 1869 he was elected prosecuting attorney for Stark county, where his success attracted local atten- tion. Entering politics, he was elected to con- gress in 1876, and was reelected for six successive terms. In 1882 his election was contested, and he was unseated, but triumphantly returned at the next election. His reputation in congress rests chiefly on the tariff bill that bears his name. It was drawn by him as chairman of the ways and means committee, and passed by the fifty- first congress. This bill and his able advocacy of it before the house distinguished him as the leader of the republican party, on the tariff ques- tion. The republican party went before the country in 1892 almost solely on the issue raised by the McKinley tariff, but a reaction against it had set in, and Cleveland was elected. Mean- while McKinley failed of reelection in his dis- trict, though largely reducing the adverse plural- ity created by a redistricting that changed the limits of the district. In 1891 he was elected governor of Ohio by a large plurality over former Governor James E. Campbell, a very popular democrat, and reelected in 1893 in the reactionary tidal wave of politics following a contrary tariff policy, that carried the republican party back to power in congress. By this time his name was frequently mentioned as a future candidate for the presiaency. In 1895 a systematic canvass in McKinley's behalf was instituted by his sup- porters, which was continued until the election of 1896. He was nominated and elected by an electoral majority of ninety-five, after a cam- paign of more intense interest than was displayed in any election since the civil war. President McKinley's first term is memorable chiefly for the occurrence of the Spanish-American war and its unexpected results. That his policy during 1896-1900 was acceptable was shown by his unanimous renomination and reelection in 1900 by an electoral majority of 137. His second term began most auspiciously and ended tragic- ally. On September 5, 1901, he visited the Pan- American exposition in Buffalo, N. Y., that day having been set apart in his honor and called the ''President's day." On the afternoon of the following day, while holding a public reception in the temple of music, he was shot twice by Leon F. Czolgosz, an anarchist, who was at once arrested. The wounded president was first taken to the emergency hospital on the exposition grounds, for immediate treatment, and then removed to the residence of John G. Milbum, president of the exposition. Hopes of his recov- ery were entertained for several days, but on September 13th he began to sink rapidlv and died at 2.15 A. M., September 14th. His remains were removed to Washington on September 16th, laid in state in the capitol on the 17th, and taken to his home city, Canton, Ohio, where they were interred on the 18th, amid universal mourning. Mackintosh, Sir James, Scotch philosopher and politician, was born in Inverness-shire, 1765. He first took his degree in medicine, but went to London and was admitted to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, 1795. He was recorder at Bombay, 1803; i'udge of admiralty, Bombay, 1806; returned to Cngland, 1811, and entered parliament, 1813. He wrote Virufinioe GaUicae in reply to Burke's philippic; defended Peltier, Bonaparte's enemy, in a magnificent style; contributed a masterly preliminary Dissertation on Ethics to the Ency- clopaedia Briiannica; wrote the History of the Revolution in England in 1688, etc. Died at London, 1832. Maclaren, Ian, pseudonym of John Watson, Scotch preacher and writer, waa born at Manningtree, Essex, 1850, of Scottish parents. He waa educated at Edinburgh university, and at Tubin- gen; ordained a minister of the Free church of Scotland, and had liis first important charge at Free St. Matthew's, Glasgow. He waa after- ward transferred to the Sefton Park Presbyterian church, Liverpool. In 1893 he acquired great distinction ana a wide fame by a series of Scottish prose idyjls, written for the British Weekly, and afterward published under the title of Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush. This work won deserved praiae for the fidelity with which he {>ortrayed numble and reverent Scottish life and scenes. The volume was followed by The Days of Auld Lang Syne; Kate Carnegie; A Doctor of the Old School; Rabbi Saunderson; Afterwards; and other stories. Hia religioua writings embrace The Upper Room; The Mind of the Master; The Potter's Wheel; and Companions of the Sor- rowful Way. In 1896, and again in 1907, he visited the United States on lecture tours, and delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures at Yale university on practical theology, published under the title. The Cure of SouU. Died, 1907. McLaughlin {niAk-l6kr-lln\ Andrew Cunningham, American historian ana educator, was born at Beardstown, 111., 1861. He was graduated at the university of Michigan, 1882, law depart- ment, 1885, A. M., 189o. He was instructor in Latin, 1886-87, instructor in history, 1887-88, assistant professor, 1888-91^ professor of Ameri- can history, 1891-1906, university of Michigan, and professor of history, university of Chicago, since 1906. He was director of the bureau of historical research, Carnegie institution, Wash- ington, 1903-05. Author: Lewis Cass, in Ameri- can Statesmen series; History of Higher Educa- tion in Michigan; Civil Government in Michigan; A History of the American Nation; The Confed- eration and the Constitution, etc. Editor: Cooley's Principles of Constitutional Law; The Study of History in Schools; has been associate editor since 1898, and managing editor, 1901-05, of the Atnerican Historical Review. SIcLaiuin (m&k-ld'-rin), Anselm Joseph, lawyer. United States senator, was born at Brandon, Mi.ss., 1848. He joined the confederate army and served as a private; after the war attended Summerville institute, and was admitted to the bar, 1868. He was elected district attorney 1871 ; representative in the legislature, 1879 presidential elector for the state at large, 1888 delegate to the constitutional convention, 1890 United States senator, 1894; governor of Mis- sissippi, 1895, and served four years; again elected to the United States senate, 1900, and reelected for the term 1907-13. Died, 1909. McLean, Emily Nelson Ritchie (Mrs. Donald McLean), president general of national society of Daughters of the American Revolution, 1905-09, was bom at Prospect hall, Frederick, Md., 1859, WILLIAM McKlNLEY From a photograph by CUnedinst THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 859 daushter of Judge John Ritchie. She was graduated at Fredericlc seminary, now Woman's college, 1873, and pursued post-graduate courses in language, history, and mathematics. She married Donald McLean, 1883. She is a charter member of the Daughters of the American Revolution; regent of New York city chapter ten years, and a scholarship bearing her name was established in 1898 in Barnard college by the New York chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution. She was commissioner from New York to Cotton States and Interna- tional exposition, 1895-96, to South Carolina exposition, 1901-02, to Jamestown exposition, 1907, and is well known by her public addresses throughout the country on patriotic and educa- tional themes. MacLean, George Edwin, American educator, was born at Rockville, Conn., 1850. He was gradu- ated at William^s college, 1871 ; Yale theological seminary, 1874; university of Leipzig, Ph. D., 1883; studied at university of Berlin; LL. D., Williams college, 1895. He was minister of the Memorial Presbyterian church, Troy, N. Y., 1877-81 ; professor of English language and literature, university of Minnesota, 1883-95 ; chancellor university of Nebraska, 1895—99; president of the university of Iowa, 1899-1911. Author : A Chart of English Literature; Old and Middle English Reader; A Decade of Develop- ment in American State Universities; and periooi- cal articles and reviews. MacMahon {mdk'-md'-Sui'), Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de, French general and statesman, was born at Sully near Autun, 1808. He was descended from an Irish Jacobite family. Enter- ing the army, he served in Algeria, distinguished himself at Constantine, 1837, commanded at the Malakoff, 1855, was again conspicuous in Algeria, 1857-58, and for his services in the Italian campaign of 1859 was made marshal and duke of Magenta. He became governor-general of Algeria in 1864. In the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-71, he commanded the first army corps, but was defeated at Worth, and captured at Sedan. After the war, as commander of the army of Versailles, he suppressed the commune. In 1873 he was elected president of France for seven years, and was suspected, perhaps not unjustly, of reactionary and monarchical leanings. He resigned in 1879, and died at Chateau la Foret, 1893. McMaster, Jolin Bach, American historian, pro- fessor of American history in the university of Pennsylvania since 1883, was bom in Brooklyn, N. Y., 1852. He was graduated at the college of the city of New York, 1872; Ph. D., Litt. D. LL. D. ; was a civil engineer, 1873-77, and instructor in civil engineering at Princeton, 1877-83. Author: A History of the People of the United States, 8 vols.; Benjamin Franklin as a Man of Letters; With the Fathers, Studies in American History; Origin, Meaning, and Appli- cation of the Monroe Doctrine; A School History of the United States; A Primary School History of the United 'States; Daniel Webster; Brief History of the United States; The Struggle for the Social, Political, and Industrial Rights of Man, etc. MacMonnies (mdk-miin'-lz), Frederick William, American sculptor, was bom in Brooklyn, N. Y., 1863. He studied under Augustus Saint Gaudens, at the academy of design, and art students' league ; he completed his art education at^^ Munich, in the atelier of Falguiere in Ecole des Beaux Arts, and in the private studio of Antonin Mercie. He received the first prize of the national academy of design, 1884; the prix d' atelier, highest prize open to foreigners, 1886, and established his own studio in Paris, 1887. He has received many prizes and decorations, and executed the following works: three life- size bronze angels, St. Paul's church, New York; Nathan Hale, City Hall park. New York; James Samuel Thomas Stranahan, Prospect park, Brooklvn; "Pan of Rohallion"; ''Faun with Heron ' ; Sir Henry Vane, Boston public library, 1893; colossal fountain. Worlds Columbian exposition, Chicago; "Bacchante with Infant Faun," Metropolitan museum of art. New York, and Luxembourg gallery, Paris; two pediments, Bowery bank, 5few York; four spandrels, Washineton arch. New York; "Venus and Adonis''; "Cupid"; figure of Victory for battle monument. West Point; central bronze doors and statue of Shakespeare, Congressional library ; army and navy groups for soldiers' and sailors' arch. Prospect park, Brooklyn; two groups of horses. Prospect park, Brooklyn; equestrian statue of General Slocum, Brooklyn; equestrian statuette of Theodore Roosevelt; eauestrian statue of General G. B. McClellan, Washington; two fountains, Knickerbocker hotel, New York, etc. Macready, William Charles, English actor, was born in London, 1793. He was educated at Rugby, made his first appearance at Birmingham in 1810, and was engaged at Covent Garden, London, in 1816. He played Richard III. in 1819, removed to Drury Lane in 1823, and after a tour of the United States, appeared as Macbeth in 1827. He subsequently visited Paris, and held the management of Covent Garden and Drury Lane. In 1849 he nearly lost his life in a riot promoted by the friends of Forrest at the Astor opera house. New York. He made his last appearance at Drury Lane in 1851. Died, 1873. MacVeagh, Franklin, merchant, secretary of the treasury, 1909-13; was bom in Chester county. Pa. He was graduated from Yale, 1862, Columbia law school. New York, 1864 ; abandoned the practice of law because of ill health and went to Chicago, where he engaged in the wholesale grocery business. He became president of the citizens' association in 1874, which inaugurated many important municipal reforms ; was nomi- nated by the democrats of Illinois, in 1894, for United States senator and made a canvass of the state, but was defeated in the legislature. He was president of the bureau of charities and municipal art league; member of the executive committee, national civic federation, and vice- president of the American civic association, 1905. MacVeagh, Wayne, American lawyer, was bom near Phoenixville, Chester county, Pa., 1833. He was graduated from Yale, 1853, and was admitted to the bar, 1856. He was district attorney for Chester county. Pa., 1859-64; captain of infantry, 1862. and of cavalry, 1863, when invasions of Pennsylvania were threatened ; chairman republican state committee of Penn- sylvania, 1863; United States minister to "Turkey, 1870-71; member of Pennsylvania con- stitutional convention, 1872-74; head of "Mac- Veagh commission" sent to Louisiana, 1877, by President Hayes to amicably adjust disputes of contending parties there ; United States attorney- general in cabinet of President Garfield, 1881, but resigned on accession of President Arthur, resuming law practice at Philadelphia. He sup- ported Cleveland for president, 1892; was ambassador to Italy, 1893-97, and chief counsel of the United States in the Venezuelan arbitra- tion before The Hague tribunal, 1903. Contribu- tor of several articles to North American review in advocacy of international peace and other subjects. Madison, James, fourth president of the United States, was bom in King George county, Va., 1751. He was graduated at Princeton, N. J., 860 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 1771, and studied law. In 1776 he was a mem- ber of the Virginia convention, and, though too modest for an orator, he became one of the most eminent, accomplished, and respected of Ameri- can statesmen. He was sent to the federal con- gress, 1780; in 1784, to the legislature of Vir- finia, in which he supported the measures of efferson in the revision of the laws, and placing all religious denominations on an equality of freedom without state support. As a member of the convention of 1787, which framed the federal constitution, Madison acted with Jay and Hamilton, and with them wrote the Federalist. He supported the adoption of the constitution, but opposed the financial policy of Hamilton, and became a leader of the republican or Jeffer- sonian party. He declined the mission to France, and the office of secretary of state, but in 1792 became the leader of the republican party in congress, and wrote the Kentucky resolutions of 1798, which contain the basis of the state- rights doctrines. In 1801, Jefferson having been elected president, Madison was made secretary of state, which post he held during the eight years of Jefferson's administration. In 1809 he became > president of the United States. The European wars of that period, with their block- ades and orders in council, were destructive of American commerce. The claim of the English government to impress seamen from American vessels was violently resisted. Madison vainly endeavored to avoid a war with England, which, nevertheless, was declared in 1812, and continued for two years, at a cost of 30,000 lives and $100,- 000,000. He was one of the nine presidents elected for a second term, during which he approved the establishment of a national bank as a financial necessity — a measure he had opposed and vetoed. In 1817 he retired to his seat at Montpelier, Va., where he serv^ed as a rector of the luiiversity of Virginia, and a pro- moter of agriculture and public improvements. Without being a brilliant man, he was a states- man of eminent ability and purity of character. Died at Montpelier, 1836. Maecenas {me-se'-nds), Galus CUnius« Roman statesman, was born about 70 B. C. He was the friend of Virgil and Horace, and was cele- brated for his patronage of letters. He had a talent for private diplomacy, and was employed mainly in that capacity. In 36 B. C. he was in Sicily, helping Octavian. Five years later, when the latter was fighting the great sea battle of Actium with his rival Antony and the Egvptian Cleopatra, Maecenas proved himself an able and vigilant governor of Rome by crushing a con- spiracy of the younger Lepidus, and thereby preventing a second civil war. Died, 8 B. C. Maeterlinck {md,' -Ur4lngk), Maurice, Belgian au- thor, was bom at Ghent, 1862. He was greatly influenced in his thought by Novalis and Emer- son, and his first writings were poetical. The following is a list of his chief works, some of which have been translated into English and have attracted considerable attention: La Princesse Maleine; Pellias et Mdisande; AUadine et Palomides; Aglavaine et SUysette; Douze Chansons; Le Trisor des Humbles; La Mart de TtntagUes; L'Intruse; and La Sagesse et la Deshnie. He is also the author of the dramas Anane et Barbebleue; Saeur Beatrice; Monna Vanna, and JoyzeUe. Received Nobel prize for hterature, 1911. MageUan, Ferdinand, Portuguese navigator, was bom about 1470. He served his country first in •?u t5? Indies and Morocco, but, dissatisfied y}^. ]^^ Manuel's treatment, he offered him- self to Spam. Under Charies V.'s patronage he and Ruy Falero set out to reach the Moluccas by the west m 1519, reached the Philippines, and died in battle in Mactan. On this voyage he dis- covered the Magellan strait, 375 miles long and fifteen miles wide, between the South American mainland and Tierra del Fuego. He also gave name to the Pacific ocean from the exceptional calm he experienced on entering it. Died. 1521. Magoon, Charles E„ lawyer, administrator, was bom in Minnesota, 1861. He studied at the university of Nebraska, was admitted to the bar in 1882, and engaged in general practice. He was Judge-advocate of the Nebraska national guard; law officer of the bureau of insular affairs, war department. Washington, 1899-1904; gen- eral counsel, isthmian canal commission, 1904- 05; governor of canal rone, 1905-06; American minister to Panama, 1905-06 ; provisional governor of Cuba, 1906-09. Author: The Law of Civil Government Under Military Occupation. Mahaffy, John Pentland, Irish euucator, writer, was born in Switzerland, 1839. He was edu- cated in Germany and at Trinity college, Dublin, where he was graduated in 1859; LL. D., St. Andrews; D. C. L., Oxford. He was made pro- fessor of ancient history at Dublin university, 1871, and was Donnellan lecturer, 1873-74. He is noted for a wide range of scholarship, has been a freauent contributor to periodicals, and haa publisaed books on many subjects. Among these are: Lectures on Primitive Civilization; Prolegomena to Ancient History; Greek Social Life from Homer to Menander; Rambles and Studies in Greece; History of Classical Greek Literature; Empire of the Ptolemies; The Silver Age of the Greek World, etc. Hahan {ma-hAn'), Alfred Thayer, American naval officer and writer, was bom at West Point, N. Y., 1840. He was graduated at the United States naval academy, 1869; served in the civil war; was president of the naval war college, Newport, 1886-89 and 1892-93; visited Europe in com- mand of the Chicago, 1893, receiving many honors, among them degrees from both Oxford and Cambridge. He was retired at his own request in 1896. During the war with Spain he was a member of the naval board of strategy; and in 1899 was appointed by President McKinley one of the American deWates to the universal peace conference at The Hague. Author: The Gulf and Inland Waters; Influence of Sea Power Upon History; Influence of Sea Power Upon French Revolution and Empire; Life of Admiral Farragut; Life of Nelson, 2 vols. ; The Interest of the United States in Sea Power; Lessons of Spanish War; The Problem of Asia; The South African War; Types of Naval Officers; Retrospect and Prospect; Sea Pouter in Its Relations to the War of 1812; From Sail to Steam; Some Neglected Aspects of War, etc. Mahomet {ma-hdm'-it). See Mohammed, page 218. Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner, celebrated English lawj'er and writer, was born in 1822. He waa educated at Cambridge university, where, in 1847, he became regius professor of civil law. In 1862 he went to India as law member of the council in India, an office held by Lord Macaulay. Before going to India, he had laeen reader at the Temple, London, and in 1870 he became Corpus professor of comparative iurisprudence at Oxford. In 1887 he was elected Whewell professor of international law at Cambridge. He introduced wise reforms into Indian law, but his work on the origin and growth of legal and social institutions is the work on which his fame mostly rests. His publications include : Ancient Law; Villaqe Com- munities; Early History of Institutions; Popular Government; International Law; and Disserta- tions on Early Law and Custom. He died at Cannes, France, 1888. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 861 Major. Charles, American lawyer, author, was bom in Indianapolis, Ind., 1856. lie was educated in the common schools at Shelbyville and Indian- apolis; studied law and engaged in practice at Shelbj'ville. Author: When Kniglithood was in Flower; Bears of Blue River; Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall; A Forest Hearth; YoLanda, Maui of Burgundy, etc. Died, 1913. Ualebrancho (wdZ'-ferflxs/t')* Nicolas, French phi- losopher, was born at Paris, 1G.38. He was deformed and sickly, and from his childhood fond of solitude. At the age of twenty-two he entered into the congregation of the Oratory, and devoted himself to the study of Bible history and of the fathers of the church. He subse- quently devoted much attention to Descartes's Traits de I'Homme, which led him to the study of philosophy, and called forth his famous work, De la Recherche de la Viriti. This work displays great depth and originality of thought combined with perspicuity and elegance of style. He wrote several other works of merit. Died at Paris, 1715. Malherbe (nuil'-erb'), Francois de, French poet, was born at Caen, 1555. He studied at Paris, Basel, and Heidelberg, and published his first volume of poems in 1587. In 1605 he became court poet, and is called the founder of classic poetry in France. He was a favorite with Louis XIII., and also with Richelieu. Died in Paris, 1628. Malibran (m&l'-l-br&n), Maria Fellclta, celebrated mezzo-soprano singer, was born at Paris, 1808, daughter of Manuel Garcia, Spanish singer and teacher of singing. She very early showed extra- ordinary talent, and made her d^but in Italian opera, 1825, in London. Shortly afterward her father attempted to establish Italian opera in New York, but without success. There she married M. MaUbran, a French banker. After her husband's failure in business she returned to the stage, and was received with great enthu- siasm in France, England, Germany, and Italy. She divorced M. Malibran, and in 1836 married M. Beriot, a famous violinist, but in September of that year she died at Manchester, England, in consequence of a fall while riding. She was one of the most popular and successful prima donnas of modem times. Slallet (m&l'St), John William, American chemist and educator, emeritus professor of chemistry, university of Virginia, 1908-12, was born in Dub- lin, Ireland, 1832. He was graduated at Trinity college, Dublin; studied at Gottingen, and came to the United States in 1853, but was always a British subject. He was chemist to the geologi- cal survey of Alabama ; professor of chemistry in the university of Alabama; officer on the staff of General Rodes in confederate army of northern Virginia; transferred to artillery corps, and placed in general charge of ordnance laborato- ries of confederate states; paroled as lieutenant- colonel of artillery, 1865 ; professor of chemistry, medical department of the university of Louisi- ana, New Orleans, 1865-68; at Virginia, 1868-83: at university of Texas, 1883-84; Jefferson medical college, 1884-85; and again at university of Virginia 1885-1908; is ex-president of the Amer- ican chemical society. He was a member of many scientific societies. He was joint author with his father of British Association Catalogue of Earth- quakes; sundry reports on water analysis, etc. Died, 1912. Malplghl {mal-pe'-ge), Marcello, Italian anatomist, was born near Bologna, Italy, 1628. He lectured in Bologna, Pisa, and other places, and wrote works on the anatomy of plants, the physiology of the silkworm, and medical subjects. His name was given to the Malpighian genus. He is well known for his discoveries in capillary circu- lation, and in connection with the anatomy of the kidneys. In 1691 ho became physician to Pope Innocent XII., but died in 1694. Malthus {mdl'-thus), Thomas Robert, English political economist, was bom near Guildford, England, 1766. He was graduated at Cam- bridge, 1788: v/as for some time fellow of Jesus college, Cambridge; published in 1798 his Essay on Population in whicn he maintained that popu- lation tends to increase out of proportion to the increase of means of subsistence. He afterward took orders, and held from 1805 the professor- ship of history and political economy in the East India company's college, Haileybury. Others of his works are The Nature and Progress of Rent and Political Economy. He died at St. Catha- rine's, near Bath, 1834. Mann, Horace, American statesman and educator, was born at Franklin, Mass., 1796. He wa« graduated at Brown university, 1819, studied law, and was admitted to the bar, 1823. He waa a member of the Massachusetts legislature. 1827-37; secretary of the Massachusetts board of education, 1837-48; member of congress, 1848-53; and from 1853 to 1859 president of Antioch college, Ohio. He wrote: Lectures on Education; Report of an Educational Tour of Germany, Great Britain, and Ireland; and was untiring in his efforts in the cause of educational extension and reform, in the suppression of slavery, and in the promotion of temperance. It was through his efforts that the first normal school in the United States was established. Died, 1859. Mannering, Mary, actress, was bom in London, England, 1876, daughter of Richard and Florence Friend. She was educated in private schools; studied for the stage under Herman Vezin; went on the stage at the age of fifteen; appeared in Hero and Leander at Shaftesbury theater, Lon- don ; toured English provinces two years, playing Shakespearean roles; then leading parts in Sowing the Wind; The Late Mr. Costello; Called Back, etc. She came to the United States under management of Daniel Frohman; made her American d6but at Parsons' theater, Hartford, Conn., 1896, in The Courtship of Leoni; New York d^but, Lyceum theater, four days later. She has since appeared in leading r61es in modem drama. In 1897 she married J. K. Hackett. Manning, Henry Edward, English prelate, was bom in Hertfordshire, England, 1808. He waa graduated at Oxford in 1830, studied theology, and was appointed rector of Lavington ana Graffham, Sussex, 1834. He became arch- deacon of Chichester, 1840; in 1851 resigned his preferments in the church of England, and joined the Roman Catholic church ; was ordained a priest in 1857 ; nominated archbishop of West- minster, 1865, and created cardinal, 1875. He founded the Roman Catholic university of Kensington, 1874, and took an active part in the Vatican council, defending the infaUibility dogma. His controversial writings are very voluminous, and include: Unity of the Church; The Temporal Mission of the Holy Ghost; Tem- poral Power of the Pope; England and Christen- dom, etc. Died, 1892. Mansel, Henry LonguevlUe, English philosopher and theologian, was born at Cosgrove, England, 1820. He was graduated at Oxford where he was successively Wajniflete professor of moral ?ihilosophy and professor of ecclesiastical history, n 1858 he delivered the Bampton lectures on The Limits of Religious Thought. He had pre- viously published Prolegomena Logica, and several works on metaphysics. His appointment to the deanery of St. Paul's, in 1868, was strongly opposed. Died, 1871. Mansfleld, Richard, American actor, was bom in Heligoland, Germany, 1857. He studied in 862 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT England for the East Indian civil service ; came to Boston and opened a studio, and later entered theatrical profession. He played small parts in comic opera ; made his first American appearance at the Standard theater, New York, as Dromez in Lea Manteaux Noirs. Was ven^ successful in a wide repertoire from Koko in Mikado to Richard III. Was head of his own company, and created such parts as Beau Brummel, Baron Chevrial, and the titular r61es in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Appeared as Cyrano de Bergerac in 1898, and played Shylock, Henry V., Beaucaire, and Brutus in Julius CoBsar. Married Beatrice Cameron, his leading woman. Author: Blown Atvay; Mon- sieur; Ten Thousand a Year, and Don Juan. Died, 1907. Mante^a (man-tdn'-ya), Andrea, Italian painter, was bom in or near Padua, 1431. He was the favorite pupil and adopted son of Squarcione, the tailor-painter. A precocious genius, he set up a studio of his own when only seventeen years old. Havine married a sister of the Bellinis and quarreled with Squarcione, he was in 1460 induced by Lodovico Uonzaga, duke of Mantua, to settle in his city. There he remained, with the exception of a visit to Rome, 1488-90, to paint a series of frescoes for Pope Innocent VIII., until his death in 1506. His greatest works at Mantua were nine tempera pictures representing the "Triumph of Ca;.sar," now at Hampton court, England. Mantegna was also engraver, architect, sculptor, and poet. He did not aim at grace and beauty in his pictures, but his technical excellences greatly influenced Italian art. Mantell (mdn'-tSl), Robert Bruce, actor, was bom in Irvine, Ayrshire, Scotland, 1854. He made his professional d6but at Rochdale, England, as the Sergeant in Arrah-na-Pogue, 1876; came to the United States and played juvenile r61es with Mme. Modjeska, 1878; returned to England, and for three years supported Miss Wallis as leading man. Later appeared in New York as Loris Ippanhoff in Fedora with Fanny Daven- Eort; afterward became a star, and has since een at the head of his own company in classic and romantic plays, including Hamlet; Othello; Richard III.; Macbeth; Romeo and Juliet; Richelieu; Lady of Lyons; Corsican Brothers; Monbars; Dagger and Cross, etc. Manzonl {man-dzo'-ne), Alessandro, Italian novelist and poet, was born at Milan, 1785. He published his first poems in 1806, married happily in 1808, and spent the next few years in writing sacred lyrics and a treatise on the religious oasis of morality. His first tragedy, II Conte di Carmag- nola, was a trumpet-blast of romanticism; but the work which gave him European fame is his historical novel, / Promessi Sposi, a Milanese story of the seventeenth century, and probably the greatest novel in all Italian literature. His noble ode, II Cinque Maggio, was inspired by the death of Napoleon. In spite of his Catholic devoutness, he was a strong advocate of a imited Italy. His last years were darkened by the frequent shadow of death in his household. He himself died at Milan, 1873, leaving the memory of a great writer and singularly noble man. March, Francis Andrew. American philologist, professor of English language and comparative philology, Lafayette college, 1856-1906, was bom at Millbury, Mass., 1825. He was graduated at Amherst, 1845; LL. D., Princeton, 1870; Am- heret, 1871; L. H. D., Columbia, 1887; D. C. L- Oxford, England, 1896; Litt. D., Cambridge England, and Princeton, 1896. He was admitted to the New York bar in 1850; was president of 100C "^^"''"^ philological association, 1873-74 tSni no' ^7*^® modern language association' a»yi-yi. was a member of many learned societies. Author: Method of Philological Study of the English Language; Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language; Anglo- Saxon Reader; many addresses and articles in encyclopsedias, periodicals, and the trans- actions of learned societies on philosophical and £hilological subjects, and on literature. Editor: alin Hymns, with English Notes; Eusebiua; TertuUian; Athenagoras; A Thesaurus-Dic- tionary of the English Language, with his son, F. A. March, Jr., etc. Died, 1911. Marconi {mar-k6'-ni), Guglielmo, electrical engineer and pioneer of wireless telegraphy, was bom in GrifTone, near Bologna, 1874. His father was an Italian, his mother an Irish woman. He was educated at Leghorn and Bologna universities: LL. D.. Glasgow, Aberdeen, and university of Pennsylvania: D. Sc, Oxford. He began in 1890, on his father's estate, experiments to test the theory that the electric current is capable of passing through any substance, and, if started in any given direction, of following an undeviating course without need for a wire or other conductor. He inventeointed professor of mental and moral philosophy at Manchester new college. He removed to London when that institution was transferred there in 1857, becom- ing also a pastor in Little Portland street chapel. He was principal of the college, 1868-85. As one of the profoundest thinkers and most effective writers of his day, he received degrees from Harvard, Levden, and Edinburgh. His works include: fhe Rationale of Religious Inquiry; Hymn* for tht Christian Church and Home; Endeavors after the Christian Life; Miscellanies; Studies of Christianity; Hymns of Praise and Prayer; Hours of Thought on Sacred Things; A Study of Spinoza; Types of Ethical Theory; A Study of Religion; The Seat of Author- ity in Religion; and Studies, Reviews, and Addresses. He died in 1900. Marx, Heinricli Karl, German socialist, was bom in Treves, 1818. son of a lawyer. He was educated at Bonn ana Berlin, took an active part in the liberal movement of 1840, and, after the suprea- sion of the Rhenish Gazette, ^ited by him, he went to Paris. Subsequently he was compelled to leave Paris and go to Brussels on the demand of the Prussian government. Having been expelled from Belgium, he was again invited to Paris, but soon went to Cologne, where he attempted to rcNave the Rhenish Gazette. He then settled in London, where he engaged in literary work, and took an active part in the international working men's association. After the secession of the anarchist section in 1872, he took but little part in affairs, and died at Hampstead ten years later, 1883. His chief work was Das Kapital. Mary, Queen of England, 1553-58, was bom at Greenwich, 1516. She was the daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragon, and suc- ceeded to the throne on the death of her half- brother, Edward VI., after the deposition of Lady Jane Grey. She began her reign by releasing Gardiner, Bonner, Tunstall, Day, and Heath, who had been confined during the pre- vious reign for their religious opinions, and by imprisoning in their stead Ridley, Latimer. Cranmer, and others. Soon after she beheaded Northumberland, Sir Thomas Palmer, and Sir John Gates, for advocating the cause of Lady Jane Grey ; and a few months later she beheaded that unfortunate lady, and her husband, Lord Guildford Dudley. In 1554 she was married to Philip II. of Spain; and in the following year, having already repealed all the laws enacted in favor of Protestantism, and reestablished Cathol- icism, she began, probably reluctantly, that series of persecutions of the Protestants which have earned for her the title of "the bloody Mary." During her short reign of four years, no fewer than 284 persons, of all ages and sexes, were put to death. In 1558 Calais, which had been in the possession of the English ever since the time of Edward III., a p>eriod of 210 j'ears, was taken by the duke of Guise. This loss to the English nation so distressed Mary, that she said the name of Calais would, after death, be found engraven on her heart. She died in 1558, and was suc- ceeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth. Mary, Queen of Scots, daughter of James V. and Mary of Lorraine, was bom at Linlithgow, Scotland, 1542. She became, by her father's death, queen before she was a week old. Her early childhood was spent on an island in the lake of Menteith; she was sent to France in 1548, brought up at court with the royal princes, and married to the dauphin in 1558, who for a year, 1559-60, was King Francis II. On his death she had to leave France, and returned to THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 871 assume the government in Scotland, now in the throes of the reformation. Refraining from interference with the Protestant movement, she retained her own Catholic faith, but chose Protestant advisers. Out of many proposed alliances she elected, against all aavice, to be married to her cousin. Lord Darnley, in 1565, and easily quelled the insurrection that broke out under Moray. Darnley, granted the title of king, tried to force her to settle the succession^ in the event of her dying childless, on him and his heirs, and deeming her favorite, Rizzio, to stand in the way, he plotted with the Protestant lords to have him murdered, and Mary was obliged to agree to his demands. The murder was com- mitted, and the queen was for a time prisoner in Holyrood. She succeeded in detaching Darnley from the conspirators and the scheme fell through. Her only son, afterward James VI., was bom three months later, in 1566. Darnley was murdered by Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, almost certainly with Mary s connivance, and her marriage with Bothwell in May alienated the nobles. They rose, took the queen prisoner at Carberry, carried her to Edinburgh, then to Loch Leven, where they forced her to abdicate in July. Next year, escaping, she fled to Eng- land, and was there for many years a prisoner. Catholic plots were formed to liberate her and put her m place of Elizabeth on the English throne, by virtue of the fact that she was next in order of succession, being great-granddaughter of Henry VII. At last she was accused of com- plicity in Babington's conspiracy, tried, found guilty, and executed in Fotheringay castle, 1587. She was faithful to her religion to the end, and was a woman of great beauty and charm, courage and ability, warm affection, and generous temper. Mason, George, American statesman, was bom at Doeg's Neck, Va., 1725. In 1775 the Virginia convention made him a member of the com- mittee of safety which was charged with the government of the colony. The next year he drew up a declaration of rights and a constitu- tion for the new state, which were both adopted without an opposing vote. He also, with the help of Jefferson, had a bill passed making all kinds of worship lawful in Virginia. In 1777 he declined an election to the continental congress. In 1787 he was one of the foremost men in the convention which drew up the constitution of the United States, and took firm ground against making slavery permanent in the country. He stood shoulder to shoulder with Patrick Henry in opposing the ratification of the United States constitution by Virginia, and sought to have about twenty changes made, some of which were afterward adopted by congress. He was chosen Virginia's first United States senator, but refused to serve. Died in Fairfax county, Va., 1792. Mason, James Murray, American jurist and states- man, was born in Fairfax county, Va., 1798. He was a grandson of George Mason, graduated from the university of Pennsylvania, and was admitted to the' Virginia bar when twenty-two years of age. He served many years in the Virginia house of delegates, and in the L^nited States congress, 1837-39. He was elected senator from Virginia in 1847, and retained that place until the breaking out of the civil war, when he withdrew from the senate and cast in his lot with the seceding states. He was captured with John SUdell on the steamer Trent, in 1861, when on his way to Europe to represent the confederacy abroad, and was held prisoner by the federal authorities until January 2, 1862, when, upon the demand of the English govern- ment, he was released. He died near Alexandria, Va., 1871. Maspero (mds'-pi-rd'), Gaston Camille Charles, French Egyptologist, was born at Paris, 1846, of Italian parents. In 1874 he became professor of Egyptology at the College de France, and from 1881 to 1886 keeper of the Bulak museum and director of explorations in Egypt. He made valuable discoveries at Sakkara, Dahshur, Akhmym, and elsewhere. In 1880 he became professor at the in.stitute of Paris: was made an non. fellow of Queen's college, and hon. D. C. L., Oxford, 1887. In 1899 he returned to Egypt aa director of excavations. Author: Egyptian ArchxBology; Life in Ancient Egypt and Aaa^ria; Davm of Civilization; The Struggle of the Nations; The Passing of the Empires, etc. Massasoit (nids'-d-soitf), chief of the Pokanoket or Wampanoag Indians, ruled over most of south Massachusetts from Cape Cod to Narragansett bay. His tribe, once some 30,000 in. number, shortly before the landing of the English haa lost all but about 300 by a disease, probably the yellow fever. In 1621, three months after Pljonouth had been founded, Massasoit and sixty warriors, armed and painted, came to the settlement and made a treaty of peace. This treaty was kept for fifty years, and Massasoit was always friendly to the settlers. His home was where now stands the town of Warren, R. I., and here he entertained Roger Williams for several weeks, when the latter was on his way to Providence after being banished from Massa- chusetts. Massasoit was honest, kept his word, and loved peace. He died in 1661. His son Pometacom, on his father's death, went to Plymouth and asked to be given an English name. He was named Philip, and became the leader of King Philip's war. Mass£na (md'-sd'-nd'), Andr^ prince of Essling. and duke of Rivoli, one of the most celebrated of Napoleon's marshals, was bom at Nice, 1758. He entered the army in 1775, and retired from it after having served for fourteen years. The revolution, however, again roused his military ardor. His rise was rapid, and he attained the rank of general of division, 1793. In the Italian campaigns from 1794 to 1798 he so distinguished himself on every occasion that he was caUed the darling child of victory, and in 1799 saved France from invasion by routing the Austrians and Russians in Switzerland. His memorable defense of Genoa in 1800 gave time to Bonaparte to cross the Alps, and crush the Austrian army at Marengo. In the campaigns of 1805, 1807, and 1809, in Italy, Poland, and Germany he was among the most conspicuously successful of the French leaders. His conduct in the last of these campaigns was rewarded with the title of prince of Essling. In 1810 he was appointed to com- mand the army which invaded Portugal, but was foiled by Wellington, and compelled to abandon the Portuguese territory. After this period Mass^na did not again appear in the field. He died in 1817. Massenet (md'-s'ni'), Jules £mlle Fr6d4rlc, French composer, was bom at Montaud, 1842. He was educated at Lyc6e, Saint-Louis, and Le Paris conservatoire, under Laurent, Reber, Savard, and Ambroise Thomas. He was professor of composition at the conservatoire, 1878-96. He wrote the following operas: La Grande Tante; Don C^sar de Bazan; Le Roi de Lahore; Hiro- diade; Manon; Le Cid; Esclarmonde; Le Mage; Werther; Thais; Le Portrait de Manon; La Navarraise; Sapho; CendriUon; GrisUidis; Le Jongleur de Notre Dame. Other works: Marie Madeleine; Eve; La Vierge; six orchestral suites, etc. Died, 1912. Masslllon {mi'-si^-yda'), Jean Baptlste, one of the most eloquent of French pulpit orators, waa bom at Hy^res, 1663. He entered at the age of 872 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT eighteen into the congregation of the Oratory, and became so celebrated as a preacher that he was summoned to court to display his powers. His success there was complete. Louis XIV. complimented him in the strongest terms, but neglected to promote him. It was left to the regent, duke of Orleans, to reward Massillon's merit, and in 1717 he gave him the bishopric of Clermont. Massillon held this see until his death in 1742. His many virtues rendered him universally beloved. His sermons and other theological works form fifteen volumes. Masslnger {mOs'-in-ier), Philip, English dramatist, was bom at Salisbury, England, 1583. He studied at Oxford, 1602 and in 1606 went to London and is reported to have entered the Roman church. Eighteen of his plays are still extant, the earliest being the Virgin Martyr, published about 1622. Notwithstanding his genius and the popularity of his plays, he lived m obscurity; and the course of his life in Lon- don is not easily traced. Among his best-known works are : Duke of Milan, Fatal Dowry, and A New Way to Pay Old Debts; the last is still in use upon the stage. Fletcher and Dekker were associated with him in the production of certain of his works. He was found dead in his bed in 1640, and was entered upon the book of the parish church simply as "a stranger." Mather (mUTH'Sr), Cotton, American colonial divine, was bom in Boston, 1663. The phe- nomenon termed "Salem witchcraft" having appeared in the colony, he investigated it, and published, in 1689, his Memorable Providences Relating to Witchcraft and Poaaesnona. He found that devils or possessed persons were familiar with dead and foreign languages, etc., and eagerly advocated the adoption of desperate remedies for the diabolical di.sease. Despite his bitter bigotry and narrow-mindedness, be waa an able man, and, with remarkable industry, wrote 382 works. His Essays to do Good were commended by Franklin; ana it ought also to be remembered that he helped to introduce into the colonies inoculation for small-pox. Died, 1728. Mather, Increase, American colonial divine, father of the preceding, and son of an English non-con- formist minister who emigrated to Massachusetts in 1635, was bom at Dorchester, 1639. He was for about sixty years pastor of the North church, Boston. In 1685 he was also chosen president of Harvard college, for which he obtained the right to confer the degrees of B. D. and D. D. An industrious student, he spent sixteen hours a day in his study, and published upward of a hundred separate works, most of which are now very rare. His influence waa so great in the colony that he was sent to England in 1688 to secure a new charter, and had the appointment of all offices under it. Died, 1723. Mathew, Theobald, "Father Mathew," apostle of temperance, was bom at Thomastown in Tip- perary, Ireland, 1790. He took priest's orders in the Capuchin order in 1814; and in his ceaseless labors at Cork, seeing how much of the degrada- tion of his people was due to drink, became in 1838 an ardent advocate of total abstinence. His cnisade extended to Dublin, to the North, to Liverpool, Manchester, London, Glasgow, and even to the chief centers of the Irish in America. His success was mar\'elous, and every^vhere he roused enthusiasm and secured warm affection. But overwork ruined his health, and he died in 1856. Matsukata {mOif-sdf)-ka.'-td.\ Slarquls Masayoshl, Japanese statesman, was born at Kagoshima, 1835. He received a military and literary education, and naval training from foreigners in Nagasaki. He took part in the poUtical movement which resulted m the overthrow of the Shogunati; was appointed a local governor at the time of the restoration, and since 1870 has been engaged in the financial administration of the central gov- ernment, and has directed efforts to facilitate and encourage agricultural and industrial enter- prises. He visited Europe as president of the Japanese section of the Paris exposition of 1878; was appointed minister of home affairs, 1880* minister of finance, 1881. The redemption of inconvertible notes was the most important work accomplished during liis more than ten years' service as minister of finance. He waa created count, 1884; premier, 1891-92, and 1896-98; minister of finance in October of the latter year until October, 1900. The adoption of the gold standard, for which the count waa mainly responsible, has been the most important incident in the history of Japan in recent years. He visited America and Europe, 1902; received an hon. D. C. L. from Oxford, 1902; has been president of the Japan red cross society since 1906, and waa created marquis in recogmtion of services as financial adviser during the Russo- Japanese war. Author: Report on the Adjust- ment of Paper Currency; History of National Dd>ts xn Japan; Report on the Adoption of ths Gold Standard in Japan; Report on the Post- bellum Financial Administration in Japan, etc. Matthews, James Brander, American author, professor of dramatic literature, Columbia, since 1900, was bom at New Orleans, 1852. He was graduated at Columbia college, 1871, LL. B., 1873; D. C. L., university of the South, 1899, Litt. D., Yale, 1901; LL. D., Columbia, 1904. He was admitted to the New York bar, but turned to literature. Author: The Theaters of Paris; French Dramatists of the Nineteenth Century; Pen and Ink; With My Friends; AmericanisTns and Briticisms; The Story of a Story; Studies of the Stage; Introduction to the Study of American Literature; Tales of Fantasy and Fact; Aspects of Fiction; Outlines in Local Color; A Confident To-M arrow; The Action and the Word; The Historical Novel; Parts of Speech, Essays in English; DevelopmerU of the Drama; Recreations of an Anthologist; Inquiries and Opinions, etc. Decorated with legion of honor, 1907. Matthews, Franklin, American journalist, editor of the New York Sun, 1890-1909; was bora at St. Joseph, Mich., 1858. He was graduated at Cornell university. 1883; followed by one year poet-graduate work, but not for degree ; traveled as lecture agent for J. B. Pond, with Beecher, Mark Twain, Carl Schurr, and others, 1883-86. He was reporter and editor of Philadelphia Press, 1886-90. Author: Philadelphia; Our Navy in Time of War; The New-born Cuba; and numerous contributions to The Century; Harper's Maga- zine; The Atlantic; Chautauquan; St. Nicholas; Harper's Weekly; Harper's Round Table; Leslie's Weekly; and other publications. Compiler of Casual Essays of the Sun, 1905. Matthias (md^i'-as)^ Corrinus, king of Hungary, was born in 1443. He was proclaimed king in 1458, soon after his release from imprisonment at Prague; maintained the throne against the emperor, Frederick III., and, after having engaged in successful wars with the Turks, received the Bohemian crown from the pope on condition of extirpating the Hussites. While thus engaged a revolt took place in Hungary, supported by Poland and other powers, which combination he routed. After this he engaged in two wars with the emperor, and captured Vienna in 1485, living there imtil his death ia 1490. Maudsley, Henry, English physician and alienist, was bom near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 1835. He waa educated there and at University college. o ss UJ c^ O S "- 5 < I THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 875 London. He graduated M. D. in 1857. was Ehysician to the Manchester asylum, settled in ondon in 18(52 as a consulting physician, and filled the chair of medical jurisprudence at University college, 1869-79. His works are Physiology of Mind; Pathology of Mind; Resvon- sihUity in Mental Disease; Body and Will; Natural Causes and Supernatural Seemings; Life in Mind and Conduct; Heredity, Variation and Genius, etc. Maupertuis {mo'-'ptr'-twe'), Pierre Louis Moreau de, French geometrician and astronomer, was born at St. Malo, 1698. He studied at the college of La Marche, at Paris, and, after having Berved for five years in the army, devoted him- self to science and literature. He has the merit of having been one of the first in France to prefer Newton to Descartes. He was one of those who were sent, in 173G, to measure a degree of the meridian at the polar circle. In 1740, invited by Frederick the Great, he settled at Berlin, and was made president of the royal academy there. The latter part of his life was embittered by his quarrel with Voltaire, who showered down sarcasm and satire upon him. He died in 1759. His works form four volumes. Maurice {tnd'-rls), prince of Orange and count of Nassau, one of the most skillful and distinguished generals of his age, was born at Dillenburg, 1567, son of William I. After his father's assassination in 1584, the provinces of Holland and Zealand, and afterward Utrecht, elected him stadtholder. A great portion of the Netherlands was still in the hands of the Spaniards, but, under the leadership of Maurice, the Dutch rapidly wrested cities and fortresses from their enemies. In 1597, with the help of some English auxiliaries, he defeated the Spaniards at Turnhout in Brabant, and in 1600 won a splendid victory at Nieuwport. Finally, in 1609, Spain was com- pelled to acknowledge the united provinces as a free republic. Died, 1625. Maxim, Sir Hiram Stevens, American inventor, was born at Sangerville, Me., 1840. He received a common school education, and his scientific knowledge was obtained by study and attending lectures. He was for four years an apprentice to coach-building; worked in various iron works; patented numerous inventions in the United States, and went to England in 1881, where he became a naturalized citizen. He has patented many electrical inventions, including incandescent lamps, self-regulating current machines, etc. ; invented the Maxim gun, auto- matic system of firearms, which makes the recoil of the gun serve as the power for reloading; also other ordnance inventions, cordite, a smokeless powder, and more recently has devoted much time and invention to aerial navigation. He is a director in the firm of Vickers' Sons and Maxim; member of American society of civil engineers, royal society of arts, British association for the advancement of science, and many British engineering and scientific societies; chevalier legion d'honneup, France, and knighted by Queen Victoria in 1901. Maximilian I^ German emperor, was bom in 1459, son of Frederick III. In his nineteenth year he married Mary, only child and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and was soon involved in a war with Louis XI. of France, who attempted to seize some of her possessions. In 1486 he was elected king of the Romans. On the death of his father, in 1493, he became emperor. Subsequently he married the daughter of the duke of Milan, and, although inclined to peace, he became involved in war with the Swiss, the Venetians, and the French. Died, 1519. Maximilian, Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph, arch- duke of Austria and emperor of Mexico, was bom in Vienna, 1832. He was the brother of the present emperor of Austria-Hungary. In 1863 Napoleon III. had it in mind to conquer Mexico and set up an empire, and he offered the crown to Maximilian, wno went to Mexico in 1864. The country had long been in a state of confusion, and at first the people seemed inclined to welcome him and look for peace under his rule. But he pleased no one, the people rose against him, and in 1866, when the French troops left the country, the empire fell to pieces. Maximilian tried to form a native army tor his own defense, but he was captured by the repub- licans, and, after a trial, shot near Quer^taro, in his thirty-fifth year, 1867. Max O'Rell. See Blouet, Paul. Maxwell, James Cierl<-, British physicist, was bom at Edinburgh, 1831. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and, before he was fifteen, wrote papers of scientific value. In 1856 he became a professor in Marischal college. Aberdeen, in 1860 in King's college, London, and in 1871 professor of experimental physics at Cambridge. In the great work of his life. Electricity and Magnetism, 2 vols., he constructed a theory of electricity in which "action at a distance" should have no place. He was the first to make color-sensation the subject of actual measurement. He obtained the Adams prize for his splendid discussion of the dynamical condi- tions of stability of the ring system of Saturn. But he was best known to the public by his investigations on the kinetic theory of gases. His Bradford Discourse on Molectdes is a classic. Besides many papers, he published a text-book on the Theory of Heat and a little treatise on Mat- ter and Motion. In 1879 he edited Cavendish's Electrical Researches. Died, 1879. Maxwell, William Henry, American educator, superintendent of schools of Greater New York since 1898, was born at Stewartstown, Ireland. 1852. He was educated at royal academical institution, Belfast, and Queen's colleges, Galway and Belfast. He was teacher in Victoria college, Belfast, 1872-74; journalist. New York, 1877-80; teacher in the public schools, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1880-82; assistant superintendent of schools, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1882-87, and superintendent, 1887-98. He is author of a series of text-books on English grammar and cornposition, etc. May, Sir Thomas Erskine, English jurist and writer, was born in London, 1815. He was educated at Bedford school, became assistant librarian of the house of commons in 1831; was called to the bar in 1838; clerk as.sistant in 1856. and clerk of the house in 1871. He was created successively C. B. and K. C. B., and was on his retirement, in 1886, created Baron Famborough. His Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament has been translated into various languages; his Constitutional History of England 1760-1860 is a continuation of Hallam; and his Democracy in Europe shows great learning and impartiality. He died in 1886. Mayer, Henry ( Hy Mayer"), caricaturist, waa bom at Worms-on-Rhine, 1868. He was edu- cated in England and Germany; was graduated at the gymnasium. Worms, 1885; entered busi- ness life in England and came to the United States, 1886. He began his career as an artist in Cincinnati, 1887, and has resided in New York since 1893. He has been illustrator for Flie^cnde Blaetter, Munich; Figaro lUustri, Le Rire, Paris; Black and White, Pick-Me-Up, Pall-Mall Maga- zine, Punch, London; Life, Judge, Truth, Har- per's, Century, Collier's, Leslie's, New York Times, Herald, etc. Author: Autobiography of a Monkey; In Laughland; Fantasies in Ha-Ha; A Trip to Toyland; Adventures of a Japanese DoU; Alphabet of Little People, etc. 876 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Mazarin (md'-zd'-rds^ Jules, cardinal and chief minister of France during the minority of Louia XIV., was bom at Piscina, Italy, 1602. Having accompanied a papal legate to the court of France, he became known to Richelieu about 1628. The latter perceived his great political talents, and engaged him to maintain the French interests in Italy, which he did while still em- ployed by the pope as vice-legate to Avignon, m 1632, and nuncio to the French court. The Spaniards complained of his partiality for France, and the pope was obliged to recall him. In 1639 he openly entered the service of Louis XIII., and was naturalized a Frenchman- and in 1641 received a cardinal's hat through the in- fluence of Richelieu, who when dying recom- mended him to the king as the only person capable of carrying on his political system. Un- der him the influence of France among the nations was increased, and in the internal gov- ernment of the country those principles of despo- tism were established on which Louis XIV. after- ward acted. The administration of justice, however, became very corrupt, and the commerce and finances of the country sank into deep de- pression. Died, 1661. Mazzinl (mat-se'-ne), Guiseppe, Italian patriot and revolutionist, was born at Genoa, 1805. Senti- ments of social equality were early engendered in him by parental example. In 1830 his alliliation to the secret society oi the Carbonari introduced his practical political career. The organization of a new Uberal league, "Youn^ Italy," was Mazzini's next work. He was its animating spirit, and it speedily inclosed all Europe in a network of similar associations, modified to meet the rec^uiremeuts of the various European nationalities. The first fruitsof his leagues proved to be the revolutionary expedition of Savoy, organized by Mazzini at Geneva, but which was defeated by the royal troops. Sentence of death par contumace was recorded against him in the Sardinian court ; but he soon recommenced with increased vigor his revolutionary opterations. A new association, entitled "New Europe," and based on principles of European rights and enfranchisement, was inaugurated by the exer- tions of Mazzini in Switzerland. In 1837 he quitted Switzerland, and finally took up his abode in London. From there his labors in the Italian revolutionary cause were unremitting. He is said to have founded, in 1865, the "um- versal repubhcan alliance." In 1868 he became dangerously ill, and never fully recovered, though his zeal remained as ardent as ever. After an ineffective scheme for a republican rising, he ventured to enter Italy, and was arrested at Gaeta, where he remained a prisoner until Rome was taken by the Italian army. On his death, 1872, the government honored him with a public funeral. Mead, Larkin Goldsmith, American sculptor, was born at Chesterfield, N. H., 1835. His early years were spent in Vermont. He studied art at Brooklyn, N. Y., and in Italy. The "Recording Angel," his first work, was modeled in snow and afterward cut in marble. His large pieces were executed for public buildings and monuments; such as the colossal statue of "Vermont" on the dome of the statehouse, and of "Ethan Allen" in the portico of the same building in Vermont, and one of the same hero, given by the state of Vermont to the hall of representatives at Wash- in^on ; the statue of Lincoln on the monument at Springfield, III. ; a group representing "Colum- bus before Queen Isabella," for the state of Cahfomia; the "Returned Soldier"; the "Re- tufP of Proserpine from the Reabns of Pluto," which was over the main entrance of the agricul- tural building at the World's Columbian exposi- tion, Chicago; a large group representing the Stanford family, to be placed in Stanford univer- sity, California; also a colossal statue, "The Mis- sissippi River " ; high relief portraits in bronze of Henry James, William D. Howelb, and John Hay are other specimens of his work. During the civil war he spent six montlis in camp as artist for Harper's Weekly. Died, 1910. Meade, George Gordon, American general, was bom in Cadiz, Spain, where his father was an agent of the United States navy, 1815. He was gradu- ated at West Point, 1835, and, after serving one year in the army, resignwi to begin practice as a civil engineer. He was frequently employed by the government, and reentered its military service in 1842. He served with distinction on the staffs of Taylor and Scott in the Mexican war, and in the engineer corps. At the outbreak of the civil war ne was placed in command of a brigade of volunteers, soon rose to the command of a division, and joined his fortunes permanently to those of the army of the Potomac. He led his division through the Seven Days' battle, was severely wounded at Glendale, went through the Antietam campaign, and commanded at Fred- ericksburg, where he particularly distinguished himself. At Chancellorsville he commanded the fifth corps; and when Hooker resigned the com- mand of the army, and while the army itself was in hasty movement northward to check Lee's invasion of the North in 1863, Meade was ap- pointed to the command. He accepted it with the greatest reluctance, and altogether from a sense of duty. He had inclined to fight on the line of Pipe creek, to the south of Gettysburg; but Reynolds fell into collision with Lee's sup- S>rt, and Gettysburg became historical. When rant assumed general command in 1864, Meade continued to command the army of the Potomac under him, and mutual pood feeling enabled them to maintain this delicate relation without friction, and with the best results. At the close of the war he was made major-general in the regular army, and commanded the military' division of the Atlantic at the time of bis death at Philadelphia, 1872. Medlct (m&'-di-chi), Lorenzo de*, sumamed "the magnificent," was born in 1448. He was a member of an illustrious Florentine family, which for centuries exerted great influence in Italy and in Europe. He was instructed by some of the most learned men of the age in languages and polite literature, succeeded to the wealth and power of his father in 1469, and exerted himself in every way to promote the growth of literature and of the arts. In 1478 a conspiracy was formed against him and his brother Giuliano, by the Pazzi, another distin- guished family of Florence, who were instigated by Pope Sixtus IV., and aided by Salviati, arch- bishop of Pisa. The result was that GiuUano was assassinated and Lorenzo wounded; whereupon Salviati was hung out of his palace window in his archiepiscopal robes, and Giacopo de Pazzi, with one of liis nephews, shared the same fate. The pope now excommunicated Lorenzo and the magistrates of Florence, laid an interdict upon the whole territory, and, forming a league with the king of Naples, prepared to invade the Florentine domimons. Hostilities followed, and were carried on with varying success during two campaigns. The remaincier of Lorenzo's admin- istration was unmarked bv any great public events; but his regard for literature was mani- fested bj' the extraordinary attention he paid to the augmentation of the Laurentian library, which had been founded by his grandfather. Died, 1492. Melssonier {mS'-so'^nyd'), Jean Louis Ernest, French painter, was bom in Lyons, 1815. He THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 877 was a pupil of Cogniet, and became a member of the Beaux Arts in 1861, He first attracted attention by his "Little Messenger" in 1836, and continued to exhibit at the Paris salon for many years. His best pictures distinguished for minute detail are probably the "Napoleon Cycle," among which the picture called "1814" was sold, in 1887, for the highest price ever obtained during an artist's lifetime, $100,000. He served in the Italian campaign and the early part of the Franco-Prussian war, and was colonel at the siege of Paris. He painted upward of 500 pictures, about one-fifth of which are owned in the United States. Died, 1891. Slelanchthon (7ne4&ngk'-th{i,7i), Philip, Luther's fellow-laborer in the reformation, was born at Bretten, in the palatinate of the Rhine, 1497. He early decided in favor of the reformation, and brought to the aid of Luther great attainments in learning, great acuteness in dialectics and exegesis, a remarkable power both of clear thinking and of clearly expressing his thoughts; and, along with all, a gentleness and moderation that most advantageously tempered Luther's vehemence. In 1521 he published his Loci Communes Rerum Theologicarum, the first great Protestant work on dogmatic theology. In 1530 he made a most important contribution to the cause of Protestantism in the Augsburg con- fession. After Luther's death he lost, in some measure, the confidence of some of the Protes- tants, by those concessions to the Roman Catholics which his anxiety for peace led him to make; while the zealous Lutherans were no less displeased because of his approximation to the doctrine of Calvin on the Lord's supper. His consent, conditionally given, to the introduc- tion of the Augsburg interim in Saxony, in 1549, led to painful controversies; and he was involved in various feuds, which filled the latter years of his life with disquietude. He died at Wittenberg, 1560. Melba, Madame, n6e Helen Porter Mitchell, operatic vocalist, was bom in Melbourne, Aus- tralia, 1865. Her father was Scotch and her mother of Spanish descent. At six she sang ballads to her own accompaniment at a charitable concert; subsequently studied under Madame Marchesi in Paris, and made her stage d<5but in 1887 in Rigoletto, at the theatre de la Monnaie, Brussels. Next year she appeared as Lucia at Covent Garden. In 1889 played Ophelia at Paris grand opera. For her Bemberg specially wrote Elaine, produced in London in 1892. She has taken a prominent part in recent opera seasons in London and New York, and, in 1908, proved her- self equally successful in concert. In 1882 she married Charles, son of Sir Andrew Armstrong. Her stage name is taken from her birth place. Mellen, Charles Sanger, American railway official, was born in Lowell, Mass., 1851. He has been in the railway service since 1869, beginning as clerk in the cashier's ofiice of the Northern New Hampshire railroad. He was clerk to chief engineer Central Vermont railroad, 1872-73; superintendent's (Herk to chief clerk and assistant treasurer of Northern New Hampshire railroad, 1873-80; assistant to manager of Boston and Lowell railroad, 1880-81; auditor, 1881-83, superintendent, 1883-84, general superintendent, 1884-88, Boston and Lowell and Concord rail- roads; general purchasing agent, 1888, assistant general manager, 1888-89, general traffic manager, 1889-92, Union Pacific system; general manager of New York and New England railroad at Boston, 1892; second vice-president New York, New Haven and Hartforci railroad, 1892-96; president of Northern Pacific railway company, 1896-1903, New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad company, since 1903. Monander (mi-nSLn'-der), Greek comic poet, was born at Athens, 342 B. C. His uncle was the comic poet Alexis; he had Theophrastus for his teacher, and Epicurus for a friend; and the influence of all three is discernible in his style of thought and feeling. He was drowned while swimming in the harbor of the Pirajus, 291 B. C. He wrote more than 100 comedies, which were held in high repute among his countrymen for their wit and ^race. Only a few fr^ments of them now remain, but in the plays of Terence we have something verj' like a Latin version of a few of them. At the time when he lived political subjects were forbidden, hence he treated only lighter questions of social life. Mencius {mJtn'-shl-us), Meng-tse, Chinese sage, was born in Shan-tung, about 371 B. C. He founded a school on the model of that of his great prede- cessor Confucius. When forty years of age he led forth his disciples and traveled from one princely court to another for more than twenty years, seeking a ruler who would put into practice his system of social and political order. But, finding none, he again withdrew into retirement, and died about 287 B. C. After his death his disciples collected his conversations and exhorta- tions, and published them as the Book of Meng- tse. The aim of his teaching was practical: how men, especially rulers, shall best regulate their conduct. The philosophic root of his system is belief in the ethical goodness of man's nature. From this root grew the cardinal virtues of benevolence, righteousness, moral wisdom, and propriety of conduct. It should be the aim of the individual to perfect himself by practicing these virtues in all the relations of his social and political life. In his liberal and enlightened system of political economy, he advocated freedom of trade, the deposition of unworthy rulers, division of labor, inspection of work by government, maintenance of good roads and bridges, poor-laws, education, and the abolition of war. Chinese ethics are based oq hi:^ writings. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy {mtn'-dd-son bdr'-tol'-de'), Felix, German composer, was bom at Hamburg, 1809. His father was a convert to Christianity, and young Felix was brought up in the Lutheran faith. Zelter was his instructor in composition, Ludwig Berger on the piano. In his ninth year he gave his first public concert in Berlin, and in the following year played in Paris. From this period he commenced to write compositions of all sorts, some of them of a verv difficult charac- ter, for the piano, violin, violoncello, etc. In 1824 the first of these — three quartets for the piano — were published. In 1825 he went a second time to Paris and gave concerts there and in Berlin, after which he traveled for three years in England, Scotland, France, and Italy. la 1835 he accepted the directorship of the Leipzig concerts. Here he was in the center of the musical world of Germany, and was stimulated to his highest and most brilliant efforts. His oratorios, St. Paul and Elijah, are his two greatest works, the latter second only to the greatest works of Handel. His Songs Without Words are the most admired of his minor com- positions. He died at Leipzig, 1847. Mengs (mSngks), Anton Raphael, modem German artist, was bom in Aussig, Bohemia, 1728. He was the son of a Danish artist who had settled in Dresden. From his sixth year he was comjjelled to exercise himself in drawing daily and hourly, and a few years later was instructed by his father in oil, miniature, and enamel painting. His first great compositions appeared in 1748, and met with universal admiration. A "Holy Family" was particularly admired, and the young peasant girl who served him as a model 878 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT became his wife. On his return to Dresden the king appointed him principal court painter. In 1761 Charles III. invited him to Spain, where his principal works at this time were an "Assemblv of the Gods," and a "Descent from the Cross. ' Returning to Rome he executed a great alle- gorical fresco painting for the pope in the Camera de'Papiri, and after three years returned to Madrid. At this time he executed the "Apo- theosis of Trajan" in fresco, his finest work. In 1776 he returned once more to Rome where he died in 1779. Mercator (mSr-k&'-tSr), Gerardus, Flemish geogra- pher of the sixteenth century, was born at Rupel- monde, Flanders, 1512, his real name being Kremer, "merchant," of which Mercator is the Latinized form. He took his degree as bachelor of philosophy at Louvain, but devoted his later vears to the study of geography. In 1559 he was appointed cosmographer to the duke of Cleves. He published several important works, including maps and descriptions of France, Germany, and Great Britain. He did a great deal to put geographical science upon a secure footing and to make popular the researches of the learned. Some of his later works were of a religious character and were supposed to favor the reformed doctrines. He died in Prussia, 1594. Meredith, George, English poet and novelist, a native of Hampshire, was born in 1828. After studying for some time in Germany he com- menced his literary career with the publication of a volume of poems. This was followed by the Shaving of Shagpat, an Arabian entertainment; Farina, a legend of Cologne; The Ordeal of Richard Feverel; Evan Harrington; Modem Love; Poems of the English Roadside; Emilia in England; Rhoda Fleming; Vittoria; The Adven- tures of Harry Richmond; Beauchamp'a Career; The Egoist; The Tragic Comedians; Poems and Lyrics of the Joy of Earth; Diana of the Cross- ways; Ballads and Poems of Tragic Life; A Reading of Earth; One of Our Conquerors; Empty Purse; Jump to Glory Jane; Lord Ormont and his Aminta; The Amazing Marriage; The Tale of Chloe; The House on the Beach; The Case of General Ople and Lady Camper; Comedy, and the Uses of the Comic Spirit; Selected Poems, etc. Died, 1909. Meredith, Owen. See Lytton, Edward Bobert, Earl of. Mergentbaler (rnh-'-ghi-t&'-Ur), Ottmar, inventor of the type-setting machine bearing his name, was born in Wiirttemberg, Germany, 1854. He came to the United States in 1872, and received a gov- ernment position in Washington, D. C, to care for the mechanism of bells, clocks, and signal service apparatus. He was subsequently con- nected with a mechanical engineering firm in Baltimore, Md., in 1876, and while still thus engaged began experiments which resulted in the invention of the linotype machine. He died in Baltimore, Md., 1899. Merim^e (mo'-re'-mo'). Prosper, French novelist, historian and archaeologist, was born at Paris, 1803. He became a regular contributor to the Revue de Paris and the Revue des Deux Mondes, and, after several anonymous efforts, wrote Clara Gazul, and La Guda, Spanish comedies and IlWrian songs; La Chronique du Rdgne de Charles IX., his most famous historical novel; Colomba and Carmen, his two masterpieces of romance. Thereafter he applied himself to historical .re- search. He became a member of the French academy in 1844, was made a senator in 1853, president of the commission for reorganizing the bibhothfeque imp^riale in 1858, and commander ?li?® '®8»on of honor, 1860. Died at Cannes. 1870. ' Merlvale (m^r'-l-tw/), Charles, English historian, dean of Ely, was born in Loudon, 1808. lie was graduated at Cambridge ; was rector of Lawford. Essex, 1848-69; becamedeanof Ely in 1869; held a succession of appointments as lecturer. He wrote a history of liome from its foundation in 753 B. C. to the fall of Augustus in 476 A. D., but his chief work is the History of the Romans under the Empire, indispensable as an introduction to Gibbon; Lectures on Early Church History; Contrast between Christian and Pagan Society, etc. Died, 1893. Merle d'AublapiA {mltrl-d6'-bln'-y&'), Jean Henri, ecclesiastical historian, was bom near Geneva, Switzerland, 1794. He studied at Berlin under Neander, and in 1818 became pastor of the French Protestant church in Hamburg. In 1823 he was appointed court preaclier at Brus- sels; but after tne revolution of 1830 he declined the post of tutor to the prince of Orange ; return- ing to Geneva, he took part in the institution of the new Evangelical college, and filled its chair of church history until his sudden death in 1872. His History of the Reformation in the \&th Cen- tury has enjoved immense popularity; other works were : The Protector: a Vindication; Ger- many, England, and Scotland; and History of the Reformation in Europe in the Time of Calvin. Merrill, Geoive Perkins, American geologist and educator, was bom at Auburn, Me., 18o4. He was graduated at the Maine state university, B. S.. 1879 ; Ph. D. He was assistant in geologi- cal department of the United States natiomil museum, 1881: head curator, department of ?eoIogy, Unitea States national museum, since 897, and professor of geology and mineralogy, George Washington university, since 1893. Author: Stones for Building and Decoration; Rocks, Rock-iveathering and Soils; The Non- Metaliie Minerals; The Non-Metallic Minerals — Their Occurrence and Uses, etc., and manv scientific papers dealing more particularly with the subjects on meteorites and petrography. Merrltt, Wesley, American general, was bom in New York, 1836. He was graduated from West Point in 1860; was commissioned brigadier- general of the United States volunteers, 1863; major-general of United States volunteers, 1865; and after the civil war regularly promoted from lieutenant-colonel to major-general. United States army. He served in tne army of the Potomac until June, 1864; participated in all its battles and earned six successive brevet pro- motions for gallantry at Gettysburg, Yellow Tavern, Hawes' Shop, Five Forks, etc. He afterward accompanied General Sheridan on a cavalry raid toward Charlottesville; engaged in the battle of Trevilian's Station; commanded cavalry division in Shenandoah campaign, August, 1864, to March, 1865; was engaged in battles of Winchester, Fisher's Hill, etc.; and commanded a corps of cavalry in Appomattox campaign. He was one of three commanders from the Union army to arrange with confederate commanders for surrender of the army of northern Virginia. After the war he served in various departments, participated in several Indian campaigns ; was superintendent of United States mihtary academy, 1882-87 ; commanded depart- ment of the Atlantic until assigned, May, 1898, to command of United States forces in the Philippine islands, continuing there until sum- moned to the aid of the American peace com- missioners in session in Paris, December, 1898. He then returned to the United States; was in command of department of the East, Governor's island, until retirement in 1900. Died, 1910. Merry del Val {mir'-re dS, vOl'), Raphael, pontifical secretary of state, was bom in London of Spanish I THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 879 parents in 1865. He was educated at Ushaw college, Durham, England, where he resided for some length of time at different periods in his career. He was at first attached to the diocese of Westminster, acted for many years as Camerieri Segreto to Pope Leo XIII., and was appointed president of the Accademia Pontifica in 1899, and Italian archbishop of Nicosia in 1900. He visited England as papal envoy on the occasions of Queen Victoria's jubilee and King Edward's coronation, and was sent to Canada on an educa- tional mission. In 1903, on the death of Leo XIII., he was nominated consistorial secretary, and in October succeeded Cardinal RampoUa as secretary of state, being afterward created a cardinal. Mesmer, Fricdrlch Anton or Franz, founder of mesmerism, was born near Constance, Switzer- land, 1733. He was intended for the priesthood, but studied medicine at Vienna, and about 1772 took up the opinion that there existed a power of extraordinary medicinal influence on the human body, which he called animal magnetism. In 1778 he went to Paris, where he created a great sensation. He refused an annual pension of 20,000 livres to reveal his secret; but in 1785 a commission of physicians and scientists reported on him unfavorably. He fell into disrepute, and after a visit to England, spent the rest of his life in obscurity at Meersburg in Switzerland. Died, 1815. Metastasio {md'-tas-ta'-zyo), Pletro Bonaventura, Italian poet, whose real name was Trapassi, was born in Rome, 1698. When he was only ten years of age, his talent of extemporizing in verse attracted the notice of Gravina, who took him under his patronage, and fostered his poetical powers, while, at the same time, he initiated him in the profession of the law. The youthful Metastasio also entered into the minor order of priesthood. His tragedy of GiusHno was pro- duced when he was only fourteen. In 1718 his patron died, and left him the whole of his prop- erty. In 1724 he published one of his most cele- brated dramas, La Didone, which, with II Catone and II Siroe, conferred on the poet a European name. In 1730 he accepted the post of poet laureate to the imperial court of Vienna. During his sojourn in Vienna he composed his Giuseppe Riconosciuto, II Demofoonte, and the AttUio Regolo, his masterpiece. Died at Vienna, 1782. Metchnikoff {m^ch'-ni-kof), Illya, Russian physi- ologist and cytologist, was born at Livanovka, Russia, 1845. He studied at Kharkov, and after- ward at Giessen and at Munich. He occupied the chair of zoology at Odessa, 1870-82, but resigned to devote himself to special research. He became chief assistant to Pasteur in 1892, and, at the latter's death in 1895, succeeded him as director of the Pasteur institute at Paris. He is the author of The Nature of Man; Immunity in Infective Diseases; The Prolongation of Human Life; Optimistic Essays, etc. Mettemich (mit'-er-nis.), Clemens Wenzel, Prince von, Austrian diplomat and statesman, was born in Coblentz, 177^. After a distinguished diplo- matic career, he became chief minister of the empire in 1809. This high office he held with consummate ability for a period of thirty years, exercising, almost without control, the highest authority in Austria. The revolution of 1848 Bent him into exile, from which he returned three years after. Died, 1859. Prince Mettemich was an adroit diplomat and exercised in his day a powerful influence upon the cabinets of Europe. Meyer, Adolf, pathologist, alienist, was born in Niederweningen, near Ziirich, Switzerland, 1866. He was graduated at the gymnasium, Ziirich, university of Zurich, M. D., 1892; post-graduate studies in Paris, London, Edinburgh, Ziirich, Vienna, and Berlin, 1890-92; LL. D., Glasgow, 1901. He came to the United States in 1892, became a fellow and later docent in neurology, universitv of Chicago, 1892-95; was pathologist to the Illinois eastern hospital for the insane, Kankakee, 111., 1893-95; pathologist and later director of clinical and laboratory work, Worces- ter, Mass., 'insane hospital, and docent in psy- chiatry, Clark university, 1895-1902; director of pathological institute. New York state hospitala, 1902-10; professor of psychiatry, Comell medical college, 1904-09; professor psychiatry, Johns Hopkins university, and director of Henry Phipps psychiatric clinic, Johns Hopkins hos- pital, since 1910. Meyer, George von Lengerke, American diplomat, was born in Boston, Mass., 1858. He was gradu- ated at Harvard, 1879, and from 1879 to 1899 engaged in business as merchant and trustee. He was a member of the Boston common coun- cil, 1889-90; member of board of aldermen, 1891 ; member of Massachusetts legislature, 1892-97, and speaker of house, 1894-97 ; chairman of Mas- sachusetts Paris exposition managers, 1898; director of Amoskeag manufacturing company, the Amory company. Old Colony trust company, National bank of commerce. United Electric securities company, and president of Ames plow company. He was United States ambassador to Italy, 1900-05 ; ambassador to Russia, 1905-07 ; postmaster-general, 1907-09; secretary of the navy, 1909-13. Meyerbeer, Giacomo, German composer, was bom in Berlin, 1791. He was a precocious child, and played on the piano spontaneously as early as his fifth year. He began to study dramatic composition under Bernhard Anselm Weber; and in 1806 entered the school of Vogler at Darmstadt, where he formed an intimate friend- ship with Carl Maria von Weber. While at Darmstadt he wrote a cantata, Gott und die Natur. He subseauently composed an opera, Jepthah's Vow, produced at Munich in 1813. He was induced by his friend Salieri to visit Italy, where he became an enthusiastic convert to the new Italian school, and began the composition of a series of operas which proved highly popular. His subsequent works include: Romilda e Con- stanza; Semiramide; Emma di Resburgo; Mar- gherita d'Anjou; L'Esule di Granata; II Crociato in Egitto; Robert le Diable; Les Huguenots, in which he reached the climax of his fame; Le Proph^te; Pierre le Grand; Dinorah; and L'Africaine, produced first in 1865. Died, 1864. Michaelangelo Buonarroti {me'-kU-dn'-ja-lo bw6'- ndr-rd'-te). See page 128. Mlchelet (meah'-l^'), Jules, French historian, waa born in Paris, 1798. He was graduated from the College Charlemagne, and was for many years professor of history in the College de France. In 1843-46 he became widely known, not only in his own country, but also in England, by his attacks upon the Jesuits in his three works : The Jesuits; Priests, Women, and Familiea, and The People. He was the writer of many other works, several of them of considerable interest; but those of most permanent value are his History of France, his History of the French Revolution, and his History of the Nineteenth Century. Died, 1874. Michelson (ml'-kSl-sUn), Albert Abraham, scientist, educator, was bom at Strelno, Germany, 1852. He was graduated at the United States naval academy, 1873; was midshipman of United States navy, 1873; instructor of physics and chemistry. United States naval academy, 1875- 79; nautical almanac office, Washington, 1880; student at universities of Berlin, 1880, Heidel- berg, 1881, College de France and Ecole Poly- technique, 1882; Ph. D.. Western Reserve, 1886. 880 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Stevens institute, 1887; Sc. D., university of Cambridge, 1899; LL. D., Yale, 1901, Franklin bicentenary university of Pennsylvania, 1906. He was professor of physics at the Case school, Cleveland, Ohio, 1883-89, Clark university, 1889-92, and has been professor and head of the department of physics, university of Chicago, since 1892. He was Lowell lecturer, 1899; received the Rumford medal, 1889, and the grand prix, Paris exposition, 1900 ; Copley medal, royal society, London, 1907, and was awarded the Nobel prize for physics, $40,000, by the Swedish academy of sciences, 1907. He is a member of numerous scientific societies, and has been a frequent contributor to the Philosophical Maga- zine; Nature; American Journal of Science, etc., chiefly on researches in light. MifSin, Thomas, American general and statesman, was born in Philadelphia, 1744, was originally a merchant of his native city. He was electea to the continental congress of 1774, joined the revolutionary forces, and rose to be major- general in 1777, but was removed for hb con- nection v/ith the Conway cabal, 1778. In 1782 he was sent to the federal congress, and in 1783 became its president. He was speaker of the Pennsylvania state legislature, 1785; member of the constitutional convention of 1787; presi- dent of the executive council of Pennsylvania, 1788-90; president of the state convention of 1790, and governor of Pennsylvania, 1790-99. Died, 1800. Mllbum, John George, American lawyer, was bom near Sunderland, England, 1851. He was edu- cated in private schools in England; studied law at Batavia, N. Y. ; was admitted to the bar, 1874, and practiced in Buflfalo as a member of the firm of Rogers, Locke and Milbum. He is now a member of the firm Carter, Ledyard and Milburn, New York. He was president of the Pan-American exposition, 1901; Presi- dent McKinley was taken to his house after the fatal assault on his life, and died there. He is a trustee of the New York life insurance company; member of the board of commissioners of statu- tory consolidation, which consolidated all general statutes of New York, from 1777; member of the American bar association, and was a delegate to the universal congress of lawyers and jurists, St. Louis, 1904. Miles, Nelson Appleton, American general, was bom in Westminster, Mass., 1839. At the out- break of the civil war he was engaged in mercan- tile pursuits in Boston, Mass. ; entered the serv- ice as first lieutenant of the 22d Massachusetts regiment in 1861, and distinguished himself at the battles of Fair Oaks, Charles City Cross Roads, and Malvern Hill. In 1SG2 he was com- missioned colonel of the 61st New York regiment, which he led at Fredericksburg and Chancellors- ville, where he was severely wounded. He commanded the first brigade, first division, second army corps, in the Richmond campaign, was promoted brigadier-general, 1864, and brevetted major-general for gallantry at Ream's station in August, 1864. At the close of the war he was commissioned colonel of the 40th United States infantry. He was promoted bngadier-general in 1880; major-general in 1890; and succeeded Lieutenant-General John M. Schofield as commander of the army in 1895. He took a prominent part in the wars with the Indians m 1874, and thereafter. In July, 1898, he went to the front and assumed personal com- mand of the army around Santiago, Cuba; and after the surrender of the Spanish army com- manded the expedition which left Guantanamo bay, July 21st, landed at Guanica, Porto Rico, July 25th and was marching on San Juan, the capital, when the armistice stopped hostile opera- tions. On the reorganization of the army in 1901, the grade of iieutenant-general was revived and he was promoted to it. In 1901 he publiclv expressed satisfaction with Admiral Dewey's report on Rear-Admiral Schley and was repri- manded therefor. He was retired upon reaching the age limit, 1903. Mill, James, Britisii historian and political econo- mist, was bom near Montrose, Scotland, 1773. He studied at the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself in Greek and in moral and metaphysical philosophy. He became editor of the Literary Journal, which after a time was discontinued, and wrote for various periodi- cals, including the Eclectic and the Edinburgh Review. He wrote much of standard value, including History of British India; Liberty of the Press; Law of Nations; Elements of Political Economy; anci Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind. He died in London, 1836. Mill« John Stuart, English philosopher and econo- mist, son of the preceding, was bom in 1806. He was educated at home by his father. In 1820 he went to France, where he made himself master of the French language and occasionally attended public lectures on science. He lived for some time at Paris, in the house of the French economist, Jean Baptiste Say, where he made the acquaintance of many men distinguished then, or afterward, in letters and politics. During this stay in France he laid the foundation of his great familiarity with and interest in the politics aa well as the literature of the French nation. In 1823 he entered the India house as a clerk in the examiner's office, where his fatiicr was assist- ant examiner. For thirty-three years he con- tinued to occupy the department of the office named the political. His first publication con- sisted of articles in the Westminster Reviev. He took an active part in the political discussions that followed the revolution of 1830 in France, and the reform bill movement in England; and from 1836 to 1840 was editor, and along with Sir VV. Molesworth proprietor, of the London and West- minster Review, where many articles of his own appeared. He established his reputation, in 1843, by the publication of A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, a work the success of which paved the way for The Principles of Political Economy. His later works include: Essay on Liberty; An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy; The Subjection of Women, in which he avows himself a partisan of what has been popularly termed the "woman's rights movement"" August Comte and Positivism; Nature, the Utility of Religion, and Theism, etc. He was a member of parnament, 1865-68. He died at Avignon, France, 1873. Millals (mWd"), Sir John Everett, English painter, was bom of Jersey parentage, at Southampton, 1829. He studied at the royal academy, and at seventeen exhibited a notable historical work. He then early associated with Rossetti and Holman Hunt, and remained for over twenty years under their influence. To this period belong "The Carpenter's Shop"; "Autumn Leaves"; "The Minuet"; "The Gambler's Wife"; "The Huguenot," etc. His subsequent work, in which technical interest predominates, was chiefly portraiture, including Gladstone and Beaconsfield. He was a profuse illustra- tor, and executed some etchings. He was made R. A. in 1863, a baronet in 1885, and became president of the royal academy in 1896. Died, 1896. Miller, Hagh, Scottish geologist, was bom at Cromarty, 1802. From sixteen to thirty-one he worked as a common stonemason, devoting the winter months to writing, reading, and natural history. In 1829 he published Poems JOHN STUART MILL From a photograph THROUGHOUT THE WORLD toritten in the Leisure Hours of a Journeyman Mason, followed by Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland, in 1835. In 1834-39 he acted as bank accountant; in 1839 was invited to Edinburgh to edit the Witness; and in 1840 published in its columns the geological articles afterward collected as Tlie Old Red Sandstone, in 1841. His editorial labors during the heat of the religious disruption struggle were immense, and, worn out by overwork, he shot himself in 1856. His other works include: First Impressions of England; Footprints of the Creator; My Schools and Schoolmasters; Testimony of the Rocks; The Cruise of the Betsey; Sketch Book of Popular Geology; The Headship of Christ; Essays, His- torical and Biographical; Tales and Sketches; and Edinburgh and its Neighborhood. Miller, Joaquin, pen-name of Cincinnatus Heine Miller, American poet. He was born in Indiana, 1841; became a miner in California, fought in the Indian wars, was an express messenger, practiced law in Oregon; edited a paper suppressed for disloyalty; in 1866-70 was a county judge in Oregon; was a Washington journalist, and in 1887 settled in California as a fruit-grower. His works include : Songs of the Sierras; Songs of the Sunland; Songs of Itcdy; Songs of the Mexican Seas; In Classic Shade; The Danites in the Sierras; Shadows of Shasta; '49, or the Gold- seekers of the Sierras; The Ship of the Desert; Life Among the Modocs; First Families of the Sierras; The One Fair Woman; Memorie and Rime; Baroness of New York; The Destruction of Gotham; The Building of the City Beautiful; Chants for the Boer; True Bear Stories, etc. He also wrote the plays: The Danites, The Silent Man, and '49. Died, 1913. Millet {me'4^'), Jean Francois, French painter, was bom in the village of Gruchy, France, 1814. He first worked as a farm laborer, but his taste for painting was so evident that he was sent to study with Mouchel, a painter in Cherbourg. His master induced the town authorities to grant his pupil an annuity to help him in his studies. He afterward went to Paris and studied with Delaroche. He painted small pictures, por- traits, and signboards in his first efforts to support himself. After the revolution of 1848, through which he had struggled practicing his art, and fighting at the barricades, he settled in Barbizon, near the forest of Fontainebleau. He lived here much like the peasants and began his work of painting the peasant life of France. Some of his best known works are: "The Sower"; " Peasants Graf ting " ; "The Gleaners"; "Wait- ing"; "The Angelus"; "The Man with the Hoe"; "Wool-Carding"; "Shepherdess and Flock." His most celebrated picture, "The Angelus," sold for over $100,000. He died at Barbizon, which under his influence had become an artist colony, 1875. Mills, Claris, American sculptor, was bom in Onondaga county, New York, 1815. He was for nine years a plasterer in Charleston, S. C. In 1846 he made a bust of John C. Calhoun, which was purchased by the city. In 1850 he com- pleted a model of an equestrian statue of Jackson, for Lafayette square, Washington, which rested on the horse's hind feet alone. Mills had to build a foundry and to learn the practical busi- ness of casting, for there was then no establish- ment in the country capable of casting so large a mass. He produced a perfect cast in 1852, and the statue was set up the following year. He made also the equestrian statue of Washington, dedicated in Washington on February 22, 1860, and the colossal statue of Liberty, from a design by Crawford, which crowns the dome of the Capitol, finished in 1863. He died at Washing- ton, D. C, 1883, MlUst Boser Quarles, American lawyer, United States senator, was born in Todd county, Ky., 1832. He moved to Texas, 1849; studied law, Palestine, Tex., and was admitted to the bar at twenty years of age ; began practice at Corsicana, 1852. He was elected to the Texas house of representatives, 1859; was at battle of Wilson's crock, 1861 ; later colonel of 10th Texas infantry, confederate army, which he commanded in bat- tles of Arkansas Post, 1862, Chickamauga, 1863. After the fall of General James Deshler, he took command of the brigade at the battles of Mis- sionary Ridge, 1863, New Hope church, and Atlanta, 1864, where he was twice wounded. He was a member of congress, 1873-92; United States senator, 1892-93, and 1893-99, and was author of the famous Mills tariff bill. Died, 191 1. Mills, William Lennox, bishop of Ontario since 1901, was born at Woodstock, Ontario, and was graduated at the Western university, London, 1872; B. D., D. D., and D. C. L. , Trinity college, Toronto; LL. D., Queen's university, Kingston; D. D., Bishop's college, LennoxviUe. He was ordained priest, 1873; was incumbent of Trinity church, Norwich, Ontario, 1872; rector of St. Thomas's church, Seaforth, Ontario, 1874 ; rector of the crown rectory of St. John's, province of Quebec, 1875 ; rector of Trinity church, Montreal, 1882; examining chaplain to the bishop of Mon- treal, and lecturer in ecclesiastical history in the Montreal diocesan theological college, 1883; canon of Christ church cathedral, Montreal, 1884; archdeacon of St. Andrew's, diocese of Montreal, 1896; bishop coadjutor of Ontario, with title of bishop of Kingston, 1900. Milman, Henry Hart, poet and church historian, was born in London, 1791. He was educated at Greenwich, Eton, and Brasenose college, Oxford, where in 1812 he won the Newdigate prize with his Belvidere Apollo, best of Oxford prize poems. In 1818 he became vicar at Reading; in 1821-31 professor of poetry at Oxford, where in 1827 he delivered the Bampton lectures on The Character of the Apostles as an Evidence of Christianity; in 1835 rector of St. Margaret's, Westminster, and a canon of Westminster; and in 1849 dean of St. Paul's. His Poems and Dramatic Works com- prise Fazio, a Tragedy; Samor; The Fall of Jerusalem; Belshazzar, etc. To the Historical Works belong the History of the Jews; History of Christianity to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire; and — his masterpiece — the History of Latin Christianity to the Pontificate of Nicholas V. He also edited Gibbon and Horace, and wrote much for the Quarterly. After his death appeared the delightful Anruils of St. Paul's, and Savonarola, Erasmus, and other Essays. He died in 1868. Miltiades (mil-tV-d-dez), Athenian general, "tyrant of the Chersonese," yet, as Byron sings, "free- dom's best and bravest friend," was bom about 540 B. C. Forced by Darius to flee from his dominions, he took refuge at Athens, and on the second Persian invasion of Greece, his military talents being of a high order, he was chosen one of the ten generals. He particularly distin^ished himself by the great victory which he gamed at Marathon with a small body of Athenians and 1,000 PlatiBans, 490 B. C, over the Persians. He failed in an expedition against Paros, was fined fifty talents, which he was unable to pay, and consequently died in prison, 489 B. C. Milton, Jolm. See page 53. Mirabeau {me'-rd'-bo'), Gabriel Honor6 BlquettU Comte de, French orator, was born at Bignon, near Nemours, 1749. He was endowed with an athletic frame and extraordinary mental abili- ties, but was of a fiery temper, and disposed to every kind of excess. He wrote many effective political pamphlets, particularly against the 884 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT financial administration of Calonne, receiving pecuniary assistance, it is said, from some of the great bankers of Paris; and became one of the Naders of the liberal party. When the states- general was convened, he sought to be elected a representative of the nobles of Provence, but was rejected, and left them with the threat that, like Marius, he would overthrow the aris- tocracy. He purchased a draper's shop, offered himself as a candidate to the third estate, was enthusiastically returned both at Aix and Marseilles, and by his talents and oratorical powers soon acquired great influence in the states-general and national assembly. To suppress insurrection, he effected in 1789 the institution of the national guard. In 1790 he was elected president of the club of the Jacobins, and, m 1791. of the national assembly. Both in the club ana in the assembly he dis- played great boldness and energy; but soon after his appointment as president of the latter he died, 1791. Mitchel, Ormsby McKnight, American general and astronomer, was born in Kentucky, 1810. He was professor of mathematics at West Point for two years after his graduation there, in 1829; practiced law and taught in Cincinnati college, and became director of the Cincinnati observa- tory, which had been built largely through bis influence, and also of the Dudley observatory at Albany. In the civil war he entered the army as brigadier-general of volunteers ; was promoted to the rank of major-general, and, after various successes, given command of the department of the South. He died of yellow fever at Beaufort, S. C, 1862, before entering on the campaign. He lectured on astronomy, and invented several instruments for astronomical work. His pub- lished books are Planetary and Stellar Worlds, and Popular Astronomy. Mitchell, Donald Grant, "Ik Marvel," American novelist and essayist, was bom at Norwich, Conn., 1822. He was graduated at Yale college, and pursued law studies in New York city. In 1853 he was appointed United States consul at Venice, and in 1868 became editor of the Atlantic Monthly. His best known works are: Dream Life; Reveries of a Bachelor; My Farm at Edge- wood; Wet Days at Edgewood; Doctor Johns; English Lands, Letters, and Kings; and American Lands and Letters. Died, 1908. Mitchell, John, American labor leader, was bom at Braidwood, 111., 1870. He received a common school education, read law one year, and made a special study of economic questions. He began work in coal mines, 1882, and has since, as worker or labor leader, been identified with mines and mining. His official connection with the iinited mine workers of America began in 1895, and from 1899 to 1908 he served as presi- dent of that organization. He directecf the strikes of the anthracite miners in 1900 and 1902, and was vice-president of the American federa- tion of labor in 1898, and since 1900. He is the author of a book. Organized Labor, Its Problems, Purposes, and Ideals. Mitchell, Maria, American astronomer, was bom at Nantucket, Mass., 1818. She assisted her father, who was a teacher, in his work in astronomy, and soon became fitted to make investigations herself. In 1847 she was awarded a gold medal by the king of Denmark for the discovery of a coniet. She was employed in observations con- nected with the coast survey, and in compiling the nautical almanacs, and was the first woman inade a member of the American academy of arts ajid sciences. In 1865 she became professor of astronomy at Vassar college, and held that Sosition until the year before her death at Lynn. Lass., 1889. •' ' Mitchell, Silas Weir, American phvsician, poet, and novelist, was bom at PhilaJielphia, Pa., 1829. He studied at the university of Pennsylvania, but was not graduated because of illness during his senior year; was graduated at Jefferson medical college, 1850: LL. D., Harvard, Edin- burgh, Princeton; M. D. hon. causa, Bologna. He established a practice in Philadelphia, became prominent as a physiologist and especially as neurologist, and stands at the head of the profession in that department of medical science. Author : Treatise on Neurology; Serpent Poisons; Comparative Physiology; and about 125 papers on neurological subjects; Poems; Injuries to Nerves; Clinical Lessons; Doctor and Patient, essajrs: Hephzibah Guinness; In War Time; Rolana Blake; Far in the Forest; Characteristics; When All the Woods are Green; Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker; Adventttres of Francois; The Auto- biography of a Quack; Dr. North and His Friends; The Wager, and Other Poems; Circumstance; Youth of Washington; Constance Trescot, etc. Mltford* Mary Russell, English author, was born at Alresford, Hants, 1787. She was sent to school in Chelsea, and her first volume of poems appeared in 1810, and was followed by two more in 1811-12. Four of her tragedies, Julian, The Foscari, Riemi, and Charles /., were acted, but have not kept the stage. Her charming sketches of country manners, scenery, and character were rejected by several editors, but at length found a place in the London Magaziru, and were col- lected as Our Village in 5 vols. In 1852 she published RecoUeetions of a Literary Life, and in 1854, Atherton, and Other Tales. She died in 1855 at Swallowfield, where she had moved in 1851. Mithridates (mUh'^rUda'-Uz) the Great, king of Pontus, Armenia, and Parthia, countries in Asia Minor, was bom about 132 B. C. He became king when about thirteen years old. The first Mithridatic war, as it is called, was against Bithynia, whose king was sustained by the Romans. At first Mithridates conquered the Roman provinces in Asia Minor, and sent large armies to help the Greeks, but finally had to make peace with Sulla, giving up all his Asiatic conquests. In the second war, 83-81 B. C, Mithridates was successful, but was again de- feated in the third war, which he carried on against the Romans, from 74 to 65 B. C, Pompey finally driving him to his northern territories. Here he planned revenge, but was prevented from carrj'ing out his purpose by the rebellion of his son, when in desperation he ended his life by suicide, in 63 B. C. He was one of the strong eastern despots, but a friend of culture and the arts. Modjeska (md-jls'-kd), Helena (Mme. Chlapowski, n^e Opido), actreas, was bom in Cracow, Poland, 1844. She made her d^but in Bochnia, Poland, 1861 ; soon became leading actress in her native country; married G. O. Modjeska in 1860, and, in 1868, Charles Bozenta Chlapowski, com- Eatriot. Her first appearance in English was at an Francisco, 1877, in Adrienne Lecouvreur, fol- lowed by a starring tour through the United States and England. She returned to America after two London engagements, and played leading Shakespearean parts, Camille, Mary Stuart, etc. She retired from the stage in 1905 and died, 1909. Mohammed {mo-hdm' -id) . See page 218. Moli^re {md'4y6.r'), Jean Baptiste Poquelin. See page 57. Moltke {mMtf-ki\ Hellmuth Karl Bemhard. Count Ton, chief marshal of the German empire, was born in Parchim, in Mecklenburg, 1800. He was graduated from the military academy at Copenhagen, 1818, and entered the Prussian serv- ice in 1822 as lieutenant in the 8th infantry THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 885 regiment. In 1835 he undertook a tour in Tur- key, remained there several vears, and took part in the campaign of tlie Turks in Syria, against the viceroy of Egypt. lie became lieutenant- general of the Prussian army in 1859, and sketched the plans of the campaigns against Denmark, 1864, and Austria, 18G6. He was the commander-in-chief in tlie Franco-German war. 1870-71, and to his brilliant strategy are ascribea the splendid victories of the German arms. He is generally regarded as the first strategist of the day, was created a count in 1870, and chief marshal of the German empire in 1871. He published numerous essays, letters, speeches, a novel, and several military works. Died at Berhn, 1891. Monimsen {mom'-zSn), Theodor, German historian, was born at Garding in Schleswig, 1817, son of a pastor. He studied at Kiel; for three years examined Roman inscriptions in France and Italy for the Berlin acauem}'^, 1844—47, and in 1848 was appointed to a chair of law at Leipzig, of which two years later he was deprived for the part he took in poUtics. In 1852 he became professor of Roman law at Ziirich, in 1854 at fereslau, and in 1858 of ancient history at Berlin. He edited the monumental Corpus Inscriptionum Latinaruyn, helped to edit the Monumenta Ger- TTianice Historica, and from 1873 to 1895 was secretary of the academy of science. In 1882 he was tried and acquitted on a charge of slandering Bismarck in an election speech. His fine library was burned in 1880. His greatest work remains his History of Rome, followed by The Roman Provinces. Freeman characterized Mommsen as "the greatest scholar of our times, well-nigh the greatest scholar of all times . . . language, law, mythology, customs, antiquities, coins, m- scriptions, every source of knowledge of every kind — he is master of them all." Among his 920 separate publications were works on the Italic dialects, Neapolitan inscriptions, Roman coins, Roman constitutional law, and an edition of the Pandects. He died at Charlottenburg, 1903. Money, Hernando De Soto, lawyer. United States senator, was bom in Holmes county. Miss., 1839. He was educated at the university of Mississippi, Oxford, Miss.; served in the confederate army from the beginning of the war until 1864, when he was forced to retire from service by defective ejyesight ; was elected to the house of representa- tives from the forty-fourth to the forty-eighth and from the fifty-third to the fifty-fourth con- gresses ; and in 1897 was appointed to the United States senate to fill a vacancy caused by the death of Hon. J. Z. George. In 1898 he was elected to fill out the unexpired term ending 1899, and was then elected to succeed himself for the terms 1899-1911. Died, 1912. Monge (mdNzh), Gaspard, French mathematician and physicist, was born at Beaune, 1746. He studied at Lyons and M^ziferes, in 1780 became a member of the P'rench academy, during the revolution was minister of marine, but soon took charge of the national manufactories of arms and gunppwder. After he had helped to found the Ecole Polytechnique, he was sent by the direc- tory to Italy. Here he formed a close friendship with Bonaparte, followed him to Egypt, and was made successively professor in the Ecole Polytech- nique, a senator, and count of Pelusium. He wrote Traiti Elimentaire de Statique, Lemons de Giom.6trie, etc., and was the founder of the science of descriptive geometry. He died at Paris, 1818. Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, English general, was born in County Devon, 1608. After a brief service in Holland he fought at first on the side of Charles I. during the English civil war; then, changing to the other side, he commanded a republican army in Ireland, 1646-50, and in 1651 reduced Scotland to submission to Cromwell. In 1653 he commanded in the sea-fight in which the Dutch were defeated, and their admiral, Tromp, killed. After the death of the protector in 1658, Monk proclaimed the former's son, Richard Cromwell, his successor, and himself retained command of the army in Scotland. With that armv, in 1600, he marched upon London, and cfeclared for the restoration of Charles II., which consummation he succeeded in bringing about. His last great victory at sea was over the Dutch in 1066. Monk died in 1670. Monmoutii, James Fltzroy, Duke of, English general, was born at Rotterdam, 1649. He waa a natural son of Charles II. and Lucy Walters, and as such was loaded with rank and honors. He had high hopes of succeeding to the English throne, but this his father waa unable to secure. Monmouth was sent into Scotland in 1679 to quell a rebellion. In time he became the idol of the English nonconformists. The return of the duke of York was followed by the exile of Monmouth to Holland, where he allied himself with the leaders of the nonconformist party, exiled like himself. When he was allowed to return to London he was received with such demonstrations of joy that he felt he was the people's choice. In 1684 he went to Holland and remained abroad until the death of the kins, when he resolved to embark for England. He landed, in 1685, with a small force, at Lyme- Regis, and issued a manifesto declaring James to be a murderer and usurper, charging him with introducing popery and arbitrary power, and asserting his own legitimacy and right by blood to be king of England, hoping that the people, especially in the west and north of England, would flock to his banner. On the fifth day, however, his force consisted only of a rabble oi some 2,000 rudely armed peasants and farmers. Contrary to his expectations, the gentry held aloof from him. lie was completely defeated at the battle of Sedgemoor, the last great fight on English soil, was taken prisoner, and, on July 15, 1685, was brought to the scaffold and beheaded on Tower hill. Monroe, James, fifth president of the United States, was bom in Westmoreland county, Va., 1758. He was graduated at Wilham ana Mary college, served in the revolutionary army, waa present at several battles, and in 1783 entered the general congress as a delegate from his native state. In the Virginia convention, 1788, he opposed the adoption of the federal constitu- tion, and allied himself with the republican party, which party elected him a member of the United States senate in 1790. Four years later he proceeded to France as minister-plenipoten- tiary, from which office he was recalled in 1796. During the years 1799-1802, he filled the office of governor of Virginia. In 1802, as the asso- ciate of Livingston, he was dispatched on a special mission to negotiate for the purchase of Louisiana. In 1803, in England, and in 1805, in Spain, he performed special diplomatic serv- ices for his country. In 1811 he again accepted the governorship of Virginia, and in the same year became secretary of state under President Madison's administration. In 1816 he waa elected president of the United States by the republican (democratic) party, and made him- self very popular. The acquisition of Florida from Spain, and the settlement of the vexed question respecting the extension of slaverj' by tne Missouri compromise, by which, after the reception of Missouri as a slave state, the institu- tion was prohibited above the line of latitude 36° 30', helped to secure his reelection in 1820. His most popular acts, perhaps, were the recog- nition of the independence of Mexico and the 886 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT South American republics, and the promulgation of what has since been called the "Monroe doctrine." In 1825 he retired to his seat at Oak Hill, Loudoun county, Va., but he still con- tinued in the public service. After being twice president, he was justice of the peace, a visitor of the university of Virginia, and member of a state convention; but a profuse generosity and hospitality caused him to be overwhelmed with debt, and he found refuge with his relatives in New York, where he died in 1831 — like his predecessors, Adams and Jefferson — on the 4th of July. Slontagu, Lady Mary Wortley, English beauty, wit, and writer, was bom at Thoresby, in Not- tinghamshire, about 1689, eldest daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, duke of Kingston. She was carefully educated, and manifested pre- cocious talents. In 1712 she married Edward Wortley Montagu, and in 1716 accompanied him on his embassy to Constantinople. To this journey we are indebted for her admirable Letters. After her return to England in 1718, she shone conspicuously in the circles of talent and fashion. Pope was among her friends, but he at length c[uarreled with and libeled her. In 1739 her declming health induced her to settle on the continent, whence, however, she returned in 1761. She died in the following year. Her collected works have been pubhshed in six volumes, and her Letters place her at the head of feminine epistolary writers in Great Britain, and leave her few rivals in other coun- tries. Montaigne {mdn-tan'; Fr. mdN'-tdn'-y')^ Michel Eyquem de. See page 39. Montalembcrt {Tn6N'-td'4aN'-hdr'\ Charles Forbes, Comte de, French historian, orator, and publi- cist, was born in London, 1810. He became a peer of France on the death of his father, his mother being a Scotchwoman. Several times during his career he came into conflict with the authorities for his bold defense of what he deemed to be the rights of his church against the encroachments of the civil power; but his name came most prominently before Europe through his uncompromising opposition to Louis NapK)- leon, after the coup d'itat of 1851. In 1858 he published a pamphlet entitled, Un Dibat sur Vinde, eulogizing English institutions, and depreciating those then existing in France. For this pamphlet he was summoned before the bar of the correctional police, and was sentenced to imprisonment for six months, and to pay a fine of 3,000 francs; and, though this penalty was immediately remitted by the emperor, Mon- talembert appealed against the decision of the court, was again condemned, and once more Eardoned, very much to his own disgust. Among is other writings are: History of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary; Life and Times of St. Ansdm; The Pohtical Future of England; and a pamphlet entitled Piu^ IX. and France in 1849 and 1859 He died at Paris, 1870. Montcalm {m6nt-kam'\ Louis Joseph St. Vfiran, Marquis de, commander-in-chief of the French troops in Canada, 1756-59, was born near Ntmes France, 1712. He captured Fort Ontario at Oswego, 1756; Fort William Henry in 1757- repulsed the British under Abercrombie at Ticonderoga m 1758; repelled Wolfe's attack on Quebec, 1759; and was defeated and mortally 7°V'°er manufacturer at Annonay, France. The former was bom in 1745, and the latter in 1740. Etienne, after a few successful experi- ments with the balloon, went to Paris; out, though his discovery created a great sensation, and was followed out in practice by many eminent men, he obtained little pecuniary aid in carrying on his experiments, and at length retired to his native town, where he rt^unied the manufacture of paper, and died at Servidres in 1799. Joseph, the sharer of his labors and his ^lor>', was a man of much genius and little education ; but the two brothers were fitted to supplement each other's deficiencies, and together tney made many dis- coveries, and were both received as members of the French academy. Joseph invented the hydraulic screw^ the calorimeter, etc., and in the latter part of his life filled a post in the depart- ment of arts and manufactures. He died at Paris in 1810. Montgomery, James, British poet, was born in Scotland, 1771. He was intended for a Moravian preacher, but, showing little aptitude, became a shop boy. In 1790 he went to London, where a book-seller refused a volume of poems written by him, but employwi him. In 1792 he entered the service of Joseph Gales in Sheffield, and in 1794 started the Sheffield Iris, a weekly advocate of peace and reform, which he edited until 1825. He was fined and imprisoned in 1795 and 1796 for seditious publications. In 1797 he published a small volume of poems. Prison Amusements, followed by The Wanderer of Switzerland; The West Indies; The World before the Flood; and Greenland. He was a liberal whig, and an ardent abolitionist. He also publish^ The Pelican Island, and other Poems; Original Hymns, and Lectures on Poetry and General Literature. Died, 1854. Montgomery, Richard, American general, was bom in Ireland, 1736. in 1772 he resigned his com- mission in the British service, and settled in Dutchess coimty, N. Y., representing it in the continental congress, 1775. As brigadier in the colonial army he took Montreal, and was killed in the assault on Quebec, December, 1775. Moody, Dwlght Lyman, American preacher and revivaUst, was bom in Massachusetts, 1837. He renounced Unitarianism, became a Congrega- tionalist, served during the civil war on the Christian commission, and from 1856 entirely abandoned business and devoted himself to reUgious work in Chicago and elsewhere. His church and schoolhouse at Chicago having burned down in 1871, he went to England to raise funds for rebuilding them, and was successful in his object. For many years he associated Ira D. S^ikey with him in his revival work. He THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 887 established a school for Christism workers at NorthHeld, Mass., and a Bible institute at Chicago. Died, 1899. Moody, WiUlam Henry, American lawyer, jurist, former associate justice of United States supreme court, was bom in Newbury, Mass., 1853. He was graduated from Harvard university, 1876, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1878, and began practice at Haverhill, Mass. He was dis- trict attorney for the eastern district of Massa- chusetts, 1890-95; member of 54th congress from 6th Massachusetts district to fill vacancy; also member of 55th, 56th, and 57th congresses: secretary of the navy, 1902-04; attorney-general of the United States, 1904-06, and in 1906 asso- ciate justice of the United States supreme court, from which he retired, 1910. Moore, George Foot, American scholar and educator, preacher, 1900-03, professor theology, 1902-04, Frothingham professor, history of religion, since 1904, Harvard; was bom at West Chester, Pa., 1851. He was graduated at Yale college, 1872, D.D., 1897; graduated Union theological seminary, 1877; LL. D., Western Reserve, 1903, Harvard, 1906. Ordained to the Presbyterian ministry, 1878. He was minister of the Putnam Presby- terian church, Zanesville, Ohio, 1878-83; profes- sor of Hebrew, Andover theological seminary, 1883-1902. Author: The Book of Judges in Hebrew; Index to the Journal of the American Oriental Society; and many articles on biblical and oriental subjects in Andover Review, Journal of Biblical Literature, Journal of American Ori- ental Society, etc. He was appointed Roosevelt lecturer at Berlin university, 1909. Moore, Sir John, British general, was bom in Glas- gow, Scotland, 1761. He served in the British army during the American war ; became a mem- ber of parliament in 1784; served in Corsica, 1793-94; in the attack on St. Lucia, of which he became governor; and subsequently in Ire- land, Holland, Egypt, and Sicily. In 1798 he was made major-general. On his return from an expedition in aid of Sweden, he was sent to Portugal to command an army to cooperate with the Spaniards, 1808. He was obliged to retreat from Salamanca to the sea, won the victory of Corunna in 1809, but fell in the battle and died. Moore, John Bassett, American publicist, was bom in Smyrna, Del., 1860. He was graduated at the university of Virginia, 1880; LL. D., Yale, 1901. He studied law at Wilmington, Del., passed the United States civil service examina- tion, 1885, and was appointed law clerk in the state department at $1,200 a year. In 1886 he became third assistant secretary of state. Al- though a democrat, he was retained in that jxjsition by Blaine; resigned, 1891, to become professor of international law and diplomacy at Columbia university; was appointed in April, 1898, assistant secretary of state, resigning in September to become secretary and counsel to the peace commission at Paris. He is an author- ity on international law. Author: Report on Extraterritorial Crime; Report on Extradition; Extradition and Interstate Rendition; American Notes on the Conflict of Laws; History and Digest of International Arbitrations (6 vols.) ; American Diplomacy, Its Spirit and Achievements, etc. He is also one of the editors of the Political Science Quarterly, and of the Journal de Droit Inter- national Priv^e. Hoore, Thomas, Irish poet, was bom in 1779. He was graduated at Trinity college, Dublin, 1798, and in 1799 went to London to study law, taking with him a translation of the odes of Anacreon, which he published in 1800. In 1801 he pub- lished The Poetical Works of the Late Thomas Little, Esq., a pseudonym suggested by his dinainutive stature. In 1803 he was appointed registrar to the admiralty in Bermuda, but soon returned to England, having first made a rapid tour through a portion of the Unitetl States and Canada. In 1813 he settled at Mayfield cottage, near Ashbourne in Derbyshire. Here were written many of the songs known as Irish Melodies, which were extended to ten series. These songs have enjoyed a popularity surpassing that of any similar poems in the language. He also published two series of Sacred Melodies, six series of National Airs, Legendary Ballads, and many miscellaneous pieces. In 1817 he com- pleted Lalla liookh, the most elaborate of his works, followed by The Fudge Family in Paris; Tom Crib's Memorial to Congress; Rhymes on the Road; Fables for the Holy Alliance; Loves of the Angels; Life of Sheridan; and The Epicurean, a prose fiction. His most important prose work was his Notices of the Life of Lord Byron. His remaining works comprise : The Summer Fete, a poem ; Memoirs of Lord Fitzgerald; Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a Religion; and the History of Ireland, written for Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopcedia. Died, 1852. Moot, Adelbert, American lawyer, was bom in Allen, Allegany county, N. Y., 1854. He was educated in the high and state normal schools, and at Albany law school, 1876-76. He has practiced law at Nunda, N. Y., and Buffalo, N. Y., since 1876. He is president of the Uni- tarian conference for the middle states and Canada; he was a member of the board of com- missioners of statutory consolidation that consol- idated all general statutes of New York from 1777 to 1909. Elected member New York state board of Regents, 1913. Moran, Thomas, American artist, was bom at Bolton, in Lancashire, England, 1837. His early life was spent at Philadelpliia, where he learned engraving. He then studied painting in England, France, and Italy. His large paintings, the "Grand Canon of the Yellowstone," and the "Chasm of the Colorado," were bought by con- gress for $20,000. These were the first land- scapes ever purchased by the government. His other works are mostly of the same class: "Bal- boa Discovering the Pacific," "Hiawatha and the Serpents," "The Wilds of Lake Superior," etc. More, Hannah, English writer, daughter of the village schoolmaster of Stapleton, near Bristol, was bom in 1745. She wrote verses at an early age, and in 1762 published The Search After Happiness, a pastoral drama. In 1774 she was introduced to the Garricks, Johnson, Burke, Reynolds, and the best literary society of London. During this period she wrote two tales in verse, and two tragedies, Percy and The Fatal False- hood, both of which were acted. Led by her religious views to withdraw from society, she retired, on the publication of her Sacred Dramas, to Cowslip Green near Bristol, where she did much to improve the condition of the poor, and still helped oy her writings to raise the tone of English society. Her essays on The Manners of the Great and The Religion of the Fashionable World, her novel Cadebs in Search of a Wife, and a tract called The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain were her most popular works. In 1828 she settled at Clifton, where she died in 1833. More, Sir Thomas, English statesman, was bom at London, 1478. He was educated at Oxford, and at Lincoln's Inn; rose to eminence as a lawyer, was appointed under-sheriff and judge of the sheriff's court for London and Middlesex, and was elected a burgess of the parliament under Henry VII., where he was often successful in resisting claims of the crown. In 1514 and 1515 he was sent on commercial embassies to the Netherlands, and after his return became a 888 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT privy councilor. In 1521 he was knighted and made treasurer of the exchequer; and at various times was employed in France to manage the intrigues of Wolsey with Francis I. In 1523 he was chosen speaker of the house of commons; in 1525 was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; in 1527 he accompanied Wolsey on his magnificent embassy to France; and about this time published several learned, witty, and bitter pamphlets against the reformers. He became lord chancellor in 1529, held the great seal for two years and a half, and constantly refused to lend his authority to Henry VIII. 's project of divorce and second marriage. In 1534 he refused to swear allegiance to the act of suc- cession for securing the throne to the offspring of Anne Boleyn, and was committed to the Tower. In July, 1535, he was brought to the bar of the high commission charged with traitor- ously attempting to deprive the king of his title as supreme head of the church, and was con- demned. He was executed July 6th. He wrote Utopia and several other works, most of them in Latin. Moreau {mo'-ro'), Jean Victor, celebrated French general, was born at Morlaix, 1763, and educated for the bar. The army, however, was the pro- fession of his choice, and he entered before he was eighteen, but was taken from it by his father. The revolution enabled him to gratify his wishes, and he made his first campaign under Dumouriez. 1792. He gained the rank of brigadier-general in 1793, and that of general of division in 1794. In the latter year he commanded the right wing of Pichegru's army, and obtained great successes in the Netherlands. In 1796 he was placed at the head of the army of the Rhine. In that year he distinguished himself by penetrating into Bavaria, and by his masterly retreat before a superior force; in 1797, by his passage of the Rhine; and in 1800, by his campaign in Ger- many, crowned by the decisive victory of Hohen- linden. Having engaged with Pichegru, Georges, and other royalists, in a plot against the consular government, he was brought to trial, 1804, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, but was allowed to come to America. Here he remained until 1813, when he was prevailed upon to join the allied sovereigns, and appear in arms against his country. He was, however, mortally wounded at the battle of Dresden, and died 1813. Morgagni (mor-gan' -ye\ Giovanni Battista, Italian anatomist, was born at Forli, Italy, 1682. He was professor at Padua from 1715, and is the reputed founder of pathological anatomy, to which his most celelarated works refer. His chief book is On the Seats and Causes of Diseases Investigated by Anatomy. Died, 1771. Morgan, John Pierpont, American banker, finan- cier, and art collector, was born in Hartford, Conn., 1837. He was graduated at English high school, Boston; studied at the university of Gottingen, Germany, and entered the bank of Duncan, Sherman and Companv, 1857. He became agent and attorney in the tJnited States, 1860, for George Peabody and Company, bankers, London, in which his father was partner; was a member of Dabney, Morgan and Company, investment securities, 1864-71; and became a member, 1871, of the firm Drexel, Morgan and Company, later J. P. Morgan and Company, leading private bankers of the United States, with important branch houses in London and Paris. He financed the largest reorganiza- tions of railways and consolidation of industrial properties in the United States; floated United States bond issue of $62,000,000 during Cleveland administration; organized and floated securities of United States steel corporation, 1901, with a capital of $1,100,000,000; secured American sub- scriptions of $50,000,000 to British war loan of 1901 ; organized existing agreement of anthracite operators of Pennsylvania, and of soft coal interests in Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania; controlled over 50,000 miles of railways and large American and British ocean transportation lines. Gave site, buildings, and funds amounting to about $1,500,000 to Ij'ing-in hospital. New York, and large donations to the New York trade schools, the cathedral of St. John the Divine, and many other institutions. He made valuable gifts to the American museum of natural history. Met- ropolitan museum of art, and New York public library, and owned famous collections of pictures, books, manuscripts, curios, etc. In 1912 he gave to library of congress a oomplete set of auto- graphs of the signers of the declaration of inde- pendence. He was president of the Metropolitan museum of art ; was member of many societies, clubs, etc., in the United States and abroad. Died, 1913. Morgan, John Tyler, American soldier, lawyer, and statesman, was bom at Athens, Tenn.. 1824. He removed to Alabama in 1833; was admitted to the bar in 1845; became a delegate to the Alabama secession convention, 1861 ; joined the confederate army in 1861, and, passing through all grades from private upward, was made brigadier-general in 1863, and served to the close of the struggle. After the war he resumed the practice of ww at Selma, Ala. ; was a presidential elector. 1876; and from 1877 to 1907 was one of the ablest members of the United States senate. He was appointed by President Harrison as arbitrator on Bering sea fisheries, 1892, and was appointed by President McKinley, in 1898, one of the commissioners to organize government in Hawaii, after passage of annexation bill. Died, 1907. Morley, Bt. Hon. John, British statesman and writer, was bom in Blackburn in 1838, and educated at Cheltenham and Oxford. He was called to the bar. but has devoted his time chiefly to writing and public duties. He edited, among other pub- lications, the Fortnightly Review from 1867 to 1882, the Pall MaU Gazette from 1880 to 1883, and MacmiUan in 1883-85, and, after two unsuc- cessful candidatures, in 1869 and 1880, entered parliament in 1883, as member for Newcastle. From the first, he advocated home rule for Ire- land, and his articles in favor of it, followed up by speeches in 1885, made him Gladstone's most conspicuous supporter. In 1886 he became chief secretary for Ireland, and again in 1892, and secretarv for India in 1905. His best known books are : tldmund Burke; Critical Miscdlaniea; Voltaire; On Compromise; Rousseau; Diderot and the Encyclopedists; Richard Cobden; Studies in Literature; and an authoritative Life of Gladstone. Created a viscount, 1908. Morrill, Justin Smith, American legislator, was bom in Strafford, Vt., 1810, and devoted himself to mercantile pursuits until his election to congress. He sat in the house of representatives from 1855 to 1867, and in the senate from 1867 until his death, the longest term of service up to that time. In 1861 he succeeded in securing President Lin- coln's approval of a bill, previously vetoed by Buchanan, for the reestablishment through pub- lic land grants of state colleges for the teaching especially of agriculture and the mechanic arts. By virtue of this bill there had been established in 1899 in the various states sixty-four institu- tions giving instruction to 36,000 students. Senator Morrill was also the author of the famous Morrill tariff bill of 1861. He died in 1898. Morris, Clara, American actress, was bom in Toronto, Canada, 1849. She was taken to Cleveland when a child, and grew up there; became a member of the ballet in academy of THROUGHOUT THE WORLD music, Clevelsmd, 1861, and mpidly advanced to leading lady. In 1869 she became leading lady at Wood's theater, Cincinnati ; became member of Daly's Fifth avenue company, New York, 1870- soon became prominent in emotional r61e8 and appeared as a star in the principal American theaters. Leading r6!e3: Camille, Alixe, Miss Multon, Mercy Merrick in Ttie New Magdalene, Cora in L' Article 47, etc. She married Frederick C Harriott in 1874. Slie has been a contributor to St. Nicholas, Century Magazine, Pearson's, Ladies' Home Journal, etc. Author: A Silent Singer; My Little Jim Crow; Life on the Stage; A Paste-board Crown, a novel ; Stage Confidences; The Trouble Woman; Life of a Star; Dressing Room Receptions, etc. Morris, George Pope, American journalist and poet, was born in Philadelphia, 1802. He was asso- ciated with N. P. Willis in the publication of the New York Mirror, established in 1823, the New Mirror, 1843, the Evening Mirror, 1844, and the Home Journal, 1846, founded by Morris alone as the National Press, 1845. He edited American Melodies, and, with N. P. Willis, The Prose and Poetry of America. His best known poem is Woodman, Spare That Tree. Various editions of his poems have been published. In 1825 he produced a drama entitled Briardiff, which ran forty nights. He also published a volume of prose sketches entitled The Little Frenchman and His Water Lots. Died, 1864. Morris, Gouvemeur, American statesman, was bom in 1752. He became a member of the provincial congress of New York, and was one of those who drew up the state constitution in 1776. He was also a prominent member of the continental con- gress in 1777-80, the colleague of Robert Morris as superintendent of finance, and the organization of the bank of North America was largely due to him. In 1787 he was one of the committee to draft the federal constitution; was minister to France during the revolution, and became United States senator on his return. He wrote Obser- vations on the American Revolviion, and his Correspondence throws much light on the French revolution. Died, 1816. Morris, Robert, American financier, was bom in Liverpool, England, 1734. He came to America at an early age and settled in Philadelphia, be- coming a partner in the counting-house of C. Willing. He opposed the stamp act; signed the non-importation agreement in 1765; was a mem- ber of the continental congress ; signed the decla- ratiom of independence, and greatly helped the American cause from his own purse, both during the revolution and afterward. He founded the bank of North America, was superintendent of finance from 1781 to 1784, but declined the secretaryship of the treasury. He was finally ruined by his speculations and imprisoned for debt. He died in 1806. Morris, William, English poet and artist, was bom near London, 1834. He was educated at Marl- borough school and at Oxford, and, in 1863, established the business in stained glass and decoration with which his name has since been associated. In an artistic capacity he did much to elevate the taste of the public in domestic decoration, designing wall-papers, fabrics, and furniture. He published The Earthly Paradise and many other works, and rendered into Eng- lish the Anglo-Saxon Beovndf, the Odyssey, Mneid, etc. He also carried on for a time the Kelmscott Press, which reprinted various choice works. In his latter years he published Socialism and became known as one of^the leaders of the socialist movement in England. His works include, besides the above : Defense of Guenevere and Other Poems; The lAfe and Death of Jason; Love is Enough; Hopes and Fears for Art; News from Nowhere, etc. He died at London. 1896. Morse, Samuel Flnley Breese. See page 397. Morton, Levi Parsons, American banker and states- man, was born in Shoreham, Vt., 1824. He wa« graduated from Shoreham academy; LL. D., Dartmouth college, 1881, Middlebury college, 1882. He founded the banking houses of L. P. Morton and Company, and Morton, Bliss and Company, New York, Morton, Rose and Com- pany Morton, Chaplm and Company, London, and Morton trust company. New York; was • member of congress from New York, 1879-81; United States minister to France, 1881-85; vice-president of the United States, 1889-93; governor of New York, 1895-96. He was president of the Morton trust company, Fifth Avenue trust company; director of Equitable life assurance society of the United States, Home insurance company. National bank of commerce. Guaranty trust company. Industrial trust company, Newport trust company. Morton, Oliver Perry, American statesman and jurist, was bom in Wayne county, Ind., 1823. He was graduated at Miami university in 1843; was admitted to the bar in 1847, and began practice at Centerville, Ind. He was circuit judge of Indiana in 1852; governor, 1861-67; United States senator from Indiana, 1867-77. He declined the post of United States minister to England in 1870. During the civil war he won great applause throughout the North for his promptitude and energy in supporting the national government. In 1877 he was a member of the United States electoral commission, and died the same vear. Moscheles (mosh S-lds), Ignaz, German pianist and composer for the piano, was born at Prague, 1794, of Jewish parents. He made frequent tours throughout Europe from 1815; from 1825 he taught at the London academy of music, and directed at the Philharmonic concerts; from 1846 he w^as a professor at the Leipzig conserva- torjr until his death, 1870. He edited in English Schindler's Life of Beethoven, and wrote numerous concertos, sonatas, and studies for the piaAo. Moses. See page 189. Motley, John Lothrop, American historian and diplomat, was born in Massachusetts, 1814. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1831, and studied at Gottingen and Berlin; D. C. L., Oxford, 1858. After traveling for some years in Europe he returned to the United States, studied law and was admitted to the bar. In 1841 he became secretary of legation at St. Petersburg; was minister-plenipotentiary at Vienna from 1861 until 1867; in 1869 was appointed Ameri- can minister to the court of St. James, a post from which he was removed in 1870. "The three great works upon which Motley has built up one of the foremost literary reputations of the age are: The Rise of the Dutch Republic — a History; its sequel. The History of the United Netherlands from the Death of William the Silent to the Synod of Dort ; John of Barneveld. AU have been translated into the French, Dutch, and German languages. Died in England, 1877. Mott, Lucretia, n6e Coffin, Quaker philanthropist and reformer, was bom in Nantucket, 1793. She was a delegate to the world's anti-slavery convention in London, 1840, but was not allowed to take a seat as delegate because of her sex. She did much for the cause, and was also early and always identified with the movement for the larger emancipation of women. She was a woman of great simplicity and purity of char- acter, and her discourses and sermons were fre- quently printed in the newspapers. She pub- lished a Sermon to Medical Students in pamphlet form, and also a Discourse on Women, delivered 890 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT in Philadelphia, 1849. Died at Philadelphia, 1880. ^ . ,_ Moulton, BUen iMuiae Chandler, American novehst and poet, was born in Pomfret, Conn., 1835. daughter of Lucius L. Chandler. She married William U. Moulton in 1855. Author: This, That, and the Other; Juno Clifford; My Third Book; Bed-Time Stories; More Bed-Time Stories; Some Women's Hearts; SwaUow Flights; Poems; New Bed-Time Stories; Random Rambles; Fire- light Stories; Ourselves and Our Neighbors; Miss Eyre from Boston, and Other Stories; In the Garden of Dreams; Stories Told at Twilight; Lazy Tours in Spain and Elsewhere; In Child- hood's Country; At the Wind's Will, etc. Edited : Garden Secrets; A Last Harvest, by Philip Bourke Marston; Collected Poems of Philip Bourke Marston, Selections from Poems of Arthur O'Shaughnessy, etc. Died, 1908. Moulton, Richard Green, educator, author, was bom in Preston England, 1849. He was grad- uated from Loncion university, 1869; Cambridge, 1874; Ph. D., university of Pennsylvania, 1891. He has been university extension lecturer with English and American universities; he is professor of literary theory and interpretation, university of Chicago. Author: Shakespeare aa a Dramatic Artist: a Study of Indu^ive Literary Criticism; The Ancient Classical Drama: a Study of Literary Evolution; Four Years of Novel Read- ing — Account of an Experiment in the Study of Fiction; The Literary Study of the Bible; A Short Introduction to the Literature of the Bible; The Moral System of Shakespeare, etc. Editor: The Modern Reader's Bible, in 21 vols. Moultrie. William, American revolutionary general, was born in South Carolina, 1731. He repulsed an attack on Sullivan's island, Charleston harbor, where Fort Moultrie now stands, in 1776, for which he received the thanks of congress: defended Charleston in 1779. In 1785 ana again in 1794 he became governor of his native state, and died in 1805. Moxom (nUik'-sHm), Philip Stafford* American clergyman, was bom in Markham, Canada, 1848. He was ordained to the ministry, 1871. He was pastor of the First Baptist church, Cleveland, Ohio, 1879-85, First Baptist church, Boston, 1885-93, South Congregational church, Spring- Geld, Mass., since 1894. Author: The Aim of Life; From Jerusalem to Nicaea; The Church in the First Three Centuries; The Religion of Hope; and numerous articles in religious and secular periodicals. Mozart {mo'-ts&rt), Johann Wolfgang Amadeus. See page 169. Millilenberg (mu'-Zcn-62rK), Heinrich Melchlor, American clergyman, and founder of the German Lutheran church in America, was bom at Eimbeck, Germany, 1711. He studied at Got- tingen and Halle; was pastor of a Lutheran church in Lusatia, 1739-41, and settled in Penn- sylvania, 1742, as a missionary. In 1748 he was instrumental in forming the first American Lutheran synod. In 1762, while he resided in Philadelphia, he formulated the constitution for the Lutheran congregation there, which W£U3 subsequently adopted by many others. He died in 1787. Muhlenberg (rnu'4en-htrg\ John Peter Gabriel, American general, son of the preceding, was bom in Pennsylvania, 1746. He was pastor at Wood- stock, Va., and formed a regiment among his parishioners. He was made brigadier-general in 1777, and major-general at the close of the revo- lution. In 1785 he became vice-president of Pennsylvania, and was a member of congress. 1789-91, 1793-95, and 1799-1801. Died, 1807! Muir, John, geologist, naturalist, born in Scotland, 1838; educated in Scotland and at University of Wisconsin. Discovered Huir glacier, Alaska; visited the arctic regions on the United States steamer Corwin in search of the DeLong expedi- tion; has devoted many years to cause of forest preservation. Member of many learned societies. Traveled in Asia, Australasia, South America and Africa. Author: The Mountains of California; Our National Parks; Stickeen, the Story of a Dog; My First Summer in the Sierra, and many scien- tific articles. Mttiler (mid'-er), Friedrlch Max, British philologist and orientalist, was born in Dessau, 1823, son of a German poet, Wilhelm Miiller. He was edu- cated at Leipzig; studied at Paris, and settled in England in 1846. He was appointed Taylorian professor at Oxford in 1854. and 1868-75 was professor of comparative philology there, a science to which he had made large contributions. Besides editing the Rig-Veda, he has published Lectures on the Science of Language, and Chips from a German Workshop, dealing not merely with the origin of languages, but with the early religious and social systems of the East; The Origin and Growth of Religion; Comparative MyUwloay; Lectures on the Science of Language; Biograpnical Essays, etc. He was chief editor of the very important series of works entitled The Sacred Books of the East. He was a member of the British privy council. Died, 1900. Mulock (mii'4ik), Dinah Maria (Mrs. Craik), English author, was bom at Stoke-upon-Trent, 1826. Settling in London at twenty, she pub- lished The OgUvies; Olive; The Head of the Family, and Agatha's Husband. She never surpassed or even eaualed her John Halifax, Gentleman, pub- lished in 1857, which has been translated into French, German, Italian, Greek, and Russian. In 1865 she married George Lillie Craik, and spent a period of quiet happiness anil literary industry at Comer House, Shortlands, Kent, where she died, 1887. Much of her verse is collected in Thirty Years' Poems. Mulock, Sir William, Canadian jurist, chief-justice of the exchequer division of the high court of justice for the province of Ontario since 1905, was bom at Bond Head, Canada, 1843. He was graduated at the university of Toronto, 1863; barrister, 1868, and Q. C, 1888. He was first elected to the parliament of Canada, 1882; reelected 1887, 1891, 1896, 1900, and 1904; was pHjstmaster-general of Canada, 189G-1905, and minister of Tabor, 1900-05. On his motion, the inter-imperial postal conference adopted penny postage within the empire, 1898. He also intro- duced and carried through the house of commons a bill establishing the Canadian department of labor, 1900. For some years he was lecturer on equity and law examiner for the law society of upper Canada. He represented the Dominion of Canada at proceedings connected with inaugu- ration of federal parliament of Australia. Mtlncbhausen (miingK.'-hou-zen), HleronTmus Karl Friedrich, Baron von, member of an ancient and noble German family, who attained a remarkable celebrity by false and ridiculously exaggerated tales of his exploits and adventures, so that his name has become proverbial; was bom in Han- over, Germany, 1720. He served as cavalry oflScer in Russian campaign against Turks, 1737-39. The title of the tales ascribed to him is Baron Milnchhausen's Narrative of His Marvelous Travels and Campaigns in Russia. Died, 1797. Munree, Charles Edward, American chemist, edu- cator, was bom at Cambridge, Mass., 1849. He was graduated at Harvard, S. B., 1871 ; Ph. D., Columbian, 1894; was assistant in chemistry, Harvard university, 1871-74; professor of chem- istry at United States naval academy, 1874-86; chemist to torpedo corps. United States naval torpedo station and war college, 1886-02; head THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 891 profeesor of chemistry since 1892, and dean of faculty of graduate studies, George Washington university; expert special agent in charge of chemical industries of the United States for censuses of 1900, 1905, and 1910. He is the inven- tor of smokeless powder and an authority on explosives ; author of over 100 books and papers on chemistry and explosives. President of Amer- ican chemical society, 1898-99; fellow of London and Berlin chemical societies, etc. Munsey, Frank Andrew, American publisher, was born in Mercer, Me., 1854. He was educated in the public schools of Maine, and started his business career in a country store. He became manager of the Western Union telegraph office. Augusta, Me.; went to New York, 1882, ana started The Golden Argosy, a juvenile weekly, now the adult monthly. The Argosy; in 1889 he launched Munsey's Weekly, converted in 1891 into Munsey's Magazine; now also owns The All-Story Magazine, and other papers. Author: Afloat in a Great City; The Boy Broker; A Tragedy of Errors; Under Fire; Derringforth, etc. Milnsterberg {nmn'-stSr-b&rK), Hugo, German-Amer- ican psychologist, educator, and author, was born at Danzig, Germany, 1863. He was grad- uated at Danzig gymnasium, 1882 ; pursued post- graduate studies in philosophy, natural sciences, and medicine in Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1882-87 Ph. D., Leipzig, 1885, M. D., Heidelberg, 1887 A. M., Harvard, 1901 ; LL. D., Washington university, 1904. He was instructor in the university of Freiburg, Germany, 1887; assistant professor in same, 1891 ; professor of psychology since 1892, and director of psychological labora- tory. Harvard. Author: Psychology and Life; Grundzilge der Psychologie; and other works in German; American Traits; The Americans; Principles of Art Education; Eternal Ldfe; Science and Idealism,; Eternal Values, etc., and has been a frequent contributor to magazines, educational and psychological publications, etc. Editor of Harvard Psychological Studies since 1903. Murat (mii'-rd'), Joachim, celebrated French mar- shal, was born at La Bastide, near Cahors, France, 1771. He was one of the best generals of Napo- leon I., and one of his most devoted adherents. Originally the son of an innkeeper, he rose by his bravery and by his services to the emperor, until at last, having married Napoleon's sister Caroline, he was made, in 1808, king of Naples, under the style of Joachim I. Napoleon. In 1812 he, accompanied the great army to Moscow, in command of the cavalry, and again commanded the cavalry at the battle of Leipzig, in the follow- ing year. After the return of Napoleon from Elba, he led an army against the Austrians, whom he encountered at Tolentino, in upper Italy, but was signally defeated, losing at once his army and his throne. Subsequently he landed with a few followers on the coast of Calabria, but was again defeated, captured, and, after trial by court-martial, shot at Pizzo, dying with the same bravery he had exhibited during life, 1815. Murfree, »Iary Noailles (Charles Egbert Craddock), author, was born in Murfreesboro, Tenn., 1850, daughter of William L. Murfree. For years she concealed her identity and sex under her pen- name. Author: In the Tennessee Mountains; Where the Battle was Fought; Dovon the Ravine; The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountain; In the Clouds; The Story of Keedon Bluffs; The Despot of Broomsedge Cove; In the " Stranger- People' s" Country; His Vanished Star; The Phantoms of the Footbridge; The Mystery of Witchface Mountain; The Juggler; The Young Mountaineers; The Story of Old Fort Loudon; The Bushwhackers and Other Stories; The Cham- pion; A Spectre of Power; Storm Centre; The Frontiersman; The Windfall, etc. MuriUo (mai>-r6l'-y6)t BartolomA EsMban, Spanish painter, was bom in Seville, Spain, 1617. In 1G4G he finished painting the little cloister of St. Francis; and the manner in which he executed it produced the greatest astonishment among his countrymen. His picture of the " Death of Santa Clara" and that of "St. James Distributing Alms" crowned his reputation. In the first he showed himself a colorist eaual to Van Dvck, and in the second a rival oi Velasquez. They obtained him a multitude of commissions, which procured him an independent fortune. He enriched the churches and convents of Seville and other cities with numerous works. His greatest picture is probably that of the "Immacu- late Conception." Having been invited to Cadiz to paint the grand altar of the Capuchins, he there executed his celebrated picture of the "Marriage of St. Catharine." As he was about to firush it he injured himself severely by a fall from the scaffolding, and died soon after from the effects of the accident, in Seville, 1682. Murray, Sir James Augustus Henry, British philolo- gist, was born at Deuholm, 1837. He was grad- uated from the London university ; was a school- master at Hawick, foreign correspondent in the Oriental bank at London, and tnen master at Mill Hill school. His Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland established his reputation as a philologist. The great work of his life, the editing of the philological society's New English Dictionary, was begun at Mill Hill, 1879, and has been continued at Oxford. This dictionary is designed to be the most complete and exhaust- ive in the English language. He was knighted in 1908. Slurray, John Clark, Canadian educator and writer, professor of moral philosophy, McGill university, Montreal, since 1872, was oorn in 1836. He was educated at the universities of Glasgow, Edin- burgh, Heidelberg, and Gottingen, and was appointed to the professorship of philosophy in Queen's university, Kingston, Canada, 1862. Author : Outline of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy; The Ballads and Songs of Scotland in View of Their Influence on the Character of the People; A Handbook of Psychology; An Introduction to Ethics; An Introduction to Psychology; A Hand- book of Christian Ethics; and numerous articles in periodicals. Murray, Lindley, American grammarian, was born at Swatara, Pa., 1745. He was educated at a Quaker school at Philadelphia. At first in a New York counting-house, he studied law, and was admitted to the bar; but during tlie revo- lutionary war he amassed a fortune in commerce. In 1784, his health failing, he went to England and purchased an estate near York. From 1785 he was crippled by a fever. In 1787 he pub- lished his Power of Religion on the Mind. His English Grammar, long a standard, was followed by English Exercises, an English Reader, etc., besides A Compendium of Faith and Practice, The Duty and Benefit of a Daily Perusal of the Scriptures, and an autobiograpliy. Died, 1826. Musset (mii-sS'), Louis Charles Alfred dc, French poet, was born in 1810. In 1828 he received a prize for a Latin dissertation. His first work was Les contes d'Espagne et d'ltalie; his next, Le spectacle dans un fauteuil. His morbid and skeptical views of life mar to some extent the beauty of his exquisite poem, Rolla, and of his Confession d'un enfant du slide. His Poisies nouvelles contain his Strophes d, la Malibran, and his Nuits, which are regarded as his finest lyrics. In 1841 he answered Becker's German war song, Sie soUen ihn nicht habcn, den freien Deutachen Rhein, with a poem entitled Nona I'avons eu. 892 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT vofe Rhin aUemand. He was librarian in the ministry of the interior for several years before 1848, and was restored to his office in 1852, with the title of reader to the empress. He wrote also several dramas, but they were less successful than his poems. His complete works appeared in ten volumes in 1865-66. Died, 1857. Mutsuhlto (mddt'-soo-he'-td), emperor of Japan, was born in 1852, ascended the throne in 18G7, and married Princess Haruko in 1869. His reign has been marked by great reforms; and the feudal system, which had impeded the general progress of the country, was abolished in 1871. Under the rule of the present emperor, Japan has entered upon an unprecedented era of prosperity. Civili- zation has made rapid progress, and the intro- duction of western arts and ideas has secured for Japan the foremost place among Asiatic nations. He has given the Japanese a parlia- mentary constitution based on European prin- ciples. Died, 1912. Myers, Philip Van Ness, author, historian, was bom at Tribes' Hill, N. Y., 1846. He was graduated at WilUams college, 1871; LL. B., Yale, 1890; L. H. D., Miami university. 1891. He was presi- dent of the Farmers' college, Ohio, 1879-90; professor of history and political economy, uni- versity of Cincinnati, 1890-1900 ; dean academic faculty, university of Cincinnati, 1895-97. Author: Life and Nature Under the Tropica; Remains of Lost Empires; Ancient History; MediavaL and Modern History; General History; Eastern Nations and Greece; History of Rome; History of Greece; Rome, Its Rise and Fall; The Middle Ages; The Modern Age, etc. Myrick, Herbert, publisher, editor, author, was bom at Arlington, Mass., 1860. He was grad- uated at the Massachusetts agricultural college, Amherst, Mass., 1882. He was a writer for the New England Homestead, of which he became agricultural editor, upon graduation, also agri- cultural editor, 1884, Farm and Home. He is now president and editor of Phelps publishing company; for several years director of Good Housekeeping; was vice-president of the Orange Judd company and managing editor of American Agriculturist at New York, 1888, and Orange Judd Farmer at Chicago, 1894 ; president, editor, and manager of Orange Judd company, New York, since 1891. Author: How to Codperate; Turkeys, How to Grow Them; Mortgage Lifters; Tobacco Leaf; Key to Profitable Stock Feeding; The American Sugar Industry; The Hop; The> Crisis in Agriculture; The Book of Com; A Swim for Life; Cache la Pandre, etc. Nadir Shah (n&'-der sh&), Persian ruler, belonging to the Afshars, a Turkish tribe, was bom near Kelat, in Khorassan, Persia, 1688. Having been degraded and punished for some real or supposed offense, he betook himself to a lawless life, and for several years was the daring leader of a band of 3,000 robbers, who levied contributions from almost the whole of Khorassan. He was sent against the Turks in 1731, and defeated them at Hamadan, regaining the Armenian provinces which had been seized by the Turks in the pre- ceding reign; but his sovereign having, in his absence, engaged unsuccessfully the same enemy. Nadir caused him to be put in prison, and ele- vated his infant son, Abbas III. to the throne in 1732. The death of this puppet, in 1736, opened the way for the elevation of Nadir himself, who was crowned as Nadir Shah, 1736. He invaded India, took Delhi in 1739, and seized the Koh-i- noor diamond and the peacock throne. His last years were marked by rapacity and oppression, ?S?^ T? ' ^* ^^* ^^^^^ ^^^ ^and of an assassin, 1747. He IS still reckoned by the Persians, however, aa one of their great national heroes Nag;el« Charles, lawyer, secretary of conuneroo and labor, 1909-13; was born in Colorado county, Texas, 1849. He left his home in 1863 as a result of the civil war, accompanying his father to old Mexico, and from there, by way of New York, to St. Louis. He was graduated from the St. Louis law school in 1872; attended the university of Berlin, 1873, and was admitted to the bar the same year. He was a member of the Missouri legislature from 1881 to 1883; president of the St Louis city council from 1893 to 1897; lecturer, St. Louis law school, 1885- 1909. He has taken an active part in politics for the last twenty years, and has delivered addresses before bar associations and similar organizations upon various topics of public interest. Nansen (n&n'-ahi), Frldtjof, arctic explorer, was bom in Norway, 1861, and was graduated from the university of Christiania, Ph. D., 1888. He started on his first arctic expedition in 1882. and in May, 1888, undertook hia celebrated journey across Greenland, which he accomplished m forty-six days. The highest altitude regis- tered was over 10,000 feet with a temperature of from 80° to 90° below zero. In 1893 the Norwegian Storthing voted $50,000, and the king of Norway and Sweden gave $50,000 more for a new expedition in search of the north pole. In 1893 Nansen sailed in the Fram to make an examination of the entire polar regions, and penetrated farther north than any of his predecessors. He then became professor of zoology at Christiania university; took an active part in the separation of Norway and Sweden m 1905, was minister for Norway at the court of St. James, 1905-08; professor of ocean- ography, Christiania university, since 1908. Author: Across Greenland; Eskimo Life, Farthest North; The Norwegian North Polar Expedition; Scientific Results; Norway and the Union with Sweden; also various scientific works. Napier {napT-yir; nA-pir'), Sir Charies. British ad- miral, was bom at Merchiston hall near Falkirk, 1786, cousin to the hero of Sind. At thirteen he went to sea; in 1808 received the command of the Recruit, and for his share in capturing a French line-of-battle ship received a post-cap- taincy. He served as a volunteer in the penin- sular array. Commanding the Thames in 1811, he inflicted great damage upon the enemy in the Mediterranean. In 1814 he led the way in the ascent of the Potomac, and took part in the operations against Baltimore. In command of the fleet of the young queen of Portugal, he de- feated the Miguehte fleet and placed Donna Maria on the throne. In the war between the porte and Mehemet All he stormed Sidon, de- feated Ibrahim Pasha in Lebanon, attacked Acre, blockaded Alexandria, and concluded a convention with Mehemet All. He also com- manded the Baltic fleet in the Russian war ; but the capture of Bomarsund failed to realize expec- tations, and he was superseded. He twice sat in the British parliament, and, until his death at his Hampshire seat, Merchiston hall, in 1860, he labored to reform the naval administration. Napier, Sir Charles James, British general, the conqueror of Sind, was bom at London, 1782. He served during the Irish rebelUon, and at the battle of Corunna was five times wounded and taken prisoner. He then returned to Eng- land and gave himself to literary work, but in 1811 went to the Iberian peninsula, where he took part at Coa, Busaco, where his jaw was broken and eye injured by a shot, Fuentes d'Onoro, and Badajoz. He also took part in the Anglo-American war of 1812. From 1822- 30 he was governor of Cephalonia; in 1838, a K. C. B., and in 1841 was sent to India to THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 803 command the army of Bombay against the ameers of Sind. Here he destroyed the fortifi- cation of Emaun Ghur, 1843, followed by the battle of Meanee (Miani), where, with 2,800 English and Sepoys, he defeated 22,000 Baluchs. After the annexation he was appointed governor of Sind, but dififerences witn the authorities caused him to return to England in 1847. He died near Portsmouth, 1853. Napier {nd'-pSr), Jolin, Scottish mathematician, inventor of logarithms, was born at Merchiston castle, Edinburgh, in 1550. He matriculated at St. Andrews in 1563, traveled on the continent, and settled down to a Ufe of literary and scien- tific study. In 1593 he published his Plain Discovery of the Whole Revelation of Saint John. which was translated into Dutch, French, and German. He made a contract with Logan of Restalrig for the discovery of treasure in Fast castle, in 1594, devised warlike machines for de- fense against Philip of Spain, and recommended salt as a fertilizer of land. He described his famous invention of logarithms in Mirifici Logarithmorum C ononis Descriptio, in 1614, and the calculating apparatus called Napier's bones" in Rabdologice seu Numerationis per Virgulas libri duo, 1617, Died at Merchiston, 1617. Napier of Magdala, Robert Cornells Napier, Lord, British general, was bom at Colombo, Ceylon, 1810. He was educated at Addiscombe, entered the Bengal engineers in 1826, served in the Sutlej campaign, was wounded at Multan, and fought in the battle of Gujrat. As chief engineer of the Punjab he greatly developed the resources of the country. During the Indian mutiny he was chief engineer in Sir Colin Campbell's army, distinguished himself at the siege of Lucknow, and was made K. C. B. He received the thanks of parliament for his services in the Chinese war of 1858. For his brilliant conduct of the expe- dition in Abyssinia in 1868 he received the thanks of parliament and an annuity of 2,000 pounds, and was made G. C. B. and Baron Napier of Magdala. In 1870 he became commander-in- chief in" India and a member of the Indian coun- cil, and was subsequently governor of Gibraltar, field-marshal, and constable of the Tower. He died in 1890, and was buried in St. Paul's. Napier, Sir William Francis Patrick, brother of Sir Charles, was born near Dublin, 1785. He served in the peninsular campaign and retired as a lieutenant-general. He wrote a famous History of the War in the Peninsvla, The Con- quest ofScinde, and the Life of Sir Charles Napier. He died at Clapham, London, 1860. Napoleon I. See page 485. Napoleon III^ or Charles Louis Napoleon Bona- parte, emperor of the French, was born in the palace of the Tuileries, Paris, 1808. He was the third son of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, king of Holland, and of Hortense Beauharnais, daughter of Emjjress Josephine. His youth was spent chiefly in Switzerland, and devoted to military studies, and to the preparation of political treatises. In 1830, however, he took part in a revolutionary movement in Italy, and in 1836 entered France; but, seeking to arouse the soldiery at Strassburg in his favor, he was taken prisoner and transported to the United States. He returned in the following year to Switzerland ; but France demanded his extradition, and he speedily sought refuge in England, where he remained for three years. In 1840 he landed at Boulogne, again hoping to arouse the French soldiery in his favor; for this second attempt he was tried for high treason before the chamber of peers, and received a sentence of perpetual imprisonment in the castle of Ham. In 1846 he escaped from Ham in the disguise of a work- man, and once more took up bis residence in London. In 1848, on the abdication of Louis Philippe, the provisional government permitted his return to France. In June of that year he was elected to the national assembly for the department of Seine and for three other depart- ments; and in the following December he was elected by an immense majority president of the newly-constituted republic. In December, 1861, the famous coup d'Uat took place, and Louis Napoleon secured his election as president for ten years; but a year later he again appealed to the people, and obtained an almost unanimous vote for the restoration of the empire. In 1864 he joined England and Turkey in tne war against Russia. In 1859 he entered upon the war with Austria on behalf of Italy, which ended in the treaty of Villafranca, 1859. This was followed by the annexation of Savoy and Nice to France. 1860. He occupied Mexico in 1863, but the sati issue of that occupation was the execution of the emperor Maximilian in 1867. In 1870 the Franco-Prussian war broke out, which led to the surrender of the emperor and his army at Sedan, and to the ultimate reestablishment of the republic. He died at Chiselhurst, England, 1873. Narses (ndr'-sez), Byzantine statesman and general, was born toward the last quarter of the fifth century. From a menial office in the imperial household at Constantinople he rose by successive steps to the post of private chamberlain to the emperor Justinian, and ultimately to that of keeper of the privy purse. In the difficult art of courtiership Narses long maintained pre- eminence. In 538 he was sent to Italy in com- mand of a body of troops, professedly to act in concert with Belisarius ; but in reality, it is con- jectured, with a secret commission to observe and control that general. After some successes Narses, having disputed with Belisarius, assumed an independent authority; but his separate command was unfortunate, and he was recalled to Constantinople in 639. After some years, * however, Belisarius was recalled, and Narses was appointed to the chief command in Italy. Narses took possession of Rome, and after a series of successes, both in southern and northern Italy, completely extinguished the Gothic power in that peninsula. Justinian appointed Narses exarch of Italy in 554, and he resided at Ravenna until his death in 568. Navarro (n&-var'-r6), Mary Anderson de, American actress, was bom in Sacramento, Cal., 1859. -Her mother was of German descent and her father was a confederate officer who fell in the civil war. She was reared at Louisville, Ky., educated in Ursuline convent and Presentation academy there. She made her d6but as Juliet at McAuley's theater. Louisville, 1875. She had great success in leading legitimate rdles in the United States and England until 1889, when she married Antonio de Navarro, and retired from the stage. She has since lived in England. Author: A Few Memories. Neander (nd-&n'-dir\ Johann Au^st Wllhelm, noted German ecclesiastical historian, was bom at Gottingen, 1789, of Jewish parents, named Mendel. He received his early education at the Johanneum in Hamburg, and had for companions Vamhagen von Ense, Chamisso the poet,Wilhelm Neumann, Noodt, and Sieveking. In 1806 he publicly renounced Judaism, and was baptized, adopting, in allusion to the religious change which he had experienced, the name of Neander. In 1811 he took up his residence at Heidelberg university as a pnvat docent; in 1812 he was appointed professor of theology; and the follow- ing year was called to the newly established university of Berlin as professor of church his- tory. Here he remained until his death in 1850. 894 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT He enjoyed immense celebrity as a lecturer. Ab a Christian scholar and church historian he ranks among the first of the nineteenth century. The most important work of his life was his Universal History of the Christian Religion and Church, in 6 vols. His Life of Jesus Christ in Its Historical Relations was an able refutation of the well- known work of Strauss. He was also the author of The Emperor Julian and His Times, and Memorable Occurrences from the History of Chris- tianity and Christian Ldfe. Nearchus {ne-ar'-kOs), Macedonian naval com- mander, was a native of Crete, who settled in Amphipolis during the reign of Philip, and became the companion of the young Alexander the Great. In 330 B. C. he was governor of Lycia; in 329 he joined Alexander in Bactria with a body of Greek mercenaries, and took part in the Indian campaigns. Having built a fleet on the Hydaspes, Alexander gave Nearchus the command. He left the Indus in November, 325, and, skirting the coast, reached Susa in 324. His narrative is preserved in the Indica of Arrian. Nebuchadnezzar (Tt^b'-ii-fcdd-n^z'-dr) king of ancient Babylon, was born about 645 B. C. He was the son of Nabopolassar, and, being sent by him against Necho, king of Egypt, he defeated Necho and conquered Palestine. In 604 B. C. he became king, took Jerusalem about 606, and made Zedekiah king as his vassal. Zedekiah soon rebelled, and Nebuchadnezzar again took Jerusalem, after a terrible siege, destroyed the temple, threw down the walls of the city, and earned the people captives to Babylon. He took Tyre after a siege of thirteen years, overran Egypt, and became one of the most powerful sovereigns of his time. Among the captives whom he carried to Babylon was the Hebrew prophet Daniel, who tells much about him in the book of Daniel. He died about 561 B. C. Necker (nS'-kdr'), Jacques, French financier and statesman, was born at Geneva, 1732, and was for many years a banker at Paris. His Eulogy on Colbert, his Treatise on the Corn Laws aria Trade, and some Essays on the Resource* of France inspired such an estimate of his talents for finance, that, in 1776, he was appointed director of the treasury, and, shortly after, comptroller-general of France. Before his resig- nation in 1781, he published a statement of his operations, addressed to the king; and while in retirement produced a work on the administra- tion of the finances, and another on the imp>or- tance of religious opinions. He was reinstated, in the comptrollership in 1788, and advised the convocation of the states-general; was abruptly dismissed, and ordered to quit the kingdom in 1789; but was almost instantly recalled, in con- sequence of the ferment which his departure excited in the public mind. Necker, however, soon became as much an object of antipathy to the people as he had been of their idolatry, and in 1790 he left France forever. He died at Coppet, in Switzerland, 1804. The whole of his works form fifteen volumes. Needham, Charles Willis, American lawyer and educator, was born in Castile, N. Y., 1848. He received an academic education, and was grad- uated at the Albany law school, 1869; LL. D., university of Rochester, Georgetown college, Kentucky. He practiced law in Chicago, 1874- 90, and at Washington, 1890-97. He assisted in orgamzme Chicago university, and was one of the board of trustees; was elected professor of law, 1897, at the Columbian university, Wash- ington, D. C. ; organized, and was elected dean of the school of comparative jurisprudence and diplomacy, 1898; became professor of transpor- tation and interstate commerce in school of com- parative jurisprudence and diplomacy, and was president of the George Washington university (formerly Columbian), 1902-10; lecturer upon legal ethics, trusts, and trades unions. He is a member of the American economic asso- ciation, and many other learned and educational societies. Delegate to Congr^s International de Droit Compart, 1900 ; delegate to Congrfes Inter- national des Chemins de Fer ; delegate to Congr^ International d'assistance publique ct de Bien- faisance Privde, Paris; speaker up>on jurispru- dence, congress of arts and sciences, St. Louis exposition, 1904. Author of several pamphlets on education, law, and jurisprudence, a con- tributor to periodicals, and author of numerous legal and educational addresses. Nehemiah, Jewish reformer, was a Jew of the captivity, of royal degree and in high favor, ana was the icing's cup-bearer at the court of Arta- xerxes, the Persian king. He received a com- mission from the king to repair to Jerusalem and restore the Jewish worship, and ruled over it for twelve years, until he saw the walls of the city, amid much opposition, restored. He sub- sequently returned to superintend the reform of the worship, of which the book of the old testa- ment, named after himj relates the story. Nelll, Charles P^ American economist and edu- cator, was born at Rock Island, III., 1865. He was educated at the university of Notre Dame. Ind., 1886-88. university of Texas, 1888-89, and was graduated from Georgetown university, D. C, 1891 ; attended Johns Hopkins university, 1894-97, Ph.D., 1897. He was instructor in the university of Notre Dame. 1891-94 ; instructor and associate professor and professor of political economy, CatnoUo imiversity, Washington, 1897- 1905, and United States commissioner of labor, 1905-13. Vice-president board of charities, D. C, 1900-08. Assistant recorder of anthracite strike commission, 1902; recorder of arbitration board, Birmingham, 1903, and member of the United States inunigration commission, 1907-10. Neilson (nel'-siin), LJUlan Adelaide, English actress, was bom in Leeds, Yorkshire, England, 1848. Her real name was Elizabeth Ann Brown, though she was sometimes called Bland, that being the name of her step-father. She made her ddbut as Juliet when only seventeen years old ; appeared as Amy Robeart in 1870, in London, with im- mense success, and by 1878 stood at the head of her profession. In 1872 she came to the United States, playing in Booth's theater, New York, and in Boston, where she was equally successful. She made four visits to the United States, her last one being in 1880. She died in Paris, France, 1880. Nelson, Horatio, Viscount, famous English admiral, was bom at Bumham-Thorpe, Norfolk, 1758. He entered the navy as a midshipman in 1770, and after voyages to the West Indies, the Arctic ri^ons, and the East Indies, was promoted to a lieutenancy in 1777. Three years later he headed the exi>edition against San Juan, was invalided home, and in 1782 acted under Lord Hood in American waters. While in command of the Boreas on the Leeward islands station, he involved himself in trouble through his severe and arbitrary enforcement of the navigation act against American traders. He then returned home and lived for five years in retirement, but on the eve of the French revolutionary war he was again sununoned to active service ; in com- mand of the Agamemnon, he advanced his repu- tation by gallant conduct in the Mediterranean operations by Lord Hood, losing his right eye during the storming of Calvi, in Corsica. His conspicuous bravery at the engagement with the Spaniards off Cape St. Vincent in 1797 brought him to the rank of rear-admiral. In the same year he lost his right arm at Santa Cruz, and in THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 895 the following year, with an inferior force, anni- hilated the French fleet in the bay of Aboukir, for which he was raised to the peerage as Baron Nelson, and created duke of Bronte by the king of Naples. In 1800 he returned home, his never robust strength considerably impaired. As vice- admiral, nominally under Sir Hyde Parker, he, in 1801, sailed for the Baltic and Copenhagen. For this he was made viscount and commander- in-chief. During the scare of a Napoleonic inva- sion he kept a vigilant watch in the channel, and, on the resumption of war, he in 1805 crowned his great career by a memorable victory off Trafalgar over the French fleet commanded by Villeneuve, but was himself mortally wounded at the very height of the battle, dying in 1805. Nelson, Knute, lawyer. United States senator, was bom in Norway, 1843. He came to the United States in 1849, and resided in Chicago, 111., until the fall of 1850; removed to the state oi Wis- consin, and from there to Minnesota, 1871. He was a private and noncommissioned officer in the 4th Wisconsin regiment during the war of the rebellion, and was wounded and taken prisoner at Port Hudson, La., 1863. He was admitted to the bar in the spring of 1867; was a member of the assembly in the Wisconsin legis- lature, 1868 and 1869; county attorney of Douglas county, Minn., 1872, 1873, and 1874; state senator, 1875, 1876, 1877, and 1878; presidential elector, 1880; member of board of regents of the state university, 1882-93 ; member of the forty-eighth, forty-ninth, and fiftieth con- gresses for the 5th district of Minnesota ; elected governor of Minnesota in the fall of 1892 and reelected in the fall of 1894; elected United States senator for Minnesota, 1895, and reelected in 1901, 1907, and 1913. Nepos {ne'-pds), Cornelius, Roman historian, was bom probably at Verona, Italy, and flourished during the time of Julius Caesar and the first six years of the reign of Augustus. He enjoyed the friendship of Cicero, and his only extant work, Vitce Excellentium Imperaiorum, is held in high esteem as an educational classbook. Nemst (n^nst), Walther, German chemist and physicist, was bom at Briesen, Prussia, 1864. He was educated at Zurich, Berlin, and Wiirz- burg; was assistant to Professor Ostwald at Leipzig, 1887 ; appointed professor of physics at Gottingen in 1891, where in 1895 he organized the institute for physical and electro-chemistry, of which he became director in 1905. His work in electricity and chemistry is of a high order, and his treatise on Theoretical Chemistry has been translated into a number of languages. He is the inventor of the Nernst electric lamp. Nero, Claudius Caesar Drusus Gcrmanlcus, Roman emperor, was born at Antium, in Latium, A. D. 37. His original name was Lucius Domitius. His father was Domitius Ahenobarbus, a Roman consul, and his mother was Agrippina, daughter of the emperor Germanicus. He was adopted by the emperor Claudius, who married Agrippina, A. D. 50, and four years later he succeeded Claudius on the throne, which he occupied for fourteen years. His whole reign was character- ized by licentiousness, brutality, and cruelty. He put his mother to death in order to please one of his mistresses, on the plea that she had E lotted against him ; and he afterward murdered is wife, Octavia, in order that he might marry the same mistress. The great fire in Rome happened in Nero's reign, and it is asserted by some writers that the city was set on fire by the order of Nero, who attributed the fire to the Christians, and persecuted them with the most unrelenting cruelty. He afterward kicked Pop- paja Sabina (the mistress whom he had marriea) to death; murdered Antonia, the daughter of Claudius, because she refused to marry him; and finally married Statilia Mossalina, whose husband he had killed. The philosopher Seneca, who had been his tutor, and the poet Lucan were also put to death by his order. At length a formidable conspiracy was raised against hira, and he fled to a house about four miles from Rome, where he put an end to his own life on hearing the trampling of the horses on which his pursuers were mounted, 68 A. D. Nesselrode (nis'-Sl-rd'-dyS), Karl Robert, Count* llu.s8ian diplomat, was born at Lisbon, Spain, 1780, son of the Russian ambassador. He gained the confidence of Emperor Alexander, took a principal part in the negotiations which ended in the peace of Paris, and in the congress of Vienna, and was one of the most active diplo- mats of the holy alliance. He dealt a deadly blow to the revolutionary cause in Hungary in ' 1849 ; exerted himself to preserve peace with the western powers, and in 1854 strove for the reestablish ment of peace. Died, 1862. Nestorlus (nis-to'-rl-us), celebrated heresiarch, waa born in Syria. He was made patriarch of Con- stantinople in 428, deposed for heresy by the council of Ephesus, 431, and banished to the Lybian desert, where he died after 439. The heresy he taught, called after him Nestorianism, was that the two natures, the divine and the human, coexist in Christ, but are not united, and he would not allow to the Virgin Mary the title that had been given to her as the "mother of God." The orthodoxy of the church as against the doctrine was championed by Cyril of Alexandria. Nethersole {nirn'Sr-sol), Olga, English actress, waa born in London, 1870, daughter of Henry Nether- sole. She was educated privately in London, Holland, and Germany, and maae her profes- sional d^but at the Theater Royal, Brighton, in Henry Hamilton's drama. Harvest, 1887. She then joined the Garrick theater under John Hare's management in 1889; visited Australia on star- ring tour, 1890; was lessee and manager of the Court theater, London, 1894; several times visited the United States on starring tours, and as manager of her own company; was manager of Her Majesty's theater, London, 1898, when she produced The Termagant, and was manager of the Adelphi theater, London, during 1002, where she produced Sapho, and also of the Shaftesbury theater, 1904. Nevada (nS-va'-dd), Emma, n6e Emma Wixon, prima donna, was born at Austin, Nev., 1861. She studied under Mme. Marchesi, Paris, and made her d^but at Her Majesty's theater, Lon- don, 1880, as Amina in La Sonnambtda. She sang in Italy in 1883, appearing as Mysole in La Perle de Bresil, and afterward as Mignon; sang at Norwich festival, 1884, and in 1885 made a tour of the United States. She subse- quently sang in America and in Europe. In 1885 sne married Dr. Raymond Palmer, and now lives in Paris. Nevin, Ethelbert, American composer, was bom at Edgeworth, Pa., 1862. As a child he was a remarkable pianist; later he studied in Europe under Van Bohme, Von Biilow, and Klindwortn, exhibiting a rare gift for composition. From 1887 to 1893 he taught in Boston, then went to southern Europe to study until 1900 when he returned and associated himself with H. W. Parker at Yale. His compositions, all cast ia miniature form, are characterized by dainty originality and exquisite melody. Narcissus, among a group entitled Water Scenes, and a song, "The Rosary," are perhaps the most popular. He died in 1901 at New Haven. Newcomb (nu'-fctiTn), Simon, American astronomer and mathematician, was bom in Wallace, N. S., 896 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 1835. He came to the United States in 1853; was graduated at Lawrence scientific school, Harvard, 1858, and was appointed, 1861, pro- fessor of mathematics, United States navy; LL. D., Columbian, Yale, Harvard, Columbia, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Princeton, Cracow, Johns Hopkins, Toronto; Sc. D., Heidelberg, Padua, Dublin, Cambridge; doctor of mathematics, Christiania; D. C. L., Oxford; master of mathe- matics and doctor of natural philosophy, Leyden. He was assigned to duty at United States naval observatory; professor of mathematics and astronomy, Johns Hopkins, 1884-94, and editor of American Journal Mathematics. In 1874 he was made correspondent, and after 1893 was one of the eight foreign associates of the institute of France; made officer of legion of honor of PVance, 1893. Author: Secular Variations and Mutual Relations of the Orbits of the Asteroids; Investiga- tion of the Orbit of Neptune; Researches on the Motion of the Moon; Popular Astronomy; Cal- culus; A Plain Man's Talk on the Labor Question; Principles of Political Economy; Elements of Astronomy; His Wisdom the Defender; The Stars; j Astronomy for Everybody; Reminiscences of an j Astronomer; Spherical Astronomy; Side Lights on Astronomy; and various other books on astronom- ical and economical topics, magazine articles, etc. He also published the tables of the motions of the stars, the planets, and the moon now used by astronomers in their computations and as the basis of the navigation of the vessels of the world. Died, 1909. Newlands, Francis Griffith, lawyer, United States senator, was bom in Natchez, Miss., 1848. He entered the class of 1867 at Yale college and remained until the middle of his junior year; attended Columbian law school, Washington, and was admitted to the bar by the supreme court of the District of Columbia and went to San Francisco, where he entered upon the prac- tice of law and continued in the active practice of his profession until 1888, when he became a citizen of the state of Nevada. He was elected to the fifty-third, fiftv-fourth, fifty-fifth, fifty- sixth, and fifty-seventh congresses, and to the United States senate in 1903 and 1908. Newman, John Henry, English prelate and author, was born at London, 1801, son of a London banker. He was graduated from Trinity college, Oxford, 1820, and took orders in 1824, when he became vice-principal of St. Alban's hall, and in 1828 became vicar of St. Mary's. He took a leading part in the tractarian movement, and in 1841 wrote Tract XC, which was severely con- demned. After living at Littlemore for some years in seclusion, he was received into the Roman Catholic church, 1845; founded the Brompton oratory in 1850, and directed the Edgbaston oratory for the greater part of his remaining years. He took part in controversies with Kingsley in 1864, and Gladstone in 1874, and accepted the infallibility dogma with some reservations. He was created cardinal in 1879. Chief among his works are Apologia pro VitA SuA; An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent; and The Dream of Gerontius. Died, 1890. Newton, Sir Isaac See page 360. Ney {na\ Michel, French marshal, was bom in Saarlouis, now in Pmssia, 1769, the son of a cooper. _ He entered the army as a private hussar in 1788; became a general of brigade in 1796, and distinguished himself by his bravery m the wars of the revolution and the empire. He earned for himself from the army imder Napoleon, and from Napoleon himself, the title of the "brave of the braves." When Napoleon abdicated in 1814 he attached himself to Louis XVIII., but on the former's return from Elba he jomed his old master, and stood by him during tlie hundred days. He was defeated by Wellington at Quatre-Braa, in 1815, and conv- manded the Old Guard at Waterloo on June 18th. On the second restoration he was arrested, tried by his peers, and shot, December 7, 1815. Nicholas I^ emperor of Russia, third son of Paul I., was born at St. Petersburg. 1796. He was carefully educated, and later devoted himself to military studies and political economy. He traveled over E^urope, and after marrying the eldest daughter of Frederick Wilhelm III. of Prussia, and upon the resignation of his elder brother, Constantine, he ascended the throne in 1825. In 1826 the war with Persia began, and on its close occurred the war with Turkey. This was followed by the rising of Poland, which he subdued, and reduced the kingdom to a mere province. His rule now became despotic and fierce. He remained inactive until the Austro- Ilungarian rebellion in 1848-49, when he was called in to aid Austria. This strengthened him with the European powers and he began to think of absorbing Turkey. The opposition of the western powers IchI to the Crimean war, during which he dietl at St. Petersburg, 1855. Nicholas 11^ czar of Russia, was bom in St. Peters- burg, 1868, son of Alexander III., whom he suc- ceeded in 1894. His education under his father was conducted expressly with a view to what might be required of him on his acces.sion to the throne. During the famine of 1891, he was, at bis own request, made president of the com- mittee of succor, and worked hard in the organi- zation of relief. As czarevitch he held several military commands in his own country — in the famous Pr(?obrajensky regiment among others — and in England be had conferred upon him, in 1893, the order of the garter. He married Princess AUx of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1894. Four daughters came first, but a son was bom in 1904, and was named Alexis. The coronation of the czar took place with impressive ceremonial at Moscow in May, 1896, anu in August of the same year he commenced a tour which included visits to the emperor of Austria and Germany, to the king of Denmark, to Queen Victoria, and to the president of France. The famous peace pro- posals, which he made to the powers during 1898, led to the first peace conference at The Hague in 1899, the establishment of the permanent court of arbitration there, and indirectly to the second conference in 1907. He is gifted with the lin- guistic facility of most of his countrymen, and speaks fluently French, German, Italian, and especially English. The czar must belong to the orthodox Greek church, and his consent is neces- sary to the marriage of any prince or princess of the imperial family. His reign has been marked by the construction of the trans-Siberian railroad to the Pacific coast, by the Russo-Japanese war. by adroit diplomacy with China, by a strong ana conservative attitude toward Turkey, as well as toward the European powers, and by the granting of a constitution in 1905. Nicholas V^ pope, Tonunaso Parentucelll, was bom near Pisa, Italy, 1398. He was educated at Bologna and Florence, went to Rome in 1426, and entered the ecclesiastical seijvice. In 1444 he became bishop of Bologna, and showed such astuteness during the councils of Basel and Florence that he was chosen pope in 1447. He prevailed on the antipope, Felix V., to abdicate, and thus restored the peace of the church in 1449. A liberal patron of scholars, he despatched agents east and west to purchase or to copy important Greek and Latin manuscripts, and may almost be said to have founded the Vatican library. He vainly endeavored to arouse Europe to the duty of succoring the Greek empire. Died, 1455. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 807 Nichols, Edward Leamington, American physicist, professor of physics, Cornell, since 1887, was born of American parentage, at Leamington, England, 1854. He was graduated at Cornell in 1875; studied at the universities of Leipzig, Berlin, and Gottingen; Ph. D., 1879; fellow of Johns Hopkins, 1879-80. He was with Edison at Menlo Park, N. J., 1880-81; professor of physics and chemistry. Central university, Ky., 1881-83; and professor of physics and astron- omy, university of Kansas, 1883-87. He is editor-in-chief of the Physical Review, and author of The Galvanometer; A Laboratory Manual of Physics and Applied Electricity (2 vols.); The Elements of Physics (3 vols.), with Professor W. S. Franklin; Outlines of Physics; and numer- ous papers in scientific journals on experimental physics. Nlclas (nish'-i-as), Athenian statesman and general of the Peloponnesian war, was the son of the wealthy Niceratus. After the death of Pericles, he was the poUtical opponent of Cleon, and later of Alcibiades. In 427 B. C. he defeated the Spartans and Corinthians, and ravaged Minoa, Melos, and Locris. In 424 he ravaged Cythera and part of Laconia. In 415 he was appointed one of the commanders against Sicily, and in the autumn laid siege to Syracuse. At first success- ful, later his fleet was destroyed, his army began a retreat, and he was captured and put to death in 413 B. C. NicoU (nik'-iil), De Lancey, American lawyer, was born at Bayside, L. I., N. Y., 1854. He was graduated at Princeton, 1874; Columbia law school, 1876; was admitted to the bar, and has since practiced laW in New York city. He was nominated by the Tammany organization for district attorney, 1890; was elected and served three years. He was a member of the constitu- tional convention, 1894; is now a member of the law firm of Nicoll, Anable and Lindsay, and has appeared in numerous corporation cases. Nlebuhr (ne'-bdor), Barthold Georg, German his- torian and critic, was born in Copenhagen, 1776, where his parents then resided. He was edu- cated at Kiel and Edinburgh, held several appointments under the Danish government, and entered the Prussian civil service in 1806. At the opening of the university of Berlin, in 1810 he became connected with that institution, and was for many years lecturer on Roman hi.story and antiquities. In 1816 he was appointed Prussian ambassador at Rome. In 1823 he took up his residence at Bonn, where he delivered lectures on history and archaeology. His great work is his History of Rome, upon which he was engaged for many years. His Lectures on Roman History, and several other works, were published after his death by Dr. Schmitz and others, from notes of Niebuhr's viva voce lectures. The value of kis labors in the field of Roman history is undoubted, but many of his theories, though they obtained wide acceptance for a time, are now held to be untenable. His death was hastened by excitement caused by apprehension as to the political results of the French revolu- tion of 1830. He died at Bonn, 1831. Nlehaus (ne'-hous), Charles Henry, American sculptor, was bom at Cincinnati, Ohio, 1855. He was educated in the Cincinnati schools, and at the royal academy, Munich, Germany. He won numerous prizes and medals for art work and executed the Garfield statue, Cincinnati; Ingalls, Allen, Garfield, and Morton, in rotunda of capitol, at Washington; statues of Gibbon and Moses, Congressional library; Hahnemann at Scott circle, Washington; AJstor historical doors. Trinity church, New York; pediment to appellate court house. New York; statues of Hooker and Davenport, Connecticut state house ; statue to Drake, erected by Standard oil com- pany, at Titusville, Pa.; two large groups, "Mineral Wealth," Pan-American exposition; "Apotheosis of St. Louis" for St. Louis expo- sition; statues of Lincoln, Farragut, and McKjn- ley, Muskegon, Mich. ; equestrian statue of Gen- eral Forrest, Memphis. Tenn.; statue of McKinloy and lunette for tomb at Canton, Ohio; Benjamin Harrison monument, Indianapolis; pediment state capitol, Frankfort, Ky.; John Paul Jones monument, Washington, etc. Nielsen (nel'-sen), Alice, American opera singer, was bom at Nashville, Tenn. She received her musical education in San Francisco, under Mile. Ida Valerga, and naade her first stage appearance with an opera company at Oakland, Cal., 1893, as Yum Yum in Mikado. She then joined the Bostonians, 1896, and took the r61e of Annabel in Robin Hood; the following season plaved leading part of Maid Marion, and the pnncfpal soprano r61e in The Serenade. She made her stellar d^but at the Grand opera house, Toronto, 1898, in The Fortune Teller; later starred in The Singing Girl, and plaj'cd in The Fortune Teller, London, 1902. She studied grand opera in Rome, and maersecutea German Protestants. George II. gave the land, which was named Georgia after him, and parliament contributed $50,000. He took out 130 persons, and founded the city of Savannah, in 1733. Another party, including the two Wesleys, went out in 1735, and in 1738 Oglethorpe returned to Georgia with ft 902 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT regiment of 600 men, in anticipation of a war with Spain. He invaded Florida, was unsuccess- ful in an attack on St. Augustine, but repulsed a Spanish invasion of Georgia. He left the colony in 1743, and surrendered the charter to the British government in 1752. Died in England, 1785. Ohm (dm), Georg Simon, German physicist, was bom at Erlangen, Bavaria, 1787. He was edu- cated at the university of Erlangen, held the chair of physics at Cologne from 1817 to 1826, was director of the Nuremberg polytechnic school, 1833-49, and became in the latter year professor at Munich. "Ohm's law" was a result of his researches in electricity, and the measure of resistance, called the ohm, was so named in honor of his achievements by the Paris congress of physicists in 1881. He died at Munich, 1854. Ohnet (o'-n^')» Georges, French novelist of great popularity, was born in Paris, 1848. He was educated at Sainte Barbe, and at the Lyc6e Bona- parte. Under the general title of Lea BataUiea de la Vie he published a series of novels, some of which have reached a hundredth edition. Chief of these are : Serge Panine; Le Maitre de Forges; La ConUesse Sarah; Lise Fleuron; La grande MarniSre; Dette de Haine; Dernier Atnour; Nemrod et Cie; La Dame en Gris; Le Cw6 de Faviirea; Roi de Paris; La Marche it I'Amaur; La Dixi^me Muse, etc. He also wrote the plaj's : Regina Sarpi; Marthe; Le Colonel Roquebrune; Les Rouges et les Blancs; and has dramatized several of his novels with great success. He was elected in 1902 pr6sident de la soci6t6 des auteurs dramatiques. Oken (d'-fcen), Lorenz, German naturalist, was bom at Bohlsbach, Swabia, 1779. He became pro- fessor of medicine at Jena in 1807, and in 1816 issued a journal called Isis, which led to govern- ment interference and his resignation. In 1828 he obtained a professorship at Munich, and in 1832 at Zurich. His system was a transcendental nature-philosophy, fertile in ideas. He developed the theory, now exploded, that the skull is a modified vertebra. Died at Zurich, 1851. Oku {o'-kdb). General Hokyo, Count, Japanese soldier, a Samurai of Ko-Kura, was bom in 1845. He entered the army in 1871 ; was major in the imperial forces during the Satsuma rebellion of 1877, being besieged in Kumamoto castle for four months. He commanded the 5th division during the China-Japan war, 1895, and was rewarded with the title of baron for distinguished service. He was commander of the second army during the Russo-Japanese war, 1904-05, which landed on the east coast of the Liao-tung penin- sula in May, 1904, won the brilliant victory at Kinchau, and did splendid service in the subse- quent fighting in Manchuria. He was chief of general staff, 1906-12; made count, 1906. Okimia (o'-fcoo-wid), Coimt Shigenobu, Japanese statesman, was born at Saga, Hizen, 1838. He was a retainer of Lord Nabeshima; was one of the founders of the new government; finance minister, 1869-81; foreign minister, 1888-89- minister of agriculture and commerce, 1896-97- prime minister and foreign minister, 1898- founder and ex-leader of the progressive party founder and president of the Waseda universitv lokyo, and founder of the Japanese Women's umversity. *^'SQi^'''Tv®*?''*' '^'^S of Norway, was bom in ay&, and having made his name a terror on the ^^^MK Normandy and England, succeeded, in 1015, in securing the throne of Norway. The nZniL""!-^ ^}'S\>^ «°"eh* *o exte^inate ?Sp of n^""**^*? his subjects, who adhered to law T«roil ''"TS"^- . ^^^f fl^d *o 1^'S brother-in- i^Ti. l^'*^.*'^ Russia, who gave him 4,000 men fi^iklJt^""' 1° 1^??,' he gave Canute 'battS^t Btiklestad, where Olaf was defeated and slain. His body, laid in the cathedral of Trondhjem. was said, to have wrought many miracles, and Olaf was proclaimed patron saint of Norway. Olcott, Chauncey, otherwise Chancellor John Olcott, singer and actor, was born in Buffalo, N. Y., 1860. He was educated in the Buffalo public schools; was brought out as singer by R. M. Hooley, 1880. He was with Hooley's company for two years, then consecutively with Haverly's company, Carncross minstrels, Denman Thompson, Duff's opera coinpany for several seasons; sang two years in England in comic opera, then succeeded W. J. Scaulan as star in Irish musical dramas. He has since appeared in various leading rdles in the United States and England. Oliphant, Laurence, English traveler, diplomat, and writer, was bom at Cape Town in 1829. He was called to the Scottish bar ; later to the English bar. He became private secretary to the earl of Elgin, then governor-general of Canada, whom later he accompanied to China, thus finding material for his books Minnesota and the Far Wext, and The Earl of Elgin's Mission to China and Japan. lu 1861, while acting as chargi d'affaires in Japan, he was severely wounded by assassins, and i^rom 1865 to 1868 he represented Stirling in parliament. He published Piccadilly in 1870; joined the relig- ious community of T. L. Harris in the United States, and finally settled at Haifa in Palestine. He dieid at Twickenham, 1888. His later mystical views he published in Sympneumata and Scien- tific Religxon, as well as in his novel MasoUam. Other books were : The Transeaxtoasian Campaign under Omar Pasha; Patriots and Filibusters; The Land of Gilead; Traits and Travesties; The Land of Khemi; Haifa; and Episodes in a Life of Adventure. Oliphant, Margaret (n6e Wilson), British novelist and biographical writer, was born at Wallyford, Midlothian, 1828. In 1849 she published her first work. Passages in the Life of Sirs. Margaret Maitland of Sunnyside, which instantly won attention and approval. It is, however, on the Chronicles of Carlingford that her reputation as a novelist most securely rests.- Besides many other works, she published a Life of Edward Irving; St. Francis of Assisi; Memoir of the Comte de Montalembert: The Makers of Florence; Literary History of England; The Makers of Venice, etc. In 1852 she married Francis Oliphant. She died in London, 1897. Oliver, George Tener, manufacturer, newspaper publisher. United States senator, was bom in County Tyrone, Ireland, 1848, while his parents were visiting in that country, they at the time being residents of Allegheny city. Pa. He was graduated at Bethany college. West Virginia, 1868; studied law and was admitted to the bar of Allegheny county, 1871. After an active practice of ten years he retired in 1881 and engaged in iron and steel manufacturing, and was actively engaged in this business until 1901, when he disposed of his interest in several large concerns. He was president of the Youngstown car manufacturing company, at Youngstown, Ohio, director of several financial and industrial corporations in Pittsburgh, and president of the Duquesne club. In 1900 he purchased the Pittsburgh Gazette, and acquired the controlling interest in the Pittsburgh Chronide-Tdegrnph, and in 1906 merged the former with the Pittsburgh Times under the name of the Gazette-Times, of which he is the principal owner. He was elected in 1909 to the United States senate to fill out the unexpired term of Hon. P. C. Knox, who resigned to accept the oflBce of secretary of state in Presi- dent Taft's cabinet, and was reelected, 1911. Olmsted (dm'-stM), Frederick L.aw, American landscape-gardener, was bom at Hartford, Conn., THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 903 1822. He studied engineering at Yale, became interested in landscape-gardening, traveled on foot through England in 1850, and in 1856 through France, Italy, and Germany, to study the parks and ornamental groimds of those countries He published Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England; A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States; A Journey Through Texas; and A Journey in the Back Country; after a tour through the South and West. He is best known as the superintendent, with Vaux, of the laying out of Central park. New York, and also of the grounds around the capitol at Washington. He also designed parks and public works at Chicago, Buffalo, Brooklyn, Boston, Milwaukee, and Montreal, and acted as commissioner of the national park of the Yosemite He was ap- pointed by Lincoln on the commission to inquire into the sanitary condition of the United States army, serving on it from 1861 to 1864. Died at Waverly, Mass., 1903. Olney, Richard, American lawyer and statesman, was born at Oxford, Mass., 1835. He was graduated at Brown, 1856, and at Harvard law school, 1858; LL. D., Harvard, 1893, Brown, 1894, Yale, 1901. He was admitted to the bar in 1859; practiced law at Boston; served in the Massachusetts legislature, 1874; was appointed United States attorney-general by President Cleveland, and served from 1893 to 1895, and during 1895-97 as secretary of state. He then resumed the practice of law in Boston. He was a regent of the Smithsonian institution, Washing- ton, 1900-08; member of American philosophical society, etc. While in public office he evinced great ability, and his state papers are among the most vigorous documents of those offices. Oman, Charles William Chadwick, British histo- rian, Chichele professor of modern history at Oxford since 1905, was bom at Mozufferpore, India, 1860. He was graduated at Oxford, has been a fellow of All Souls college since 1883, and is author of the following works: A History of Greece; Warvnck the King-maker; Short History of the Byzantine Empire; A History of Europe; A Short History of England; A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages; A History of the Peninsular War, 1807-10; Seven Roman States- men; The Great Revolt of 1381, etc. Omar (o'-mdr), Abu-Hafsa-lbn-al-Khattab, second caliph of the Moslems, was bom about 581. His early history is little known, but previous to his conversion he was an ardent persecutor of Mo- hammed and his followers. After Mohammed's death he caused Abu-Bekr to be proclaimed caliph, and was himself appointed prime minister. Though of a fiery and enthusiastic temperament, he proved a sagacious adviser, and it was at his suggestion that the caliph put down with an iron hand the many dissensions which had arisen among the Arabs after the prophet's death, and resolved .to strengthen and consolidate their new-born national spirit, as well as propagate the doctrines of Islam, by engaging them in continual aggressive wars. On the death of Abu-Bekr, Omar succeeded as caliph, and pushed on the wars of conquest with increased vigor. He was summoned to Jerusalem, in 637, to receive the keys of that city, and before leaving gave orders to build a mosque, now called by his name, on the site of the temple of Solomon. He instituted the practice of dating from the hegira. He died in 644. Omar Khayy&m (o'-mdr •K.l-yam'), astronomer-poet of Persia, was bom at Nishapur about 1017, and is said to have died there in 1123 or 1124. Sum- moned to Merv by the sultan, he reformed the Moslem calendar. Of his Arabic mathematical treatises, one on algebra was edited and trans- lated by Woepke in 1851 ; and it waa as a mathe- matician that he was known to the western world, until in 1859 Edward FiteQerald published his translation of one hundred of his Rubdiydt or quatrains. Omar was the poet of agnosticism, though some see nothing in iiis poetry save the wine cup and roses, and others read iiito it that Sufi mysticism with which it was largely adul- terated long after Omar's death. He waa a true poet; yet FitzGerald's translation is far finer than the original. Omer Pasha {o'-mJSr pd-ah&'), Turkish general, was born at Plaski, in Croatia, a province of Austria, 1806. His real name was Michael Lattas. He fled, in fear of punishment, from the Austrian army to Bosnia. Here he became a Mohamme- dan, and was made writing-master to Abdul Med j id, then heir to the Turkish throne. When Medjid became sultan, he made Omer Pasha governor of Lebanon. When the Russians invaded the European dominions of Turkey, he was sent with an army of 60,000 men against them, and succeasfulljy withstood them at Kalafat, and, after their withdrawal irom the country, entered Bucharest in triumph, August. 1854. He embarked for the Crimea in 1855, ana defeated 40,000 Russians at Eupatoria. He was sent to Bosnia and Herzegovina when in insur- rection, September, 1861, and, after settling their difficulties, he attacked Montenegro, papturing the city Cetinj^ ; and in 1867 he led a command against the insurgents in Crete. He was gover- nor-general of Bagdad, and also minister of war at different periods. He died at Constantinople, 1871. Ontario, Bishop of. See Mills, William L«nnox. Oppenheim, Nathan, American physician, medical author, was born at Albany, N. Y., 1865. lie was graduated at Harvard, 1888, and from the college of physicians and surgeons. New York, 1891. He is attending physician, children's department. New York Red Cross hospital, and New York city children's hospital and schools, and has made a specialty in diseases of children. Author: The Development of the Child; The Medical Diseases of Childhood; The Care of the Child in Health; Mental Growth and Control; and various scientific essays. Opper, Frederick Burr, American artist, was bom at Madison, Ohio, 1857. He left school at four- teen; worked a year or more in the village news- paper office; went to New York and worked in a store for a short time, and then, having sold some humorous sketches to Wild Oats and other comic papers, began drawing as a profession. He was on the art stafif of Frank Leslie's three years; an artist on Puck for eighteen years, and severed his connection with Puck to accept an offer from Hearst's New York Journal, 1899. He was illustrator for Bill Nye, Mark Twain, F. P. Dunne, etc. Author: The Polka in Funny- ville, with his own verses and pictures; Our Antediluvian Ancestors; Happy Hooligan; Al- phonse and Gaston; John Bull; Happy Hooligan Home Again; Maud the Matchless, etc. Optic, Oliver, American writer of books for young folks, was bom in Medway, Mass., 1822. His real name was William T. Adams, and he was for several years a public school teacher in Boston. He wrote a large number of books which are published in several series, called "Army and Navy Stories." "Boat Club Series," "Great Western Series," "Lake Shore Series," "Onward and Upward Series," "Riverdale Story Books," "Sailor Boy Series," "Soldier Boy Series." "Starry Flag Series." "Woodville Stories," "Yacht Club Series, and "Young America Abroad Series." Each of these is composed of several books, making more than one hundred voliHnes in all. Oliver Optic's Magazine for Boys and Girls waa edited by him for many years. 904 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT but it was discontinued in 1875. He died at Boston, 1897. Orange, Prince of. See William I^ the SUent; William III., Icing of England. Orcagna (ar-kan'-yd), Andrea dl Clone, Italian painter, sculptor, architect, and poet, was born at Florence, about 1316, his father being a sculptor and worker in silver and his elder brother a painter. He was appointed architect of the church of Or San Michele at Florence, 1355, and his greatest work is the marble tabernacle of this church, which is considered one of the most beautiful art creations of Italy. He was also chief architect of the cathedral at Orvieto. The frescoes of the "Last Judgment" and "Christ and the Virgin," in the church of Santa Maria at Florence, still survive as examples of his painting. His work was studied by succeeding painters, especially by Michaelangelo and Raphael. He died about 1376. O'Reilly, John Boyle, Irish-American poet, was born at Uowth Castle, County Mcath, Ireland, 1844. He passed through the various stages of journalism from type-setting to the writing of editorials. Although a Fenian, he enlisted in the Irish hussars with the intention of exciting a re- volt. Being discovered, he was tried for treason, convicted, and banished to Australia in 1866. Escaping from that country, he reached the United States in 1869, and became the editor of the Boston Pilot. Some of his poems were of high merit and attained deserved popularity. His chief books were : Songs from the SovUfiern Seas; Songs, Legends, and Ballads; The Statues in the Block, etc. Died at Hull, Ma.ss., 1890. Origen (dr'-i-]Sn), Greek church father, was bom at Alexandria, about 185. Much of his life was spent in Alexandria, in which city he obtained great reputation as a teacher, but which he was compelled, by persecution, to leave finally in 231. From Alexandria he retired to Caesarea, and afterward to Tyre. In the persecution under Decius in 250, he was cast into prison at Tyre, and subjected to protracted torture. His writ- ings are said to have amounted to six thousand, but by far the greater number are lost. Of his Hexapla, which occupied him for twenty-eight years, only fragments remain. The same is to be said of his numerous Commentaries. A treatise on Prayer, an Exhortation to Martyrdom, and an apologetic pamphlet Against Celsus are the most important of his works which are left to us. As to the learning of Origen and his ability as a teacher, we possess the most ample testimony; but some of his opinions were, after his death and for long afterward, the subject of violent controversy in the church. He died at Tyre, 254. Osier (ds'-Ur), William, Canadian physician, edu- cator, and author, was bom at Tecumseh, Ontario, 1849. He was graduated at McGill university, Montreal, 1872; LL. D., McGill, Toronto, university of Edinburgh, university of Aberdeen, Harvard, Yale, Johns Hopkins; D. Sc, Oxford, D. C. L., Trinity university, Toronto. He was professor of the institutes of medicine, McGill university, 1874-84; professor of clinical medicine, university of Pennsylvania, 1884-89, and at Johns Hopkins university, 1889-1905; has been regius professor of medicine, Oxford university, since 1905. Author: The Cerebral Palsies of Children; Chorea and Choreiform Affections; Lectures on Abdominal Tumors; Angina Pectoris and Allied States; The Principles and Practice of Medicine; Cancer of the Stomach; Science and Immortality, IngersoU lecture. Har- vard university; ^quanimitas, and Other Ad- dresses; Counsels and Ideals, etc. He is also the editor of System of Medicine. Osman I. (os'-man) or Othman (oth'-miin), sur- named the conqueror," was bom in Bithynia, 1259. When the Mongols overthrew the sultan- ate of Iconium, 1299, he seized a portion of Bithynia. Then forcing the passes of Olympus, he took possession of the territory of Nicsea, ana gradually subdued a large part of Asia Minor, and thus became the founder of the present empire of Turkey, called from him the Ottoman empire. From his name the terms Ottoman and Osmanli are derived. He died in 1326. Ossian (5sti'-an), Celtic bard, supposed to have lived in Scotland or Ireland about tifteen hundred years ago. He waa the son of Fingal, king of Morven, a famous hero, and was blind. His poems are remarkable for their grandeur and wild beauty, and are very different from all other poetry. They have been published in nearly all European languages. Ossoil (da'-6-le). Marchioness. See Fuller, Sarah Margaret. Otho I., the Great, einperor of the West, son of the emperor Henry I., of Germany, waa born in 912. In 936 he was formally crowned king of the Germans and in 962 holy Roman emperor. His reign was one succession of eventful and generally triumphant wars, in the course of which he brought many turbulent tribes under subjection, acquired and maintained almost su- preme power in Italy, where he imposed laws with equal success on the kings of Lombardy and the pwpes at Rome; consolidated the disjointed power of the German emperors, and established Chris- tianity at many different points in the Scandi- navian and Slavonic lands which lay beyond the circuit of his own jurisdiction. Died, 973. Otis, Jamt^s, American patriot and orator, was bom at West liamstable, Mass., 1725, and became a leader of the Boston bar. He was advocate- general in 1760, when the revenue officers de- manded his assistance in obtaining from the superior court general search-warrants allowing them to enter any man's house in quest oT smuggled goods. Otis refused, resigned, and appeared in defense of popular rights. In 1761, elected to the Massachusetts assembly, he was prominent in resistance to the revenue acts. In 1769 he was savagely beaten by revenue officers and others, and lermanent militia, and saw active service during Fenian raids of 1866 and 1870, Northwest rebellion of 1885, and dur- ing the Boer war of 1899-1900. During the latter he was in command of the first contingent from Canada. He was adjutant and commandant, Canadian teams of 1873 and 1883, to Wimbledon; command of royal school of infantry, 1883-99; command of M. D. No. 2, 1886-1905, and of western Ontario, 1905-08. He is the author of T?ie Guide, a Manual of Interior Economy, etc., for Canadian Infantry. Oudlnot ((XZ-de'-nd'), Charles Nicolas, duke of Reggio, French marshal, was bom at Bar-le-Duc, 1767. He served in the revolutionary' wars, and in 1805 obtained the grand cross of the legion of honor and the command of ten reserve battaUons, the "grenadiers Oudinot." He fought at Auster- litz and Jena, gained the battle of Ostrolenka in 1807, and helped at Friedland. Conspicuous in the Austrian campaign of 1809, he was created marshal of France and duke of Reggio. In 1810 he was charged with the occupation of Holland; he took part in the Russian campaign and in the battles of 1813 with Russians and Austrians. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 906 He was one of the last to abandon Napoleon. At the second restoration he became a minister of state, commander-in-chief of the royal and national guards, and a peer of France. In 1823 he commanded in Spam; became grand chan- cellor of the legion of honor in 1839, and suc- ceeded Marshal Moncey as governor of the Invalides, 1842. He died at Paris, 1847. Oulda (ive'-da). See De la Ram£c, Louise. Overbeck, Johann Friedrlch, German painter, was born at Liibeck, 1789. He studied art at Vienna, 1806-10, and settled in Rome, "where he allied himself with the like-minded Cornelius, Schadow. Schnorr, and Veit, who, from the stress thej' laia on religion and moral significance, were scoffed at as church-romanticists, pre-Raphaelites, etc. A madonna, in 1811, brought Overbeck into notice; and Bartholdy, the Prussian consul, employed him to adorn his house with scripture subjects. He next painted in fresco, in the villa of the Marchese Massimo, five compositions from Tasso's Jerusalem, Delivered. His oil-pictures are inferior to his frescoes. Among his famous pictures are a fresco at Assisi, "The Vision of St. Francis"; "Christ's Entry into Jerusalem"; "Christ's Agony in the Garden"; "Lo Sposa- lizio"; "The Triumph of Religion in the Arts"; and "Incredulity of St. Thomas." He died in 1869. Ovennan, Lee Slater, lawyer. United States senator, was born in Salisbury, N. C, 1854. He was graduated at Trinity college, N. C, 1874; taught school, 1875-76; was private secretary to Governor Vance, 1877-78, to Governor Jarvis, 1879; admitted to the bar, 1878; member of North Carolina legislature, 1883, 1885, 1887, 1893, 1899, and speaker, 1893. He was president of the North Carolina railroad, 1894; was president of the Salisbury savings bank, and trustee of the state university. He was elected United States senator, 1903, and reelected for the term 1909-15. Ovid idtZ-ld), or Publius Ovldlus Naso, Roman poet and writer, was born at Sulmo, Italv, 43 B. C. He belonged to a noble family, and was brought up to the law; but his love for poetry and his natural indolence led him to desert the practice of the law, though he occupied one or two judicial positions. He died in banishment at Tomi, 18 A. D. Besides the Metamorphoses, consisting of all the transformations recorded in legend from the creation of the world to the time of Julius Caesar, he was the author of a poem called Ars Amatoria, or the "Art of Love"; Fasti, a sort of poetical Roman calendar; Tristia and Epistolae ex Ponto, elegies written during his banishment, and other works. His poetical genius has always been admired. A masterly facility of composition, a fancy vigorous and rarely at fault, a fine eye for color, and a versifica- tion very musical in its flow are the merits which have made him a favorite of poets from Milton downward, in spite of his occasional slovenliness and falsity of thought. Owen, Sir Richard, British naturalist, was bom at Lancaster, England, 1804. He studied medicine at Edinburgh arid London, but soon began his work in zoology and comparative anatomy, by preparing catalogues of the collections in the museum of the royal college of surgeons, and lecturing on comparative anatomy. In 1856 he became superintendent of the natural history department of the British museum, a position favorable for his studies on living and fossil animals. He visited Paris and made the ac- quaintance of Cuvier, with whose name his will always be connected in the science of zoology. Owen's researches in zoology number nearly 400; they are largely devoted to structure, and em- brace every class of animals from a sponge to man. He produced monographs on the pearly nautilus, tne Venus flower-basket, king crab, the mud-fish, anthropoid apes, and manv extinct birds and reptiles. Amons his voluminoua writings are: Comparative Anatomy of Inver- tebrates; Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates; The Skeleton and the Teeth; History of British Fossils; Reptiles, Birds, Mam- mals. Died, 1892. Owen, Robert, English social reformer, was bom in Wales. 1771. In 1799 he married the daughter of David Dale, from whom, with others, he bought the village and cotton mills of New Lanark, Scotland. Here he introduced a sj'Stem of reform which proved for a time highly successful. In 1812 he published A New View of Society, and subsequently a Book of the New Moral World, and various other works, in which he maintained a theory of modified communism. He came to the United States in 1824, and tried to found a conununist society at New Harmony, Ind. ; but the scheme failed, and in 1827 he returned to Great Britain, where experiments of a similar nature, attended by a similar result, were made at Orbiston in Lanarkshire, and at Tytherley in Hampshire. In 1828 he went to Mexico on the invitation of the government to carry out his experiment there, but effected nothing. He revisited America several times. His ideas are clearly developed in his Lectures on a New State of Society; Essays on the Formation of Human Character; Outline of the Rational System; and especially in his Book of the New Moral World, in which he came forward as the founder of a system of religion and society according to reason. He finally became a spiritualist. Died, 1858. Owen, Robert Latham, lawyer, United States senator, was born at Lynchburg, Va., 1856. He was graduated at Washmgton and Lee university; was principal teacher in the Cherokee orphan asylum, 1879-80; began practice of law, 1880; was secretary of board of education, Cherokee nation, 1881-84; editor and owner Indian Chief- tain, Vinita, 1884; United States Indian agent for the five civilized tribes, 1885-89; organizer of the First national bank of Muskogee and its president, 189Q-1900. He is the owner of exten- sive banking, real estate, farming, and cattle interests. As attorney for Choctaws, Chicka- saws, and Cherokees he recovered from the United States government, in money, nearly §9,000,000 , drew up the act of congress of 1891, giving United States citizenship to every Indian in Indian territory. Elected United States senator from Oklahoma for terms, 1907-13, 1913-19. Oxenstjema (6k'-sen-shh-'-nd), Axel, Ck>unt, Swed- ish statesman, was bom at P'ano, in Upland, 1583. He was originally educated for the church, and studied theology as well as jurisprudence at Rostock, Jena, and Wittenberg, in the last of which universities he took his degrees. Although he afterward devoted himself to public affairs, he continued all his life to take a deep personal interest in religious questions, and labored zeal- ously for the extension of the Protestant doc- trines. He was made chancellor by Gustavus Adolphus in 1611; succeeded him as leader of the Protestant party in Germany, 1632-35; acted as regent throughout the minority of Christina, and became her chief minister when she assumed the government in 1644. Died, 1654. Oyama (d'-yd-md), Iwao, Prince, Japanese field- marshal, was bom in Kagoshima, 1842. He entered the Japanese army, was appointed colonel in 1871, promoted major-general in the same year, lieutenaat-general in 1878, general in 1891, and in 1898 was raised to the rank of field- marshal. Having served as military attachd 906 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT during the Franco-Prussian war, upon his return to Japan he entered the ministry of war, and assisted in the work of reorganizing the army. In the Satsuma rebellion of 1877 he took com- mand of a brigade, and played a conspicuous part in subduing the revolt. He was afterward appointed under-secretary, and subsequently minister of war. During the war between Japan and China he was minister of war, but took the field as commander of the second army, and captured Kinchow, Talienwan, Port Arthur, and Wei-hai-wei. In 1904 he was chief of the general staff, and when war broke out with Russia he was appointed commander-in-chief in Manchuria, defeating the Russians at the three great battles of Liao-Yang, the Shaho, and Mukden. He received the order of merit, 1906, and resigned his post as chief of the general staff in April. He was created prince in 1907. Packard, Alpheus Spring, American naturalist, was bom at Brunswick, Maine, 1839, was graduated from Bowdoin in 1861, and became assistant to Aga.ssiz at Cambridge. After taking part in tseveral scientific expeditions, he became state entomologist of Massachusetts and professor of zoology and geology at Brown university. He is widely known as an entomologist and zoolo^st. Besides many technical papers, his publications include. Guide to the Study of Insects; Our Com- mon Insects; Zoology; Entomology for Beginners; Text-Book of Entomology, etc. Died, 1905. Paderewski (pd'-dii-rff'-ske), Ignace Jan, Polish pianist and composer, was born in Podolia, Rus- sian Poland, 1860. He began to play the piano at three, and at seven was placeci by his father under the care of a local teacher, Pierre Lowinski, and with him remained for four years. In 1872 he went to Warsaw, studied under Roguski, and subsequently pursued his studies under the late Frederick Kiel of Berlin. In 1884 he resolved to adopt the career of a virtuoso, removed to Vienna, placed himself under his fellow- countryman, Theador Leschetizky, and at the expiration of three years' hard study made his d^but. Afterward he visited Germany, and in the autumn of 1889 made his first appearance before a Parisian audience. His first appearance in England took place at St. James's hall, London, 1890, and he has paid four visits to America. He has written Manru, an opera, Suite for Orchestra in G, etc. Paganlnl (p&'-ga-ne'-^e), Nicold, Italian violinist, son of a commission broker at Genoa, was born in 1784. His musical talent showed itself in his childhood; in his ninth year he had instructions from Costa at Genoa, and afterward from Rolla at Parma, and from Ghiretti. In 1805 he began a professional tour of Italy; he created subse- quently a great sensation on appearing in the principal towns of Germany. In 1831 his violin playing created an equal furor in Paris and Lon- don. His mastery of the violin has never been excelled. He died at Nice, 1840. Page, Carroll Smalley, banker, United States senator, was bom at Westfield, Vt., 1843. He received an academic education; LL. D., Nor- wich university; is president of the Lamoille County savings bank and trust company and of the Lamoille Coimty national bank, both of Hyde Park, Vt. ; is a director of the Swanton savings bank and trust company, of Swanton, Vt. Extensive dealer in raw calfskins. He represented Hyde Park in the house of representatives, iot^l^' ^^^ Lamoille coimty in the state senate, 1874-76; was savings bank examiner, 1884-88; governor of Vermont, 1890-92; and elected to the Umted States senate, 1908, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Redfield Proctor Unammously reelected, 1910. Page, Tbomas Nelson, American author, was bom on Oakland plantation, Hanover county, Virginia, 1853. He was educated at Washington and Lee university: LL. B., university of Virginia, 1874; Litt. D., Wasiiington and Lee, 1887, Yale, 1901: LL. D., Tulane university, 1899. He practiced law at Richmond, Va., 1875-93, but subsequently turned to literature and lecturing. Author: Jn Ole Virginia; Two Little Confederates; On New- found River; The Old South; Among the Camps; Elsket and Other Stories; Befo' de War (with Armistead C. Gordon); Pastime Stories; The Burial of the Guns; Unc' Edinburg Meh Lady; Morse Chan; PoUy; Social Life in Old Virginia; The Old Gentleman of the Black Stock; Two Prisoners; Red Rock; Santa Claus's Partner; A Captured Santa Claus; Gordon Keith; Ths Negro — The Southerner's Problem; Bred in the Bone; The Coast of Bohemia, poems; Under th$ Crust, etc. Pace, Walter Hines, American journalist and writer, editor of The World's Work since 1900. was bom at Cary, N. C, 1855. He was educated at Randoiph-Mac-on college, Virginia, and Johns Hopkins university; LL. D., Randolph-Macon, ana Tulane. He was editor of The Forum, 1890- 95; literary adviser to Houghton, MifHin and Company, 1895-99; editor of Tlie Atlantic Monthly, 1896-99; and is a member of the firm of Doubleday, Pace and Company, publishers. New York. Author: The Rebuilding of Old Commonwealths, etc. Paget (paf-U), Sir James, English surgeon, was bom at Yarmouth, England, in 1814. He entered the royal college of surgeons in 1836, became member of the council in 1865, president in 1875, and Bradshawe lecturer in 1882. He was surgeon to Queen Victoria, and to the then prince of Wales, and consulting surgeon to St. Bartholo- mew's hospital. He was made a baronet in 1871, and also an LL. D. bv the university of Edinburgh. His works are Lectures on Surgical Pathology, Clinical Lectures, etc. Died at London, 1899. Paine, John Knowles, American composer and organist, professor of music. Harvard, 1876-1906. was bom in Portland, Maine, 1839. He studied music under Hermann Kotzschmar there; made his first appearance as organist, 1S57; studied in Germany under Ilaupt and others, 1858-61 ; and made an artistic tour there, 1806-67. He was instructor in music. Harvard, in 1862, and becanae full professor there in 1876 ; A.M., Mus. D. He composed the music for the Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles performed in Greek at Cambridge, 1881; a number of symphonies and symphonic poems; overture to As You Like It; cantatjis. Nativity and Song of Promise; choruses to Birds of Aristophanes, etc.; opera of Azara; Centen- nial Hymn to Whittier's words, sung at opening of Philadelphia exposition, 1876; Columbus march and hymn for World's Columbian exposi- tion, 1893 ; liymn of the West, words by Stedman, sung at the opening of the St. Louis exposition, 1904; the oratorio, St. Peter; cantatas, Realm of Fancy, Phoebus Arise, etc. Died, 1906. Paine, Thomas, Anglo-American writer, was bom, 1737, at Thetford, England. He was trained to the business of his father, who was a staymaker, but afterward obtained a situation in the customs, and the management of a tobacco manufactory. His income, however, was small, and he fell into . debt, and was dismissed in 1774, after which he came to America, was favorably received by a bookseller in Philadelphia, and in 1776 published a pamphlet entitled Common Sense, in which he maintained the cause of the colonies against the mother country. The success and influence of this publication were extraordinary, and it won him the friendship of Washington, Franklin, and THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 907 other distinguished American leaders. He was appointed by congress secretary to the committee of foreign affairs; visited France in the summer of 1787, wiiere he made the acquaintance of Buffon, Malesherbes, La Rochefoucauld, and other eminent men; and in the autumn following went to England, where, in 1791-92, he published The Rights of Man, the most famous of all the replies to Burke's Reflections upon tfie French Revolution. In 1792 the department of Pas-de- Calais elected him a deputy to the national con- vention, where he usually voted with the Giron- dists. At the trial of Louis XVI. he proposed that the king should be spared and afforded an opportunity of seeking an asylum in America. In 1793 Robespierre caused him to be ejected from the convention on the ground of his being a foreigner, and thrown into prison. Wliile he was in France, appeared Tlie Age of Reason, against atheism and against Christianity, and in favor of deism. In 1802 he returned to the United States, and died, 1809. Palestrlna (pa'4ds-tre'-n&), Giovanni Pierluigi da, distinguished Italian composer, was born near Rome about 1514. In 1551 he was made master of the Julian chapel, Rome, and in 1554 published a collection of masses, so highly approved by Pope Julius III., to whom they were dedicated, that he appointed their author one of the singers of the pontifical chapel. During the remaining years of his life the number and the quality of the works of Palestrina were remarkable. His pub- lished works consist of thirteen books of Masses; six books of Motets; one book of Lamentations; one book of Hymns; one book of Offertories; one book of Magnificats; one book of Litanies; and four books of Madrigals. These works mark an epoch in the annals of music. He died in 1594. Paley (pd'-Zi), William, English divine and writer, was born at Peterborough in 1743. He was educated at Christ's college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1766, and for ten subsequent j'ears he resided at the university. In 1776 he obtained the vicarages of Dalston, in Cumberland, and Appleby, in Westmoreland. Within the next nine years he became a preben- dary, archdeacon, and chancellor of Carlisle. In 1785 he at once attained high reputation by his Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy. In this work he propounds his ethical theory, which is commonly called utilitarianism. In 1790 appeared his most original and valuable work — the HorcB Paulince; then followed A View of the Evidences of Christianity and Natural Theology. The latter, however, is based on, and, to a large extent, is borrowed from the Religious Philosopher, a work by a Dutch philosopher named Nieu- wentyt. He was successively made vicar of Stanwix, a prebendary of St. Paul's, subdean of Lincoln, a doctor of divinity, and rector of Bishop's Wearmouth. Died, 1805. Palissy (pd'-le'-se'), Bernard de. See page 342. Palladlo (pal4a'-dy6), Andrea, famous Italian architect, was born at Vicenza, 1518. After having studied with the greatest care the writings of Vitruvius and jthe monuments of antiquity at Rome, he settled in his native city, and first acquired a reputation by his restoration of the basilica of Vicenza. His style, knoT\Ti as the Palladian, is a composite, and is characterized by great splendor of execution and justness of proportion, and it exercised an immense influence on the architecture of northern Italy. He died at Vicenza, 1580. He wrote a work on architec- ture which is highly prized. Palma (pal'-ma), Tomas Estrada, Cuban patriot, was bom about 1836 in Bayamo, Cuba; studied law at university of Seville, but never practiced ; and took part in the Cuban revolution of 1868-78, in the early part of which his mother had been captured and starved to death by the Spaniards. Her death made him heir to a vast estate, which the Spaniards confiscated. He became president of the Cuban republic, but was captured, 1877, and imprisoned until hostilities ceased, 1878. He then went to Honduras; became a teacher and later postmaster-general; married a daugh- ter of President Guardiola; came to the United States, and settled in Central Valley, Orange county, N. Y. During the last Cuban revolution he was delegate-at-large and minister plenipo- tentiary for Cuban republic, and subsequently president of Cuba, 1902-06. He died, 1908. Palmer, Alice Freeman, American educator, was born at Colesville, N. Y., 1855. She graduated at the university of Michigan, 1876 ; was professor of history at Wellesley college, 1879-81; presi- dent, 1882-87; and non-resident dean of the woman's department, university of Chicago, 1892-95. She married George Herbert Palmer, professor of philosophy in Harvard university, in 1887. She was one of the most forceful and cultured of American educators. Died, 1902. Palmer, Edward Henry, English explorer and orientalist, was born, 1840, at Cambridge. He graduated from Cambridge in 1867; devoted himself to oriental studies; and during 1808-70 was engaged for the Palestine exploration fund in the survey of Sinai and the desert. In 1871 he was appointed Lord Almoner's professor of Arabic at Cambridge, and in 1874 was admitted to the English bar. In 1881 he turned journalist, writing principally for the Standard. In 1882, on the eve of Arabi's Egyptian rebellion, sent by government to win over the Sinai tribes, he, Captain Gill, and Lieutenant Charrington were on August 11th murdered in the ravine of Wady Sudr. Among Palmer's works are the Desert of the Exodus; Arabic Grammar; Song of the Reed; Poems of Behh ed Din Zoheir; Persian Dic- tionary; Haroun Alraschid; and a translation of the Koran. Palmer, Erastus Dow, American sculptor, was bom at Pompey, N. Y., 1817. He was a joiner by trade, and made carvings first of animals and leaves in wood. Seeing a cameo head, he cut on a shell a portrait of his wife, and his success induced him to try working in marble. The bas-reliefs, "Morning and Evening," "The Sleep- ing Peri," "The Angel at the Sepulchre," in the cemetery at Albany ; "Immortality," "Faith," and "Sappho," are some of his best known works. He executed busts of Alexander Hamilton, Washington Irving, Commodore Perry, and others, and a statue of Robert Livingstone, for the state of New York, cast in bronze. "Tlie Landing of the Pilgrims," in the capitol at Wash- ington, IS one of his largest works. He died, 1904. Palmer, George Herbert, American educator and scholar, Alford professor of natural religion, moral philosophy, and civil polity, Harvard, since 1889, was bom in Boston, 1842. He graduated at Harvard, 1864; studied at the university of Tiibingen, 1867-69- graduated Andover theological seminary, 1870"; LL. D., uni- versity of Michigan, 1894, Union, 1895, Harvard, 1906; Litt. D., Western Reserve, 1897. He was tutor in Greek at Harvard, 1870-72, assistant professor, 1873-83, and professor of philosophy, 1883-89. Author : The Odyssey, an English trans- lation in rythmic prose; The New Education; The Glory of the Imperfect; Self Cultivation in English; The Antigone of Sophocles, a translation ; The Field of Ethics; The Nature of Goodness; The Life and Works of George Herbert; and Life of Alice Freeman Palmer, etc. Palmerston (pdm'-ir-stun), Henry John Temple, Viscount, British statesman, was bom at Broad- lands, in Hampshire, 1784. He entered parlia- ment as member for Newport in 1807, and in 1811 908 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT became member for the university of Cambridge, which constituency he represented until 1831. He afterward became member for Bletchingly and for South Hampshire successively, and from 1835 to his death represented Tiverton. Lord Palmerston was engaged in official life during nearly the whole of his career. In 1807 he became a junior lord of the admiralty under the duke of Portland, and from 1809 to 1828 was secretary for war. In the administrations of Earl Grey, Viscount Melbourne, and Lord John Russell, he held the post of foreign secretary, resigning that office in 1851 because of a difference between himself and his colleagues arising out of his too ready acknowledgment of the coup d'6tat effected by Louis Napoleon. In 1852 he became home secretary under the earl of Aber- deen, whom he succeeded as first lord of the treasury in 1855. In 1858 he was defeated and compelled to resign office owing to a conspiracy bill arising out of Orsini's attempt to assassmate Napoleon III.; but in the following year he returned to power, and remained prime minister until his death. He was a statesman of unerring tact and deep sagacity in relation to questions of foreign policy, of which he was an acknowledged master. Died, 1865. I Paoll {■p&'-o4e), Pasquale, famous Corsican patriot, ! was Dorn in 1725 at Morosaglia, in Corsica. In 1755 he was elected captain-general of the island. He actively applied himself to the reformation of the barbarous laws and customs of the island, and at the same time to the expulsion of the Genoese. In 1789 he entered into the schemes of the revolutionary party: but during the an- archy of France in 1792-93 he conceived a scheme for making Corsica an independent republic. He allied himself with Britain, favored the landing of 2,000 British troops in the island in 1794, and joined them in driving out the French. He then surrendered the island to George III., but, becoming dissatisfied with the government, he quarreled with the British viceroy. He therefore retired from the island in 1796, and spent the remainder of his life in the neighbor- hood of London. He died, 1807. Pape, Eric, American artist, illustrator, was bom in San Francisco, 1870. He received his art educa- tion in Paris under Boulanger, Lefebvre, Con- stant, Doucet, Blanc, and Delance and at Ecole des Beaux Arts under G6r6me and Laurens, and has lived in France, Germany, and Egypt. Instructor in the Cowles art sbhool, Boston, 1897 ; founded, 1898, and has since been director and head instructor of the Eric Pape school of art. He exhibited at Paris salon, 1890-1900, World's Columbian exposition, 1893, Munich Kunst Austellung, 1897, Omaha exposition, 1899, Paris exposition, 1900, Pan-American expo- sition, 1901, St. Louis exposition, 1904, and at various art museums and exhibitions in the United States and abroad, and has illustrated many important works. Papln ipd-p&N'), Denis, French physicist, was born at Blois, 1647. He studied medicine in Paris, where, after receiving his degree, he practiced for some time as a physician. To Papin undoubtedly belongs the high honor of having first applied steam to produce motion by raising a piston; he combined with this the simplest means of producing a vacuum beneath the raised piston — viz., by condensation of aqueous vapor; he is also the inventor of the safety valve," an essential part of his "digest- er. By this latter machine Papin showed that liquids in a vacuum can be made to boil at a much lower temperature than when freely exposed to the air. Papin's sagacity led him to many other discoveries, among which was the principle of action of the siphon. He improved the pneumatic machine of Otto de Guericke, and took part against Leibnitz in the discussion con- cerning "living" and "dead" forces. Died at Marburg, Germany, 1712. Papinianus (pa-pin-l-a'-nua), JEvaUlus, Roman jurist, was bom about 14G. He held offices at Home under Septimius Severus, but was put to death by Caracalla in 212. He was remarkable for his juridical genius, the lucidity of his decisions and his high sense of right and morality. Nearly GOO excerpts from his legal works were incorpora- ted in Justinian's PandecU. Pappenheim {p&p'-en-him), Gottfried Helnrtch, Count von, a great imperialist general in the thirty years' war, was born, 1594, at Pappen- heim, Bavaria, of an old and distinguished Swabian family. He studied at Altdorf and Tiibingen. and at the age of twenty went over to the Catnolic church. He served under the king of Poland against the Russians and the Turks, and then joined the Catholic league, defeating the Bohe- mians at Prague in 1620. Again, in 1626, in the Austrian service, he suppressed the peasant revolt, in which 40,000 peasants died, and then fought against the Danes, Swedes, and Saxons of the Protestant league. At Liitzen, in 1632, he arrived in time to save Wallenstein from defeat by the Swedes, but was mortally wounded in the second charge and died at Leipzig, 1632. Paracelsus (pdr-d-sil'-siis), otherwise Theophrsstus Bombastus von Hohenheim, German-Swiss phy- sician and alchemist, was bom in Switzerland in 1493. He entered Basel university at sixteen, studied alchemy and chemistry with Trithemius bishop of Wiirzburg, and next at the mines in Tyrol learned the properties of metals and min- erals. In subsequent wanderings he amassed a vast store of facts, learned the actual practice of medicine, but lost all faith in scholastic dis- quisitions and disputations. He acquired fame as a medical practitioner, was made town phy- sician at Basel, and lectured on medicine at the university, but flouted at Galen and Avicenna, and justified the furious enmities that pursued him by his own vanitv, arrogance, aggressiveness, and intemperate habits. A dispute with the magistrates in 1528 drove him from Basel; he wandered for a dozen years, and settled in 1541 at Salzburg, but died in the same year, having been thrown out of a window by some of his excited opponents. Of some 250 works attrib- uted to him, the critics admit only from ten to twenty-four as genuine, the others being by his followers the "Paracelsists." In spite of his attraction to alchemy and mysticism, he made new chemical comf)ounds, and improved phar- macy and therapeutics, encouraged research and experiment, ana, in an empirical fashion, revo- lutionized hide-bound medical methods. Paris (pd'-re'), Comte de, Louis Philippe Albert d'Orldans, grandson of King Louis Philippe, was born in Paris, 1838. He was educated in Eng- land; accompanied his uncle, the Prince de Joinville, to the United States, 1861, whe*^ he served for ten months on the staff of Generals McClellan and Porter. He afterward returned to France, entered the national assembly in 1871, but was expelled in 1886, and went to England where he occupied himself in writing a History of the American CivU War. He was the bead of the Orleans familv, and a claimant to the French throne. Died", 1894. Park, Mungo, eminent African explorer, was bom near Selkirk, Scotland, in 1771, and educated at Edinburgh university. In 1795 he set out for Africa to find the source and course of the Niger river, in which he succeeded the following year. He returned to Great Britain and published his Travels in the Interior of Africa. In 1805 he THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 909 headed a large expedition in search of the mouth of the Niger. Most of the party died, and finally Park and his three remaining companions were drowned in the rapids near Boussa, 1806. The details of the expedition were made known through his journal and the discoveries of later explorers. Park, Roswell, American physician, was bom at Pomfret, Conn., 1852. He was graduated from Racine college: A. M., Harvard; M. D., medical department of Northwestern university, 187G; hon. M. D., Lake Forest university; LL. D., Yale, 1902. He was instructor in anatomy. Woman's medical college, Chicago, 1877-79; adjunct professor of anatomy, medical depart- ment. Northwestern university, 1879-82; lec- turer on surgery. Rush medical college, Chicago, 1882; and since 1883 professor of surgery, medical department, university of Buffalo, and surgeon to Buffalo general hospital. He is a member of all national and several foreign sur- gical societies. He attended President McKinley after he was shot, 1901. Author: Lectures on Surgical Pathology; History of Medicine; Text- Book of Surgery (2 vols.); The Principles and Practice of Modern Surgery, etc. Parker, Alton Brooks, American lawyer, jurist, was bom in Cortland, N. Y., 1852. He was educated at the Cortland academy, Cortland normal school, and graduated at the Albany law school; LL. D., Union university. After admis- sion to the bar he practiced in Kingston, N. Y. ; was surrogate of Ulster county, 1877-85; dele- gate to democratic national convention, 1884; tendered office of, first assistant postmaster- general, 1885; chairman of democratic state committee, 1885; appointed justice of supreme court of New York, 1885, elected, 1886; justice court of appeals, second division, 1889-92; member of general term, 1893-96, of appellate division, 1896-97; and chief-justice of court of appeals, 1898-1904. He resigned to accept democratic nomination for the presidency made on first ballot, July 9, 1904. He was president of the American bar association, 1906-07, and is now practicing law as a member of the firm of Parker, Hatch and Sheehan. Parker, Sir Horatio Gilbert, Anglo-Canadian novel- ist, was born in Canada, 1862. He was educated at Trinity college, Toronto; D. C. L., Toronto. He was trained to journalism in Australia, and there first began his literary and dramatic work ; traveled among South Sea islands, and exten- sively in the East, in Europe, Egypt, and north- em Canada; initiated and organized the first imperial universities conference in London, 1903. He is the author of A Lover's Diary, poems; The Vendetta; No Defence; Round the Compass in Australia; Pierre and His People; Mrs. Falchion; The Trespasser; The Translation of a Savage; The Trail of the Sword; When Valmond Came to Pontine; An Adventurer of the North; The Seats of the Mighty; The Pomp of the LaviU- ettes; The Battle of the Strong; The Lane That Had No Turning; The Right of Way; Donovan Pasha; History of Old Quebec; A Ladder of Stvords; The Weavers; Northern Lights, etc. He was returned to parliament for Gravesend as a Unionist in 1900, and was knighted in 1902. Packer, Horatio William, American composer and organist, professor of the theory of mtisic, Yale, since 1894, was bom at Auburndale, Mass., 1863. He was educated at Auburndale and in Europe; graduated at Roval Conservatoire, Munich, 1885 ; M. A., Yale, 1892; Mus. D., Cambridge uni- versity, England, 1902. He was professor of music, cathedral school of St. Paul, Garden City, L. I., 1885-87; organist, Holy Trinity church. New York, 1888-93, and at Trinity church, Boston, 1893-1901. His Hora Novissima was performed at the Chester (England) festival, July, 1899, and, in September 1899, at festival of the three choirs, Worcester, England. He is author of the cantatas. King Trojan and The Kobolda; the oratorios, Hora Novissima and St. Christo- pher, and much other music, sacred and secular. Awarded the Metropolitan opera prise of $10,000 for the opera Mona, 1911. Parker, Joseph, English preacher and author, the son of a stonecutter, was born at Hexham, 1830. He studied at University college, London, and became pastor of Congregational chapels at Banbury, Manchester, and, in 1869, of that now represented by the City temple in London. Among his books are: Helps to Truth-seekers; Ecce Dctw, a reply to Ecce Homo; Ad Clerum; City Temple Sermons; Inner Life of Christ; Apostolic Life; People's Prayer-book; People's Bible; Tt/ne Chylde: My Life and Teaching, etc. Died, 1902. Parker, Matthew, second Protestant archbishop of Canterbury, was bom at Norwich, England, 1504. He studied at Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, and was ordained a priest in 1527. In 1535 he was appointed chaplain to Queen Anne BolejTi, who, not long before her death, exhorted her daughter Elizabeth to avail herself of Parker's wise and pious counsel. In 1552 he was presented by King Edward VI. to the canonry and prebend of Covingham, in the church of Lincoln. On the accession of Queen Mary he refused to conform to the reestablished order of things, and was deprived of his prefer- ments, and even obliged to conceal himself. The death of Mary, and the accession of Eliza^ beth, called him from his compulsory retirement, when he was appointed by the queen archbishop of Canterbury. "The subsequent history of Archbishop Parker," it has been justly remarked, "is that of the church of England." It is to Parker we owe the "Bishops' Bible," undertaken at his request, carried on under his inspection, and published at his expense in 1572. He haa also the principal share in drawing up the Book of Common Prayer. It was under his presidency, too, that the thirty-nine articles were finally reviewed and subscribed to by the clergy, 1562. He died, 1575. Parker, Theodore, American clergyman and scholar, was bom at Lexington, Mass.. 1810. He entered Harvard college in 1830, and during his collegiate course supported himself by teaching private classes and scliools, and studied meta^ physics, theology, Anglo-Saxon, Syriac, Arabic. Danish, Swedisli, German, French, Spanish, and modem Greek. He then graduated from Har- vard divinity school in 1836, and the next year became a Unitarian minister at West Roxbury. He was somewhat separated from the conserva- tive Unitarians, as shown ^ his sermon. The Transient and Permanent in Christianity, and his Discourse on Af alters pertaining to Religion, fol- lowed by Sermons of the Times, all of which attracted widespread notice and comment. His complete works, in twelve volumes, edited by F. P Cobbe, were published in 1863-65. After a trip to Europe for his health, he retximed in 1844 and for years preached to immense congregations at Melodeon and Music halls, Boston. He also lectured throughout the country and became an ardent anti-slavery agitator. His health com- pelled him to go to Mexico, thence to Italy, where ke died at Florence, 1860. Parkhurst, Charles Henry, American Presbjrterian clergj'man, was bom in Framingham, Mass., 1842. He graduated from Amherst, 1866; studied theology at Halle, 1869-70, and Leipzig, 1872-73; D. D., LL. D., Amherst. He taught in Williston seminary, Easthampton, Mass., 1870- 71; wae pastor of the Congregational church. 910 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Lenox, Mass., 1874-80; and since 1880 pastor of Madison Square Presbyterian churcli, New York. He became president in 1891 of the society for prevention of crime, and his assertion of partner- ship of police with criminals led to an investiga- tion of the New York police by the New York legislature. Author: Forma of the Latin Verb Illustrated by the Sanskrit; The Blind Man's Creed; The Pattern on the Mount; Three Gates on a Side; What Would the World Be Without Religion? The Suriss Guide; Our Fight with Tammany; The Sunny Side of Christianity; A Little Lower than the Angels, etc. Parkman, Francis, American historical writer, was born in Boston in 1823; graduated at Harvard, 1844. He began the study of law, but aban- doned it to devote himself to historical literature. He lived some time among the Indians of the Rocky mountains, and wrote The Conspiracy of Pontiac; The Old Rigime in Canada; Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV.; Montcalm and Wolfe; A Half Century of Conflict; The California and the Oregon Trail, etc. He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., 1893. Parmenides (par-min'-i-dez), Greek philosopher, and greatest member of the Eleatic school, was born at Elea, and flourished about the fifth century B. C. In his didactic poem On Nature he sought to demonstrate the reality of absolute being. The fragments were rendered into English hexameters by Thomas Davidson, and paraphrased in English prose by W. L. Courtney, in 1882. Pamell (pilr'-nSl), Charles Stewart, Irish statesman, was born in 1846, in Avondale, Ireland, and was educated at Cambridge. He entered public life as member for Meath in 1875, and two years later became conspicuous for his opposition to the prisons bill. He gradually ousted Mr. Butt from the leadership of the home rule party, and, in 1880, became leader of the Irish party and entered upon the land agitation. At the general election he was elected for three constituencies, but chose Cork, and as the head of the land league was prosecuted in 1880, by the Gladstone government, the result being a disagreement of the jury. In the following session, with the majority of his followers, he was removed from the house of commons by the sergeant-at-arms for obstructing business, and in October was imprisoned in Kilmainham under the coercion act. He was released in April, 1882, but the "no rent" manifesto had meanwhile been issued, and in 1883 the national league took the place of the suppressed land league. At the general election of 1885, he nominated every home rule candidate, and subsequently entered into an alliance with the followers of Gladstone. In the next parliament he proposed a bill to suspend evictions and reduce rent, after the rejection of which the agitation continued. In 1888 a special commission was appointed to examine the charges made against Pamell and others by the London Times, the result being his acquittal. He then brought suit for libel against the Times and recovered £5,000 damages. In consequence of the result of the O'Shea divorce case in 1890, he was deposed by the majority of his partv, but continued to lead the minority and to carry on an active campaign until his death in 1891. Parrhasius (.pd-ra'-shl-Hs), celebrated Greek painter, was the son of Evenor, also an artist, and was bom at Ephesus in the fifth centurv B. C. He practiced his profession at Athens," the inhabit- ants of which held him in high estimation, and conferred on him the rights of citizenship. According to Pliny he was the first who estab- lished a true proportion between the different parts of a picture, and delineated with elegance and precision all the minutiae of the features even to those evanescent motions that betray the most delicate sentiments of the soul. Quintilian called him the legislator of his art, because his canon of proportion for gods and heroes waa followed by all contemporary and subsequent painters. Among his works were an apparently symbolical picture of the "Atheniaui Demos' : ''^l^heseus"; "Naval Commander in Full Armor"; "Ulysses Feigning Madness." Parrottv Robert Parker, American inventor, waa born in New Hampshire in 1804, graduated at West Point in 1824, and waa assistant professor there of mathematica and of natural and experi- mental philosophy until 1829. He became captain in the ordnance corps in 1836, and soon afterward superintendent of the West Point iron and cannon foundry, at Cold Springs, N. Y., where he waa first judge of the court of common pleaa, 1844-47. Here he invented the Parrott system of rifled ^na and projectilea, which were first introoor, society for reformation of juvenile delinquents, Manhattan eye and ear hospital, etc. Parsons, William Barclay, American engineer, waa born in New York, 1859. He was graduated at Columbia university, 1879, C. E., 1882. He made surveys for the Canton-Hankow railway, China, 1,000 nailes, 1898-99; as chief engineer of the New York rapid transit commission, designed and constructed underground railway s^tem in New York ; was a member of the isthmian canal commission and of the advisory board to the royal commission of London traffic, 1904. He is a member of the American society of civil engineers, etc. Author: Turnouts; Track; An American Engineer in China, and various mono- graphs. Parton, James, American author, was bom at Canterbury, England, 1822, and was brought to New York when five years old. He began literary work on the Home Journal of New York, and published lives of Horace Greeley, Franklin. Jefferson, and Burr; Famous Americans of Recent Times; Triumphs of Enterprise; Captains of Industry; Noted Women of Europe and America; and a collection of the Humorous Poetry of the English Language. He died at Newburyport, Mass., 1891. Partridge, William Ordway, American sculptor, author, was born at Paris, France, 1861. He PASTEUR IN HIS LABORATORY From a fainting hy Edlefclt THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 013 studied at Columbia college, and received his art education in Rome, Florence, and Paris. His works include statue of Shakespeare, Lincoln park, Chicago; bronze statue Alexander Hamil- ton, Brooklyn; Kauffmann memorial, Wash- ington; bust of Edward E. Hale, Union League club, Chicago; Whittier, Boston public library; equestrian statue General Grant for Union League club, Brooklyn ; Schermerhorn memorial, Columbia university; baptismal font, St. Peter and St. Paul cathedral, Washington; group, "Christ and St. John," Brooklyn museum of fine arts; statue, "Pocahontas," Jamestown exposi- tion, 1907, etc. He has been an exhibitor at the salon, Paris, royal academy, London and Berlin. Author: Art for America; The Song Life of a Sculptor; The Technique of Sculpture; The Angel of Clay, a novel; Nathan Hale, the Ideal Patriot; The Czar's Gift, a novel. Pascal (pds'-kdl'), Blaise, French philosopher and scholar, was born at Clermont, in Auvergne, 1623. From his childhood he gave evidence of remark- able capacity. His gift for mathematics was extraordinary, and he contributed largely to the development of that science. But, when he was in his thirty-fourth year, he renounced the study of mathematics and natural philosophy, as well as of all human learning, and devoted himself wholly to religious meditation, mortification, and prayer. The last five years of his life were spent in retirement at Port Royal, near Paris. But his retirement did not prevent his noticing what was passing in the world; and he took an interest in the controversy between the Jesuits and the Jansenists, which led to the publication of the Provincial Letters, in favor of the latter. The wit and genius of his Provincial Letters have always been acknowledged, though their fairness has been questioned. His Thoughts on Religion has been translated into most European lan- guages, and has been many times republished. Died at Paris, 1662. Pasteur (pds'-tur'), Louis, distinguished French chemist and bacteriologist, born in 1822 at D61e. He received the degree of doctor of science in 1847; in 1848 became professor of physical science at Dijon, and in 1849 of chemistry at Strassburg. In 1854 he became dean of the faculty of science at Lille; in 1857 director of the Ecole Normale Supdrieure, Paris; in 1863 professor of geology, physics, and chemistry at the school of fine arts; and 1867-75 professor of chemistry at the Sorbonne, Paris. From 1886 on, his researches were made in connection with the Pasteur institute. At a very early date he became celebrated for researches on isomeric crystals and their behavior in polarized light, which obtained for him the London royal society's Rumford medal in 1856. In the years 1854-57 he made researches on ferments and fermentation, which also created an epoch, and led directly to his further studies in specific germs. He subse- quently spent four years in studying and suc- cessfully combating the contagious silkworm dis- ease; then the, diseases of fowl-cholera and anthrax, which he successfully treated by vaccine of diluted virus. In 1882 he was elected to the French academy. His latest work was connected with a vaccine treatment for hydrophobia; but concerning this much doubt has been expressed of late years. Pasteur must, however, be regarded as the parent of the whole modem science of bacteriology, which has already attained such momentous results. Died, 1895. Pater (pa'-tSr), Walter Horatio, English essayist and critic, was born in London, 1839, edu- cated at Oxford, and became a fellow at Brase- nose college. Except for short visits to the continent, he spent practically all of his life in quiet study at Oxford. He came early under the influence of Keble, Jowett, and Ruslcin, and succeeded the latter as the high priest of aesthetic thought. Hia Studies in the History of the Renaissance in 1873 revealed him as a penetrat- ing critic with a beautiful prose style. Among hia other works are: Alariua the lijticurean; Imaginary Portraits; Plato and Platonism; The Child in the House; and Greek Studies. He died in 1894. Paton {pa'-tun)f Sir Joseph Noel, British painter, was born at Dunfermline, Scotland, 1821. Ho stwlied art at the royal academy, London. His pictures of "Christ Bearing the Cross," and 'Reconciliation of Obcron and Titania," together gained a prize of $1,500. Scenes from fairyland and legend and religious allegory have made his work familiar and have often been engraved. Among his works are: "Home from theCnmea"; "Luther at Erfurt"; "The Fairy Raid"; "Gethsemane"; "Christ and Mary at the Sepulchre"; "The Man of Sorrows"; and "Ihy Will Be Done." He is known also by his illustrations of the Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers and The Ancient Mariner. Died, 1901. Patten (p&f-'n), Simon Nelson, American economist and writer, professor of political economy, uni- versity of Pennsvlvania, since 1888, was born at Sandwich, 111., 1852. He graduated at Halle, Germany, 1878, with the degree of Ph. D. Author: Premises of Political Economy; Eco~ nomic Basis of Protection; Theory of Dynamic Economics; Theory of Social Forces; Develop- ment of English Thought; Theory of Prosperity; Heredity and Social Progress; The New Basis of Civilization, etc. Patterson, Thomas Macdonald, lawyer, journalist, ex-United States senator, was born in Ireland, 1840. He was brought to the United States in childhood, and received his education at Asbury (now De Pauw) university, and Wabash college; was admitted to the bar, and has practiced at Denver, Colorado. He was city attorney, Den- ver, 1874; delegate in congress, Colorado terri- tory, 1875-77; elected first member of congress, Colorado, for term of 1877-79; purchased Rocky Mountain News, 1890, and has edited it ever since. He was elected Urxited States senator from Colorado, 1901-07. Pattl (pdt'-e), Adelina Maria Clorlnda (now Baroness Rolf Cederstrom), noted operatic singer, was born at Madrid, Spain, 1843, daughter of Salvatore Patti of Catania, Sicily, and Caterina Chiesa, a well-known opera singer. She studied under Ettore Barili, and made her d^but at the Academy of Music, New York, 1859; Italian opera house, Covent Garden, in La Sonnambida, 1861. Her voice was a high soprano, of rich bell-like quality and remarkable evenness of tone ; to these qualities she added purity of style and high artistic finish. She won golden opinions on the continent wherever she appeared, and re- ceived, in 1870, the order of merit from the emperor of Russia. Her greatest success is generally considered to have been in the part of Marguerite in Gounod's Faiist. In 1868 she was married to the Marquis de Caux, from whom she was divorced in 1885. She then married M. Nicolini, in 1886, who died in 1898, and finally Baron Cederstrom, in 1899. She has appeared in the United States, South America, and Mexico at various times Pattlson, Mark, English writer and scholar, was bom at Hornby, in Yorkshire, England, in 1813. He studied at Oxford and became a fellow of Lincoln college in 1839. His life was that of a scholar, and his standard was so high that his work largely suggests his power as a writer. He contributed articles to the Quarterly, the Weat- m^inster, and the Saturday Review, and wrote biographies of Isaac Casaubon and Milton, the 914 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT latter one of the best lives in the English Men of LeUers series. He also edited Pope's Essay on Man, his Satires and Epistles, and the Sonnets of Milton. In 1861 he was made rector of Lincoln college. He died at Harrowgate, 1884. Fatten, Francis Landey. American educator, theo- logian, was born in Warwick parish, Bermuda, 1843. He was educated at Knox college. Toronto, and university of Toronto; graduated from Princeton theological seminary, 18G5; LL. D., Wooster miiversity, 1878, Harvard, 1889, Toronto, 1894, Yale, 1901, Johns Hopkins, 1902. He was ordained to Presbyterian min- istry, 1865; was pastor of 84th street Presby- terian church. New York, 1865-67, Presbyterian church, Nyack, 1867-70, and South church, Brooklyn, 1871. He was professor in McCormick theological seminary, Chicago, 1872-81 ; pastor of Jefferson Park Presbyterian church, Chicago, 1874-81 ; was moderator of the general assembly. 1878; professor of relations of philosophy and science to the Christian religion, Princeton theological seminary, 1881-88, and since 1886 professor of ethics, Princeton university. He was president of jPrinceton university, 1888- 1902, and resigned to accept the presidency of Princeton theological seminary. Author: The Inspiration of the Scriptures; Summary of Chris- tian Doctrine, etc. Paul St. See page 206. Paul III. (Alessandro Famese), pope from 1534 to 1549, was born in Tuscany m 1468. Though ambitious to advance his family, making car- dinals of two grandsons while they were yet bovs. he was, however, a wise ruler and surrounded himself with good cardinals. His bull, or decree of excommunication against Henry VIII. of England, issued in 1538, and the one forming the order of the Jesuits, 1540, are the most imjjortant edicts of his reign. He supported Charles V. in his struggles against the Protestant league in Germany. He died suddenly, 1549. Paulding, James Kirke, American author, was bom at Pleasant Valley, N. Y., 1779. He was self- educated, early developed a tendencv to litera- ture, was a friend of Washington Irving, and wrote a portion of Salmaguruli. During the war of 1812 he published The Diverting History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan; in 1813 a parody on the Lay of the Last Minstrel, entitled A Lay of the Scottish Fiddle; and in 1814 a mor« serious work. The United States and England, a defense against articles in the Quarterly Review. He held at one period the post of navy agent at New York, and was appointed by President Van Buren secretary of the navy. At the close of Van Buren's presidency, in 1841, Paulding retired to a country residence at Hyde Park, N. Y., where he wrote The Old Continental, a novel ; The Puritan and His Daughter; and, with his son, a volume of plays and fairy tales. Died, 1860. Paur {pour), Emil, German musical director, director of New York philharmonic society, and conductor of Paur orchestra, 1899-1900; was bom in Austria, 1855. He was a pupil of his father, of Hellmesberger for viohn, and of Dessoff for composition, and also graduated at the Vienna conservatory. He was appointed first violin of Vienna imperial opera house; court conductor at Cassel, Hanover, 1876-80: first conductor and director of opera and Abonne- ments-Konzerte, Mannheim, 1880-88 ; conductor of opera, Leipzig, 1888-93 ; conductor of Boston aymphony, 1893-98. He has also appeared With leading concert organizations, and as solo pianist, and has been conductor of the Pittsburgh orchestra since 1904. Paxton, Sir Joseph, Enghsh architect, was bom in Bedfordshire, England, 1801. He began life as a gardener in the service of the duke of Devon- shire His care of the great glass conservatories of the duke of Chatsworth suggested to him the use of glass and iron for the building, in Hyde Park, London, of the great exhibition of 1851. Paxton was knighted for his successful design. He afterward designed the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, and superintended its building, laid out the terraces, and planned the gardens He published the Cottage Calendar, which was very popular- Paxton a Flower Garden; edited the Botanical Magarine, and a Botanical Pocket Dictionary He sat in parliament for nine years, and died at Sydenham, near Ix>ndon, 1865. Payne, John Howard, American dramatist, was bom at New York, 1792 His first appearance as an actor was in that city in 1809. He was a successful actor for thirty years, and also wrote several plays, of which the best known are Brutus, CharUs II., and Clari. The song, " Home, Sweet Home," for which he is remembered, is in Clari, which was produced as an opera. The author of " Home, Sweet Home " had no home for the last forty years of his life, and died during his incumbency as American consul at Tunis, 1852. His remains were brought to America, and buried at Washington in 1883. Payne, Sereno Elisha, lawyer, congressman, waa bom at Hamilton, N. Y.. 1843. He graduated at the university of Rochester, 1864; LL. D., Colgate, 1902, university of Rochester, 1903. lie waa admitted to the bar, 1866, and has since been in practice at Auburn, N. Y. He was dis- trict attorney of Cayuga county, 1873-79; president of board of education, 1879^2, Auburn, N. Y.; member of congress for 2Cth district, 1883-85. 27th district, 188^87, 31fit district, 1889-1913, and 36th district, 1913-15, New York. He is chairman of the committee on wavs and means; he was active in framing the McKinley, Dingley, and Payne- .\ldrich tariff laws. He was a member of the high joint commission to nego- tiate treaty with Canada, 1898. Paynter, Thomas H- lawyer, ex-United States senator, was bom in Lewis county, Ky., 1851. He was educated at Rand's academv, and at Center college, Danville, Ky.; studiem 1895 until bis death in 1909. 916 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Pedro I. (pd'-dro), emperor of Brazil, was the second son of John VI. of Portugal, and was born in 1798. He fled to Brazil with his parents on Napoleon's invasion, and became prmce-regent of Brazil on his father's return to Portugal, 1821. He declared for Brazilian independence in 1822, and was crowned as Pedro I. The new empire did not prove successful under his rule, and Pedro in 1831 abdicated, withdrew to Portugal, where, after securing the throne for his daughter, he died, 1834. Pedro II., son of the preceding, was bom, 1825, became emperor of Brazil on his father's abdica- tion, and, distinguished by his love of learning and scholarly tastes, reigned in peace until the revolution of 1889 drove him to Europe. He died at Paris, 1891. Peel, Sir Robert, English statesman, was bom near Bury, Lancashire, 1788. He graduated at Oxford in 1808, and next year entered parliament as tory member for Cashel; afterward sat for Oxford university, and after 1832 for Tamworth. He was appointed under-secretarv for the colonies in 1811, and from 1812 until 1818 was secretary for Ireland. In 1822 he became home secretary, but seceded from the government when Canning became premier in 1827. The question at issue was Catholic emancipation, and it was characteristic of Peel that in the govern- ment which succeeded Canning's he had the courage, having changed his opmions, to intro- duce the measure which temoved the disabili- ties. Opposed to reform he became leader of the conservative opposition in the parliament of 1833, and was called to the premiership in 1834. He could not maintain his administration, how- ever, and it was not until 1841 that the victory of protection over the free-trade agitation gave him a stable majority in the house of commons. His first measure was a modification of the com laws on protectionist principles, 1842; then followed the income-tax and general tariff revision. In 1845 the agitation for free-trade in com was brought to a crisis by the Irish potato famine. Peel yielded, and next year carried the final repeal of the import duties on food stuffs. His "conversion" split the tory party and he retired from office, becoming a supporter of the whig ministry in its economical and ecclesiastical policy. He was a master of finance, an easy speaker, slow to form but conscientious to act upon his convictions, and a man of the highest character. His death, in 1850, was the result of a fall from horseback. Peelle, Stanton Judkins, American jurist, was bom in Wayne county, Indiana, 1843. He was educated in public schools and seminary in Indi- ana; served in the civil war; studied law, and practiced at Winchester, Ind., until 1868, and afterward at IndianapoUs. He was a member of the Indiana legislature, 1877-79 ; member of con- gress, 1881-83; judge, 1892-1905, chief-justice, 1906-13, United States court of claims. He was professor of the law of partnership, and bailment m the law department of George Washington university, 1901-11; tmstee of Howard univer- sity and Garfield hospital. Pehrce, Benja,min, American mathematician, was bom at Salem, Mass., 1809. He graduated at Harvard in 1829; in 1833 became professor at Harvard; m 1849 astronomer to the American ^auttcal Almanac; and in 1867-74 was superin- il'^^A u *^® U,^*«*i S*a<^es coast survey In l8vJb-46 he issued a series of mathematical text- i^^SAQ J papers on the discovery of Neptune, W.iv.t^',-^''*^ ""^ Saturn's rings brought him mem- A^.2 'S^'"!- '!^™^^ societies in Europe and P^fa^T, /^ j^- ^.'^-^s^* Cambridge, Mass., 1880. IhfLJ^^'^t'^^' ^"*h'»'- «»• systematizer of the doctrine known as Pelagianism, was bom about the middle of the fourth century, in Britain, or, according to some authorities, in Bretagne. His name is supposed to be a Greek rendering of the Celtic apix-llative Morgan. or sea-bom. He settled in Rome; at the end of the fourth century had already acquired a considerable reputation for sanctity and for knowledge of the scriptures and the spiritual life. He then made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and in 415 was accused of heresy before the synod of Jerusalem, by a Spaniard named Orosius. The impeachment failed, but the synod of Carthage, in 416, condemned him. He was then banished from Home in 418 by the emperor Honorius. From this date Pelagius disappears. Of his after life nothing is known in detail. The controversy, considered as an exercise of intellectual energy, is the most remarkable in the ancient history of the church. But the most important of the writings on the Pelagian side have been lost. P^llssier {pd'-le'-»y&'), Aimabie Jean Jacques, a marshal of France, was bom at Maromme near Rouen, 1794. He entered the French army at the age of twenty; and after thirty-six years' service attained the rank of general in 1850, In the Crimean war. in 1855, he was placed in command of the first corps, and soon succeeded Marshal Canrobert in the chief command before Sebastopol. On the 8th of September he stormed the Malakoff, for wliich he was rewarded with a marshal's baton, and after the fall of Sebastopol he was also created Due de Malakoff, and rewarded with a grant of $20,000. He became governor-general of Algiers in 1800 and died there in 1864. Pellico (pU'-U-kO), Silvio, Italian patriot and poet, was born at Saluzzo, in Piedmont, 1788. In 1819 he became connected with a liberal periodi- cal wliich was published in Milan under the title of II Conciliatore, "The Conciliator," and also joined the revolutionary society of the Car- bonari. Arrested in the following year on a charge of conspiracy against the Austrian gov- ernment, he was imprisoned from 1822 to 1830 in the subterranean dungeons of the fortress of Spielberg, near Briinn, being at last liberated by the command of the emperor. His account of his imprisonment, published in 1833 under the title of^ Le mie Priqioni, "Mv Prisons," has been translated into most of the t^uropean languages. He also wrote the tragedies, Francesco da Rimini and Laodamia. He died at Turin, 1854. Pelopidas {pe-l6j/-l-das), Theban general of noble descent, was noted among his fellow citizens for his disinterested patriotism. The inviolable friendship between nimself — one of the richest men in Thebes — and Epaminondas — one of the poorest — is among the most beautiful things recorded in Greek history. In 382 B. C. he was driven from Thebes by the oligarchic party, who were supported by the Spartans, and forced to seek refuge at Athens, whence he returned secretly with a few associates, 379 B. C., and recovered possession of the Kadmeia, or citadel, slaying the Spartan leader, Leon- tiades, with his own hand. His "sacred band" of Theban vouth largely contributed to the victory of Epaminondas at Leuctra, in 371 B. C, but failed on a subsequent attack on Sparta itself. In the expedition of the Thebans against the tyrant, Alexander of Pherae, 368 B. C, he was, after several important successes, treacherously taken prisoner. In 364 B. C. he won the battle of Cynoscephalae, but was him- self killed. Pels, Paul Johannes, German-American architect, was bom in Seitendorf, Germany, 1841. He was educated at the college of St. Elizabeth and col- lege of the Holy Spirit, Breslau. He left. \(/lLLlAM PENN From a fainting by jf . L. G. Ferris THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 019 however, at sixteen to join his father, who settled in the United States for poUtical reasons. He then studied architecture, 1859-66, in New York, under Detlef Lienau; was connected with United States lighthouse board as architect and civil engineer, during which service he designed many lighthouses. He was one of the architects of the Congressional library building. Washington, D. C. ; architect of Georgetown college academic building; Carnegie library, and music hall build- ing, Allegheny, Pa.; United States government array and navy hospital, Hot Springs, Ark. ; Chamberlain hotel. Old Point Comfort, Va. ; clinic hospital, university of Virginia; Aula Christi, Chautauqua, N. Y. ; machinery hall, Louisiana Purchase exposition, and many others. Penn, William, celebrated Quaker, and the founder of Pennsylvania, was born in London, 1644. He studied at Oxford, early gave evidence of strong religious impulses, and adopted the new doctrines of the so-called society of Friends. This step on his part caused his expulsion from the university and consequent estrangement from his father. In 1667 he was arrested and imprisoned, and in 1669 commenced preaching in London, for which offense he was tried before the court of common pleas, and heavily fined. He remained in prison for some time on his refusal to pay the fine, which his father ultimately paid for him. In 1681, Penn, who had inherited from his father a claim against the government of £16,000, obtained from the king in satisfaction therefor a grant of an extensive tract of country lying west of the Delaware river and north of Maryland, in the American plantations, and which in the roval patent was called Pennsylvania (Penn's wooded country), in honor of the late admiral, the father of the grantee. This territory Penn resolved to form into a commonwealth based upon perfect religious toleration, and accordingly set sail thither, arriving in Delaware bay on the 27th of October, 1682. In November he entered into a league with the Indians, and next founded the city of Philadelphia. In 1684 he returned to England, where he enjoyed the confidence of James II., who had been his father's friend. After the accession of the prince of Orange as William III., Penn was twice accused of treason, and was arrested in 1690 on a charge of con- spiracy, but was finally and honorably ac(^uitted in 1693. In 1699 he paid a second visit to Pennsylvania, and his stay, which lasted two years, was marked bv many useful naeasures, and by efforts to ameliorate the condition both of the Indians and the negroes. In 1701 he returned to England, and died, 1718. Pennell {pin'-U), Joseph, American artist, illus- trator, author, was born in Philadelphia, 1860. He was a pupil of the Pennsylvania academy of fine arts' and Pennsylvania school of industrial art. His works are represented in the national collections of France, at Dresden, Budapest, Melbourne, Perth, Adelaide, and in many state and municipal collections in Europe and America. He was chairman of the international jury of awards, St. Louis exposition, 1904. Author: A Canterbury Pilgrimage; An Italian Pilgrimage; Two Pilgrims' Progress; Our Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy; Pen Dravnng and Pen Draughtsmen; Our Journey to the Hebrides; The Stream of Pleasure; The Jew at Home; Play in Provence; To Gypsyland; Modern Illus- tration; The Illustration of Books; The Alhambra; The Work of Charles Keene; Lithography and Lithographers; The Life of James McNeill Whistler (with Mrs. Pennell), etc. He has also illustrated a large number of books. Penrose, Boles, politician. United States senator, was bom in Philadelphia, 1860. He graduated from Harvard college in 1881, and was admitted to the bar in 1883. He practiced his professioQ in Philadelphia for several years; was elected to the Pennsylvania house of representatives la 1884, to the Pennsylvania state senate in 1886, 1890, and 1894; was elected a member of the national republican committee from Pennsyl- vania in 1904, and to the United States senate, 1897. Reelected in 1903 and 1909. Pepin le Bref (pa'-pdN' U brif), king of the Franks and father of Charlemagne, was tK)rn in 714, the younger son of Charles Martel. On the death of his father in 741, he received Neustria and Burgundy; deposed Childeric III., and founded the Carlovingian dynasty in 751. He was the first Prankish monarch whose election received the sanction of the pope, and who was conse- crated to his high dignity. These solemn cere- monies put the crown, to a great extent, at the mercy of the clergy, who from this time took a political rank in the state, and from which dates the temporal power of the popes. Ho died, 768. Pepper, Charles M., American journalist, was bom in Ohio, 1859. He graduated at Wooster uni- versity, 1881. Appomted by President Roose- velt a delegate to the Pan-American congress at the city of Mexico, 1901; was exposition com- missioner to Cuba, 1902; appointed by secretary of state special Pan-American railway commis- sioner, 1903; and foreign trade commissioner, department of commerce and labor, 1906-09. He was Washington correspondent Chicago Tri- bune, 1886-95; staff correspondent New York Herald, 1896-97 ; from Cuba to leading American papers, 1897-1901. Author: Tomorrow in Cuba; Panama to Patagonia, etc. Pepper, William, American physician, educator, author, and benefactor, was bom at Philadelphia, 1843, and educated at the university of Pennsyl- vania, from which he took both his classical and his medical diplomas. Within four years after receiving his degree as a physician, he was appointed lecturer in his alma mater, and was connected with it up to the time of his death. He was elected provost of the university in 1881 ; and during his incumbency of thirteen years it became a new institution, one of the foremost in the states. So great was his devotion to the university that ne not only gave his services free, but contributed many thousands of dollars out of his own private fortune toward its various endowments. His health suffered from too constant application, and in 1894 he retired, and removea to California, where he died, 1898. His most important literary work was Pepper's System of Medicine by American Authors, which he edited. Pepperell, Sir William, American general, was bom in Maine in 1696. He was a member of the British council for the province of Massachusetts for thirty-two years from 1727, and in 1730 was appointed chief-justice of the court of common pleas. He commanded the successful expedition against Louisburg in 1745, and was made a baronet. He was acting governor of Massa- chusetts, 1756-58, and in 1759 was made lieu- tenant-general. He published an account of a Conference with the PcMbscot Tribe. Died, 1759. Pepys (peps, p$p'-is, pips), Samuel, English poli- tician and diarist, officer of the English admiralty during the reigns of Charles II. and James II., was bom, 1633. He was committed to the Tower on an unfounded and absurd charge of aiding in a design to dethrone the king and extirpate the Protestant religion. Ha\nng been discharged without a trial, Pepys was replaced at his post in the admiralty, which he retained until the abdication of James II. For two years he was president of the royal society. He wrote 920 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Memoirs of the Royal Navy, 1690; left to Mag- dalen college, Cambridge, his large collection of books, MSS., and prints, including about 2,000 ancient English ballads, fonning five folio volumes; but his reputation is founded on his Diary from 1659 to 1669, which affords a curious insight into the manners and court life of his day. Died, 1703. Pericles (pSr'-l-Jclez), greatest of Athenian states- men, and a general and orator, was bom at Athens, 495 B. C. He was the son of Xanthippus and Agariste, both of whom belonged to the noblest families of Athens; received a careful education, and began to take part in public affairs when about twenty-six years of age. He soon gained the position of head of the more democratic party in the state, in opposition to Cimon, the son of Miltiades, who was at the head of the aristocratic party. In 461 B. C. Cimon was ostracized, and gradually Pericles was left without a rival. He led the Athenians against Samos in 440 B. C, and was their principal adviser and commander during the first two years of the Peloponnesian war. Then a plague broke out in Athens, Pericles lost his popularity, and many of his friends. His only surviving legiti- mate son died of the epidemic; and at length he himself, worn out by public and private troubles, succumbed to the same disorder. Phidias was the friend of Pericles, and the public buildings erected by him during the administration of Pericles made Athens the admiration of Greece. To Pericles Athens was indebted for the Parthenon. He died, 429 B. C. Perkins, George Clement* United States senator, was bom at Kennebunkport, Maine, 1839. He went to sea at thirteen, and was cabin boy and sailor until 1855, when he shipped before the mast on a sailing vessel bound for San Francisco, and on arrival there went to Oroville. He sub- sequently carried on a successful mercantile business at San Francisco; later engaged in banking, milling, mining, and the steamship business; was member of Goodall, Perkins and Company, owners of the Pacific steamship com- pany; and first to introduce steam whalers for Arctic ocean, and operated numerous ships on Pacific ocean from Alaska to Mexico. He was state senator, 1869-76; governor of California, 1879-83; appointed United States senator, 1893, to fill vacancy caused by death of Leland Stan- ford and elected, 1893, for remainder of same term; reelected, 1895, 1903, and 1909. Perkins, George Walbrldge, financier, was bom at Chicago, 1862. He received a common school education, and started business career in the Chicago office of the New York life insurance company, 1877. Here he became successively bookkeeper, cashier, 1881 ; inspector of agencies, 1885; superintendent of western department, 1889; third vice-president, 1892, in charge of agency force, with headquarters at home office- ^cond vice-president, 1898; chairman of the finance committee. New York Life, 1900; and vice-president, 1903. He became partner in the banking firm of J. Pierpont Morgan and Com- pany, 1901 ; financially interested in many large corporations. " Pcn-y, Bliss, editor, author, educator, editor of the AUanttc Monthly, 1899-1909, was bom in Wil- hamstown, Mass., 1860. He graduated at Wilhams, 1881; studied at Berlin and Strass- boirg umversities; L. H. D., Princeton, 1900; Wilhams, 1902; Litt. D., Bowdoin, 1904; LL D. ot w^.F*""^^*',^^^- ^« ^^« professor o^ EngUsh at WilUams, 1886-93; at Princeton, 1893-1900- Tw!f.^''°'^i?r^^^^'", °^. ^°g"«^ literature at Harvard. Editor: Selections from Burke; Scotfs Woodstock B.ud Ivanhoe; and LitUe Masterpieces; general editor of Cambridge editions of the poets. Author: The Broughton House; Salem Kittredge, and Other Stories; The Plated City; The Powers at Play; A Study of Prose Fiction; The Amateur SpirU; Walt Whitman; Whittier, etc. Perry, Oliver Hazard, American naval commander, was born in South Kingston, Rhode Island, 1785. During the war of 1812 he was chosen to fit out a fleet at Presque Isle (now Erie) on Lake Erie. After equipping nine vessels, he sailed against the British fleet, comprising six ships, but larger and stronger than those of the Americans. The English attacked the Lawrence, Perry's flag ship, so hotly that out of 101 men on it only eighteen were uninsured. In this strait Perry left the Larvrence in a small boat, was rowed to the Niagara, and escaped unliarmed from the caimon balls that splashed around him. After that transfer he gained a splendid victory, taking all the EriRlish ships. For this s<>rvice congress gave Perry a gold medal and promoted him to captain. In 1819 he commanded a fleet which sailed to Colombia and ascended the Orinoco river. While returning he died of yellow fever at the Port of Spain, Trinidad, when thiity-four years old, 1819. In 18G0 a marble statue of nim was erected at Cleveland, Ohio. PestalosEi (pSs'-td46t'-se), Juhann Helnrlcb, Swiss educationist, was born at Zurich, 1740. He studied at Zurich, subsequently turned his attention to agriculture, became extremely interested in the problems of education, and, in 1775, established on his estate, Neuhof, a school which was intended to draw its supixjrt from popular subscription. This he gave up in 1780. and, with government support, in 1798 founded a school for poor children at Stanz. He then conducted schools at Burgdorf and Yverdon, expended a considerable fortune in benevolent enterprises, mainly in aid of orphans and poor children, and died at last m comparative poverty. The great idea which lay at the bai^is of his method of intellectual instruction — known as the Pcstaloszian system — was that nothing should be treated except in a concrete way. Objects themselves became, in his hands, the subject of lessons tending to the development of the observing and reasoning powers — not lessons about objects. In arithmetic he began with the concrete and proceeded to the abstract; and into the teaching of writing he for the first time introduced graduation. His special atten- tion, however, was directed to the moral and religious training of children as distinct from their mere instrtiction. Almost all Pestalozzi's methods are now substantially adopted by the instructors of elementary teachers in the schools of Europe and America, and to no other man has primary instruction been so largely indebted. His chief works were How Gertrude Instructs Her Children and his Leonard and Gertrude. During the last two years of his life he wrote also his autobiography in two works — The Song of the Dying Svxin, and The Fortunes of My Life — both of which are full of interest. He died at Brugg, Switzerland, 1827. Peter, St^ one of the foremost of the twelve apostles, originally called Simon, was the son of Jona, and a resident at Bethsaida. His brother Andrew, being a disciple of John the Baptist, was by John directed to Jesus, and speedily prevailed on Simon to accompany him to one who he felt convinced was the predicted Messiah. Our Lord kindly received the newcomer, and gave him the name of Cephas, the Aramaic equivalent to the Greek Peter. Peter was a man of ardent tem- perament, affectionate and generous. He was favored with special manifestations of his Master's confidence, and performed a more prominent part in the sacred history than any other of the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 923 twelve disciples. He was crucified with his head downward in the persecution under Nero, about A. D. 64. Peter the Great. See page 454. Peter the Hermit, French monk and preacher, was bom at Amiens, about the middle of the eleventh century. He made a pilgrimage to the holy land about 1093, and having witnessed the cruelties there inflicted upon the Christians by the Moham- medans, communicated on his return with Pope Urban II., by whom he was authorized to preach the first crusade for the recovery of Jerusalem from the hands of the Turks. He aroused western Europe by his enthusiasm to undertake several expeditions, all of which, except the last, were unfortunate; but at length, in 1099, he had the satisfaction of seeing Jerusalem throw open its gates to the victorious crusaders under Godfrey de Bouillon, though he himself had little share in the glory of the victory. His last years were spent in obscurity, in a monastery which he had founded at Huy. Died, 1115. Peters, John Punnett, American clergyman and orientahst, was bom in New York, 1852. He graduated from Yale, 1873; studied philology and theology, Yale, Ph. D., 1876, D. D., 1895; Sc. D., university of Pennsylvania, 1895; studied in Berlin and Leipzig, 1879-83. He was professor of old testament languages and litera- ture, Protestant Episcopal divinity school, Phila- delphia, 1884-91 ; professor of Hebrew, university of Pennsylvania, 1885-93 ; in charge of expedition of university of Pennsylvania to Babylonia, con- ducting excavations at Nippur, 1888-95; rector of St. Michael's qhurch. New York, since 1893; canon residentiary, cathedral of St. John the Di- vine, 1904—10. Author: Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian; The Bible as Ldterature (part author) ; In Lauda Zion; Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates; The Old Testament and the New Scholarship, etc. Translator of Political History of Recent Times, and editor of Diary of David McClure; Early Hebrew Story; Some Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa, etc. Peters, Madison Clinton, clergyman, was born in Lehigh county, Pennsylvania, 1859. He was educated at Muhlenburg, and FrankUn and Marshall colleges; graduated at Heidelberg theo- logical seminary, Tiffin, Ohio; D. D., Heidelberg university and Ursinus college. He was ordained to the ministry of the Reformed church, 1880; for eleven years was pastor of the Bloomingdale church, New York; resigned to become Baptist; was pastor of Sumner Avenue Baptist church, Brooklyn, and Immanuel Baptist church, Balti- more ; and of the Baptist church of the Epiphany, New York, until 1907. Preached as an inde- pendent in the Majestic theater. New York. Author: Justice to the Jew; The Wit and Wisdom of the Talmud; The Jew as a Patriot; The Great Hereafter; The Panacea for Poverty; Empty Pews; Sanctified Spice; The Birds of the Bible; Why I Became a Baptist; Will Our Republic Livef The Man Who Wins; The Jews in America; Will the Coming Man Marry f The Love Affairs of Great Poets; The True St. Patrick; Does Death End All? etc. Peterson, William, Canadian educator, principal of McGill university since 1895, was bom in Edin- burgh, 1856. He was educated at the university, Edinburgh, university of Gottingen, and Oxford university; M. A., Edinburgh and Oxford; hon. LL. D., St. Andrews; Princeton, New Jersey; university of New Brunswick; Yale; Johns Hopkins ; Pennsylvania. He was assistant pro- fessor of humanity in the university of Edin- burgh, 1879-82 ; principal of University college, Dundee, 1882-95. Author: QuiniUian'a Insti- tutes of Oratory; The Dialognes of Tacitus; The Speech of Cicero for Cluentius; The Relationa of the English-apeaking Peoples; Tlie Cluni MS. of Cicero, etc. Petrarch (pf-trark), Francis, great Italian poet, was bom in 1304 at Arezzo in Tuscany. The dissensions which distracted that country induced his father to remove to Avignon; and ho waa educated there and at Montpellier and Bologna. His whole soul, however, was devoted to litera- ture; but it was not until he was in his twentieth year that the death of his father allowed him to indulge his inclination. Having settled at Avignon, he became deeply attached, in 1327, to the beautiful Laura de Noves, in whoso honor were written those sonnets and odes wiiich have rendered his name immortal. After having vainly traveled to forget or moderate his love, he settled at Vaucluse, a romantic spot, where he wrote some of his finest works. His literary reputation attracted the regard of princes; he was invited to Naples, to Paris, and to Rome: and received the laureate crown in the capitoi of the latter city. Among his warmest friends and patrons was the Colonna family. In 1348 his feelings were deeply grieved by the death of Laura. He survived her, however, nearly thirty years, during which period he was admired and honored by his own countrymen, and by foreign princes. He died, 1374. Petrie (pe'-trl), William Matthew Flinders. English Egyptologist, was born at Charlton, 1853. He was educated privately, and his earliest explora- tions bore fruit in his Stonehenge, 1880. He next turned his attention to the pyramids and temples of Gizeh, and subsequently, with the aid of the Egypt exploration fund, to the mounds of Said and Naucratis, and founded the Egyptian research account, 1894, enlarged as the British school of archseologv in Egypt, 1905. Author: Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh; Racial Portraits; Ten Years' Digging; History of Egypt; Egyptian Tales; Six Temples at Thebes; Religion and Con- science in Ancient Egypt; Syria and Egypt; Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty; Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties; Religion of Ancient Egypt; Gizeh and Rifeh, etc. Pflelderer (pfll'-der-er). Otto, German theologian, was bom at Stetten in Wiirtemberg, 1839. He studied at Tiibingen, 1857-61, became pastor at Heilbronn in 18G8, in 1870 professor of theology at Jena, and in 1875 at Berlin. In new testa- ment criticism Pflciderer belongs to the younger critical school which has grown out of the impulse given by Baur. He is an independent thinker, acute, suggestive, and profoundly learned, and has made his name as well known in England and America as in Germany. His chief works are The Influence of the Apostle Paul on Christianity; The Development of Theolog^j Since Kant; The Philosophy and Development of Religion; Evolution and Theologi/, etc. Died, 1908. Phelps, Edward J^ American juri.st and diplomat, was bom at Middlebury, Vt., 1822. He studied at Middlebury college, graduated in law at Yale in 1843, and was admitted to the bar in the same j'ear. In 1851 he was appointed second comp- troller of the United States treasury; was a delegate to the constitutional convention of Vermont in 1870; president of the American bar association in 1880; and democratic candi- date for governor of the state in that year. He became a professor in the law school of Yale in 1881, where he served until appointed mini.ster to Great Britain in 1885. Phelps remained at the court of St. James until 1889. He was appointed in 1893 one of the counsel in the court of arbitration in the Bering sea controversy, to represent the United States. He died at New Haven, Conn., 1900. Phelps-Ward, Elizabeth Stuart, American author, was bom at Andover, Mass., in 1844. Besides 924 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT lecturing, writing for magazines, and engaging in various kinds of work for the advancement of women, she wrote: Gates Ajar; Hedged In; The Silent Partner; Poetic Studies; The Gypsy Books; An Old Maid's Paradise; Sealed Orders; Doctor Zay; Beyond the Gales; The Madonna of the Tidis; Struggle for Immortality; Fourteen to One; A Singular Life; The Story of Jesus Christ; The Man in the Case etc. In 1888, she married Rev. Herbert D. Ward. She died, 1911. Phidias (Jld'-l-as). See page 121. Philip II., king of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great, was born in 382 B. C, and came to the throne in 359 B. C. He first undertook the thorough union of his kingdom, and tlien speedily entered upon a policy of aggression, his object being to reduce all the Grecian states to his supremacy. The Greek towns on the coast of Macedonia were the first objects of attack. In Thrace, he captured the small town of Crenides, which, under its new name of Philippi, soon acquired great wealth and fame. After a few years of comparative leisure, he advanced into Thessaly, and ultimately to the strait of Ther- mopylae, which he did not attempt to force, as it was strongly guarded bv Athenians. After capturing all the towns of CJhalcidice, the last of which was the city of Olynthus, he made peace with the Thracians, and the next year witn the Athenians. It was during this siege of Olynthus that Demosthenes delivered his famous oration on the crown, in which he sought in vain to arouse his countrymen to a sense of their danger, and cause them to resist the aggressions of the powerful and energetic Macedonian. Philip was now requested by the Thebana to interfere in their behalf in the Sacred war, which was raging between them and the Phocians. He marched into Phocis, destroyed its cities, and sent many of its inhabitants as colonists to Thrace. In 339 B. C, the Amphictyonic council, composed of several Grecian states, declared war against the Locrians, and the next vear appointed Philip commander-in-chief of all their forces The Athenians were at last alarmed at his approach into Greece in this capacity, and formed a league with the Thebans against him ; but their united forces were utterly defeated at the battle of Chaeronea, 338 B. C; and Philip was now master of all Greece. Deputies from the differ- ent states met in congress at Corinth, and, after resolving to make war on the Persian king, chose Philip as leader of their armies. Philip was busily engaged in preparations for this great enterprise, when he was assassinated by Pausa- nias, at a festival to celebrate the marriage of his daughter with Alexander of Epirus, 336 B. C, and was succeeded bv his son, Alexander the Great. Philip was faithfess in the observance of treaty obligations, and utterly unscrupulous as to the means by which he gained his end; but his great ability both as a king and a soldier IS conceded by all historians. Philip II., of France, called Philip Augustus, on account of his great abilities and successful admmistration was bom, 1 165. He was crowned joint king with his father, Louis VII., in 1179 and on the death of the latter, in the year follow- mg, he came into full possession of the kingdom. ±le was one of the greatest monarchs of the V^apet dynasty, while he confirmed his power bv marrying Isabella of Hainault, the l£t direct descendant of the Cariovingians. On the acces- sion of Richard the Lion-hearted to the throne ^l^^^^""^' .\? H^9' Philip and he set out together on the third crusade. After staying fc '^'''f'^ '°i^^ h°^y ^^°d, Philip retuSed home and waged war with Richard. He con- quered Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Poitou, and Touraine, and was one of the chief consolidators of the French monarchy. The crusade against the Albigenses occurred in his reign, and he granted the first charter to the university of Paris. He died at Nantes, 1223. Philip 11^ lung of 8pain, only son of the emperor Charles V., was born in 1527 at \'allaecial envoy to France, 1796-97; ana unsuccessful federalist candidate for vice-presi- dent of the United States in 1800, and for presi- dent in 1804 and 1808. He was a lawyer of eminence, and author of the famous sentiment, "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." He died, 1825. Pindar {pln'-dir), greatest Greek lyric poet, was bom at Cynoscepnalae, a village in the territory of Thebes, about 522 B. 0. He commenced his career as a poet at an early age, and was employed for many years in various courts and by many of the princes of Greece to comp>ose for them choral pongs for special occasions. For the praises which he lavished upon Alexander, king of Macedonia, in one of these compositions, his house at Thebes is said to have been spared when the rest of the city was destroyed by Alexander the Great, more than a century after his death. Of his many works — which con- sisted of hymns, poems, odes, songs, dirges, and encomiums on princes — only his Ejpinicia, or Odet, have come down to us entire. These were composed in commemoration of victories in the public games. Died at Thebes, 443 B. C. Plnero {pl-n)h^-6). Sir Arthur Wing, English dramatist, was bom in London, 1855. He was educated in private schools; was an actor from 1874-81; and from that time until the present. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 927 a dramatic author. Author: The MagiatraU; The School-mistress; Dandy Dick; The Hobby Horse; Sweet Lavender; The Profligate; The Weaker Sex; The Cabinet Minister; The Times; Lady BounHfxd; The Amazons; The Second Mrs. Tanqueray; The Notorious Mrs. Ebbsmith; The Benefit of the Doubt; The Princess and the Butterfly; Trelawny of the Wells; The Gay Lord Quex; Iris; Letty; A Wife WUhotit a Smile; His House in Order; The Thunderbolt; and many other plays. Pinkerton, Allan, Scottish-American detective, was born in Glasgow, 1819, and emigrated to America in 1842. He located in Illinois, where he cap- tured a gang of counterfeiters and became a deputy sheriff four years later. In 1850 he opened a detective agency in Chicago ; recovered $40,000 for the Adams express company, and, discovering a plot to murder Abraham Lincoln on his inaugural journey to Washington was authorized to protect the president-elect. He then organized the United States secret service, of which he became the head, and conducted it until the close of the war. Later his recovery of $700,000 for the Adams express company, the arrest of some noted English bank forgers, and the breaking up of the notorious "Molly Maguire " murderers in the coal districts gained him an international reputation. He wrote several books connected with his work before his death in 1884. Pinkney, William, American lawyer and diplomat, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, 1764. He was admitted to the bar in 1786; was a member of the Maryland convention called in 1788 to ratify the United States constitution; served in the state council, house of delegates, and senate, and in 1796 went to England as commissioner under the Jay treaty. He returned in 1804, and the next year was made attorney-general of Maryland. In 1806 he was again sent to England as mmister extraordinary, and remained as minister resident, 1807-11. He was attorney-general of the United States 1811-18; served in the war of 1812 as commander of a volunteer corps, receiving a dangerous wound at Bladensburg ; was elected to congress in 1815, and appointed minister to Russia the next year; was a member of the United States senate, 1820-22. He died, 1822. Pisistratus (pi-sts'-tra-tiis), tyrant or ruler of Athens, was born about 612 B. C, the son of Hippocrates, who left him a large fortune. He was brave, ambitious, and eloquent, and by his kindness and generosity won the love of the poorer classes. He usurped the throne in 560 B. C, and although he was twice expelled, he regained it and ruled with mildness and justice. He enforced the laws of Solon, who was his friend and relative; founded the first public library at Athens, and collected and arranged the poems of Homer. He died about 527 B. C. Pitman, Benn, Anglo-American stenographer, was born at Trowbridge, Wilts, England, 1822. He was educated in academy of his brother. Sir Isaac Pitman, qriginal inventor of phonography, and promulgated the art in Great Britain, by lectures and teaching, for ten years. He settled in the United States, 1853, and founded the phonographic institute, Cincinnati. He was inventor of the electro-process of relief engraving, 1856 ; military recorder of state trials during the civil war; and lecturer on art and teacher of artistic wood-carving, etc., in Cincinnati art academy, 1873-92. Author: The Reporter's Companion; Manual of Phonography; Phono- graphic Teacher; History of Shorthand; A Plea for American Decorative Art; Phonographic Dic- tionary (with Jerome B. Howard); Life of Sir Isaac Pitman; A Plea for Alphabetic Reform, etc. Died, 1910. Pitman, Sir Isaac, a British educator and stenog- rapher, was born at Trowbridge, Wiltshire. England, 1813. He became master of a school at Barton-on-Humber in 1832, and published his first studies of the art which was to make him famous, in 1837, in a volume entitled. Steno- graphic Sound-hand. A few years later he issued a second volume, which he called Phonography, or Writ.ing by Sound. In 1843 ho founded the phonetic society, and soon after began the publi- cation of the weekly Phonetic Journal. He issued many text-books upon phonograf)hy, and his system was introduced into the United States in 1847. He was knighted in 1894, and died, 1897. Pitt, William, first earl of Chatham, a famous English statesman, often referred to as the elder Pitt, was born in Westminster, 1708. Educated at Oxford, he entered parliament in 1735. From the beginning his oratory made him a leader and he contributed greatly to Walpole's downfall. He later became a member of the privy council, and was called upon to form a new cabinet in 1756, of which the duke of Devonshire was Erime minister. Pitt's vigorous war policy rought England successfully through the struggle with France and earned for Pitt the title of the "great commoner." He resigned in 1761, but five years later was called upon to form a new cabinet, upon which he became Viscount Pitt and earl of Chatham. Ill health forced his retirement in 1768, but he kept up an active interest in public affairs, opposed Lord North's policy of taxing the colonies, and, upon the alliance of the colonies and France, protested, in a last great effort, against the proposal to make peace. At the close of his speech, he fell into the arms of his friends, and died a few days later, 1778. Pitt, William, British statesman, son of the pre- ceding, was born at Hayes, England, 1759. He was educated at Cambridge, studied for the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and entered parliament in 1781. He made his first speech in parliament the same year, in favor of Burke's plan of economical reform. At the age of twenty-three he became chancellor of the exchequer, and at twenty-five was regarded as one of England's most powerful ministers. He ruled absolutely over the cabinet, and was at once the favorite of the sovereign, of the parliament, and of the nation; and from this date the life of Pitt becomes the history of England. For seventeen years he held his great position without a break. In 1784 he established a new constitution for the East India company. In 1786 he carried through a commercial treaty with France on liberal principles. In the same year he established a new sinking fund, a scheme which was long viewed Mdth favor by the nation. To the exertions which were now begun for the abolition of the slave-trade he gave the help of his eloquence and power. In 1788-89 he maintained against Fox the right of parliament to supply the temporary defect of royal authority occasioned by the incapacity of the king. The year 1793 saw the beginning of the Anglo-French war. Authorities differ as to the cause, but it is certain, however, that Pitt's military administra- tion was eminently unsuccessful. Until 1801 he continued to hold the reins of government, during one of the most stormy periods of British history ; and his admirers have conferred on him the title of "the pilot that weathered the storm." In 1799 he effected the union with Ireland. It was part of his scheme to relieve the Roman Catholic laity from civil disabilities, and to grant a public maintenance to their clergy; but the obstinacy of the king frustrated his design. Chagrined by this failure, Pitt resigned office in 1801. In 1804 he returned again to the head of 928 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the treasury, -which poBition he continued to hold until his death in 1806. England has had few statesmen equal to him in the handling of financial and conamercial problems, and few orators more fluent and persuasive. Plus VI., Giovanni Angelo Braschl, pope, 1775-99, was born at Cesena, Italy, 1717. He was elected pope in succession to Clement XIV. To him Rome owes the drainage of the Pontine marsh, the improvement of the port of Ancona, the completion of St. Peter's, the foundation of the new museum of the Vatican, and the embellish- ment of the city. The pope repaired to Vienna, but failed to restrain the reforming emperor Joseph from further curtailing his privileges. Soon after came the French revolution and the confiscation of church property in France. The pope launched his thunders in vain, and ere long the murder of the French agent at Rome, in 1793, gave the directory an excuse for an attack. Bonaparte took possession of the legations, and afterward of the march of Ancona, and extorted in 1797 the surrender of these provinces from Pius. The murder of a member of the French embassy was avenged by Berthier taking posses- sion of Rome. Pius was called on to renounce his temporal sovereignty, and on his refusal was seized, carried to Siena, and later to Certosa, Grenoble, and finally Valence, where he died, 1799. Plus IX., Giovanni Mastal Ferrettl, pope, 1846-78, was born near Ancona, Itah', 1792. He waa elected in 1846, and his pontificate covers one of the most eventful periods of the papacy. He granted a constitution to the Italian states shortly after his accession, but refused to declare war against Austria. After the insurrection at Rome, 1848, he fled to Gseta, but was restored by French aid two years later. The same year he established a Catholic hierarchy in England, and in 1854 defined the doctrine of the immacu- late conception. In 1859-60 he lost the greater part of his dominions, but waa maintained in Rome by a French garrison. In 1870 the infalli- bility dogma was promulgated by the ecumenical council held at Rome. In that year, when the French left the city, it was declared the capital of Italy, occupied by the troops of Victor Emman- uel, and the pope was practically held a captive in the Vatican until his death in 1878. Plus X., 253rd Roman pontiff, was bom in 1835 at Riese, near Treviso, Italy. His name is Giuseppe Sarto, and he is the son of a minor municipal oflacial. His relatives are still shopkeepers and people of humble position. He was educated at Castelf ranco and the diocesan seminary of Padua, and ordained priest, 1858. He officiated nine years as curate at Tombolo, nine years as parish priest of Salzano; he was made canon and chancellor of the diocese of Treviso in 1875. In 1884 he was appointed bishop of Mantua, and Leo XIII. made him a cardinal and patriarch of Venice in 1893. His charity and tact brought rum unboxmded popularity, and he was more thMi once instrumental in settling serious strikes and labor disputes. He came into direct personal contact with the king and queen of Italy while he was cardinal, but is credited with an inflexible resolve to maintain the rights and liberty of the church. On the death of Leo XIII., 1903, the conclave met. and, at the seventh scrutiny, elected him pope, and he chose to be known as f ope Pius X. As priest and bishop his life was Bpent in the pastoral and episcopal service of the church rather than in the paths of diplomatic and official service. He has always displayed deep interest m social questions and in bettenng the hfe of the poor, to whom his charity at Venice was proverbial. He has sho^-n himself lealous in the reform of church music and in other matters of ecclesiastical discipline. In 1907 he issued a decree intrusting the revision of the vulgate to the Benedictine order, and in September issued an encyclical against the modernist movement in the church. Pliarro {pe-thiir'-rd), F'ranclsco, Spanish conqueror of Peru, was born at Trujillo, Spain, about 1470. He received little education, was of an adven- turous spirit, entered the army, and embarked with other adventurers for America. Having distinguished himself in Panama, he set out hj way of the Pacific on a voyage of discovery along with another soldier named Almagro; landed on the island of Gallo, on the coast of Peru, and afterward returned with his companion to Spain for authority to conquer the country. In 1520 he obtained the royal sanction, and set sail from Spain with three ships in 1531. On his arrival at Peru be found a civil war raging between the two sons of the emperor, who had just died. Pizarro saw his opportunity; approached At*- hualpa, the victorious one, who ha!a now become the reigning Inca, with overtures of peace, and was amnitted into the interior of the country. He then invited Atahualpa to a banquet, had him imnrisuncil, and commenced a whoioule butchery of his subjects, upon which be forced Atahualpa to discloee bis treacurea, and then put him per- fidiously to death. His power, by virtue of the mere terror be inspired, was now established, and he might have continued to maintain it. but a contest aroae between Iiim and his old comrade Almagro, whom he put to death. Finally the sons and friends of the latter rose against Pixarro, seized him in his palace at Lima, and executed him, 1541. Plato. See page 261. Piatt, Thomas Collier, American politician, waa born in Owego, N. Y., 1833. He was a member of class of 1853, Yale, but was compelled to give up his ooune because of ill health; M. A., 1876. He then entered mercantile life ; was president of Tioga national bank at its organization; became largely interested in lumbering in Michigan; was clerk of Tioga county, New York, 1859-61: member of congress, 1873-77: elected United States senator, 1881, and resigned. May 16th, same year, with Roscoe Conkling. Ue was secretary and director of United States express company, 1879, and its president, 1880-1910. President of board of quarantine commissioners. New York, 1880-88; was president of Southern Central railroad and of Addison and Northern Pennsylvania railroad; and was the recognized leader in New York republican politics for years. He was again United States senator from 1897 to 1909. Died, 1910. PlautuB {-pld'-tiu,)^ Titus Hacclus, the greatest comic poet of ancient Rome, was bom about 254 B. C. at Sarsina in Umbria. He early associated himself with actors, and, while en- gaged in the humble work of turning a hand-mill tor a baker, wrote three plavs. The proceeds enabled him to leave his work and turn to the more congenial career of a plaj'wright. Of the twenty-one comedies legitimately assigned him, twenty are still extant. They present great vivacity, well-constructed plots, and humorous, life-Uke characters and situations. His Latin is particularly pure and vigorous. He has found noteworthy imitators in Shakespeare, Moliftre, Dryden, Addison, and Lessing. His literary career continued uninterrupted until his death in 184 B. C. Pliny (piin'-^O, the name of two famous RomaniL ususJiy distinguished as Pliny the Elder and Pliny the Younger. Pliny the Elder, Caius Plimus Secundus, was bom probably at Como, Italy, A. D. 23. and was a famous naturalist. Of his many works, his Historia Naturalia is the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 020 only one that has come down to us. He per- ished in the great eruption of Vesuvius, which overwlielmed Herculaneum and Pompeii, 79 A.D. Pllnythe Younger, Caius Plinius CwcillusSecundus, was born at Como, A. D. G2, was the nephew of the elder Pliny, and is celebrated chiefly for his Letters, of which ten books are extant. In A. D. 100 he was appointed consul, and he then com- posed his Panegyricus, a fulsome eulogium on the emperor Trajan, which is also extant. In 103 he was appointed governor of the provinces known as Bithynia and Pontus; and in this capacity he wrote his well-known letter to the emperor Trajan respecting the Christians in his province, which called forth the emoeror's equally well-known reply. The Letters of Pliny are remarkable, not only for their elegance, but for the light they throw upon the history of the period in which they were written. He died about 116 A. D. Plutarch (plod'-tiirk). See page 30. Pobyedonostsev (pd^yS'-da-nds'-tsSf), Konstantin Petrovlch, Russian jurist and statesman, was born at Moscow, 1827. He studied at St. Peters- burg, became an official of the senate in Moscow, and later a professor of civil law there, in 1858. In 1872 he was made a member of the council of the empire, and as procurator of the holy synod, from 1880 to 1905, was the most uncompromising champion of the autocracy and of the supremacy of the orthodox Greek church. He died in 1907. Pocahontas {po'-ka-h6n'-tas), the legendary "Prin- cess Pocahontas," of American colonial history, was bom about 1595, the daughter of Powhatan, an Indian chief of Virginia. She was betrayed by her uncle Patowomek (Potomak?) to Captain Argall, the unscrupulous deputy-governor of Virginia, and held by him as a hostage for the purpose of extorting from her father such terms as he required. In 1613 she married John Rolfe, one of the settlers of Jamestown, afterward secretary and recorder-general of Virginia. She died in England in 1617, leaving a son, Thomas Rolfe. Her descendants include some of the leading families of Virginia, the celebrated John Randolph being one of them. Poe, Edgar Allan, famous American poet and romancer, was born in Boston, Mass., 1809. He was adopted by John Allan of Richmond; entered the university of Virginia in 1826, but left after a term and spent two years as a private in the regular army. In 1829 Poe published a volume of poems, his first attempt in literature, under the title of Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and other poems. He expressed a wish to remain in the army, and Mr. Allan secured him a cadetship in the military academy at West Point. Here he neglected his studies, and was cashiered in 1831. Thrown now upon his own resources, he devoted himself to literature as a profession. In 1833, the publisher of a Baltimore magazine having ofifered prizes for the best prose story and the best poem, Poe competed and won both prizes. This led to his friendship with John P. Kennedy, one of the prize committee, who pro- cured for him literary employment in connection with The Southern Literary Messenger. In 1835 he married Virginia Clemm. In 1837 he removed to New York, where he lived by contributing to the New York Quarterly Review and other peri- odicals, and where in 1838 he published The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym. In 1839 he became the editor of The GenUeman's Magazine at Philadelphia, and published a collection of his best stories, with the title Tales of the Ara- besque and Grotesque. The year 1845 was marked by the appearance of his famous poem. The Raven. In 1847, after the death of his wife, he began to deteriorate, and died at Baltimore, Md., in 1849. His poems and tales are marked by marvelous flights of fancy and exquisite felicity of langu{^e. His was perhaps the loftiest and most original poetical genius which America has produced. Polk (pok), James Knox, eleventh president of the United States, waa bom in North Carolina, 1795. He was educated at the university of North Carolina, and was admitted to the bar at Colum- bia, Tenn., in 1820. He was a democratic mem- ber of congress from Tennessee, 1825-39; was speaker of the house of representatives, 1835-39: governor of Tennessee, 1839—41 ; and was elected as a democrat to the presidency in 1844. The principal feature of Polk's administration, which extended from 1845 to 1849, was the Mexican war, by which the United States accjuircd the great states of Texas and California and the ter- ritory of New Mexico. Texas was annexed by congress just before Polk's inauguration. Dur- ing his administration, by a compromise treaty with England, the northern boundary line of Oregon territory — now the state of Washington — was fixed at 49° north latitude. The low tariff act of 1846 was a favorite measure of Polk's, being passed in the senate by the vote of Vice- president Dallas. Other features of his adminis- tration were the admission of Wisconsin into the Union as a state in 1848; the adoption of the sub-treasury system, by which some portion of the funds of the government is kept in vaults in Washington instead of being deposited in banks; and the creation of the interior department, its secretary being added to the cabinet of the president. On the expiration of Polk's term he retired to his home at Nashville, Tenn., where he died a few months afterward, 1849. Polk, Leonidas, general in the confederate army, and bishop of the Protestant Episcopal church, was bom at Raleigh, N. C, 1806. He graduated at West Point in 1827, and received a commis- * sion in the artillery, but resigned and studied for the ministry. In 1838 he was consecrated bishop of Arkansas and Indian territory, with charge of the dioceses of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana; but in 1841 he resigned all these except the bishopric of Louisiana, which he held until his death, even when commanding a corps in the confederate army. Soon after the out- break of the civil war. Bishop Polk tendered his services to the confederate government, and was appointed major-general by Jefferson Davis. He commanded an army corps at the battle of Shiloh, and in October following was made lieutenant-general. At the battle of Chicka- mauga he commanded the right wing of Bragg's army, and served under General Joseph Ei. Johnston in Sherman's Atlanta campaign. He was killed by a cannon-shot while reconnoitering on Pine niountain, 1864. Pollock, Sir Frederick, English legal writer and educator, was bom in London, 1845. He was graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, and was admitted to the bar in 1871. LL. D., Cambridge; D. C. L., Oxford. He was professor of jurisprudence. University college, London, 1882-83; professor of common law in the Inns of Court, 1884-90; member of the royal labor commission, 1891-94; Corpus professor of jurisprudence, university of Oxford, 1883-1903; and hon. fellow of Corpus Christi college, Oxford, 1906. Author : Principles of Contract; The Law of Torts; The Land Laws; Essays in Jurispru- dence and Ethics; Introduction to the History of the Science of Politics; Indian Contract Act (assisted by D. F. Mulla); History of English Law (with Prof. F. W. Maitland) ; A First Book of Jurisprudence; The Expansion of the Common Law; Spinoza, Life and Philosophy, etc. Pollok, Robert, Scottish poet, was bom at Muir- house, Scotland, 1798. He studied at Glasgow 930 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT for the church, and in 1824-25 wrote Tales of the Covenanters, and, in 1827, The Course of Time, a poetical description of the spiritual life of man. Meantime, seized with consumption, he set out for Italy, but died near Southampton, England, 1827. , . . ' Polo (pd'4d), Marco, Italian traveler, was bom m Venice, of a noble family, about 1255. In 1271 he accompanied his father and uncle, while a mere youth, to the court of the Tartar emperor of China, by whom he was received with favor and employed on several embassies. Unwilling to part with hiqi, the emperor allowed him, together with his father and uncle, to escort a young prin- cess who was going to be married to a Persian prince, on the promise that they would return. But the prince having died before their arrival, and deeming themselves absolved from their promise by his death, they proceeded to Venice, where they arrived in 1295, laden with rich presents which had been given them. He was then^captured by the Genoese, put in prison, and dictated to another captive, Ilusticiano, the story of his adventures, which proved to be the first account that opened up to wondering Europe the magnificence of the eastern worluT He died about 1323. Polybius (po4ib'-1r4is), Greek historian, was bom at Megalopolis, in Axcadia, about 204 B. 0. He was educated and trained for a public career, was one of the thousand distinguished Achaeana who were carried as prisoners to Rome, 168 B. C, and was an exile in Italy for about seventeen years. After his return to Greece, he undertook numerous journeys into foreign countries, and wrote his celebrated History, which seems to have occupied him for the remainder of his life. Of this work, only the first five books out of forty and some fragments are left ; but it was closely followed both by Livy and by Cicero. His death was caused by a fall from his horse, about 122 B. C. Polycarp (pdl'-l-karp), bishop of Smyrna, and Christian martyr, was bom about 69 A. D. He was brought up at Smyrna, was taught the doctrine of Christianity by the apostles, particu- larly by John, with whom he had "familiar inter- course." His martyrdom is related at great length by Eusebius, and took place probably in 155 A. D., during the persecution under the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. When asked, or rather entreated, "to revile Christ," Polycarp replied: "Eighty and six years have I served him and he never did me wrong, and how can I now blaspheme my King that has saved me?" He was burned silive. Polycarp wrote several Epistolae, of which only one has been preserved, the Epistda ad Philip- venses, valuable for its numerous quotations from the now testament — especially from the writings of Paul and Peter. Polygnotus (pdl'-lg-no'-tHs), early Greek painter, was born in Thasos, and settled in Athens 463 B. C. He is considered the founder of historical paint- ing, and is praised especially by Aristotle, who pays a high tribute to him. He was the first to attempt portrait-painting and to exhibit character by his art. He was identified with Cimon in the reconstrviction of Athens, and his school did much to adorn its famous temples. Pombal (pom-bal'). Marquis of, Dom Sebastiao Josg dc Carvalho, one of the greatest of Portu- guese statesmen, and one of the ablest men of his time, was bora in 1699. He was prime mimster of Joseph I. ; set himself to fortify the royal power, to check that of the aristocracy, and to enUghten the people. He was the pro- nounced enemy of the Jesuits, reformed the umvoreity of Coimbra, purified the administra- ticwi. directed the rebuilding of Lisbon after the earthquake, and encouraged commerce and industry, whereby he earned for himself at the hands of the people the name of the "great marquis." On the accession of Maria, Joseph's daughter and MiooeaBor, he was, under Jesuit influence, dispoascflsed of power, and died in poverty, 1782. Pompey, Cneius Pompelua Magnua, called the Great, famous lioman general, was born, 106 B. C. He wae the son of Cneius Pompeius Strabo. under whom he serveil in the Italian campaigns. The most important of his military Bucoeases were his campaign against Hithridates, which made Pontus a Roman province, and his capture of Jerusalem, which added Syria to the empire. After these exploits he entered Rome in triumph, at the end of a procession which lasted two days. Shortly after this he joined the party of Cesar, and formed with him anecame Blade professor of art, university of London; in 1876-81 was director of art at South Kensington; from 1894 to 1905 was director of the national gallery, London: and since 1896 has been president of the royal academy. Among his works are: "The Cata- pult"; "The Golden Age"; "Zenobia"; "A Visit to .^Isculapiua"; "The Ides of March"; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD "A Corner in the Villa"; "The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon"; "The Ionian Dance"; "Skirt Dance"; "Perseus and Androm- eda": "Dragon of Wantley"; "Atalanta's Race ; "Nausicaa and Her Maidens"; "The Cave of the Storm Nymphs," etc. In 1869-70 he designed the cartoons for a mosaic of St. George m the British house of parliament. He was knighted, 1897, and created a baronet in 1902. Praxiteles {pr&ksHf-i-lez), famous Grecian sculptor, is believed to have been a native of Athens, to have flourished early in the fourth century B. C, and to have died at the age of eighty. Pliny gives the date 364 B. C. apparently as that in which Praxiteles began to flourish. He executed statues in both bronze and marble, and was unrivaled in the exhibition of the softer beauties of the human form, especially the female figure, his most celebrated being the marble one of Aphrodite at Cnidus. He also executed statues of Eros, Apollo, and Hermes as well, but they have all perislied. Prentice, George D., American journalist, was bom at Preston, Conn., 1802, and graduated at Brown university in 1823. After studying law, he edited the New England Review for two years, and in 1831 became editor of the Louisville Journal, which position he continued to hold until his death in 1870. The Journal became famous under his editorship as an organ of the whig party; and during the civil war it gave an unflinching support to the cause of the Union. Prentice's short, witty paragraphs also consti- tuted a new feature much noted and admired. He also achieved considerable reputation as a public lecturer, and was the author of a number of poems. After his death, the Louisville Journal was consolidated with the Courier of the same city, under the name of the Courier-Journal. Prescott, William Hiclding, Ainerican historian, was born at Salem, Mass., 1796. During his college course he lost the sight of an eye by a piece of bread playfully thrown by a fellow student, and his studies so affected the other that he became nearly blind. He was then sent abroad for his health, and traveled in England, France, and Italy. On his return to America he turned his attention to literature, and, in 1825, selected materials for his History of Ferdinand and Isabella, which appeared in 1837. He next devoted six years to the History of the Conquest of Mexico, and four years to the Conquest of Peru. He was chosen corresponding member of the French institute, and on his visit to Europe, in 1850, was received with the highest distinction. From 1855 to 1858 he published three volumes of his History of Philip II., but left it unfinished. No American historian has ever excelled him in the power of vivid description, and his works are regarded as the best extant histories of the periods with which they deal. He was made D. C. L. at Oxford in 1850. Died, 1859. Price, Sterling, American general, was bom in Virginia, 1809. He was a democratic member of congress, 184*5-46; was made brigadier-general in the Mexican war; was governor of Missouri, 1853-57; became a noted leader of the secession party; was appointed major-general in the confederate service in 1862, and rendered dis- tinguished service to the confederacy throughout the civil war, in the Southwest. He entered into a combination with Vallandigham and others, and founded the Knights of the Golden Circle, a secret political society, of which he was grand commander, composed, it is said, of nearly 25,000 Missourians. Died, 1867. Priestley, Joseph, eminent English clergyman and experimental philosopher, was bom in 1733, at Fieldhead, in Yorkshire, England. He was educated at Daventry, and was subeequently tutor at Warrington, pastor to various congre- gations, and acquired a high reputation ia physics and chemistry. In 1774 he announced his discovery of oxygen. In 1772 he had become companion to the earl of Shelburne, and, at the end of a seven years' residence with that noble- man, he received a pension, and settled, in 1780, at Birmingham. There he proceeded actively with his philosophical and theological researches, became tne associate of Boulton, Watt, and Dr. Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin, and was also appointed pastor of a Unitarian congrega- tion. In 1791, however, the scene changed. His religious principles and his avowed par- tiality to the French revolution excited the hatred of the high church and tory party, and, in the riots which took place in July, his house, library, manuscripts, and apparatus were com- mitted to the flames by the infuriated mob, and he was exposed to great personal danger. Quit- ting Birmingham, he succeeded Dr. Price at Hackney; but, in 1794, conceiving him.self to be insecure from popular rage, he embarked for America. He settled at Northumberland, Penn- sylvania, at which place he died, 1804. His works include between seventy and eighty volumes. Among them are : Lectures on General History; Theory and History of Language; Prin- ciples of Oratory and Criticism; Charts of Biog- raphy and History; Disquisitions Relating to Af alter and Spirit; Hartleian Theory of the Human Mind; History of the Corruptions of Christianity; Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever; Institutes of Naturcd and Revealed Religion; History of Elec- tricity; History of Vision, lAght, and Colors; and Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air. Prim (prem), Juan, Spanish general and statesman, was born, 1814. He entered the Spanish army when but a mere boy ; became a colonel in 1837 ; aided Narvaez, 1843, in the overthrow of Espar- tero, and assisted in effecting the return of Queen Maria Christina, who rewarded him by bestowing various honors on him, and making him governor of Madrid. In 1844 he was imprisoned ton an accusation of treason, but was soon pardoned, and was appointed governor of Porto Rico. He was subsequently commander-in-chief of the army against Morocco, and was made marquis; in 1861 commanded the Spanish contingent in the allied intervention of France and Spain in Mexico; visited the army of the Potomac on his way back to Spain; was banished from Madrid in 1864, but on the overthrow of Isabella, in which he aided, was welcomed back to Spain with open arms, and filled the highest posts in the realm. He is said to have furnished the pretext for the Franco-Prussian war by his offer of the Spanish crown to Prince Leopold. He was assassinated in 1870 in the streets of Madrid for having procured in the Cortes the election of Amadeus to the Spanish throne. Pritchett, Henry Smith, American educator, was born at Fayette, Mo., 1857. He graduated at Pritchett college, Glasgow, Mo., 1875; Ph. D., Munich, 1894; LL. D., Hamilton, 1900, Penn- sylvania, Harvard, and Yale, 1901, Johns Ilopkins, 1902, Williams, Michigan, 1905; 8c. D., Tufts, 1905. He was a student assistant in the United States naval observatory, 1876 ; assistant astronomer of same, 1878; astronomer of Morri- son observatory, Glasgow, Mo., 1880; astronomer Transit of Venus expedition to New Zealand, 1882; professor of astronomy and director of observatory, Washington university, St. Louis, 1883-97; superintendent of United States coa.st and geodetic survey, 1897-1900; president of the Massachusetts institute of technology, 1900- 06 ; and president of the Carnegie foundation for 934 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT advancement of teaching sipce 1906. He is the author of various scientific papers. Procter, Bryan Waller ("Barry Gornwall"), Eng- lish poet, was born at Leeds, 1787. Educated at Harrow with Byron and Peel for schoolfellows, Bettled in London when about twenty years of age, and soon began to contribute poetry to the Literary Gazette. A few years later he published four volumes of poems, and produced a tragedy at Covent Garden theater, whose success was largely due to the acting of Macready and Kemble. He was a metropolitan commissioner of lunacy from 1832 to 1861. His works, issued under his pseudonym, comprise: Dramatic Scenes; A Sicilian Story; Marcian Cdonna; The Flood of Thessaly; English Songs; besides his memoirs of Kean and of Charles Lamb. He wrote "The Lost Chord." Died in 1874. Proctor, Bedfleld, American statesman, was bom at Proctorsville, Vt., 1831. He served in the civil war as colonel of the 15th Vermont volun- teers, was governor of that state in 1878, 1879, and 1880. He engaged in farming on a large scale, living at Proctor, a town founded by him, and situated a few miles from Rutland, and was in practical control of the whole output of the Vermont marble quarries. He was secretary of war. United States, 1889-91; United States senator, Vermont, 1891-1908; visited Cuba, 1898, and his speech on Cuban reconcentrados in the United States senate after his return at- tracted wide attention. He died in 1908. Proctor, Richard Anthony, English astronomer and mathematician, was born at Chelsea, England, 1837. Pie was a graduate of St. John's college, Cambridge, in 1860. Besides his fame as an author, he was well known as a popular lecturer in England, the United States, and Australia. About 1885 he settled in St. Louis, and later moved to Florida, leaving there just before be was seized with his fatal illness in New York. His principal popular books were: Saturn and Its System; Gnomonic Star Atlas; Half-hmira with the Telescope; Half-hours with Stars; Other Worlds Than Ours; Light Science for Leisure Hours; Elementary Astronomy; Border Land of Science; Transits of Venus, Past, Present, and Future; The Expanse of Heaven; Myths and Marvels of Astronomy; Chance and Luck; First Steps in Geometry; Easy Lessons in Differential Calculus; and Old and New Astronomy, on which he was at work at the time of his death. He was at this time also editor of Krunoledge, a monthly journal of popular science. Died, 1888. Protagoras (pro-tOg'-o-ras), the first of the Greek sophists, was born about 480 B. C, and died ?bout 411 B. C. A native of Abdera, he settled m Athens, and gained a reputation as a paid teacher of philosophy. His doctrine was a form of agnosticism; his favorite saying was that Man IS the measure of all things." He was finally banished from the city. He devoted considerable attention to grammar, and the dis- tinction of moods and genders is sometimes attnbuted to him. Prondhon (pr<55'-ddN'), Pierre Joseph, French swiahst, was bom at Besan^on, 1809. By his vigorous advocacy of extreme and democratic opinions he became one of the leading figures of his day. As the editor of three dailv journals in succession he did much to form the public pinion on pohtical questions. His economic ^ -^I,^ expounded in his Qu'est-ce que la d,-f *"*^A,3l'^ Syst^me des contradictions f^^^Vt-, ^l*^°»gh he framed no complete o^^f + ^^ ""^i t'^ destructive criticism was nt fr!n!.>r "^' ^^ ^^ '"^^^^ ^'^^ ^^ the history lis ^^^'^^"^'c thought. He died at Passv, Ptolemy I. (tH'-f-ml), king of Egypt, known by his surname Soter, or "the preserver," was bom, 367 B. C. He was believed by some to be the son of Philip of Macedon, because his mother, Arsinoe, had been a concubine of that king. Ptolemy acted as one of Alexander's generals in liis Eastern campaigns; and, when the possessions of the latter were divided, after his death at Babylon, 323 B. C, Egypt fell to him. Troubles soon followed such an acquisition; but Ptolemy was a man of energy and valor, and not only warded off danger from his own realm, but also extended his dominions by the addition of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, and Jerusalem. Two years before his death, which occurred in 283 B. C, he abdicated in favor of his son, Ptolemy Philadel- phus. His reign extended from 323 to 285 B. C. Ptolemy 11^ sumamed Philadelphus, son of Ptolemv L, was bom, 309 B. C, m the island of Cos. II is reign is remarkable for the succe^bful cultivation of the arts of peace rather than the practice of war. He enriched the library of Alexandria with all the literary treasures of his own and of earlier times, and the museum was crowded with the learned from all coimtries. Tradition alleges that it was by his orders that the Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek, and the vcndon called the septuagint thus formed. He induced Manetho to write, in Greek, a political history of Egypt, and an account oi the religious tenets of the Egyptians. He encouraged the study of natural history, and to facilitate the pursuit of those who devoted them- selves to it he formed a collection of rare and curious animals in the preserves, which may be called the royal zoological gardens of Egypt. He also expendc>d large amounts on public works; was the builder of the famous ligbtnouse on the island of Pharos; and constructed a royal mausoleum, to which he removed the remains of Alexander from Memphis. Altogether, under Ptolemy Philadelphus Egypt rose to a high rank among the nations in power and wealth. He reigned from 285 to 247 B. C. Ptolemy, celebrated astronomer and geographer, whose proper name is Claudius Ptolemaeus, was a native of Egj^pt, though it is uncertain whether he was bom at Pelusium or at Ptolemais in the Thebaid; flourished 139-161. His writings are Megale Syntaxis tea Astronomaia and TetrabihUm Syntaxia. Ptolemy, both as an astronomer and geographer, held supreme sway over the minds of almost all the scientific men from his own time down until about the fifteenth century; and in astronomy especially he seems to have been not so much an independent investigator as a corrector and improver of the work of his predecessors. The Almageat and the Geography were the standard text-books to succeeuing ages; the first until the time of Copernicus, the second until the great maritime discoveries of the fifteenth centur\' showed its deficiencies. Pugln (pH'-jln), Augustus Welby, English architect, was bom in London, 1812, the son of a French architect, Augustin Pugin, in whose office he was trained, chiefly by making drawings for his father's books on Gothic buildings. He was associated with Sir Charles Barrj-, architect of the British houses of parliament, and designed and modeled a large part of the decorations and sculpture for those structures. He became a convert to Catholicism, designed Killamey cathedral, Adare hall, a chapel at Douai, and many other churches and buildings for that communion. He died at Ram^ate, 1852. He wrote Contrasts between the Architecture of the \5th and IQth Centuries; Chancd Screens; and True Principlea of Christian Architecture. Pulaski (pd^4ds'-k€), Casirair, Polish count and general, who fell in the American revolutionary THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 935 war, was bom in Podolia, 1748. On account of the active part he took in tlie Polish war against Russia, he was stripped of his estates and out- lawed in the partition of Poland in 1772. In 1777 he offered his services to the American colonies in their contest against England, and for his gallant conduct at the battle of Brandy- wine was given a brigade of cavalry, which he commanded until March, 1778. In Mav, 1779, he entered Charleston at the head of "]?ulaski's legion," a corps of lancers and light infantry which he had organized, and held it until the Elace was relieved; he afterward followed and arassed the British until they left South Carolina. At the siege of Savannah, in October, 1779, he fell in an assault at the head of the cavalry, and died on board the brig Wasp two days later. Pulitzer (pu'-lU-sir), Joseph, American journalist, Eroprietor of New York TT'orZd, 1883-1911; was orn at Budapest, Hungary, 1847. He was educated by private tutor; came to United States, 1864 ; served until end of civil war in a cavalry regiment; went to St. Louis, became reporter on the iVestliche Post, a German newspaper, 1868, and later became its managing editor and part proprietor. In 1878 he bought the St. Louis Dispatch and united it with Tlie Evening Post, as the Post-Dispatch. He was a member of the Missouri legislature, 1869; Missouri state constitutional convention, 1874; was elected to congress in New York for term 1885-87, but resigned after a few months' service ; was a del- egate to the Cincinnati liberal republican conven- tion, which nominated Horace Greeley for pres- ident; and advocated the gold-standard demo- cratic ticket, 1896. In 1903 he endowed with $1,000,000 Columbia university school of jour- nalism, with agreement to give an additional $1,000,000 when the school should be in success- ful operation. Died, 1911. PuUnaan, George M., American inventor and busi- ness man, was bom at Brocton, Chautauqua county, N. Y., 1831. At the age of twenty-two he engaged in moving buildings out of the way of the Erie canal, then in process of widening. He made his home in Chicago in 1859, and in the same year prepared models of sleeping cars, which became the foundation of his fortune. He made a success of raising buildings to the new level of the city by means of a great many jackscrews, operated simultaneously. In 1863 he began building the coaches that are called by his name the world over. A few years later he organized the Pullman palace car company which was to build them. In 1880 he founded the town of Pullman, near Chicago, where the coaches were built. In 1887 he added the vestibule to his cars, which greatly increased their comfort. He died in 1897, having amassed a large fortune from his inventions and his various business enterprises. Pupln {pu-pen'), Michael Idvorsky, physicist, electrician, professor of electro-mechanics, Colum- bia, since 1901, was bom in Idvor, Banat, Hun- gary, 1858. He graduated at Columbia univer- sity, 1883; studied physics and mathematics under Helmholtz, at the university of Berlin; Ph. D., Berlin. His researches in electrical resonance and wave propagation have made possible long-distance telephony and multiplex telegraphy. Wrote: Osmotic Pressure and Free Energy; Electrical Oscillation of Low Frcqwency and Their Resonance; Resonance Analysis of Alternating Currents; Electro-magnetic Theory; Propagation of Long Electrical Waves; Wave Propagation Over Noriruniform Conductors, etc. Pnrcell {pHr'-sU), Henry, noted English composer, was bom at Westminster in 1658, and in 1664 became a chorister in the Chapel Royal. His compositions at an early age gave evidence of talent; and In 1680 he was appointed organi.it of Westminster abbey, in 1682 of the Chapel Royal. He wrote many antnems and other church music, and many dramatic and chamber compositions. Among them are his opera Dido and Ainmif, written at seventeen, his music to the Tempest, his songs in Dryden's King Arthur, his music to Howard's and Dryden's Indian Queen, to D'Urfey's Don Quixote, etc. His greatest work is the Te Deum and Jubilate. In 1683 he rom- fosed twelve sonatas for two violins and a bass, n originality and vigor, in richness of harmony and variety of expression, he far surpassed his predecessors and contemporaries, lus church music was edited from the original MSS. by Vincent Novello in 1829-32, with an essay on his life and works: and a complete edition of his works was undertaken by the Purcell society, instituted in 1876. Purcell died, 1695, and was buried in Westminster abbey. Pusey (pu'-zi), Edward BouTcrle, English divine, was born at Pusey, in Berkshire, in 1800, and graduated at Oxford in 1822. In 1828 he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Oxford, a position he held until his death. In connection with Keble and Newman, Pusey took a very active part in the "Tractarian movement"; andf, in 1843, was suspended from preaching at Oxford for three years on account of a sermon on the holy eucharist. But he remained in the Anglican communion, and exerted all his talents and learning to sustain evangelical doctrines and standards. In private life, Pusey was a man of warm affection, and was widely known for his gentleness, sincerity, and humility. His charity was limited only by his income ; besides abundant gifts to the poor, he spent large sums in helping to provide churches in East London, and in founding and supporting sisterhoods. He died at Oxford, 1882. Pushkin (pdosh'-kin), Alexander Sergeyevltch, Rus- sian poet, was bom in 1799. He was the son of a nobleman, and when quite young became a government clerk, but, having written an Ode to Liberty which offended the emperor, lost the office. In 1825 Emperor Nicholas reinstated him and appointed him to write a history of Peter the Great. His greatest work, Eugene Onegin, is a romance in verse. Among his other writings are the poems: Th^ Gypsies; Poltava; Dubrovski; and The Captain's Daughter, a novel. Pushkin was killed in a duel at St. Petersburg when thirty-seven years old, 1837. Putnam, George Haven, publisher, head of G. P. Putnam's Sons, was bom in London, England, 1844. He was educated at the Sorbonne, Paris, and university of Gottingen; A. M., Bowdoin college; Litt. D., Western Pennsylvania. He left Gottingen without graduating to enter 176th New York volunteers, 1862; served from private to major, until 1865. He was a prisoner at Libby and Danville, Va., in the winter of 1864-65. He received the cross of the legion of honor from France, 1891. Author: Authors and Their Public in Ancient Times; The Artificial Mother; Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages; The Censorship of the Church of Rome and its Influence upon the Production and the Distri- bution of Literature, etc. Putnam, Herbert, librarian of congress since 1899, was bom at New York, 1861. He graduated at Harvard, 1883: Litt. D., Bowdoin, 1898; LL. D., Columbian, 1903, Illinois, 1903, Wisconsin. 1904, Yale, 1907. He took a partial course at Columbia law^ school, and was admitted to the Minnesota bar, 1886; to the bar of Suffolk county, Mass., 1892; and practiced law, Boston, 1892-95. He was librarian at Minneapolis Athenaeum, 1884-87, Minneapolis public library-, 1887-91, and Boston public library, 1895-99. He was president of 936 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT the American library association, 1898, 1904, and overseer of Harvard, 1902-06. He has pub- lished numerous articles in reviews and profes- sional journals. Putnam, Israel, American general, bom at Danvers, Mass., 1718. In 1755 he helped as a captain to repel a French invasion of New York, and was present at the battle of Lake George. In 1758 he was captured by the savages, tortured, and about to be burned when a French officer rescued him. In 1759 he received a regiment, in 1762 went on the West India campaign, and in 1764 helped to relieve Detroit, then besieged bv Pontiac. In 1775, after the battle of Concord, he was given command of the forces of Connecti- cut, was at Bunker Hill, held the command at New York, and in August, 1776, at Brooklyn Heights, where he was defeated by Howe. In 1777 he was appointed to the defense of the Highlands of the Hudson. He died, 1790. Pyle, Howard, American artist, author, was bom at Wilmington, Del., 1853. He was educated in private schools and at the art students' league, New York. Author and illustrator: The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood; Pepper and Salt, or Seasoning for Young Folks; Within the Capes; The Wonder Clock; The Rose of Paradise; Otto of the Silver Hand; A Modem Aladdin; Men of Iron; Jack BaUister's Fortunes; Twilight Land; The Garden Behind the Moon; Semper Idem; Rejected of Men; The Story of King Arthur and His Knights; The Story of the Champions of the Round Table; The Story of Sir Launcelot and His Companions; Stolen Treasure; and many magazine stories and articles. Died, 1911. Pym (plm), John, English orator and statesman, was bom at Brymore, in Somersetshire, in 1584. He was for many years member of parliament for Tavistock, having been in the previous reign member for Calne, and was one of those who, in 1626, conducted the impeachment of the duke of Buckingham. Fifteen years afterward he led the impeachment of the earl of Strafford; and in the following year 1642, ho was one of the "five members — Hollis, Haselrig, Hampden, Strode, and Pym — the attempt to seize whom, on the part of Charles I., immediately preceded the English civil war. The title of "King Pym," which was given to him in ridicule, sufficiently indicates the power he wielded in the long parliament. Scarcely had the great conflict begun, however, when toil and anxiety brought his career to a close. He died at Derby House, 1643, and was buried in state in Westminster abbey. Pyrrhus (plr'-Os), Greek general, king of Epirus, was born about 318 B. C, came to the throne in 306 B. C. He was expelled a few years later, but restored by the help of Ptolemy Soter in 295 B. C. ; held the kingdom of Macedonia for a short time, and, in 281 B. C, went to Italy to help Tarentum against the Romans. He was at first successful, through his elephants and the phalanx, but was finally defeated in 275 B. C. After this he again mastered Macedonia, but was killed in a night attack on Argos in 272 B. C. Pythagoras (pi-th&g'-d-ras), celebrated Greek phi- losopher, the founder of the Pythagorean school also called the Italic, was born about 582 B. C, at Samos, or, according to some, at Sidon. He began to travel at the age of eighteen; visited Phoenicia and Asia Minor, and, it is said, Persia and India, and resided for twenty-five years in Egypt. On his return he taught geometry at bamos, after which he settled at Crotona, ih Magna Graecia, and estabhshed a school of philosophy, which became famous. Persecution at length drove him thence, and he took refuge in the temple of the Muses at Metapontum, where he IS said to have been starved to death, about 500 B. C. Besides being an illustrious metaphysical philosopher, Pythagoras was a great geometrician and astronomer, discovered the imnierical rela- tions in music and propounded the theory of the "harmony of the spheres." He left no writings, and we Icnow of his philosophy chiefly from the philosophy of his disciples. Quackenbos, John Duncan, physician, author, wa* bom in New York, 1848. He was graduated at Columbia university, 1868, college of physicians and surgeons, 1871; has since practiced in New York, latterly making a specialty of mental and moral diseases. He was adjunct professor of the English language and literature, Columbia, 1884-91, professor of rhetoric at same, 1891-94; also professor of rhetoric at Barnard college for women, 1891-93. Author: History of Uie World; History of Ancient Literature; History of the English Language; Ph^neal Geography; Text- Book on Physvca; Practical Rhetoric; Typhoid Fever; Cause* and Recent Treatment of Neuras- thenia; Tuberculosis; Hypnotic Suggestion in the Treatment of Sextud Perversions; Hypnotism in Mental and Moral Culture; Enemies and Evi- dences of Christianity, etc. Quatrefaces de Brftau {ka'-tr'-fdxh' di brif-d'), Jeaa liouls AmiaJid de, French naturalist, was bom at BerthexAme, France, 1810. In 1850 he was elected professor in the Lyde NapoUon and in 1855 at tlic natural history muaeum, Paris. His chief works are: Souvenirs d'un Naturalists; Units de I' Espies Humaine; L' Espies Humaine; Crania Ethmea; Les PygmSes; Darvfin el ses Pricurseurs Pranfais; and Theories Transform- istes. He died in 1892. Quay, Matthew Stanley, United States senator and repubUcan fxilitician, was born at Dillsburg, Pa., 1^3. He was graduated at JefTerson college in 1850, and four years later admitted to the bar. In the civil war he served as colonel of one of the Pennsylvania volunteer regiments, was military state agent at Wasliington, and military secretary to the governor of Pennsylvania. He entered the state legislature in 1865, was twice state secretary, state treasurer, and chairman of the repubUcan national committee during the Harri- son campaign of 1888. In 1887 he was made United States senator for Pennsylvania, reelected in 1893, and two years later was tried tor alleged misappropriation of public funds, but was acquitted. He was again elected in 1901, but died in 1904. Quesnay {kif-^tVt'), Francois, French economist and physician, was bom at Mdr6, France, 1694. He studied medicine at Paris, and at his death was first physician to the king. But the fame of the "European Confucius" depends on his essays in political economy. Arounid him and his friend, M. de Goumay, gathered the famous group of the economists, called the phvsiocratic school. His views were set forth in Tableau Economiques. Quesnay's principles are J^lso well known from his contributions to the EncydopSdie, and from his Maximes du Gouvemement Economique, Le Droit Naturd, etc. He died in 1774. Although he wrote in the infancy of science, and many of his opinions are not now maintained, his system is described by Adam Smith as being, "with all its imp>erfections, the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been puolished on the subject of political economj'." Quesnel (ki'-nil'), Pasquler, French Roman Cath- olic theologian, was bom in Paris, 1634. He studied at the Sorbonne, became in 1662 director of the Paris oratory, and here wrote Reflexions Morales sur le Nouveau Testament. In 1675 he pubhshed the works of Leo the Great, which, lor Gallicanism in the notes, was plac«i on the Index. Having refused to condemn Jansenism THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 937 in 1684, he fled to Brussels, where his Riflexiona were published, 1687-94. The Jesuits were un- ceasing in their hostility, and Quesnel was flung into prison in 1703, but escaped to Amsterdam. His book was condemned in the bull Unigenitua in 1713. He spent his last years at Amsterdam, and died there in 1719. Quigley, James JSdward, Roman Catholic arch- bishop of Chicago since 1903, was born at Oshawa, Canada, 1854, and moved with his parents to Lima, N. Y. He was educated at St. Joseph's college, Buffalo, N. Y., and at the university of Innspruck and the college Propaganda, Rome. He was priest at St. Vincent's cliurch, Attica, N. Y., 1879-84; St. Joseph's cathedral, Buffalo, 1884-96: St. Bridget's church, 1896-97; bishop of Buffalo, 1897-1903, when he was installed in Chicago. Quiller-Couch, Arthur Thomas, British novelist and essayist, was born at Cornwall, 1863. He was graduated at Trinity college, Oxford; was lecturer there in classics, 1886-87; removed to London; was connected with the Speaker from its commencement until autumn of 1899, though in 1891 he left London for his native county, where he has since resided. Author: Dead Man' a Rock; The Blue Pavilions; The Warwick- shire Avon; The Delectable Duchy; Verses and Parodies; Wandering Heath; The Golden Pomp; Adventures in Criticism; Poems and Ballads; The Ship of Stars; Old Fires and Profitable Ghosts; The Oxford Book of English Verse; The White Wolf; Two Sides of the Face; Shakespeare's Christmas; From a Cornish Window, etc. In 1897 he was commissioned to finish R. L. Steven- son's uncompleted novel, St. Ives. Quincy, Josiah, American statesman, was bom in Boston, Mass., 1772. He was graduated at Har- vard, 1790, and adopted the law as a profession. In 1805-13 he was a member of congress. He opposed the war of 1812, and was one of the first, if not the first, among northern men to denounce the slaveholding interest as a rising and dangerous tyranny. In 1813 he was elected to the Massachusetts state senate, and joined in the protest of the legislature against the war and the admission of Louisiana. He remained in the senate until the close of 1820, when he was elected to the state house of representatives, of which he was chosen speaker. In 1822 he became judge of the municipal court of Boston. He was mayor of Boston, 1823-28, and president of Harvard, 1829-45. He published History of Harvard University; The Municipal History of the Town and City of Boston During Two Cen- turies; The Life of John Quincy Adams; and other works. Died, 1864. Quinet (ke'-n^'), Edgar, French philosopher and author, was born at Bourg, France, 1803, and first studied at Lyons and at Paris. He then studied at Heidelberg, and on his return to France published a translation of Herder's Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit. From this early period he formed an intimate friendship with Michelet. He was a member of the scientific commission sent to the Morea in 1828, and while there gathered materials for his Grice Moderne et ses Rapports avee I'AntiquitS. He then became a contributor to the Revue des Deux Mondes, in which Aliasverus, perhaps his finest work, first appeared. From 1839 to 1842 he held the chair of foreign literature at Lyons, where his lectures on the ancient civilizations excited a profound interest. From here he passed to a chair at the College de France, and assailed the Jesuits with a keen, earnest, epi- grammatic eloquence that startled the chiefs of that body. He threw himself eagerly into the reform agitation that brought about the revo- lution of 1848, and was elected a member of the constitution and legislative assemblies, but was expelled from France. On the fall of the empire he returned to France, and was reinstalled in his chair at the College de France, 1870. In 1871 he was elected a member of the assembly, and died in 1875. QuintlUan (kvyin-tU'-i-an), or Marcus Fabius Quln- tlllanus, Latin rhetorician, was born at Cala- gurris, now Calahorra, in Spain, about 35 A. D. lie went to Rome in the train of Galba, and began to practice at the bar, but achieved bis fame more as teacher in rhetoric than a practi- tioner at the bar, a function he discharged with brilliant success for twenty years under the patronage and favor of the emperor Vespasian. The work by which he is known is entitled De Institutione Oratoria, or sometimes Institutione* Oratoriae, and is comprised in twelve books. This work, which contains all that Quintilian considered most valuable in the earlier treatises, both Greek and Latin, on the subiect, was dis- covered by Poggio Bracciolini in the monastery of St. Gall in 1417. Quintilian died probably in Rome about 95 A. D. Babelais (rd'-b'4ii'), Francois, the great French humorist, was born at Chinon, in Touraine, about 1490. In 1530 he settled at Montpellier, and, taking a medical degree at the university, was appointed lecturer. In 1532 he went as hospital physician to Lyons, where he published several works on medical science, besides other miscel- laneous matter bearing on archaeology, juris- prudence, etc. His romance, in which are nar- rated the wonderful adventures of Gargantua and Pantagruel, continues to take rank as one of the world's masterpieces of humor and grotesque invention. Gargantua is supposed to stand for Francis I., Pantagruel for Henry II., Grande- i'ument de Gargantua for Diana of Poiters, 'anurge for the Cardinal de Lorraine, and other characters for various celebrated persons. Lord Bacon called Rabelais "the great jester of France"; others have called him a "comic Homer." His work abounds with good sense and folly, delicate thoughts and gross obsceni- ties; but it was entirely in accordance with the prevailing taste, and had a prodigious success. Died in Paris, 1553. Rachel (rd'-shW), or flllsa Rachel F^llx, celebrated actress, was born at Munf, in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland, 1821, daughter of poor parents, of the Jewish race. She began her career by singing in the streets of Lyons, and subsequently of Paris. In the latter city her singing attracted attention, and she was enabled to obtain some musical education, which she used to such advantage that she secured, when little more than seventeen years of age, an appointment in the Th^&tre Francais of Paris, and instantly became famous. Although her life was spent chiefly in Paris, she visited London, St. Petersburg, Amsterdam, and many other European cities, and in all of them her genius for tragedy was recognized as of the highest order. During a visit to America in 1855 she developed consumption, of which she ultimately died, near Toulon, France, 1858. Racine (rd'-sen'), Jean Baptlste, distinguished French dramatist, was bom at La Fert6 Milon, 1639, and completed his education at the semi- nary of Port Royal. He commenced his poetical career by an ode on the king's marriage, for which he was magnificently rewarded. A second ode obtained for him a fresh recompense, and the friendship of Boileau. His first dramatic efforts. The Thebaid, and Alexander the Great, gave but faint indications of superior talent, but his tragedy of Andromache placed him far above all his contemporaries except Comeille. He 938 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT increased his fame by the production of Britanni- eus, Berenice, Iphigenia, and other tragedies, and by his comedy, The Pleaders; but a oase cabal which was formed against his Phaedra induced him to desist from writing for the stage. After a lapse of twelve years, he wrote, by desire of Madame de Maintenon and Louis XIV., the dramas of Esther and Athalie, to be performed at the seminary of St. Cyr. The last of these pieces was cried down by his enemies, and Racine relinquished his pen in disgust. The latter is now considered, very generally, to be his finest play. He died in 1699. A commen- tator upon Racine, says Voltaire, "has only to write at the bottom of every page, beautiful, pathetic, harmonious, admirable, sublime!" Badcllffe, Ann (n6e Ward), noted English novelist, was bom in London, 1764. In her twenty-third year she married William RadclifTe, a student of law, but who became proprietor and editor of a weekly newspaper, the English Chronicle. Among her works are : The Castles of Athlin and Dun- hayne; A Sicilian Romance; The Romance of the Forest; Mysteries of Udolpho, etc. Her popu- larity increased down to the date of her latest work, when, in her thirty-third year, "like an actress in full possession of her applauded pow- ers," as Scott remarked, "she chose to retreat from the stage in the full blaze of her fame." She died in 1823. RadclifTe, John, English physician and the fovmdcr of the RadclifTe library at Oxford, was bom at Wakefield, Yorkshire, England 1650. In 1680 Princess Anne of Denmark made him her physi- cian. To University college he left his estate in Yorkshire, in trust for the endowment of two traveling fellowships and the purchase of per- petual advowsons, together with 5,000 pounds for the enlargement of the college buildings. He left 40,000 pounds for the erection of a public library in Oxford, since known as the RadclifTe library, which he endowed with 150 pounds per annum for a librarian. The Radcliffe infirmary and Radcliffe observatory, at Oxford, were both erected out of this fund; and from the same source, in 1823, the Radcliffe trustees contributed the sum of 2,000 pounds toward the erection of the college of physicians in Pall Mall, London. He died in 1714. Bae, John, British author and journalist, was bom in Wick, Scotland, 1845. He was graduated at Edinburgh imiversity; M. A., Edinburgh; hon. LL. D., Edinburgh. He has written largely for the leading reviews, especially on social and economic subjects, and is the author of Contem- porary Socialism, Eight Hours for Work, Life of Adam Smith, etc. Sae, John, English Arctic explorer, was bom in the Orkney islands, 1813. From 1846 he devoted over twenty years to Arctic exploration, walking oyer 20,000 miles, and exhibiting mar- velous activity and endurance. He mapped out almost one thousand miles of coast line, and gained the reward of £10,000 offered for the first news of the lost Franklin expedition, Rae died in England, 1893. Raebiim, Sir Henry, Scottish portrait-painter, was bom at Stockbridge, near Edinburgh, 1756. He was apprenticed to a goldsmith, but adopted art, producing first water-color miniatures and then oils. At twenty-two he married the widow of Coirnt Leslie, a lady of means, studied two years m Rome, 1785-87, then settled in Edinburgh, and soon attained preeminence among Scottish artists. In 1814 he was elected A. R. A., j'n i89o' A •'• ^^ knighted by George IV. in liij2, and appointed king's painter for Scotland a few days before his death, 1823. His stvle was to some extent founded on that of Reynolds. Among his sitters were Scott, Hume, Bos\^'ell "Christopher North," Lord Melville, Sir David Baird, Henrj' Mackenzie, Neil Gow, Harry Ersldne, Dugald Stewart, Principal Robertson, Lord Jeffrey, and Lord Cockbum. Baff (rfl/), Joachim, German composer, was bom at Lachen on the lake of Ziirich, 1822. In 1850- 56 he lived near Liszt in Weimar, taught music at Wiesbaden until 1877, and was then director of the conservatory at Frankfort-on-Main. He wrote over 200 symphonies, overtures, operas, quartets, songs, etc. ; the symphonies Lenore and Im Walde are his best works. In Die Wagner- fragc, issued in 1852, he championed the new German musical school. Among his operas the chief are Kdnig Alfred and Dame Kobold. Died, 1882. Banian (rdg'-lan). Lord (Fitzroy James Henry Somerset), British general, was bom in 1788. He entered the army in his sixteenth year, and after serving on the staff of the duke of Welling- ton in the Copenhagen expedition and the Penin- sular war, became his secretary' in 1812. He lost his right arm in the battle of Waterloo; and for his brilliant services in that campaign was made a K. C B. In 1852 he was made master- general of the ordnance, and entered the house of lords as Baron Raglan. When war was declared against liussia. in 1854, Lord Raglan was appointed commanuer of the English forces in the Crimea, and, at the desperate battle of Inkerman, he won the baton of a field-marshal. The siege of Sebastopol continued into June, 1855. when a general assault was ordered, at whicn both English and French troops suffered terrible losses. Raglan died a few days later, 1855. Bacroxin (rd-g6'-zen)t Zcnalde Alexelevna, Ameri- can author, was bom in Russia, 1835. She traveled extensively in Europe, came to the United States in 1874, and became a naturalized citizen. She has since devoted herself to his- torical and oriental literature. Author: Story of Chaldea; Story of Assyria; Story of Media, Babylon and Persia; Story of Vcdic India; Hit- lory of the World; Sieafried, the Hero of the Netherlands; Beoundf, the Hero of the Anglo- Saxons; Frithjof, the Viking of Norway; Roland, the Paladin of France; Scuammbd. the Maid of Carthage, etc. She also translatea from French Anatole Lcroy Beaulieu's The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians. Baikes (r&ks\ Bobert, English publisher and philanthropist, founder of the modem Sunday schools, was bom at Gloucester, England, 1735. In 1757 he succeeded his father as proprietor of the Gloucester Journal. He early interested him- self in the pitiable condition of prisoners in the jails;^ and then his consideration for the misery and ignorance of many children in his native city led him in 1780 to start a Sunday school where they might learn to read and understand the Bible. He lived to see such schools spread over England. Died, 1811. Balelgh {r6'-il; rUl'-t), or Balegh, Sir Walter, English courtier, colonizer, and man of letters, was bom at Budleigh, in Devonshire, 1552, and was educated at Oriel college, Oxford. Betv.ecn 1569 and 1581 he served with distinction in the army of the French Protestants, in the Nether- lands, and in Ireland, and accompam'ed his half- brother. Sir Humphry Gilbert, in a voyage to America. Shortly after his return he seems first to have attracted the attention of Queen Eliza- beth, with whom he speedily rose high in favor. In 1584, a patent having been granted him to take possession of lands to be discovered by him on the continent of North America, he fitted out two ships at his o'wn expense, and shortly achieved the discovery and occupation of the territory known as Virginia, a name chosen as THROUGHOUT THE WORLD containing an allusion to the "virgin queen" herself. Elizabeth also conferred on Raleigh the honor of knighthood. It was through him that the potato and tobacco were introduced into England at tliis time. He held in 1596 the post of admiral in the great expedition against Cadiz, commanded by Howard and the earl of Elssex, and was admittedly the main instrument of its success. With the death of Elizabeth in 1603 ends the brilliant and successful portion of his career. Her successor, James, from the first regarded him with a suspicion and dislike which he was at no pains to conceal. He was accused of complicity in a plot against the king. Sen- tence of death was passed, but James did not venture to execute him, and he was sent to the Tower, where for thirteen years he remained a prisoner, his estates being confiscated and made over to the king's favorite, Carr, subsequently earl of Somerset. During his imprisonment he devoted himself to literary and scientific pur- suits, and wrote his History of the World, a noble fragment, still notable to the student as one of the finest models of the quaint and stately old English style. In 1615 he procured his release, ana sailed for Guiana. After his return, in 1618, he was infamously executed, nominally on the . sentence passed on him sixteen years before, but really there is reason to suppose in base compliance on James' part with the urgencies of the king of Spain, who resented Raleigh's persistent hostility. Sambaud {raa'-bo'), Alfred Nicolas, French his- torian, was bom at Besan5on, 1842. He was a member of the French cabinet, 1879-80, and in 1896 became minister of public instruction. He was appointed, in 1883, professor of history in the university of Paris, and became a member of the academy of moral and political sciences in 1897. He wrote works on Russia, French civilization, colonial France, etc., and, with Lavisse, Histoire G&n&rale du Ivme Siecle, in 12 vols. Died, 1905. Barneses I. (rdm'-esez), ruled about 1355 B. C, and was king during the nineteenth Egyptian dynasty, formed a treaty with the Hittites, and maintained the conquests of Egypt as far as Wady Haifa. His grandson, Rameses II., usu- ally called the Great, defeated the Hittites at Katesh, then formed a peace with them, and married a Hittite princess. He subjected Ethiopia, which had revolted, established a fleet in the Mediterranean, and erected some of the largest of the Egyptian edifices. His name and reputation formed the basis of the legendary Sesostris. Rameses III. warred ^ith the Philis- tines and maritime tribes of Greece and Asia Minor, and repeated the conquest of Ethiopia. It is usual to identify the warrior king Rameses II. with the Pharaoh of the oppression, and Merenptah, his son, as the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Bamsay, Sir Wllliani, British chemist, was bom at Glasgow, 1852. He was educated at Glasgow university, and at Tiibingen; M. D., Ph. D., LL. D., D. Sc. He was assistant in chemistry, Glasgow university, 1874-80; professor of chem- istry at University college, Bristol, 1880-87 ; prin- cipal from 1881 to 1887; in 1887 accepted the chemistry chair at University college, London. In conjunction with Lord Rayleigh he discovered argon in 1894, and in 1895 obtained heUum from cl6veite. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry. He is the author of numer- ous papers, the most important of which are perhaps Tfie Molecular Surface-Energy of Liquids; Argon, A New Constituent of the Atmosphere, in conjunction with Lord Rayleigh; and Helium, A Constituent of Certain Minerals; also Neon, Krypton, and Xenon, three new atmospheric gases; and The Discovery of the Constittiente of the Air. He is also author of several textbooks on chemistry. Ramsay, Sir William Mitchell, professor of human- ity at Aberdeen university, 1886-1911; was bom at Ghisgow, 1851. He was educated at the universities of Aberdeen, Oxford, and Gottingen : hon. D. C. L., Oxford; LL. U., St. Andrews and Glasgow; Litt. D., Oambridgc. Ho traveled widely in Asiatic Turkey, 1880-91; was pro- fessor of classical art in Oxford university, 1885 ; Levering lecturer in Johns Hopkins university, Baltimore, 1894. Author: The Historical Oeog- raphy of Asia Minor; The Church in the Roman Empire; St. Paul the Traveler and the Roman Citizen; Impressions of Turkey; Was Christ Bom at Bethlehem? The Education of Cfwiet; Pauline and other Studies in Early Cfirieiian History; Studies in the History ana Art of the Eastern Provinces of the Roman Empire; The Cities of St. Paul; Lucan and Pauline Sttuties; and numerous articles in German, Austrian, French, American, and English literary, archaeological, and geographical journals. Bandall, Samuel J., American statesman, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1828. After spending a number of years in mercantile business in his native city, he was elected to congress as a democrat in 1862. He held this position up to the time of his death at Washington, D. C, 1890. He was elected speaker of the house of repre- sentatives to fill an unexpired term in 1876. He was also chosen speaker of the house in 1877 and again in 1879. He was a democratic protec- tionist, consistently opposed to tariff reform. Throughout his congressional career, his ability and integrity were conceded by men of all parties, and he was held in the highest esteem by his fellow-congressmen. Randolph, Edmund Jennings, American statesman, was born at Williamsburg, Va., 1753, and was admitted to the Virginia bar. In 1776 he helped to frame the constitution of Virginia, and became the first attorney-general of that state; was governor of Virginia from 1786 to 1788, and a member of the convention which framed the constitution of the United States. In 1789 he entered Washington's cabinet as attorney- general, and in 1794 was appointed secretary of state, to succeed Jefferson, which office he resigned in the following year on account of some misunderstanding with the president and his colleagues in reference to the Jay treaty. He died in Virginia, 1813. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, American orator and statesman, was bom in Chesterfield county, Va., 1773. At the age of twenty-six he entered upon public life as a member of congress, and at once took a leading position in politics. He was United States senator, 1825-27; United States minister to Rus.sia in 1830; and again elected to congress in 1832. He was conspicuous for his many odd ways, and for a wit so sharp as to make him the terror of all who opposed him in congress. Randolph prided himself on his descent from Pocahontas, and his marked Indian features bore witness to his origin. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., 1833. Ranke (r&ng'-ke), licopold von, eminent German historian, was bom at Wiehe, Thuringia, 1795. He was educated at Leipzig, and at twenty- three became head master of the gynuiasium at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he devoted his leisure to historical studies. Six years later he published A Critique upon the Later Historians, and the History of the Roman and Germanic Peoples from 1495 to 1535, which attracted wide attention and won him the chair of history at Berlin in 1825, which he retained until 1871. Not long after be was sent by the Prussian 940 BIASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT government to Vienna, Rome, and especially to Venice, to examine the historical material and MSS. in the libraries and monasteries of those cities. The result of his researches was the Princes and People of Southern Europe in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, and the Conspiracy against Venice in 1688. These were soon followed by the Popes of Rome: Their Church and Their State in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. His most complete and elaborate effort, however, is his German History in the Time of the Reformation. He published besides Annals of the German Monarchy under the House of Saxony, nine books of Russian history, Civil Wars and Monarchy in the Sixteenth and Seven- teenth Centuries; History of France; and many other works. He edited the Historical and Political Gazette, but was obliged to discontinue it on account of its liberal tone, which had given offense to the government. In 1880, in his eighty-fourth year, he published the first volume of his Weltijeschichte, or History of the World, writing a volume annually. Probably no man of his time, even in his own land, toiled more indefatigably or laid up greater stores of knowl- edge. He died in 1886. Raphael (rdf'-a-Sl; r&'-fa-ll), or Raffaello Sanzio. See page 134. Rauch (roMK), Christian Daniel, noted German sculptor, was bom at Arolsen, in the principality of Waldeck, 1777. He was a pupil of Canova and of Thorwaldsen. In 1811 he was called by the king of Prussia to Berlin to execute a statue of Queen Louise, which was placed in the mauso- leum of the queen in the garden of Charlotten- burg. He was not, however, quite satisfied with the statue, and undertook a new statue of the queen, which he finished eleven years afterward. The latter now stands in the palace of Sans Souci, near Potsdam. His greatest effort was the colossal monument to Frederick the Great, which was dedicated in the city of Berlin in 1851. His last work was a model of "Moses Praying on Mount Nebo between Aaron and Hur." The greater portion of his long life was spent in Berlin, but he died at Dresden, 1857. Rawlinson, George, English historian and oriental- ist, brother of Henry Rawlinson, was bom at Chadlington, Oxfordshire, 1812. He was grad- uated at Oxford; was elected a fellow and tutor of Exeter college; became professor of ancient history at Oxford in 1861 ; canon of Canterbury cathedral in 1872; and rector of All Hallows, London, 1888. In 1860 he published his notable Bampton lectures on the Historic Evidence for the Truth of the Christian Records. His historical works cover nearly the entire history of the ancient orient, commencing with an edition of Herodotus, in which many of his brother's dis- coveries are incorporated. This was followed by The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World; The Sixth and Seventh Great Orierdal Monarchy; A Manual of Ancient History; A History of Ancient Egypt, and others. He died at Canterbury, 1902. Rav^nson, Sir Henry Creswlcke, English oriental scholar and diplomat, was bom at Chadlington, Oxfordshire, England, 1810. He was educated m Eahng, Middlesex, and entered the East India mihtary service in 1827; served in the Bombay presidency until 1833, and was then appointed ^ assist m reorganizing the army of the shah of Persia. During the six years he spent in that country he began to study the cuneiform or wedg^shaped inscriptions, and made a transla- tion of the famous Behistun inscription of Darius, which he pubhshed in the Jmirnal of the Asiatu: bocMty. After he left Persia he held command of Kandahar during 1840-42, and in 1844 was appointed pohtical agent at Bagdad, and consul- general there in 1851. He then returned to England, but in 1859 was sent back to Persia as British minister. In 1871-73 he was president of the royal geographical society, and in 1891 was made a baronet. Died, 1895. He wrote a number of books, among which are : England and Russia in the East; The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia; Outline History of Assyria, etc. Rayleigb (rd'-ll), John William Strutt, Lord, dis- tinguished English phy.sicist, was bom in 1842, graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, in 1865, and became a fellow in the following year. He succeeded to the title of baron in 1873, was pro- fessor of experimental physics at Cambridge, 1879-84, and of natural philosophy at the royal institution, London, 1887-1905. In 1894, with Professor Ramsay, he discovered argon. His experimental work in phj'sics is characterised by the most extreme care, and has extended to almost every branch of the science. He is an officer of the legion of honor, received the Nobel prize for physics in 1904, and was elected presi- dent of the royal society in 1905. Raymond, Georee Lansing, American educator and author, was born at Chicago, 1839. He was graduated at Williams college, 1862, A. M., L. H. D.; A. M., Princeton; L. H. D., Rutgers; graduated at Princeton theological seminary, 1865, and was a student in Europe, 1865-68. He was pastor of the Presbyterian church. Darby, Pa., 1870-74; professor of oratory, Williams, 1874-80; professor of oratory and aesthetic criticism, 1880-93, professor of aesthetics, 1893- 1905. Princeton; professor of aesthetics, George Washington, since 1905. Author: Colony Bal- lads; Ideals Made Real; Orator's Manual; Modem Fishers of Men; A Life in Song; Poetry as a Representative Art; Ballads of the Revolution; Sketches in. Song; The Genesis of Art-Form; The Speaker, in part; The Writer, in part; Art in Theory; Pictures in Verse; Rhythm and Har- mony in Poetry and Music; Painting, Sculpture and Architecture as Representative Arts; Propor- tion and Harmony of Line and Color in Painting, Sculpture and Architecture; The Representative Significance of Form; The Aztec God, and Other Dramas; Ballads and Other Poems, etc. Raymond, Henry J^ Anaerican journalist, was bom at Lima, N. Y., 1820. He was graduated at the university of Vermont in 1840, and after serving for a number of years on the staff of the New York Tribune and other papers, he in 1851 founded the New York Times, which speedily took rank among the leading journals of the country. He was elected lieutenant-governor of New York in 1854, and was active in support of Fremont for president in 1856 and of Lincoln in 1860. In 1864 he was elected a member of congress from New York city, but declined a reelection two years later, preferring to devote himself to the duties of journalism. He was the author of The Life and Public Services of Abraham Lincoln. Died, 1869. Rayner, Isidor, lawyer. United States senator, was bom in Baltimore, Md., 1850. He was educated at the university of Marj'land and at the univer- sity of Virginia, where he completed the academic and law courses. He was admitted to the bar in 1871 ; elected to the Mar\-land legislature, 1878, state senate, 1886; member of congress, 1^7-89, 1891-95, and attorney-general of Maryland, 1899-1903. He was counsel for Rear-admiral Schley before investigation commission in 1901, and elected United States senator from Maryland for terms, 1905-11, 1911-17. He was recognized as one of the leading lawyers of the senate, a finished orator, and an authority on constitutional and international law. Died, 1912. Read, Thomas Buchanan, American poet and painter, was bom in Chester county, Pa., 1822. GEORGE RA^LINSON From a photograph THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 043 He entered a sculptor's studio in Cincinnati, afterward studied painting, and in 1841 settled in Boston, wiiere ne began to paint portraits. In 1846 he returned to Philatfelphia, and in 1850 went to Florence, where he spent most of the rest of his life. Among his works are Lays and Ballads; The House by the Sea; The Wagoner of the AUeghanies; A Summer Story; ajid Poetical Works. He is best known as the author of Sheridan's Ride, He died at New York, 1872. Beade, Charles, distinguished English novelist, was bom in Oxfordshire, England, 1814. He was the youngest son of John Reade, Esq., of Ipsden House, Oxfordshire; was graduated at Oxford, secured a fellowship there, and in 1847 was admitted to the bar as a member of Lincoln's Inn. He began his Uteraiy career by play- writing; studied the art of fiction for fifteen years, and first made his mark as noveUst in 1852, when he was nearly forty, by the publica- tion of Peg Woffington. This was followed in 1856 by It is Never too Late to Mend, and in 1861 by The Cloister and the Hearth, the last his best and the most popular. Several of his later novels are written with a purpose, and include the well-known problem novels. Hard Cash, and Fold Play. His most popular plays are Masks and Faces and Drink. He died m London, 1884. B£aumur (rd'-o'-miir'), Ben£ Antoine Ferchault de, French naturalist and physicist, was born at La Rochelle, France, 1GS3. He was educated at Poitiers, Bourges, and Paris, and was elected a member of the academy of sciences in 1708. He subsequently devoted himself to biological study; discovered the method of tinning iron: and invented the Reaumur thermometer. He also succeeded in producing an opaque glass which was equal to the porcelain of Saxony and Japan. He died in 1757, leaving behind him a volumi- nous array of works, the most important of which is the M&moires pour servir h I'Histoire des Insectes. B£camier {ra'-kd'-mya'), Mme. (n^e Jeanne Fran- goise Julie Adelaidfe Bernard), French woman of society, was born at Lyons, France, 1777. Her father was a banker of that city, and, as well as her mother, was distinguished by much of the personal grace and charm which, in the daughter, seem to nave culminated in a form of almost typical perfection. She was beautiful, and in rare measure possessed a French woman's indefinable fascination and brilliance. At fifteen she was married to Jacques R^camier, and attracted to her salon at Paris a brilliant circle during the consulate and empire. A record of the splendid social triumphs of Mme. R^camier would involve notice of nearly all that was dis- tinguished in Paris during a space of about fifty years. She became a power in the whole of France, and so continued in spite of changes of fortune which ordinarily would have involved the extinction of even more solid celebrity. Died, 1849. Beclus (re'-klu'), Jean Jacques £lis£e, French geographer, was. bom at Ste-Foix-la-Grande, France, 1830. He was educated at Montauban and Berlin. An extreme democrat, he left France after the coup d'itat of 1851, and spent seven years in England, Ireland, and America. He returned in 1858, and published Voyage d. la Sierra Nevada de Ste Marthe, etc. For his share in the commune of 1871 he was banished. In Switzerland he began his masterpiece, Nou- veUe GSographie Universelle; wrote also a physical feography. La Terre; Histoire d'un Ruisseau; ,es PMnom^nes Terrestres; and Histoire d'une Montagne. In 1893 he became a professor at Brussels. Died, 1905. Bed Jacket, or Sa-go-ye-wat'-ha, "He keeps them awake," a noted chief of the Seneca tribe of Indians, was bom at Old Castle, on Seneca lake, New York, about 1761. In early life he was noted for his swift nmning, and during the revolution the British officers employed him as a messenger. One of them gave him a bright red coat, and after that he was called Red Jacket. He was a friend of the whites, though he wished to have the Indians keep their own lands; and, when the six nations made a treaty to sell theirs, he opposed the treaty in an eloquent speech. 1784. Some years after this he visited General Washington, who gave him a silver medal. During the war of 1812 he was of great service to the American army, giving important infor- mation and advice before the battle of Chipf)ewa. In later life he visited New York and Washing- ton, and the speeches that he made there are among the finest specimens of Indian eloquence. He died at Seneca village, near Buffalo, N. Y.. 1830. Beed, Thomas Brackett, American lawyer and legislator, was bom at Portland, Me., 1839, and was graduated from Bowdoin college in 1860. After serving a short time as assistant pay- master in the navy, he studied law, and com- menced legal practice in 1865. He was a mem- ber of the Maine legislature; attorney-general of the state; city solicitor of Portland, and was elected to congress in 1876. His ability was so clearly recognized that he soon became the acknowledged leader of the republican party on the floor; and, when his party secured a majority of the house of representatives in the fifty-first congress, Reed was chosen speaker. He served in congress until 1899, and was elected speaker of the fifty-fourth and fifty-fifth congresses. He was reelected in 1899, but resigned his seat and took up the practice of law in New York city. His ruling, as speaker, that all members present, though not voting should be counted toward a quorum, attracted national attention and ap- proval. He published Reed's Rules in 1894, and edited Modem Eloquence in 1901. Died, 1902. Beed, Walter, American surgeon and bacteriologist, was born in Virginiaj 1851. Received his medi- cal education at umversity of Virginia and at Bellevue hospital in New York. Entered the army as assistant surgeon in 1875; studied bac- teriology during 1890 at Johns Hopkins, and established bacteriological laboratoiy at the army medical school, Washington. Reed dem- onstrated that typhoid fever is spread in camps through flies and personal contact, rather than by infected water, and that yellow fever is caused only by the bite of a certain kind of mosquito. By means of the precautions he urged after the Spanish war, the yellow fever plague W£is practically exterminated in Cuba. He died, 1902. Beeves, John Sims, English tenor, was bom at Shooter's Hill, Kent, 1822. At fourteen he was a clever performer on various instnunents, and was appointed organist and director of the choir in the church of North Cray, in Kent. He went to Paris, 1843, in order to perfect his voice and style, and on his return to England, 1847, was recognized as the first tenor in that country, a position which he maintained for a number of years. In 1892 he became professor in the Guildhall school of music, London, and retired from the stage, returning to concert work, how- ever, in 1896. His voice was one of wide range, and of great natural sweetness and purity. He died at Worthing, Suasex, 1900. Begtomontanus (re'-jX-d-mdn-td'-niis), the name given from his birthplace at Konigsberg (Mans Regitis) to the mathematician and astronomer Jobaim Miiller. He was bom in 1436, studied at Vienna, and in 1461 accompanied Cardinal Bessarion to Italy to learn Greek. In 1471 he 944 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT settled in Nuremberg, where, with Bernhard Walther, he labored at the ♦' Alphonsine .tabl^, and published Ephemerides 1475-1306 in 1473, of which Columbus made much use. He estab- lished the study of algebra and trigonometry in Germany, and wrote on water-works, burmng- glasses, weights and measures, the quadrature of the circle, etc. He was summoned to Rome in 1474 by Sixtus IV. to help to reform the calendar, and died there, 1476. Bernard (r^-nydr'), Jean Francois, French drama- tist, was born at Paris, France, 1655. He was a scion of wealth, and received an excellent educa- tion. After a roving and adventurous life in various countries, he returned to PVance about 1683, and became prominently connected with the ministry of finance. Regnard was one of the best followers of Molifere, and is regarded as second only to that great master as an exponent of French comedy. His Le Joueur, published in 1696, is one of the masterpieces of the French stage. He also wrote Le Divorce, Le Distrait, Les folies amoureuses, etc. He excelled as a satirical poet, and his house was a resort of wits. He died at his estate of Grillon, near Dourdan, 1709. Begnault (rg'-nj/o'), Henri, French figure and genre painter, was born in Paris, 1843. He studied there and at Rome, later making a study of Velasquez in Madrid. Among his best works are La dame en rouge," "Judith," "Sa- lome," a symphonic incarnation of sensual cruelty, in yellow, and "The Moorish Headsman," a symphony in red. His equestrian portrait of Marshal Prim was one of the finest of the cen- tury. Regnault enlisted in the army during the Franco-Prussian war and was killed at Buzevenal, 1871. Regnault, Henri Victor, French chemist and phy- sicist, was born at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1810. He worked as a draper to support, himself and sister, while he studied at the Ecole Polytech- nique, where he became a professor in 1840: in 1841 he succeeded Dulong as professor of physics in the College de France; in 1847 he became chief engineer of mines, and in 1854 director of the porcelain factory at Sevres. He rendered distinguished service to science by his exact determination of physico-chemical con- stants, his numerical data on the working of steam-engines, and his criticism of the law of Boyle and Mariotte. Died, 1878. Begnier (ra'-nyd'), Matharin, French poet, was bom at Chartres, 1573. After a life of dissipa- tion he became in 1609 canon of the cathedral of Chartres, and was called "the good R^gnier," on account of his amiability. Boileau called him the best satirical poet before Moli^re. His col- lected works appeared in a new edition in 1875. He died at Rouen, 1613. Begulus (rgg'-u-Zus), Slarcus Atillus, Roman gen- eral, was consul in 267 B. C., when he took Brundusium, and received a triumph. In 266 B. C. he was a second time consul, and in con- junction with his colleague, ManUus, defeated the Carthaginian fleet of 350 sail under Hanno and Hamilcar, landed at Clypea, and ravaged the enemy's territory. Manlius returned to Rome, and Regulus defeated the three Carthaginian generals in a great battle and captured town after town, including Tunis. The Carthaginians at last defeated him and took him prisoner. After five years' captivity he was sent in 250 B. C. to Rome, alone with an embassy, on con- dition that he would return if the negotiations were unsuccessful. He persuaded the senate to refuse to make peace, and returned to Carthage, where he was put to death about 250 B. C. Rehan (re'-an; Ta'-an\ Ada, actress, was bom in Limenck, Ireland, 1860. She came to the United States in childhood, made her first appearance on the stage at fourteen, in Newark, N. J., and played in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Albany, and Louisville stock companies. In 1879 she was engaged by Augustin Daly to fill leading positions m Daly's theater, and continued with him until his death, in 1899. She played characters in Shakespearean and old comedies such as Rosalind, Katherine, Viola, Beatrice, Portia, Lady Teazle, Peggy in the Country Girl, and many high-class modem comedy parts. Reich (rlK), Dr. Emll, Austrian author and lecturer, was born in Eperjes, Hungary, 1854. He was educated at Prague, Budapest, and Vienna university; J. U. D., Vierma. He spent five years in the United States, four in France, and, with interruptions, about tlxirteen years in Eng- land* lectured frei^uently at Oxford, Cambridge, and London universities; and was employed oy British government in the preparation ^of the British case in the Venezuela boundary matter. Author: Hilary of Civilization; Graco-Roman Inatitutiona, Ox/ord lectures; Hungarian Litera- ture; Foundations of Modern Europe; Succesa among Nations; Select Documents lUuatrating Mediaeval and Modem History; Atlas of Modem History; The Fundamental Principles of Evidence; Imparialism; The Failure of the Higher Criticism of the Bible; Plato, as an Introduction to Modem Life; Success in Life; General History of Western Nations, etc Died, 1910. Reld, Sir James, British physician, physician-in- ordinary to the king, was bom in Scotland, 1849. He was graduated at Aberdeen university, M. A., 1869. M. D., 1875, LL. D., 1895 ; hon. LL. D, Glas- gow, 1901. He studied at Vienna. 1876-77; practiced in Scotland, 1877-81; resiaent physi- cian to Queen Victoria, 1881-1901 ; physician extraordinary, 1887-89; physician-in-ordinary, 1889-1901. He is the author of numerous papers in medical journals, etc. Fellow of royal society of medicine. Created baronet, 1897. Reld, Robert Gillespie, Canadian railway builder and capitalist, was bom in Scotland, 1840. In 1871 he came to America and had charge of the construction of the international railway bridge at Niagara Falls, the international bridge over the Rio Grande, and the Lachine bridge over the St. Lawrence. In 1893 he made a contract with the Newfoundland government to construct a railway from St. John's to Port au Basc^ues, and operate it for ten years for S15,000 a mile and a grant of 5,000 acres of laud, in alternate blocks, for each mile of railway constructed. A further contract in 1898 to operate all railways in the island for fifty years, seven steamers and a street railway m St. John's, for which he was to receive 2,500,000 acres of laud, and the owner- ship of the railways and government telegraph lines, was broken by the liberal government on the ground that it practically sold Newfoundland to Reid, who then transferred his interests to the Reid Newfoundland company, which under- took the operation of the lines under a new contract. Died, 1908. Reld, Thomas, Scottish philosopher, was bom at Strachan, Scotland, 1710. He took his degree of M. A. at Aberdeen in 1726, and continued to act as librarian there for a number of years. In 1737 he was appointed minister to the parish church of New Machar, where he remained until 1752, when he was appointed professor of phi- losophy in King's college, Aberdeen. In 1763 he was chosen to succeed Adam Smith as pro- fessor of moral philosophy in the university of Glasgow, and henceforth devoted himself to mental and metaphysical speculation, resigning his chair in 1781. In 1764 he pubUshed his Inquiry into the Human Mind; in 1785, his Essays on the Intellectual Powers; and in 1788, JOSEPH ERNEST RENAN From a photograph THROUGHOUT THE WORLD M7 hi3 Active Pvwers of the Human Mind. Died, 1796. Beld, Whitelaw, American diplomat and journalist was born at Xeniaj Ohio, 1837. He was grad uated at Miami university, Oxford, Ohio, 1856 LL. D., Miami, 1890, Princeton, 1899, Yale, 1901 Cambridge, 1902, St. Andrews, 1905: D. C. L. Oxford, 1907. He edited the Xenia News, 1858 59; was legislative correspondent, 1860-61, war correspondent, 1861-62, Washington correspond- ent, 1862-68, Cincinnati Gazette; aide-de-camp on the staff of Generals Thomas A. Morris and W. S. Rosecrans in West Virginia; clerk of the military committee of the thirty-seventh con- gress, 1862-63; librarian house of representa- tives, 1863-66; and cotton planter, Concordia parish, La., 1866-67. In 1868 he was attached to the editorial staff of New York Tribune; managing editor, 1869, editor-in-chief, and chief proprietor, 1872-1905. He declined appoint- ment as United States minister to Germany, 1877, and again in 1881 ; was United States minister to France, 1889-92 ; republican nominee for vice-president of United States, 1892 ; special ambassador of the United States to Queen Victoria's jubilee, 1897; member of peace com- mission to Paris, 1898; special ambassador for coronation of Edward VII., 1902, and United States ambassador to England, 1905-12. Author: After the War, a Southern Tour; Ohio in the War; Schools of Journalism; Newspaper Ten- dencies; Toxvn HaU Suggestions; Two Speeches at the Queen's Jubilee; Some Consequences of the Last Treaty of Paris; Our New Duties; Later Aspects of our New Duties; A Continental Union; Our Nev) Interests; Problems of Expansion; Carnegie Institute Address; Monroe Doctrine; Greatest Fact in Modern History; How America Faced its Educational Problem, etc. Died, 1912. Belnsch {rlnsh), Paul Samuel, American educator and author, professor of political science, uni- versity of Wisconsin, since 1901, was born at Milwaukee, Wis., 1869; was graduated at the university of Wisconsin, 1892, in law depart- ment of same, 1894; Ph. D., 1898, and studied at the university of Berlin, at Rome and at Paris. He was United States delegate to the third Pan-American conference at Rio de Janeiro, 1906. Author: The Common Law in the Early American Colonies; World Politics at the End oj the Nineteenth Century as Influenced by the Oriental Situation; Colonial Government; Colonial Administration; American Legislatures and Legis- lative Methods; and contributor to reviews, to historical and economic journals. His books have been translated into Japanese, Chinese, Spanish, German. B^Jane {ra'-zhan'), Madame (Gabrielle R^ju), French actress, was born in Paris, 1857. She married M. Porel, director of the Vaudeville theater, Paris, from whom she was divorced in 1905. She was educated at the Paris conserva- toire, under Regnier, and made her debut at the Vaudeville theater in Revue des Deux Mondes, 1875; left the Vaudeville for Th^dtre des Vari6t6s, 1882; .passed to L'Ambigu in order to create la Glu in 1882; afterward created Ma Camarade, Palais Royal; Clara Soleil, Vaudeville; Les Dem. Clochard, Vari^t^s- Ger- minie Lacerteux, I'Od^on ; Marquise, Vaudeville ; Ma Cousine, Vari^t^s; Amoureuse, I'Od^on; Lysistrata, Grand thMtre; Madame Sans Gene, Vaudeville, 1893; and Maison de Poup6e, 1894. She toured in America in 1895, and obtained an enormous success. One of her later successes at the Vaudeville was La Passerelle. She manages her own theater in Paris, Th64tre R6jane. Rembrandt (rSm'-brant). See page 154. Remington, Frederic, American artist, illustrator, sculptor, and author, was bom in St. Lawrence county, N. Y., 1861. He early studied at Yale art school, and at the art students' league of New York, after which he led the life of a cow- boy and stockman on a ranch in Montana and Wyoming, where he became notable aa an animal painter and illustrator of western scenes and modes of life on the plains. He subsequently came into note as an illustrator for magazines, treating of military subjects and of ranching life, and after the Spanish-American war of Cubaa scenes and characteristics. His chief canvases and best-known paintings are: "A Dash for the Timber"; "The Last Stand": "Past all Sur- gery"; "The Last Lull in the Fight"; and Conjuring the Buffalo Back." Among his leading works in sculpture are "The Broncho Buster" and "The Wounded Bunkie." He is the author of the following works : Pony Tracks; Crooked Trails; The Way of an Indian; Frontier Sketches; John Ermine of the Yeliowstone, etc. Died, 1909. Remsen, Ira, American chemist and educator, president, 1901-12, and professor of chemistry since 1876, Johns Hopkins university; was bom in New York, 1846. He was graduated at the college of the city of New York, 1865; M. D., college of physicians and surgeons, New York; Ph. D., Gottingen; LL. D., Columbia, 1893, Princeton, 1896, Yale, 1901, Toronto, 1902. He was professor of chemistry, Williams college, 1872-76; founder, 1879, and since editor of the American Chemical Journal; president of national academy of sciences, 1907-08, etc. Author: The Principles of Theoretical Chemistry; An Introduction to the Study of the Compounds of Carbon, or Organic Chemistry; The Elements of Chemistry; Inorganic Chemistry; A Laboratory Manual; Chemical Experiments; and many scientific articles and addresses. Renan (re-noN'), Joseph Ernest, FrenchphHologist, historian, and critic, was born at Tr6guier, in Brittany, 1823. He began to study for the church at Paris, but, as the result of the study of Hebrew and of German criticism, renounced traditional Christianity, and in 1845 abandoned all thoughts of the church as a profession. By his elder sister Henrietta's assistance and counsel he was enabled to follow out his purpose, a life of study untrammeled by creeds or formularies. At twenty-five he received his doctorate at the university of Paris, and in 1850 obtained a post in the Bibliothfique Nationale. In 1860 he was made one of a commission sent by the govern- ment to study the remains of Phoenician civili- zation. In 1862 he was chosen professor of Hebrew in the College de France; but the emperor, inspired by the clerical party, refused to ratify the appointment; and it was not until 1870 that he was established in the chair. In 1878 he was elected to the academy. His first work of importance was published in 1854, but his European reputation dates from the publica- tion of the Life of Jesus, in 1863, first in the series which its author regarded as the special work of his life. History of the Origin of Chris- tianity. None of the other volumes excited the extraordinary interest of the first. Of the volumes that followed, those on St. Paul, 1869, and Marcus Aurelius, 1882, are specially noteworthy. In completion of his life's task Renan undertook a History of the People of Israd, in 5 vols. He also wrote many other works of a more general character, including The History of the Semitic Languages; The Future of Science; Brother and Sister; Studies in the History of Religion, etc. Whatever may be the judgment of time on the intrinsic value of Renan's contribution to the sum of knowledge, he can never lose his place among the few great names in the history of letters. In London he delivered the Hibbert 948 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT lectures, 1880, on The Influence of Rome on Christianity. He died in 1892. Bennle (ren'-I), John, British civil engineer, was bom at Phantassie farm, East Lothian, Scotland, 1761. After working as a millwright he studied at Edinburgh university. In 1780 he entered the employ of Boulton and Watt, and in 1791 started in London on his own account as an engineer and bridge-builder. He erected the bridges at Leeds, Musselburgh. Newton-Stewart, Boston, New Galloway, and the Southwark and Waterloo bridges over the Thames, and formu- lated the plans for London bridge. He made many important canals; drained fens; assisted in the Bell Rock lighthouse; designed the Lon- don docks, and others at Blackwall, Hull, Liver- pool, Dublin. Greenock, and Leith; and im- proved the narbors and dockyards at Ports- mouth, Chatham, Sheemess. and Plymouth, where he constructed the celebrated breakwater in 1811-14. He died in 1821 and waa buried in St. Paul's. Beuter (roi'-tSr), Baron Paul Julius, German jour- nalist, was born in Cassel in 1821. In 1849 he established an office at Aix-la-Chapelle for supply- ing news by telegraph, and thereby revolutionized the press of Europe. In 1851 he transferred his business to London, became a naturalized citizen of Great Britain, and founded Renter's news service. He laid several important telegraphic cables. Died, 1899. Bevere (rS-ver'), Paul, American patriot, was bom in Boston. Mass., 1735, and learned the business of a goldsmith. He was conspicuous for his zeal against the mother country, and one of the first actors in the revolt. He became famous in history and song for his ride from Boston to Lexington to arouse the minute-men, April 18- 19, 1775. He died at Boston, 1818. Beynolds, John Fulton, American general, was bom in Lancaster, Pa., 1820. He was graduated at West Point, 1841, and entered the artillery; served in the Mexican war and on the frontier; in 1861 took command of & brigade of the Penn- sylvania reserve corps, and led them in McClel- lan's peninsular campaign in 1862 until he was taken prisoner at Glendale, June 30th. When Lee invaded Maryland, Governor Curtin, of Penn- sylvania, selected General Reynolds to command the militia of that state, and soon after the first corps of the army of the Potomac was assigned to his command. He fought at Fredericksburg in 1862. Encountering the van of the confed- erate army at Gettysburg, he had already selected the ground for the impending battle, when at the opening of the fight he was killed by a rifle-shot, July 1,'1863. A monument was erected to him at Gettysburg, and a bronze equestrian statue of him by Rogers stands in Philadelphia in front of the city hall. Beynolds, Sir Joshua, eminent English pmnter, was bom at Plympton, in Devonshire, 1723. He studied under Thomas Hudson, a portrait painter, and when about twenty years old began his career as a portrait-painter, at Plymouth Dock, now Devenport. Three years later he estab- lished himself in London, where, except three years spent in Italy — from 1749 to 1752 — he passed the rest of his life. On the institution of the royal academy in 1769, he became president and was knighted by George III. His works are very numerous. He was especially famous for bis portraits, though his historical paintings, of which upward of sixty are catalogued, show him to have been qualified to excel in both departments of his art. He was the friend of Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, and the most emi- nent literary men of his time. His Uterary reputation rests on his Discourses on Painting, which were delivered by him in the academy during the successive years of his presidency. He died at London, 1792, and was buried m St. Paul's cathedral. Bhees, Bush, American educator, president of university of Rochester since 1900. was bom at Chicago, 1860. He was graduated at Amhenst, 1883, LL. D., 1900; Hartford theological semi- nary, 1888; D. D., Colgate university, 1901. He was instructor in mathematics at Amherst, 1883-85; was pastor of Middle Street Baptist church, Portsmouth, N. H., 1889-92; associate professor of new testament interpretation, New- ton theological institution, Newton Centre, Mass., 1892-94, and professor in the same, 1894-1900. Author : The Life of Jetua of Nazareth, a Study; St. Paul's Experience as a Factor in His Theology; and various articles in theological and educa- tional journals and periodicals. Bhodes, Cecil John, South African statesman, was bom at Bishop Stortford^ England, 1853. He was sent for his health to Natal, and subsequently made a fortune at the Kimberley diamond mines. He then returned to England and entered Oriel college, Oxford, and. though his residence waa cut short by ill health, he ultimately took his degree. He entered the Cape Colony house of assembly as member for Barkly, and in 1884 occupied a place in the Cape Colony cabinet. He sent 10,000 pounds in 1888 to forward the cause of Irish home rule. In 1890 be became prime-minister of Cape Colony ; but even before this he had become a ruling spirit in the exten- sion of British territory, and secured, in 1889, the charter for the British South Africa company, of which until 1896 he waa managing director. This territory is now known as Rhodesia. His policy was the ultimate establishment of a federal South African dominion under the British flax. In 1895 he was made a member of the British privy council. In 1896 he resigned the Cape premiership in consequence of complications arising from the raid of Dr. Jameson, the chartered company's administrator, into the Transvaal, in aid of the Uitlanders' claims. In 1899 he waa made D. C. L. at Oxford. He was a conspicuoua figure during the war of 1899-1902, died 1902, and was buried in the Matoppo hills, leaving a remarkable will which, besides making great benefactions to Cape Colony, founded rich scholarships at Oxford. Bhodes, James Ford, American historian and essayist, waa born at Cleveland, Ohio, 1848. He was educated in the public schools, at the uni- versity of New York, and the university of Chicago, but was not graduated; LL. D., West- em Reserve university, 1893, Harvard, 1901, Yale, 1901, Wisconsin^ 1904; Litt. D., Kenyon, 1903. He engaged in coal mining and the manufacture of pig-iron, 1870-85, and since 1885 has devoted himself to the study and to the writing of history. He received the Loubet prize of the Berlin academy of science in 1901. Author: History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, in 7 vols., Historical Essays, etc. Blcardo (ri-kar'-dd), David, British political econo- mist, of Jewish extraction, was bom in London, 1772, and entered upon a mercantile life, after having received a common school education. He gained a large fortune by commerce, obtained a seat in parliament for Portarlington, 1819, and acquired a high reputation as an economist and writer. He wrote Principlea of Political Economy and Taxation; On the Depreciation of the Cur- rency; Essay on Rent; Funding System; and other works of a similar nature. Dial, 1823. Bicciarelll (ref-cha-rd'-le), Daniele, knoi^-n also by the name of Daniele da Volterra, Italian painter, was bom at Volterra, 1509. He studied painting at Siena, and afterward repaired to Rome, where CARDINAL RICHELIEU From the painting i>y Champaigne THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 051 he i»as much indebted to the friendship of Michaelangelo, who not only instructed him, but gave him designs for some of his most celebrated works. His fame rests chiefiy on a series of frescoes in the church of La IrinitA, de' Monti, Rome; and of these the "Descent from tlie Cross" is well known by Toschi's admirable engraving. Ricciarelli was employed by Paul IV. to partially drape the nude hgures in Michael- angelo's "Last Judgment" in the Sistine chapel of the Vatican. By this act he earned for him- self the soubriquet of II Braghettone, "the Breeches-maker. In the latter part of his life he applied himself also to sculpture. He died at Rome in 1566 or 1567. Bice, Alice Hegan, American author, was born at Shelby ville, Ky., 1870, daughter of Samuel W. Hegan. She was educated at Hampton college, Louisville, and in 1902 married Cale Young Rice. Author: Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch; Lovey Mary; Sandy; Captain Juiie, etc., and a number of short magazine stories. Richard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion, king of Eng- land from 1189 to 1199, was born at Oxford, 1157. He was the third son and successor of Henry II. He spent his early years in Poitou and Aquitaine, where he engaged in quarrels with his father; after his accession to the throne he flung himself with characteristic ardor into the crusade movement; in 1190 joined his forces with Philip Augustus of France in the third crusade; upheld the claims of Tancred in Sicily; captured Cyprus, and won great renown in the holy land, particularly by his defeat of Saladin. After shipwreck on the coast, on his way home, he was captured by the archduke of Austria, and handed over to the emperor Henry VI. in 1193. He was ransomed at a heavy price by his subjects, and landed in England in 1194. His later years were spent in his French pos- sessions warring against Philip. He died of an arrow wound at the siege of Chalus in 1199. Not more than a year of his life was spent in England, and his reign is barren of constitu- tional change. Slchard II., king of England, was born at Bor- deaux, France, in 1367. He was the son of , Edward the Black Prince, and the grandson of Edward III., whom he succeeded. Being only eleven years old at his accession, a council of regency was appointed to govern the kingdom during his minority. In 1381 the insurrection of the peasantry under Wat Tyler broke out and was put dowTi, the young king himself taking part in its suppression. Meantime, the war with France continued, and intolerable burdens were placed upon the shoulders of the people. Quar- rels with his uncles, W'ith the commons, and with his parliaments, on behalf of worthless favorites with whom he was surrounded, fill up the years of Richard's reign. The noted John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and Thomas, duke of Gloucester, tried to bend their royal nephew to their own purposes. He resisted them suc- cessfully; but the murder of Gloucester, who was arrested nfear London, and slain at Calais in 1397, fixes an indelible stain upon his mem- ory. Two years afterward he was defeated and deposed by his cousin, Henry of Bolingbroke, duke of Hereford, who succeeded him. He is believed to have been murdered in Pontefract castle, Yorkshire, in the following year. To this reign belong the translation of the Bible into English by WyclifFe. Blchard III., king of England 1483-85, surnamed Crookback, was bom at Fotheringay castle, 1452, youngest son of Richard, duke of York, a brother of Edward IV., and uncle of Edward V., whom he murdered. Scarcely had he placed himself, securely as he thought, upon the throne, than a plot broke out, in which the duke of Buckingham took a leading share, in favor of Henry 'ludor. earl of Richmond. The plot disastrously failea so far as Buckingham was concerned, for he was apprehended, condemned, and executed at Salis- bury, 1483; but in 1485 the earl of Richmond lauded at Milfurd Haven with a force of a few thousand men, and a few days later defeated the king in the battle of Bo.sworth field, in Leicestershire. In this battle Richard was killed, lie was buried in Grey Friars' church, Leicester. The house of York and the Plantagenet line of kings ended with the death of Richard, who waa succeeded by Henry VII., the first of the Tudor line. Richardson, Harry Alden, United States senator, was born in Camden, Del., 1853. He attendeo school at East Greenwich, R. I., and at the age of sixteen returned to Delaware, where he learned the trade of canner and packer, going into his father's establishment at Dover, and working his way up from the lowest position. In 1876 he was taken into partnership by his father, and after the latter's death, in 1894, assumed entire control of the canning establish- ment, which he, with his sons, has since managed. He was elected to the United States senate in 1907 for the term 1907-13. Richardson, Samuel, English novelist, was bom in Derbyshire, 1689. He was early apprenticed to a printer in London; some years after became a master printer, and was successively printer to the house of commons, master of the Station- ers' company, and law printer to the king. It was not until he was more than fifty years of age that he published his first novel, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded. In 1749 appeared his second work, The History of Clarissa Harlowe, which greatly increased his reputation: and in 1753 he published The History of Sir Charles Grandison. in which he attempted the description of a model Christian gentleman. All his novels are in the epistolary style. He may be said to be the originator, after De Foe, of the English novel, and was the first to write a novel of high life. He died in 1761. Richelieu (re'-shi-lyd'), Armand Jean Duplessls, Due de, celebrated French statesman and car- dinal, was born of a noble family at Paris, 1585. He was educated for the military profession at the College de Navarre. He then pursued eccle- siastical studies, and underwent the preliminary examination for his degree at the Sorbonne. In 1607 he was consecrated bishop of LuQon at Rome in the presence of Pope Paul V., and for some time devoted himself zealously to the dis- charge of his duties in his diocese. At the states- general in 1614, being appointed one of the repre- sentatives of the clergy, he attracted the notice of the queen-mother by an address which he deliv- ercdmthe presence of the youngking, LouisXIII. : and, by his appointment in 1616 as secretary of war and foreign affairs, the way seemed opened to his success in political life. In 1622 he became a cardinal, and from 1624 to 1642 was the prin- cipal minister of Louis XIII. The administra- tion of Richelieu forms an epoch in the history of France and her relations with other countries. It is memorable for several great measures, or series of measures, through which the posture of affairs underwent a complete and permanent change. Of these the first and most lasting in its results was that by which the absolute authority of the sovereign was established. From the mediaeval period the power of the French kings had been controlled, and in many cases overridden, by the feudal privileges of the nobles; and in the stormy conflicts of the six- teenth and in the beginning of the seventeenth century the j)ower of the crown had often been 952 MAisTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT reduced to a cipher. By a succession of vigorous and energetic, and, it must be added, not unfre- quently unscrupulous measures, Richelieu suc- ceeded in breaking down the political power and subduing the arrogant assumptions of the great families, the heads of several among which were brought to the scaffold, while not a few were condemned to life imprisonment Among his most inveterate and most powerful adver- saries was Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of the king; but Richelieu triumphed over him, and even the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici, was obliged to bow before his unbending spirit, and to withdraw into exile at Cologne Thus Richelieu, at the close of his career, delivered up the royal authority, which he had wielded for eighteen years, almost without a single constitu- tional check upon its absolute exercise. Another of the great enterprises of this minister was the overthrow of the Huguenot party as a political power and a rival of the throne in France. The siege and capture of Rochelle, which he con- ducted in person in 1628, was followed by the submission of the other Huguenot strongholds. In the external relations of France the great object of all his measures was the overthrow of the preponderance of Austria. He died at Paris in 1642. Bichter {rlm'-tSr), Johann Paul Frledrlch, or "Jean Paul," German humorist and sentimentalist, was born at Wunsiedel, in Bavaria, 17C3. He studied at Leipzig, and began his literary career in 1783 with The Greenland Lawsuits. In 1784 he fled from the city to avoid incarceration for debt, and in 1786 accepted a tutorship at Topen in the family of Herr von Oerthel. In 1790, at the request of several families of Schwarzenbach, he removed thither to take charge of the education of their children, and lived in this way as a pri- vate school-master for some years. In 1789 appeared Selections from the Papers of the Dernl, and, in 1793, The Invisible Lodge. This was followed by Hesperus, the work by which he is perhaps best known outside of Germany; Qvin- tus Fixlein; The Valley of Campan; The Awkward Age, which is probably his best work ; Dr. Latzenberger's Journey to the Watering-place; Preparatory Course in Esthetics, etc., and a number of essays. He died at Bayreuth, 1825. Bidder, Herman, American journalist, was bom in New York, 1851, of German parentage. He attended the New York schools, and b^an business life at eleven as errand boy. He was an insurance agent at twenty; in 1878 estab- lished the Katholisches Volksblatt, and in 1886 the Catholic News; became trustee, treasurer and manager, 1890, president, 1907, of the New York Staats-Zeitung. As an independent demo- crat he was active in Cleveland campaigns and reform movements, especially in German-Ameri- can reform union. He is a trustee of the Mutual life insurance company. Emigrant indus- trial savings bank; member of the Charity organization society, the Isabella Beimath, German society, St. Vincent de Paul society. Legal aid society, chamber of commerce, American museum of natural history, Metropolitan museum of art ; director of the associated press and New York publishers' association. Ridley, Nicholas, English reformer, was bom in Northumberland, about 1500; studied at Cam- bridge, Paris, and Louvain; returned to Cam- t>"aKe in 1529, became chaplain to Cranmer in 1537, and about 1640 master of Pembroke hall. He was appointed bishop of Rochester in 1547, and of London in 1560; took a leading part in composing the liturgy and drawing up the thirty-nine articles; favored the attempt to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne, and was imprisoned in the Tower. He was condemned to death for heresy, and burned, with Latimer, at Oxford, 1555. Bldpsth {rid'-pdth), John Clark, American his- torian and educator, was bom in Putnam county, Indiana, 1840. He was graduated at Asbury, now De Pauw, university, 1863, and in 1869 was appointed professor of hterature at Asbur\', and ten years later became vice-president of that university. For his alma mater he was instru- mental in procuring the endowment from Mr. De Pauw, wliich subsequently resulted in its change of name. He was editor of The Arena, 1897-98, and from his industrious pen came histories, cyclopaedias, and biograpliies. Among the latter are lives of Alexander Hamilton, Garfield, W. E. Gladstone, together with a history of Texas; an academic history and a popular historj' of the United States; A Cyclo- jtcMia of Universal History, and a compendious treatise on The Great Races of Mankind. Died at New York, 1900. Rlenxl (rl-in'-U), Nicola Gahrlnl, Italian patriot, commonly called "the last of the Roman trib- unes," was bom in Rome about 1313. He was well educated, and was a noted orator. At that time the noted schism obtained in the Roman Catholic church. Rome was almost without government, ana the citizens were robbed and ul-treated by nobles who lived in fortified houses. At last the people made an attempt to free themselves, and chose RIena tribune, 1347. He proved an excellent leader at first, but soon oecame elated by success, caused himself to be cro'wned with seven crowns, and lived in great splendor and extravagance. In a few months tne people became tired of him, and he was obliged to escape from the city in the dress of a monk. He was afterward recalled to Rome, and was assassinated in 1354, while making a speech to the people. Biggs, Mrs. GeofRe C. See WigKin, Kate Douglas. Biis (ris)f Jacob Ausust, American journalist, author, was bom inRibej Denmark, 1849. He was educated at the Latin school there; came to New York, became p>olice reporter for the New York Sun, and was subsequently active in the small parks and play-grounds movement, and in tenement house and school reform. He was secretary of the New York small parks commission, 1897, and executive officer of Good Government clubs, 1896-97. Author: How the Other Half Lives; The Children of the Poor; The Making of an American; The Battle unth the Slum; Children of the Tenements; The Peril and the Preservation of the Home; Theodore Roosevelt, the Citizen; and magazine articles on social and economic subjects. Biiey, James Whltcomb, American poet, writer, and lecturer, was bom at Greenfiela, Ind., 1853. He received a public school education; M. A., Yale, 1902; Litt. D., Pemnsylvania, 1904; LL.D., Indiana, 1907. He began contributing poems to Indiana papers, 1873. His earlier Hoosier dialect verse and his first book appeared under the pen-name, "Benj. F. Johnson, of Boone." For a number of years he appeared on the lecture platform throughout the country and gave read- ings from his works. Author: The Old Swim- min' Hole and 'Leven More Poems; The Boss Girl and Other Sketches; Afterwhiles; Old-Fash- ioned Roses; Pipes o' Pan at Zekesbury; Rhymes of Childhood; The Flying Islands of the Night; Green Fields and Running Brooks; Armazindy; A Child-World; Neighborly Poems; Home Folks; Poems Here at Home; The Rubaiyat of Doc. Sifers; The Book of Joyous Children; An Old Sweetheart of Mine; Out to Old Aunt Mary's; A Defective Santa Claus; While the Heart Beats Young; Raggedy Man; Morning, etc. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD M8 Blnetaart, William Henry, American sculptor, was born in Carroll county, Md., 1825. He received a common school education, and at the age of twenty-one began his career as a marble worker in Baltimore. In 1855 he went to Italy, and after a two years' course of instruction and practice in Florence, brought back two bas- reliefs of unquestioned merit. After remaining in Baltimore about a year, he went to Rome, where he continued to work until his death. He completed Crawford's bronze doors for the capitol at Washington; executed a bronze statue of the late Chief-Justice Taney, under a commission from the state of Maryland, unveiled in Annapolis in 1872; "Love Reconciled with Death"; "Latona and Her Children"; "Angel of the Resurrection"; "Woman of Samaria"; "Clytie," etc. He died at Rome in 1874, leaving his property as a fund for the aid of indigent students of art. BIpley, George, American scholar and critic, was born at Greenfield, Mass., 1802. He graduated at Harvard college, 1823, studied theology there and was ordained to the pastorate of a Unitarian church at Boston. This he held until 1841. In the meantime he had become one of the leading spirits in the transcendental movement, the first meeting of the club being held at his house in 1836; and on leaving the pulpit he started the Brook Farm experiment. This came to an end in 1847, when Ripley removed to New York and engaged in literary and journalistic work. He was co-editor of the New American Cyclo- pedia. Died, 1880. Ripon, Bishop of. See Carpenter, Bt* Bev. William Boyd. Bistort {res-td'-re\ Adelaide, Italian actress, was born in 1821, the child of strolling players. She married the Marquis Capranica del Grillo, 1847, but afterward returned to the stage. Having established her reputation in Italy, she visited Paris, 1855, London, 1858, and other European capitals, as well as the United States and South America. In America she played with Edwin Booth. Her leading parts were: Francesca da Rimini, Marie Stuart, Phaedra, Lady Macbeth, Judith, etc. She retired from the stage in 1885 and died in 1906. Bitter, Karl, German geographer, was bom at Quedlinburg, Prussia, 1779. He studied at Halle, became professor of geography at Berlin in 1820, and afterward member of^ the academy and director of studies in the military school. With Ritter as the founder of comparative geography, began a new epoch in the history of geographical science. His chief work was Geography in Its Relation to Nature and the History of Men. His lectures were published in three volumes. History of Geography, General History, and Europe. He died at Berlin, 1859, and his name is perpetuated in two geographical institutions at Berlin and at Leipzig. Bives (rerz), Amelia, Princess Am^lie Troubetzkoy, American novelist, was bom at Richmond, Va., 1863. She early manifested a strong predilection for literature. Her earliest production was a series of stories entitled A Brother to Dragons. This was followed by a sensational work called The Quick or the Deadf which met with con- siderable popularity. Her later work embraces Virginia of Virginia; Herod and Mariamne; According to St. John; Barbara Dering; Athel- wdd; Tanis; Augustine the Man; The Golden Rose; and a number of magazine articles. In 1896, after being divorced from her first hus- band, J. A. Chanler, she married ,a Russian prince, Pierre Troubetzkoy. Blvi^re {re'-vy&r'\ Briton, English painter, was bom in London, 1840, of Huguenot ancestry. He was graduated at Oxford in 1867, M. A., p. C. L. He had exhibit nl at the roval academy in 1868. and from the appearanre of "The Poacher's Nurse," 1866, he has been regularly represented there and at various int«mational exhibitions. He became A. R. A. in 1878, R. A. in 1881. Among his works are, "Daniel in the Lions' Den"; 'TPersepolis"; "A Roman Holiday"; "Giants at Play"- "Actaeon"; "Vae Victis"; "Rizpah"; "A Mighty Hunter Before the Lord"; ''Lady Wantage"; "Dead Hector"; "King's Libation"; "Beyond Man's Footstep"; "Ganymede"; "Apollo"; "The Last Arrow"- "The Temptation in the Wildei^ ness"; "Lady Tennyson and the Poet's Old Wolf Hound"; "Ker^nina"; "St. George and The Heron"; "To the Hills"; "Aphrodite," etc. Bixey, Presley Marlon, surgeon-general of United States navy, was bom at Culpeper, Va., 1862. He was graduated in medicine at the university of Virginia, 1873; entered United States navy as assistant surgeon, 1874, and was made sur- geon-general with rank of rear-admiral. 1902. He was decorated by Alphonso XIII., king of Spain, for services rendered officers and men on the Santa Maria following an explosion on that vessel. He spent eleven years at sea, and on shore was attached successively to the naval hospital, Philadelphia, navy yard, Norfolk, and naval dispensary, Washington. He was official physician to President McKinley from 1898 to the time of his death, and thereafter was con- tinued as physician by President Roosevelt in addition to his official duties. Retired, 1910. Robbia {roh'-byH), Lucca della, Italian sculptor, was born at Florence, about 14r00. He decorated the campanile of the cathedral at Florence; made a bronze door for the sacristy of the same; and was famous for his work in enameled terra- cotta, since known as "della Robbia" ware. Died, 1482. Robert I., king of Scotland. See Bruce, Bobert, Boberts, Charles George Douglas, Canadian author, was born at Douglas, N. B., Canada, 1860. He was graduated at the university of New Bruns- wick, 1879; was editor of the Week, Toronto, 1883-84; professor of English and French litera- ture. King's college, Windsor, N. S., 1885-87, professor of English and economics, same, 1887- 95; associate editor of the Illustrated American, in New York, 1897. Author: Orion and Other Poems; In Divers Tones; Ave — An Ode for the Shelley Centenary; Songs of the Common Day; The Book of the Native; New York Nocturnes; The Book of the Rose; The Canadians of Old; Earth' » Enigmas; The Raid from Beausijour; A History of Canada; The Forge in the Forest; Around the Campfire; Reube Dare's Shad Boat; A Sister to Evangeline; Appleton's Canadian Guidebook; By the Marshes of Minos; The Heart of the Ancient Wood. The Kindred of the Wild: Barbara Ladd; The Prisoner of Mademoiselle; The Little Pecmle of the Sycamore; The Return to the Trails; Red Fox; The Heart that Knows; In the Deep of the Snow; The Young Acadian, etc. Boberts, Frederick Sleigh, baron of Kandahar and Waterford, distinguished liritish general, wa» bom at Cawnpore. India, 1832. He was edu- cated at Eton college, at Addiscombe, and at Sandhurst; D. C. L., Oxford, etc.; LL. D., Cambridge, etc. At the age of nineteen he joined the Bengal artillery and served through the Indian mutiny: was present at the sieee and capture of Delni, where he was wounded; was at the relief of Lucknow, and in the battle of Cawnpore and other actions of the period- For his heroism he received the Victoria cross. In 1868 he took part in the Abyssinian war, and was made a C. B. In the Afghan war of 1878 he commanded the Kuram field force, and in 954 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT this affair he made his famous march from Kabul to Kandahar, effecting the relief of the latter place. For his great military feat in this war he was created a baronet, and earned from his soldiers the familiar sobriquet of "Little Bobs" or Bobs Bahadur. In 1892 he was raised to the peerage, having meanwhile served in South Africa and been given conmiand of the British forces in India. He also received the thanks of both houses of the British parliament. In 1895 he was made field-marshal and com- mander of the forces in Ireland. In 1899 he proceeded to South Africa to take supreme com- mand during the Boer war, where ne invaded the Orange Free State and the Transvaal and turned the fortunes of that struggle in favor of the British. In the autumn of 1900 he returned to England to succeed Lord Wolseley as com- mander-in-chief of the army, retiring in 1904. He is the author of the Rise of Wellington, and Forty-one Years in India. Roberts, Morley, English novelist and ioumalist, was born in London, 1857. He was educated st Owens college, served before the mast, on Austra- lian sheefHruns, on Texan ranches, on California railways, and British Ck>lumbian saw-mills, and multiplied his experiences in the South seas, the Transvaal, Rhodesia, and Corsica. Since 1887 he has published more than forty works, mostly novels, including: The Purification ojT Dolores SUva; The Colossus; A Son of Empire; Immortal Youth; Lady Pendope; Captain Baalaam; The Idlers; The Prey of the Strongest; The Blue Peter; The Flying Cloud; Lady Anne; Captain Spink, etc. Robertson, Frederick William, English pulpit orator and writer, was bom in London, 1816. He was educated for the army at Tours and Edinburgh, but subsequently studied at Oxford, 1837—40, and devoted himself to the church. In 1842 he was settled at Cheltenham; in 1847 became incumbent of Trinity chapel, Brighton, where his earnestness, originaUty, and wide sympathy arrested attention, but provoked suspicion. He was especially devotea to the laboring classes. He resigned in 1853 because his vicar had refused to confirm his nomination of a curate, and died the same year. His Ser- mons were pubUshed complete in 1870. Another volume. The Human Race, etc., was issued in 1880. His other works are : Expository Lectures on St. Paul's Epistle to the Corirxthians; Lectures and Addresses; An Analysis of "In Memoriatn "; and Notes on Cenesis. Robertson, William, British historian, was bom in Borthwick, Midlothian, 1721. He was educated in Edinburgh; entered the church, and became minister of Gladsmuir. He distinguished him- self in the general assembly of the church, and became leader of the moderate party. He was one of the ministers of Greyfriars church, Edin- burgh, and principal of the university from 1762. He wrote History of Scotland During the Reigns of Mary and James VI.; History of the Reign of th^ Emperor Charles V.; and History of America. He died near Edinburgh when nearly seventy-one years old, 1793. Robespierre {ro'-bes-py&r'), Maximlllen Marie Isi- dore, noted French revolutionist, was bom at r^ft' ^'■f'^ce, 1758. He distinguished himself at the college of his native place, entered the states-general in 1789, and was elected a deputy of the tiers-aat, in which capacity he immediately repaired to Versailles. It was, however, as a popular leader in the famous Jacobin club that his chief activity was exerted; and in this field his influence became immense. After the death of Mirabeau his importance became more and more recogmzed; and from this time forward until his death his biography is in effect the history of the revolution. He was elected to the national convention as head of the Paris deputies, and as recognized chief of the extreme party ha was one of the main agents in procuring the execution of the king, which took place in Decem- ber, 1792. In the following year occurred the final struggle with the Girondists, who had twice before attacked him with a view to compass his destruction, the chief men among whom he now triumphantly sent to the scaffold. A period of terror followed: Marie Antoinette and the infamous duke of Orleans were the first victims; Pdtion, Danton, and Camille Dcsmoulins were next immolated, on a suspicion of having favored a reactionary (>olicy; and for months, under the so-called committee of public safety, Paris became the scene of an indiscriminate quasi- judicial slaughter, in which some thousands of lives were sacrificed. With these enormous atrocities the name of Robespierre, together with those of his friends, Coutnon and St. Just, remains peculiarly associated. A conspiracy was organised against "the tyrant," and after a scene of fierce tumult in the convention his arrest was accomplished. A rescue by the populace fol- lowed, but be lacked the courage and prompti- tude to turn the opportunity to account; while he hesitated his enemies acted, and in July, 1794, he closed his career on the sca^old. Robinson, James Harvey, American historian and educator, professor of history, Columbia univer- sity, since 1805, was bom at Bloomington, III., 1863. He was gnwluated at Harvard, 1887; pursued poet-eraduate counea at Harvard and in Germany; Ph. D., Freiburg, 1890. He was lecturer on European history, university of Pennsylvania, 1891 ; associate professor 1892-95. Columbia university; acting dean, Barnard college, 1900-01. Author: The German Bundes- rath; Petrarch, the First Modem Scholar and Man of Letters, with H. W. Rolfe; Introduction to the Hiiiory of Western Europe; Readings in European History (2 vols.); The Development of Modem Europe (2 vols.); and a number of articles and historical texts. Robinson, William CaUyhan, American educator and legal writer, dean of law school. Catholic university of America, 1895-1911; was bom at Norwich, Conn., 1834. He was graduated at Dartmouth college, 1854 ; graduated in divinity. General Theological seminary, Protestant Epis- copal church, 1857; studied law, and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1864; LL. D., Dartmouth, 1879; M. A.. Yale, 1881. He was ordained to the Episcopal ministrj', 1857, in New York ; was Episcopal missionary, Pittston, Pa., 1857-58, and rector of St. Luke's, Scranton, Pa., 1859-62. He practiced law at New Haven, Conn., 1865- 95; was lecturer and professor of law, Yale university, 1869-95; judge of city court. New Haven^ Conn., 1869-71 ; judge of court of com- mon pleas. New Haven county, Conn., 1874-76; member of the legislature of Connecticut, 1874. Author: Notes of Elementary Law; Elementary Law; Clavis Rerum; Law of Patents; Forensic Oratory; Elements of American Jurisprudence; and has contributed various articles to the Catholic World, and Catholic University Bulletin. Edited Mirror of Justices, 1903. Died, 1911. Robson. Eleanor Ellse, American actress, was bom at Wigan, Lancashire, England, daughter of Charles Robson. She was graduated at St. Peter's academy, Staten island, New York, 1897, and made her professional d^but at California theater, 1897. She played in stock companies in San Francisco, Denver and Milwaukee, 1897- 99; was a great success as Bonita in Arizona; created r61e of Constance in In a Balcony, Flossie Williams in Unleavened Bread, M'lle de la Vire in A Gentleman of France, Audrey in Audrey; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 955 played Juliet to the Romeo of Kyrle Bellew. 1903 ; starred in Merely Mary Ann, 1903-05, and headed an " all-star " cast in She Stoops to Conqtter, at the New Amsterdam theater, New York, 1905. Early in 1906 she created the part of Sylvia Lang in Clyde Fitch's play, The Girl Who Haa Everything, and that of Susan Gambett in Jerome's play, Susan in Search of a Husband. both specially written for her. She later played in repertoire at Liberty theater. New York, in- cluding Salomy Jane, and other successes. She married August Belmont, 1910, and retired from the stage. Rochambeau (rd'-shdN'-bd'), Jean Baptlste Dona- tlen de Vimeur Comte de, marshal of France, was born in 1725. He served in the war of the Austrian succession; distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war, cooperated with Washing- ton at the siege and capture of Yorktown, during the American war of independence. In 1791 he became commander of the French army of the north, but resigned in 1792, and narrowly escaped execution during the reign of terror. Died, 1807. Rochefoucauld. See La Rochefoucauld, Francois, Due de. Rockefeller, John Davison, American capitalist and philanthropist, was born at Richford, N. Y., 1839, and moved to Cleveland, Ohio, 1853. He received a pubUc school education; was clerk in a forwarding and commission house, and at nineteen a partner in the firm of Clark and Rockefeller, commission merchants. Subse- quently the firm became Andrews, Clark and Company, and engaged in the oil business. In 1865 the firm, then William Rockefeller and Company, built the Standard oil works at Cleveland, and this was consolidated with others in the Standard oil company, 1870. Other interests were later acquired and the Standard oil trust was formed, 1882, but dissolved, 1892, the various Standard oil companies being operated separately, with Rockefeller at the head until 1911 when he retired. He has given a total of $43,000,000 to the general education board; over $23,000,000 to the university of Chicago; a $100,000 building, 3,000 volumes on Greek art and Uterature, and money donations to Vassar; $1,375,000 to Barnard college; $250,000 to American Baptist missionary union and home missionary society ; $1,000,000 to Yale; endowed Rockefeller institution for medical research, New York, with $1,825,000; Southern educational fund, $1,126,000; Harvard, $1,000,000; Teachers college, $500,000, and made numerous other donations to colleges, churches, missions, etc., making a total of more than $85,000,000 to philanthropies. Rockefeller, John Davison, Jr., capitalist, son of preceding, was born in 1874. He was graduated at Brown university, and married, in 1901, Abby Green Aldrich, daughter of Nelson W. Aldrich, United States senator from Rhode Island. He is associated with his father in his various busi- ness enterprises^ He devotes much time to relig- ious and philanthropic work. Rockefeller, William, capitalist, brother of John Davison, was bom at Richford, N. Y., 1841. He was educated at Owego, N. Y., and Cleveland, Ohio; was bookkeeper and later partner in produce conunission trade; [soon after joined his brother, John Davison, in oil business, and from 1865 to 1911 was at the head of the business in New York. He was president of the Standard oil company of New York until 1911; was vice-president and director of Standard oil company of New Jersey; trustee of Anaconda copp>er mining company, Consolidated gas com- pany, United States trust company, and numerous other railroad, industrial, and financial coacems. Rodin (r6'-ddn'), Aususto, French sculptor wu born at Paris, 1840. He studied under Barye, and began to exhibit in the salon in 1875. Ha has produced a number of great scriptural and symbolical groups, including "Eve," 'Lea Boux^ geois de Calais, "Le Porte de I'Enfer," "L« Guerre," "The Kiss," "The Age of Bronze," etc., but is best known by his nortrait busts and statues, notably the bust ana the monument of Victor Hugo. Rodin is so keen a realist in execution that he was charged with having cast his "Age of Bronze" upon a living model. He is generally acknowledged to be the greatest of living sculptors. Rodney, George Brydges, Lord, English admiral, was bom in 1719. In 1759, after twenty-eight years of active service, he was made rear admiral. In 1761 he took Martinique, Grenada, and Santa Lucia. In 1762 he became vice admiral, and in 1764 was made a baronet. During the Seven Years' war he accomplished the relief of Gib- raltar and Minorca; defeated, near Martinique, the French fleet, under Count de Guichen; took Eustatia from the Dutch, with 250 ships and other booty, estimated at three millions sterling; captured Demerara and Essequibo, and encoun- tered the French fleet, under De Grasse, oflf Dominica, in April, 1782. De Grasse was totally defeated. Rodney's victory saved Jamaica, ruined the naval power of France and Spain, and gave the finishing blow to the war. He was elevated to the peerage as Baron Rodney, and received a pension of 2,000 pounds per annum for himself and his successors. Died, 1792. Roebling (roh'-lKng), John Augustus, American civil engineer, was bom in Miihlhausen, Prussia, 1806. He emigrated to the United States in 1831, and in course of years became the designer and con- structor of many great public works, among them the canal aqueduct across the Allegheny river, and the Monongahela suspension bridge, both at Pittsburgh; the suspension bridge at Niagara; the Ohio bridge at Cincinnati, etc. He died in 1869, having just before projected the bridge over the East river, to connect the cities of New York and Brooklyn, completed by his son and opened to travel in 1883. Roebling, Washington Augustus, American engi- neer, was born at Saxonburg, Pa., 1837. He was graduated as civil engineer at Rensselaer polytechnic institute, 1857; joined his father in construction of Pittsburgh suspension bridge across Allegheny river. Served in union army, 1861-65, from private to brevet colonel; re- signed in 1865 to assist his father in building the Cincinnati and Covington suspension bridge. The Brooklyn bridge was undertaken by the father, but his death in 1869 left the entire construction to his son, who directed it to completion. He was president and director of the John A. Roebling's Sons company, manufac- turers of iron and steel wire and wire rope, Trenton, N. J. Author: Military Suspension Bridge, etc. Lost his life on board the ul-fated Titanic, 1912. Roentgen (rUnf-gin), Wilhelm Konrad, eminent German scientist, distinguished investigator of physical problems, and discoverer of the "X" or Roentgen rays^ was bom in the province of Diisseldorf. Prussia, 1845. He was educated at Ziirich and Utrecht ; became professor of physics and director of the laboratory at the university of Wiirzburg, Bavaria. He also taught at Strassburg, and at Giessen. In December, 1895, he communicated to the Wiirzburg physico- medical society his remarkable discovery of the new and powerful "X-rays," since known by his name, and in the following month he described his discovery at the celebration of the semJ- centennial of the founding of the Berlin physicsJ 966 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT eociety. Later he demonstrated the rays in the presence of the emperor of Germany, who deco- rated him, and Prince Ludwig of Havana created him a baron. In 1901 he received the Nobel prize for physics. , r Rogers, Henry Wade, American educator, dean of the law department of Yale university since 1903, was born at Holland Patent, N. Y., 1853. He was graduated at the university of Michigan, 1874; LL. D., Wesleyan university, Conn. He was admitted to the bar, 1877 ; was professor of law, university of Michigan, 1883-90; dean of same, 1885-1900; president of Northwestern uni- versity, 1890-1900, and professor of law at Yale since 1901. He was chairman of the World's congress on jurisprudence and law reform, World's Columbian exposition, Chicago, 1893; general chairman of Saratoga conference on the foreign policy of the United States, 1898; presi- dent of the association of American law schools, 1906, and chairman of the American bar asso- ciation's committee on legal education and admission to the bar since 1906. Author: lUiruris Citations; Expert Testimony. Joint author: Two Centuries of American Law; and numerous articles for law journals and reviews. Rogers, Randolph, American sculptor, was bom at Waterloo, N, Y., 1825. After following mer- cantile pursuits for a number of years in early life, he went to Rome to study the sculptor's art. Among the works for which he is distinguished are the designs for the Washington monument at Richmond, Va., a statue of John Adams in Mt. Auburn cemetery, a memorial monument for the state of Rhode Island at Providence, and a still larger one for the state of Michigan at Detroit, and the bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln at Philadelphia. He also designed and partially executed the bronze doors in the capitol at Washington. Died at Rome, 1892. Rohlfs (rolfs), Anna Katharine Green. See Green, Anna Katharine. Roland (ro'-laN'), Marie Jeanne, wife of Jean Marie Roland de la Plati^re, daughter of Pierre Gratien Philipon, was born at Paris, France, 1754. She delighted in scientific and philo- sophic studies, and from 1791 to 1793 her salon in Paris was the headquarters of the republicans and Girondists, preceding and during the French revolution. Her husband was obliged to flee from Paris, May 31, 1793, and the same night she was arrested and imprisoned in the Abbaye. A more dauntless and intrepid spirit never entered its walls. Summoned before the revo- lutionary tribunal in the beginning of Novem- ber, she was condemned, and on the 9th was guillotined amid the shoutings of an insensate mob. It is said that while standing on the scaffold she asked for a pen and paper that she might "write down the strange thoughts that were passing through her head." Only a genuine child of the French republic could have been so ostentatiously speculative at such a moment. Still more celebrated is her apostrophe to the statue of Liberty, at the foot of which the scaffold was erected: "O Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name!" Rollin (ro'-Z^N'), Charles, French historian, was born at Paris, 1661. He studied at the college of Duplessis; acquired there a knowledge of languages and philosophy, and studied theology for three years at the Sorbonne. Between 1683 ^?M ^^^^ ^^ ^^'^ *^^ chairs of languages and philosophy, and studied theology for three years at the Sorbonne. Between 1683 and 1693 he tilled the chairs of rhetoric and of eloquence at \ lan}^^^ °^ Duplessis and the royal college. Jn 1694 he was appointed rector of the university of Pans and, in 1696, coadjutor of the college of Beauvais; but was at length driven from it by the intrigues of the Jesuits. Thenceforth he gave his time wholly to literature. His principal works are: Ancient History, Roman History, and Treatise on the Mode of Studying. Died, 1741. Romanes {ro-miX'-n£s), George John, naturalist, was born at Kingston, Canada, 1848, and was grad- uated in 1870 from CaiuB college, Cainbndge, While still at the university he formed a friend- ship with Darwin, and he powerfully reinforced his master's argument« in his Croonian, Fullerian, and other lectures. He wrote: Animal Intelli- gence; Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution; Mental Evolution in Anirruds; Jelly-fish, Star- fish, and Sea~uTchins- Mental Evolution in Man, etc. He wa« elected an F. R. 8. in 1879, later removed in 1890 to Oxford, and died there in 1894. Originally a defiant agnostic or sceptic, he was latterly a devout, if not wholly orthodox. Christian. Posthumous works by him were Thoughts on Religion; Mind and Monism; Darwin and after Darwin; and selections from his Poems. Romllly (rdm'-Wl), Sir Samuel, English lawyer and law reformer, wan born in London in 1757. At twenty-one he entered Gray's Inn, and found his chief employment in chancery practice. In 1790 he published an able pamphlet on the French revolution; appointed aolicitor-eeneral of England in 1806. He devoted himself to miti- gating the severity of the criminal law. His bills were session after session rejected, but he never- theless persevered; shared in the anti-slavery agitation, and opposed the suspension of the habeas corpus act and the spy system. His wife died October 29, 1818, and the shock so preyed upon his mind that, on November 2d, he cut his throat. Romney (riim'-nO, George, English painter, vaa bom at Dalton, in Lancashire, 1734. After receiving some lessons from a country artist, he studied art in London in 1762; visited France in 1764, and Italy, 1773-75; and on his return to England became the rival of Reynolds as a portrait painter. He also gained custinction as a painter of historical pictures, and assisted in preparing the Bovdell Shakespeare gallery. Died at Kendal, 1802. Ronsard (r<5N'-«dr'), Pierre de, French poet, was bom at the Ch&teau de la Poissonni^re in Ven- dAme, 1524, served the dauphin and the due' d'Orleans, and accompanied James V. with his bride, Marie de Lorraine, to Scotland, where he stayed three years. Becoming deaf, he aban- doned arms for letters, and at'the College Coqueret studied with Du Bellay and other members of the famous Pldiade. His seven years of study bore its first fruit in his Odes, 1550, which excited violent opposition from the older national school. In 1552 appeared his Amours and the fifth book of his Odes, his Hymns in 1555, the conclusion of the Amours in 1556, in 1560, Complete Works, and in 1572, twenty days after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, La Franciade, a fragment of an epic. Charles IX., like his predecessors, heaped favors upon the lucky poet, who s{>ent his later vears in lettered ease at the abbey of Croix-Val In Vend6me. He died at his priory of St. Cosme at Tours, in 1585. Roosa, Daniel Bennett Si. John. American physi- cian, was bom at Bethel, N. Y., 1838. He was graduated, M. D., university medical college. New York, 1860, after an academic education in Boston and New York; M. A., Yale; LL. D., university of Vermont. He was assistant sur- geon of 5th New York volunteers, among the three months' troops called out by President Lincoln; professor in the university of the city of New York, and university of Vermont; was president of the New York post-graduate medical school and professor of diseases of the eve and ear. Author: The Old Hospital and' Other THROUGHOUT THE WORLD WT Papers; A Pocket Medical Lexicon; Treaiiae on the Ear; Treatise on the Eye; A Doctor's Sugges- tions; On the Necessity of Wearing Glasses; Defective Eye-Sight; The Ear, Nose and Pharynx, with Dr. Beaman Douglass, etc. Died, 1908. Roosevelt [roz'-vUt), Theodore, American soldier, writer, statesman, twentv-sixth president of the United States, was born in New York city, 1868, son of Theodore and Martha (Bullock) Roosevelt. Though physically delicate in youth, he entered Harvard university at eighteen, and was grad- uated in 1880; LL. D., Harvard, Yale, etc. The year following he began the study of law, but in the same year was elected to the New York legislature. He was twice reelected, and became the candidate of the minority party for speaker in the second term. In 1884 he was chosen a delegate to the republican national convention and later in the year went to North Dakota, where he spent two years on a ranch, raising cattle. In 1886 he was the unsuccessful candidate for maj'or of New York. President Harrison appointed him a member of the United States civil service commission in 1889, in which capacity he served until 1895, when he resigned to accept the presidency of the police commission of New York city, under Mayor Strong. Presi- dent McKinley appointed him assistant secretary of the navy in April, 1897, and upon the out- break of the Spanish-American war, in 1898, he resigned the post to assist in organizing the 1st United States volunteer cavalry, afterward known as Roosevelt's rough riders, of which he became lieutenant-colonel, and later colonel, for gallantry in the battles of Las Guasimas and San Juan Cuba. In Septerhber, 1898, he was mustered out, with his regiment, at Montauk, L. I. Shortly following he was nominated for governor of New York, and elected November, 1898. Two years later he was unanimously nominated for vice- president of the United States by the republican national convention, at Philadelphia, and elected. He succeeded to the presidency September 14, 1901, upon the death of President McKinley, and at the close of the term was unanimously nomi- nated by his party to succeed himself, and elected for the' term 1905-09. His efforts in bringing about the treaty of peace between Japan and Russia in 1905 were important and effective; and, in 1906, he was awarded the Nobel peace prize of $40,000, with which he endowed the foundation for the promotion of industrial peace. He is an enthusiastic hunter of big game, and after his retirement from the presidency on March 4, 1909, he led an expedition to East Africa for the Smithsonian and national museums at Washing- ton. In 1910 he returned through Europe, enjoy- ing a magnificent triumph. After a strenuous campaign in favor of republican candidates in 1910, he retired to private life and editorial work on The Outlook. In 1912 he was presidential candidate of the progressive party which he had organized. During the campaign he was shot at Milwaukee, but was not fatally wounded. He has long been an advocate of administrative, political, and sbcial reforms, and has contributed widely to periodicals and general literature. Among his important publications are : The Win- ning of the West; History of the Naval War o/1812; Hunting Trips of a Ranchman; Life of Thomas Hart Benton; Life of Gouvemeur Morris; Ranch Life and Hunting Trail; History of New York; American Ideals and Other Essays; The Wilderness Hunter; The Rough Riders; Life of Oliver Crom- well; The Strenuous Life. Part author: Hero Tales from American History; The Deer Family; Outdoor Pastimes of an American Hunter; African Game Trails. Root (rdern Painters, the primary design of which was to prove ths infinite superiority of modem land- scape painters, especially Turner, to the old manters. In 1849 appeared T/te Seven Lamps q) Architecture, and in 1851 to 1853 The Stones oj Venice, both being efforts to introduce a neyl and loftier conception of the significance of domestic architecture. They were exquisitely illustrated by the author himself. About this time pre-Raphaeliam began to develop itself 80 a distinctive phase of modern art, and Ruskin warmly espoused its cause. About 1860 he became deeply interested in the social problems of the age, and published Unto this Last and Munera Pulveris. Among his later works are: Sesame and Lilies; The Ethics of the Dust; The Crown of Wild Olive; and Praterita, a charming autobiography, completed in 1888. He was appointed Kede lecturer, at Cambridge, in 1867, and the senate conferred the degree of LL. D. upon him. May 15th. He was selected Slade professor of fine arts at Oxford, being thrice reelected. He was obliged to resign the post in 1884 on account of failing health. For sevend years prior to his death he lived in retirement at Brantwood, on Lake Coniston. Died, 1900. Bussell, Annie, actress, was bom in Liverpool, England, 1869, and made her first stage appear- ance at Montreal when seven. She afterward appeared at New York in Pinafore, went to South America and West Indies in varied repertory; returned to the United States and iomed the Madison Square theater company; became famous in Esmeralda and Elaine. She retired for several years on account of ill health, and made her first appearance in London in 1898. She has since appeared as a star in Miss Hobbs; A Royal Family; The Girl and the Judge; Mice and Men; Jinny the Carrier; Brother Jacques; Major Barbara; Midsummer Nights Dream, eto. She married Oswald Yorke, an English actor, 1904. Bussell, James Earl, American educator, dean of Teachers college, Columbia universitv, since 1898, was born at Hamden, N. Y., 1864. He was graduated at Cornell in 1887; studied at the universities of Jena, Leipzig, and Berlin, 1893-95; Ph. D., Leipzig, 1894. He was prin- cipal of Cascadilla school, Ithaca, N. Y., 1890- 93; professor of philosophy and pedagogy, uni- vereity of Colorado, 1895-97; professor of edu- cation. Teachers college, since 1897 ; and Barnard professor of education, Colimibia, since 1904. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 963 Author: The Extension of University Teaching in England and America (translation of same into German by Dr. O. W. Beyer, LeipziK) ; German Higher Schools; The History, Organization and Methods of Secondary EdtuxUion in Germany, etc. Editor of the American Teachers series and a frequent contributor to educational journals. Russell, John, Earl, British statesman, third son of the sixth duke of Bedford, was born in 1792. He was educated at Westminster and Edinburgh ; entered parliament as a whig in 1813; became an advocate of parliamentary reform ; was instru- mental in the repeal of the test and corporation acta in 1828, and the passing of the Catholic relief act in 1829. He was paymaster-general under Lord Grey, 1830-34, and drew up the government reform bill, 1832; was home secre- tary, 1835-39, and colonial secretary, 1839-41, under Lord Melbourne; led the opposition, 1841-46; was prime minister, 1846-52; went as British plenipotentiary to the Vienna conference, 1855; was foreign secretary under Lord Palmer- ston, 1859-65; again became prime minister in 1865, but resigned on the defeat of his reform bill in 1866. He published Essay on the History of the English GoverninerU and Constitution, Life and Times of Fox, and other works. Died, 1878. Ruyter (roi'-ter; rl'-t^), Michael Adriaanszoon de, Dutch admiral, was born at VUssingen in 1607, of poor parents, who sent him to sea as a cabin-boy when only eleven years old. He became a warrant officer, and in 1637 rose to be captain in the Dutch navy. After serving several years in the, Indian seas he was, in 1641, made rear admiral. He had his legs shattered in an engagement off the coast of Sicily, and died of his wounds in 1676. Europe did justice to his bravery, and Louis XIV. said he could not help regretting the loss of a great man, although an enemy. Ryan, Patrick John, American prelate, Roman Catholic archbishop, was born at Thurles, County Tipperary, Ireland, 1831. He was graduated at Carlow college, 1852; LL. D., university of New York and university of Pennsylvania. He was ordained sub-deacon in Ireland; came to the United States; became professor of English literature, Carondelet theological seminary, St. Louis; was ordained deacon there, and, in 1853, priest ; served at the cathedral, where he became rector in 1856. He was chaplain of the Gratiot state military prison and hospital, St. Louis, during the civil war; and while rector of the Annunciation church, delivered lenten lectures in English at Rome, 1868, on invitation of Pope Pius IX. He was consecrated, 1872, titular bishop of Tricomia in Palestine and made coad- jutor bishop of St. Louis; was promoted to arch- bishop, 1883, and in June, 1884, was transferred to the see of Philadelphia. Author: What Catholics Do Not Believe; The Causes of Modern Rdigiotis Skepticism, etc. Died, 1911. Ryan, Thomas Fortune, American financier, was born in Nelson covmty, Va., 1851. He began business life, 1868, in a Baltimore dry goods house; entered Wall street, 1870, and became a member of the New York stock exchange, 1874. He was afterward interested in the consolidation and extension of street railway and lighting systems in New York, Chicago, and other cities, and in the reorganization of various railways in the South, coal properties in Ohio and West Virginia, and railways in Ohio. He purchased a controlling interest of the stock of the Equitable life assurance society of the United States in 1905. In 1908 he retired as officer or director of more than thirty corporations in which he was the con- trolling factor. He gave $1,000,000 for Roman Catholic church in New York city in 1912. He is a resident of Virginia, Mid wm » delegate from that state to the national democratic con- vention, 1904. Sachs (zolitics, and spent her time sometimes in Paris, some- times at her estate in Berri, where she had passed her childhood, or in journeys into Switzerland and Italy. Her best known works are : Indiana; Valentine; Rose et Blanche, written in conjunc- tion with her friend Jules Sandeau; Lelia; La Comtesse de Rudolstadt; Consul; Jacqxies; Mau- prat, etc. She also wrote some successful dramatic works. Died, 1876. Sankey, Ira David, American evangehst and singer, was bom at Edinburgh, Pa., 1840. He united with the Methodist Episcopal church at fifteen; became choir leader, Sunday school superintend- ent, and president of the Y. M. C. A. at New Castle, Pa. In 1870 he met Dwight L. Moody, and became associated with him as a solo singer in evangelistic work in the United States and abroad. Subsequently he also became a lecturer, and gave to New Castle, as a free gift, a Y. M. C. A. and public library building. He also gave a building site to the Methodist Episcopal church there. (S)mpiler: Gospel Hymns; ^ Sacred Songs and Solos; Winnowed Songs; Young People's Songs of Praise, etc., of which over 50,000,000 copies have been sold. He composed many of the most popular gospel songs of his day, including "The Ninety and Nine," and "When the Mists Have Rolled Away." Author: Tfie Gospel Choir; The Male Choir; Christian En- deavor Hymn-Book; Sankey' s Story of the Goapd 966 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Hymns; My Life and Sacred Songs. He lost his sight in 1903. Died, 1908. Santa Anna {siXn'-ta d'-nd), Antonio Liopes de, Mexican general, was bom in Jaiapa, 1795. He eerved in the Spanish army from 1810; assisted Iturbide in 1821 but overthrew him in the following year; was elected governor of the city and province of Vera Cruz in 1822; and pro- claimed in the same year a Mexican republic, which was recognized by every foreign state except Spain. In 1829 he engaged and captured a division of Spanish troops which invaded Mexico. The separation of Texas from the Mexican union was vigorously but unavailinsly opposed by him, but he recognized the inde- pendence of Texas, and defended Vera Cruz against the French in 1838. After having been dictator from 1841 to 1844, he was banished. In 1847, war having been declared by Mexico against the United States, he took command of the Mexican forces, and when the war came to an end, he retired from Mexico. In 1853 Mexico, torn by civil dissensions, and fallen into anarchy, again recalled him. In 1855 he was driven from the country. He was condemned to death some years later, but pardoned bj"^ Juarez on condition of his leaving Mexico. He afterward resided on Staten island, N. Y. After the death of Juarez in 1872, he returned to Mexico, where he died in 1876. Sappho {s&f'-o), celebrated lyric poetess of Greece, was a native, probably, of Mitylene, in Lesbos. She flourished about 600 B. C, and was ft con- temporary and friend of Alca;u8. The ftncient writers agree in expressing the most unbounded admiration for her poetry; but, except some fragments, only two of her compositions have come down to us, the Ode to a Young Female, and Hymn to Venus. Her poems are usually printed along with those ascribed to Anacreon. Sardou (sar'-'man and author, was bom in Norridgewock, Me., 1841. He was graduated from Bangor theological seml- narv, 1864; D. D., Harvard, 1896; was Congre- gational home missionary In California, 1864-67; pastor at Framingham, Haas., 1867-60, and at Hannibal, Mo.. 1M9-73. In the latter year he became a Unitarian and served as pastor of Third Unitarian church, Chicago, 1873-74. church of the Unity, Boston, 1874-96. and church of the Messiah, New York, 1896-1906. Author: Chriatianitu, the Science of Manhood; The Religion of EvMiUion; Light on the Cloud; Bluff ton, a Story of To-day; Life Questions; The Morals of Evolution; Talks About Jesus; Poems; Belief in God; Beliefs About Man; Beliefs About the Bible; The Modem Sphinx; Man, Woman, and Child; The Religious Life; Social Problems; These Degenerate Days; My Creed; Religious Reconstruction; Signs of the Times; Helps for Daily Living; Life; Four Great Questions Con- cemxngGod; The Irrepressible Conflict Betu>een Tvoo World-Theories; The Evolution of Chris- tianity; Is This a Good Worldf Jesus and Modem Life; A Man; Rdigionfor To-day; Our Unitarian Gospd; Hymns; This Miniver's Hand-book; Psychics, Facts, and Theories; Life Beyond Death; Life's Dark Problems, etc. Savlgny (aei'-t)*n'-t/e'), Friederiek Karl von, one of the most distinguished of modem European jurists, the founder of the modem historical school of jurisprudence, was bom at Frankfort- on-the-Main, 1779. He was professor of law at Landshut, 1808, and at Berlin, 1810-42. He then entered the Prussian ministry, taking charge of the revision of the law. His great works are Das Recht des Besitzes, Beruf unserer Zeit fur Gesetzgebung und Rechtswissensehaft, System des heutigen RSmischen Rechts. Savigny retired to private life in 1848, and died in 1861. Savonarola {sdv'-6-rui-r6'4d), Glrolamo, Italian monk and reformer, was bom at Ferrara, 1452. He became a Dominican monk in 1475, and in 1482 removed to Florence, where he became prior of St. Mark's in 1491. He headed the democratic party in Florence toward the close THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 967 of the fifteenth century, and was remarkable both for bis eloquence as a preacher and for his zeal as a reformer. He held that the mortal enemy of Christ's gospel in all ages of the world has been mammon, that simony is the sin against the Holy Ghost, that the interests of religion are naturally allied with those of liberty, and that the arts are the handmaids of both. He in- veighed accordingly against the corruptions of the church, and drew down upon himself a vengeance of excommunication In 1497; was arrested at Florence in 1498 and put to death in the same year. His death preceded by but a few years the death of the Italian republic. He was the author of a number of works in Latin and Italian, most of which have been translated into other European languages. Saxe, Maurice, French marshal, natural son of Augustus II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland, was bom at Goslar, 1696. At twelve he ran off to join the army of Prince Eugene in Flanders, and next the Russo-Polish army in 1711. He fought against the Turks in Hungary under Prince Eugene, and studied the art of war in France. In 1726, elected duke of Courland, he maintained himself against Russians and Poles, but was compelled to retire in 1727. He took a brilliant part in the siege of Philippsburg, 1734, and in the war of the Austrian succession he invaded Bohemia and took Prague by storm. In 1744, now marshal of France, he commanded the French army in Flanders, showed splendid tactical skill, and took several fortresses. In 1745 he defeated the duke of Cumberland at Fontenoy. In 1746 he gained the victory of Raucoux, and was ' made marshal-general. For the third time, at Laffeld, 1747, he defeated Cum- berland and captured Bergen-op-zoom. He then retired to his estate of Chambord, and died in 1750. His work on the art of war, Mes Reveries, was published in 1751. Say, Jean Baptlste, eminent French economist, was bom at Lyons, 1767. He took up journalism as a profession, and in 1794 became editor of the Dicade philosophique litteraire et "politique. In 1799 he entered the tribunate but was retired later by Napoleon. In 1819 he became professor of industrial economy at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, and in 1830 professor of political economy at the College de France. His chief work was his Traite d'economie politique. He was a disciple of Adam Smith and a popularizer of his theories. Say died in 1832. Sayce (sas), Archibald Henry, English philologist, was bom at Shirehampton, near Bristol, 1846. He was graduated from Queen's college, Oxford, 1869, and became a clerical fellow and tutor. He was deputy-professor of comparative philol- ogy, 1876-90, and from 1891 professor of Assyri- ology. He was a member of the Old Testament Revision company, and is D. D. and LL. D. Among bis works are Comparative Philology; The Science of Language; The Ancient Empires of the East; Hibbert lectures on the Babylonian religion; The HiUites; Races of the Old Testa- ment; Egyptof the Hebrews; The Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Alonuments; Herodotus; Patriarchal Palestine; Assyrian Grammar; Israel and the Surrounding Nations; Babylonians and Assyrians; Genesis in Temple Bible; Egyptian and Babylonian Religion; The Archceology of Cuneiform, Inscriptions, etc. Scallger {skdl'-l-jer), Joseph Justus, French scholar, was born in Guienne, 1540, and educated at Bordeaux. In large part, however, he educated himself, mastering Latin, Greek, Syrian, Hebrew, Persian and most of the modem European lan- gu£iges, and at his death in 1609 was recognized as the greatest scholar of his time. From 1793 until his death he was professor of literature at Leyden. In his treatise De Emendation* Ttmpo- rum he laid down for the first time a oompleto system of chronolo^ formed upon fixed princi- ples. He also criticised and annotated editions of the Roman pocta. ScIiaetTcr, Nathan C, American educator, state sui)crintendent of public instruction, Pennsyl- vania, since 1893, was born in Berks county, Pa., 1849. He was graduated at Franklin and Mar- shall college, Lancaster, Pa. ; studied divinity at the theological seminary of tlie Reformed church, and finished his education at the universities of Berlin, Tubingen, and Leipzig; Ph. D., D. D.. LL. D. He was professor at Franklin ana Marshall college, 1875-77, and principal of Key- stone state normal school, 1877-93; president of national educational association, 1905-07. Author : Thinking and Learning to Think; History of Education in Pennsylvania, etc., and etlitor of the Pennsylvania School Journal since 1893. Schaff (sh&f), Pliilip, Presbyterian theologian, was born at Chur in Switzerland, 1819. He was privat-docent in Berlin; was called to a chair at the German Reformed seminary at Mercerburg, Pa., 1844, and in 1870 became professor in the Union seminary. New York. He was founder of the American branch of the evangelical alliance, and was president of the American old testament revision committee. Among his works are a History of the Christian Church; The Creeds of Christendom; The Person of Christ; and a Bible Dictionary. He also edited Ttie Religious Encyclopaedia, based on Herzog. Died, 1893. Scheele {sha'-U), Carl William, Swedish chemist, was born at Stralsund, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, 1742. Although by profession only an apothecary, and to a large extent self- taught, he made many important chemical dis- coveries, with which his name will always be associated. He discovered oxygen gas inde- pendently of Priestley in 1774, and in the same year discovered the element chlorine. He also first recognized the existence of baryta as distinct from lime, discovered prussic acid, and many other organic acids, and glycerine; indeed, he may be regarded as one of the foremost pioneers in organic chemistry. He was the author of a treatise on Air and Fire, and of many memoirs which he contributed to the transactions of the academy of Stockholm, of which he was an associate. Died, 1786. Scheffer {shif-ir), Ary, French painter, was bom at Dordrecht, Holland, 1795, and studied under Gudrin of Paris. He first made a reputation as a painter of genre pieces, such as "La Veuve du Soldat " ; " Le Retour du Consent " ; "La Soeur de Charity"; "La Scfene d'Invasion," etc., which have been popularized in France by engravings. It was not until the romantic movement reached art, however, that he began to feel conscious of his peculiar power. The influence of Goethe and Byron became con- spicuous in his choice of subjects. The public admired his new style greatly, and lavished eulogy with a liberal hand on his "Marguerite k son Rouet"; "Faust tourment^ par la Doute"; "Marguerite h. I'Eglise"; "Marguerite au Jar- din"; "Les Mignons"; "Le Lamoyeur"; "Francesca da Rimini," etc. Toward the vear 1836 his art underwent its third and final p!iase — the religious. To this class belong his "Le Christ Consolateur " ; "Le Christ R^mun6ra- teur"; "Les Bergers conduits par I'Ange"; "Les Rois Mages ddposant leurs Tresors"; "Le Christ au Jardin des Oliviers"; "Le Christ portant sa Croix"; and "Saint Augxistin et sa M6re Sainte Monique." He also executed some remarkable portraits; among others those of Lafayette, B^ranger, and Lanmrtine. Died, 1S5S. 968 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Schelllng {8hM'-\ng\ Frledrich WUhehn Joseph, German philosopher, was bom at Wiirtemburg, 1775. He studied theology and philosophy at Tubingen and science and mathematics at Leipzig. He succeeded Fichte as teacher of philosophy in the university of Jena in 1798. From 1803 to 1808 he was professor at Wiirzburg; until 1820, secretary of the royal academy of arts at Munich ; professor at Erlangen until 1827, when he returned to Munich to a position in the new imiversity there, and finally was called to Berlin by King William IV. in 1841. He began as a follower in philosophy of Fichte and Hegel, with whom he ranks among German philosophers, but later was influenced by Spinoza and Boehme. The large number of his philosophical works include the Inquiry into the Nature of Human Freedom; On the Possibility of Any Form of Philosophy; Philosophy of Nature; and The World Soul. He died in Switzerland, 1854. ScUff {shlf), Jacob Henry, American banker, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany, 1847. He was educated in the schools of Frapkfort: came to the United States in 1865, and settled in New York. He is senior member of the firm Kuhn, Loeb and Co., bankers; was director of National city bank, Columbia bank, Morton trust company. Bond and Mortgage guarantee company. Title guarantee and trust company, Fifth Avenue trust company. Industrial trust company. Providence, National bank of com- merce, Newport trust company; is director of Western Union telegraph company. Woodbine land and improvement company; president of Montefiore home for chronic invalids ; vice-presi- dent and trustee of Baron De Hirsch fund ; vice- president New York chamber of commerce; founded Jewish theological seminary, the Semitic museum, Harvard, nurses' settlement. New York ; gave $50,000 to Hebrew sheltering home. New York, a like sum to aid in the training of Jewish teachers, and many other donations. Schiller {shU'-^\ Johann Chrlstoph Frledrich von. See page 84. Schlegel {shla'-gd), August Wllhelm von, German critic, poet, and scholar, was bom at Hanover, 1767. He studied at Gottingen for the church, but turned to literature, and settled as a lecturer at Jena in 1798. In conjunction with Treck he completed the best German translation of Shakes- peare that has yet appeared. In 1800 he pub- ushed his first volume of poems; and, in com- pany with his brother, the Charakteristiken und Kritiken. In 1801 he left Jena for Berlin, where he gave a series of lectures on literature, art, and the spirit of the time. In 1803 appeared his Ion, an antique tragedy of considerable merit, and in the next year his Blumenstrdusse der italienischen, spanischen, und portugiesisch^n Poesie. His most valuable and most widely popular work was his Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature, originally delivered at Vierma, in the spring of 1808, and translated into most European lan- guages. During 1811-15 he published a new collection of his poems, which contains his master- pieces, Arion, Pygmalion, St. Lucas, etc. In 1818 Schlegel, now ennobled, was appointed pro- fessor of history in the university of Bonn, and devoted himself to the history of the fine arts and to philological research. He was one of the first students of Sanskrit in Germany, established a Sanskrit printing office at Bonn, and an Indische Bibliothek. Died, 1845. Schlegel, Karl wahehn Frledrich, German critic and author, brother of the preceding, was bom at Hanover in 1772. He studied at Gottingen and Leipzig, and in 1797 published his first work, The Greeks and Romans, followed in the course of a year by his History of Greek and Roman Poetry. Froceedmg to Jena, he started there as a priva't- docent, holding lectures on philosophy, editing the Athenaeum, to which he also began to con- tribute poems of a superior quality. In 1802 appearea his Alarcos, a tragedy. From Jen* he soon went to Dresden, and thence to Paris, where he edited the Europa, a monthly journal, and applied himself assiduously to the languages of southern Europe, and still more assiduously to Sanskrit. In 1808 he went to Vienna, Where, in 1811, appeared his Lecture* on Modern History, and in 1815 his History of Ancient and Modem Literature. Died. 1829. Schlelermacher («Wi'-*r-ma'-K*r), Frledrich Ernst Daniel, German philosopher and theologian, was bom at Brcslau, 1768. He was educated at the Moravian schools of Niesky and Barby, 1783-87; next, having broken from the dogmatic narrow- ness of the Drethren, he studied philosophy and theology at Halle. In 1794 be became assistant clergj'man at Landsberg-on-the-Warthe, where he remained for two years. The first work that won for him general celebrity was his Discouraea on Religion, which startled Germany from ita spiritual torpor. Two years later he was ap- pointed preacher at the charity house in Berlin, and in 1799 published his famous Diaeouraea of Religion, in the following year his Monologue and his Lettera of a Preacher reaiding out of Berlin. He was professor at Halle 1804-06, and in 1810 was called to a theological chair in the new uni- versity of Berlin. Between 1804 and 1828 he published a translation of Plato into German — a translation considered the most correct that has appeared in any European language. In 1811 appeared his Bnef Outline of the Study of Theology; in 1817 his Critical Eaaay on the Writings of Luke; and in 1821-22 his greatest work, An Exhibition of the Christian Faith, according to the Principlea of the Evangelical Church. His Lectures on the Life of Christ was not published until many years after his death. Tne influence which he exerted upon the philosophic theology of hi* time was almost unique, and his eloquence in the pulpit is said to have been quite equal to his intellectual jwwer. Died, 1834. Schley («Wt), Winfleld Scott, American admiral, was bom near Frederick, Md., 1839. He was graduated from the United States naval academy, 1860; served in West Gulf blockading squadron 1862-63; was in engagements leading to the capture of Port Hudson, La., 1863, and re- mained in southern waters until 1864. He sup- pressed an insurrection among the Chinese coolies on Chinchi islands. 1864, and in 1865^ landed 100 men at San Salvador to protect the United States consulate and custom house during the revolution. In 1872 he was placed at the head of the department of modem languages at Annapolis; served in Europe, west coast of Africa and the South Atlantic states, and in 1884 took command of Greeley relief expedition and rescued Lieutenant Greeley and six sur- vivors at Cape Sabine. He commanded the Baltimore, and settled trouble at Valparaiso, Chile, 1891, when several American sailors were stoned by a mob. He carried Ericsson's body to Sweden, 1891, for which he received a gold medal from the king of Sweden. He was placed in command of the "flying squadron" on duty in Cuban waters in war with Spain; was in immediate command at the destruction of Cervera's fleet off Santiago, July 3, 1898. Pro- moted to rear-admiral, 1899 ; was presented with a gold sword by the people of Pennsylvania; a silver sword by the Royal Arcanum; a gold and jeweled medal, with the thanks of the Marj'Jand legislature; a silver service, etc., for services at battle of Santiago. He retired at the age limit in 1901. Author: Rescue of Greeley, Forty-fif Years Under the Flag, etc. Died, 1911. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD Schllemann (shli'-m&n\ Helnrlcb, German traveler and archaeologist, was born at Mechlenburg- Schwerin, 1822. While in business in St. Peters- burg he mastered Greek and the modern lan- guages of Europe. Becoming convinced that the heaps of Hissarlik in Asia Minor covered the site of ancient Troy, when he possessed an inde- pendent fortune, he began in 1870 to excavate it at his own cost, carrying on the work for twelve years. He had to pay the Turkish gov- ernment $10,000 for carrying off all the treasures he unearthed, contrary to agreement. His col- lection is now in the ethnological museum at Berlin. In 1876 he began excavations on the site of the ancient city of MycenjE, in Greece, and the treasures found there are now pre- served at Atiiens. He wrote an account of his work in Mycence, Tiryns, Ilios, Troja, and other volumes. He died at Naples, 1890, and was buried at Athens. Schmidt {shmit), Nathaniel, professor of Semitic languages and literature at Cornell since 1896, was born at Hudiksvall, Sweden, 1862, and educated in the university of Stockholm, Colgate university, and at Berlin. He was professor of Semitic literature at Colgate, 1888-96, and has gained an international reputation as a student and critic of Semitic and biblical literature. Author: Biblical Criticism and Theological Belief; Syllabus of Oriental History; The Repub- lic of Man; The Prophet of Nazareth; and his- tories of Egypt, India and Syria, besides over 200 contributions to the New International Encyclopedia and the Jewish Encyclopedia. Schofleld (sko'-feld), John McAllister, American general, was bom in Gerry, N. Y., 1831. He was graduated at West Point, 1853, and was made a professor there in 1855 ; LL. D., Chicago university. When the civil war broke out, he entered the army as major of the 1st Missouri volunteers, and was on General Lyon's staff when the latter was killed at the battle of Wil- son's Creek. He was in command in Missouri until February, 1864, and then of the army of the Ohio. He shared Sherman's southern cam- paign, and was in most of the battles which ended with the taking of Atlanta, when he returned to Tennessee, defeating Hood at Frank- lin, and was with General Thomas at the battle of Nashville. Entering North Carolina, he took Wilmington, and again joined Sherman, for whom he drew up the supplementary articles of surrender of Johnston's army, which were after- ward approved by the government. In 1868 he became secretary of war, and major-general in the regular army. Upon the death of General Sheridan, 1888, he succeeded to the command of the United States army. Previous to his retirement, he was, by act of congress, made lieutenant-general, 1895. He published a bio- graphical narrative entitled Forty-six Years in the Army. Died, 1906. Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, American ethnolopst and explorer, was born at Watervliet, N. Y., 1793. After studying at Union college, he visited the mining region west of the Mississippi, and also acted as geologist in an exploring expedition to Lake Superior and the upper Mississippi under General Cass. In 1822 he was Indian agent for the tribes about the lakes, and married in 1823 the granddaughter of an Ojibway chief who had been educated in Europe. While Indian agent he made treaties that gave the United States 16,000,000 acres. As a member of the legisla- ture of Michigan territory, from 1828-32, he founded its historical society. An expedition which he commanded in 1832 discovered the sources of the Mississippi. After collecting the statistics of the Six Nations, he was employed by congress in 1847 to gather all the information possible about the Indian tribes, the result being published in five volumes, costing the govern- ment $30,000 a volume. He added a sixth vol- ume to the collection in 1857. Uis works include narratives of his journeys: Notes on the Iro^uoia; The Red Race of America; Thirty Years wtth the Indian Tribes; and The Indian tn His Wigwam. He died at Washington, D. C, 1864. Schopenliauer (sho'-p&n-hou'-ir), Arthur, German philosopher, was bom at Dantsic, Germany, 1788. He studied first at Gottingen and afterward at Berlin and Jena. He spent the winter of 1813 at Weimar, where he enjoyed the society of Goethe ana of the orientalist Friedrich l^taier, who first turned his attention to the ancient Indian literature and philosophy. He then pro- ceeded to Dresden, where he published a treatise Sight and Color, which was followed three years later by his great work, The World as WiU and Idea. In 1831 lie removed to Frankfort-on-the- Main, devoting himself uninterruptedly to the elaboration of his system. The fruits of his studies were On the Will in Nature; The Funded- mental Problems of Ethics, etc. Died, 1860. Schouler (sk'-birt), Franz Peter, Austrian com- poser, was born at Vienna, 1797. At eleven he was one of the leading choristers in the court chapel, and later became leading violinist in the school band. His talent for composition soon revealed itself, and by 1813 his supreme gift of lyric melody showed itself in the song "The Erlking," the Mass in F, etc. His brief life, spent chiefly in the drudgery of teaching, was harassed by pecuniary embarrassment, and embittered by tne slow recognition his work won, though he was cheered by the friendly encouragement of Beethoven. His output of work was remarkable for its variety and quantity, embracing some 500 songs, ten symphonies, six masses, operas, sonatas, etc.; but his fame rests on his songs, which are infused by an intensity of poetic feeling, called by Beethoven "divine fire." He died in 1828. Schumann (shoQ'-m^n), Robert, German composer, was bom in Zwickau, 1810. He studied at Heidelberg, 1828-30, and than at Leipzig under Wieck. In 1834 he founded the Neue Zeit- schrift far Musik, which he lon^ conducted. Up to 1840 nearly all his compositions had been for the piano, but he subsefiuently produced 138 songs, many of which have become classic. Between 1840 and 1854 appeared his symphonies, his quintet and quartet. Paradise and the Peri, The Pilgrimage of the Rose, and many other ^^at works. In 1850-53 he was director of music at Diisseldorf. Before this time he had shown symptoms of mental derangement, and in 1854 threw himself into the Rhine. He was rescued, but never recovered his reason. Died, 1856. Schumann -Heink {sh/Sb'-m&n hingk'), Ernestine, n6e Koessler, German dramatic contralto, was bom at Lieben, 1861. She studied at Gratz, and made her d^but at Dresden, 1878, as Axuoena 970 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT in II Trovatore. In 1883 she went to Hamburg, in 1896 sang at Bayreuth as Erda, Waltraute, and the first Norn, in Der Ring des Nibdungen. She married Heink in 1883, Paul Schumann in 1^93, and William Rapp Jr. of Chicago, 1905. She made her American dany, Minnesota iron company, National bank of North America, National tube company, National tube works company, United States realty and improvement company, Chicago pneumatic tool company, Clyde steamship company, Elgin, Joliet and Eastern railway company, etc. He built the new Catholic church, costing $150,000, at Loretto, Pa. ; establisned an industrial school at Homestead, Pa., etc. Sohwanthaler (ehvAn'-tO-Ur), Ludwig von, German sculptor, was bom at Munich, 1802. He studied under his father, and after a visit to Rome was charged by King Louis of Bavaria to execute bas-reliefs and figures for the public buildings of Munich. In 1835 he became professor at the Munich aeademv. Among his works are the coloflsal statue of "Bavaria " ; statues of Goethe, Jean Paul Richter, Mosart, etc. He died in 1848. Sdplo (Hj/-Ui), idnlUanus Publlus, sumamed Africanua Minor, was bom about 185 B. C. He was the son of Paulus vGmiliu.s, and was adopted by the son of Scipio Africanus. After distinguish- ing himself in Spain, he proceeded to Africa to take part in the third Punic war. Here he laid siege to Carthage, took it by storm, and leveled it with the ground in 146 B.C. He was afterward sent to Spam, where he captured Numantia after a stubborn resistance, to the extension of the sway of Rome. He was an upright and magnani- mous man, but his character was not proof against assault, and he died by the hand of an assassin, about 129 B. C. Sriplo, Publlus Cornelius, sumamed Africanus Major, celebrated Roman general, was bom about 237 B. C. In 212 B. C. he was elected sedile, and in the following year proconsul, with com- mand of the Roman forces in Spain. His ap- pearance there restored fortune to the Roman arms. He defeated Hasdrubal at Baesula, with heavy loss. In 205 B. C. he returned to Rome, where he was elected consul, and in the following year sailed from Lilyba^um, in Sicily, at the head of a large army, for the invasion of Africa. His success compelled the Carthaginian senate to recall Hannibal from Italy. Tlie great struggle between Rome and Carthage was terminated by the battle fought at Naragra, on the Bagradas, near Zama, 202 B. C, in which the Carthaginian troops were routed with immense slaughter. Peace was concluded the following year, when Scipio returned to Rome, and enjoyed a triumph. He was made a Roman consul in 194 B. C, and accompanied his brother Lucius in the campaign against Antiochus in 190 B. C. His laurels, however, did not protect him from the intrigues of his enemies in Rome. V^arious charges were brought against him, and he at length retired in disgust to his country seat at Litemum, where he died, 183 or 185 B. C. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 971 Scott, Sir Gcorjre Gilbert, British architect, was born at Gawcott, near Buckingham, England, 1811. He was indentured to a London arcliitect, 1827-30, and eventually became the leading architect of the Gothic restoration in England, and as such built or restored 26 cathedrals, 9 abbey and 2 priory churches, 1 minster, 474 churches, 26 schools, 5 almshouses, 23 parson- ages, 57 monumental works, 10 college chapels and 16 colleges, 27 public buildings, 42 man- sions, etc. The martyrs' memorial at Oxford, St. Nicholas' at Hamburg, St. George's at Don- caster, the new government offices, Albert memo- rial, and Midland terminus in London, Preston town-hall, Glajsgow university, the chapels of Exeter and St. John's colleges, Oxford, and the Episcopal cathedral at Edinburgh are speci- mens of his work. He was elected A. R. A. in 1855, R. A. in 1861 ; held the professorship of architecture at the London academy; and was knighted in 1872. He died in 1878, and was buried in Westminster abbey. He published several works on architecture. Scott, James Brown, American lawyer and educator, lecturer on international law, Johns Hopkins university, since 1909; was born at Kincardine, Ontario, 1866. He was graduated at Harvard, and studied international law, 1891-94, in Berlin, Heidelberg, and Paris; J. U. D., Heidelberg, 1894. He practiced law at Los Angeles, Cal., 1894-99 ; organized Los Angeles law school, now law department university of soutliern California, 1896, and was its dean, 189()-99; dean of the college of law, university of Illinois, 1899-1903 ; professor of law, Columbia law school, 1903-06 ; professor of law, 1905-06, and of international law, 1906-11, George Washington university. He was solicitor for the department of state, 1906-11. He was delegate and expert in inter- national law of United States to second peace conference at The Hague, 1907. Editor-in-chief of the American Journal of International Law. Author: Cases on International Law; Cases on Quasi-Contracts; Cases on Equity Jurisdiction; Cases on Equity Pleading; many contributions to legal and educational reviews on matters of international law and legal education. Scott, Nathan Bay, ex-United States senator, was born in Ohio, 1842. He received his education in the common schools, Quaker City, Ohio. He subsequently clerked in a store; served in the Union army, 1862-65; located at Wheeling, W. Va., after the war, and became a glass manufac- turer. He was president of the city council, 1880-82; state senator, 1882-90; member of national republican committee since 1886; com- missioner of internal revenue, 1898-99, and was elected to the United States senate for the period of 1899-1911. Scott, Richard William, Canadian senator and Dominion secretary of state, 1896-1908; was born at Prescott, Canada, 1825. He was educated at Prescott; was member of parliament for Ottawa, 1857-63; speaker of the house of com- mons, 1871 ; wa^ commissioner of crown lands, 1872-73; appointed to senate, 1873; secretary of state, 1873-78; and leader of the opposition in the senate, 1879-96. He carried through parliament the school bill giving the Roman Catholics right to establish separate schools, 1863, and the Canada temperance (local option) act, known as Scott act, 1875. Scott, Sir Walter. See page 88. Scott, Winfleid, American general, was bom near Petersburg, Va., 1786. He studied at WilUam and Mary college, and first became a lawyer, but in 1808 entered the army as captain. In the war of 1812 he was sent to the Canadian border, where he fought at Queenston and at Lundy's Lane, being taken prisoner at Queenston, but ' wa« Boon exchanged. He wa« woxinded In both the battles, having two horaes shot under him at Lundy's Lane. He was made a major- f;eneral for his services, commanded the federal orces at Charleston harbor, during the nullifira- tion troubles, and also in the disputes about the border of Maine in 1839. As commander-in- chief of the United States army 1841-47, he took command of the invasion of^ Mexico. He captured Vera Cruz, and defeated Santa Anna at Cerro Gordo, taking Jalapa and Puebla; took the castle of Chapultepec by storm, and Septem- ber 14, 1847, marched into the city of Mexico, where he commanded until the treaty of peace was signed in J'ebruary, 1848. He was a candi- date for the presidency in 1852, but failed of election. At the beginning of the civil war he was in charge of the army, but soon yielded his position to younger men. He died at West Point, 1866. Seaman, Owen, English humorist and editor of Punch since 1906, was bom in 1861. He was educated at Shrewsbury and at Clare college, Cambridge; was professor of literature at Dur- ham college of science at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1890; began writing for Punch 1894. He was made a barrister of Inner lemple, 1897, joined the staff of Punch in the same year, and was assistant editor in 1902. Author: CEdiput the Wreck; With Double Pipe; Horace at Cam- bridge; Tillers of the Sand; The Battle of the Bays; In Cap and Bells; Borrowed Plumes; A Harvest of Chaff, etc. Seawell, MoUy Elliot, American author, was bom in Gloucester county, Va., 1860, daughter of John Tyler Seawell. She was educated privately, and began writing sketches and stories in 1886. In 1890 her Little Jarvis took a prize of f500 offered bv the Youth's Companion for the best story for boys, and in 1895 her Sprightly Romance of Marsac took a prize of $3,000 offered by the New York Herald. Author: Little Jartds; Mid- shipman Paulding; Paid Jones; Maid Marian; Decatur and Somers; A Strange, Sad Comedy; The Sprightly Romance of Marsac; A Virginia Cavalier; The Rock of the Lion; Gavin Hamilton; The House of Egremont; Papa Bouchard; Fran- cezka; Children of Destiny; The Chateau of Monplaisir; The Victory; The Secret of Toni, etc. ; and the plays, Maid Marian and Sprightly Romance of Marsac. Sedgwick, John, American general, was bom at Cornwall, Conn., 1813. He was graduated at West Point; served in Florida when the Chero- kees were removed ; served through the Mexican war, gaining promotion at the battles of Con- treras, Churubusco, and Chapultepec; and achieved a brilliant record in the civil war. By the spring of 1862 he was in conmiand of a division, and in July of that year was made major-general of volunteers. As commander of the 6th, or Sedgwick's corps, he made a forced march of thirty-five miles to Gettysburg, and commanded there the left wing in the battle of July 2 and 3, 1863. Three davs after the battle* of the Wilderness, 1864, in which he had taken part, he was shot by a sharp-shooter while order- ing a battery to be brought into position at Spottsylvania. A monument made from the metal of cannon captured by his corps waa erected in his honor at West Point in 1868. Seeley, Sir John Bobert, English historian, was bom in London, 1834, son of the publisher, Robert Benton Seeley. He was educated at Christ's college, Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of his college in 1858. In 1863 he became professor of Latin in University college, London, and in 1869 of modem history at Cambridge. His Ecce Homo appeared anonymously in 1865, and excited an extraordinary commotion in the 972 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT religious world. It was followed by Natural Religion, 1882. His other works are: Life and Times of Stein; The Expansion of England; A Short Ld/e of Napoleon the First; Growth of British Policy; Goethe Reviewed after Sixty Years; and Introdtiction to Political Science. He was created a K. C. M. G. in 1894, and died, 1895. Selden, John, English scholar and lawyer, was bom in Sussex, England, 1584. He studied at Oxford three years, and then removed to London for the pursuit of law. It was here that his great learn- ing began to attract attention. He wrote his first treatise, entitled Anaiecton Anglo- BrUanni- con, 1606, when only twenty-two years of age. In 1610 appeared his Janus Anglorum Fades Altera, and in 1614 was published his Titles of Honor, a work still regarded as of bigh authority on the subject of which it treats. Three years later appeared an erudite work on the Syrian gods. Next year, however, he excited ^reat indignation among the clergy by his Treatise of Tythes. In 1623 he was elected to parliament for Lancaster. In 1630 he was committed to the Tower for his activity in opposing the policy of the court, and remained a prisoner for four years. In 1640 he was chosen member for the university of Oxford; and, when the struggle between the king and the nation bep;an to grow earnest, he was suspected of not bemg zealous enough. He sided against the bishops when the Question came up as to their tenure of seats in parliament ; and he helped to draw up the articles of impeachment against Laud. After the execution of Charles he took little share in public matters. His Table-Talk is well known. He died in Kent, 1654. Sellgman (sW-lg-man), Edwin Robert Anderson, American economist, McVickar professor of politi- cal economy, Columbia university, since 1904; was bom in New York, 1861. He was graduated at Columbia, 1879; LL. B., Ph. D., LL. D.; and studied three years at the universities of Berlin, Heidelberg, Geneva, and Paris. He was adjunct professor political economy, 1888-91, professor political economy and finance, 1891-1904, Col- umbia university; president of the American economic association, 1902-04. He is editor of the Political ScienceQuarterly. Author: Railway Tariffs; Finance Statistics of American Common- wealth; The Shifting and Incidence of Taxation; Progressive Taxation in Theory and Practice; Essays in Taxation; Two Chapters on Mediaeval Guilds of England; Economic Interpretation of History; Principles of Economics, etc. Selous {se4ods', or l^')j Frederick Courtenay, English traveler and writer, was bom in London, 1851, and was educated at Rugby, in Switzerland and in Germany. He first visited South Africa in 1871, and since has published A Hunter's Wan- derings in Africa; Travel and Adventure in South- east Africa; Sunshine and Storm in Rhodesia; Sport and Travel, East and West; Recent Hunting Trips in British North America; African Nature Notes and Reminiscences, etc. He fought in Matabeleland during the Matabele war of 1893. Sembrlch {zSm'-briK\ Marcella, Austrian soprano, was bom in 1858. She studied under Stengel, whom she afterward married, Epstein, and Rokitansky in Vienna, and made her d^but at Athens in 1877, in / Puritani. In 1879 she sang m Dresden, and afterward at Vienna, Dresden, London, and New York, her favorite parts being Susanna, Martha, Zerlina, Rosina, Lucia, and Leonora. Besides possessing a voice of high quality, she is also an excellent actress. Semmes (sSmz), Raphael, American naval officer, was bom in Maryland, 1809. He served in the Mexican war, in 1861 joined the naval service of the confederate states, and was appointed to the command of the war steamer Sumter. He also commanded the famoxis Alabama during her destructive cruise. After the war he practiced law at Mobile, Ala. He published the Cruise of the Alabama and the Sumter; Memoirs of Service Afloat; Campaigns of General Scott, etc. Died, 1877. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, Roman stoic philosopher, was born at Corduba, Spain, about 4 B. C. Ho was educated in Rome, and became for a time an advocate in the courts of justice, where he attained a considerable reputation. On the accession of Emi>eror Claudius, A. D. 41, he was banialied to the island of Corsica, where be remained for eight years, consoling himself as well as he was able with the maxims of philosophy, but all the time making abject petitions to the emperor for pardon. On the marriage of Clau- dius to his second wife, Agrippina, Seneca was through her influence recalled, and was appointed tutor to her son Domitius, afterward the emperor Nero. Five years later his pupil ascended the throne, and Seneca became one of the chief advisers of the young emperor, attaining great power and immense wealth. All his influence failed, however, to restrain the vicious pro- pensities of Nero; and, after the murder of Agrippina by the latter, A. D. 59, Seneca asked penniasion to retire from court, and offered to relinquish all he had to the emperor. This was at the time refused, and he sent the philosopher away with many protestations of respect and gratitude. He now wholly avoided public life, and devoted himself to his philosophical studies* but the emperor, who both disliked and feared him, followixl him into hi.s retirement, and is said to have sought to compass his death by poison. After the conspiracy of Piso, A. D. 65, Seneca was mentioned by one of the conspirators as having shartnl in the plot, and, without further proof, was ordered to put himself to death. He died with all the courage of a stoic, and his wife, Pompeia Paulina, attempted, though vainly, to die with him. Of Seneca's writings which nave come down to us, the greater part are on moral and philosophical subjects. Sennacherib (sf-ndk'-ir-lb), celebrated king of ancient Assyria, reigned from 705 to 681 B. C. He seems to have been the first who fixed the seat of government permanentlv at Nineveh, which he adorned with splendid buildings. The chief biblical event in his hi.story is the destruction of his army, in a single night, while threatening the Egyptian frontier of Palestine. During this night 185,000 men are said to have been de- stroyed. This event is the subject of Lord Byron's powerful poem. The Destruction of Sennacherib. Of the death of Sennacherib nothing is known beyond the brief statement of scripture, that "as he was worshiping in the house of Nisroch, his god, Adranunelech and Sharezer^ his sons, smote nim with the sword, and escaped into the land of Armenia." Septlmlus Severus. See Severus. Sergei (sir'-gel), Jolin Tobias, eminent Swedish sculptor, was bom at Stockholm, 1740. He waa a pupil of L'Archevficque, and subsequently completed his studies at Rome; rose to great eminence, and was ennobled after his return to Sweden. Among his most admired productions are: "Othryades"; a recumbent faun; "Venus Callipyges"; "Diomedes bearing away the Palladium"; "Venus and Mars"; "Cupid and Psyche"; and the great historical group, "Oxen- stiema Relating to History the Exploits of Gustavus Adolphus." He died in 1814. Servetus (sir-ve'-tOs), Michael, Spanish physician and controversialist, was bom in Spain, about 1511. He studied law at Saragossa and Toulouse, was graduated in medicine at Paris, and after- ward studied theology at Louvain. He practiced medicine first in the village of Charlieu, near " THROUGHOUT THE WORLD VTZ Lyons, and afterward at Vienne, in Dauphiny; was an earnest supporter of the reformation, but published, in 1531, an essay against the doctrine of the Trinity. He maintained a vigorous cor- respondence with Calvin, who endeavored for sixteen years to convince him of his errors; and the failure of the endeavor irritated Calvin, whose anger was doubtless increased by the trenchant style in which Servetus replied to his arguments. In 1553 he published his book called C hristianisnii Restitutio, of which, though he avoided putting his name to it, the authorship was discovered ; and, on the complaint of Calvin, he was imprisoned at Vienne. He now proposed to retire to Naples, but was so imprudent as to pass through Geneva, where Calvin obtained intelligence of his arrival, and gave information of it to the magistrates. He was thereupon seized, once more imprisoned, tried for heresy, and ultimately burned by a slow fire, 1553. Seton (se'-tiin), Ernest Thompson, artist, author, lectxirer, was bom at South Shields, England, 1860. He lived in the backwootls of Canada, 1866-70, on western plains, 1882-87. He was educated at Toronto collegiate institute and the royal academy, London, England, and studied art in Paris, 1890-96. He became official natur- alist to the government of Manitoba; published Mammals of Manitoba, 1886, and Birds of Mani- toba, 1891. He was one of the chief illustrators of The Century Dictionary, has illustrated many books about birds and mammals, and has deliv- ered over 2,000 lectures. Author and illustrator: Art Anatomy of Animals; Wild Animals I Have Knotim; The Trail of the Sandhill Stag; The Biography of a Grizzly; Wild Animal Play for ChUdren; Lobo, Rag and Vixen; Lives of the Hunted; Pictures of Wild Animals; Krag and Johnny Bear; Two Little Savages; Monarch, the Big Bear; Woodmyth and Fable; Animal Heroes; The Birchbark Roil; Natural History of the Ten Commandments, etc. Severus {se-ve'-rOs), Lucius Septimlus, Romsm emperor, was born near Leptis Magna in Africa, 146. He rose to be prsetor in 178, and com- naander of the army in Pannonia and lUyria. After the murder of Pertinax in 193, he was proclaimed emperor, marched upon Rome, utterly defeated his two rivals in 195 and 197, and between these dates made a splendid cam- Eaign in the East, and took Byzantium. In 198 e met with the most brilliant success in his campaign against the Parthians. At Rome in 202 he displayed unparalleled magnificence, and distributed extravagant largess. A rebellion in Britain drew him thither in 208, when he marched, it is said, to the extreme north of the island. To check south Britain from the Caledonian inva- sions, he repaired Hadrian's wall, sometimes called after Severus, and died soon after at Eboracum (York), 211. S^vignfi (sd'-ven'-yd'), Madame de, n^e Marie de BabutliL-Chantal, one of the most charming of letter writers, was bom at Paris, 1626. At eighteen she married the dissolute Marquis de S6vign6, who left her a widow at twenty-five. Her beauty and rare charms attracted many suitors, to one and all of whom, however, she turned a deaf ear, devoting herself with touching fidelity to her son and daughter, and finding all her happiness in their affection and in the social intercourse of a wide circle of friends. Her fame rests on her Letters, written chiefly to her daughter in Provence, which reflect the brightest and purest side of Parisian life, and contain the tender outpourings of her mother's heart in language of unstudied grace. She died in 1696. Seward, William Henry, American statesman, was bom in Florida, N. Y., 1801. He was graduated at Union college in 1820, was admitted to the bar in 1822, and settled at Auburn, N. Y. H« was elected to the state senate in 1830; waa elected governor of New York in 1838, and in 1849 was elected to the United States senate, where he became the acknowledged leader of hia party. In the debate on the admission of Cahfomia he promulgated what was called hia "liigher-law" doctrine, in saying that there waa "a higher law than the constitution, which regulated the authority of congress over the national domain — the law of Uod and the interests of humanity." In 1860 he was the most prominent candidate of the republican party for nomination for the presidency, but personal and local interests finally secured the election of Abraham Lincoln. Seward afterward accepted the impwrtant post of secretary of state, in Lincoln's cabinet, in which he guided the diplomacy of the federal government through the perils of the civil war. On April 14, 1865, as the war approached its termination, and while Seward was confined to his room by a fall from his carriage. President Lincoln was assassinated at a theater in Washington. At the same time another assassin penetrated Seward's room, and with a poignard inflicted wounds upon him which were at first believed to be fatal. He recovered and continued as secretary of state throughout the presidency of Lincoln's successor, Andrew Johnson, when he conducted the negotiations for the Alaskan purchase. He resigned in 1869, on the accession of U. S. Grant. He published Speeches and Orations, in 4 vols.. Life of John Quincy Adams, and Life of De Witt Clinton. Died, 1872. Seymour, Sir Edward Hobart, English admiral, was bom in 1840. He was educated at Radley. and entered the British navy in 1852. He servea through the Crimean war in the Black sea; the China war, 1857-62; operations against Chinese rebels, and in the Egyptian war of 1882, taking part in most of the naval fighting in connection with those wars. As commander he was badly wounded in action on the river Congo, ae became captain in 1873, rear-admiral, 1889, and vice-admiral, 1895, and was commander-in-chief of the China station, 1898-1901. From 1894 to 1897 he served in the British admiralty as superintendent of naval reserves. He com- manded the naval brigade of the allied forces near Tientsin in 1900, and was, in October, 1902, appointed her majesty's first and principal naval aide-de-camp. He was commander-in-chief at Devonport, 1903-05; admiral of the fleet, 1905-10; accompanied Prince Arthur in his mission to Japan, 1906. Sejrmour, Horatio, American statesman, was bom at Pompey, N. Y., 1810. He studied at a military school; was admitted to the bar, 1832; entered New York legislature, 1841; and was chosen sjjeaker, 1845. He was elected governor in 1852 and 1863, and came into great prominence as one of New York's "war governors." He pre- sided over the democratic national convention of 1868^ which was held in New York, and was nominated for the presidency by a sudden wave of enthusiasm, in spite of his loudly spoken protestations. He, however, received but eighty electoral votes. He died at Utica, N. Y., 1886. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of, British statesman, was bom at Winbome, in Dorsetshire, 1621. He was educated at Exeter college, Oxford, and studied law at Lincoln's Inn. He entered parliament in 1640; changed from the royalist to the parliamentary side during the civil war, and was a member of Cromwell's cotmcil of state, but latterly attacked the pro- tector's government, and was one of the cnief promoters of the restoration. He was chancellor of the exchequer in 1661, and in 1672 was created 974 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT an earl and lord chancellor, but, hoodwinked by Charles in the secret treaty of Dover, he went over to the opposition and lost his chancellor- ship. He then supported an anti-Catholic poUcy, and came into power again after the ''popish plot," as the champion of toleration and Protestantism. He subsequently became president of the council, which passed the habeas corpus act. His virulent attacks on James and espousal of Monmouth's cause brought about his arrest on a charge of high treason in 1681, and although released he retired to Holland, where he died in 1G83. He was one of the ablest men of his age, but of somewhat inscrutable character, whose shifting policy seems to have been chiefly dominated bv a regard for self. He is the "Achitophel of Dryden's great satire. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of, English philosopher, grandson of the preceding, was born in London, 1071. He was an ardent student in his youth, made a tour of the conti- nent, and entered parliament in 1095. He was elevated to the house of lords on the death of his father in 1699, where, as a staunch whig, he cave steady support to William HI. He with- drew from poUtics, never a congenial sphere to him, on the accession of Anne, and followed in bis bent for literature and philosophy. In 1711 his collected writings appeared under the title Characteristics, in which he expounds, in the pohte style of the eighteenth century, the phi- losophy of optimism. He died in 1713. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh Earl of, English statesman and philanthropist, was born in London, 1801. He waa graduated at Oxford, and entered parliament as a conserva- tive in 1826; took office under WelUngton in 1828; was a lord of the admiralty in Peel's ministry of 1834, and succeeded to the earldom in 1851. His name lives, however, by virtue of his noble and lifelong philanthropy, which took shape in numerous acts of parliament, such as the mines and collieries act of 1842, excluding women and boys under thirteen working in mines; the better treatment of lunatics act, 1845, called the magna charta of the insane; the factory acts, 1867, and the workshop regu- lation act, 1878; while outside of parhament he worked w ith rare devotion in behalf of benevolent and religious movements of all sorts, notably the ragged school movement and the better housing of the London poor. He died in 1885. Shaban, Thomas Joseph, American educator, rec- tor of the Catholic university of America since 1909, was bom at Manchester, N. H., 1857. He was educated at Montreal college, Canada, 1872, American college, Rome, 1878-82; 8. T. D., col- lege of the Propaganda, Rome, 1882; J. U. L., Roman seminary, 1889; was a student of his- tory at the university of BerUn, 1889-91, in 1891 at the New Sorbonne and Institut Catholique, Paris. He was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood in the cathedral of St. John Lateran, Rome, 1882 ; was chancellor and secretary of the diocese of Hartford, 1883-88; lecturer on historj' of education in CathoUc university institute of pedagogy. New York, 1902-03; professor of church history and patrology, Cathohc universitv of America, 1891-1909. Author: T?ie Blessed Virgin in the Catacombs; Giovanni Battista de Rossi; The Beginnings of Christianity; The M-Mle Ages; The House of God, and Other Addresses and Studies, etc. Shab-Jehan (sha' je-han'), fifth of the Mogul emperors of Delhi, was born about 1592, and succeeded his father in 1627. He was a man of great administrative ability and a skilled warrior- conquered the Deccan and the kingdom of Gol- conda, and generally raised the Mogul empire to Its zenith. His court was truly Eastern in its sumptuous magnificence. He founded the mod- ern citv of Delhi ; built the Taj Mahal and other magnificent buildings at Agra; and ordered the construction of the peacock throne, which alone cost $35,000,000. Died in prison in IGGG, a victim to the perfidy of his usurping son, Aurung- zebe. Shakespeare, William. See page 40. Sbaler (shd'-iir), Nathaniel Soutbgate, American scientist, author, was born in Newywrt, Ky., 1841. He was graduated at Lawrence scientific school. Harvard, 18G2; Sc. D.^ 1865; served two years as artillery officer in Lnion army during the civil war. He waa instructor in zoology and geology, Lawrence scientific school, 1808-72; professor of yjala>ontology, 1808-87, and after- ward professor of geology, Harvard; director of Kentucky geological survey, 1873-80, devoting part of each year to that work, and from 1884 to 1906 waa geologist in charge of the Atlantic division of the United States geological survey. Author: A First Book in Geology; Kentucky, a Fiomer Commonwealth; The Nature of Intellectual Property; The Story of Our Continent; The Inter- pretation of Nature; Illustrations of the Earth'a Surface; Sea and Land; Ttie United States of America; A Study of the American Commonwealth; American Highways; Features of Coasts and Oceans; Domesticated Animals: Their Relation to Man; The Individual: Study of Life and Death; The Neighbor; The Citiien, etc. Died, 1906. Sharpless, Isaac, American educator, president of Haverford college since 1887, was bom in Chester county. Pa., 1848. He waa graduated at the Lawrence scientific school, Har\-ard, 1873; 8c. D., university of Pennsvlvania; LL. D., Swarthmore college; L. H. l5., Hobart college. He was instructor In mathematics, 1875-79, professor of mathematics and astronomy, 1879- 84, and dean, 1884-87, of Haverford college. Author: Astronomy; Geometry; English Educa- tion; A Quaker Experiment in Government; Two Centuries of Pennsylvania History; Quakerism and Politics, etc. Sbaughnessy, Sir Thomas Geonce, Canadian rail- way president, waa bom at Milwaukee, Wis., 1853. He received a common school education; entered the railway service in 1809, in the purchasing department of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad. He was general storekeeper of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railway, 1879-82; general purchasing agent, 1882-84. assistant to general manager, 1884-85 ; assistant general manager, 1885-89; assistant to presi- dent, 1889-91; vice-president and director, 1891-98, and president since 1898 of the Canadian Pacific railway. He is also vice-president and director of the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic railway, Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo railway, British Columbia Southern railway; president of the Montreal and Western railway; director of the Accident insurance company. Guarantee company of North America, Northwest land company, etc. He was knighted by Queen Victoria, 1901. Shaw, Albert, editor of the American Review of Reviews, was born in Shandon, Ohio, 1857. He was graduated at Iowa college, Grinnell, la., 1879; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins, 1884; LL. D., universitv of Wisconsin, 1904. He was editorial writer with the Minneapolis Tribune, 1883-88, 1889-90; studied in Europe, 1888-89; established in 1891, and has since conducted, the American Review of Reviews. He is a member of numerous learned societies, and has lectured in many universities and colleges. Author: Icaria — A Chapter in the History of Communism; Local Government in Illinois; Cooperation in the North- teest; Municipal Government in Great Britain; SHERIDAN'S RIDE From the painting by Read THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 977 Municipal Government in Continental Europe, etc.; and many articles on political science, economics, anci municipal govermnente, in magazines, etc. 8baw, Georfre Bernard, British dramatist, critic, and novelist, was born in Dublin, Ireland, 1856, and went to London in 1876. where he engaged in newspaper work. He published a few novels, Cashel Byron's Profession, etc^ wliich attracted little attention; joined the Fabian society in 1884; wrote musical critiques in the London Star, 1888-90, and in the World, 1890-94; and, in 1895, began his work as a dramatic critic, writing in the Saturday Rcmew. In 1898 he published Plays, Pleasant and Unpleasant including. You Never Can Tell; Arms and the Man; Candida; The Man of Destiny; Widowers' Houses; and Mrs. Warren's Profession. Since then his chief literary work has been writing for the stage. His plays include Man and Superman; John Bull's Other Island; Major Barbara; The Doctor's Dilemma; Ccesar arid Cleopatra; Getting Married, etc. Shaw, Henry Wheeler, American humorist, was bom in Lanesborough, Mass., 1818. In 1859 he began to write, and, in 1860, sent "An Essa on the Muel, bi Josh Billings" to a New York paper. It was reprinted in several comic journals, and extensively copied. His most successful literary venture, however, was his Farmer's AUminax a travesty on the Old Farmers' Almanac, 127,000 copies of which were sold in its second year. He began to lecture in 1863, and, for twenty years previous to his death, contributed regularly to the New York World. His complete works were published in 1877. Died in Monterej', Cal., 1885. Shaw, Leslie Mortimer, American financier and lecturer, was bom at Morristown, Vt., 1848. He was graduated at Cornell college, Mt. Vernon, la., M. S., 1874; Iowa college of law, 1876; LL. D., Simpson college, 1898, Cornell college, la., 1899, Wesleyan university, 1904. He was admitted to the Iowa bar in 1876, and began practice at Denison, la. ; subsequently engaged in banking at Denison, Manilla, and Charter Oak, la. He occasionally took part in political campaigns as a republican speaker, and gained prominence as a McKinley advocate in 1896; was twice elected governor of Iowa, 1898-1900, 190O-O2; secretary of the treasury, 1902-07, and president of the Carnegie trust company. New York, 1907-08. His time is now largely given to the lecture plat- form. Shays, Daniel, American insurgent, was bom in Hopkinton, Mass., 1747. He served as ensign at the battle of Bunker Hill; attained the rank of captain in the continental army, and took a leading part in the popular movement in western Massachusetts for the redress of alleged griev- ances due to misgovemment. In 1786 he appeared before Springfield, Mass., at the head of 1,000 men, to prevent the session of the supreme court at that place, and afterward com- manded the rpbel party at Pelham and at the engagement with the militia at Petersham. After the rebellion was put down, however, he was pardoned by the government, and later, in his old age, was allowed a pension for his services during the revolutionary war. He died in Sparta, N. Y., 1825. Shelley, Percy Bysshe, famous English poet, was bom at Field Place, near Horsham, England, 1792. In 1808 he left school, and after two years passed at home was sent to Oxford. A pamphlet entitled The Necessity of Atheism, which circu- lated during the second year of his college course, led to his expulsion from Oxford. In 1811 he married Harriet Westbrook, daughter of a retired innkeeper, but in 1814 a separation took place between ium and his wife. His second wife waa Mary Godwin. In 1813 appeared his poem Queen Mab, which was printed only for private circulation. In 1815 he wrote his Alaator, one of the moet finished and character- istic of his works, which was followed by TKt Revolt of Islam. In 1818 he left England for Italy, and during that and the followmg vesr, chiefly while a resident at Jiome, he protuiced what may rank as his two finest poems — the grand lyncal drama of Prometheu* Unbound and the tragedy of The Cenci. While at Venice with Lord Byron in 1820 he wrote Julian and Maddalo, a record in verse of conversations between the poet and himself. His other works of chief uniwrtance are Rosalind and Helen, The Witch of Atlas, written in 1819; Epipsychidion, Adonait. on the death of Keats, and HeUas — all producea in 1821. He perished in 1822 by the capsizing of his boat, while sailing in the gulf of Leghorn. Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft Uodwin, wife of the poet, was born in London in 1798, and married Shelley in 1816. In 1818 she produced a re- markable novel entitled Frankenstein. Other novels of hers are Valperga, The Last Man, Lodore, and The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck. She likewise wrote Rambles in Germany and Italy, etc., and carefully edited her husband's poems. Died in London, 1861. Shcpard, Edward Morse, American lawyer and pubUcist, was born in New York, 1850. He was graduated at the college of the city of New York, 1869, studied law and was atlmitted to the bar. He was civil service commissioner of Brooklyn, 1883-85; New York state forestry commis- sioner, 1884-85, and democratic candidate for mayor of Greater New York, 1901. Besides attaining high rank as a lawyer, he was director in numerous railway and other corporations; was chairman of the board of trustees of the college of the city of New York, trustee of Packer collegiate institute, etc., and a member of the Cobden club, England. Author: Martin Van Buren in American Statesmen series; Memoirs of Dugdale; and many review, magazine and other articles and addn>8se8 on political, indus- trial and educational topics. Died, 1911. Shepherd, F. J^ Canadian physician, professor of anatomy and dean of the mer of Mind, resigning in 1900. Died, 1901. Sidney, Sir Ptiiilp, English writer and soldier, waa bom in Kent, 1554. He was educated at Oxford, traveled throughout Europe, and returned to become a favorite at the court of Elizabeth, who called him "the jewel of her dominions." For her entertainment he wrote his celebrated Arcadia and several minor poems. Among hie works are also his Apologie for Poetrie and Defense of Poetrie. He was killed at the battle of Zutphen, 1586, when, dying, ho handed Ida bottle of water to common soldiers wounded nearby, saying "Thy necessity is greater than mine. ' He was a rare and finished type of English character. Siegel, Henry, American merchant, was bora in Eubigheim, Germany, 1862. He was educated in Germany, and in night school, Washington. He came to the United States in 1807; moved to Chicago in 1876, established the cloak manu- facturing firm of Siegel, Hartsfeld and Company, later Siegel Brothers, and finally established Siegel, Cooper and Company, department store, Chicago. In 1896 he established the store of Siegel-Coojjer company. New York; purchased the Simpson-Crawford company store. New York, 1902, and now has six large department stores under his personal management. Siemens, Ernst Werner von, German engineer and electrician, was bom at Lenthe in Hanover, 1816. In 1838 he entered the Prussian artillery, and in 1844 took charge of the artillery workshops at Berlin. He developed the telegraphic system in Prussia, and discovered the insulating property of gutta-percha, and was the first to explode a submarine mine by electricity. Leaving the public service, he devoted himself to making telegraphic and electrical apparatus. In 1847 the firm of Siemens and Halske was established at Berlin, which, after 1867, became Siemens Brothers; and branches were formed in St. Petersburg, London, Vienna, and Tiflis. Besides devising numerous forms of galvanometers and other electrical instruments, Siemens was one of the discoverers of the self-acting dynamo. He determined the electrical resistance of different substances, the Siemens unit being called after him. In 1886 he gave 500,000 marks to found a technical institute, and in 1888 was ennobled. He died at Beriin in 1892. Siemens, Sir William (Karl Wilhelm), German scientist, was bom at Lenthe, Hanover, 1823, brother of the preceding. He studied at Gottin- gen, g;iving special attention to science. After two visits to England in the interests of his brother's inventions, he made England his home in 1844, and became a British subject in 1859. As manager of the house of Siemens Brothers, he was engaged in constructing telegraph lines, the steamship Faraday being designed by him for cable la3dng. He also built electric railroads. The principle of his "regenerative" furnace has been applied in many ways, but especially by himself in the manufacture of steel. He invented a water meter, a bathometer for measuring ocean depths, an electrical thermometer, and a process of hastening the gro\*'th of plants by electnc light. In 1874 the royal Albert medal, and in 1875 the Bessemer medal were given him in recognition of his inventions. He was president of the three principal telegraphic societies of Great Britain, 980 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT and of the British association, and in 1883 was knighted. He died at London, 1883. Slenkiewlcz (sMn-kya'-vich), Henryk, Polish novelist, was born at Wola Okrzejska, in Lithuania, 1846, and was educated at the university of Warsaw. Early in his career he devoted himself to litera- ture, and soon won a high position as a novelist and short story writer. In 1876 he came to the United States, and for a time, in company with Madame Modieska, his countrywoman, he resided in California, where he designed to establish a Polish colony. He returned to Poland and in 1880 wrote a work on Tartar Slavery, following this, a few years later, by his masterly novel. With Fire and Sword. To this succeeded The Deluge, Pan Michael, Without Dogma and Children of the Soil — all of them remarkable for their vigor of characterization historical truth, and power of psychological analysis. In 1896 appeared his masterpiece, Quo Vadist — a tale oi the time of Nero, written with remarkable vigor and powerful effect. His later works include The Knights of the Cross, Monte Carlo, etc. In 1905 he received the Nobel prize for literature. Sigsbee, Charles Dwlght, American naval officer, was born in Albany, N. Y., 1845. He was graduated at the naval academy, 1863; served in West Gulf squadron, 1863-04, and was present at the battle of Mobile bay; in North Atlantic squadron, 1865, and at both attacks on Fort Fisher and final assault on same. After tiie civil war he was attached to the Asiatic squadron, 1865-69, and in 1874-78, sounded and explored the gulf of Mexico. He introduced numerous inventions and new methods in deep sea explora- tion, for which he later received the decoration of the red eagle of Prussia from Emperor William I., and received gold medal from abroad. He took command in 1897 of the battleshi]) Maine, which was blown up and destroyed in Havana harbor, February 15, 1898; com- manded the battleship Texas, 1898-1900; was made rear-admiral, 1903; became a member of the naval construction board and naval general board, and retired in 1907. Author: Deep Sea Sounding and Dredging; Personal Narrative of the Battleship Maine, etc. Died, 1909. Sllliman, Benjamin, Americian physicist, was born at Trumbull, Conn., 1779. He was educated at Yale college, and admitted to the bar in 1802, but soon after received from the college the appointment of professor of chemistrv, and held that chair over half a century. Uniting miner- alogy and geology to chemistry, he made a general survey of Connecticut, and observed the fall of a meteorite; constructed, with the aid of Professor Hare, a compound blowpipe; and repeated the experiments of Sir Humphry Davy. In 1818 he founded the American Journal of Science, better known as Silliman's Journal, of which he was for twentjr years editor. He pub- lished Elements of Chemistry; Travels in England, etc.; Narrative of a Visit to Europe. Died, 1864. Sley*8 {sya'-ySs'), Emmanuel Joseph, better Icnown as the Abb6 Sifiyes, French revolutionist, was born m Frejus, France, 1748. He studied for the church at Paris; during the reign of terror he withdrew into the country; but after Robes- pierre s downfall returned to the convention took Ml active part in afifairs, and became presi- dent of the national assembly in 1790. In 1799 on his return from a mission to BerUn. by which he secured the neutrality of Prussia, he became a' member of the directory. He subsequently suppressed the Jacobin club, and was active in «n-??lf^c*wv* the overthrow of the directory and the substitution of the consular government the new constitution being devised by him He Boon found his speculations completely over- matched by Bonaparte's practical energy, and though a consul provisionally, he saw it desirable to terminate his political career. He retired with the title of count, and obtained grants of land and property to the value of at least $250,- 000. He was exiled at the restoration, but returned to Paris during the revolution of 1830, and died there in 1836. Slfton, Clifford, Canadian statesman, was bom in Middlesex county, Ontario. He was graduated at Victoria uiuversitj', Cobourg, 1880; was admitteeared in his Theory of the Moral Sentiments, wluch was published in 1759. In 1764 he accompanied the duke of Buccleuch to the continent as traveling tutor and governor, and this engagement occupied him for two years- but at the end of that time he returned to Kirkcaldy, where he lived until he was appointed a commissioner of customs in 1778, when ne took up his residence in Edinburgh. In 1776 he produced his great work. An Inquiry into the Nature ami Causes of the Wealth cf Nations, and upon tills work his reputation rests. A later work was his Apology for the Life of David Hume. In 1787 he was elected lord rector of the university of Glasgow, and died, 1790. Smith, Benjamin Eli, American editor, was bom in Beimt, Syria, 1857. He graduated at Amherst college, 1877, A. M., L. H. D. Editor and translator: Schwegler's History of Philosophy; Century Cydopcedia of Names; Century Atlas; Cicero's De Amicitia; FrankUn's Poor Richard's Almanac; Selections from Marcus Aurdius; Epictetus; Pascal, etc. Died, 1913. Smith, Charles Emory, American journalist, was bom at Mansfield, Conn., 1842. lie removed to Albany, N. Y., with parents, in 1849; graduated at Union college, 1861; LL. D., Union, 1889, Lafayette, 1900, Knox, 1900, Wesleyan, 1901. He was actively engaged during the civil war in raising and organizing Union volunteer regiment ; was ^itor of Albany Express, 1865-70; Albany Journal, 1870-80; and Philaddphia Press, 1880-1908. He was United States minister to Russia, 1890-92; postmaster-general of United States, 1898-1902. He was well known through- out the United States as a forceful writer, orator, and publicist. Died, 1908. Smitli, Ellison DuBant, United States senator, was born, 1866, at Lynchburg, S. C. He graduated at Wofford college, Spartanburg, S. C, in 1889; was a member of the South CaroUna legislature, 1896-1900. He became a national figure on account of addresses at New Orleans, Birming- ham, Dallas, and Shreveport, on the cotton in- dustry, and was elected to the United States senate, 1909, for the term 1909-15. He is a successful merchant and planter. Smith, Francis Hopklnson, American artist, author, and engineer, was bom at Baltimore, 1838. When quite young he was clerk in iron works, and was later educated as a mechanical engineer; L. H. D., Yale, 1907. He built the government THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 083 sea-wall around Governor's island; another at Tompkinsville, S. I.; the Race Rock liehthouse off New London; foundation for Bartholdi statue of Liberty, etc. He has also done much landscape work in water colors, charcoal work and illustrations, and is represented in Walter's gallery, Baltimore, Marquand collectionj, etc. Author: Old Lines in New Black and White; Well-Worn Roads; A White Umbrella in Mexico; A Gentleman Vagabond and Same Others; Tom Grogan; Gondola Days; Venice of To-day; Caleb West; The Other Fellow; The Fortunes of Oliver Horn; The Under Dog; Col. Carter's Christmas; At Close Range; The Wood Fire in No. 3 ; The Tides of Barnegat; The Veiled Lady; The Romance of an Old-Fashioned Gentleman; Peter, etc. Smith, Goldwln, English author and educator, was bom in Reading, England, 1823; graduated from Magdalen college, Oxford, 1845; D. C. L., Oxford, 1882; LL. D., Princeton, 1896; and was called to the English bar, 1847. He was regius professor of modem histoiy, Oxford, 1858-66 ; was an active champion of the North during the American civil war; visited United States, 1864; was lecturer, 1868-71, and- later honorary professor of English and constitutional history, Cornell. He lived in Toronto after 1871. Author: Irish History and Irish Char- acter; Lectures on Modern History; Rational Religion and the Rationalistic Objections of the Bampton Lectures for 1858 ; Does the Bible Sanc- tion American Slaver yf The Empire; On the Morality of the Epiancipation Proclamation; Eng- land and America; The Civil War in America; Three English Statesmen; The Irish Question; William Cowper; Jane Austen; The Conduct of England to Ireland; False Hopes; Loyalty, Aris- tocracy, and Jingoism; The Political Destiny of Canada; Canada and the Canadian Question; Wil- liam Lloyd Garrison: a Biographical Essay; A Trip to England; History of the United States; Oxford and Her Colleges; Bay Leaves: Translations from the Latin Poets; Specimens of Greek Tragedy; Essays on Questions of the Day; Guesses at the Riddle of Existence; The United Kingdom; Shakes- peare: The Man; Commonwealth or Em.pire; In the Court of History; The Founder of Christendom; Lines of Religious Inquiry; My Memory of Glad- stone; Labor and Capital, etc. He died in 1910 leaving the bulk of his fortune to Cornell. Smith, Hoke, United States senator; bom at New- ton, North Carolina, 1855; educated in prepara- tory school conducted by his father; moved to Georgia, 1872; admitted to bar, 1873; practiced at Atlanta, Georgia, 1873-1909; delegate to dem- ocratic national convention, 1892; secretary of the interior, 1893-96; governor of Georgia, 1907-09; reelected governor for term, 1911-13; resigned as governor, 1911, to become United States senator. Smith, Captain Jolin, English adventurer and colonist, founder of Virginia, was bom in Lincoln- shire, England, in 1580. He traveled in France and Holland, and, when on his way to join the Christian army fighting against the Turks in Hungary, was robbed by four adventurers. He joined a ship, half merchant and half pirate, and helped to capture a Venetian argosy. He dis- tinguished himself in the service of Ferdinand, duke of Austria; was next sold as a slave, but escaped and traveled through Germany, France, Spain, and Morocco. In 1606 he sailed with an expedition of three vessels and one hundred five men to found a colony in Virginia. On the way out he was accused, by the leaders, of a con- spiracy to make himself king of Virginia, and was kept a prisoner on the voyage. Jamestown was founded on the James river in May, 1607. Smith, after being tried and acquitted, was made a member of the council, and was the real head of the colony, saving it from destruction. On one of his journeys into the oountry for com he was captured by the Indians, under the chief Powhatan, and his life saved by the chief's daughter Pocahontas. On his return to James- town he found the colony rtxiuced to about fortv men, who were anxious to return to Ens- land, but were induced by Smith to remain unul others arrived. He then explored the coasts of the Chesapeake bay in two voyages, and made % map of the country. He was superseded in 1609 as governor of the colony by Lord Delaware, and returned to England. In 1614 he explon-d the coasts of New England, and undertook the founding of a colony in New England in 1616, but his vessel was captured by a French war ship, and he was carried to La Rochelle. After his escape, he wrote an account of his voyages to New England. He wrote al.so General Htdoris of Virginia, New England and the Summer Idet, and the True Travels, Adventures, and Observa- tions of Captain John Smith. Died, 1631. Smith, John Walter, United States senator, was bom at Snow Hill, Maryland, 1845. He was educated by private tutors and at Washington academy, and began a business career at the age of eighteen. He has at present large lumber interests, and is a director in many business and financial institutions. He was a member of the state senate, Maryland, 1889-99; president of state senate, 1894; member of the fifty-sixth congress; governor of Maryland, 1900-04; United States senator for the term 1909-15. Smith, Lyman Cornelius, manufacturer, was bom in Connecticut, 1850, and educated in the public and state normal schools. Removed to New York, 1872, and engaged in commission and then in lumber business. From 1877 to 1890 he was engaged in the manufacture of breech-loading firearms. Began the manufacture of typewriters in 1886; organized the Smith Premier type- writer company, of which he was president, 1890; sold out to Union typewriter company, becoming its vice-president. He resigned in 1903, and with his brothers organized L. C. Smith and Brothers typewriter company, He was president of Hudson Portland cement company. National bank of Syracuse, Rochester, Syracuse and Eastern railway. In 1900 he gave to Syracuse university the L3rman Cornelius Smith college of applied science. Died, 1910. Smith, Munroe, American educator, was bom in Brooklyn, N. Y., 1854. He graduated at Am- herst college, 1874; Columbia law school, 1877; J. U. D., Gottingen, 1880; LL. D., Columbia, 1904. He was instmctor, 1880-83, adjunct pro- fessor of history, 1883-91, and professor of Roman law and comparative jurisprudence, since 1891, at Columbia; lecturer on Roman law, at Georgetown law school, Washington, since 1901. Author: Bismarck and German Unity; Selections from Cicero; and many legal articles in Harper s Classical Dictionary, Lalor's Cydopadia of Political Science, the Universal Cydopadia, the International Cydopaedia, etc. Smith, Sydney, English clergvman and essayist, was bom at Woodford, England, 1771. He graduated from Oxford, and entered the church: in 1802 resided in Edinburgh, and joined Brougham, Jeffrey, and others, in establishing the Edinburgh Review, of which he was the first editor. In 1803 he removed to London, where, between 1804 and 1806, he delivered a course of Lectures on Moral Philosophy at the royal insti- tution. In 1807-08 he published Letters on the Subject of the Catholics to my Brother Abraham who Lives in the Country, by Peter Plymley, which had an immense success; and, in the following years, a number of political speeches 984 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT and pamphlets, all inspired by the same humor, force of argument, and expression. From 1831 until his death in 1845 he was a canon of St. Paul's, London. He was a universal favorite in society and was distinguished for brilliant wit and his graceful and forcible English. Smith, William Alden, lawyer. United States senator, was bom at Dowagiac, Mich., 1859. He received a common school education; re- moved with parents to Grand Rapids, 1872; was a newsboy and messenger boy in Western Union telegraph office; appointed page in the Michigan house of representatives, 1879 ; studied law, and was admitted to the bar, 1883; A. M., Dartmouth, 1901. He is president of the Grand Rapids Herald; was a member of congress, 1895- 1907, fifth Michigan district; and was elected United States senator for terms, 1907-13 and 1913-19. Smith, William Bobertson, British theologian and orientalist, was born at Keig, Scotland, 184G, and graduated at Aberdeen in 18G5. He after- ward studied theology at Edinburgh, Bonn, and Gottingen; and in 1870 became professor of Hebrew and old testament exegesis in the Free Church college, Aberdeen. In consequence of his article on the Hebrew Language and Literature. in the Encyclopadia Britannica, he was removed from his chair in 1881. He delivered in Edin- burgh and Glasgow in 1880-81-82 two series of lectures, substantially republished in The Old Testament in the Jewish Church; and The Prophets of Israel. In 1881 he became associated with Professor Baynes in the editorship of the Encyclo- paedia Britannica, and in 1887 succeeded him as editor-in-chief. At Cambridge he was succes- sively Lord Almoner's professor of Arabic in 1883, university librarian, 1886, and Adams professor of Arabic, 1889. His Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia was published in 1885, Religion of the Semites in 1889. He died at Cambridge, 1894. Smollett, Tobias George, English novelist, was bom, 1721. He was educated at the university of Glasgow, and was afterward apprenticed to a surgeon. About 1740 he went to London and accepted the post of surgeon's-mate in the navy, and, in 1741, was present at the siege of Carta- gena. In 1744 he retumed to England, and in 1748 produced his Roderick Random, which was read with the utmost avidity. In 1751 appeared Peregrine Pickle, a more ambitious and not less successful work; and in 1753 Ferdinand Count Fatham, an inferior production, though contain- ing scenes of striking adventure and eloquent description. He next translated Don Quixote, then undertook the editorship of The Critical Review, which was the most unfortunate of all his engagements, and involved him in endless quarrels and personalities. In 1758 he pubUshed his History of England, four volumes quarto, which was begun and completed in fourteen months. Though superficial and inaccurate, this history has passages of fine animated writing and masterly delineation of character. Another novel appeared in 1760-61, The Adven- tures of Sir Launcelot Greaves; in 1766 two volumes of Travels in France and Italy; in 1769 I he Adventures of an Atom, a poUtical satire unworthy of its author; and in 1771 The Expe- dition of Humphrey Clinker, the best of all his novels, and in the opinion of Thackeray one of the very best in the whole range of imaginative literature. Died at Leghom 1771 Smoot, Eeed, United States senator, banker.' Mormon apostle, was bom at Salt Lake city 1862 Pro^f^K^t^^^icf^o Brigham Young academy, Provo, Utah, 1879; is president of the Provo commercial and savings bank, Smoot invest- ment company, Smoot drug company The Elec- tric company, Provo, Utah; director of the following Salt Lake corporations: Zion's coopera- tive mercantile company, Deseret national bank, and the Deseret savings bank. He was appointed one of the presidency of the Utah stake of the church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, 1895, and apostle, 1900. He was elected by Utah legislature, 1903, United States senator for term 1903-O9, and reelected for the term 1909-15. Smyth (amilh), Newman, American clergyman and author, pastor of First Congregational church. New Haven, 1882-1907, pastor emeritus, 1908; was bom in Brunswick, Maine, 1843. He grad- uated at Bowdoin college, 1863; D. D., New York university, 1881; Yale, 1895. He waa assistant teacher at the naval academy, New- port, 1863; served as lieutenant in the 16th Maine regiment, 1864-65; graduated at Andover theological seminary, 1867 ; was pastor of Mission chapel, Providence, R. I., 1867-70, First Congre- gational church, Bangor, Maine, 1870-75, and of the First Presbyterian church, Quincy, 111., 1876-82. He is a member of the Yale corpora- tion. Author: The ReligiouM Feeling, a Study for Faith; Old Faiths in New Light; The Ortho- dox Theoloay of To-day; The Reality of Faith; The Morality of the Old Testament; Christian Facts and Forces; Personal Creeds; Christian Ethics; The Place of Death in Evolution; Through Science to Faith; Passing Protestantism and Coming Catholicism; Modem Belief in Immortality, etc. Snorri Sturluson {snUr'-ri atdbr' -Idb-sUn) , Icelandic poet and historian, bom in 1179. Tracing his descent from the kings of Norway, he early turned his attention to uie history of their doings, and made a collection of saxas entitled the Ileimskringla, or the "Ring olthe World," in which are mterspersed songs of hia own compos- ing. It contains a record of the Norwegian kings from the earliest time to the death of Magnus Erlingsson, in 1177, and was first printed in 1697. It has been translated into several languages. Snorri became chief judge of Iceland, but his ambitious and intriguing character led to his assassination in 1241. His name is also con- nected with the prose Edda. Snow, Francis Hunttn^on, American educator, waa born at Fitchburg, Mass., 1840. He graduated at Williams college, 1862, Ph. D., 1881; gradu- ated at Andover theological seminary, 1866- LL. D., Princeton, 1890. He was professor of mathematics and natural science, 18t)6-70, pro- fessor of natural history, 1870-89, president of the faculties, 1889-90, chancellor, 1890-1901, and professor of organic evolution, systematic ento- mology and meteorology, 1901-08, university of Kansas. He conducted twenty-six expeditions to Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona, making the Kansas university collection of 22,000 species of insects one of the largest in the United States. Died, 1908. Snyders, or Sneyders, Francis, Belgian artist, celebrated as an animal painter, was born at Antwerp, 1579. Originally he confined himself exclusively to painting fruits, and worked with Rubens. For Philip III. of Spain he executed several hunting and battle pieces. The best specimens of his work are contained in the gal- leries of Vienna, Munich, and Dresden. Died at Antwerp, 1657. Sobiesld (so-byi^-ke). See John III.* king of Poland. Socinus («o-si'-nils), Faustus, Italian theologian, was bom at Siena, Italy, 1539. After spending twelve years as an attendant upon the luxurious court of Florence, he resolved to be a religious reformer, and in 1574 took up his residence at Basel, where he busied himself in elaborating into a system the scattered hints and views in the writings of his uncle. In 1577 he appeared in open debate, maintaining that the Trinity THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 9M was a pai^an doctrine, and that Chriat was a created and inferior being. Uis efforts being unsuccessful, he passed into Poland, where tlie anti-Trinitarian party had gained a strong foothold. His works, contained in tJie first two volumes of the Bibliotheca Fratrum Folonorum, consist of theological tracts, expositions of scripture, and polemical troatiscs, with a great number of letters. The Socinians were long a powerful religious body in Poland, Hungary, and Transylvania; their peculiar catechism is tnown aa Racovian from its place of publication, Rak6w in Poland. He died near Cracow, 1G04. Socrates (s<3A;'-rd-^z). See page 254. Solomon, king of Israel, about 993-953 B. C, was the son of David and Bathsheba, and was appointed by David to be his successor in prefer- ence to his elder brothers. By his remarkable judicial decisions and his completion of the political institutions of David, Solomon gained the respect and admiration of his people; while by the Duilding of the temple, which gave to the Hebrew worship a magnificence it had not hitherto possessed, he bound the nation more strongly to his throne. The wealth of Solomon, accumulated by a prudent use of the treasures inherited from his father, by successful com- merce, by a careful administration of the roval revenues, and by an increase of taxes enabled him to meet the expenses of erecting the temple, building palaces, cities, and fortifications, and of supporting the extravagances of a luxurious court. Fortune long seemed to favor this great king, Israel scarcely perceiving that he was con- tinually becoming more despotic. Contrary to the laws of Moses, he admitted foreign women to his harem; and from love of them he was weak enough in his old age to permit the free practice of their idolatrous worship and even to take part in it himself. Toward the close of his reign troubles arose in consequence of these delin- quencies, and the growing discontent, coming to a head after his death, resulted in the division of the kingdom, which his feeble son Rehoboam could not prevent. The forty years' reign of Solomon is still celebrated among the Jews for its splendor and its happy tranquility, as one of the brightest periods of their history. The writings attributed to Solomon are The Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon, with the apocryphal book the Wisdom of Solomon. Solon (so'-lun), famous legislator of Athens, and one of the seven sages of Greece, was born about 638 B. C, at Salamis, of an ancient family. He acquired fortune by commerce, and knowledge by his visits to foreign parts. He then directed his attention to state affairs. After having enhanced the glory of his country by recovering Salamis, he refused the sovereignty of Athens, but accepted the archonship. As archon, he framed a new code of laws, and, having obtained from the citizens an oath that they would observe them for ten years, he departed from Greece, and visited Egypt and Cyprus, and, per- haps, Lydia. On his return he found the tyranny of Pisistratus estabUshed, and he withdrew to Cyprus, where he is said to have died at the age of eighty, about 559 B. C. Solyman, or Soliman II., surnamed The Magnificent, greatest of the Turkish sultans, was born about 1496, and succeeded in 1520 his father Selim I., who had carefully initiated him into the Ottoman policy. At the commencement of his reign he removed from office all who were unfit for the proper discharge of their duties. After having suppressed the revolt of the governor of Syria, iae exterminated the Egyptian Mamelukes, and concluded a treaty with Persia. He drove the knights of St. John from Rhodes, 1522; and for three years following devoted himself to improve- ments in the administration. In 1536 be con- cluded with Francis I. the famous treaty which opened the commerce of the Levant to the French flag alone. By 1541 the lous and desultory contest between the Turks and the Imperialists for Hungary was ended in favor of the former, who tooK complete pceseseioB of the country. After this the alliance between the Freoob and Turks began to bear fruit; the combined fleets ravaged the Italian coasts, and pillaged Nice, 1542, but peace was a^n restored with Germany in 1547. A brilliant naval victory, 1561, over the knights of Malta and their allies, the 8p«n- iards, and an expedition to Hungary, 1566, were the chief events of the remainder of his rehrn. Died, 1566. SomerTlile, Mary Fairfax, Scotch scientist, WM born at Jedburgh, Scotland, 1780. She WM A daughter of Admiral Sir William Fairfax, and was married first to Mr. Greig, a commissioner in the Russian navy, and afterward to Dr. William Somerville. In 1812 she attracted attention by some experiments on tiie violet rays of the solar spectrum, the results being published in the PnUoaophical Transactions of 1826. Subsequently she adapted Laplace's worlc on Celestial Mechanics, under the title. Celestial Mechanism of the Heavens, in 1830. She was granted a pension in 1835 and made a member of the royal astronomical society of England and of many foreign societies. When nmety-one years old she still spent five hours a day in mathematical studies. Other works published by her are Connection of the Physical Sciences; Physical Geography; and Molecular and Micro- scopic Science. She died at Naples, 1872. Sonnino {son-ne'-no). Baron Sidney, Italian states- man, was born at Florence, 1847, and educated at the university of Pisa, where he took his law degree in 1865. He afterward entered the diplo- matic service, and was attached to the legations at Madrid, Vienna, Berlin, and Paris. He then turned to a study of the agrarian and social problems of southern Italy, published / Conta- dini in Sidlia and La Mezzadria in Toscana, and established the paper Rassegna. He was elected deputy for San Casciano, 1880, and has sat for it ever since. In 1887 he joined the Crispi admin- istration as under secretary for the treasury, and first as finance minister, 1893, and then as min- ister of the treasury, he worked a great reform in the country's finances. After Cnspi's fall in 1896, he became one of the opposition leaders, and was prime minister of Italy, 1906, and again. 1909-10. Sontag {.zon'-tavi), Henrietta, German soprano singer, was born in Coblentz, Prussia, 1806. She was the favorite of the Berlin stage before she was eighteen; soon rose to a foremost place among European vocalists; and in 1828 married Count Rossi, a Piedmontcsse nobleman, and left the theater. But she never lost her love for her art, and continued to make progress as an artist in the midst of all the enioyments of high life. After a happy union of nearly twenty years her husband lost his fortune. Without hesitation she resolved to have recourse to her art. She sang for several' seasons in Europe, and came to the United States in 1852. After a brilliant and successful tour through the Union, she accept«i a tempting offer from Mexico, where she died of cholera, 1854. Sophocles (sdf-d-kUz). See page 14. Sorley, William BItchie, British educator and philosophical writer, Knightbridge professor of moral philo.sophy, university of Cambridge, since 1900, was born at Selkirk,' 1855. He was edu- cated at Edinburgh, and Trinity college, Cam- bridge. He was deputy for the professor of philosophy of mind and logic. University college, MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT London, 1886-87; professor of logic and philos- ophy at University college, Cardiff, 1888-94; and professor of moral philosophy, Aberdeen, 1894-1900. Author: On the Ethics of Natural- ism. Edited: Development of Modern Philosophy, with other lectures by the late Professor Adam- son; Recent Tendencies in Ethics, etc. Sothem (sMTH'-ern), Edward Hugh, actor, was born in New Orleans, La., 1859. He received an aca- demic education in England; studied painting in Spain; first appeared, 1879, in small part at Abbey's Park theater. New York. He later toured the United States with John McCullough ; toured England, 1882-83 ; wrote the farce. Whose Are They? 1884; and played leading parts in One of Our Girls; A Scrap of Paper; Met by Chance; Peg Woffington; The Love Chase. He first took leading role, Lyceum theater. New York, 1887, as Jack Hammerton in Th« Highest Bidder, and subsequently starred with his own company in Lord Chumley; The Maister of Woodbarrow; The Prisoner of Zenda; Under the Red Robe; An Enemy to the King; The Adven- tures of Lady Ursula; The Song of the Sword; A Shilling's Worth; The Sunken Bell; Hamlet; Richard Lovelace; If I Were King, etc. He is now co-star with Julia Marlowe. Soiilt (soolt), Nicholas Jean de Dleu, duke of Dal- matia and marshal of France, was born at Saint-Amans-la-Bastide in 1769. In 1785 he entered the army; was appointed general of division, 1799, and put under Mass^na, in Switzerland and Italy; became an ardent Napoleonist, and received the baton of marshal of France in 1804. He achieved brilliant suc- cess in the campaign against the Austrians, closed by the battle of Austerlitz, wlJch he decided by piercing the Russian center. He took part in the Russian campaign of 1806-07, after which he was appointed governor of Berlin, and created duke of Dalmatia. In 1809 he became commander-in-chief in Spain, gained a brilUant victory at Ocana, and overran and subdued Andalusia. With his usual suppleness of character he became an ardent royalist after the abdication of Napoleon; but on the return of the latter from Elba he abandoned Louis XVIII., and became major-general of the im- perial army. After Waterloo he rallied the army at Laon, and on July 3d, at the council of war, coincided with Camot as to the uselessness of further resistance. In 1838 he was embassa- dor to England, in 1845 retired from active duty, and was made marshal-general of France in 1847. He died, 1851. Soasa (soo'-zd), John Philip, Anaerican musician, was born at Washington, D. C, 1854. He studied music, was a conductor at seventeen, and one of the first violins of Jacques Offenbach's orchestra when the latter was in the United States. He was then music director of the United States marine corps, 1880-92, and since 1892 director of Sousa's band. He toured in Europe, 1900, 1901, 1903, 1905, and received many decorations. Composer: "Washington Post'''; "Liberty Bell"; "Manhattan Beach"; "High School C^ets"; "Semper Fidelis"; " The Gladiator " ; Stars and Stripes Forever"; "Invincible Eagle'; "Hail to the Spirit of Liberty"; .Hands Across the Sea"; "The Charlatan"- The Bride-Elect"; "El Capitan"; "King Cotton ; "The Diplomat"; "The Free Lance"; Last Days of Pompeii"; "Sheridan's Ride"; Three Quotations"; "At the King's Court'.' Looking Upward"; "The Chariot Race" and the operas: The Smugglers; Desire; The Queen of Hearts; El Capitan; The Bride-Elect; J he Charlatan; Chris and the Wonderful Lamp; J he Free Lance, etc. Author: The Fifth String; Ptpetown Sandy, etc. Southey, Kobert, English poet and writer, was bom, 1774, at Bristol, England. He was educated at Oxford, but left without a degree in 1794, and during the next two years traveled in Spain and Portugal. In 1801 he accepted a position as sec- retary to Corry, chancellor of the exchequer for Ireland, but soon resigned it, and finally betook himself to literature as his sole source of livelihood. In 1804 he settled at Greta Hall, in Cumberland, where he spent the remainder of his life, happy in his family relations and his unremitting daily round of congenial, though continuous, toil. In addition to his formal pub- lications he wrote largely for various periodicals, notably for the Quarterly Review, to wliich, from its establishment in 1809, he was a most constant and valuable contributor. In 1813, on the death of Pye, he succeeded him as poet-laureate. His chief poetical works are Modoc; Thalaba; The Curse of Kehama; and Roderick. As a prose writer he ranks high; his style is easy, lucid, agreeable, best represented by his Lettera from England by Don Manuel Alvarez and The Doctor. Of all his writings his Life of Nelson seems most likely to survive as a classic. Other excellent biographies are those of the poet Cowper, of Bimyan, and of Wesley. He died, 1843. Spargo, John, socialist, author, was born at Stith- ians, Cornwall, England, 1876. He was educated in the public schools and through the Oxford and Cambridge university extension courses, and became identified with socialist cause in England at eighteen. He publicly opposed the Boer war; came to the United States, 1901, and has been active as socialistic lecturer, writer, and worker. He was one of the founders of the Prospect House social settlement, Yonkers, N. Y. Author: The Bitter Cry of the Children; Socialism, a Study and Interpretation of Socialist Principles; The Socialists, Who They Are and What They Stand For; Underfed School Children; Forces That Make for Socialism in America; Capitalist and Laborer; Not Guilty, a drama; and many pam- phlets, brochures, and magazine articles on social and economic questions. Sparks, Edwin Erie, American educator, historian, president of Pennsylvania state college since 1908, was bom in Licking county, Ohio, 1860. He fraduated from the Ohio state university, 1884; h. D., university of Chicago; LL. D., Lehigh university. He was instructor in the Ohio state university, 1884-85; professor in Pennsylvania state college, 1890-95; lecturer for the American society for university extension, 1892-95; lec- turer, instructor, and later professor of American history, university of Chicago, 1895-1908; dean of University college, 1905-06. He is a member of the American historical association; IlUnois historical society ; and councilor of the American institute of civics. Author: Expansion of the American People; The Men Who Made the Nation; Formative Incidents in American Diplo- macy; The United States of America; Founda- tions of National Development, etc. Sparks, Jared, American historian, was bom at Willington, Conn., 1789. He graduated at Harvard, in 1815; settled as a Unitarian minister at Baltimore, and finally became editor of the North American Review. He was ten years a professor of history at Harvard, and for four years its president. His writings include Life of John Ledyard; Life of Gouverneur Morris; and Library of American Biography, in 10 vols. He edited the Works of Benjamin Franklin; Writings of George Washington; Correspondence of tJie American Revolution, etc. He died at Cam- bridge, Mass., 1866. Speer, Robert Elliott, secretary of Presbyterian board of foreign missions since 1891, was bom at Himtingdon, Pa., 1867. He graduated at THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 987 Princeton, 1889, and studied one year at Prince- ton theological seminary. He made a tour of visitation of Christian missions in Persia, India, China, Korea, Japan, in 1896-97, and was traveling secretary of the volunteer movement for foreign missions, 1889-90. Author: The Man Chnst Jesus; The Alan Paul; Missions and Politics in Asia; A Memorial of a True Life; Remember Jesus Christ; Studies in the Book of Acts; Studies in the Gospel of Luke; Christ and Life; The Principles of Jesus; Missionary Principles and Practice; Presbyterian Foreign Missions; Missions and Modem History; The Marks of a Man, etc. Spencer, Herbert. See page 318. Spenser, Edmund, noted English poet, was bom in London, about 1552. He was of humble origin, studied at Pembroke college, Cambridge, and was brought under the notice of Queen Elizabeth by the earl of Leicester. In 1579 he published The Shepheard's Calender, sounding the note of the Elizabethan outburst. Through the influence of Leicester he was then appointed chief secretary to Lord Grey de Wilton, the lord-lieutenant of Ireland; and Queen Elizabeth conferred on him an estate at Kilcolman, near Cork. It was while he was at Kilcolman that he wrote The Faery Queene, his greatest work. The first part was published in 1589-90, the second part about six years later; and on the publication of the first part the queen conferred on the poet a pension of fifty pounds a year. In 1598 a rebel- lion broke out; the castle of Kilcolman was burned, an infant child of the poet perished in the flames; and Spenser returned to London, impoverished and broken-hearted, to die within three months after his arrival. He was buried near Chaucer in Westminster abbey. Spenser was also the author of Tears of the Muses; Amoretti; Epithalamion; Astrophel; Hymns and Visions; and some other pieces. Speyer (spir), James, American banker, was born in New York, 1861 ; educated at Frankfort-on- the-Main, Germany ; entered his family's bank- ing house in Frankfort-on-the-Main at age of twenty-two. He was later transferred to tlie Paris and London branches to receive thorough business education before returning to take charge of New York house, and is now senior member of the Speyer banking houses. He was one of the founders and is treasurer of the Provi- dent loan society, which lends money to needy people on personal property at legal rates of interest; is trustee of the Union trust company, Central trust company, Girard trust company of Philadelphia, German savings bank,^etc. ; director of many railway and other corporations; member of the New York chamber of commerce. Splnola {spe-no'-la), Ambrosio, Marquis of, Spanish general under Philip II. of Spain, was bom at Genoa, Italy, 1569. With a following of 9,000, maintained at his own expense, he took Ostend after a resistance of three years. He was then appointed commander-in-chief, in which capacity he maintained a long struggle with Prince Maurice of Nassau, which terminated only with the death of the latter. His services on behalf of Spain, in the interest of which he spent his fortune, were never acknowledged. Died, 1630. Splnosa (spi-no'-zd), Baruch, or Benedict. See page 289. Spohr {shpor), L,udwlg, German composer and violinist, was bom at Brunswick, 1784. At the age of twelve he played a violin concerto of his own at the court of Bninswick; and at thirteen he obtained an appointment as chamber-musician to the duke of Hesse-Cassel. In 1804 he became music director at the court of Saxe-Gotha, and held afterward for several years the office of music director of a theater in Vienna. In 1823 he became chapclmanter at the court of Hene- Cassel. His mumcal works include the opens, Fatiat; Jeaaonda; Zcmira und Ator; Der Zvoei- kampf der OdidiUn, etc.; the oratorioe, DU Letzten Dinge; Dea Heilanda letxts Stunden; Der Fall Babylons; and many instrumental and other Cieces. lie wrote The Violin iSc/utol, a standard ook of instruction. As a violinist he has seldom been suqiassed. He died, 1859. Spooncr, John Coit, American lawyer, ex-United States senator, was born at Lawrenceburg, Ind., 1843, and removed to Madison, Wis., 1859. He graduated at the university of Wisconsin, 1864; LL. D., Wisconsin, etc. He served as private in company A, 40th Wisconsin infantry; captain and brevet major 50th Wisconsin infantry; and later as private and military secretary to Gov- ernor Lucius Fairchild, of Wisconsin. He was admitted to the bar, 1867; was assistant attor- ney-general of Wisconsin, and in general practice at Madison, 1867-70; practiced at liudson, Wisconsin, 1870-84; was regent of the univer- sity of Wisconsin, 1882-85- member of the Wis- consin assemblv, 1872; United States senator, 1885-91, and 1897-1907; resigned in 1907 to resume the practice of law at Madison, Wis- consin, and New York city. He was regarded as one of the ablest men in public life, and is one of the leaders of the American bar. Spreckels, Claus, sugar refiner, was bom in Lam- stedt, Hanover, 1828. He came to the United States in 1846, was employed in Ciiarleston, S. C, and New York city. He went to San Francisco in 1856, conducted a store and later a brewery. In 1863 he established the Bay sugar refinery, procuring his raw material from Hawaii, where he acquired vast property. He inventea improved processes for refining, and owned some 1,500 acres devoted to beet-sugar, a large factory at Watsonville, Cal., and was principal owner of the Oceanic steamship company, plving between San Francisco and Honolulu. Died, 1908. Spring-Bice, Sir Cecil Arthur, British diplomat; born, 1859; educated at Eton and at Balliol col- lege, Oxford. Secretary at Brussels, Washington, Tokio, Berlin, and Constantinople; charge d'affaires, Teheran, 1900; British commissioner of public debt, Cairo, 1901; first secretary of embassy at St. Petersburg, 1903-06; minister and consul-general, Persia, 1906-08; envoy extraor- dinary and minister plenipotentiary to Sweden, 1908-12; British ambassador at Washington since 1913, succeeding the Rt. Hon. James Bryce. Spurgeon, Charles Haddon, English preacher, was bom at Kelvedon, 1834. In 1850 his sympathies drew him toward the Baptists, and, removing to Cambridge in 1861, he began to deliver cottage sermons in the neighborhood. At the age of eighteen he had charge of a small Baptist con- gregation in the village of Waterbeach. In 1854 he entered upon the pastorate of the New Park Street chapel, London, where his preaching proved so attractive that in two years' time the building had to be greatly enlarged. His hearers continuing to increase, the Surrey music hall was for some time engaged for his use; and finally his followers bmlt for him the well-known London tabernacle, opened in 1861. Spurgeon continued to preach in the tabernacle every Sunday to thousands of hearers until the summer of 1891. His sermons were published weekly, and yearly volumes were issued. He also wrote John Plow- man's Talk; Morning by Morning; Evening by Evening; The Treasury of David; Lectures to My Students; The Saint and His Saviour, etc. ; and from 1865 edited a monthly magazine, Sword and Trowel. He died in 1892. Squair, John, Canadian educator, professor of French, university of Toronto, was bom at Bowmanville, Ontario, 1850, of Scotch parents. 988 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT He graduated from the university of Toronto, 1883, with gold medal in modern languages, and has been fellow, lecturer, associate professor and professor of French in University college, To- ronto, since that time. He was lecturer in the school of pedagogy, Toronto, and examiner in French and German for the education depart- ment ; has been secretary of the modern language association of Ontario; has been chairman of college and high school department of the Ontario educational association; is president of the higher education section of the Dominion educational association. He is joint author with W. H. Fraser of French Grammar; joint author with J. H. Cameron of Exercises in French Prose; and editor of several French texts for high schools and colleges. Stael (stal), Madame de, or Anne Louise Gennalne de StaSl-Holstein, celebrated French writer, was born in Paris, 1766, daughter of M. Necker, minister of finance under Louis XV'I., and from 1786 the wife of the Baron de Stael-IIolstein, who at the time of the marriage was Swedish minister in Paris. In 1788, when she was only twenty-two years of age, she published Letters on the Works and Character of Rousseau, wliich attracted con- siderable attention; and in 1793, having been compelled by the revolution to leave Prance, she published a defense of Marie Antoinette, then upon trial. In 1797 she returned to Paris, but only to find herself in conflict with Bona- parte, whom from the first she had suspected and disHked. By him she was at last once more exiled, and traveled through Italy and Germany, making at Weimar the acquaintance of Goethe, Schiller, and other eminent men. In Italy she gathered the materials for her novel of Corinne; and in Germany she gathered the materials for her celebrated work entitled De d'AUemagne, a description of the habits, literature, and political tendencies of the German people, which was printed in Paris in 1810, but by the order of Bonaparte was inunediately suppressed. Soon afterward she visited England, where she wrote her Ten Years of Exue, an impassioned denunciation of Bonaparte and his arbitrary rule. After the fall of the empire she returned to Paris, but never again interfered in politics. She had now been several years a widow, and about this time married M. de Rocca, a member of an old Genoese family. From her former husband she had been separated for many years before his decease. Her last work was Thoughts on the French Revolution, which was not published until after her death. Be- sides the works above named, she was the author of a novel entitled Delphine; Literature Considered in its Relation to Social Institutions; and of many other pubUcations. She died in 1817. Stafford, Wendell Phillips, American jurist and publicist, was born at Barre, Vt., 1861. He graduated at St. Johnsbury academy, 1880; graduated from the law department of Boston university, 1883; practiced at St. Johnsbury; was president of the Vermont bar association, 1898-99; represented St. Johnsbury in Vermont legislature, 1892; was reporter of the decisions o^the supreme court of Vermont, from 1896 to 1900. He delivered the oration at unveiling of the statue of Robert Bums, at Barre, Vt , 1899 • has lectured frequently in Vermont, and occa- Monally in Boston, New York, and Washington, fr^n^^ judge of the supreme court, Vermont, rlu ^- ^^ociate justice of the supreme court of the Distnct of Columbia since 1904; profes- sor of equity jurisprudence in the George Wash- ington university since 1908. Author: North I< lowers, poems; and a contributor of poems and articles to magazines. Stahl (shtal), Georg Ernst, German physician and chemist, was born at Anspach, 1660. He studied medicine at Jena, and was called, in 1694, to the chair of medicine, anatomy, and chemistry in the newly founded university of Halle, whence he removed to Berlin in 1716, where he was appointed physician to the king of Prussia. He wrote a system of medicine, Tfieoria Medica vera; Zymotechnia Fundamentalis; Fermentationis The- oria Generalis, etc. His system of medicine is founded upon the supposition of the existence of a mysterious force resiiling in, but independent of, and sujjerior to matter. This force, the anima, or soul, not only forms the body, but directs it in the exercise of all its functions, and this, too, sometimes unconsciously; though the way in which this influence is exercised he doea not explain. His system of therapeutics corre- sponded with his pathological principles, and was confined mostly to bleeding and tne use of mild laxatives. Died in Berlin, 1734. Standish, .>llles, early New England colonist, waa born in Lancashirej England, about 1584. He served in the army in the Netlierlaada and sailed with the pilgrims in the Mavfiower in 1620, though not a member of the Leyden congregation. On reaching Massachusetts he was chosen captain by the pilgrims, and commandi'd in exptniitions against the savages. He settled finally at Dux- bury, Maas., where he died, 1656. A monument, 100 feet high, crowned by a statue, has been built to his memory at Duxbury. The story of bis unsuccessful effort to secure a wife is told by Longfellow in his Courtship of Miles Standish. Stanford, Leland, American capitalist and philan- thropist, was bom at WatervUet, N. Y., 1824. Early in life he studied law and was adnutted to the New York bar; but in 1849, attracted by the gold discoveries in California, .he proceeded there and engaged in gold mining and in business in San Franci.sco. He was one of the organizt-rs of the Central Pacific railroad company, and entering political life was republican governor of California, 1861-63; and from 1885 to 1893, United States senator from California. Out of his large fortune he gave property to the value of $20,000,000 to found, in memory of a deceased son, a university at Palo Alto, to be known aa the Leland Stanford Junior university. He died at Palo Alto, CaUfornia, 1893 Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn, English scholar and divine, was born at Alderley, England, 1815. He graduated at Oxford, was tutor there, 1841-51, and in the latter year was appointed canon of Canterbury. From 1856 to 1863 he was profes- sor of ecclesiastical history at Oxford, canon of Christ Church, and chaplain to the bishop of London. In 1864 he succeeded Archbishop Trench as dean of Westminster. He was also chaplain to the prince of Wales, and chaplain-in- ordinary to the queen. He was elected lord rector of St. Andrews university in 1874. Stan- ley was one of the most accomplished and liberal theologians of his age, and may be regarded as the leader of the "Ijroad church" party. He traveled widely in Egypt, Palestine, Russia, and America. His principal writings are: Life of Dr. Arnold; Sermons and Essays on the Apostoli- cal Age; Alemoir of Bishop Stanley; The Epistles to the Corinthians; Sinai and Palestine; The Unity of Evangelical and Apostolical Teaching; Lectures on the Eastern Church; Lectures on the Jewish Church; Historical Memorials of West- minster Abbey, etc. Died, 1881. Stanley, Sir Henry Morton, African explorer, waa bom near Denbigh, VVales, in 1840. He was of obscure parentage, the name Stanley being assumed to honor a benefactor, in place of his own name, John Rowlands. Stanley went to California at an early age, served first in the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD confederate army, then In the federal navy during the civil war, and subsequently went to Turkey as a newspaper correspondent. When tlie English expedition was sent against King Theodore of Abyssinia in 18G7, he aocompaniod it as commissioner of the New York Herald, and made his reputation as a correspondent by sending an account of Lord Napier's victory to London before the official dispatches arrived. In 1868 he went to Spain to report the Car list war for the same paper. He was called away from there in 1869, to go in search of Dr. David Liv- ingstone in Africa, from whom no news had been received for more than two years. He reached Zanzibar early in 1871; there organized a large expedition, and found Livingstone, November 10, 1871. After remaining with the veteran Scotch missionary and explorer four months he returned, Livingstone refusing to give up his enterprise until he had completecT his work. Stanley arrived at Zanzibar in 1872. In 1874 he set out on a second African expedition for the Herald and London Daily Telegraph. He reached Victoria Nyanza in February, 1875; was the first to circumnavigate Victoria lake, and discovered the Shimceyu river; and reached England again in February, 1878. Then came the Belgian enterprise, out of which was developed the free state of Congo, with Stanley as its con- ductor, with large means at his disposal. Near the close of 1886 Stanley, under the auspices of the Egyptian government and of English societies and individuals, undertook an expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha, who had of his own will continued to exercise the functions of Egyptian §ovcmor of the equatorial province after the oudan was abandoned. For this purpose he left England in 1887, and returned in 1890, after escorting Emin Bey and a large troop of followers from the interior to the coast. His last journey in Africa lasted 1,012 days, of which hardly twenty were devoid of perils and tragic incident. The cost of the expedition was $150,000. He wrote How I Found Livingstone; Through the Dark Continent; Congo and the Founding of its Free State; and In Darkest Africa. He was made a D. C. L. by Oxford university in 1890, and in 1890-91 made a lecturing tour of the United States. He was a member of parliament, 1895-1900, and was knighted, 1899. He died, 1904. Stanton, Edwin McMasters, American statesman, was born in Steubenville, Ohio, in 1814. He practiced law with success in his native town until 1847, when he settled in Pittsburg, Pa., and there became leader of the bar. In 1857 he took up his abode in Washington, in 1860 was made attorney-general of the United States, and, in 1862, secretary of war. This arduous post he filled throughout the civil war with con- spicuous energy, industry, and ability. He retained office after the death of President Lincoln until 1867, when he was suspended by President Johnson, who appointed General Grant in his place ad interim. The latter, however, held the appointment only a few months when Stanton was reinstated by the senate in January, 1868. In May he definitely retired from the secretaryship. In December, 1869, he was appointed an associate justice of the supreme court of the United States, and died during the same month. Stanton, EliEabeth Cady, reformer and suffragist, was bom at Johnstown, N. Y., 1815. She married Henry B. Stanton, an anti-slavery reformer. She signed the call for the first woman's rights convention, at Seneca Falls, 1848, and became president of the national woman's suffrage association there formed, retaining the office until 1893. She devoted most of her time from 1848 to traveling and lecturing in behalf of woman's rights, and was the author of A Hintory of Woman Suffrage and an autobiocraphy. Died, 1902. "• k / Stark, John, American soldier, was born at London- derry, N. H., 1728. He served In the French and Indian war and at Ticonderoga in 1768. At Bunker Hill he was colonel of a regiment which he had enlisted ; was at the front in the attack on Trenton, and In the battle of Princeton. He raised a new regiment In 1777, and was given command of the New Hami)shirc troops sent against the British troops from Canada. On August 16, 1777, he fought the battle of Ben- nington, which brought him the thanks of con- gress and the rank ofgeneral. With a new force recruited by him in New Hampshire he cut off Bur^oyne's retreat from Saratoga, and, after servmg in Rhode Island and New Jersey, had charge in 1781 of the northern department, with headquarters at Saratoga. He died, 1822, the last but one of generals of revolutionary army. Stead, William Thomas, English journalist and writer, was born at Embleton, England, 1849, and educated at Wakefield. He was editor of the Northern Echo at Darlington, 1871-80: assistant editor of the Pall Mall Gazette until 1883, and editor from 1883 to 1889. In 1890 he founded the English Review of Reviews, and was its editor, 1890-1912. Author: Truth About the Navy; Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon; The Truth about Russia; The Pope and the New Era; The Story that Transformed the World; If Christ came to Chicago; The Labor War in the United States; Her Majesty the Queen; Satan't Invisible World: A Study of Despairing Democ- racy; The United States of Europe; Mr. Carnegie a Conundrum; Mrs. Booth, a Study; The Confer- ence at The Hague; The Americanization of the World, etc. He lost his life on the ill-fated Titanic, 1912. Stedman, Edmund Clarence, American poet and critic, was born in Hartford, Conn., in 1833. He graduated at Yale, 1853; L. H. D., Columbia; LL. D., Yale. He was editor of the Norwich Tribune, 1852-53; Winsted Herald, 1854-55; on staff of New York Tribune, 1859-61 ; war cor- respondent for the New York World, 1861-63; and was a member of the New York stock ex- change, 1869-1900. He deUvered the initiatory course of lectures of the Turnbull chair of poetry, at Johns Hopkins, later repeated at Columbia and university of Pennsylvania. Author: Poem* Lyric and Idyllic; Alice of Monmouth — an Idr^ of the Great War; The Blamdese Prince; Poetical Works; Hawthorne, and Other Poems; Lyric* and Idyls, u-ith Other Poems; Mater Coronala; Victorian Poets; Poets of America; The Nature and Elements of Poetn/, etc. Exlitor: Caviroa from the Poems of Walter Savage Landor, with T. B. Aldrich; Poems of Austin Dobson; A Library of American Literature, with Ellen M. Hutchinson; The Works of Edgar Allan Poe, with Professor G. E. Woodbury; A Victorian Anthology; An American Anthology; co-editor. History of New York Stock Exchange, etc. Died in New York in 1908. Steele, Sir Richard, British man of letters, was bom in Dublin, 1672. He was educated at the Char- terhouse with Addison, and at Oxford. Leaving college without taking a degree, he entered the army and rose to the rank of captain. In 1702 he produced a comedy. The Funeral, or Grief a la Mode; in 1703, The Tender Husband, ancl in 1704, The Ljfirw Lover. In 1709 he founded the Taller, a periodical pubUshed thrice a week, con- taining short essays on life and manners, which was succeedwi by' The Spectator, a daily literary journal of a higher tone and character. He also founded, in 1713, The Guardian. He was then 990 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT elected to parliament, was expelled for libel, but afterward reinstated. In 1722 he produced his successful comedy, The Conscious Lovers. The last three years of his life were spent in retire- ment in Wales. He died, 1729. His essays have eclipsed his dramas. Steen {stan), Jan, celebrated Dutch painter, was bom at Leyden, 1626. He became a pupil of Van Goyen, whose daughter Margaret he married. The paintings "Feast of St. Nicholas," "Humaii Life," "Marriage Feast," etc., established his reputation, and as an artist of the Dutch school he ranks high. His works are now much valued. It was in homely and domestic scenes that his genius truly exhibited itself. He died, 1679. Stein {shiln), Heinrlch Frledrlch Carl, Baron von, Prussian statesman, was bom at Nassau, 1757. He entered the service of Prussia in 1780, and became president of the Westphalian chambers, 1796. In 1804 he was summoned to take charge of the Prussian excise, customs, manufactures, and trade, but was unable then to modify the traditional methods, and resigned in 1807. After the treaty of Tilsit, Frederick William III. had no alternative but to recall Stein, who in barely a year produced such changes as laid the foundations of Prussia's subsequent greatness. He abolished the last relics of serfdom, did away with the privileges of caste, freed land from the shackles of feudalism, created peasant pro- prietors, extirpated monopolies and hindrances to free trade, promoted nnmicipal government, and supported Scharnhorst in his schemes of army reform. Napoleon insisted upon his dis- missal, and Stein withdrew, 1808, to Austria, but not before issuing his Political Testament. In 1812 he went to St. Petersburg and forwarded the coalition against Napoleon. From the battle of Leipzig to the congress of Vienna he was the ruling spirit of the opposition to the emperor. He died in 1831. Stelnmetz {shtln'^mMs\ Charles Proteus, electrician. General electric company, was bom in Breslau, Germany, 1865, and educated at Breslau, Berlin, Zurich, and in Switzerland. He is the consulting engineer for the General electric company, and a leading authority in mathematics and engineer- ing. He is professor of electrical engineering at Union university. Author of Theory and Calcu- lation of Alternating Current Phenomena; Theo- retical Elements of Electrical Engineering. Stelwagon, Henry Weightman, American physician, was born at Philadelphia, 1853. He graduated at Andalusia college, Pennsylvania, 1872; uni- versity of Pennsylvania, M. D., Ph. D., 1875. He was resident physician to Philadelphia hos- pital, 1875-76; student at the hospitals of Vienna and Berlin, 1876-78 ; physician in charge of Philadelphia dispensary for skin diseases, 1880-90; instructor in dermatology, university of Pennsylvania, 1885-90; was associated in professional partnership with Professor Duhring, 1885-90 ; dermatologist to Philadelphia hospital smce 1888, to Northern dispensary, 1882-1900 Howard hospital, 1885-1912. He was clinical professor of dermatology, Woman's medical coUege, Philadelphia, 1888 - 1907, and at Jefferson medical college since 1890. Author- Essentials of Diseases of the Skin; Treatise on Viseases of the Skin. Translator and editor of ^racek s AUas of Skin Diseases; wrote chapter on Skin Diseases for Pepper's System of Medicine; chapter on skin diseases, Wilson's Applied Jherapeutics; and has been a contributor oh dermatological subjects to a number of other medical works. Stephen, Sir James Fltzjames, British jurist, was born at Kensington, England, 1829. He grad- uated at Trinity college, Cambridge, 1852; was admitted to the bar in 1854; was recorder of Newark-on-Trent, 1859-69; legal member of the viceroy of India's council, 1869-72; professor of common law at the Inns of Court, 1875-79 ; and judge of the high court of justice, 1879-91. On his retirement he was created a baronet. Among his works are : General View of the Criminal Law of England; Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity; Digest of the Law of Evidence; Digest of the Criminal Law; History of the Criminal Law of England, etc. He was an unsuccessful candidate for parliament as a moderate liberal. He died near Ipswich, 1894. Stephen, Sir Leslie, English man of letters, was born at Kensington, 1832. He was educated at Eton, King's college, London, and at Trinity hall, Cambridge, where he was fellow and tutor. He was editor of the Comhill Magatine, 1871- 82, and of the first twenty-six volumes of the Dxctionary of National Biography. His worka include : The Playground of Europe; Hours in a Library; History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century; The English Utilitarians; Jcmnaon; Pope; Swift; The Science of Ethics; Life of Henri Fawcett; An Agnostic's Apology; Studies of a Biographer; George Eliot; and some lectures. He died in 1904. Stephens, Alexander Hamilton, American states- man, was born in Georgia in 1812. He graduated at the university of Georgia, 1832; was admitted to the bar; and, in 1843, elected to congress by the whig party. He retained his seat in that body until 1859, during which period he sup- ported the annexation of Texas, promoted the passage of the Kansas and Nebraska act of 1854, and joined the democratic party in upholding the measures of President liuchanan. In 1800 he opposed the seccs-sion of his state, but in the following year gave in his adhesion to sectional views, and was elected vice-president of the Confederate States of America. After the col- lapse of the latter, Stephens suffered a brief imprisonment at Fort Warren, and in 1866, after being reelected United States senator, was not allowed to take his seat. He was, however, member of the house of representatives, 1873— 82, and governor of Georgia, 1882-83. In 1869 he published A History of the War of Secession, and, in 1870, A Constitutional View of the War Between the StaUs. Died, 1883. Stephens, Henry Morse, British historical writer and educator, was bom at Edinburgh, Scotland, 1857. He graduated at Balliol college, Oxford, 1880, M. A., 1892; was engaged in journalism, 1880-92; staff lecturer on Oxford university extension system, 1890-94. Lecturer on Indian history, Cambridge, England, 1892-94; pro- fessor of modem European and English history, Cornell university, 1894—1902; and professor of history and director of university extension at university of California since 1902. Author: History of the French Revolution; The Story of Portugal; Albuquerque; Revolutionary Europe; Colonial Civil Service, etc. Stephenson, George. See page 390. Stephenson, Isaac, United States senator, was bom near Fredericton, New Brunswick, 1829. He received a common school education ; moved to Wisconsin, with headquarters at Milwaukee, in 1845, and for twelve years engaged in the lumber trade at Escanaba, ftlich. In 1858 he moved to Marinette, where he has led an active career as lumberman, farmer, and banker. In 1866 and 1868 he was a member of the Wisconsin legis- lature; was a member of the forty-eighth, forty- ninth, and fiftieth congresses; and was elected to the United States senate, 1907, to fill out the unexpired term of Hon. J. C. Spooner, resigned, and was reelected, 1909, for the term 1909-15. Stepnlak {styip-nyak'), pseudonjTn of Sergius Micha- elevitch Kravtchinski, Russian revolutionary THROUGHOUT THE WORLD Wl leader and writer, born, 1852. As an apostle of freedom, he was removed from his professor- ship at Kieff, and subsequently kept under such surveillance that he left Russia and settled. 1876, in Geneva, and then, 1885, in London. Among his works were: Underground R%is8ia; Ruaaia under the Tzars; The Career of a Nihilist, a novel ; Nihilism as it is; King Stork and King Log; and Russian Wit and Humor. lie was run over by a train in a London suburb, and killed, 1895. Sternberg, George Miller, American physician, surgeon-general of the United States, 1893-1902, was bom at Hartwick Seminary, Otsego county, N. Y., 1838. He graduated at the college of Shysicians and surgeons, I^ew York, 1860 ; LL.D., [ichigan, 1894, Brown, 1896. He was ap- pointed assistant surgeon of United States army, 1861, and was steadily advanced to surgeon- general of United States in 1893. His service began in the army of the Potomac ; at end of civil war he was in charge of the United States general hospital, Cleveland, Ohio; had com- mand of medical service in the war with Spain, 1898; was member and secretary of Havana yellow fever commission, national board of health, 1879 ; is a member of many medical soci- eties and was president, 1898, of the American medical association. Author: Photo-Micro- graphs, and How to Make Them; Bacteria; Malaria and Malarial Diseases; Manual of Bacteriology; Text-Book of Bacteriology; Immun- ity, Protective Inocxdations, and Serum-Therapy; and many government reports, etc. Sterne, Laurence, British novelist, was bom at Clonmel, Ireland, 1713. He studied at Cam- bridge and became a clergyman. In 1759 he wrote the first two volumes of the Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, which made him famous. Its success was signal and he became the "lion" of the fashionable world. The other two volumes followed in the same year and were as heartily w'elcomed as the earUer ones. The rest of the work, which reached nine volumes, was written at Coxwold, where he had moved from his Yorkshire parish. The Sentim.ental Journey through France and Italy, published in 1768, was the result of a tour through those countries in 1765. He published also two volumes of ser- mons. His fame rests on his humor and the immortal characters of "Corporal Trim," "Yorick," and "My Uncle Tobey," found in Tristram Shandy. He died at London, 1768. Steuben, Frederic William Augustus, Baron, general in the American revolutionary armv, was bom at Magdeburg, Prussia, 1730. lie served when only fourteen in the siege of Prague, and rose in the army until, in 1752, he was on the staff of Frederick the Great. He came to America in 1778 and offered his services to Washington, who gladly accepted them during the dark days of Valley Forge. He was appointed inspector- general; remodeled the army; took part in the siege of Yorktown, and spent his whole fortune in clothing hi^ men. Congress in 1790 voted him $2,400 yearly and a township of land near Utica, N. Y., where he died, 1794. Stevens, John F., American civil engineer, was bom at West Gardiner, Maine, 1853. He was assistant engineer for the city of Minneapolis, 1874-76; chief engineer Sabine Pass and North-Westem railway, 1876-79; assistant engineer of Denver and Rio Grande railway, 1879-80, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railway, 1880-82; division engineer of Canadian Pacific railway, 1882-86; assistant engineer Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railway, 1886; principal assistant engineer Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic rail- way, 1887-89; assistant engineer Spokane Falls and Northern railway, 1889; principal assistant engineer, 1889-93, assistant chief engineer. 1893-95, chief engineer, 1806-1002, niMral manager, 19024)3, Great Northern ratlway; chief engineer, 1003-04, eeoond vioo-president, 1904-05, Chicago, Rock Island and PaoiEo rail- way company ; chief engineer of Panama eanal, 1905-07; chairman of Isthmian canal oonunla- sion, 1907; and vice-president of New York- New Haven and Hartford railroad, in charge u operation, 1907-09. Stevens, Thaddeus, American statesman, was bom at.Peacham, Vt., 1792. He graduated in 1814 at Dartmouth college, studied law, practiced at Gettysburg, Pa., served for a time in the Pennsyl- vania legislature, and became an active advocate of the public school system of Pennsylvania. He served in congress, 1849-53 and 1859-68, and meanwhile rose to a prominent position at the bar. In congress, in 1850, he opposed the Clay compromise measure, including the fugitive slave law. He was a pronounced advocate of emancipation and the enfranchisement of the negro; was bitterly hostile to the seceding states, and stringent in his proceedings against them. He lived to take an active part in the unsuccessful impeachment of President Jolmson, and to see the readmission into the Union of the first group of reconstructed secession states. Died at Washington, 1868. Stevenson, Adlai Ewing, American lawyer and politician, was born in Kentucky, 1835. He was educated at Centre college, Ki;ntuck3r. studied law, and was admitted to the bar of Illinois in 1857. He was master in chancery, 1860-64; district attorney, 1865-69; member of congress, 1875-77 and 1879-81. He was first assistant postmaster-general of the United States, 1885-89, and vice-president of the United States, 1893-97. After his term as vice-president he was appointed, 1897, a member of the commission to Europe to try to secure international bimetalUsm. He was again democratic nominee for vice-president of the United States, 1900, and for governor of Illinois, 1908. Stevenson, Robert, Scottish engineer, was bom at Glasgow, 1772. In 1796 he became engineer and inspector of lighthouses, and, during nis forty- seven years' tenure of that office, planned and constructed no fewer than twenty-three light- houses — employing the catoptric system of illumination, and his valuable invention of inter- mittent and flashing lights. The most remark- able of these was that on Bell Rock, when the wreck of the York, a 74-gun ship, on this reef, drew general attention to the same subiect. Stevenson was a consulting en^neer of bridges, harbors, railways, etc., and introduced manv improvements in their construction. He built the Britannia tubular bridge over Menai strait, Victoria tubular bridge near Montreal, the via- duct of Berwick, bridge at Newcastle, etc. Died, 1850. Stevenson, Robert Louis Balfour, British novelist and essayist, bom at Edinburgh, 1850. He was educated at Edinburgh university, and in 1875 was admitted to the bar ; but soon abandoned law for the profes-sion of letters, in which he rapidly came to the front. In 1878 appeared his first book, An Inland Voyage, quickly followed by Travels with a Donkey, Virginibua Pueriaque, Familiar Studies, and Treasure Island. As a writer of adventure and romance, he established himself permanently in the public favor with Kidnapped, The Master of Ballantrae. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, etc. His versatility in letters was further revealed in his charming A Child's Garden of Verae, Ballada^ Memories and Portraits, and A Footnote to History. In 1890 failing health induced him to make nis home in the island of Samoa, where he died and was buried, 1894. 992 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Stewart, Alexander Tumey, American merchant and capitalist, was born at Lisburn near Belfast, Ireland, 1803. He settled in New York in 1823, where two years later he opened his first dry goods store, and acquired great wealth. He was a leader in the building of street railways and other municipal improvements. Although his charities during his lifetime were numerous, yet at his death he left some $40,000,000. Died. 1876. His body was stolen in 1878, and restored to his widow three years after on payment of $20,000 through a lawyer. Stewart, Balfour, British physicist, was bom at Edinburgh, 1828, studied at St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and in 1853 forsook a commercial career in Australia to become assistant to Pro- fessor Forbes at Edinburgh. He became director of Kew observatory, 1859, and professor of physics at Owens college, Manchester, 1870. He made his first reputation by his work on Radiant Heat in 1858, and was one of the founders of spectrum analysis. Particularly valuable are his papers on terrestrial magnetism. He earned a high reputation by his text-books on physics — Treatise on Heat, Elementary Physics, and Conservation of Energy. With Professor Tait he published The Unseen Universe in 1875, a book which had a phenomenal reception. He died, 1887. Stewart, Dugald, eminent Scottish philosopher and writer, was bom, in 1753, at Edinburgh. He was educated at the high school and univer- sity of his native city ; and attended the lectures of Dr. Reid at Glasgow. In 1785 he succeeded to the professorship of moral philosophy at Edinburgh. In 1780 he began to receive pupils into his house, and many young noblemen, who afterward became celebrated, received their knowledge under his roof. In 1792 he published the first volume of the Philosophy of the Human Mind. Among his other works are : Outlines oj Moral Philosophy; Philosophical Essays; Memoirs of Adam Smith, Drs. Robertson and Reid; and a prefatory dissertation in the supplement to the Encyclopcedia Britannica. He died, 1828. Stilicho (stU'-i-ko), Flavlus, Roman general, by blood a Vandal, was born about 359. He was sent as ambassador to Persia in 384, and rewarded with the hand of Serena, niece of the emperor Theodosius. In 394 he departed from Constan- tinople for Rome in charge of the youthful Honorius, placed him on the throne of the western empire, and administered in his name the affairs of state. On the death of Theodosius, Stilicho's rival, Rufinus, instigated Alaric to invade Greece. Stilicho marched against Alaric, blocked him up in the Peloponnesus, but per- mitted him to escape with captives and booty. In 398 his daughter became the wife of Honorius. Alaric invaded northern Italv, but was signally defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia and Verona. When Radagaisus, at the head of 200,000 to 400,000 Goths, ravaged the country as far as Florence in 406, Stilicho routed the invaders and saved the western empire a second time. Next Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invaded Gaul; Stili- cho's proposed alliance with Alaric against them was mterpreted as treachery, and he was credited with aimmg at the imperial dignity. The Roman araay mutinied, and Stilicho fled to Ravenna, where he was murdered, 408. Stlmson, Frederic Jesup ("J. S. of Dale"), lawyer, author, was bom at Dedham, Mass., 1855. He graduated at Harvard, 1876; Har^^ard law school, 1878; and was admitted to the New York and Boston bars. He was assistant attomey-general of Massachusetts, 1884-85- general counsel to the United States industrial commission, 1898-1902; and professor of com- parative legislation at . Harvard since 1903 Author: Ratio's Journey to Cambridge; Gtiemdale; The Crime of Henry Vane; A merican Statute Law; The Sentimental Calendar; First Harvests; Stim- son's Law Glossary; In the Three Zones; Govern- ment by Injunction; Labor in Its Relation to Law; Mrs. Knollys and Other Stories; Handbook to the Labor Law of the United States; Uniform State Legislation; Pirate Gold; King Noanett; Jethro Bacon of Sandwich; In Cure of Her Sotd; The Law of the Constitutions, State and Federal; and also a series of magazine articles on The Ethics of Democracy, etc. Stlmson, Henry Lewis, cabinet officer, lawyer, was born in New York citv, 1807. He graduated at Yale, 1888; A. M. Harvard, 1889; Harvard law school, 1889, 1890. He was admitted to the bar, 1891; member of firm of Root and Clarke, 1893, Root, Howard, Winthrop and Stimson, 1897. Winthrop and Stimson, 1901 . He was appointea by President Roosevelt United States attorney for the southern district of New York, 1906-09; resumed active practice; took charge of prose- cution of sugar trust frauds for the government. In 1910 he was the unsuccessful candidate for governor of New York state, and in 1911 was appointed secretary of war by President Taft to fill the position left vacant by the resignation of Secretary Dickinson. StiriinK, James Iiut<-lilson, Scottish philosophical writer, was bom at Glasgow, 1820, and was educated at the university of Gla-sgow, and in France and Germany; LL. D., Eointe, 1877-88 and 1892- 1910; president of the American bar asso- ciation, 1896. Author: Lift t^f CkarUa Sumiur; Politics as a Duty and tu a Career; The American Legidatwe; A Year's Legidation; The Govern^ tnent of Cities; and various pamphlets and occa- sional addressee. Became president of the anti- imperialist league, 1905. Story, Joseph, distinguished American jurist and legal writer, was bom at Marblehead, Mass., in 1779. He graduated at Harvard eoUags in 1798, and rapidly rose to eminence as a special pleader at the bar. In 1808 he was elected to congress, and was an associate justice of the United States supreme court, 1811—45. He was professor of law at Harvard, 1829-45, and attained unusual eminence as a taw lecturer and writer. His published works embrace the masterly CommcnUirics on the Conflict of Laws; Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States; Commentaries on Equity Jurisprudence; A Treatise on the Law of Agency, etc. Died, 1845. Story, William Wetmore, American sculptor and poet, son of the above, was born at Salem, Mass., 1819. He graduated at Harvard university. 1838, from the law school, 1840, and was admittea to the bar. He published Contracts not under Seal, and other legal works, during the early part of his career, but afterward devoted him- self to literature and sculpture. Among his publications are several poems. Origin of the Italian Language and Literature, Conversations in a Studio, etc. He executed numerous monu- ments, statues, and busts, chief of which are: "Cleopatra"- "Libyan Sibyl"; "Delilah"; "Semiramis' ; and statues of George Peabody, Edward Everett, Professor Henry, and Frances Scott Key. Died in Italy, 1895. vStowe, Harriet Elitabeth Beecher, sister of Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, American novelist, was bom at Litchfield, Conn., 1811. She married Professor Calvin Ellis Stowe in 1836, became a frequent contributor to periodicals, and pub- lished some stories in a volume entitled The Mayflower, and other spirited juvenile stories. In 1851 she commenced m The National Era, an antislaverv paper at Washington, D. C, a serial tale entitled Uncle Tom's Cabin. In 1853 she published a Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin, and made a visit to Europe, where she was received with distinguished consideration. The events and impressions of this triumphant tour are recorded in her Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands. In 1856 she published Dred, a Tale of the Great Dismal Stoamp, followed in 1869 by The Minis- ter's Wooing, a story of New England life in the eighteenth century. In 1869 she contributed to the Atlantic Monthly an article entitled The True Story of Lady Byron's Life, some state- ments in which were criticised, and she then wrote in reply Lady Byron Vindicated. In 1868-70 she was joint editor of Hearth and Home. The celebrated Umde Tom's Cabin is one of the great successes in American literature and has been translated into many foreign languages. She died, 1896. Strabo (strd'-bo), noted Greek geographer, was bom at Amasia, in Pontus, about 63 B. C. He does not appear to have followed an^ professional calling, but to have spent his life m travel and study. His Geography, which describes Europe, Asia, Egypt and Lioya, is a work of great value, and comprises seventeen books. He died about 21 A. D. Stradivari (stra'-de-vH'-re) or Stradlvarius, Antonio, celebrateid Italian violin maker, was bom at Cremona, Italy, in 1644. Besides violins, he made viols, guitars, and mandolins. His instni- 994 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT ments are known for their finish and fine tone. He was the first to finish them neatly on the inside. The great care with which he selected and cut his wood, the study he gave to the shape and proportions, and the luster of the varnish used all combined to make an instrument with- out a rival. They are carefully preserved bj' those possessing them, and bring great prices, ranging from $1,000 to $15,000. He died at Cremona, 1737. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of, English statesman, was born in London, 1593. He studied at Cambridge, and after some months' travel on the continent entered parliament in 1614, but took no active part in affairs until 1621. In 1622 he felt compelled to side with the king, favored a strong government with the king at the head, and strove to put down with a firm hand all opposition to the royal authority. He was appointed lord-deputy in Ireland in 1632, and was at length, in 1640, exalted to the lord- lieutenancy, being at the same time created earl of Strafford. By this time he had risen to be the chief adviser of the king, and was held responsible for his arbitrary policy. After the meeting of the long parliament he was impeached for high treason, and as a result was beheaded on Tower hill, 1641. Strathcona (str&th-ko'^na). Baron, Donald Alexan- der Smith, high commissioner for Canada, 1896- 1911; was born in Scotland, 1820. He was educated in Scotland; hon. LL. D., Cambridge, Yale, Aberdeen, Glasgow, and Toronto; D. C. L., Oxford and Dublin; entered the Hudson Bay company's service at an early age, and was the last resident governor of that corporation as a governing body. He was special commissioner during first Riel rebellion in Red river settlements, 1869-70; member of the first executive council of the Northwest territory, 1870; represented Winnipeg and St. John's in Manitoba legislature, 1871-84; member of parliament for Selkirk in Dominion house of commons, 1871-72, 1874, and 1878, for Montreal West, 1877-96. He is now governor of the Hudson Bay company, director of the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba rail- way, and of the Canadian Pacific railway com- pany; and hon. president of the bank of Montreal. He is also chancellor of McGill university, and was lord rector of Aberdeen imiversity, 1899. He raised the Strathcona's horse for service in the South African war; has been a munificent bene- factor to McGill university and other Canadian educational institutions ; and, with Lord Mount- Stephen, gave an endowment of £16,000 a year to the king's hospital fund. He was raised to the peerage in 1897. Straus (strous), Oscar Solomon, American merchant, diplomat and publicist, was born at Otterberg Germany, 1850. He lived at Talbotton, and afterward at Columbus, Ga., until 1865 when he removed to New York, where he graduated at Columbia university, 1871; LL. B., Columbia law school, 1873, L. H. D., Brown, 1895; LL. D , Washington and Lee university, 1898, university of Pennsylvania, 1900, and Columbia, 1904 He practiced law, 1873-81; entered the mercantile life as a member of L. Straus and Sons, importers of pottery and glassware; was United States min- ister to Turkey, 1887-«9, 1898-1901, 1909-11- appointed, 1902, by President Roosevelt, a mem- ber of the permanent court of arbitration at The iTw^'iorfi'nn^^^. secretary of commerce and labor, 1906-09. Author: The Origin of Repub- lican Form of Government in the Urvitid SMtes; Roger WiUzams the Pioneer of Rdigimis Liberty; The Development of Religious Liberty in the United |tates; Reform %n the Consular Service; United f.^%r "^^ ''^ ^t^^'^^ip; Our Diplomacy with Reference to our Foreign Service, etc. Strauss (ahtrous), David Frledrlch, German theo- logian and critic, was born at Ludwigsburg, Wiirtemberg, 1808. He studied at Tiibingea and BerUn; was ordained to the church in 1^0; and in 1832 became lecturer at Tubingen. In 1835 he published the first volume of his cele- brated Leben Jeau, which led to his expulsion from that office; and when, in 1839, he was appointed by the board of education in Zurich professor of dogmatics and church history in the university of that city, the public indignation at the appointment led, not only to the appoint- ment being cancelled, but to the fall of the gov- ernment, which was held to be responsible for it. In 1840-41 he published Die ChrisUiche Glau- bendehre, "The Christian Doctrine," which was followed by several other works not theological, including a Life of the Reformer Ulrich von HuUen. In 1864 he pubhshed a new Life of Jesua, com- posed for the German People; and, in 1872, The Old and New Faith. Strauss's Life of Jesus was translated into English by George EUot in 1846. He died, 1874. Strauss, Jobann, Austrian composer and conductor, was bom at Vienna, 182o. He came of an eminently musical family, his father being a noted musician, while two of his brothers were composers. On his father's death, he became conductor, and toured the world with his own and his late father's orchestra. At the same time, from an early age, be composed waltses and operettas, which have held the stage with great favor. In 1872 he conducted an orchestra of 1,000 performers at the Boston peace jubilee; he was for a time also musical director to the emperor Joseph at Vienna. His most famous waltz pieces are Wiener Blut, KUnsilerleben, ahd An der achdnen blatien Donau. Of his operettas; the following are best known : Indigo; Caglioatra; La Tsigane; Die Fledermaue; Der lustige Krieg; Simpliciue; Eine Nacht in Venedig; and Der Zigeunerbaron. He died, 1899. Strauss, Richard, German composer, was bom, 1864. at Munich. He studied music at Munich, ana in 1885 became conductor at Meiningen. From 1889 to 1894 he was chapelmaster, with Eduard Lassen, at Weimar, later conductor at the Munich opera house: since 1898 conductor of the royal opera, Berun. He has written many charming songs, but his distinctiveness as a modem composer is due chiefly to extraordi- narily elaborate instrumental works. Works: Guntram; Feueranot; Salome; Tod und Ver- Mdrung; Don Juan; Macbeth; Till Eulenspiegd; Don Quixote; Bin Hdderdehen, etc. He was made chevaher of the legion of honor, 1907. Strong, Augustus Hopkins, American theologian, president and professor of systematic theology at Rochester theological seminary since 1872, was bom at Rochester, N. Y., 1836. He grad- uated at Yale, 1857, Rochester theological sem- inary, 1859; D. D., Brown imiversity, 1870, Yale, 1890, Princeton, 1896; LL. D., Buck- nell, 1891, Alfred, 1904. He was pastor of the First Baptist church, Haverhill, Mass., 1861-65, First Baptist church, Cleveland, Ohio, 1865-72. Author: Systematic Theology; Philoso- phy and Rdigion; The Great Poets and Their The- oiogy; Christ in Creation and Ethical Monism, etc. Strong, Charles Augustus, American psvchologist, educator, was bom at Haverhill, Mass., 1862. He graduated at Harvard, 1885, and was a student in Berlin, 1886-87, Paris, Berlin and Freiburg, 1889-90. He was instructor in phi- losophy, Cornell university, 1887-89; docent Clark university, 1890; associate professor, psy- chology, university of Chicago, 1892-95; lec- turer in psychology, 1895-1903, and professor of psychology, since 1903, Columbia university. Author: Why the Mind Has a Body, etc. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 096 Strykcr, Melancthon Woolsey, American educator, E resident of Uamilton college since 1892, was orn at Vernon, N. Y., 1851. lie was graduated at Hamilton college, 1872, Auburn theological seminary, 1876; D. D., Hamilton and Lafayette; LL. D., Lafayette. He was pastor of Presby- terian church, Auburn, N. Y., 1876-78, Ithaca, N. Y., 1878-83, Second Congregational church, Holyoke, Mass., 1883-85, and Fourth Presby- terian church, Chicago, 1885-92. Author: Song of Miriam; Church Song; Dies Irae, with versions; Hamilton, Lincoln and Addresses; Letter of James; Lattermath, verse; Wdl by the Gate, sermons, etc. Stuart, Gilbert Charles, American portrait painter, was born at Narragansett, R. I., 1755. In 1778 he made his way to London, where his talent was recognized by Benjamin West, president of the royal academy, who took him into his family, and whose full length portrait he painted for the national gallery. In 1781 he opened his studio in London, and painted the portraits of George III., the prince of Wales, the duke of North- umberland, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and many other celebrated characters. In 1792, in the fullness of his powers and fame, he returned to America, and painted portraits of Washington, Jefferson, and many of the distinguished men and women of the period. Died at Boston, Mass., 1828. Stuart, James Ewell Brown, confederate cavalry general, was born in Patrick county, Virginia, 1833. His early career was spent as a mounted rifleman in Texasand Kansas, engaged in Indian warfare. When the civil war broke out, he held a captaincy in the Union army, but resigned this to enter the confederate service, in wliich he became the most distinguished of cavalry officers in the army of northern Virginia. His chief exploits were the night attack of August, 1862, when General Pope's papers were captured, and the raid across the Potomac in the same year. He was mortally wounded at Ashland, and died, 1864, at Richmond, Va. Stubbs, William, English historian, was bom at Knaresborough, England, 1825. He studied at Oxford, entered the church, and settled at Navestock, Essex, in 1850. In 1866 he was appointed professor of modem history at Oxford. He was made bishop of Chester in 1884, and changed to the see of Oxford in 1889. His writings are marked by great learning and rare impartiality, and hold the highest rank in English history. He has edited a large number of ancient histories and chronicles, such as Gesta of Henry II. and Richard I.; Memorials of St. Dunstan, and Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II. His historical works include : Constitutional History of England; The Early Plantagenets; and Seventeen Lectures on the Study of MedicBval and Modern History. He died, 1901. Stuyvesant (sfi'-ve-sant), Peter, director-general of the New Netherlands, 1647-64, and last Dutch governor of New York, was born in Holland, 1592. He first served in the West Indies, and arrived at New Amsterdam, 1647. There he made peace with the Indians; arranged the Dutch and English boundary; recaptured the fort on the Delaware river, taking possession of the Swedish colony at the same time, but was forced to surrender the city of New York to the English, 1664. He then retired to his farm, the "Bouwerij," which gave the name to the mo«dem Bowery, and died in 1682. Sachet (sU'-sh^'), Louis Gabriel, duke of Albufera, celebrated French marshal, was bom in 1772 at Lyons, and entered the army, as a volunteer, in his twentieth year. Between that period and 1800 he distinguished himself in Italy, Switzer- land, and the Orisons, and rose to the rank of major general. He subsequently increased his fame at Marengo, at Austerlitc, and in Poland. In 1808 he was appointed to the command of the French forces m the southeast of 8pain, and this command he retained until the termination of the war. He gained many victories, reduced a great number of fortreastM, and conquered Valencia; and his services were rewarded with the rank of marshal, and the title of duke. When Napoleon returned from Elba, he intrusted Suchet with the defense of the departments bor- dering on the frontier of Savoy. l!ee to Each Other; Collected Essays in Political and Social Sciences; Protectionism; Andrew Jack- son; Alexander Hamilton; Robert Morris; The Financier and Finances of the Revolution; A History of Bankiruj in the United States; Folk- ways, etc. He dieu in 1910. Sutherland, Georice, lawyer. United States senator, was born in Buckinghamshire, England, 1862. He came to the United States; received an academic education; attended the law depart- ment of the university of Michigan, 1882-83, and was admitted to the bar, 1883. He was a member of the first Utah state leginlature, 1896; was a member of congress, Utah, 1901-03; was elected to the United States senate in 1905 and was reelected in 1911. Suvaroff (sdb-va'-rOf), Prince Alexel, celebrated Russian field marshal, was bom in 1729, at Suskoi, in Finland, and was educated at the cadet school of St. Petersburg. Ue distinguished himself during the Seven Years' war; in Poland, in 1768, against the confederates; in 1773, against the Turl^j and, in 1782, against the Nogay Tartars. For these services ne was rewarded with the rank of general-in-chief, the govern- ment of the Crimea, the portrait of the empress set in diamonds, and several Russian oniers. In the war against the Turks, from 1787 to 1790, he gained the battle of R>'mnik, took Ismail by storm, and obtained other imfwrtant advantages. In 1794 he defeated the Poles who were strug- gling for freedom, and carried Praga by assault. When Russia joined the continental coalition, in 1799, he was placed at the head of the com- bined army in Italy, and, after several sanguinary battles, succeeded in wresting that country from the French. He was less successful in Switzer- land, whence he was obliged to retreat. He died, 1800, soon after his return to St. Peters* burg. Swain, Joseph, American educator, president of Swarthmore college since 1902, was bom at Pendleton, Ind., 1857. He graduated at Indiana university, 1883; A. M., LL. D., Wabash college. He was instructor of mathematics and biology, 1883-85, associate professor of mathematics, 1885-86, and professor of mathematics, 1886-91, Indiana university; professor of mathematics in Leland Stanford Jr. university, 1891-93; president of Indiana university, 1895-1902. He has written numerous scientific papers; is president of the national council of education, national council of religious education. Sweatman, Arthur, archbishop of Toronto, and primate of Canada, 1907-09; was born in 1834. He was graduated at Christ's college, Cambridge; was headmaster of Hellmuth college, London, Ontario, 1865-72; rector of Grace church, Brantford, Ontario, 1872-76; secretary of the diocesan synod, 1872-79; secretary to Canadian house of bishops, 1873-79; canon of Huron, 1875-76; archdeacon of Brant and rector of Woodstock, Ontario, 1876-79; and bishop of Toronto, 1897-1907. Died, 1909. Swedenborg (swe'-den-bdrg), Emanuel, Swedish philosopher and mystic, the founder of the New church, was the son of the bishop of Skars, and THROUGHOUT THE WORLD wr was born in 1688, at Stockholm. Ho studied at Upsaiii, possessed considerable acicntitic attain- ments for his age, and, after traveling abroad for five years, started the Daedalus Hyperboreua, a short-lived Bt-ientific journal. In 1717 Charles XII. appointed him assessor in the college of mines. He was ennobled in 1719, took a promi- nent part in the house of peers, and wrote on many scientific subjects, but his largest scientific work was the Opera Mineralia et PhUoaophica, which combined both the theoretical and the practical. He then studied anatomy and physi- ology, and wrote The Economy of the Animal Kingdom and The Animal Kingdom. In 1743 he claimed a divine commission to disclose the internal or spiritual sense of scripture by the correspondence existing between natural and spiritual things, and thereby to make known its true doctrines. His largest work. Arcana Cadestia, a spiritual exposition of Genesis and Exodus, and Tfie Apocalypse Revealed refer more to the former; his Four Primary Doctrines and The True Christian Religion, to the latter. He also stated that for the puq^ose of his mission he was intromitted as to his soul into heaven, hell, and the intermediate state between tViem. Of these he treats in Heaven and Its Wonders, The Last Judgment, and The Earths in the Universe. In his philosophy, which is really one with his theology, he treats of creation in his Divine Love and Wisdom; and of the relations of God's government to man's free agency in his Divine Providence. He died in London, 1772. The New church, which accepts Swedenborg's mission and general vieWs, held its first public services in 1788. Sweet, Henry, English philologist, was bom in London, 1845. He studied at King's college, London, at Heidelberg, and at Balliol college, Oxford; M. A., Ph. D., LL. D. Author and editor: editions of Old and Middle English texts; Old and Middle English readers and primers; Student's Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon; Primer of Spoken English; New English Grammar; Short Historical English Grammar; History of English Sounds; Prim.er of Phonetics; Manual of Current Shorthand; History of Language; The Practical Study of Languages; and many papers and reviews in journals and transactions of learned societies. Died, 1912. Swift, Jonathan, British satirist, was bom in Dublin, of English parents, 1667. He was edu- cated at Trinit}' college, Dublin, and then re- moved to London, and was admitted into the house of Sir William Temple. Temple died in 1699, and Swift published his posthumous works, after which he repaired to Ireland, and in 1713 was appointed dean of St. Patrick's. Before this he had written the most powerful satirical work of the eighteenth century, the Tale of a Tub, in 1704, and a few essays on ecclesiastical subjects, some ridicule of astrology under the name of "Isaac Bickerstafif," and poetical pieces possessing a peculiar vein of humor and descrip- tion. He then wrote papers for the London Examiner, a Letter to the October Club, The Con- duct of the Allies, The Barrier Treaty, and in- numerable pasquinades against the whigs, and became a formidable power in the state. His Drapier Letters, 1724, produced quite a ferment in Ireland, and compelled the government to abandon a scheme for supplying Ireland with copper coinage. The triumphant author made his last visit to England in 1726, and published his Gulliver's Travels, the most popular of all his works. After this period he wrote some of his best minor pieces, The Grand Question Debated; On Poetry, a Rhapsody; The Legion Club; Verses on the Death of Dr. Swift; and The Modest Pro- posal. Died, 1745. Swinbume, Alfcemon Charles, English poet and prose writer, wiw born in London, 183/, uon of Admiral Swinburne. Ue waa eilucftted at Balliol college, Oxford, went to Fioreace and spent some time there. Hid first produotiona were the plays, Qurcn Mother and Rotamond, which were followed by two tragedies; Poem* and Ballads; A Sana of Italv; essay on William Blake; and Songs before Sunrise. The latter were instinct with pantheistic and republican ideas, and gave him rank with Laiidor, whose successor he was. and of whom he was a great admirer. His subseera in leading r6les; came to the United States as prima donna in New York Casino company; has appeared in comic opera in principal American cities, more recently in England; has received numerous medals for ItaUan and declamatory English singing. She married, 1898, Cosmo Charles Gordon-Lennox (Cosmo Stuart), son of Lord Alexander Gordon-Lennox. She created Nell Gwyn in English Nell and Becky Sharp. Temple, Sir William, English diplomat and essay writer, was born in London, 1628. He studied at Cambridge, but at nineteen went abroad. He subsequently settled in Ireland, was returned for Carlow to the Dublin parliament in 1660, was sent in 1665 on a mission to Germany, and then created a baronet and appointed minister at Brussels. His great diplomatic success was the triple alliance, in 1668, of England, Holland, and Sweden, against France. He also took part in the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1668, and was ambassador at The Hague. In 1677_ he helped to bring about the marriage of the prince of Orange with the princess Mary. He twice declined the offer of a secretaryship of state from Charles II., and suggested the scheme of a reformed privy-council of thirty. At the revo- lution he again refused the secretaryship, and gave the remainder of his days, after 1681, to letters and gardening. Died, 1699. Tenlers {U-nersf), David, the Younger, celebrated Flemish painter, was bom at Antwerp, 1610. Before he was twenty his work bore the stamp of maturity, and he entered the guild as master in 1632. He was the most popular of all the Flemish painters. So numerous were his paint- ings that he was accustomed to say that a gallery two leagues long would not hold them. Among them are: "The Denial of St. Peter"; "The Prodigal Son"; " Village Festival " ; "Judith"; "Parable of the Laborer"; "Charles V. •fipir-'^ THROUGHOUT THE WORLD loas Leaving Dort"; "Boom Feasting," etc. He was habitually conversant with the nigher classes of society ; and the suavity of his manner and his irreproachable conduct made him the object of general esteem. His works — especially his smaller works — are very highly valued. He died at Brussels, 1690. Tennyson, Alfred, English poet, was bom in Somersby, Lincolnshire, En^and, 1809, of which parish his father was rector. He was the third of a large family, and was educated at Louth grammar school, and at Cambridge university. In 1827, with his brother Charles, he issued a small volume entitled Poems, by Two Brothers, of which almost nothing has been preserved. At Cambridge he gained the chancellor's medal by a poem in blank verse entitled Timbuctoo; but his literary career properly dated from 1830, in which year a volvune appeared of Poems, chiefly Lyrical. From this time the reputation of the writer slowly extended itself, and the publio% tion, in 1842, of Poems, by Alfred Tennyson, in two volumes, raised him to the position of suprem- acy, which he continued to occupy until his death. In 1847 appeared The Princess, a Medley, and in 1850 the series of elegies entitled In Memoriam. On the death of Wordsworth, in 1850, Tennyson succeeded him as poet laureate, in which capacity he issued, in 1852, his Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington. In 1855 appeared Maud, arid other Poems. The Idylls of the King at once took rank as one of the noblest poems in the language. It was followed in 1864 by a volume containing Enoch Arden; Aylmer's Field; Titho- nus; and a few other poems. The Window, or Songs of the Wrens, appeared in 1870. In 1875 he essayed in a new field by publishing Qtieen Mary, a drama, which was followed by Harold, also a play, in 1876. Then came Locksley Hall Sixty Years After; Demeter, and other Poems; The Foresters, Robin Hood, and Maid Marian, etc. He lived for the most part a retired life. In 1884 he was made an hereditary- peer, with the title of Baron Tennyson. Died, 1892. Terhone (tir-hun'), Mary Virginia, ne6 Hawes, American novelist and miscellaneous writer, better known by her pen-name of "Marion Harland," was bom in Amelia county, Va., 1831. Her first story was accepted by Godey's Lady's Book when she was only sixteen; in 1854 she published Alone, which at once created a sensa- tion; and in 1855 she produced The Hidden Path. In 1856 she was married to Rev. Edward P. Terhune. In 1857 her Moss-Side appeared, and this was followed in rapid suc- cession by Nemesis; Husks; Husbands ana Homes; Sunnybank; Christmas Holly; Ruby's Husband; Phemie's Temptation; At Last; The Empty Heart; Jessamine; Handicapped; A Gallant Fight. Besides her novels "Marion Harland" has been noted for her counsel to housekeepers, and has written on many topics connected with the home. H6r Com,mon Sense in the Horisehold had an immediate success. Terry, Ellen Alicia (Mrs. James Carew), English actress, was bom at Coventry, England, 1848; she made her first appearance on the stage with Charles Kean's Shakespearean revivals, in 1856, in The Winter's Tale, and afterward as Prince Arthur in King John. She subsequently joined a Bristol company, of which Mrs. Kendal was a member, and appeared in London as Gertrude in The Little Treasure, as Hero in Much Ado about Nothing, and as Mary Meredith in Our American Cousin. In 1864 she married G. F. Watts, the painter, but was speedily divorced; reappeared on the stage in 1867 for the first time with Henry Irving; and in 1868 married E. A. Warden, and retired from the stage until 1874. In 1878 she was again aasocUted with Irving, with whom she continued throughout the greater part of his subsequent career. Her personations include: Viola in Twelfth Night; Kuth Meadows in Eugene Aram; Henrietta Maria in Charles I.; Marguerite in Faust; Rosa- monde in Becket; Lucv Ashton in Ravennoood; Lady Macbeth in Shakespeare's tragedy of Macbeth; Madame Sans-Gene in Sardou's play: Clarice in Robespierre, etc. She prooucea Ibsen's The Vikings in 1903, and Shakeopearean plays with her own company at the Imperial theater. In 1905 she played at Duke of York's theater in Barrie's Alice-sit-by^the-fire, and cele- brated her stage jubilee in 1906. In 1907 she married James Carew, actor, her former husband having died in 1885. TertuUian (<^-^t2^'-{ -an), QuintusSeptlmiua Florens. celebrated father of the Latin church, flourished in the latter part of the second and the earUer part of the third century, A. D. He was bom at Carthage, practiced law in Rome, and later returned to his birthplace, where he became a presbyter, and spent the rest of his life. When and how he was converted to Christianity we are not informed; but he was well versed in Greek and Roman literature, and was remark- able for his impassioned eloquence, which he used with great power in his Apology for th* Christian Religion, which is his most famous work. Thirty-one of his works are extant. At some period of his life he embraced the views of the Montanists. Tesia (tis'-l&), Nikola, American electrical inventor, was bom in Smiljan, Austria-Hungary, 1857. He studied engineering in Gratz, came to the United States in 1884, and for several years waa employed at Edison's laboratory, near Orange, N. J. He then opened a laboratory of his own. In 1888 he completed his discovery of the rotating magnetic field by the invention of the rotarr field-motor, the multi-phase system of whicn is used in the 50,000 horse power plant built to transmit the water power of Niagara Flails to Buffalo and other cities. He invented many methods and appliances for the use of electricity, among them the production of efficient light from lamps without filaments, and the production and transmission of power and intelligence with- out wires. In 1898 ne announced the discovery of, and in 1900 patented, a method of trana- mitting electrical energy without wires. la 1901 he discovered that the capacity of the electrical conductor is variable. Since 1903 he has been engaged in developing his system of world telej^raphy and telephony. Tetrazclni (tSf-tra-ze'-ne) Slfcnora T..ulsa, one of the greatest successes in operatic history, was bom in Florence. She was educated under Signor Cecherini. First appeared in Florence in 189S and at Covent Garden in 1907. Has toured in South America, Russia, and other countries. She is recognized as the true successor of Patti, and some r6les that made Patti famous have never been successfully sung since her retirement until Tetrazzini appeared upon the scene. She posseaaea a wonderful voice, remarkable for ita purity and range. Thackeray, William Makepeace, eminent English novelist, was bom at Calcutta, India, 1811. Brought to England, he was educated first at the Charterhouse, and afterward at the univer- sity of Cambridge. His first profession was that of artist; but he soon abandoned art for literature, his earliest work to attract attention being some contributions to Preiser's Magazine. which appeared under the pseudonym of Michael Angelo Titmarsh. He afterward contributed largely to Punch and published several volumes under his adopted name, all of which exhibited 1006 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT power, especially of wit and satire. In 1846^8 Vanity Fair appeared, and Thackeray's reputation was at once established. In 1848-50 Pendennia appeared; in 1852, The History of Henry Esmond; in 1855, The Newcomes; and somewhat later, The Virginians, Lovd the Widower, and Philip. In 1851 he delivered and published his Lectures on the English Humourists of the Eighteenth Century, and in 1856 his Lectures on the Four Georges. In 1860 he established the CornhiU Magazine, to which he contributed his Round- about Papers. His last novel, Denis Duval, was left incomplete, the hand of the writer being suddenly arrested by his death in 1863. Besides the works above mentioned, he wrote a number of smaller works, all marked by the same characteristic features as his larger produc- tions. Thales (tha'-lez), early Greek philosopher, founder of the Ionic or physical school of philosophy, and one of the seven wise men, was a native of Miletus, in Asia Minor, and flourished during the first half of the sixth century B. C. He is regarded by some as the first Greek that specu- lated on the constitution of the universe. He regarded water as the principle of things; pre- dicted an eclipse of the sun; and made various discoveries in geometry and astronomy. Themistocles (the-mls'-td-klez), Athenian statesman, was born at Athens, about 514 B. C, fought at Marathon, and devoted the succeeding years to the upbuilding of the Athenian navy. In 481 B. C. he was chief archon, and added greatly to the naval power of Athens. On the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, he was appointed to the com- mand of the Athenian fleet, and to his energy, foresight, and courage the Greeks mainly owed their salvation from the Persian dominion. He later rebuilt the walls and fortified the Pirseus. But he was wily, ambitious, and self-seeking; and, being accused of peculation in 471 B. C, he was ostracized, and retired for a time to Argos. Being still in danger of arrest on a charge of treason in concert with Pausanias, he flwi to Asia, where he was received with great favor by Artaxerxes, who had just succeeded his father Xerxes on the Persian throne. He lived securely in Magnesia until his death, which, according to some writers, was caused by poison administered by himself. Died about 449 B. C. Theocritus (the-dk'-rl-tiis), celebrated Greek poet, flourished in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 285 to 247 B. C. He was a native of Syracuse, but very little is known of his personal history, except that he became famous as a poet during his residence at Alexandria, where a great part of his life appears to have been spent, and that he afterward returned to Syracuse, and lived there imder the reign of Hiero II. The compo- sitions of Theocritus bear the name of Idyls, of which there are thirty extant, though the gen- uineness of some of them is doubtful. Twenty- two epigrams, and a poem called Berenice, are also ascribed to him. Theodorlc {the-dd'-d-rik) the Great, founder of the monarchy of the Ostro- or East Goths, son of Iheodemir, the Ostrogothic king of Pannonia was born about 454. He was for ten years during his youth a hostage at the Byzantine court at Constantinople; succeeded his father in ^J'^'^^^^^edmtely began to push the fortunes ot the Ostrogoths. Various territories fell into his bands, and alarm arose at the imperial court in 493 he advanced upon Italv, overthrew Udoacer, and after his murder became sole ruler He was now the most powerful of the Gothic kings, with an empire embracing Italv, Sicilv. and Dalmatia, besides German possessions. M a ruler he proved himself as wise as he was strong; became in after years one of the great heroes of German legend, and figures in the Nihelungenlied. Died, 526. Thiers (tydr), Liouls Adolphe, French statesman and historian, and president of the French republic, was Ixirn in Marseilles, 1797. He waa educated for the law, but, discarding it at an early age, entered the field of journalism as a contributor to the Conatitutionnel. Between the years 1823-27 appeared hia History of the French Revolution, a work which stamped him an his- torian of the first order. He largely contributed to the revolution of 1830. In 1832 he was made minister of the interior; in 1834, was admitted to the French academy; and from February to August, 1836, filled the post of president of the council and minister for foreign affairs. In 1840 he was recalled to power, but being unable to Erevail ufwn Louis Pliilippe to support his astern policy, he resigned office in October and employed his leisure in writing his History of the 4I^Constuate and Empire, one of the greatest his- torical works of the age. He entered the cor[)S legislatif in 1803 and in 1870 resolutely opposc-d the impending war against Germany. In 1871 be succeeded in efTecting peace on tlie best terma possible under the circumstances, and, in the same year, was elected president of the new republic. In 1873, after an adverse vote of the legislative body, he resigned, and was succeeded by Marshal MacMahon. Died, 1877. Thomas, Ambroise, French composer, was bom at Metz, 1811. He studied at the Paris conserva- toire, 1828-32. Jlis first success in opera was with La Double Echdle, in 1837, followed by Mina, Betty, Le Caid, Le Songe d'une Suit d'Ete, Le Camawd de Venise, Mignon, Hamlti, and Frangoise de Rimini, the latter in 1882. He also wrote many cantatas, part-songs, and choral pieces. He became a member of the French institute in 1851. professor of composi- tion, 18.52, director of the conservatoire, 1871, and receive*! the grand cross of the legion of honor, 1880. Died, 1896. Thomas, Aueustus, American playwright, wa» born at St. Louis, Mo., 1859. He was educated in the public schools there; studied law two years; was a page in the 4l8t congress; spent six years in practical railroading; was a special writer and illustrator on St. Louis, Kansas City and New York newspapers, and editor and pro- prietor of the Kaneaa City Mirror. Author: Alabama; In Mizzoura; Arizona; The Burglar; Colorado Man of the World; After Thoughts; The Meddler; The Man Upstairs; Oliver Gold- smith; On the Quiet; A Proper Impropriety; That Overcoat; The Capitol; New Blood; The Hooaier Doctor; The Earl of Pau^ucket; The Other Girl; Mrs. Leffingu^U's Boots; The Educa- tion of Mr. Pipp; Jim De Lancey; The Embassy Ball; The Witching Hour, etc. Thomas k Becket. See Becket, Thomas H. Thomas, George Henry, American general, waa born in Southampton county, Va., 1816. He was graduated at West Point, served in the Mexican and Seminole wars, and for six years was in service in California and Texas." He began his career in the civil war as cavalry colonel in the Shenandoah valley. In 1861 he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers, and in January, 1862, won the battle of Mill Springs. Major-general in command of the center of Rosecrans' army, he saved the battle of Stone river; and at Chickamauga again ren- dered the victory a barren one for the confed- erates. In October, 1863, he was given the command of the army of the Cumberland, and in November captured Mission Ridge. In 1864 he commanded the center in Sherman's advance on Atlanta, and then was sent to oppose Hood in Tennessee; in December he won the battle of THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1007 Nashville, and received the thanks of congress. He afterward commanded the military division of the Pacific, and declined the ranlc of heutenant- general which was offered him, saying he had done nothing since the war to merit promotion. He died at San Francisco, 1870. Thomas k Kempls. See Kempis, Thomas &. Thomas, M. Carey, American educator, was bom in Baltimore, Md., 1857, daughter of Dr. James Carey Thomas. She was graduated at Cornell, 1877 ; studied in Johns Hopkins, 1877-78, and at Leipzig, 1879-83; Ph. D., Ziirich, 1883; LL. D., Western Pennsylvania, 1896. Professor of Eng- lish since 1885, dean, 1885-95, and since 1895 president of Bryn Mawr college. First woman trustee, Cornell university, 189^99; trustee Bryn Mawr college since 1903. Author and editor : .Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight; Education of Women; Shovld the Higher Education of Women Differ from That of Ment The College, etc., and various educational addresses. ^ Thompson, Ernest Seton. See Seton, EmeR Thompson. Thompson, Launt, American sculptor, was bom in Ireland, 1833, but was brought up in Albany, N. Y. He was nine years in Palmer's studio m Albany, where his bust of "Little Nell" made him well known. A statue of General Winfield Scott, at the soldiers' home near Washington, a soldiers' monument at Pittsheld, Mass., a colossal statue of Napoleon, and a statue of the first president of Yale, on the college grounds, are some of his larger works. Died, 1894. Thompson, Robert Ellis, American educator, presi- dent of Central high school, Philadelphia, since 1894, was born near Lurgan, Ireland, 1844. He was graduated at the university of Pennsylvania, 1865; S. T. D., 1887; Ph. D., Hamilton college, 1870. He was licensed to preach by the Re- formed presbytery of Philadelphia, 1867; was professor of Latin and mathematics, 1868-71, social science, 1871-81, history and English literature, 1881-92, university of Pennsylvania. Author: Social Science and National Economy; Elements of Political Economy; Protection to Home Industry, Harvard lectures; De Civitate Dei: The Divine Order of Human Society, Prince- ton Stone lectures; Political Economy for High Schools; The Hand of God in American History, etc. Thompson, William Oiley, American educator, was bom at Cambridge, Ohio, 1855. He was graduated from Muskingum college, 1878, West- ern theological seminary, Allegheny City, Pa., 1882; D. D., 1891, Muskingum college; LL. D., Western university of Pennsylvania, 1897. He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry, 1882; was president of Miami university, 1891^99, and has been president of Ohio state university since 1899. Thomson, Elihu, American electrician, was bom in Manchester, England, 1853. He was graduated from Central high school, Philadelphia, 1870; Ph. D., Tufts college. He was profes.sor of chemistry and mechanics, Philadelphia Central high school, 1870-80, and since 1880 electrician for the Thomson-Houston and General electric companies, which manufacture his inventions, for which more than 500 patents have been obtained. He is the inventor of electric welding, which bears his name, and many other impor- tant devices in electric lighting, power, etc. Thomson. James, British poet, was bom in Rox- burghshire, Scotland, 1700. He studied six years at Edinburgh. His fame rests upon his poems. The Seasons, the first of which, WirUer, appeared in 1726, followed by Summer, Spring, and Autumn. He wrote several dramas, including Agamemnon, Edward and Eleonora, and TancrM and Sigismunda. The Castle of Indolence, next to The Seasont, his best known work, wm written in 1748. The sone, "Rule Britannia" is found in a masque, Alfred, written by Thomson in con- nection with Mallet. Died, 1748. Thomson, Joseph John, English pliysicist, profeiBor of experimental physics at Cambridge university. England, since 1884; professor of physics, royal institution, London, since 1905; was bom near Manchester, 1856. He was graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, 1880. Ills work haa all been of a very profound character, and, beside* numer- ous contributions to periodical literature, includes the followine: Treatise on the Motion of Vortex Rings; Application of Dynamics to Physics arul Chemistry; Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism; Conduction of Electricity through Gases; Electricity and .*'. :t. In 1899 be accomplished the impo: - . achievement of dividing the hydrogen atom. Thomson, Sir William. See Kelvin, Lord, page 415. Thoreau (tho'-ro, tho-ro'), Henry David, .\nifrican naturalist, friend of Emerson, and a member of the transcendental school of New England, was bom at Concord, Mass., 1817. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1837, and became a sur- veyor; Uved the simplest of lives, in the study of nature, and in writing. Emerson says of him: "He was bred to no profession; he never mar- ried; he lived alone; he never went to church; he never voted; he refused to pay a tax to the state; he ate no flesh; he drsuik no wine; he never knew the use of tobacco; and, though m naturaUst, he used neither trap nor gun." This "poet naturaUst" built with his own hands a small cabin on the banks of Walden pond, near Concord, and lived there alone for two years. His expenses during these years were nine cents a day, and he gave an account of his exp>erience8 in perhaps his finest book, Walden, published in 1854. Others were Cape Cod, The Afaine Woods. and A Yankee in Cancuia. No one else haa lived so close to nature or written of it so well. He became acquainted with John Brown in 1859, and devoted the remainder of his life to the liberationist cause. Diet! at Concord, 1862. Thorpe. Thomas Edward, Engli.sh chemist, director of the government laboratories, London, was born near Manchester, 1845. He was educated at Owens college, Manchester, and at the univer- sities of Heidelberg and Bonn ; was professor of chemistry in the Andersonian institution, 1870, Yorkshire college, Leeds, 1874, and at the royal college of science, London, 1885. He was presi- dent of the society of chemical industry, 1895: honorary or correspxjnding member of the royal society of Edinburgh, literary' and philosophical societies of Glasgow, Manchester, Leeds, Haarlem, Berlin, etc. Author: Chemical Problems; Inor- ganic Chemistry; QuarUitative Analysis; Qxudita- tive Analysis; A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry; Essays in Historical Chemistry; Humphrey Davy, Poet and Philosopher; Joseph Priestley; and numerous memoirs in the philosophical transactions of the royal society, and of the chemical society. Thorwaldsen (tAr'-wdld-sin), Albert Bertet. Danish sculptor, was bom at Copenhagen, 1770. He stuched at the academy of Copenhagen, where he gained the first gold medal m sculpture, and was sent by that Ixxljr to Rome in 1796. His first great work was hjs "Jason." Except for a visit to Denmark in 1819-20, when he executed the statues of "Christ and the Twelve Apostles" for the Frue Kirke at Copx-nhagen, he remained in Rome imtil 1838. After that date he, for the most part, lived in Denmark. His masterpieces include the "Entry of Alexander into Babylon "; "Cupid and Psyche"- "St. John Preaching in the Wilderness"; "Procession to Golgotha"; the statue of "Pnnce Poniatowski"; the "Dying 1008 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Lion" at Lucerne, and busts of Byron and the Danish poet, (Ehlenschlager. Died, 1844. Thucrdldes (thu-M'-l-dez), great Greek historian, was bom at Athens, about 471 B. C. He belonged to a noble Athenian family, and was himself a person of great influence and wealth. Failing to secure the objects of an expedition which he commanded during the Peloponnesian war, h» was banished from Athens in 423 B. C, and remained in exile for twenty years, being assassinated, it is said, at Athens soon after his return. It was during his exile that he wrote his History of the Peloponnesian War, which is supposed by some to have been edited by Xeno- phon, and is remarkable for the fullness and exactness of its details, for its philosophical spirit, and for the force and elegance of its style. Among the Romans, Sallust is believed to have taken Thucydides for his model. He died about 400B. C. Thurman, Allen Granbery, American statesman, was bom at Lynchburg, Va., 1813. When six years old his family moved to Ohio, where he became a lawyer and was chosen a representa- tive in the 29th congress. In 1851 he was made judge of the supreme court of Ohio, and served as chief-justice from 1854 to 1856. He then served as United States senator, 1869-81, and was one of the ablest and most prominent mem- bers of that body. In 1888 he was a candidate for vice-president on the democratic ticket with Cleveland. Died, 1895. Thwing {tvAng), Charles Franklin, American educator, author, president of Western Reserve university since 1890, was born at New Sharon, Me., 1853. He was graduated at Harvard, 1876 , Andover theological seminary, 1879; S. T. D., Chicago theological seminary, 1889; LL. D., Marietta, 1894, Illinois college, 1894, Waynesburg college, 1901, Washington and Jefferson, 1902. He was ordained to the Congregational min- istry, 1879; was pastor of North Avenue Con- gregational church, Cambridge, Mass., 1879-86, and Plymouth church, Minneapolis, 1886-90. Author: American Colleges — Their Students and Work; The Reading of Books; The Family, with Mrs. Thwing; The Working Church; Within College Walls; The CoUege Woman; The American College in American lAfe; The Best Life; College Administration; The Youth's Dream of Life; God in His World; If I Were a College Student; The Choice of a CoUege; A Liberal Education and a Liberal Faith; CoUege Training and the Busin,ess Man; A History of Higher Education in America, etc. Tlcknor, George, American author, was bom at Boston, 1791. He was graduated at Dartmouth college when but sixteen years old, studied at Gottingen and elsewhere in Europe, 1815-19, and in 1819 became professor of French and Spanish in Harvard college. His History of Spanish Literature was published in 1849, and at once took high rank, and was translated into Spanish, German, and French. His Life of Prescott is considered one of the finest biographies ever written. He was one of the founders of the Boston pubhc Ubrary. Died, 1871. Tiffany, Charles Louis, American merchant, was bom at Killingly, Conn., 1812. In 1837, in partnership with John B. Young, on a borrowed capital of »1,000, he estabUshed a stationery and fancy goods store next door to A. T. Stewart's establishment. The jewelry part of the business- grew most rapidly. In 1847 Tiffany began the manufacture of gold jewelry; in 1850 made immense purchases of diamonds in Europe ffrofl'^ ^^ 'i" the United States at tremendou^ P„ i«i S 1^7" became Tiffany and Company m 1851, and later established branches in several European centers. Tiffany adopted the sterUng silver standard, .925 fine, which has since become standard throughout the country. Died, 1902. Tiffany, Louis Comfort, American artist, was bom in New York, 1848. He studied art under George Inness and Samuel Coleman, New York, and L6on Bailly, Paris, and has devoted himself chiefly to oriental scenes in oil and water colors. He has also done much decorative work and ia president and art director of the Tiffany glass and decorating company; president of the Tiffany furnaces. Corona, L. I.; second vice- president and trustee of Tiffany and Company. He discovered the formulas for making decora- tive glass known as "Tiffany Favrile glass"; is a member of many American and foreign art societies. Tllden, Samuel Jones, American statesman, waa born at New Lebanon, N. Y., 1814. He was educated at Yale and at New York university, and admitted to the bar in 1841. He was a member of the New York legislature, 1845, and * of the constitutional convention, 1846. By 1868 he had become leader of the democrats in the state, and attacked and destroyed the "Tweed Ring." In 1874 he became governor of New York; in 1876 was democratic candidate for the presidency, but failed to be seated on account of alleged irregularities in Louisiana. He won admiration oy his temperate utterances and unselfish attitude. He died in 1886, leaving a great part of his large fortune to found a free fibrary in New York city, which was realized in the completion of the splendid new Ubrary building in 1909. Tillman, Benjamin Byan, United States senator, farmer, was born in Edgefield county, S. C, 1847. He received an academic education; joined the confederate army, 1864, but was stricken with severe illness which caused the loss of his left eye and kept him an invalid for two years, so that he saw no military service. He then followed farming as his sole pursuit until 1886, when he became prominent in an agitation for industrial and technical education and other reforms. He was elected governor of South Carolina in 1890 and 1892, and has been United States senator since 1895; founded Clemson agricultural and mechanical college at Calhoun's old home. Fort Hill, and also Winthrop normal and industrial college at Rock Hill — the former for boys, the latter for girls, two of the largest schools of the kind in the South. He is also author of the dispensary system of selling liquor under state control ; was the centraJ figure in the South CaroUna constitutional convention, 1895, which instituted educational quaUfication for suffrage; was one of the leaders in securing the insertion of advanced positions in democratic platform of 1896 ; was prominent in the democratic national conventions of 1900 and 1904, and in the latter was active in work of harmonizing contending factions of democracy. He is a picturesque debater of acknowledged ability, and a well- known lecturer. TUly, Johann Tserklaes, Count of, Belgian general, one of the great leaders of the Thirty Years' war, was bom near Gembleaux, Belgium, 1559. He was designed for the priesthocxi and educated by Jesuits, but abandoned the church for the army. He was trained in the art of war by Parma and Alva, and prov&d himself a bom soldier. He reorganized the Bavarian army, and, devoted to the Catholic cause, was given command of the Catholic army at the outbreak of the thirty years' war, during the course of which he won many notable battles. He subse- quently cooperated with Wallenstein, whom, in 1630, he succeeded as commander-in-chief of the imperial forces. In 1631 he sacked with merci- less cruelty the town of Madgeburg, a. deed THROUGHOUT THE WORLD ion which Gustavus AdolphiiB was swift to avenge by crushing the Catholic forces in two successive battles — at Breitenfeld and at the river Lech — in the latter of which Tilly was mortally wounded. 1632. Tintoretto {ten'-to^W-td), Venetian historical painter, was bom in 1518. His real name was Jacopo Robusti, but he was called Tintoretto from the Venetian word meaning dyer, which was his father's trade. He was self-taught except for a few lessons from Titian. He took as his motto: "The design of Michaelangelo and the coloring of Titian." He rose to high repu- tation, and was employed by the Venetian government to paint a picture of the victory gained over the Turks in 1571. Most of his finest compositions are at Venice. He sketched so fast that he was called the "madman." Among his famous pictures are: " Belshazzar's Feast," a fresco; "The Last Supper"; "The Last Judgment"; "The Slaughter of the Inno- cents"; and "Paradise." He died at Venice, 1594. Tlschendorf (tlsh'-en-ddrf), I«begott Frledrlch Konstantin von, German biblical scholar, was born at Lengenfeld in Saxony, 1815. In 1839 he became a university lecturer at Leipzig, and in 1845 a professor. His labors in search of the best and most ancient MSS. of the new testa- ment, especially those in 1844, 1853, and 1859, resulted in the discovery of the fourth century SinaUic Codex at the monastery on Mount Sinai. His journeys thither he described in Reise in den Orient, and Atis dem Heiligen Lande. Among his works are the editions of the Sinaitic and many other MSS. ; the eighth edition of the new testament; an edition of the septuagint; and the Monumenta Sacra Inedita When were our Gospels Writtenf was translated in 1866. He was created count of the Russian empire, LL. D. of Cambridge, D. C. L. of Oxford, etc. He died in Leipzig, 1874. Tissot (^'-so'), James Joseph Jacques, French genre painter, was bom at Nantes, France, 1836. He was educated at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, in Paris, and under Lamothe and Flandrin. He made his first appearance in the Paris salon in 1859, with a number of fine water colors, etch- ings, etc., and in 1861 painted his "Faust and Marguerite," now in tne Luxembourg, Paris. His other notable canvases include: "Return of the Infant Prodigal"; "Confidence"; "A Widow"; "An Interesting Story"; "The Captain's Daughter"; "On the Thames"; "A Young Girl in a Boat"; and "A Young Woman in Church." He then turned his attention to his series of religious subjects illustrating the Life of Christ, for which a firm of French pub- lishers, it is said, paid him over a million francs. The series, 365 in number, were painted each on the spot traditionally associated with its subject, and were exhibited in London and Paris, where they won high fame for the distinguished artist. Died, 1902. Tltcbener (tlch'-en-Sr), Edward Bradford, American educator, Sage professor of psychology at Cornell since 1895, was born at Chichester, England, 1867. He was graduated at Brasenose college, Oxford, 1890; Ph. D., Leipzig, 1892; D. Sc, Oxford, 1906; LL. D., university of Wisconsin, 1904. He was extension lecturer in biology, Oxford, 1892 ; assistant professor of psychology, Cornell, 1892-95; American editor of Mind; associate editor of American Journal of Psychol- ogy. Author: AnOutlineof Psychology; A Primer of Psychology, etc. ; translator of several psycho- logical works. Titian (tish'-an). See page 141. Tlttmann, Otto Hilgard, American scientist, was bom at Belleville, 111., 1850. He was educated in the public schools of St. Louis, Mo., 186»-M, and entered the United States coast and cm>> detic survey in 1867. He wm Msistant astron- omer of Transit of Venus expedition to Japan, 1874, in charse of various sunreving expediUon* to the east and the west coast, United 8tiU«s; eenfe to Paris, 1890. to bring to the United State* th* national standard metre and to inspect wei|dtta and measures offices in London, Paris, and Ber> Un; United States del(>^atc to Intemational geodetic conference, Ik;rhn, 1895. Member of permanent commission international geodetie association, 1900; assistant in charae ol United States coast and geodetic survey omoe, 1806-Mf assistant superintendent, 1890-1900, and super- intendent since 1900. He was ap|K)inU>d to represent the United States in the dcmarkation of the boundary between Alaska and Canada in 1899, and was United States Alaska boundary commissioner, 1904. TocqueylUe (t6k'-vU)^ Alexis Charles Henri CMrel de, French statesman and writer, was l)om at Verneuil of an old Norman line, 1806. He studied at Metz and at Paris, was admitted to the bar in 1825, and became an assistant magis- trate at Versailles. Sent in 1831 to America to report on the penitentiary system, he wrote Democracy in America, which made a great sensation in Europe. He became successively a member of the academy of moral sciences and of the French academy. In 1835 he visited England, and in 1839 was elected to the chamber of deputies by the Norman farmers. After 184^ he was the most formidable opponent of the socialists and extreme republicans, and as stren- uously opposed Louis Napoleon. He became vice-president of the assembly in 1849^ and from June to October was minister of foreign affairs. After the coup d'itat, he retired to his Norman estate, Tocqueville, and agricultural pursuits, and there wrote L'ancien Rtgime et la Revolution. He also wrote a work on the reign of Louis XV. Died, 1859. Togo (to'-go). Admiral Count Helbachlro, Japanese aidmiral, a- samurai of the Satsuma clan, was bom at Kagoshima, 1847. He was sent to England for training on her majesty's ship Worcester, 1873-74, and after returning to his country became one of the group of hard-working young officers who successfully achieved the tasa of creating a new navy. He first came into prominence as commander of the Naniwa, which sank the transport Kowshing and forced on the war with China. He was then a rear-admiral and third in command of the fleet. After the war he became commander-in-chief at Maicuru, and was promoted vice-admiral. At the cloee of January, 1904, he was selected to command the entire Japanese fleet in the hostilities against Russia. After Nogi's (^ns from the land had completed the destruction of the Port Arthur fleet, Togo hid his ships for three months, pending the arrival of the Baltic fleet. Numerically the Russians were his superior, notably in battle- ships; but in speed, manoeuvring, gun-fire, and discipline, the advantage was all with the Japa- nese. The battle of the sea of Japan was fought May 27-28, 1905, when of the Baltic fleet twenty ships were sunk, six captured, two demolished, ana six disarmed and interned. Admirals Rojestvensky and Nebogatoff were captured with some 8,000 men, while 4,000 Russians were killed. The Japanese losses were three torpedo boats sunk, 116 men killed, and 638 wouiuled. Togo was made count in 1907. Tolstoi (tdl-stoi'). Count Lyoff Nlkolayevltcb, Rus- sian author and social reformer, was bom at Yasnaia Poliana, in the government of Toula, 1828. He studied at the university of Kaxan: entered the army when twenty-three, and served 1010 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT in the Caucasus and at Sebastopol. He first made a literary reputation by liis vivid sketches from Sebastopol. Leaving the army soon after the close of the Crimean war, he devoted himself to literature. His War and Peace, a tale of the invasion of Russia by Napoleon in 1812, ia regarded as his masterpiece; but his Anna Karenina, which appeared in 1876, is better appreciated. The Cossacks is another admirable work. Translations of his Kreutzer Sonata appeared in 1890. He wrote much on edu- cation, published many short tales and reminis- cences of childhood and youth, and latterly devoted himself to religious teaching. He made "Resist not evil" the keystone of the Christian faith, and insisted that the literal interpre- tation of the sermon on the mount is the only rule of the Christian life. His religious views are set forth in Christ's Christianity and My Religion. In 1892 he deposited his Memoirs and Diaries with the curator of the Rumyanzoff museum on the condition that they should not be published until ten years after his death. In November he legally made over his whole fortune, including his real and personal estate, to his wife and children. During 1893 he wrote The King- dom of God Within Us, an important work on the social question; and in 1895 The Four Gospels Harmonized and Translated. He was excommuni- cated by the holy synod in 1901, and the same authority enjoined all true believers to refrain from celebrating his eightieth birthday in 1908. In November, 1910, he deserted his family and retired to Astapova, where he died in a peasant's hut on November 20. Toombs, Robert, American politician, was born in Wilkes county, Ga., 1810. He was graduated at Union college, studied law at the university of Virginia, became a member of congress from Georgia in 1844, and in 1850 contributed to the passing of the compromise measures. From 1853 to 1861 he was a member of the United States senate, a Southern extremist and leading disunionist. In 1861 he became secretary of state under the confederate government, but resigned to accept the commission of brigadier- general in the confederate army. He was present at the second battle of Bull Run, was at Antietam in 1862, and in 1864 commanded the militia of Georgia. After the war he lived abroad until 1867, denounced strongly the reconstruction measures of congress, and on his return to the South refused to take the oath of allegiance to the United States government. He died in 1885 Torricelll {t6r'-re-chja74e), E vangellsta, distinguished Itahan physicist and mathematician, was bom probably at Piancaldoli, in the Romagna, 1608 He was a pupil of Galileo at the university of Florence, and succeeded him as professor of natural philosophy and mathematics in 1642 in the same mstitution. He is celebrated as the mventor of the barometer, and for his improve- ments in lenses for telescopes. He was Ukewise tbe tirst to make microscopes with globules of glass formed by the blow-pipe. He died, 1647 Torstensson (tdr'-sten-sdn), Lennard, count of Urtala, Swedish general, was bom at the castle of rorstena, Sweden, 1603. He accompanied Adolphus to Germany in 1630, and in 1641 was appointed to the command of the Swedish army IfrivJ^T''^- He invaded Silesia, and, when nrfr^i'fu^ ^y *h« imperiaUsts, turned and he sw^nt tK^'n* Breitenfeld. The next winter drovl ?L r ^.^^^ "l** ?^ Holstein, and then AdTAl ^ Austnans back into Bohemia. In Iht f u ^4^^'i'^ed to the walls of Vienna, but in the following year was compelled by illness to return to Sweden. , He died in 1651. ^ lv^„*]^Jt"l"^^p"^^^' °' Todleben, Fran. Eduard IvanoTltch, Russian general and military engi- neer, was bom at Mltau in Courland, 1818, of German descent. He served as lieutenant of engineers in the Caucasus, and was with the Russian army in the Danubian principalities in 1853. Until he was severely wounded in 1855, he conducted with skill and energy the defense of Sebastopol, and thereafter completed the fortification of Nikolaieff and Cronstaut. During the Turkish war of 1877-78 he was called to besiege Plevna, which, after a brilliant defense, he took. He died at Bad Soden near Frankfort in 1884, and was buried at Sebastopol. He wrote an account of the defense of Sebastopol. TouTgAe (M&r-z/id'), Albion Wlnegar, American author, was bom at Williamsfield, Ohio, 1838. He studied at the university of Rochester, N. Y. ; enlisted as a private in the 27th New York volunteers : was wounded at Bull Run and again at Perryville; and was held a prisoner for four months. He moved to North Carolina, where he was prominent in the reconstruction of the state, drawing up the constitution, and aiding in the revision of the laws. For some years prior to his death in 1905 he was United States consul at Bordeaux, France, and Halifax. Canada. His writings, besides legal works, include: Toinette; Figs and ThisUea; A Fool'a Errand; and Brick* vnihmU Straw. TouBsaint L*OuTerture (Wa'-sdN' lOZ-vir^-tiir'), Francois Dominique, Haitian ^neral, was bom in 1743, son of African slaves, in Santo Domingo. In 1796 he was appointed by the F'rench direc- tory chief of the army of Santo Domingo, and afterward established his authority throughout the island, which he ruled with justice and vigor. When Bonaparte sought to restore slavery in Santo Domingo in 1801, Toussaint resisted, but was forced to surrender, and was sent to France, where he died in prison in 1803. Tower, Chariemagne, American capitalist and diplomat, was Ixtm in Philadelphia, Pa., 1848. He was graduated at Harvard in 1872; LL. D., Lafayette, university of Chicago, university of Glasgow. After graduation at Harvard be studied history, foreign languages and literature in Europe, 1872-76 ; studied law at Philadelphia, and was admitted to the bar in 1878. He lived in Duluth, Minn., 1882-87; was president of Duluth and Iron Range railroad and managing director of Minneapolis iron company; returned to Philadelphia, 1887, where he nas large inter- ests. He was United States minister to Austria- Hungary, 1897-99; ambassador to Russia, 1899- 1902, and ambassador to Germany, 1902-08. Author: The Marquis de La Fayette in the American Revolution. Toy, Crawford Howell, American educator, biblical scholar, was bom in Norfolk, Va., 1836. He was graduated at the university of Virginia, 1856; studied at the university of Berlin, 1866- 68; A. M., LL. D. He was professor of Hebrew in the Southern Baptist theological seminarv, Greenville, S. C, and Louisville, Ky., 1869-79; Hancock professor of Hebrew and other oriental languages at Harvard, 1880-1909, professor emeritus since 1909; was Dexter lecturer on biblical Uterature until 1903. Author: The Religion of Israel; Quotations in the New Testament; Juda- ism and Christianity; Hebrew Text and English Translation of Ezekiel; Commentary on Pro- verbs, etc. Trajan (tra'-jan), Marcus Ulplns Crinitus, Roman emperor, sumamed Optimus, was bom at Italica, in Spain, about 52 A. D. After having dis- tinguished himself at the head of the legions in lower Germany, he was, at the age of forty-two, adopted by Nerva. On the death of that mon- arch, 98 A. D., Trajan was invested with the imperial purple. The adoption of Nerva and the choice of the senate were justified by the THROUGHOUT THE WORLD lOtl conduct of the emperor. In his civil capacity, he ruled for the welfare of his people; in his military character, he sustained the glory of Rome, by defeating the Dacians, Parthmns, Arabians, Armenians, and Persians. The column which bears his name was raised in the Roman capital to commemorate his victories. He died 117 A. D. Tree, Herbert Beerbohm, English actor and man- ager, son of a grain merchant named Beerbohm, was born in London, 1853. Shortly after enter- ing his father's office, in 1870, he became a mem- ber of an amateur dramatic club, and joined the profession in 1877. His first success was aa the timid curate in The Private Secretary, and imme- diately after he played the grim spy Macari in Called Back. He managed the Comedy theater in 1887, and produced The Red Lamp; and in the autumn of the same year assumed charge of the Haymarket theater. In 1897 he opened his new theater, His Majesty's, in the Haymarket. Here he has produced the greatest of his suc- cesses: Julius Ccesar; King John; A Midsum- mer Night's Dream; Herod; Twelfth Night; The Merry Wives of Windsor; Ulysses; The Eternal City; King Richard II.; The Darling of the Gods; The Tempest; Much Ado AboiU Nothing; Busi- ness is Business; Oliver Twist; Nero; Colond Newcame, etc. In 1905 he inaugurated a Shakespeare festival, which is now one of the annual arrangements of the theater. During the Shakespeare celebrations in 1906, he revived Hamlet, Julius Caesar, Twelfth Night, Much Ado About Nothing, Henry IV., and The Tempest. In 1907 he produced several of Shakespeare's plays in Berlin, and was received by the em- peror. His wife, an admirable Greek scholar, formerly connected with Queen's college, is a very refined actress. Trench, Richard Chenevlx, British prelate and writer, was bom at Dublin, 1807. He was graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, 1829. After a vovage to Gibraltar he became curate at Hadleigh, incumbent of Curdridge, and in 1841 curate to Samuel Wilberforce, afterward bishop of Winchester. During 1835—46 he pub- lished six volumes of poetry, reissued in 1865. In 1845 he became rector of Itchenstoke; in 1847 professor of theologv in King's college, London; in 1856 dean of Westminster; and in 1863 archbishop of Dublin, an office which he resigned in 1884. His principal works are: Notes on the Parables; Notes on the Miracles; Hulsean Lectures; Sacred Latin Poetry; The Study of Words; Lessons in Proverbs; New Testament Synonyms; English Past and Present; Life and Genius of Calderon; Select Glossary of English Words; Studies on the Gospels; and Lectures on Mediaeval Church History. He died in 1886, and was buried in Westminster abbey. Trent, William Peterfleld, American educator and critic, was born at Richmond, Va., 1862. He was graduated at the university of Virginia, A. M., 1884; LL*. D., Wake Forest college, 1899; D. C. L., university of the South, 1905. He was professor of English, 1888-1900, and dean of the academic department, 1894-1900, university of the South. Editor of the Sewanee Review, 1892- 1900. Author : English Culture in Virginia; Life of William Gilmore Simms; Southern Statesmen of the Old Regime; Robert E. Lee; Verses; John Mil- ton, a Short Study of His Life and Works; Author- ity of Criticism; War and Civilization; The Prog- ress of the United States in the Century; A History of American Literature, 1607-1865; History of the United States for Schools; A Brief History of American Literature; Greatness in Literature, ana Other Papers; Daniel Defoe, etc. Tribonlan (fri-fto'-nl-an), celebrated Byzantine jurisconsxilt, was bom at Sida, in Pampbylla, about the beginning of the nixth century. H« gaine'ice. Among his writings are, Refiections upon the Formation and DistrHnUion of Riches, and a work on Usury. He died at Paris in 1781. Tomer, Joseph Mallord William, British landscape painter, was born in London, 1775. His genius for art showed itself very early, and in 1787, when only twelve years old, he exhibited two drawings at the royal academy. Again, in 1790, he exhibited, and thence onward until his death. In 1799 he was elected an associate of the royal academv, and three years afterward attained the full dignity of academician. He traveled much, and was frequently in Scotland, France, Switaerland, the Rhine countries, and Italy. His industry was almost as unexampled as his genius. To the exhibitions of the royal academy he contributed in all 259 pictures. In 1808 he commenced the publication of his famous Liber Studiorum, a series of engravings from original designs, which ranks as one of his most impor- tant undertakings; to this is to be added his Scenery of the Souihem Coast; England and Wales; Rivers of England; Rivers of France; etc. Among his finest paintings are: "Dido Building Carthage"; "The Sun Rising in a Mist"; "The Slave Ship"; "The Burial of Wilkie at Sea " ; "The Grand Canal"; "Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus," etc. Died, 1851. Twain, Mark. See Clemens, Samuel I^anghome. Tycho Brahe. See Brahe. Tyler, John, tenth president of the United States, was bom at Greenway, Va., 1790. He was graduated at William and Mary college, 1807; studied law, and was admitted to the bar. He was elected five times to the state legislature, and three times to congress. He sympathized with the states' rights party, and opposed the United States bank, protection, and all limita- tions of slavery. In 1825 and again in 1827 he was chosen governor of Virginia; and in 1833 was elected United States senator. From this time he acted with the whig party, being an active partisan of Henry Clay, and in 1840 was elected by that party vice-president of the United States, with Harrison as president. The death of President Harrison, a month after his inauguration, made Tyler president in 1841. His administration, at first favorable to the whies, was soon displeasing to them. He vetoed the bill for a United States bank, at that time a favorite project of the party. Several members of the cabinet resigned, and finally John C. Calhoun, the great democratic statesman, was THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1018 made secretary of state. The annexation of Texas in 1845, and the passing of a protective tariff law in 1842, were among the important acts of Tyler's administration. In 1861 ne was president of the peace convention which met at Washington to effect a compromise between the North and the South. He afterward joined the confederate cause, and was a member of the confederate congress at his death, which occurred at Richmond, Va., 18G2. Tyler, Moses Colt, American educator and writer, professor of American history at Ck)rnell univer- sity, 1881-1900, was born at Griswold, Conn., 1835, and was graduated at Yale in 1857. He spent several years in the ministry, later travel- ing in Europe. From 1867 to 1881 he was pro- fessor of English at the university of Michigan, and for a time was literary editor of The Christian Union. In 1881 he accepted the chair of Ameri- can history at Cornell. He wrote: Manual of English Literature; History of American Litera- ture during the Colonial Period, 1606-1766; The Literary History o/ the American Revolution; Glimpses of England; Life of Patrick Henry, etc. Died, 1900. Tylor, Edward Burnett, English anthropologist, was born at Camberwell, 1832. He was edu- cated at Tottenham, and, after traveling in Cuba and Mexico, he wrote Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans. He was in 1883 appointed keeper of the Oxford luiiversity museum and reader in anthropology; and in 1896 was made professor of anthropology. He was in 1888 Gifford lec- turer at Aberdeen, and president of the anthro- pological society in 1891. His Researches into the Early History of Mankind, Primitive Culture, and Anthropology stand first among works of their class. Tyndale, William, English divine, was bom in Gloucestershire, about 1484. He studied at both Oxford and Cambridge, where he acquired a knowledge of the Greek language, at that time little understood in England. Having become impressed with the importance of giving to the English people the Bible in their own language, he devoted himself to that work in private for many years; until, in 1523, finding it no longer safe to prosecute his labors in his own country, he sailed for Hamburg, and from that port Eroceeded to Wittenberg. There he completed is version of the new testament, which was published at Antwerp, 1526. He then under- took a translation of the old testament, in which he was assisted by Miles Coverdale. After 1530 he lived at Antwerp, where he was taken prisoner, at the instigation of Henry VIII., and was confined for a year and a halt in the castle of Vilvoord, or Villefort, near Brussels; and was at length strangled in 1536 near his prison, his body being afterward burned. His last words were, "Lord, open the king of Eng- land's eyes." Besides his version of the Bible, Tyndale wrote several treatises, of which The Wicked Mammon and The True Obedience of a Christian Man are the best known. Tyndall, John, British physicist, was bom in County Carlow, Ireland, 1820. He began his career as a surveyor and railway engineer, went to Germany for study during 1848-51, and be- came in 1853 professor of natural philosophjy^ in the royal institution of London, a post he held to within a year or two of his death. His pub- lished lectures on Light, Sound, and Heat a Mode of Motion are well known; he also wrote on glaciers, the physics of crystals, and many essays on other subjects. As a lecturer he greatly developed the system of lantern demon- stration now so general in all educational theaters. In 1874 he presided at the meeting of the British association in Belfast, and there delivered an address which by its mat«>rialiHtic t<-ndency anil anti-tcleulogic tone crcaU-d much excitement and opposition, as it was in fact intended to do. Ua was, however, best known as a popular exponeat of physical science, and his lectures on light, delivered in America, attracted immense audi- ences. His chief works, benidcs the above, are: Essays on the Imagination in Science; The Forma of Water; Lessons in Electricity: Fermentation; Fragments of Science, etc. He died in 1893. Chland ('-torU), Jobaim LudwICf German poet, was born at Tubingen, 1787, and studied at the university of his native citv. Ue began to publish ballads and other lyrics in various periodicals, collected under the title of Gediehte, m 1815. It is on these and his songs, such •• Der gute Kamerad and Das Schloss am Meer, that- his fame rests. His other productions include the essays, Ueber Walther von drr Vogcl- weide; Der Mythus von Thdr; Sagenlchre vom Thor; and two dramas, Hertog Ernst von Schxoaben and Ludxvig der Bayer. He died at Tubingen, 1^2. Ulfllas {W-fl-lds), translator of the Bible into Gothic, was bom about 311. He was made bishop in 341, was expelled by his heathen com- patriots from his native place seven years later, and sought refuge, together with a number of newly converted Christians, in lower Mccsia, at the foot of the Hcemus, where he remained for thirty years. He was one of the chief lights of Arianism, in the interest of which he exerted himself with the utmost energy. Familiar with Latin, Greek, and Gothic, and accustomed to write in each of them, he undertook to render the whole Bible, with the exception of Kings, into Gothic. Up to the ninth century tnis sacred and national work accoinpanied the Goths in all their migrations. The Swedes cap- tured it and took it to Upsala, where it still remains in the university library under the name of the Codex Argenteus. Died, 381. Ulpian (id'-pl-an), Domitius, Roman jurist, bom at Tyre, about 170 A. D. He held judicial offices under Septimius Severus and Caracalla, and, on the accession of Alexander Severus in 222, became his principal a plete control of the New York and Staten Island tines. Later he started steamboats in various waters — the Hudson, the Delaware, Long Island sound, and established steamboats and other connections between New York and Cali- fornia. In 1864 he withdrew his capital from shipping and investiHl it in railroads. He secured the management of one railroad after another and, in 1877, controlled stocks representing an aggregate capital of $150,000,000, of which be owned fully one-half. In 1801 he presented the steamship Vanderbilt to the United States gov- ernment to be used for the capture of confederate privateers, and in 1872 founded Vanderbilt university at Nashville, Tenn., to which he gave about $1,000,000. At the time of his death in New York citv, 1877, his fortune was estimated at neariy $100,000,000. Vanderbilt, Georire Waahlngton* capitalist, waa bom at New Dorp, Staten Island, N. Y., 1862. He was educated by private tutors and at the best schools, and traveled extensively. He gave to New York the Thirteenth street branch of the free circulating library, which he founded, pro- vided with suitable buildings and appointments; presented New York college for the training of teachers, its site on MorniuKside Heights, adjoin- ing site selected for Columbia college; and pre- sented American fine arts society of New York the room in their building known as the Vander- bilt gallery. He subsequently purchased 100,000 acres of mountain land on tne French Broad river, near Asheville, N. C, and laid it out in a vast park; erected mansion and stables; stocked this estate and spends much of his time super- intending its improvements. Vanderbilt, WiUiam Klssam, capitalist, was bom in Staten Island, 1849. He received an academic education, and studied several years in Geneva, Switzerland. He subsequently learned railroad- ing and was second vice-president of the New York Central and Hudson River railroad, 1877-83; was chairman of the board of directors of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern rail- way from 1883; director of New York Central and Hudson River railroad. New York, Chi- cago and St. Louis railroad company, Michi- gan Central railroad company. Lake Erie and Western railroad company, Cfhicago and North- western railway company, Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha railway company, Cleve- land, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis railway company, Detroit and Chicago railroad company. New York and Harlem railroad, Pittsburgh and Lake Erie railroad company, West Shore rail- road company, The Pullrnan company, etc. Vanderlip, Frank Arthur, banker, president of the National city bank. New York, since 1909, was born in Aurora, 111., 1864. He studied at the university of Illinois and university of Chicago: became reporter, Chicago Tribune, later financial editor; associate editor, Chicago Economist; private secretary to Secretary of the Treasury Gage, 1897; assistant secretary of the treasury, 1897-1901 ; and vice-president of National city bank. New York, 1901-09. He was a delegate to the international conference of commerce and industry, Ostend, Belgium, 1902; is trustee of Carnegie foundation; member of council of New York university; and director in various finan- cial institutions. Author: Chicago Street Rail- ways; The American Commercial Invasion of Europe; Business and Education, etc. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1015 Tanderljii, John, American painter, was bom at Kingston, N. Y., 1775. He studied painting under Gilbert Stuart, visited Paris and studied his art in that city for a number of years. He returned home in 1801, but in 1803 made another journey to Europe, where he remained until 1815. Among his works executed while in Europe were, "The Murder of Jane McCrea by the Indians'' and "Marius sitting among the Ruins of Car- thage." The "Landing of Columbus," placed in the rotunda of the national capitol and engraved on the five dollar note was designed by Vanderlyn. One of his best known portraits is that of Wash- ington in the hall of the house of representatives. Died, 1852. Van Devanter, Willis, jurist, was born at Marion, Ind., 1859; educated at Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) university, 1875-78; LL. B., Cincin- nati Law School, 1881. He practiced law at Marion, Ind., 1881-84, at Cheyenne, Wyo., from 1884. He was conmaissioner to revise the Wyoming statutes, 1886; city attorney, Chey- enne, 1887-88 ; member of territorial legislature, 1888; chief justice of supreme court of Wyoming, 1889-90; chairman republican state committee, 1892-94 ; member republican national committee, 1896-1900; assistant attorney-general of United States, 1897-1903; United States circuit judge, 8th judicial district, 1903-10. Professor in law department of Columbian university, Washing- ton, D. C 1898-1903. In 1910 he was appointed bv President Taft an associate justice of the iJnited States supreme court. Van Dyck, or Vandyke, Sir Anthony, Flemish painter,' distinguished for his surpassing excel- lence in portraiture, was born in Antwerp, 1599. He was a pupil of Rubens, and subsequently studied in Venice, Genoa, arid Rome. In 1632 he became court painter to Charles I. of England, and was knighted by that monarch. His "Christ on the Cross " at Antwerp is his greatest historical work, and his full-length picture of "Charles I. on Horseback" his best example of portraiture. Died in London in 1641. Van Dyke, Henry Jackson, American educator and writer, was bom in Germantown, Pa., in 1852. He was graduated at Princeton university in 1873, at the Princeton theological seminary in 1877, and at Berlin university in 1879. Soon afterward he assumed the pastorate of the United Congrega- tional church in Newport, R. I., and was pastor of the Brick Presbj-terian church. New York city, 1883-1900. In the latter year he became pro- fessor of English literature in Princeton univer- sity. Author: The Reality of Religion; The Story of the Psalms; The Poetry of Tennyson; Sermons to Young Men; The Christ Child in Art; Little Rivers; The Other Wise Man; The Gospel for an Age of Doubt; The First Christmas Tree; The Builders, and Other Poems; Ships and Havens; The Lost Word; The Gospel for a World of Sin; Fisherman's Luck; The Tmling of Felix, and Other Poems'; The Poetry of the Psalms; The Friendly Year; The Riding Passion; The Blue Flower; The Open Door; The School of Life; Es- says in Application; The Spirit of Christmas, etc. Van Dyke, John Charles, author, educator, art critic, was bom in New Brunswick, N. J., 1856. He was privately educated, and studied at Columbia; L. H. D., Rutgers, 1899. He was admitted to the New York bar, 1877, but turned attention to literature, and since 1878 has been librarian of the Sage library, New Brunswick, N. J. He studied art many years in Europe; traveled much on both continents and has written extensively on both art and nature; has been professor of history of art, Rutgers col- lege, since 1889 ; lecturer in Columbia, Harvard, Princeton. Editor: The Studio, 1883-84; Art Review, 1887-88 ; College Histories of Art; History of Amrrican Art. Author: Use Them; Studiet in Picturet; Booka and Hew to M. The Nma Nam York; What is Artf etc. Vane, Sir Henry, F^ngUah statesman, colonial fov- eraor of Massachusetts, was bom in 1612. H« was opposed to the Kngli.<)>i church, and in 1636 came to America to join tlie Puritans in MaM»- chusetts. The next year he was chosen governor: but religious troubles arose in the colony, and in 1637 he returned to England. In 1640 ha was elected to parliament and was knighted. He was always op|>o»ed to Cromwell, and, after the latter's death, was the leader of the republican party. On tiie restoration of tl»e king Charles II,, Vane was arrested and imprisoned ; but the king Eromised to spare his life. Charles, however. roke his word, and Vane was tried on a charge of high treason and condemned to die. At the scaf- fold he tried to address the people ; but his voice was drowned bv the noise of drums and trumpets. He was beheaded on Tower hill, London, \VAS2. Van Hlse (vdn hW), Charles Klchard, American educator, geologist, was bom in Fulton, Wis., 1857. He graduated at the university of Wis- consin, 1879, Ph. D., 1892: LL. D., Chicago, 1903, Yale, 1904. He was instmctor in metal- lurgy, 1879-83, assistant professor metallurgy, 1883-86, professor metallurgy, 1886-88, pro^ sor mineralogy, 1888-90, professor archaean and applied geology, 1890-92, professor geology, 1892-1903, president since 1903 of the umverMty of Wisconsm. Since 1883 he has been con- nected with the United States and Wisconsin geological surveys. He is a member of many scientific societies. Author: Principlea of North Am.erican Pre-Cambrian Geology; Some Princi' pies Controlling the Deposition of Ores; A TreatiM on Metamorphism; and many scientific and educational papers. Van Home, Sir William Cornelius, Canadian rail- way official, was bom in Will county, Illinois, 1843. He was educated in the common schools, and became telegraph operator with the Illinois Central railroad, 1857. He was with the Michi- gan Central in various capacities, 1858-64; Chicago and Alton as train dispatcher, superin- tendent telegraph, and division superintendent, 1864-72; St. Louis, Kansas City and Northern as general superintendent, 1872-74; Southern Minnesota, general manager, 1874-77, continuins as president to 1879 ; Chicago and Alton, general superintendent, 1877-79; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, general superintendent, 1880-81 ; Canadian Pacific, general manager, 1882-84, vice-president and general manager, 1884-8S, 8 resident, 1888-99; chairman of the board of the anadian Pacific railway company, 1899-1910. He is also president of the Cuba company. Vasarl (vS-zd'-re), Giorgio, Italian art historian, painter and architect, was bom at Arczzo, 1511. He studied under Michaelangelo and Andrea del Sarto, and entered the service of Duke Cosirao the Great, with whom he remained until his death, 1574. He was one of the most versatile artists of the later renaissance, and an architect of no mean merit. His greatest service to art is his world-renowned Lives by which we gain our chief knowledge of the artists of the Italian renaissance. V asari has been termed the founder of modem art history and criticism. Vassar, Matthew, American philanthropist and founder of Vassar college, was bom in Norfolk county, England, 1792. Four years later he accompanied his father to America, where he settled on a farm near Poughkeepsie, N. Y., his father establishing a brewery in that city. The son subsequently succeeded to his father's interests, and simassed a fortune. In 1861 he donated S400,000 to the institution in Pough- keepsie that became known as Vassar college. 1016 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT On his death, in 1868, he provided in his will for a further donation of $400,000 to Vassar. The institution has been since enriched by large sums donated to it by the nephews of Matthew Vasaar. Tauban (t;d'-6aN')» Sebastian le Prestre de« French marshal, one of the greatest of military engineers, was born in 1633, at Saint Leger de Foucheret, in Burgundy. He first served in the Spanish army, imder Cond6, but, being taken prisoner by the French troops, Mazarin gave him a lieutenancy. The sieges of Ypres, Gravelines, and Oudenarde, in 1658, were his first attempts in the science of attack. From that period until the peace of Ryswick he was incessantly em- ployed, either in erecting fortresses for the defense of France, or in reducing those which belonged to her enemies. In 1703 he reluctantly accepted the marshal's staff. The siege of Brisach was his last operation. He died in 1707. Vauban wrote various works, principally on fortification. TebleUf Thorsteln, educator, author, was graduated at Carleton college, 1880; Ph. D., Yale, 1884. He was fellow in economics and finance, Cornell, 1891-92; and successively fellow, reader, assist- ant and instructor, 1892-1900, and associate professor of economics, 1900-06, at the univer- sity of Chicago; associate professor of economics at Leland Stanford Jr. university, 1906-09. Author of The Theory of the Leisure Class and Tfie Theory of Business Enterprise. Tedder (rW-€r), Elihu, American painter, was born at New York, 1836. He studied at Paris and in Italy, and made Rome his ultimate residence. His subjects are mostly ideal, and include: "The Lair of the Sea-serpent"; 'Fish- erman and Djin"; "Death of Abel"; "Greek Actor's Daughter' ; "Ciunean Sibyl"; "Nausi- caa and her Companions"; "The Monk upon the Gloomy Path," etc. He has finely illus- trated Edward FitzGerald's Omar Khayydm, etc. Tega Carpio {va'-ga k&r'-pyd). Lope Felix de, noted Spanish dramatist, was bom at Madrid, 1562. He was a graduate of AlcaUl; served in the Portuguese campaign of 1580 and in the Armada; was secretary to the duke of Alva, marquis of Malpica, and marquis of Sarria; was banished from Madrid because of a quarrel, lived two years at Valencia, and about 1614 took priest's orders. He died poor, for his large income from his dramas and other sources was almost wholly devoted to charity and church. The mere list of Lope's works presents a picture of unparalleled mental activity. His first work of length was a poem, the Angelica. Then fol- lowed Arcadia, a story, and Dragontea, an expression of exultation in ten cantos over the death of the dragon. But it was as a ballad writer that he first made his mark. The more notable of his miscellaneous works are: the Rimas; Peregrino en su Patria, a romance; Jerusalen Conquistada, an epic in competition with Tasso; Pastores de Bden, a religious pas- toral; Filomena and Circe, miscellanies in emu- lation of Cervantes; Corona Tragica, an epic on Mary Stuart; Laurel de Apolo; Rimas de Tome de BurguUlos, a collection of lighter verse, with the Gatomaquia, a mock-heroic; and Dorotea, in form a prose drama, obviously the story of his own early love adventures. All these works show the hand, not of a great artist, but of a consummate artificer. He died, 1635. Tel&squez (va-las'-kath). See page 150. Tenddme (vaN'-dom'), Louis Joseph, Due de, French general, was bom at Paris, 1654, and saw his first service in the Dutch campaign of 1672. He next served with distinction under lurenne in Germany and Alsace, again in Hol- land under Luxembourg, and in Italy imder Catmat; m 1695 he received the command of the army m Catalonia. He shook ofiE his indo- lence, and closed a seriefl of brilliant successes by the capture of Barcelona in 1697. After five years of sloth he superseded Villeroi in Italy, much to the delight of the soldiers. He fought an undecided battle with Prince Eugene at Luzzara, then burst into the Tyrol, returning to Italy to check the united Savoyards and Aus- trians. In August, 1705, he fought a second indecisive battle with Prince Eugene at Cassano, and at Calcinato he crushed the Austrians in 1706. That summer he was recalled to super- sede Villeroi in Holland. The defeat at Ouden- arde, 1708, cost him his command, but in 1710 he was sent to Spain to aid Philip V. His ap- pearance turned the tide of disaster; he brought the king back to Madrid, and defeated the English at Brihuega, and next day the Austrians at Vil- laviciosa. He died at Tinaroz, in Valencia, 1712. Verdi (vAr'-di), Giuseppe, Italian operatic com- poser, was bom in 1813, at Rancola, in the duchy of Parma. lie studied at Busseto and Milan, settled in the latter city, 1838, but in later life lived in Genoa and at his villa St. Agata, near Busseto. He was a member of the Italian parliament in 18C0 and senator in 1875. He was a member of many artistic societies, and was decorated by the rulers of Russia and Egypt. His works comprise a long list of popular favor- ites, including Ernani, Macbeth, kigoletto, II Trovatore, La Traviata, Aida, Othello, Falataff, etc. He died at Milan. 1901. VereBhchaidn ivyi-ri-«hcM'-&ln), Vassill, Russian painter, was bom in 1842, at Tcberepovets, in Novgorod. He entered the navy in 1859, but studied art under G^rdme at Pans. In 1867 he was with Kauffmann in the Turcoman com- paigns, and reaped a rich artistic harvest from a visit to India in 1874 Still more famous were his realistic pictures of the horrors of the Russo- Turkish war of 1877. In 1884 he made another journey to India, Syria, and Palestine; and pro- duced a series of pictures of the life of Christ. He painted also gigantic pictures of the execution of mutinous sepoys by English soldiers and of ni- hilists bv the Russian authorities. He was blown up on fiiakaroff's flagship off Port Arthur, 1904. Vergil. See page 28. Verne (t>6rn), Jules, French author, was bom at Nantes, 1828. He studied law, but turned to literature, producing his Cinq semaines en ballon in 1863. He struck the rich but not unexplored vein of scientific adventure. Among his works are: Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea; The Mysterixms Island; Around the World in Eighty Days; Michael Strogoff; From the Earth to the Moon; and The Purchase of the North Pole. Died, 1905. Vemet (vft^-n^'), £mile Jean Horace, French battle painter, was born in Paris, 1789. In early life he served for a time in the army, and this cir- cumstance, combined with the fact that both his father and his grandfather had attained considerable distinction as painters of battle pieces, induced him to devote himself to the same department of his art. He studied under Moreau and Vincent, and achieved a success hitherto unequaled as a painter of battles. In 1842 he was made commander of the legion of honor, and declined the rank of baron. Many of his pictures are to be found in the galleries of Paris and Versailles, and include the "Grena- dier of Waterloo"; battles of Jemappes, Valmy, Hanau, Bouvines, Jena, Friedland, Wagram, Isly; " Barrier of Clichy " ; " Bridge of Areola " ; "Siege of Antwerp", etc. Died, 1863. Veronese (vd'-ro-na'-sd), Paolo. See Cagliari. Paolo. Veirazano (vir'-rat-sa'-nd), Giovanni da, Floren- tine navigator, was bom at Florence, Italy, about 1480, and died, probably, about 1527 — being executed as a pirate, it is said, in New THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1017 Caatile. About 1505, it is known that he entered the French maritime service, made a voyage to the East Indies in a Portuguese ship in 1517, and became exjjert as an explorer and navigator. In 1522 he is said to have captured the rich treasure sliip in whicli Cortes was sending the spoils of Mexico to Charles V. of Spain. From the Madeira islands he is further Icnown to have sailed in 1524 on a voyage of discovery in Ameri- can waters, and, on sighting Cape Fear, he coasted along until he reached what is now New York bay, continuing his explorations as far as Rhode Island and New Hampshire. It was on a second voyage to the new world, in 1527, that it is alleged he was captured by Spaniards and hanged as a corsair. Vesalius (t'e-sd'-Zl-tis), Andreas, Belgian anatomist and physician, was bom in Brussels in 1514. He lectured on anatomy at Basel, Padua, and elsewhere after 1537; was appointed physician to Charles V. in 1544; accompanied Charles in his campaigns as physician, and also attended Philip II. of Spain. He died in 1564, in Zante, where he had been wrecked on his return from Jerusalem. His great work was De Corporis Humani Fabrica. Vespasian (vis-pd'-zhl-an), Titus Flavius Veapa- sianus« Roman emperor from 70 to 79, was born 9 A. D. His father was a native of Reate, in the country of the Sabini, but his mother was the sister of a Roman senator. In the reign of Claudius he was appointed to a military com- mand in Britfiin' when he conquered the Isle of Wight; and was afterward proconsul of Africa under Nero, who subsequently sent him to the East to conduct the war against the Jews. After the death of Vitellius he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers; and the wisdom, moderation, and firmness of his reign showed the propriety of the choice. The most important events of the reign were the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, A. D. 70, and the conquest of North Wales and the island of Anglesea by Agricola, who was sent into Britain in 78. In the following year Vespasian retired and died. Vespucci (vSs-p<}iif-che\ Amerlgo« Italian navigator, was bom at Florence, 1451. He was first em- ployed in the commercial house of the Medici, and in 1493 went to Spain where he became a member of a commercial firm in Seville about 1495. In 1497 he embarked at Cadiz in one of a fleet of five ships commanded by Alonso de Hojeda, and after thirty-seven days' sailing reached America, coasted along the continent for several hundred leagues, and returned to Spain the same year. Columbus had already landed on the mainland of America in the previous year, so that to him doubtless belongs the honor of being the discoverer of the continent, but the discovery had been kept a state secret, and the Erior publication of Vespucci's narrative led to is name being given to the continent, at the suggestion, it» is said, of the publisher of the narrative. His first voyage was followed by several others, first in the service of Spain, and afterward in that of Portugal. In 1506 he was recalled to the court of Spain, and two years afterward was appointed chief pilot, which office he retained until his death in 1512. Vest, George Graham, American legislator, was bom at Frankfort, Ky., 1830. He graduated at Centre college, Kentucky, and at the law depart- ment of the Transylvania university at Lexing- ton. In 1853 he removed to Missouri, where he practiced law, and became a member of the state legislature. During the^ civil war his secessionist leanings induced him to become a member of the confederate congress and later of the confederate senate. From 1879 to 1903 he was a democratic member for Missouri in the United States senate, where ho was prominMit in many important debates. He died in 1904. Yiaud (vyd\ Louis Marie Jullen. "Pierre LoU," French writer, was born of a Huguenot line, at Rochefort. 1850. He entered the navy in 1867, became a lieutenant in 1881 and resigned in 1896. He traveled extensively, and produced in 1870 his first work of importance, Aziyadi, a aeriee of pic- tures of life on the Hosphorus. This was foUowvd by Le Manage de Loti, which carried the Imagina- tion captive with all the charm of the coral seas. Later came Le Roman d'un Svahi; Mon Frtr4 Yves; Le Plcheur d'Idande, dealing with Brittany and the frozen North; Propos d'Exil; Madame ChrysarUhhne; Japonneries aAtitomnt; Le Roman d'un Enfant; Le Livre de la Pitie et de la Mori; Fantdme d' Orient; Le Disert; La OaliUe; Fiffwee et Chases; Jerusalem; L'Inde »ans U» AngUtie; Madame Prune, etc. Victor Enunanuel 11^ first king of modem Italy, was bom at Turin, 1820, son of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia. After serving gallantly in the army, he became king of Sardinia by the abdi- cation of his father, on the evening of the battle of Novara, March 23, 1849. From the Austrian conquerors of his country, he succeeded in obtaining the withdrawal of their demand that the Sardinian constitution should be abolished. This liberal constitution, granted by his father, he faithfully maintained, earning by this con- duct the title of the "honest king," and winning the confidence of the Italian nation. He chose wise counselors, and, with Cavour to jpide, made many reforms, took part in the Crimean war, and visited Paris and London. With the help of the French, the battles of Solferino and Magenta were fought against Austria, but the peace of Villafranca between Austria and France left Italy still distant from its hoped for unity. But Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna voted for annexation to Sardinia, and the Prus- sian alliance in 1866 gave Venice to Italy. The French withdrew from Rome, and on December 31, 1870, Victor Emmanuel entered Rome and became king of a united Italy. He reigned eight years, dying at Rome, 1878. ' Victoria, Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain and Ireland, empress of India, bom in 1819, died in 1901. She was the only child of Edward, duke of Kent, fourth son of George III., and, on the death of William IV., she succeeded to the throne in 1837, and was crowned queen in 1838. In 1840 she married Albert, prince of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, who died in 1861, and by whom she hiul nine children. She assumed title of empress of India in 1877. The jubilee of her reign was cele- brated in 1887, and her diamond jubilee in 1897. Five attempts were made on her life. The chief events of her reign were the establishment of the I>enny jxrat; the repeal of the com laws; the an- nexation of the Punjaub; the Crimean war, the Indian mutiny, followed by the assumption of sovereignty over India; the second and third reform bills; wars in Afghanistan, China, South Africa, and Egypt; and the Fenian ^ and home rule agitations in Ireland. Queen Victoria was strictly impartial in the party politics of her reign, and was remarkable for her wisdom, knowledge of foreign affairs, unselfishneA.s, and uprlglitness of chai^u;ter. No sovereign hsa ever Seen more revered by her subjects. Vlgny {ytn'-yi'\ Alfred Victor, Comte de, French poet and novelist, was bom at Loches, France, 1799. He entered the French armv at sixteen and served twelve years. In 1822 he published anonymously a small volume of verae, followed in 1824 by Eloa, an exquisite piece of mystic phantasy. He then issued his collected Po^mes antiques ti modemes; Cinq Mars, a historical romance ; a translation of Othello; and a drama. 1018 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT La Mar6chale d'Anere. After 1830 he published chiefly works in prose, including Stello; Grandeur et Servitude MUiiaires; and a drama, ChatterUm. He left at his death a volume of verse, Destinies, and Journal d'un Poite. In 1845 he waa elected to the academy. He died in 1863. VUas {m'4ds), William Freeman, American lawyer and legislator, was born at Chelsea, Vt., 1840. He graduated at the university of Wisconsin, 1858, and at the Albany law school, 18(i0. In 1862 he recruited Company A, 23d Wisconsin volunteers; took part m Vicksburg campaipi; was promoted to lieutenant-colonel, commanding his regiment during siege of Vicksburg; after- ward resigned his commission and resumed practice. He was law professor, 1868-85, and 1881-85 and 1897-1905, regent of the university of Wisconsin. He was a member of the^ com- mission to revise statutes of Wisconsin, 1875-78; member of the Wisconsin legislature, 1885; postmaster-general of the United States, 1885- 88; secretary of the interior, 1888-89; and United States senator, 1891-97. At his death in 1908 he left an endowment of $3,000,000 to the university of Wisconsin. Vincent de Paul {v&N'-saJi' dS pol'\ Saint, French philanthropist and ecclesiastic reformer, was bom in Landes in 1576. He was captured by Tunisian pirates in 1605, and remained for two years in slavery. After his escape he repaired to Paris, where he became curate of Clichy, and preceptor to the celebrated Cardinal de Retz, and engaged himself in various works of benevolence and church improvement. He estabUshed a found- ling hospital at Paris in 1638; organized the congregation of the Missions, and instituted the order of Sisters of Charity. Died in 1660, and was canonized by Pope Clement XII. in 1737. Vincent, John Heyl, bishop of the Methodist Epis- copal church and chancellor of the Chautauqua system, was born in Tuscaloosa, Ala., in 1832. He was educated in Lewisburg and Milton, Pa. ; began to preach at eighteen; and subsequently studied in Wesleyan institute, Newark, N. J. ; 8. T. D., Ohio Wesleyan and Harvard; LL. D., Washington and Jefferson. He was pastor at Galena, Chicago, etc., 1857-65; established Northwest Sunday School Quarterly, 1865 ; Sunday Sc)iool Teacher, 1866; and was corresponding secretary of Sunday school union and editor of Sunday school publications, 1868-84. He was one of the founders, in 1874, of the Chautauqua assembly; founder, 1878, of the Chautauqua literary and scientific circle, and has been its chancellor ever since; was preacher to Harvard, Yale, Cornell, Wellesley, and other colleges, and in 1900 was made resident bishop in charge of European work of Methodist Episcopal church, but retired from the active episcopate in 1904. Author: The Modern Sunday School; Studies in Young Life; Little Footprints in Bible Lands; The Church School and Sunday School Institutes; Earthly Footsteps of the Man of Galilee; Better Not; The Chautauqua Movement; To Old Bethlehem; Our Own Church; OuMine History of England; Outline History of Greece; The Church at Home; Family Worship for Every Day in the Year, etc. Vinci da (do ven'-che), Leonardo. See page 124. Vinogradoff (ve'-no-gra'-ddf), Paul, Russian edu- cator and writer, Corpus professor of jurispru- dence, Oxford university, since 1903, and formerly professor of history, university of Moscow, was bom at Kostroma, Russia, 1854. While professor in Moscow he exerted himself for the spread of mstmction in Russia, founded the Moscow pedagogical society, and was chairman of the educational committee of the city of Moscow. He resigned his chair in consequence of a conflict with bureaucratic authorities and settled in England, where he resumed his interrupted studies in English social and legal history. He lectured in Harvard and other American univer- sities in 1907; D. C. L., of Oxford; LL. D., Cam- bridge and Harvard, etc. Author: Villainage in England; The Growth of the Manor; The Rise of Feudalism in Lombard Italy; Inquiries in the Social History of England; English Society in the Eleventh Century; several articles in the eleventh edition of the Encydopcedia Britannica, etc. Vircbow (Jer'-jLo), Kudolf, German pathologist, was bom in Prussia, 1821. He graduated in medicine at Berlin university, and in 1847 became a lecturer there. After being involved in trouble on account of his share in the revolution of 1848, he obtained the chair of pathological anatomy at Wiirzburg, but was recalled in 1856 to Berlin. He was a member of the Prussian diet, 1862- 1902; of the German Heischtag, 1880-93; became leader of the liberal opposition in the Prussian diet, and was challenged to a duel in 1865 by Bismarck. In 1878 lie retired from public Ufe. lie was much consulted during the illness of the emjKTor Frederick. His master work was Cellular Pathology, which laid the foundation of that branch of science. Died, 1902. VlrRrU. See pa«e 28. VitUirla Colonna. See Colonna. Vladimir (lid-dyi'-mir) the Great, Russian emperor. who reigned from 980 to 1015. He added largely to the kingdom by conquest, but is best known for the introduction of Christianity into the empire. He embracetl the doctrines of the Greek church, and was baptized at Constanti- nople in 988, the day after his marriage to the sister of the Turkish czar. He died in 1015. VoKt (JdK.1), Karl, German naturalist, was bom at Giessen, 1817. At Neufchatel he studied natural history for five years under Agassiz. He was made professor of natural history at Giessen in 1847, out lost his position and had to leave Germany because of his zeal in the revolutionary movements of 1848. In 1849 he was made professor of geology at Geneva, and held that position to the time of bis death, May 6, 1895. He claims to have written the first volume and a part of the second of Agassiz's Natural History o/" Fresh-Water Fishes. He wrote also Studies in Geology and Petref actions; Man, His Place in Creation and in the History of the Earth; Essays on t/ie Darwinian Theory; works on physiology, zoology, anthropology, and geologA", and many scientific papers. His work on Faith and Science, published in 1855, is best known, and has been severely criticised for its supposed atheistic tendencies. Died, 1895. Volta (vdl'-ta), Alessandro, Italian physicist, was bom at Como, 1745. He invented the voltaic arc, electrophore, electroscope, and condenser; discovered several new properties in electricity: and was for thirty years professor of natural philosophy at Pavia. He was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon; was a member of many learned bodies; and died in 1827. Voltaire (vol'-t&r'). See page 67. Wade, Benjamin Franklin, American statesman, was born at Springfield, Mass., 1800. He studied law in Ohio, was three times elected state senator, becoming United States senator in 1851, again in 1857 and 1863. He was known as a strong anti-slavery man, being one of six senators who voted to repeal the fugitive slave law. He also oppiosed all the measures proposed as compro- mises between the North and the South, and was influential in getting the homestead bill through congress. After the death of President Lincoln, Wade was acting vice-president of the United States. Died at Jefferson, Ohio, 1878. Wadlln, Horace Greeley, librarian of Boston public library since 1903, was born at Wakefield, Mass., THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1010 1851. He was educated in the schools of Read- ing, Mass., and received private instruction; Litt. D., Tufts, 1905. He studied architecture at Salem and Boston, Mass., and began practice as an architect in Boston, 1875; became, in 1879, special agent and later in charge of special lines of statistical work for the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of labor, and in 1888 chief of bureau, and relinquished professional practice. He resigned in 1903 to accept his present app>oint- ment. He was a member of the Massacliusetts house of representatives, 1884-88; supervisor of United States census, 1899, 1900; lecturer upon social science, history and art, etc. Author: Annual Statistics of Manufactures of Massachu- setts, 1886-1901 ; Reports on the Statistics of Labor of Massachusetts, 1888-1901 ; The Decennial Cen- sus of Massachusetts for 1895, etc. Wagner {vag'-n£r'), Charles, French Protestant clergyman and essayist, was bom in 1852, and educated at Paris, Strassburg and Gottingen. After several years' service in the Protestant missions in the provinces, he settled in Paris in 1882, and aroused general interest by his effective protest against the degenerating tendencies of Parisian literature and life in La Jeunesse, Le courage, and La vie simple. The last was trans- lated and published in the United States, as The Simple Life, meeting with universal approval and gaining the endorsement of President Roosevelt. Wagner visited this country in 1905, recording his observations later in My Im.pressions of America. Wagner (vag'-nSr), bicbard. See page 180. Wainwright, Richard, American naval officer, was born at Washington, D. C, 1849. He was graduated from the naval academy in 1868, and was attached for a time to the brie Jam.estown, on the Pacific station. Later on he served on the Asiatic . station, and after gaining a lieu- tenancy he did duty on the coast-survey vessel Arago. In September, 1894, he reached the rank of Ueutenant-commander, and was executive oflBcer on the battleship Maine, when destroyed in Havana harbor, February 15, 1898. After this he did good service at the battle of Santiago de Cuba aa^'commander of the gunboat Gloucester, when Cervera's squadron was destroyed. He commanded the ships at the naval academy, 1899-1900; was superintendent of the naval academy, 1900-02; became a captain in 1903; commander of Newark, 1902-04; member of feneral board, 1904-07, and commander of the lOuisiana, 1907-08. Waite, Morrison Remlck, American jurist, chief- justice of the supreme court of the United States, 1874-88, was bom at Lyme, Conn., 1816. He was graduated from Yale, 1837; studied law and practiced in Ohio; was a member of the Ohio legislature, 1849-50, and in 1871 was appointed one of the attorneys to represent the United States before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva. He was nominated by President Grant chief-judtice of the United States supreme court, 1874, and served until his death in 1888. Walcott, Charles Doolittle, American geologist, secretary of the Smithsonian institution since 1907, was bom at New York Mills, N. Y., 1850. He was educated in the public schools, Utica, N. Y.; LL. D., Hamilton, 1897, Chicago, 1901, Johns Hopkins, 1902, Pennsylvania, 1903. He became assistant to the New York state survey in 1876; assistant geologist to the United States geological survey in 1879; paleontologist in charge of invertebrate paleontology, 1888-93, geologist in general charge of geologv and paleon- tology, 1893-94, and director of United States geological survey, 1894—1907. He is a member of many scientific societies, and author of the following: The Trilobite; Paleontology of the Eureka District; The Cambrian Faunas of North America; The Fauna of the Lower Cambrian or Olendlua Zone; Fre-Cambrian Foutii/eroiu For- mations; Correlation Papers; and many i«port« and papers on geological and paleontologieal subjects. Waldersee (vOl'-dir-tH'), Count Alfred von, German general, was bom m Potsdam, Prussia, 1832, and entered the German anny in 1860. He served with distinction through the war of 1866, and was chief of the general utaff in the Franco- Pmssian war; succeeded Moltke as chief of staff in 1888, and in 1891 became commander of the ninth army corps. In 1900 he was created field-marshal, and was appointed to the chief command in China of the allied armies encaged in suppressing the lioxer disturbances at Pekin and m tiie province of Pe-chili. In 1874 he married the widow of Prince Frederick of Schle»- wig-Holstein, who was formerly Miss Lee of New York. Died, 1904. Waldstein (wdld'-stin), Charles, American arch- aK)logist, was born in New York, 1856. lie was educated at Columbia college, Heidelberg, and Leipzig. He was university lecturer, classical archaeology, 1880, university reader, 1882, director of the Fitzwilliam museum, 1883-89, Cam- bridge university ; Slade professor of fine arts at Cambridge university. 1895-1901 and since 1904; director, 1889-95, and professor, 1895-97, Ameri- can school of classical studies, Athens, Greece. Author: Excavations at the Heraion of Argoa; Balance of Emotion and Intellect; Essays on the Art of Phidias; The Work of John liuskin; The Study of Art in Universities; The Surface of Things; The Jewish Question; The Exparuion of Western Ideals and the World's Peace; This Argive Herceum, etc. Walker, Francis Amasa, American political econo- mist, was born at Boston, Mass., 1840. He was graduated from Amherst in 1860; took part in the civil war, and in 1865 rose to the brevet rank of brigadier-general of volunteers. He was wounded at CTiancellorsville, and for a time was an inmate of Libby prison. In 1871-72 he was United States Indian commissioner; was also chief of the bureau of statistics at Washington, and superintendent of the 9th and 10th United States censuses. From 1873 to 1881 he was professor of political economy in the Sheffield scientific school at Yale, and in 1881 became president of the Massachusetts institute of tech- nology at Boston. In 1898 he acted as United States commissioner to the international mone- tary conference at Paris. His treatment of wages and profits has profoundly influenced economic theory. Walker was a leading advo- cate of international bimetallism. His published WTntings include: The Indian Queetum; The Wages Question; Money; Money, Trade, and Industry; Land and Its Kent; Political Economy; Bimetallism; and History of the Second Army Corps. Died, 1897. Walker, William, America.n filibuster, was bom at Nashville, Tenn., 1824. He studied medicine at Edinburgh and Heidelberg, but afterward took up law and then journalism at New Orleans and in California. In 1853 he failed to found a new republic in northern Mexico; in 1854 fought his way to California, and with fifty-five followers started for Nicaragua to help the democrats. In June, 1855, he was repulsed; but in September, with 110 men, he took the capital, Granada. He was generalissimo of the new government, and raised an American force of 1,400 men. In 1856 Costa Rica made war on the foreigners. Walker was elected president; and his government, recognized by the United States, restored slavery. Meanwhile his enemies were closing in on him. and at Rivas, in 1857, he capitulated to a Unitea States sloop-of-war. In November be landed 1020 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT again with 150 men — only to surrender, in December, to a United States frigate. In 1860 he published The War in Nicaragua. In August he sailed for Honduras with 100 men, took Trujillo, was compelled to evacuate by a British man-of-war, and, given up to the Honduras authorities, was tried and shot in September, 1860. Wallace, Alfred Russet, English naturalist and traveler, was bom in Monmouthshire, England, 1823. He was educated as a surveyor and architect, but devoted his attention to natural history after 1845. He visited South America and the Malay archipelago^ published the results of his observations on his return, and sim. .- taneously with Darwin announced the theory of natural selection. Among his other works are: Contrihutiona to the Theory of Natural Selection; On Miracles and Modern Sjnritualism; Land Nationalization; Darurinism; Geographical Dia- tribution of Animals, etc. Wallace, John Flndley, American civil engineer, was bom at Fall River, Mass., 1852. He was educated at Monmouth college; C. E., university of Wooster; LL. D., Monmouth college; Sc. D., Armour institute, Chicago. He was assistant United States engineer, upper Mississippi river and improvements of Rock island rapids, 1871- 76; county surveyor and city engineer, 1876- 78; chief engineer and superintendent of Peoria and Farmington railroad, 1878-81 ; chief engi- neer and superintendent of Central Iowa railway in Illinois, 1881-83; construction engineer and master of transportation. Central Iowa railway, 1883-86; bridge engineer of Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroad, 1886-89; resident engi- neer of Chicago, Madison and Northern railroad, 1889-91; with Illinois Central railroad, 1891- 1904; chief engineer of the Panama canal, 1904; isthmian canal commissioner, 1905; president of Electric Properties company since 1906. He is chairman of the board of directors of Westing- hous^ Church, Kerr and Company; was vice- president Holland-American construction com- pany; director Atha steel foundries, New York, and of the Wallace-Coates engineering company, Chicago. Wallace, Lewis, American general, diplomat, and author, was bom at Brookville, Ind., 1827. He served as first lieutenant in the Mexican war; engaged in the practice of law in Indiana from 1848 ; entered the Union service during the civil war; became a brigadier-general in 1861, and served throughout the war. He was governor of New Mexico, 1878-81, and from 1881 to 1885 was United States minister to Turkey. Author: The Fair God; Ben Hur; The Boyhood of Christ; The Prince of India, etc. Died, 1905. Wallace, O. C. S., Canadian clergyman and edu- cator, chancellor of McMaster university, Toronto, since 1895, was born at Canaan, Nova Scotia, 1856. He was graduated from Acadia univer- sity, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, and at Newton theological institution, Newton Centre, Mass., D. D., LL. D. He was ordained as pastor of the First Baptist church, Lawrence, Mass., 1885; remained there six years, and was called to Bloor Street Baptist church, Toronto, Canada and entered upon his pastorate, 1891. Author: T /f o/ Jesus; Teachings of Jesus; Labors and Letters of the Apostles, etc. WaUace, Sir William, Scottish patriot, was bora about 1272. He headed the rising of 1297 against the English, and won a victory at Stirling bridge, after which he crossed the border, devas- tated northern England, and was named guardian of Scotland on his return. The next year, how- ever, he was defeated by Edward I. at Falkirk after which deserted by the nobles, he carried on a guenlla warfare for seven years. After being imprisoned in France, where he had sought aid, he was declared an outlaw in 1304, was captured the next year, sent to London and hanged. Wallensteln (vdl'-en-a?Uin), Albrecht Wensel Ease" blus, duke of Friedland, celebrated German f general, was bom in Bohemia, 1583, and began ife as page to the margrave of Bureau. After having traveled over nearly all of Europe, he married a widow possessed of immense riches, who left him a widower at the end of four years. At the head of a formidable army raised by him for the service of the emperor, and paid from his own resources and from unlimited plunder, he, for several years, di-stinguished himself by his successee in Moravia, Bohemia, and northera Germany, and was rewarded with the dukedoms of Mecklenburgh and Friedland. His enemies at length succeeded in procuring his dismissal, and he retired to Praj^ue, where he lived with all the state of a sovereign. The progress of Gustavus Adolphus compelled the emperor, in 1632, to place Wallenstoin again in command of his forces, with almost regal authority. He foiled Gustavus at Nuremberg, but was defeated at Liitzen. At length he was accused of treason, and his commission was revoked; and, while he was meditating projects of revenge, he was assassinated, in 1634, by some of his own officers. Walpole, Horace, Engli.sh author, was bom in 1717, and in 1791 succeeded to the title of earl of Orford, originally granted to his father. He graduated from Cambridge, and entered parlia- ment in 1741. In 1747 he purcha.sed the famous estate of Strawberry HiU, Twickenham, the building and adornment of which occupied him during a considerable portion of his life. In this house he collected works of art and curiosities of every description, and likewise established a private printing-press, at which several of his own works and some others were printed. Although he remained a member of the house of commons until 1768, he devoted himself chiefly to literary and artistic pursuits from the period of his entering into possession of the house at Strawberry Hill. He wrote Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors; Anecdotes of Painting in England; The Castle of Otranto; Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard IIL; and subse- quently, Reminiscences of the Courts of George I. and ll., the publication of which was not com- pleted until after his death. He is now remem- bered chiefly for his Letters, which extend over a period of sixty years, and which are remarkable for their wit and humor, and for their delinea- tions of the society in which he lived. Died, 1797. Walpole, Sir Bobert, English statesman, was bom at Houghton, England, 1676. He was graduated from Cambridge, and entered parliament in 1701. He was secretary of war, 1708; treasurer of the navy, 1709; chancellor of the exchequer, 1715- 17; and prime minister, 1721— 42. As chancellor of the exchequer he had to deal with the difli- culty in which Great Britain was placed through the collapse of the South Sea company; and was one of the first to urge the establishment of a sinking fund for the purpose of reducing the national debt. He was an enemy of war, and a strong supporter of the Protestant succession. On his retirement in 1742 he was created earl of Orford, with a pension of 4,000 pounds a year. Died, 1745. Walsh, Blanche, American actress, was bom in New York, 1873, daughter of Thomas P- Walsh. She made her dramatic d^but as Olivia in Twdfth Night, with Marie Wainwright, Chicago, 1889, and remained with that companv until 1892. She then joined Charles Frohman's com- pany; played the title r61e in Trilby, 1896; THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1021 created the part of Maslova in Tolatoi'a Resur- rection, 1903. She married, 1896, Alfred Hick- man, whom she divorced in 1903; and in 1906 married W. M. Travers, actor. Walsh« Thomas F^ mine owner and mining engi- neer, was born in the county of Tipperary, Ireland, 1851. He was educated in the public schools, learned the millwright's trade; emi- grated to the United States at the age of nine- teen, and settled in Colorado. He there engaged in the mining business, studied geology, mineral- ogy, metallurgy, the deposition of ore bodies, and the development and treatment of ores, and was instrumental in introducing new methods of treatment. He developed, equipped and was a large owner in the Camp Bird mines, Ouray, Col., and other properties. Died, 1910. Walter, Thomas Ustick, American architect, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1804. In 1833 he made the designs for the Girard college building, which, on its completion, in 1847, was pronounced the finest specimen of classic architecture in the United States. His next great work was the breakwater at La Guayra for the Venezuelan government. In 1848 his design for the exten- sion of the Capitol at Washington, D. C, was adopted Having been app>ointed government architect, he removed to Washington, and remained there until the completion of the work in 1862. While in Washington he also designed the extensions of the patent office, treasury, and post-office buildings, the dome of the capitol, and the government hospital for the insane. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., 1887. Walton, Clifford Stevens, American lawyer, was born at Chardon, Ohio, 1861. He was educated at the United States military academy, univer- sity of Madrid, Spain, and National law univer- sity, Washington. He was an authority on Spanish jurisprudence, and served as attorney for or against the United States on several international law commissions, including controversies between the United States and Chile, Peru, Salvador, etc. Major United States volunteers, 1898-99, on staffs of Major-generals Brooke and Ludlow in Porto Rico and Cuba. Author: T?ie Civil Law in Spain and Spanish America; Leyes Comer- dales y Maritimas de la America Latina, etc. Died, 1912. Walton, Izaak, EngUsh writer, was bom at Stafford, England, 1593. He is chiefly remembered as the author of The Compleat Angler, or The Con- templative Man's Recreation, which was published in 1655. . He was a linendraj>er in the city of London, first in Comhill, and afterward in Fleet street. At fifty years of age he retired from business, and thenceforward devoted himself to literary pursuits, and to angling, whichlseems to have been his passion. His Compleat Angler is still a popular book, especially pleasing for its quiet and quaint dialogue, and for its ghmpses of rural scenery, manners, and pastimes. He also wrote Life of Dr. Donne; Life of Sir H. Wotton; Liife of Richard Hooker; Life of George Herbert; Ldfe of Bishop Sanderson. Died, 1683. Wanamaker, John, American merchant, was bom at Philadelphia, Pa., 1838. He was wiucated in the public schools until 1852; was errand boy in book store at fourteen; went to Indiana, but returned, 1856; retail clothing salesman, 1856- 68; established, 1861, with Nathan Brown, clothing house of Wanamaker and Brown, Phila- delphia; established, 1876, department store in Philadelphia, and a similar business in New York in 1896, in succession to the business of A. T. Stewart, now among the largest in the country. He declined the republican nomination to the 48th congress, and the independent nomination for mayor of Philadelphia, 1886 ; was postmaster- general of the United States, 1889-93; and has long been active In religious work. He founded, 1858, the Bethany Sunday school, probably th« largest in the United States; was one of the founders of the Christian commiasion during the civil war, and was president of the Y. M. U. A. of Philadelphia, 1870-«3. "Ward, Artenius." See Browne, Cbaries Farrsr. Ward, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps. See Fbelps- Ward, Elisabeth Stuari. Ward, Mrs. liumphry (Mary Augusta Arnold), English novelist and writer, was bom at Hobart, in Tasmania, 1851, daughter of Thomas Arnold, second son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. In 1872 she married Thomas Humphry Ward, a well- known critic and writer. She b^an early to contribute to Macmillan'a Magazine, and gave the fruits of her Spanish studies to Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography. A child's story, Milly and OUy, Miss Bretherton, a slight novel, and the translation of Amiel's Journal Intime, prepared the way for the spiritual romance of liobert Elsmere, in 1888. Since then she has published : The History of David Grieve; Marcella; Sir George Tressady; Lady Roae'a Daughter; Helbeck of Bannisaaie; Eleanor, a play; The Marriage of William Ashe; Fenvnck'a Career; Diana Mallory, etc. She is also an occasional lecturer and is prominent in settlement work in London. Ward, John Quincy Adams, American sculptor, was bora at Urbana, Ohio, 1830. His first work was done in Washington, and con^sted largely of busts of noted men, including Alex- ander Stephens, Hannibal Hamlin, and others. After 1861 his home was in New York. His "Indian Hunter," "A Private of the Seventh Regiment," and "Shakespeare" are in Centnil park. New York; his colossal statue of Washing- ton is on the steps of the sub-treasury building in Wall street. New York, and a statue of Henry Ward Beecher in Brooklyn, and tliat of William E. Dodge on Broadway, New York. He also executed the "Good Samaritan," "The Freed- man," statues of Commodore Perry^ Washington, and General Thomas, and equestrian statues of Sheridan and Hancock. Died, 1910. Warfleld, David, American actor was bom at Ban Francisco, 1866. He received a public school education, and made his first appearance at the Wigwam theater, San Francisco, 1886. He went to New York in 1890; played in Casino theatr>r and Weber and Field's music hall, 1895-98; was starred by David Belasco in The Auctioneer. 1898-1901; The Music Master, 1901-07, and 1909; A Grand Army Man, 1907-08; The Return of Peter Grimm, 191 i, etc. Warner, Charles Dudley, American author, was bom at Plainfield, Mass., 1829. He was grad- uated at Hamilton college, 1851; practicea law in Chicago, 1856-60, then settled as an editor at Hartford, Conn., and became associate editor of the Hartford Courant in 1867. In 1884 he be- came co-editor of Harper's Magatine. in which his papers on the South, Mexico, ana the great West appeared. In 1873 he wrote with "Mark Twain '*^ The Gilded Age. His other works include: My Summer in a Garden; Back-log Studies; Being a Boy; Washington Irving; Captain John Smith; books of travel, such as In the Levant, etc. Died, 1900. Warren, Francis Emroy, United States senator, was bom in Hinsdale, Mass., 1844. He received a common school and academic education; enlisted in 1862 in the 49th Massachusetts regiment of infantry, and served as private and non-commissioned officer in that regiment until it was mustered out of service. He was engaged in farming and stock raising in Massachusetts until early in 1868, when he moved to Wyoming. He was president of the senate of Wyoming 1022 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT legislature, 1873-74, and member of the senate, 1884-85; was three terms treasurer of Wyoming; was appointed governor of Wyoming by President Arthur in 1885, and removed by President Cleveland in 1886 ; was again appointed governor of Wyoming by President Harrison in 1889, and served until the territory was admitted as a state, when he was elected the first governor of . the state. He was elected to the United States senate in 1890, and reelected in 1895, 1901, 1907, and 1913. , , ^ ^ Warren, Joseph, American soldier, was bom at Itoxbury, Mass., 1741. He was graduated at Harvard in 1759, and became a physician in Boston, 1764. In 1772 he was a member of the committee of correspondence. He was a member of the Suffolk county convention, which was called to oppose Governor Gage's proposed forti- fication of the south entrance to Boston harbor, and as chairman of the committee appointed to remonstrate with Gage on that subject, drew uj) two papers, which were afterward laid before congress. In 1774 he was a member and presi- dent of the Massachusetts congress, and chairman of the committee of public safety. He had much to do with the success at Lexington, and in 1775 was commissioned maior-general. He opposed the occupation of Chariestown heights, advocated by Putnam and Prescott, thinking the American supply of ammunition too small to repel an attack. Overruled by a majority of the council, which resolved to fortify Bunker Hill, he went there as a volunteer, refusing to take the chief command offered to him by both Prescott and Putnam. As he was leaving the field among the last, he was killed by a ball in the forehead, 1775. Warren, Samuel, English novelist, was bom in Denbighshire, 1807. He studied medicine and law, was called to the bar and made queen's counsel in 1851. He was recorder of Hull, 1854-74; conservative member of parliament for Midhurst, 1856-59, and then master of lunacy in 1859. He is chiefly remembered by his Passages from the Diary of a Late Physician, and Ten Thousand a Year, the amusing story of Tittlebat Titmouse, both of which appeared first in Blackwood's. Other works were: Now and Then, The Lily and the Bee, and several law books. Died, 1877. Warren, Winslow, American lawyer, was bom at Plymouth, Mass., 1838. He was graduated at Harvard, 1858, at Harvard law school, 1860; was admitted to the bar and engaged in practice in Boston, 1860. He was formerly associate counsel for the Boston and Providence railroad; collector of the port of Boston, 1894-98; United States commissioner, 1861-94, and is now counsel for many corporations. He is a director of the Columbian National life insurance company; president-general of the society of the Cincinnati ; president of Massachusetts society of the Cin- cinnati; ex-president of the Bunker Hill monu- nnent association; overseer of Harvard college since 1899; member of Massachusetts historical society, etc. Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of, sumamed the ' king-maker," was born about 1428. He was the wealthiest and most powerful subject of his time in Europe, and allied by blood to the royal houses of England and France. After joining the York- ists in the commencement of the calamitous war of the Roses, and taking King Henry VI. prisoner Warwick, after his victory of Towton, placed Edward, duke of York, on the throne as Edward 1 ^T^"^ ^^^ latter quarreling with his great vassal, Warwick allied himself with the Lancas- trians, formed an alliance with France, and at the head of a powerful army drove Edward out of England, and reinstated Henry VI. on the throne. He was killed in the battle of Bamet, 1471. Washington, Booker Taliaferro, principal of Tu»- kegee normal and industrial institute since 1881, was bom near Hale's Ford, Va., about 1859, the son of a mulatto slave and a white man. He was graduated from Hampton institute, Vir- ginia, 1875; A. M., Harvard, 1896; LL. D., Dartmouth, 1901. He was a teacher at Hampton institute until elected by the state authorities head of Tuskegee institute, which he organized and has made successful. He is a well-known and able writer and speaker on racial and educa- tional subjects. Author: Sowing and Reaving; Up From i^verp; Future of the American Negro; Cnaracter Building; Story of My Lije and Work; Working With Hands; Tuakegee and lU PeopU, etc. Washington, Geors*. See page 473. Watsun, John, Canadian educator and writer, was bom at Glasgow, Scotland, 1847. He was grad- uated at Glasgow university, M. A., 1872, LL. D., 1880; has been professor of lo^ic, meta- physics, and ethics in Queen's university, King- ston, since 1872. Author: Kant and his English Critics; Schdling^s TranseenderUal Idealism, a Critical Exposition; The Philosophy of Kant as Contained in Extracts from his own Writings; ComU, Mill, and Spencer, an Outline of Philoao- phy; Hedonistic Theories, from Aristippua to Spencer; Christianity and Idealism; An Outline of Philosophy; The Philosophical Basis of Reli- gion; The Philosophy of Kant Explained, etc. Watson, John. See Maclaren, Ian. Watson, Thomas E., American lawyer and poli- tician, was bom in Georgia, 1856. He studied two years in Mercer college, and was admitted to the bar in 1875. He was a member of the G^srgia legislature, 1882-83; member of con- gress, 1891-93; and while in congress secured the first appropriation for the free delivery of mails in rural districts that congress ever passed. He was nominated for vice-president of the United States at the St. Louis populist conven- tion, 1896; was nominated for president by the people's party, 1904; began the publication of Tom Watson's Magazine, in New York, 1905. Author: The Story of France; Life of Thomas Jefferson; Life of Napoleon; Life and Times of Thomas Jefferson; Bethany, a Study and Story of the Old South, etc. Watson, William, English poet, was bom at Burley-in-Wharf edale, 1858. His father became a merchant in Liverpool, and there he received his education; hon. LL. D., Aberdeen, 1904. His early poems were published in the Liverpool Argus in 1875, and his first book. The Prince's <2ues<, appeared in 1880. Since then have appeared: Epigrams of Art, Life, and Nature; Wordsworth's Grave; Lachrymae Musarum; Lyric Love; The Eloping Angels; Excursions in Criti- cism; Odes, and other Poems; The Father of the Forest; The Purple East; The Year of Shame; The Hope of the World; Collected Poems; Ode on the Coronation of King Eduxird VII.; For Eng- land; The Woman with the Serpents Tongu*, etc. Watt, James. See page 375. Watterson, Henry, American journalist and orator, was born at Washington, D. C, 1840. He was privatelj' educated, and began his career on the Democratic Review and on The States in Washing- ton, D. C. He edited the Republican Banner, at Nashville, Tenn., before and after the civil war, in the interim serving with distinction in the confederate army as chief of scouts under General Joseph E. Johnston. He subsequently settled at Louisville, Ky., where he founded and has since edited the Courier-Journal, which he has made one of the foremost democrat newspapers. During the years 1876-77 he was a member of THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1028 congress, and, though repeatedly urged, he has uniformly declined office, but has contented himself with presiding over conventions and supporting his democratic friends and allies in "their political contests. At Chicago, in 1893, he delivered the dedicatory oration at the opening of the World's Columbian exposition. In 189G he decUned the offer of a nomination for presi- dent on the national gold democratic ticket. He has published a History of the Spanish- American War; Oddities of Southern Life and Character; Abraham Lincoln; The Compromises of Life, etc. ; and continues to be one of America's most brilliant journalists. Watts, George Frederick, English artist, sculptor, portrait painter, and delineator of historical sub- jects, was bom at London, 1817. He first exhibited at the royal academy in 1837, and gained a reputation for the size, artistic excel- lence, and Deauty of coloring of his pictures. His chief exhibits included: "Caractacus"; "Alfred the Great"; "St. George and the Dragon"; "Cymbeline"; "Fata Morgana": "Life's Allusions"; "Endymicn": "Love and Death"; "The Good Samaritan"; "Hope"; "Sir Galahad"; "Orpheus and Eurydice"; together with portraits of Tennyson, Browning, Gladstone, Lord Ljrtton, Matthew Arnold, Holman Hunt, Swinburne, Dean Stanley, John Stuart Mill, William Morris, and others. Died, 1904. Watts, Isaac, English hymn writer and theologian, was born at Southampton, England, 1674. In 1096 he became tutor in the family of Sir John Hartopp, with whom he remains! six years. During the^latter part of his time he officiated as assistant minister of the Independent church in Mark Lane, London, to which post he succeeded in 1702, resigning because of ill health, 1712. His theological works were numerous, and his treatise on Logic had a considerable reputation. His reputation has been chiefly perpetuated by his well known hj-mns. Died, 1748. Wayne, Anthony, famous general in the war of the revolution, was bom in Pennsylvania, 1745. At the outbreak of hostilities he raised a regiment of volunteers, of which he was appointed colonel, and sent to Canada. He commanded Ticonder- oga until 1777^ when he was made brigadier- general, and joined Washington in New Jersey; led the attack at German town; captured sup- plies for the distressed army at Valley Force; distinguished himself at Monmouth; was de- feated at Paoli, but achieved a briUiant victory in the storming of Stony Point, 1779. His courage and skill saved Lafayette in Virginia, 1780. He aided in the siege of Yorktown, and commanded in Georgia. By his dash and audacity he acquired the sobriquet of "Mad Anthony." He became major-general and com- mander-in-chief in 1792. Died, 179G. Weber {vaf-btr), Karl Maria von, German com- poser, was bom at Eutin near Liibeck, 1786, of a famed musical family. He early gave proof of musical talent; studied at Vienna under Abb# Vogler, and at Dresden became founder and director of the German opera. His first great production was Der Freischutz, which established his fame, and was followed by Oberon, his masterpiece; Das Waldm&dchen, etc. Oberon was produced in London in 1826, where, shortly afterward, he died in the same year. He also wrote a number of pieces for the piano, deserv- edly popular. Webster, Arthur Gordon, American physicist, pro- fessor of physics, Clark university, Worcester, Mass., was bom at Brookhne, Mass., 1863. He was graduated at Harvard, 1885; studied at Berlin, Paris, Stockholm, 1886-90; Ph. D, BerUn, 1890; D. Sc, Tufts, 1905. He wag awarded the Thomaoa prite of 6,000 franca at Paris, 1895, for experimental reitearch on tb« Period of Electrical OaeiUationa. He ia a member of many scientific aaBO c ia t iona, and author of: A Mathematical Treatiae on the Theory qf Ette tricity and Magnetism; Dvnamica of Partidst, and of Rigid, Elastic and Fluid Bodiet; Lowm Institute Lectures on Electricity and Ether; and many papers on physics. Webster, Daniel. See ]>uge 494. Webtitcr, John, great Enslish dramatist, waa bom about 1580. Little of his Hfe is known. He collaborated with a number of writers of the period, and then produced unaided the tragedy of The White Devu, one of his two great maater* pieces, about 1610. Appius and Virainia fol- lowed, and about 1616 Webeter proauoed hit famous Duchess of Malfi. The Demi's Law Caae, a later work, proved more commonplace. Aa a master of tragedy, especially the tragedy of terror and violence, Webster must be ranked second only to Shakespeare. He died about 1625. Webster, Noah, author and philologist, was bom at Hartford, Conn., 1758, and was educated at Yale college; admitted to the bar in 1781, but engaged in scholastic and Utcrarv occupations. While employed in teaching at Goshen, N. Y., he prepared his Grammatical Institutes ^f the Eno- lish Language, and edited Governor Winthrop s Journal. In 1784 he wrote Sketches of American Policy, advocating the formation of a new con- stitution, and gave public lectures on the English language, which were published in 1789. In 1807 he published A Philosophical and Practical Grammar of the Englinh Language, and com- menced his American Dictionary of the Englith Language; but finding difficulties in etymology. he devoted tenyears to its study, and preparea a Synopsis of Words in Twenty Languages; then began his dictionary anew, and in seven years completed it. He also published a popular History of the United States, Dissertations on th» English Language, and a Manual of Useful Studies. He was a judge, a member of the state legislature, and one of the founders of Amherst college. Died in New Haven, Conn., 1843. Weed, Thuriow, American journalist, was bom at Cairo, N. Y., 1797. At the age of ten he was a cabin boy on a sloop on the Hudson river, and at twelve an apprentice in a printing office at Catskill, N. Y. He served as a volunteer in the war of 1812; established the Aaricvlturalitt in western New York; edited several other journals, and became famous as the editor of the Albany Journal, 1830-62, the organ of the whig party. Here he became an acknowledged leader of the whig and repubUcan party, and had great influ- ence in securing the nominations of William H. Harrison, Taylor, and Scott. In 1865 he moved to New York city and became editor of the New York Times, and afterward of the Cotn>- mercial Adv>ertiser. In 1861-62 he was sent to Europe on a special mission by President Lin- coln. He published several volumes of remini^ cences and letters. Died at New Yotk in 1882. Weir (wer), Robert Walter, American painter, waa bom at New Rochelle, N. Y., 1803. After studying in Italy several years he was made professor of drawing at West Point, N. Y., where he remained for forty-two years. His best known works are: "The Landing of Henry Hudson"; "Columbus before the Council of Salamanca"; "Indian Captives"; "Embarita- tion of the Pilgrims," in the rotunda of Wash- ington; and "Christ in the Garden." Some d his works in private collections at New Yorit are very fine, as a "View of Hudson frtwn West Point," "Rebecca," from Ivanhoe. and "A Pier at Venice." He died at New York in 1889. 1024 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Weismann (»i«'-man), August, German biolopst, professor of zoology, university of Freiburg, since 1867; was bom at Frankfort, 1834. He studied medicine at Gottingen, and in 1861 became physician to the archduke Stephen of Austria. His first work was on the Development of the Diptera, in 1863. In 1868-76 appeared a series of papers, translated in 1882 as Studies in the Theory of Descent. His Essays upon Heredity arid Kindred Biological Problems raised a great controversy by denying that characters acquired by the individual are transmitted to offspring. He contends that natural selection is the donu- nant factor in evolution, and that use and disuse of parts and the action of environment count for little or nothing so far as future generations are concerned. He has published, besides the Ro- manes lectures of 1894, The Evolution Theory, and half a dozen works on kindred problems. Welch, William Henry, American physician and pathologist, was born at Norfolk, Conn., 1850. He was graduated from Yale in 1870; M. D., college of physicians and surgeons. New York, 1875; and was a graduate student at Strassburg, Leipzig Breslau, and BerUn, 1876-78, 1884-86; hon. M. D.. university of Pennsylvania, 1894; LL. D., Western Reserve, 1894, Yale, 1896, Harvard, 1900, Toronto, 1903, Columbia, 1904, Jefferson medical college, 1907. He was pro- fessor of pathological anatomy and general pa- thology, IJ niversity and Bellevue hospital medical college, 1879-84 ; Baxley professor of pathology, Johns Hopkins, since 1884- and pathologist to the Johns Hopkins hospital since 1889. Presi- dent board of directors. Rockefeller institute for medical research, since 1901. He is the author of General Pathology of Fever, and numerous papers on pathological and bacteriological subjects. Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, celebrated British general, was bom at Dan^an Castle, Ireland, 1769. He completed his military edu- cation a few years before the French revolution, in the military college of Angers, in France; entered the army as ensign in 1787, and became lieutenant-colonel in 1793. In 1794 he em- barked to join the duke of York's army in the Netherlands. In this, his first term of actual service, he commanded three battalions on the retreat of the army through Holland, and dis- tinguished himself in several repulses of the French. It was in the Mahratta war of 1803 that he won his first fame. In 1808 he com- manded an expedition which sailed from Cork, being the first division of the British army sent out to assist in the expulsion of the French from Spain and Portugal. Throughout the peninsula campaign success crowned his efforts, and the French were vanquished everjrwhere. In 1814 he was created marquis of Douro and duke of Wellington. He was appointed ambassador- extraordinary to the congress of Vienna. Napo- leon having escaped from Elba, the congress was abruptly broken up. He was then appointed commander of the British forces on the continent of Europe, and from Vienna joined the army at Bmssels. It appeared probable that Napoleon would make a bold advance into Belgium, and its defense was assigned to an army under WeUington, and a Prussian army under Bliicher The battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras were suc- ceeded on June 18, 1815, by the great battle of Waterloo. Here the grand and decisive blo^ was struck, and the power of Napoleon was finally crushed. When the allied armies evacu- ated France in 1818, the emperors of Russia and Austria and the king of Prussia created Welling- ton a field marshal of their armies. At the coronation of George IV., in 1821, he officiated as lord high constable of England. In 1827 he succeeded the duke of York as conunander-in- chief of the British army, and from 1828 to 1830 was prime minister. In 1834 he was elected chancellor of the university of Oxford. Died, at Wabner Castle, in 1852. Wells, Carolyn, author, was bom at Rahway, N. J., daughter of William E. Wells, and has been engaged in Uterary work since 1895. Author : At the Sign of the Sphinx; Idle Idylls; A Non- sense Anthology; Eight Girls and a Dog; The Gordon Elopement; The Staying Guest; The Dorrance Domain; Marjorie's Vacation; Rainy Day Diversions; Emily Emmins Papers; the Patty Fairfield series, etc. Wells, David Ames, American economist, was bom at Springfield, MJftM., 1828. He was graduated from Williams college, and at the Lawrence scientific school, Harvard; was for a time asso- ciate editor of the Sprin^judd Republican. In 1866 he was appointtxl Lnited States commis- sioner of revenue; in 1871 was chairman of a commission to re{>ort upon the laws relating to taxation in the state of New York, and was an industrious and prolific writer. Among his pub- lished works are text-books on Science of Common Things; Elements of Natural Philosophy; First Princifles of Geology; Production arid Distribu- tion of Wealth; Practical Economics; The Rela- tion of the Tariff to Wages; Recent Economic Changes; The Principles of Taxation; also pub- lished Robinson Crusoeft Money, and a work entitled Our Merchant Marine. Died, 1898. Wells, Herbert George, English novelist, was bom at Bromley, Kent, 1866. He was graduated at the royal college of science, 1888. His scientific training and his writing for the Pall Mall Gazette and the Saturday Review prepared him for the series of books remarkable alike for a mixture of weird adventure and scientific knowledge, and for a bold, wide imagination. Among these are: The Time Machine; Tfie Stolen Bacillus and Other Stories; The Wonderful Visit; The Island of Doctor Moreau; The First Men in the Moon; The Invisible Man; Mankind in the Making; The Food of the Gods; The Future in America; In the Days of the Comet; Twelve Stories and a Dream; The War in the Air. A radical socialist, he is a constant contributor to magazines on sociaUst topics. Wells, Webster, American educator and mathema- tician, was bom at Boston, Mass., 1851. He was graduated at the Massachusetts institute of technology, 1873; studied civil engineering, and became professor of mathematics in the Massa- chusetts institute of technology, 1893. Author: Elementary Treatise on Logarithms; University Algebra; Plane and Spherical Trigonometry; Academic Algebra; Elements of Geometry; Higher Algebra; Essentials of Trigonometry; College Auf^a; Academic Arithmetic; Essentials of Algebra; Essentials of Plane and Solid Geometry; New Higher Algebra; Complete Trigonometry; New Four Place Tables; Advanced Course in Algebra; Algebra for Secondary Schools; Text-Book in Algebra, etc. Wendell, Barrett, American educator, writer, and critic, was bom at Boston, 1855. He was gradu- ated at Harvard, 1877 ; was instructor at Har- vard, 1880-88, assistant professor, 1888-98, profes- sor since 1898, and lecturer at the Sorbonne and other French universities, 1904-05. Author: The Duchess Emilia, a novel; RankeU's Remains, a novel; English Composition; Life of Cotton Mather; SteUigeri and Other Essays Concerning America; Wmiam Shakespeare, a Study of Elizabethan Literature; A Literary History of America; Raleigh in Guiana; Rosamond, and a Christmas Masque; The Temper of the Seventeenth Century in English Literature, Clark lectures given at Trinity college, Cambridge, England, 1902-03; History of Literature in America, with THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1026 Chester N. Greenough; Liberty, Union and Democracy — the National IdeaU of America; The France of To-day, etc. Wenley, Robert Mark, American educator, head of philosophical department, university of Michigan, since 1896, was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, 1861. He was graduated at the university of Glasgow, M. A., 1884, Ph. D., 1895; university of Edinburgh, Sc. D., 1891; hon. LL. D., Glas- gow, 1901. He studied in Paris, Rome, Ger- many; was assistant professor of logic, Glasgow. 1886-94; and was in charge of the philosopnical department. Queen Margaret college, Glasgow, 1888-95. Author: Socrates and Christ; Aspects of Pessimism; Contemporary Theology arid Theism; Introduction to Kant; Preparation for Christianity in the Ancient World; Kant and his Philosophical Revolution, etc. Joint editor: The American Journal of Religious Psychology, etc. Werner (v^-nir), Abraham Gottlob, German mineralogist and geologist, was bom at Wehrau, in upper Lusatia, 1750. tie studied at Freiberg and Leipzig, and in his twenty-fourth year pub- lished an unusual treatise on the Character of Minerals. In 1775 he was appointed professor of mineralogy and curator of the mineralogical collections at Freiberg. In 1791 he published a Theory of the Formation of Metallic Veins, which greatly extended his reputation. He was not a voluminous author, but his views were diffused by his pupils, among whom were the most eminent German mineralogists of the time. In 1792 he was appointed councilof of mines in Saxony, and his lectures soon extended his repu- tation throughout Europe. In addition to the above are Classification and Distribution of Moun- tains, and a translation of Cronstadt's Mineralogy. His influence was very great in the promotion both of mineralogy and of geolo^. In his mineralogical system minerals were distinguished and arranged chiefly according to their external characters. He died at Dresden in 1817. Wesley, Charies, English hymn writer, was bom at Epworth, England, 1707, and was associated with his brother John in the whole Methodist movement. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford, visited Georgia at the same time with his brother, and took an active part in the sub- sequent work in England. He was a clear and simple preacher and a man of fervent piety. He is the author of a great number of hymns, many of which are among the best and most admired in the English language, replete with pious feeling, ana of unsurpassed lyrical power and sweetness. He died in 1788. Wesley, John. See page 246. West, Benjamin, American painter, was bom at Springfield, Pa., 1738. He began to paint at seven years of age, worked in Philadelphia and New York, studied in Italy, 1760-63, and settled in England in the latter year. In 1792 he suc- ceeded Sir Joshua Rej-nolds as president of the royal academy, an office which he held until his death. His works were formerly very highly esteemed, and he is still considered one of the greatest painters whom America has produced. Among his best paintings are: "The Death of Wolfe^'; "Christ Healing the Sick"; "Death on the Pale Horse"; "Alexander the Great and kis Physicians"; "Penn's Treaty with the Indians," etc. Died in London in 1820. Westcott, Brooke Foss, English prelate, writer, and biblical scholar, was bom near Birmingham in 1825, and was educated at Trinity college, Cam- bridge. He was successively master at Harrow, canon of Petersborough, regius professor of divinity at Cambridge, canon of Westminster, and in 1890 was appointed bishop of Durham. His writings embrace : History of the Canon of the New Teatameni; Introduction to the Study of the GoapeU; History of the Eniftiek BOtU; The Goapd of the Reeurrection; The Oond of Left; Social Aepeeta of Chriatianity; Tne Hiatorie Faith; The Revelation of the Rxaen Lord; Char- acteriatica of the Ooapd Miradea; The New Teata- ment in the Original Greek, with Dr. Uort, etc. Died, 1901. WestlDKhouHe, GeorKe, American inventor and manufacturer, wius bom in New York in 1846. He spent much time in his father's "T^hln<» shop, and invented, at the ace of fifteen, « rotary engine. He served in the Union army, 1863-64; was assistant engineer in the United States navy, 1864-65; then attcndcxl Union college to sophomore year: Ph. D., 1890. In 1865 he invented a device lor replacing railroad cars on the track; in 1868 invented and succeaa- fuUy introduced the Westinghousc air brake, which be has since greatly improved; and haa also made other inventions in railway signals, steam and gas engines, steam turbmes, and electric machinery. He was the pioneer in introducing alternating current machinery in America, which has rendered fXMsible the great development of water powers for long distance electrical transmission; built the great generators at Niagara Falls and those for elevated railway and rapid transit system in New York: haa established large works in the United Statea, England, France, and Germany for manufactur- ing air brakes, electrical and steam machinery. He is president of numerous cor]x>rations, em- ploying over 50,000 people and with a capitalisa- tion of about $120,000,000. Wetmore, George Peabody, ex-United States sena- tor, was born during a visit of his parents abroad. at London, England, 1846. He was graduated at Yale college m 1867, at Columbia law school. 1869; was admitted to the bar of Rhode Island and of New York, 1869. He is a trustee of the Peabody education fund ; was governor of Rhode Island, 1885-86, 1886-87; elected to the United States senate, 1894, was reelected in 1900, and again in 1906. Weyman (wn'-tnan), Stanley John, English novel- ist, was bom at Ludlow, 1855. He was educated at Shrewsbury and at Christ Church, Oxford, and became a barrister in 1881. In 1890 he pub- lished The House of the Wolf, followed by Francia Cludde; and in 1893 made himself famous by A Gentleman of France. His later books include: Under the Red Robe; My LadyRotha; Memoir a of a Minister of France; The Red Cockade; The Man in Black; Shrewabury; The Caatle Inn; Count Hannibal; In King'a Bywaya; The Long Night; The Abbess of Vlaye; Starveerow Farm; Laid Up in Lavender; The Wild Geeae, etc. Wharton, Joseph, American manufacturer and philanthropist, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1826. He was educated by private tutors; Sc. D., university of Pennsylvania, LL. D., Swarthmore college. He was clerk In a mer- cantile house, 1845-47; afterward a white lead manufacturer and connected with other enter- prises; manufacturer, 1853-63, the Lehigh sine company; purchased, 1873, the Gap nickel mines, Lancaster county, Pa., and estab li shed in Camden, N. J., the first suooeasful nickel and cobalt works in America. He endowed a chair of history and economics at Swarthmore ooUeige; founded the Wharton school of finance and com- merce, university of Pennsylvania, to which be gave $500,000; and was also active in other philanthropic work. Died, 1909 Wbeatstone, Sir Charles, English physicist aiMl electrician, was bom at Gloucester. Fnglann. 1802. In a paper on binocular vision, reaa before the royal society in 1838, be ezirfained the principle of the stereoscope. Amang bis other inventions are the erjrptocrapb; automatie 1026 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT telegraph in two forms; telegraph thermometer and barometer; a machine for the conversion of dynamical into electrical force without the use of permanent magnets; and an apparatus for conveying instructions to engineers and steersmen on board large steam-vessels. He is well known for the Wheatstone bridge which, however, he did not invent but brought into general use. Died, 1875. Wheaton, Henry, American jurist, was bom at Providence, R. I., 1785. In 1812-15 he edited the National Advocate in New York, where for four years he was a justice of the marine court, and from 1816 to 1827 reporter for the United States supreme court. In 1827-35 he was chargi d'affaires at Copenhagen, and in 1835-46 minister at Berlin. Besides his Elements of IrUemational Law, he wrote a Life of William Pinkney, History of the Northmen, Law of Nations, etc. Died, 1848. Wheeler, Benjamin Ide, American educator and philologist, president of the university of Cali- fornia since 1899, was born at Randolph, Mass., 1854. He was graduated at Brown university, 1875; Ph. D., Heidelberg, Germany, 1885; hon. LL. D., Princeton, 1896, Harvard, 1900, Brown, 1900, Yale, 1901, Johns Hopkins, 1902, Wisconsin, 1904, Illinois college, 1904. He was instructor at Brown university, 1879-81 ; at Harvard, 1885-86; became professor of com- parative philology, 1887, and professor of Greek, 1888, at Cornell; and was professor of Greek at the American school of classical studies, Athens, Greece, 1895-96. Author: The Greek Noun- Accent; Analogy in Language; Introduction to the History of Language; IHonysos and Immortality; Organization of Higher Education in the United States; Life of Alexander the Great, etc. Roosevelt lecturer at the university of Berlin, 1909-10. Wheeler, Joseph, American general, was bom in Augusta, Ga., 1836. He was graduated at the United States military academy in 1859; served in the cavalry until the outbreak of the civil war, when he entered the confederate army, in which he was later commissioned major-general and senior commander of cavalry. He won great distinction during the civil war as a raider. After the war he practiced law; held a seat in congress, 1880-99 ; and was made major-general of volunteers during the Spanish-American war in 1898. During the Santiago campaign in Cuba he commanded the cavalry division; participated in the battles of Las Guasimas and San Juan hill ; was appointed senior member of the com- mission to make arrangements for the surrender of the Spanish army; served in the Philippines, 1899-1900; and was appointed brigadier-general in the United States army, June, 1900, and was retired the following September. Died, 1906. Whipple, Edwin Percy, American author, was bom at Gloucester, Mass., 1819. He attended the public schools at Salem, and in 1837 was appointed superintendent of the newsroom of the merchant's exchange in Boston. Following this he wrote for the Boston Miscellany and other magazines, and lectured in Boston and other cities. In 1872 he became literary editor of the Boston Globe; in 1877 wrote for the North Ameri- can Review, and at the same time did consider- able bookseller's jobwork. His publications in- clude: Essays and Reviews; Literature and Life; Character and Characteristic Men; Literature of the Age of Elizabeth, etc. Died, 1886. Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, noted American pamter, was bom in Lowell, Mass., 1834. He entered the United States military academy but was dismissed; studied drawing and painting in Paris, France, and in 1863 settled in London, England. He held original views concerning his art, and made interesting experiments with color, m quest of novel efifects. He also gained celeb- rity as an etcher, and is the author of etchings and paintings of established reputation and worth. His paintings include many portraits, among which are: "The White Girl," "Portrait of my Mother," "Nocturne in Blue and Gold," "Harmony in Gray and Green," etc. In 1890 he wrote the Gentle Art of Making Enemies. Died in London, 1903. White, Andrew Dickson, American diplomatist and educator, was bom in Homer, N. Y., 1832. He was graduated at Yale in 1853; traveled in Europe; was attache to legation of the United States, St. Petersburg, 1854-55; studied in the university of BerUn; professor of history and English literature, 1857-63, lecturer on history, 1863-67, university of Michigan; also at univer- sity of Pennsylvania, Stanford and Tulane uni- versities; returned to Syracuse and was state senator, 1863-67; chosen first president of Cornell university, toward the founding of which he «tve S300,0(l0 and an historical library of 40,CmO volumes; and in addition to BUing the presidenojr. 1867-85, filled the chair of modem nistory. He was appointed by President Grant commissioner to Santo Domingo, to study and report on the question of annexation, 1871 ; nunister to lierhn, 1879-81; minister to St. Petersburg, 1892-94 ; member of the Venezuelan commission, 1896-97: ambassador to Berlin under President McKmley, 1897-1902; and was president of the American delegation to the international peace congress at The Hague in 1899. His best known works are: Warfare of Science with Theology; The New Germany; and Studiea in General niatory. White, Edward DousiasB, American jurist, was born in the parish of Lafourche, La., 1845. He was educatea at Mount St. Mary's college, Mary- land, and at the Jesuit college in New Orleans. During the civil war he served in the confederate army. Afterward he practiced law; was state senator of Louisiana in 1874; associate justice of the supreme court of Louisiana^ 1878; and United States senator in 1891-94. While in the senate he was appointed associate justice of the United States supreme court in 1894, and was appointed chief-justice by President Taft, 1910. White, Gilbert, English naturalist, was born at Selbome in Hampshire, 1720. In 1744 he ob- tained a fellowship at Oriel college, Oxford; in 1747 took orders; in 1752 became senior proctor; and in 1758 accepted the sinecure college Uving of Morton Pinkney, Northants. Six years before he had retired to Selbome, to indulge his taste for literature and natural history. His charming Natural History and Antiquities of Selbome is now considered an English classic. Died, 1793. White, Horace, American journalist, was bom in Colebrook, N. H., 1834. He was graduated at Beloit college, Wis., 1853. For many years he was with the Chicago Tribune, and was its editor and one of its chief proprietors, 1864-74; and from 1883 to 1903 was connected with the New York Evening Post, as president of the company, editorial writer, and editor-in-chief. Edited: Bastiat's Sophismes Ecorutmiques and Luigi Cossa's Scierna deile Finame. Author: Money and Banking Illustrated by American History; The Roman History of Appian of Alexandria, etc. White, Horatio Stevens, professor of German at Harvard, was bom in Syracuse, N. Y., 1852; graduated at Harvard, 1873; LL. D., Glasgow university, 1901. Traveled and studied several years in Europe ; admitted to the New York bar, 1878; assistant professor of Greek and Latin, 1876-78, assistant professor of German, 1878-83, head of German department, 1891-1902, dean of general faculty, 1888-96, dean imiversity facility, 1896-1902, Cornell university. In 1902 he b^ame professor of German at Harvard. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1027 Edited: Sdeetiona from, Lessing's Prose; Sdediona from Hein^s Poems; Selections for German Prose Composition; and DctUsche Volklifder. He was also general editor of Appleton's Twentieth Cen- tury Scries of German Classics. ^hlte, James William, American physician and surgeon, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., 1850. He was graduated at the university of Pennsyl- vania, M. D., 1871; Ph. D., Pennsylvama- LL. D., Aberdeen. He was resident physician of Philadelphia hospital, 1873; surgeon to eastern state penitentiary, 1874-76; waa first professor of genito-urinary surgery, then professor of clinical surgery; is now John Rhea Barton pro- fessor of surgery, university of Pennsylvania. Joint author: ATnerican Text Book of Surgery; Genito-Urinary Surgery; and has written numer- ous articles on medical and surgical subjects in medical journals. White, Richard Grant, American author and critic, was bom in New York city, 1822. He was educated at the college of the city of New York, and, though a student of medicine and of law, he adopted a literary career. He was for fourteen years on the Courier and Enquirer of New York, part of the time as editor. The result of his studies and writings on music and art was a volume on Christian Art, published in 1853. His other works include : National Hymns, published during the war; Poetry of the Civil War; Words and Their Uses; Every-Day English; Life of Shakespeare; England Without and Within; Studies in Shakespeare, etc. ; and an edition of Shakespeare's plays. He died in New York city, 1885. White, Stewart Edward, author, was bom in Grand Rapids, Mich., 1873; Ph. B., university of Michigan, 1895 ; studied law one year at Columbia law school. He is a frequent con- tributor to magazines, and author of The West- erners; The Claim Jumpers; The Blazed Trail; The Forest; The Magic Forest; The Silent Places; Conjuror's House; The Mountains; Blazed Trail Stories; The Pass; The Mystery, with S. H. Adams; Arizona Nights; The Wilderness Trav- eler; Camp and Trail. "White, WllUam Allen, American journalist and author, owner and editor of the Emporia Daily and Weekly Gazette, was bom at Emporia, Kansas, 1868. He was educated at the university of Kansas, and began his career as a contributor to magazines and newspapers. Subsequently his paper attracted attention throughout the country for the picturesqueness and virility of its edi- torials, and he became widely known as a special writer. Author: The Real Issue, and Other Stories; The Court of Boyville; Stratagems and Spoils; In Our Toxtm; A Certain Rich Man, etc. Wbitefleld, George, one of the founders of Method- ism, was bom at Gloucester, England, 1714. He was educated at Oxford, became associated with the Oxford Methodists; visited Georgia in 1738 and 1739-41,' and in the latter year doctrinal differences led to his separation from John Wesley, both of them being by this time dis- owned by the established cnurch. Wesley be- lieved and preached the doctrine of universal redemption; Whitefield was a rigid Calvinist. The latter's supporters now built him a large shed at Moorfields, near Wesley's chapel — ■which, being temporary, was known as the tabernacle ; and his preaching gathered immense audiences around hun. But he had no talent for organization; and as soon as he went away on his frequent and protracted journeys his supporters began to disperse. The countess of Huntingdon became a convert to his views, appointed him her chaplain, built and endowed chapels to maintain his Calvinistic doctrines. One of his most famous missionary journeys was that which ho made to SootUnd In 1741. EUa marriage, like that of John Wesley, waa not a happy one. He made a number of visits to America, several of which lasUni for two or three yearm. He died at Newburyport, near Boston, 1770. Whitman, Walt, an American poet, was bom in 1819 at West Hills, L. I. He learned the printing trade, taught school on Long Island, and wrote for newspapers and magaiines. Later hu booama a newspaper publisher Tor a year, failed, went to New York to work in several newspaper positions, until, in 1846, he bucami; for one year editor of the Brooklyn Eagle. Meanwhile he traveled widely in the United States and Canada. In 1855 appeared his first collection of Leaves of Grass, which he later greatly elalx^rated. He served as an army nurse at Washington through- out the civil war, writing in 1865 his Drum Tap*. Later he produced his Democratic VittOM, Two Rivulets, and Specimen Days and Cailect. Prob- ably no American author, except Foe, has called forth so much comment at home and abroad. He died at Camden, N. J., 1892. Whitney, Ell, American inventor, was bom In Westborough, Mass., 1705. In 1792 he was graduated at Yale, went to Georgia, and for a time read law, while living on the plantation of the widow of Nathanael Greene. Here he in- vented the cotton gin, but owing to litigation growing out of the claims of fraudulent imitators, and despairing of obtaining his rights in the South, Whitney went to New Haven, Conn., 1798, near which city he became engage»d in the manufacture of firearms, in which he made a fortune. He died at New Haven, 1825. Whitney, Josiah Dwight, American geologist, was bom at Northampton, Mass., 1819. He was graduated at Yale in 1839, and in 1840 joined the New Hampshire survey. He explored the geology of the Lake Superior region, Iowa, the upper Missouri, and Cahfomia. In 1855 he was made professor in Iowa university, in 1860 state geologist of California, and in 18i65 professor at Harvard. He wrote extensively on geological topics, and died in 1896. Whitney, William Dwight, American philologist, was bom at Northampton, Mass., 1827. He studied at Williams ana Yale, and in Germany with Roth. In 1854 he became professor of Sanskrit at Yale, and in 1870 also of comparative philology. He was an office bearer of the American oriental society, edited numerous Sanskrit texts, and contributed to the great Sanskrit dictionary of Bohtlingk and Roth. He received honorary degrees from many universities, and was member and correspondent of several foreign academies, as well as knight of the Prus- sian order "Pour le M^rite." He waged war with Max Miiller on fundamental questions of the science of language. Among his works are: Material and Form in Language; Darwinism and Language; Oriental and Linauiatic Studies; Life and Growth of Language; Essentials of English Grammar; Sanskrit Grammar; Logical Consist- ency in Views of Language; Mixture in Language, etc. He was also editor-in-chief of the Century Dictionary. Died at New Haven, 1894. Whlttier, John Greenleaf. American poet, waii bom of Quaker parents at Haverhill, Mass., 1807. In his younger days he worked on his father's farm and learned the sboemaklng trade, but early began to write for the press, and in 1831 pul>- lished his first work, Legends of New England, in prose and verse. He carried on the farm himself for five years, and in 1835-36 was a member of the legislature of Iffassachusetts. After havim| edited several other papers, he went to Phlladsl- phia to edit the Pennsylvania Freeman, an anti- slavery paper, the office of which was burned by a mob in 1838. In the following year he returned 1028 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT to his native state, settling at Amesbury, where (or at Danvers, Mass.) he chiefly resided until his death. Among the numerous volumes of poetry which he published from time to time are: Moll Pitcher; Lays of My Home; Miscellaneous Poems; The Voices of Freedom; Songs of Labor; The Chapel of the Hermits; Home Ballads; Snow Bound; In War-Time; National Lyrics; Ballads of New England; Miriam; Mabel Martin; Hazel Blossoms; The King's Missive; Poems of Nature, etc. He is best known for his poems, Barbara Frietchie, The Barefoot Boy, Maud MuUer, and The Pipes at Lucknow. Died, 1892. Wickersham, George Woodward, American lawyer, attorney-general of the United States, 1909-13; was born in Pittsburgh, Pa., 1858. He was grad- uated from the law department of the university of Pennsylvania in 1880, M. A., 1901. Previous to graduation he had been admitted to the Philadelphia bar and practiced there imtil 1882, when he removed to New York city, and in 1883 entered the law firm of Strong and Cadwalader; was admitted, four years later, to partnership in the firm, which connection he terminated upon becoming attorney-general. Wleland (ve'-lant), Christoph Martin, noted German poet, was born at Oberholzheim, near Biberach, 1733. He studied at the university of Tiibingen. returning to Biberach in 1760. In 1766 and 1767 Agathon made its appearance, which greatly contributed to establish his fame. His views on the subject of love are most fully and worthily expounded in the didactic poem Musarion, a work of singular grace and harmony of treatment. At Weimar in 1772 he wrote The Choice of Hercules, and the following year the lyrical drama, Alceste. His hterary productiveness showed itself chiefly in the History of the Abder- ites, a work depicting the follies of small com- munities. This was followed by Oberon, a romantic heroic poem, the most perfect and enduring of his greater works, and translations of Horace, Cicero, and the Greek poets. Died, 1813. Wiggln, Kate Douglas, American author, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1859. She was graduated at Abbott academy, Andover, Mass., 1878; married Samuel Wiggin in 1881 and George C. Riggs in 1895. She organized the first free kindergartens for poor children on the Pacific coast, and has been interested in that work ever since. Author: Tlie Birds' Christmas Carol; The Story of Patsy; A Summer in a Cahon; Timothy's Quest; A Cathedral Courtship; Pene- lope's English Experiences; Polly Oliver's Problem; The Village Watch Tower; Nine Love Songs and a Carol; Marm Lisa; Penelope's Progress; Penelope's Experiences in Ireland; The Diary of a Goose Girl; Rebecca; The Affair at the Inn, in collaboration, etc. Wllberforce, William, English statesman and phi- lanthropist, was born at Hull, England, 1759. He was educated at St. John's college, Cam- bridge, and, by the death of his grandfather and an uncle, became the possessor of a handsome fortvme. He entered parliament as the repre- sentative of his native town, when he had scarcely completed his twenty-first ye%r. In 1784 he became member for the county of York, and held this position until 1812, when he became member for Bramber. In 1789 he first proposed in the house of commons the abolition of the slave trade, and, with the aid of Charles James Fox, this measure was carried in 1807. He afterward devoted himself to an agitation for the extinction of slavery, and this measure also he hved to see all but carried, the bill being finally ?S^®? * *®^ ^^'y^ ^^*^f '^Js death in 1833. In 1797 he published a Practical View of Christianity, which has gone through innumerable editions; and all through life he gave his warmest sym- pathy to efforts for the spread of Christianity at home and abroad. He was buried in Westminster abbey, where a statue is erected to his memory. Wilcox, Ella Wheeler, American poet and writer, was born near Madison, Wis., 1855, and waa educated at the state university in that city. She was for many years a contributor of poems, sketches, etc., to the Milwaukee and Madison papers, the demand for her productions steadily increasing, and extending to the leading journab and periodicals of the country. For many years she has been on the staff of the New York Journal and Chicago American. Author: An Ambitious Man; Sweet Danger; Poems of Passion; Poems of Pleasure; Kingdom of Love; Men, Women and Emotions; A Woman of the World, etc. Wiiey, Harvey WastUngton* American chemist, chief of the bureau of chemistry. United States department of agriculture, 1883-1912; was bom in Kent, Ind., 1844. He was graduated at Hanover oollege in 1867, and from Harvard in 1873; Ph. D., LL. D. He waa professor of chemistry, Purdue university, 1874-83. State chemist of Indiana, 1881-83, and professor of agricultural chemistry, George Waanington uni- versity, since 1899. Author: Principles and Practice of Agricultural Chemitbry; Songs of Agricultural Chemists; Foods and their Adultera- tions; and numerous government bulletins and scientific papers. Wilhelmlna (vti'-hil-mi'-na\ Helena Pauline Maria, queen of the Netherlands, was born at The Hague, Holland, 1880, and is the only child of King William III. and of his second wife, Princess Emma, daughter of Prince George Victor of Waldeck. Sne succeeded to the throne of the Netherlands on the death of her father in 1890, though she came of legal age in 1898, when she was crowned queen. In 1901 she married Duke Henry, youngest son of the g^and duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Queen Wilhelmina is the fourth in the list of sovereigns of the Nether- lands of the house of Orange since the recon- struction of the kingdom by the congress of Vienna in 1814-15. She is known to possess simple tastes, is an accomplished linguist, and an experienced horsewoman. WiUard, Edward Smith, actor, was bom at Brighton, England, 1853. His first appearance on the stage was at the Theater Royal, Weymouth, England, 1869, in the Lady of Lyons. He sup- ported Sothem at Glasgow and filled other engagements vmtil he went to London in 1881, and became famous as the Spider, in The Silver King. He subsequently managed the Shaftes- bury theater, London; produced there The Middleman and other plays. Appeared in Amer- ica at Palmer's theater. New York, 1890, and since then haa made thirteen American tours. He leased the Comedy and Garrick theaters in London, 1894-96, and since then has toured the United States in David Garriek, Tom Pinch, The Middleman, Professor's Love Story, etc. Willard, Emma C, American educator, bom at Berhn, Conn., 1787; educated privately and at Hartford academy. In 1809 she married Dr. John Willard. She established a girls' boarding school at Middlebury, with improved methods of teach- ing ; also established a girls' seminary at Water- ford, N. Y., which was afterward removed to Troy. In 1830 she traveled in Europe, and by her efforts a school for the training of native women teachers was founded in Greece. Among her books are: History of the United States; Universal History in Perspective; Last Leaves of American History; and a book of poems, of which the best known is Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep. Died, 1870. Willard, Frances EUcabeth, temperance reformer, was bom at Churchville, N. Y., 1839. After EMPEROR \71LLIAM 11. From a photograph THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1031 some years spent in teaching she became pro- fessor of sesthetics in the Northwestern univer- sity, and was made dean of the woman's college in 1871. She began her active temperance worK, in 1874, as secretary of the national Woman's Christian temperance union; in 1879 was made president of that organization, and held the oflfice until her death. She was chosen president of the World's Christian temperance union in 1888, and in 1892 visited England as the guest of Lady Henry Somerset, the well known temper- ance worker. She was an orator of great elo- quence, humor, and power, and her executive abiUty and genius for organization left an im- pressive mark on the country. She died in New York, 1898. Her books include many works on temperance: Woman and Temperance and Glimpses of Fifty Years. Willcox, Walter Francis, American educator and statistician, was born at Reading, Mass., 1861. He was graduated at Amherst, 1884, Columbia law school, 1887; Ph. D., Columbia school of political science, 1891; LL. D., Amherst, 1906. He has been connected with Cornell university since 1891, and is now professor of political economy and statistics; chief statistician of 12th United States census, 1899-1902; statistical expert for war department upon censuses of Cuba and Porto Rico, 1899-1900; United States delegate to the international statistical congress, Brussels, 1903, BerUn, 1903, London, 1905, Paris, 1909. Author: The Divorce Problem — a Study in Statistics; Supplementary Analysis and Deriva^ live Tables, 12th Census, and numerous census bulletins, and articles in economic and statistical journals. WlUlam I^ commonly called the Conqueror, was born in Normandy, 1027. He was the illegiti- mate son of Robert Le Diable, duke of Normandy, and succeeded to the dukedom in 1035. He laid claim to the sovereignty of England on the death of Edward the Confessor, pretending to be entitled to it under the will of that monarch. In 1066 he landed at Pevensey, in Sussex; defeated Harold II. at the battle of Hastings; and was crowned king of England in West- minster abbey on the Christmas day following. During his reign the Norman feudal system was developed, the forest and game laws were intro- duced, and the large district of country now called the New Forest was laid waste in order to provide the king with a hunting ground. The Channel islands, being part of William's duchy of Normandy, became attached to England on his accession. Having returned with an English army to reduce his revolted subjects in Nor- mandy, he died at the abbev of St. Gervais, 1087. William III^ king of England, 1689-1702, was born at The Hague, 1650. He was the posthu- mous son of WilGam II. of Orange, and of Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I. of England. In 1678, being then stadtholder of Holland, he went to England, and married Mary, eldest daughter of the duke of York, afterward James II. In 1688 he landed with a Dutch army at Torbay, in Devonshire, and was soon after invited by a convention parliament to accept the throne, which James had vacated; and in April, 1689, was croAvned, together with his wife, Mary, with whom he reigned jointly until her death in 1694; afterward William reigned alone. In 1690 he defeated James at the battle of the Boyne. He afterward engaged in a war with France, which was brought to a close by the treaty of RyBwick, 1697. He died at Kensington palace in 1702. and was succeeded by his cousin Anne, second daughter of the fugitive James. William IV., king of Great Britain and Ireland, third son of George III., was bom in 1765. In 1779 he entered the navy as midshipman, was made a lieutenant in 1785. and in the ytax fol- lowing received his commuBion u captain. In 1789 he was created duke of CUreooe Mid 8t. Andrews and earl of Munster, and wm made admiral of the fleet in 1801. In 1818 h« married Adelaide, eldest daushter of the duke Meiningcn, and the Issue of this marriafe wm two daughters, both of whom died in infancy. By the death of the duke of York, 1827, tbe duke of Clarence became hf>ir-prc8umptive to tbe throne, to which he succeo sity, Middletown, Conn., 1847; waa preaideat of the Masonic female univenity, Selma, Ala.; la 1853 became professor of phvaias and dvU engineering in the university of ICiohigaa, aod two years later was tranaferred to the chair of geology, zo6l<^r, and botany there, which poet he held until 1873. Between 1873 and 1878 h« held the same position at Vaoderbilt univenity. In 1879 he was recalled to the univemitv of Michigan as professor of geology and pafrffn- tology, which he retained for the ramalndar of his life. His published writings embraee: Sketches of Creation; The Doctrine of Evolution; The Geolc^ of the Stars; ReeoncUiation of Seiertes and Religion; Pre-Adamites; Sparks from a Geologist's Hammer; World-Life: a Comparative Geolo^; Geolo^cal Excursions; and Geological Studies. He died at Ann Arbor, Mich., 1801. Wlnsor (wln'-zir), Justin, American historian and librarian, was bom at Boston, Mass., 1831. He studied at Harvard and Heidelberg, was superin- tendent of the Boston library, l^S~77. pasfftnt then to the librarianship of Harvani. From 1876 to 1886 he was preudent of the American library association. He was a Uu^ contributor to the periodical press and an extensive and instructive author. His chief publications em- brace: Tfie Readers' Handbook of the American Revolution; Bibliography of Original Quartos and Folios of Shakespeare; Christopher Columbus; Cartier to Frontenac; and Narrative and Critical History of America. He was also editor of the Memorial History of Boston. Died, 1897. Wlnthrop, John, governor of Massachusetts oolonr, was born at Groton, Suffolk, England, 1588. He became a lawyer, and because of his good and religious character was chosen governor by the Maaaachusetts Bay company in 1629. The next year he came over, bringing with him 000 emi- grants. He was elected governor 1630-34, 1637- 40, 1642-44, and 1646-49. His influence waa very great in the colony, and through it on tba life, thought, and later politics and institutions of New England. His Journal is one of the most important sources of early American his- tory. He died at Boston, 1640. Wirt, William, American lawyer, was bom at Bladensburg, Md., 1772. He was admitted to the bar in 1792, and settled to practioe in Vir- ginia. He was clerk of the Virginia houM of delegates at Richmond, 1799; chancellor of the eastern district of Virginia, 1802; assisted in tha prosecution of Aaron Burr, 1807; member of Virnnia house of delegates, 1807-08; and in 1817 became attomey-genaral of the United States. In 1832 he aooeptad the anti-Maaonie nomination for the presidency. He poaseaaed • fine legal mind ; was an orator of unusual attain- ments. Author: Letters of a British Spy : The Old Bachelor; Life of Patrick Henry, eUs. Died. 1834. Wiseman, Nicholas Patrick Stephen. Engiiah ear* dinal and Roman Catholic archbiahop of West- minster, was bom at Seville, Spain. 1802, of an Irish family settled in Spain. In hia sixteenth year he entered, as an ecclesiaatical student, tha English college at Rome, and received holjr orders in 1824. He was subaequentlT admitted to the degree of D. D. ; waa appointed vio»- rector of the English college, and profesaor of oriental languages in the univerMtv of tha Sapienza. In 1828 he publiahed bia Harm Syriaca, and in the end of that jrear waa named president of St. Mary's college of OsooU. In 1034 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT 1850 he was named archbishop of the see of Westminster, and at the same time created cardinal. Besides high professional learning, he possessed rare and singularly varied attainments, was an eminent Uneuist, a scientific scholar, a finished orator, a vigorous writer, and a critic and connoisseur of art. He wrote: Influence of Words on Thought and Civilization; Lectures on Science and Revealed Religion; Points of Contact between Science and Art; The Real Presence, etc. He died in London, 1865. Wister, Owen, American author, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., 1860. He was graduated from Harvard, 1882; from Harvard law school, 1888; was admitted to the Philadelphia bar, 1889. He engaged in literary work, 1891. Author: The Dragon of Wantley: His Tail; Red Men and White; Lin McLean; The Jimmy John Boss; U. S. Grant, a Biography; The Vir- ginian; Philosophy 4; Journey in Search of Christmas, etc.; and much prose and verse in magazines. He also wrote in collaboration: Musk-ox, Bison, Sheep and Goat, in Whitney's American Sportsmen's library. Wltte {vif-€). Count Sergei Yulievltcb, Russian statesman, of German origin, was bom at Tiflis, 1849. He was educated at Odessa, entered the railway administration, and first gained distinc- tion by his clever organization of the transport of troops in the war of 1877-78. He was called to St. Petersburg for employment there in 1879, and appointed in 1886 director of the Russian southwest railways. In 1888 he became head of the railway department in the ministry of finance, and chairman of the commission on tarififs; in 1892, minister of means of communication, and in 1893, minister of finance. In 1903 he was removed from the ministry of finance and made president of the conunittee of ministers. He was one of the Russian plenipotentiaries in the negotiations for peace with Japan in 1905, and was afterward made a count and appointed president of the new ministry, although m May, 1906, he was superseded. He is author of The Principles of RaUway Rates, and Frtedrich Lias, Economist. Wolfe, Charles, British clergyman and poet, was bom at DubUn, 1791. In 1814 he took his B. A. at Dublin. His Burial of Sir John Moore, in 1817, was so admired that even while its author's name remained unknown, and it was ascribed to Campbell, Byron, and others, it won for itself a secure place in the heart of the British nation. In 1817 he became curate of Ballyclog in Tyrone, and then rector of Donough- more. He died in 1823. Wolfe, James, English general, was bom at Wester- ham, in Kent, England, 1727. His first service was in Flanders, where he took part in the famous battle of Dettingen, while in Scotland he was in the battles of Falkirk and CuUoden. His skill and bravery at the attack of Louisburg won him the title of "hero of Louisburg." In the effort to drive the French out of Canada, Pitt, in 1759, gave the charge of the invading army to Wolfe, who had been made major-general. The story of his attack on Quebec, how he scaled the cUffs with his army by night, and died in the moment of victory, while his brave antagonist, Montcahn, dying too, said: "It is a great consolation to have been vanquished by so brave an enemy," is well known. He died in 1759. Wolseley (wddl^4l). Garnet Joseph, Viscount, Enghsh field-marshal, was bom in County Dub- lin, Ireland, 1833. He entered the army in 1852, served in Burmah, in the Crimean war, the Indian mutiny, and the China war of 1860 ; commanded the Red rirer expedition in Canada in 1870; commanded on the gold coast during Aflhantee war, 1873; was governor of Natal, and later of Cyprus; gave up the latter post to command in the South African war of 1879-80. He then commanded the Egyptian expedition, 1882; Gordon rehef expedition, 1884; and while commanding in Ireland was made field-marshal in 1894, ana commander-in-chief after retirement of the duke of Cambridge, 1895. He retir^ in 1900. He wrote Life of the Duke of Marlborough, The Decline and Fall of Napoleon, and The Story of a Soldier's Life. Died, 1913. Wolsey (wd6l'-zi), Thomag, English statesman and cardinal, was bom at Ipswicn, about 1475. He is said to have been the son of a butcher, and was educated at Magdalen college, Oxford, where he graduated at the early age of fourteen. Introduced at the English court by Sir John Nanfan, his great abilities and tact soon enabled him to gain the esteem of Henry VII., who, in 1508, made him dean of Lincoln. On the acces- sion of Henry VIII. he became the king's almoner. In 1515 he was consecrated arclibishop of York, and was about the same time ap[x>inted lord chancellor and prime minister. Pope Leo X. granting him in the following year the dignity of a cardinal of the church. From this time he was one of the foremost men in Europe, and, as his revenues were immense, his pride and ostentation were carried to the greatest height. In 1529 he was appointed, together with Cardinal Campeggio, to inquire, on behalf of Pope Clement VII., into the vahdity of Henry VIII. s marriage with Catharine. The inquiry ended, however, only in a postponement of the question — a postponement wnich Henry could ill brook ; and Wolsey was soon after deprived of the great seal, and ordered to retire to his diocese at York. In the following year he was arrested on a charge of high treason, and was ordered to be conveyed to London for trial. Illness delayed him at Sheffield Park for eighteen days. At length he reached Leicester abbey, and died there a few days afterward, in 1530. He foiuded Christ Church, Oxford. Wood, Leonard, army officer, was bom at Win- chester, N. H., 1860. He was graduated from the Harvard medical school, 1884; LL. D., Harvard, 1899; Williams, 1902; Pennsylvania, 1903. He became assistant surgeon in the United States army in 1886, captain in 1891; was colonel of the 1st United States volunteer cavalry, rough riders, 1898; brigadier-general, July 8, 1898; major-general, December 7, 1898; brigadier-general, Umted States regular army, 1901; major-general, 1903. He was miUtary governor of Cuba, 1899-1902; governor of Moro province, PhiUppine islands, 1903-06 ; commander of Philippines division, 1906-08; commander of the department of the East, 1908; chief of staff of army in 1910. Woodberry, George Edward, American author and critic, was bom at Beverly, Mass., 1855. He was graduated at Harvard in 1877. He was professor of English at Nebraska university, 1877-78, 1880-82, and professor of comparative Uterature, Columbia, 1891-1904. Author: His- tory of Wood Engraving; Edgar Allan Poe; Studies in Letters and Life; The North Shore Watch; The Heart of Man; Wild Eden; Makers of Literature; Nathanid Hawthorne; America in Literature; Poems; The Torch; Algernon Charles Swinburne; Ralph Waldo Emerson; The Appre- ciation of Liieralure; Great Writers, etc.; and editor of the works of several EngUsh poets. Woodward, Bobert Simpson, American physicist and educator, was bom at Rochester, Mich., 1849. He was graduated at the university of Michigan, C. E., 1872, Ph. D., 1892; LL. D., Wisconsin, 1904; Sc. D., Pennsylvania, and Columbia, 1905. He was assistant engineer of United States lake survey, 1872-82; assistant astronomer of United THROUGHOUT THE WORLD lOM States Transit of Venua commission, 1882-84; astronomer, geographer, and cliief geographer. United States geological survey, 1884-90 ; assist- ant United States coast ana geodetic survey, 1890-93; professor of mechanics and mathe- matical physics, 1893-1905, and dean of the school of pure science, 1895-1905, Columbia; president of the Carnegie institution of Washing- ton since 1905. Woolley, Mary E.» American educator, president of Mt. Holyoke college since 1900, was born at South Norwalk, Conn., 1863, daughter of Rev. Joseph J. Woolley. She was graduated at Wheaton seminary, 1884 ; taught nistory in the same; was graduated at Brown university, 1894, A. M., 1895 ; Litt. D., Brown, L. H. D., Amherst, 1900. She was instructor and later head of the department of biblical history and literature of Wellesley college, 1895-1900. Woolman, John, American Quaker preacher, waa born at Northampton, N. J., 1720. He was a farmer's son, and was for some time a tailor. He spoke and wrote against slavery, and pub- lished: Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes; Considerations on Pure Wisdom and Human Policy, on Labor, on Schools, and on the Right Use of the Lord's Outvuard Gifts; Considera- tions on the True Harmony of Mankind; The Journal of the Life and Travels of John Woolman in the Service of the Gospel. The latter was a favorite book with Charles Lamb. He died at York on a visit to England, 1772. Woolsey, Theodore Dwigbt, American scholar, was born at New York city, 1801. He was graduated at Yale in 1820, studied at Princeton, and for three years in Germany. He was professor of Greek at Yale college, 1831-46, and was the president of that institution, 1846-71. He was an authority on questions of international law; edited in Greek a number of Greek plays, and wrote several religious works. He was president of the American company of revisers of the new testament. Among his works are: Introduction to the Study of International Law; Political Science; Communism and Socialism; Divorce and Divorce Legislation, etc. Died, 1889. Worcester {wobs'-tir), Joseph Emerson, American lexicographer, was bom at Bedford, N. H., 1784. He taught at Salem, Mass., and then turned to authorship. All his works were laborious — gazetteers, manuals of geography and history, etc. He edited Chalmers' abridgement of Todd's Johnson's Dictionary, with Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, in 1828; abridged Webster's Diction- ary in 1829; printed his own English Dictionary in 1830, Crittcal Dictionary in 1846, and quarto Dictionary of the English Language, 1860. He died in 1865. Wordsworth, William. See page 94. Wren, Sir Christopher, noted English architect, was bom at East Knovle, in Wiltshire, 1632. He was graduated at Oxford, and in 1657 left Oxford for London, .where he became Gresham professor of astronomy. In 1660, however, he returned to Oxford as Savilian professor of astronomy, and the same year received the degree of D. C. L. In 1663 he was engaged by the dean of St. Paul's to make a survey of the cathedral, with a view to certain projected repairs in that vast fabric. But the building was leveled to the ground by fire in 1666, and Wren was the architect of the new cathedral, instead of the restorer of the old. Besides numerous churches, he built the royal exchange, London ; customhouse, London ; Temple Bar; the college of physicians; the royal observatory, Greenwich ; Chelsea hospital ; Hamp- ton court; Greenwich hospital; Buckingham palace ; Marlborough house ; the towers at the west front of Westminster abbey, etc. In 1672 he was knighted and in 1680 was elected president of the rov»i wdetr. In 1084 he wm mad* eoa* troller of the worka at Windaor oaatle; and la 1685 waa elected grand maater of the onlar of Freemasons. Died, 1723. Wright, Carroll Darldaoa, eoooomiat, -*^*«T*HaT. was born in Dunbarton, N. U., 1840. Ha r^ ccived an academic education; begaa the atudjr of law; served in the civil war fromjwivate to colonel; was admitted to the New Bampahira bar in 1867: membnr tics of labor, 1873-88; United Statea «<*««"«»«- sioner of labor, 1885-1902; and alao, 1808-V7, completed the eleventh United Statea i»tnwiii He was honorary profeaaor of aodal eoonomiea, Catholic university of America, 1896-1904; became professor of statiatica and aodal eoonom* ics, school of comparative iurisprudenca and diplomacy, Columbian university, 1900; and waa president of Clark college. Woroeater, Maaa., 1902-09. He was appoint^ by President Rooaa> velt a member and recorder of the United Statea anthracite strike commission, 19(X2, and waa ona of the original trustees of the Carnegie inatitute, Washington. Though not a graduate of any college, he received honorary di-greea from Tufta, Dartmouth, Wesleyan, and Clark. Author: Tht Factory System of the United Statea; Relation of Political Economi/ to the Labor Queation; The Industrial Evolution of the United Statea; Outline of Practical Sociology; History and Oroicth of th* United States Census. Died, 1909. Wright, OrvlUe, American aeronaut and inventor, was born at Davton, Ohio, 1871. He waa edu- cated in the public and high schools, and aince 1903 has devoted hia attention mainly to the invention and improvement of Wright Brothera' aeroplane flying machine. He made the first teat at Kitty Hawk, N. C, 1903, and a sucoeaaful long-distance test near Dayton, Ohio, 1906. Since that time he has amply demonstrated the practicability of the Wright Brothers' aeroplane. He has given many exhibitions in Europe and the United States. Wright, WUbur, aeronaut, brother of Orville, waa bom near Millville, Ind., 1867. He was educated in the high schools, four yeara at Richmond, Ind., and Dayton, Ohio. From 1903 to 1912, with his brother Orville, he devoted hia time to the heavier-than-air flying machine, patented by Wright Brothers in leading countriea of the world. He also gave numerous exhibitiona at home and abroad. Died, 1912. Wundt ivdbnt\ Wllhehn Max, German phyatologlak and psychologist, was bom at Neckarau in Baden, Germany, 1832. He studied at TiibiosMi, Heidelberg, and Berlin; in 1876 became pro- fessor of physiology at Leipzig. He ia diatin- guished in the fleld of experimental payefaology, and has written on the nervea and the aa n a f a , the relations of physiology and paycholocy, lofi& etc. Hia Human and Animal Payehtiogy and Outlines of Psychology were tranalated in 1890. He is considered one of the foremoet inveatigatof* in his field, and is a prolific writer. Wu Ting-Fang (u««' an^-f&ng'), Chineae diplomat, waa bom at Hsin-hui district, Kwangtung, China. He waa educated in Chineae literature and classics at Canton, in English at Hong Kong, and in law at Lincoln's Inn, London; LL. Dj university of Pennsvlvania, 1900. He practiced as a barrister at llong Kong until 1882; waa appointed,"-1882, bv Li Hung Chang, vicerojr of (Aihli, as legal adviser and deputy for foragn affairs in Tientsin; became promoter and chief director of the Kai Ping railway eompany, and built first railway in Chma; waa later appointed by the imperial government co-director in the railway bureau, constructing railways in north China. He waa alao appointed chiei director of 1036 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT Tientsin university on its establishment, 1895; assisted in negotiating, at Peking, the Chino- Japanese treaty of commerce and navigation, ratified in 1896; was minister of China to the United States, Spain, and Peru, 1897-1902, and reappointed to the United States in 1907. He has written numerous articles on China in American magazines. Wycliffe {wik'4y'), John, English religious reformer, was bom at WycUfife, near Richmond, in York- shire, about 1320. He is fret^uently called "the morning star of the reformation." He was the son, as is believed, of a Yorkshire squire, and studied first at Queen's and afterward at Merton college, Oxford. Attaining a high reputation for a knowledge of theology and of logic, he was raised to a fellowship in Merton, and was after- ward made in succession master of Balliol and warden of Canterbury hall. There, and after- ward in his country parishes, he attacked the abuses of the church and the character of the mendicant friars of those days; and his liberty, and perhaps his life, would have been in peril, if he had not found a protector in John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, who was favorable to the principles of the reformation. His last years were spent as rector of Lutterworth, in Leicester- shire, where, a short time before his death, in 1384, he completed his translation of the Bible. He also wrote a large number of tracts or treatises in exposition or defense of the doctrines he preached. Xavler (zflr'-l-ft"), St. Francis, Jesuit missionary, styled usually the "apostle of the Indies," was born in 1506, of a noble family, in the north of Spain. At Paris, where he studied and then lectured, be was associated with Loyola in founding the Jesuit society. He was ordained priest in 1537, lived at Rome in the service of the society, and was sent out as missionary to the Portuguese colonies in the East. He arrived at Goa in 1542, and labored with equal zeal and success among the corrupt Europeans and the native population. After a year he visited Travancore, where in a month he baptized 10,000 natives. He then visited Malacca, the Banda islands, Amboyna, the Moluccas, and Ceylon, where he converted the kin^ of Kandy with many of his people. The mission he next founded in Japan flourished for a hundred years. He returned to Goa in 1552 to organize a mission to China. But the intrigues of the Portuguese merchants and difficulties caused by the governor of Malacca wore out his strength, and Tie died, 1552, soon after reaching the island of Sanchian near Canton. His body was ultimately buried in Goa. He was canonized in 1622. His only literary remains are his Letters, and a Catechism with some short ascetic treatises. Xenophon {zhi'-d-/dn), Greek historian, philosopher, and military commander, born at Athens, about 434 B. C. He was a pupil and friend of Socrates ; joined the expedition of Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes, and on its failure conducted the ten thousand Greeks — "the retreat of the ten thousand " — who went up with him back to the Bosphorus, served afterward in several militarv adventures, brought himself under the ban of his fellow citizens in Athens, and retired to Elis, where he spent twenty years of his life in the pursuits of country life and in the prosecution of literature. His principal works are the Anabasis, an account of the expedition of Cyrus and his own conduct of the retreat ; the Memora- hilta, an account of the life and teaching and in defense of his master Socrates; the Hdenica, an account of forty-nine years of Grecian history in continuation of Thucvdides to the battle of Mantmea; and Cyropadeia, an ideal account of the education of Cyrus the Elder. He died about 355 B. C. Xerxes (zurk'-ziz), king of Persia, son of Darius I., whom he succeeded on the throne in 485 B. C, was bom about 519 B. C. In 481 be attempted to subdue Greece both by sea and land; and with his army crossed the Hellespont by means of a bridge of boats; was checked for a time at Thermopylae by Leonidas and his five hundred; advanced to Athens to see his fleet destroyed at Salamis by Themistocles: and left Mardonius with 300,000 men to suffer defeat on the fatal field of Platfiea in 479. He then returned to Asia Minor, and, after an expedition against Babylon, in which be razed its temples to the ground, he was assassinated in 465 by Artabanus. the captain of his bodyguard. He reignea twenty years. Xlmenes (zi-mi'-niz), Francis de Cisneros, Spanish cardinal and statesman, was bom at Torrelaguna, in Castile, in 1437. He was educated at AJcala de Henares, Salamanca, and Rome. His repu- tation for piety and learning led Queen Isabella to choose nim, in 1492, for her confessor, and three years afterward to name him archbishop of Toledo. As confessor and confidential adviser of the queen, Xlmenes, during the Ufetime of Isabella, was the guiding spirit of Spanish affairs; and on her death in 1504 he held the balance between the parties of Ferdinand and Piiilip of Burgundy, husband of Joanna, the heiress of the crown. In 1506-07 he was provisional regent of Castile, and was regent of Spain, 1516-17. He died near Aranda de Duoro, i517> Tale, Ellbu, English colonial official, was bom at or near Boston, Mass., 1648. When four years old he was taken to England by his father, and never returned to America. From 1687-92 be was governor of Fort St. George, Madras; and later, governor of the East India company. He was a^ a fellow of the royal society. Yale college received his name in the charter of 1745. Previously the building and, before that, the school at Saybrook had oeen called by the name. His gifts to the institution amounted to about £500 in money and many books. He died in England, 1721, and is buri«Ki at Wrexham, Wales. Tamagata (ya'-rrui-gd'-td), Aritomo, Japanese field- marshal, president of the privy council of Japan, was bom at Choshu, 1838. He was junior vice- minister of war, 1870; lieutenant-general, 1872; minister of war, 1873; chief of staff of the imperial army during the civil war of 1877; minister of home affairs, 1885; commanded first army in the China-Japan war; visited Europe and America, 1888-89; was prime minister, 1889; minister of justice, 1892; president of privy council, 1893; inspector-general, 1895; attended the coronation of Czar Nicholas of Russia, 1896: became field-marshal, 1898; chief of general staff, 1904 ; and was created prince, 1907. Yancey (y&n'-si), WilUam Lowndes, American politician and lawyer, was born in Georgia, 1814. He was a member of congress from Alabama, 1844—46; became a leader of the Southern secessionists; withdrew from the national demo- cratic convention at Charleston in 1860; and was greatly instrumental in bringing about the civil war. He was sent in 1861 to Europe as a commissioner to obtain recognition of the con- federacy. Died near Montgomery', Ala., 1863. Youmans {y^Sb'-mam), Edward L~ American scien- tist, was bom at Coeymans, N. Y., 1821. Al- though suffering for some years from almost total blindness, he pursued his studies in phj'sics and chemistry with marked zeal and proficiency, his sister conducting exp>eriments for him. Ainong his works are : Class Book of Chemistry; Correla- tion and Conservation of Forces; Alcohol and ths THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 1037 Constitution of Man; Handbook of Houaehold Science; The Culture Demanded by Modem Life, etc. In 1872 he established and until his death edited The Popular Science Monthly, which has since attained a very wide circulation iu both America and Europe. Died at New York, 1887. Toung, BrlKham, at one time head of the Mormon church, was bom at Whittingham, Vt., 1801. In 1832, having become a convert to Mormonism, he was made an elder of the church, and began to preach at the Mormon settlement at Kirtland, Ohio. Three years later he was sent as a mis- sionary to the New England states, where he succeeded in making quite a number of converts. After the death of Joseph Smith, at Nauvoo. 111., in 1844, Young was chosen president of the Mormon body. In 1848 he led his followers to Utah and founded Salt Lake City, where for several years he reigned supreme and bade defiance to the United States government. In 1862 he proclaimed polygamy, which had been condemned by the Mormon church, and in 1857, after having been territorial governor of Utah for several years, he was removed from office by President BuchaJian. He died, 1877, leaving a fortune of $2,000,000 to be divided among seventeen wives and fifty-six children. Toung, Edwardt English poet, was bom at Upham rectory near Bishops Waltham, 1683. He was educated at All Souls, Oxford, and in 1730 became rector of Welwj-n, in Hertfordshire. His chief poetical work is Night Thoughts, which were occasioned by the death of his wife and other sorrows, many of whose sententious lines, such as "Procrastination is the thief of time," have passed into proverbial use. He also wrote Love of Fame, the Universal Passion; the dramas, Busiris, The Revenge, etc. He died in 1765. Toung, Ella Flagg, American educator, was bom at Buffalo, N. Y., 1845. She was grswluated at the Chicago high school and Chicago normal school; Ph. D., university of Chicago; married at Chicago, 1868, William Young; engaged in teaching since 1862. She was district superin- tendent of schools, Chicago, 1887-99 ; professor of education, university of Chicago, 1899-1905; principal of the Chicago normal school, 1905- 09; and superintendent of the Chicago public schools since 1909. President national educa- tional association, 1910. Author: Isolation in the School; Ethics in the School; Some Types of Mod- em Educational Theory; and various monographs. Tounghusband, Sir Francis Edward, English soldier, explorer, and writer, was bom at Murree, India, 1863. He was educated at Clifton and Sandhurst, entered the British army, and was fromoted lieutenant-colonel, 1908, for service in ndia. He traveled in Manchuria, 1886; from Peking to India via Chinese Turkestan, 1887; on the Pamirs and in Hunza, 1889; on the Pamirs, 1890-91 ; was political officer, Hunza. 1892; political agent, Chitral, 1893-94; special correspondent of the London Times in Chitral expedition, 1895 ; and was British conunissioner to Tibet, 1902-04. In the latter year he headed the expedition which forced its way into Lhassa, sacred city of Tibet. In 1906 he became British resident at Kashmir, India. Author : Heart of a ContinerU; Relief of Chitral; South Africa of To-day, etc. Zahm (tsam\ John Augustine, provincial of order of Holy Cross in United States since 1897, was bom at New Lexington, Ohio, 1851. He was graduated at Notre Dame university, 1871: Ph. D from Pope Leo XIII , 1895 He entered the order of Holy Cross, 1871 ; was appointed in charge of the scientific department,^ 1874, director of same, 1875; and is now president of the board of trustees, Notre Dame university. He is a member of numerous Kientifie totAttJm and has lectured widely on soientifio and aUiad toiiics. Author: Evolution and Doama; Biti* Science and Faith- Sound and Mune: CathoUe Science and Catholic ScientuU; Sdentifie Theory and Catholic Doctrine; Science and the Churdi, etc. ZangwUl iadng'-uja), Israel, British nun of letters, was bom in London, 1864. He was practically self-educated, and received tbedegree ofB. A. from London university. He then became a journal- ist; edited Arid; and has written many novels, essays, poems, and plays; has lectured in Great Britain and Ireland. Jerusalem, Holland, and the United States, ana is president of the inter- national Jewish territorial organisation or Zionist movement. Author: The Premier and the Painter; The Bachdor'a Club; The Big Bow Mystery; The Old Maids' Club; Children of the Ghetto; Merely Mary Ann; Ghetto Traoediee; The King of Schnorrers; The Master; Without Prejudice; Dreamers of the Ghetto; They that Walk in Darkness; The Mantle of Elijah;- The Grey Wig; Blind Children, verse; Ghetto Com- edies, etc. Plays: Six Persona; Children of the Ghetto; The Moment of Death; The Revolted Daughter; Merely Mary Ann; The Serio-Comie Governess; Jinny the Carrier; Nurse Marjorie; The Melting Pot, etc. Zeno, founder of the stoic philosophy, was bom at Citium, in Cyprus, the date of his birth and death both being uncertain. He flourished in the early part of the third century B. C, and was a con- temporary of Epicurus. At the age of thirty he was shipwrecked, and, having lost his property, adopted the doctrines of the Cynics, m which contempt for riches is conspicuously taught. Having made himself master of the various schools, he proceeded to open a school of his own, wherein he might bring forth the results of his inquiries and develop his own peculiar system. He selected for his purpose the painted porch," and there until his death continued to teach those doctrines which, in spite of many objec- tionable features, inculcate the manly energy and simplicity, the patience and fortitude, and that reverence for moral worth which made disciples of so many noble Roman characters The Athenians honored Zeno's memory with a golden crown and a public burial, and his country- men erected a monumental pillar in his honor. He is supposed to have died about 264 B. C. Zeno, Greek philosopher of Elea, in Italy, was bom about 490 B. C. He was a favorite disciple of Parmenides, visited Athens, and the illustrious Pericles was one of his pupils. According to the account usually given, on his return to Elea be joined a conspiracy to deliver his native town from the tjrrant Nearcbus, and on the failure of his plot was captured, and put to the torture. He aevoted his great powers of argumentation to enforce the doctrines first broached by Xenopb- anes, and more systematically dev«oped by Parmenides. His works were in prose, but only small fragments have been preserved. Zenobia {zi-n6'-bird\ Septlmta, queen of Palmvra, 267 A. D., succeeded her husband Odenatnus, who had been acknowledged by Gallienus in the sovereignty of the Roman empire; but when Aurelian became emperor, he marched against her with a large army, ana after defeating her in several battles besieged her in Palmsrra. She attempted to escape by flight, but was ciHF>^ured and brought to Rome to adorn the triumph of her conqueror. After this ^be was presented bv Aurelian with large possessions near Tlvoli, where the remainder of ner life was nassed. She was a woman of great courage, hlgn spirit, and remarkable beauty, and. with purity of morals in private life, she combined prudence, justice. 1038 MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT and liberality in her administration of public affairs. Zlmmem, Helen, British author, translator, and critic, was born in Hamburg, Germany, in 1846, and was taken to England in 1850. She has been a correspondent for a number of German, English, and Italian periodicals, and has besides executed an immense amount of literary work of a high order. She resided in England until 1887, when she removed to Italy, where she has since lived. Author: Stories in Precious Stones; Told by the Waves; Schopenhauer, his Life arid Philosophy; Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, hie Life and his Works; Half-Hours with Famous Novel- ists; Tales from the Edda; The Epic of Kings; The Hansa Towns; The Italy of the Italians, etc. Zlnzendort (tsin'-tsen-d6rf), Nicolaus Ludwig, Count von, founder of the Moravian brethren, or Herrn- hutters, was bom at Dresden, 1700. He was educated by his grandmother, a learned and pious lady, and in 1710 went to Halle, where he spent six years under the special care of Francke, the philanthropist. He was appointed a member of the Saxon state council, but political life was little to his mind, and he returned to his country seat in upper Lusatia. While residing there he accidentally met a wandering carpenter named Christian David, a member of the old sect of Moravian brethren, who described the persecu- tions to which the sect was exposed ; and Zinzen- dorf invited him and his friends to settle on his estate. They accepted the proposal, and the colony received the name of "Hermhut." Zinzendorf acted with great liberality to the settlers, and their success attracted much atten- tion. In 1737, at the request of King Frederick William I. of Prussia, he was ordained bishop of the Moravians. In the same year he went to London, where he was received with much con- sideration by Wesley. In 1741 he went to America and founded the celebrated Moravian colony at Bethlehem, Pa. He finally settled at Hermhut, and died, 1760. He was the author of more than 100 works in verse and prose. Zlska {zls'-kd), or Zizka (zhish'-kd), J&n, leader of the Hussites, was born at Trocznov, Bohemia, about 1360. He served in the English army in France, and afterward joined King Ladislas, of Poland, with a body of Bohemian and Moravian auxiliaries, and greatly distinguished himself in the war against the Teutonic knights. He was an adherent of the Hussite doctrine, and the cruelties exercised on its adherents excited in his mind the liveliest resentment. Sigismund was convinced that the conquest of Bohemia was impossible, and after a time proposed an arrangement with the Hussites by wnich full religious liberty was allowed; and Ziska, who had an interview with the emperor on the footing of an independent chief, was to be appointed governor of Bohemia and her dependencies. But the war-worn old chief did not live long enough to complete the treaty, for, while bcsie^ng the castle of Przibislav, he was seized with the plague and died, 1424. Zola (zd'-ld; Ft. zd'-ld'), £mlle, French novelist, was bora at Paris, 1840. He was educated at the Lyc^ St. Louis, settled in Paris, and was for a time in the employ of Messrs. Hachette, the well-known publisning firm. His first impor- tant venture in fiction was Les MysUrea de Marseille, and in this and in Th^iae Raquin he at once displayed his remarkable power in the critical analysis of human character. Soon after this he formed with P'laubert, Daudet, and the Goncourta the naturalistic school of fiction The fruit in part of this was the series known as Lea Rougon-Macquart Family, modeled somewhat after Balzac's La Comtdis Humaine. The more notable subsequent stories are: L'Ataommoir; Nana; Pot-Bouille; La Joie de Vivre; Au Bonheur dea Damea; Germinal; La Terre; La Bile Humaine; La DSb&de; Le Docteur Pascal; Le Rive; and Lourdea. The last forms one of a trilogy, which he called Lea Troia Villea — Lourdea,Rome, and Paris — all in the extreme realistic vein. His last work, written in exile, occasioned by his cour- ageous advocacy of the famous Dreyfus case, is entitled FicondiU. He was a knight of the French legion of honor, but was refused ad- mittance to a seat in the French academy. He died in 1902. Zoroaster (zd'-rd-4a'-tir). Seepage 194. Zwlngll (tsvin^-U), Ulrich* Swiss reformer, was bom at Wildhaus, 1484. He served in Italy as a soldier, visited Erasmus at Basel in 1514, and two years later at the monastery of Einsiedeln began to preach freely. In 1 5 1 8 he was appointed to the cathedral at Zurich, having previously opposed the sale of indulgences oy Sansom. Attempts were made to prohibit his preaching, but the reformation grew at Zurich. In 15!^ Zwingli met Luther and Melanchthon at Mar- burg, but two years later he fell in the battle of Kappel in the war with Bern. Died, 1531. 14 DAY USEh bokko^^^ REC'D LD ^g,i\-iroH«° 86 ■^'i^ THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY Mi'ii'H'il!! [!' i !(i 1 Hi I 1 iiiii I I I hi 1 iliiliiihijiljiljliuillm^m^^^ iiii i lili! i liiii'iii*! iii II 1 1 11 I 1 ) > h lilli' 1' < I I'll' 1 'l(l 1! 1 I I I 'ill I '1 ' 1' ! 11 1 I ' ' *' I! ' " i! !!r I iPiPiPi'i iP iil'iP P P ill]; ! ijii iil!!; ; ; ; 11 II |i 1 i !! 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