PART I. 
 
 LITERARY SUBJECTS. 
 
GUIDE TO TYPOGRAPHY, 
 
 IN TWO PARTS, 
 LITERARY AND PRACTICAL; 
 
 OR, 
 
 Cjre Sieaben: laitHook 
 
 v-^ fc>^ 
 
 AND THE 
 
 COMPOSITOR'S VADE-MECUM. 
 
 BY HENRY BEADNELL, 
 
 P E I N T E K. 
 
 PART I. LITERARY. 
 
 LONDON; 
 F. BOWERING, 211, BLACKFRIARS ROAD; 
 
 AND ALL BOOKSELLERS. 
 
LONDON: 
 ADAMS AND GEE, PRINTERS, MIDDLE STREET, 
 
 WEST SMITHFIELD, B.C. 
 
RISING GENERATION OF PRINTERS 
 
 I p pnral, 
 
 ON THE LITERATURE AND PRACTICE OF THE NOBLE ART TO 
 WHICH THEY HAVE DEVOTED THEMSELVES, 
 
 IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, 
 
 BY THEIR SINCERE WELL-WISHER, 
 
 THE AUTHOE. 
 
 M 3920 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 UNDER various designations, such as Guides, Hand- 
 books, Companions, &c., numerous books have, from time 
 to time, been compiled by members of the printing 
 business desirous of lightening the labor of the inex- 
 perienced, and of clearing the path of the learner of the 
 difficulties which continually interrupt his progress in 
 the early period of his career. 
 
 Some of those productions undoubtedly possess consi- 
 derable merit, and creditably answer the end for which 
 they were designed. But all of them, as far, at least, as 
 they have come under my observation, have treated of 
 the Art of Printing mainly as a mere mechanical occupa- 
 tion, and have paid little attention to those branches of 
 literature which it is so important to the tyro to master, 
 if he would rise to the status of an intelligent workman, 
 able to give a reason for his acts, and not sink to the level 
 of a mere routine picker-up of types, on all occasions 
 blindly and inconsiderately adhering to his copy, however 
 incorrect or absurd that may be. Hence, the practical 
 utility of those productions has, as a general rule, borne 
 no proportion to their bulk and cost ; for, while these in 
 some cases are very considerable, the real value of the 
 matter contained in them is but too often comparatively 
 email. 
 
To remedy this defect, to produce a real Vade- 
 mecum for the Author, the Editor, the Corrector, and 
 the Compositor, a book to be placed in the hands of the 
 Apprentice as soon as he begins to compose, and to be 
 his constant companion, until he becomes as conversant 
 with it as with his boxes, which shall be a rational 
 expositor of those numerous and often intricate literary 
 subjects which it so much concerns every one connected 
 with the Press to master, but a knowledge of which 
 can now only be acquired at the cost of much labor and 
 research, has been the endeavor of the Author in 
 undertaking the work, the First Part of which is now 
 submitted to the judgement of the reader. Whether 
 he has succeeded in his intention, is not for him, but 
 for the public, to determine : at all events, even if he 
 has failed, he will have the satisfaction of reflecting 
 that he has at least attempted to accomplish a work, 
 which, if well done, he has no doubt would prove ac- 
 ceptable to every one practically connected with the 
 typographical art. 
 
 To dilate here upon the nature of the work, would be 
 superfluous : what it is, or what it aims to be, will be 
 clearly seen from an inspection of the table of contents 
 which follows this Preface. The Author will only add, 
 that he submits hi# book to the friendly criticism of an 
 indulgent public ; convinced, that if it but moderately 
 answer the end proposed, it will be favorably regarded, 
 and will secure that approbation which is the main solace 
 of those who labor in the cause of general improvement, 
 in however humble a sphere. 
 
 July, 1859. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 PAQX 
 
 General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . 3 
 
 Of the Vowels as Final Letters .. .. .. 5 
 
 Of Final Semivowels .. .. .. .. ..11 
 
 Of Final Liquids ... .. .. .. .. 16 
 
 Of the Double Letters as Finals . . 17 
 
 Of Final Mutes 18 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 LITERARY MISCELLANIES, CHIEFLY ORTHOGRAPHICAL AND 
 SYNTACTICAL. 
 
 A or an before a Vowel or silent h . . . . 24= 
 
 The Prefixes im or in and em or en . . . . . . 25 
 
 The Prefixes in and un .. .. .. .. .. 27 
 
 On the Formation of the Plurals of Words compounded of a 
 
 Noun and an Adjective .. .. .. .. 27 
 
 On the Plural of Nouns ending in y . . . . 28 
 
 On the use of Diphthongs and Diacritical Marks in English 
 
 Printing .. .. 30 
 
 The Termination ise or ize .. .. .. ..31 
 
 Of the words succeed, proceed, precede, &c. . . . . 32 
 
 Of the Verb caw ,. 33 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOK 
 
 The Termination or or our . . , . . . . . 34 
 
 The Termination or or our and er j . . . 35 
 
 The Terminations able and ible .. .. 38 
 
 Nouns Substantive in sion or tion .. .. .. 38 
 
 The Termination ance or ence . . . . . . . 37a 
 
 Some Peculiarities of the Letter c .. .. .. 39 
 
 Defense, pretense, offense, expense, &c. .. .. ..40 
 
 Dispatch or despatch . . . . . . . . 40 
 
 Two or more Ordinal Adjectives preceding a Noun . . 41 
 
 Double Possessives . . . . . . . . . . 42 
 
 Nouns of Weight, Dimension, Value, and Capacity . . 43 
 
 Half -hour, half -mile, half an hour, &v, .. .. 44 
 
 As follows, as follow .. .. . t .. ..45 
 
 Excellence, Excellency .. .. .. .. 46 
 
 The Derivation of English Words . . . 46 
 
 Prepositions before and after Verbs . . . . . . 49 
 
 Numbers, Weights, Measures, &c. . . . . . . 
 
 The Omission of s in the Possessive Case . . . . 50 
 
 Nothing, Anything, Something, Everything; None, Some 
 
 one, &c. .. .. .. .. . . 51 
 
 Sixpence, Ninepence, &c. . . . . . . 52 
 
 Farther and Further . . . . . . . . 53 
 
 The word wholely . . . . . . . . , , 53 
 
 Peas and Pease . . . . . . . . 54 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE PROPER FORMATION OF DERIVATIVE AND INFLECTED 
 
 WORDS. 
 Terminations after e silent . , . . . . . 55 
 
 Consonant Terminations after a Mute . . . . 57 
 
 Vowel Terminations after a Consonant . . . . . . 57 
 
 Words ending in II .. .. .. .. 63 
 
 Words ending in s* . . . . . . . . . . 65 
 
CONTENTS. Vli 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON THE FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 General Observations . . . . . . . . 67 
 
 Words of the same Part of Speech . . . . 68 
 
 Names of Places . . . . . . . . . . 70 
 
 Nouns Substantive taken adjectively ,. .. ..72 
 
 Nouns expressing Purport or Object .. .. 75 
 
 Present Participle and Participial Adjectives . . . . 75 
 
 On the compounding of Adjectives of Number . . 77 
 
 Fractional Numbers . . . . . . . . 78 
 
 An hour, a day, a week, a month, &c. . . . . 79 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 SYLLABICATION, OR THE PROPER DIVISION OF WORDS. 
 
 A Consonant between two Vowels . . . . . . 81 
 
 Consonants doubled . . . . . . 88 
 
 Two Consonants between two Vowels . . . . . . 83 
 
 Prefixes 84 
 
 Affixes or Terminations . . . . . . . 85 
 
 Rules for dividing Latin Words . . . . . . 87 
 
 Exceptions to the Eules . . . . . . 88 
 
 Rules for dividing Greek Words . . . . . . & 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Preliminary Observations , . * . . . . 90 
 
 Construction of Sentences . . . . 
 
 Symbols used in Punctuation . . . . . . . . *T 
 
till CONTENTS. 
 
 Pies 
 
 On the Nature of Sentences, and the Combination of Propo- 
 sitions .. .. .. .. .. 98 
 
 Of the Adjuncts of Propositions, and of Separable and Inse- 
 parable Subordinate Propositions .. .. .. 104 
 
 The Connection of Affirmations, or Compound Sentences 114 
 
 The Comma .. .. .. .. .< 115 
 
 The Semicolon .. .. .. .. .. ..132 
 
 The Colon .. .. .* .. .. .. 135 
 
 The Period or Full-stop . . * . . . . . . 138 
 
 The Interrogation . . . . . . . . * . 140 
 
 The Exclamation . . < . . . . . . . 142 
 
 The Parenthesis . . . . . . . . . . 144 
 
 The Dash, or Rule , . . . . . . . . 147 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS USED BY PRINTERS. 
 
 Marks of Quotation .. .. .. .. .. l6"2 
 
 The Apostrophe .. .. .. .. .. 156 
 
 The Hyphen . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 
 
 The Brace . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 
 
 The Crotchet, or Bracket .. .. ., ..165 
 
 The Ellipsis . . . . . . . . . . 166 
 
 Marks of Reference .. .. .. .. ..166 
 
 Accentual and other Marks .. .. .. .. 169 
 
 Marks of Quantity .. .. .. .. ..169 
 
 The Accents .. .. .. .. .. 169 
 
 The Diaeresis .. .. .. .. .. 170 
 
 The Cedilla 171 
 
 The Tilde 172 
 
 The Inverted Comma .. .. .. .. 172 
 
 Double Commas .. .. .. .. ..172 
 
 Miscellaneous .. .. .. .. .. 172 
 
CONTENTS. ix 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 ON THE PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 *AGE 
 
 General Remarks . . . . . . . . . 174 
 
 Commencing Words .. .. .. .. 175 
 
 After a Full-Stop or Interrogation . . . . . . 175 
 
 The Appellations of the Deity .. .. .. 175 
 
 Titles of Honor and Respect ., . .. .. 176 
 
 Proper Names .. .. .. .. .. 177 
 
 Adjectives derived from Proper Names .. .. ..180 
 
 Titles of Books, &c. .. .. .. .. 181 
 
 Epochs .. .. ., .. .. ..182 
 
 First Word in a Line of Poetry . . . . . . 183 
 
 The First Word of a Quotation . . . . . . . . 183 
 
 / and O .. .. .. .. .. .. 183 
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL, ALGEBRAICAL, MATHEMATICAL, BOTANICAL, 
 MEDICAL, AND OTHER SIGNS. 
 
 Astronomical Signs . . . . . . . . . . 184 
 
 Time and its Divisions . . . . . . . . 186 
 
 The Day 187 
 
 The Year 187 
 
 The Week .. .. .. 189 
 
 The Month .. .. 189 
 
 Cycles 192 
 
 Epochs or Eras .. .. .. .. 192 
 
 Mathematical and Algebraical Signs . . . . . 193 
 
 Botanical Signs . . . . . . . . . . 196 
 
 Medical Signs, &c. .. .. .. ..197 
 
I CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS, AND LISTS OF FOREIGN WORDS, ETC. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abbreviations of Books of Scripture . . . . . . 199 
 
 Abbreviated Names of Months . . . . . . 200 
 
 Abbreviations of Titles, Offices, Professions, Institutions, &c. 200 
 Miscellaneous Abbreviations . . . . . . 
 
 Some French Abbreviations 
 
 Some German Abbreviations . . . . . . . , 
 
 Abbreviations of the principal Greek and Latin Authors 
 Explanation of French, Latin, and Italian Words and Phrases 213 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 LITERAL NOTATION. 
 Roman Literal Notation 
 Greek Numerals 
 Hebrew Numerals . . . . . . 
 
 Arabic and Indian Numerals 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ON CORRECTING A PROOF-SHEET. 
 
 Explanation and Use of Symbols employed . . . . 238 
 
 Cautions as to their Use .. .. .. .. 241 
 
 Hints to Authors on preparing Manuscript for the Press . . 241 
 
 On the Duties of a Reader , 243 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 TABLES USEFUL TO THE AUTHOR, CORRECTOR, ETC. 
 
 Table of Signatures and Folios . . . . . . . . 247 
 
 Condensed Table 249 
 
 Table of Proper Names .. .. .. .. 253 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 ENGLISH OETHOGKAPHY. 
 
 THIS is a subject which comes immediately within the 
 province of the printer, and of which, in the long run, 
 he is the ultimate arbiter ; and therefore one with the 
 principles of which he ought to be intimately acquainted. 
 Yet, strange to say, many printers seem never to trouble 
 themselves with principles at all, but are quite content to 
 follow in the wake of authority and routine, whether these 
 be right or wrong, rational or absurd, so long as the me- 
 chanical part of their work is tolerably passable. 
 
 Hence has arisen the anomalous and absurd manner of 
 spelling certain words, which I shall have occasion to notice 
 in the progress of this chapter, which reflects so much dis- 
 credit on the literary reputation of printers, as a body, and 
 which will increase in number and absurdity, unless more 
 attention be given to the matter than has hitherto been 
 the case. 
 
 To aid in removing this opprobrium, I propose to con- 
 sider the subject at some length, and to investigate some- 
 what in detail the principles which govern the orthography 
 of the English language, in some of its branches at least ; 
 beginning from its most simple elements. I would there- 
 fore here more especially bespeak the attention of the 
 young printer anxious to master this important branch of 
 his business. 
 
 B2 
 
4 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Undoubtedly, were orthography regarded simply as 
 the art of representing by written characters, of a definite 
 and well-ascertained signification, the various sounds 
 emitted by th? human voice in the utterance of man's 
 thoughts, the English system, in common with many 
 others: Erg!it be p>'on6utieed to be extremely contradictory, 
 anomalous, and barbarous. But many causes, besides that 
 of the mere effort to represent individual sounds by arbi- 
 trary but fixed corresponding symbols, have combined to 
 establish and settle the method of spelling now current in 
 our language ; and not one of the least of these causes has 
 been the practice of those peoples whose languages have 
 constituted the groundwork or the ornament of our own. 
 So potent have been those influences, and so firmly have 
 certain anomalies become fixed in the language, from their 
 adoption by our greatest writers for a period of some cen- 
 turies, that any attempt materially to alter the orthography 
 now in use, and to place it upon what might be considered 
 a more rational basis, would, I think, be utterly unsuccess- 
 ful ; and therefore its investigation in this place would be 
 little more than a waste of my own time, and an unreason- 
 able demand upon the patience of the reader : men will 
 not unlearn that which has cost them so much trouble, 
 and of which they are comparatively masters, merely to 
 learn another system, which would, after all, but conduct 
 them to the same end, even though that system might be 
 intrinsically better, and could be supported by arguments 
 the most philosophical and convincing. Besides, the adop- 
 tion of any system of spelling founded upon pure phonetic 
 principles, would soon render useless all the books which 
 have been hitherto printed, or else necessitate the learning 
 of both systems, by all who would not lose the pleasure 
 and the profit of an acquaintance with those authors 
 whose works it might not be considered at the present 
 day sufficiently remunerative to reprint. For these reasons, 
 I will refrain from discussing such alterations, and will 
 
THE VOWELS AS FINAL LETTERS. 5 
 
 confine my observations within a much narrower limit 
 yet not, I hope, without throwing some light upon matters 
 not wholly uninteresting, either to the printer or the man 
 of letters. 
 
 Firstly, then, I propose to consider each letter of the 
 alphabet in its character of a final, and the changes it 
 undergoes in that position ; for in this consists the prin- 
 cipal difficulty of English orthography : but instead of 
 taking the letters in their usual order, I will divide them 
 into classes, according to their nature, and will make such 
 observations upon the principles involved, as the require- 
 ments of each case may suggest ; merely premising, that 
 I deprecate the censure of the initiated, if some of my 
 observations appear to them trite and elementary ; re- 
 minding them, that I write for the uninstructed rather 
 than for the well-informed reader. 
 
 1. Of the Vowels as Final Letters. 
 
 I need hardly remind the tyro that the vowels in the 
 English language are a, e, o, u. / is also generally deemed 
 a vowel : it is so when pronounced as in pin, but it is a 
 diphthong when pronounced as in pine. W, when at the 
 end of a syllable, mostly forms a diphthong with the vowel 
 which precedes it, as iufeiv, new, now, cow ; sometimes it 
 is entirely silent, and of course is of no real effect, or 
 properly any letter at all ; but, as far as pronunciation is 
 concerned, a mere unmeaning symbol ; as in the words 
 burrow, morroiv, sorrow. Y is also a vowel when final, 
 if it be sounded as e, as in beauty; but it is a diph- 
 thong when it is sounded like i; as in by : it is also 
 sometimes entirely quiescent. 
 
 The letter a seldom occurs at the end of a word in 
 English. When it is met with, and is pronounced, it is 
 mostly in words of foreign origin ; sometimes as a sin- 
 
6 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 gular, at others as a plural ; as, area, idea, arcana, data ; 
 else it is silent ; as in tea, sea, flea. 
 
 E is a very common terminal letter in English words, 
 but, what is singular, it is never pronounced at the end of 
 words of more than one syllable, unless it be double, as in 
 committee, referee, obligee; except in words of foreign 
 origin, such as acme, and proper names, as Penelope, &c. 
 But as this rule does not hold with monosyllables, it is 
 only for distinction-sake that some are so spelt ; as, bee, 
 thee, &c. ; or else to avoid confusion in the plurals and 
 derivatives ; as, tree (pi. trees), see (he sees) : for tres, ses, 
 would indicate the short sound of e. The power of e final 
 is mostly represented by y in words of more than one 
 syllable ; as in ambiguity, bounty, scarcity, society, &c. 
 
 When e final follows a single consonant preceded by a 
 vowel, it has generally the power of lengthening that 
 vowel ; as may be seen in the words abate, replete, indite, 
 promote, refute, defile, prime, prone, wife, &c. ; where the 
 only use of the final e is to denote the lengthened sound 
 of the preceding vowel. 
 
 Whenever an affix beginning with a vowel is added to 
 such words (i. e. words ending in e mute, preceded by a 
 long vowel and a single consonant), then, as the single con- 
 sonant between two vowels sufficiently indicates that the 
 first vowel has its long sound, the office of e is thereby 
 fulfilled, and it is consequently discarded in inflected and 
 derivative words. Thus, from abate comes abating ; denote, 
 denoting ; repute, reputation; excite, excitability; debate, 
 debatable ; remove, removable, &c. Hence, in the following 
 pages, I shall strictly adhere to this, the only rational and 
 correct way, of spelling these and such-like words. 
 
 It may be further observed of this letter, that when- 
 ever it occurs as a final, after I preceded by another con- 
 sonant, and which altogether form one syllable, e is pro- 
 nounced before I, although it is written after it. Thus, 
 
THE VOWELS AS FINAL LETTERS. 7 
 
 bauble, barnacle, twaddle, trifle, beagle, freckle, example, are 
 respectively pronounced, baubel, twdddel, &c. 
 
 This anomaly in spelling has crept into several words 
 ending with the sound of er preceded by a consonant ; 
 such as centre, metre, manoeuvre, meagre, ogre, theatre ; but 
 as they are not numerous, and custom and analogy are 
 against it in other words, I think Mr. "Webster was jus- 
 tified in condemning the practice, and that it would be 
 much better to spell such words as they are pronounced, 
 and in accordance with the general analogy of the lan- 
 guage, center, meter, maneuver (for, as will be hereafter 
 explained, we have no diphthongal characters in English 
 words), meager, oger, theater ; as was formerly the practice. 
 Hence, should I have occasion to use these words in the 
 course of the following pages, the reader will find them 
 spelt in the manner I have just indicated ; although, with 
 the exception of maneuver, I have not much hope that the 
 example will be generally followed, for some time at least : 
 but manoeuvre is such an extravagant anomaly, and such a 
 glaring instance of our servile, unreasoning imitation of 
 foreigners, even against the most settled analogies of our 
 own orthography, that I do hope to see it forthwith dis- 
 carded altogether. 
 
 Nevertheless there are a few words which must be 
 excepted from the rule ; and these are, where c is the con- 
 sonant preceding r, and it has the sound of k : for as c 
 immediately before e has invariably a soft sound, it might 
 be the occasion of confusion, were it placed in any other 
 than its ordinary position iu such words as acre, lucre, and 
 massacre. 
 
 When two vowels precede a final consonant, then e is 
 not generally added ; because its office of denoting elon- 
 gation is already effected by the two vowels. Hence we 
 spell foal, coal, mail,rail, dream, been, peep, creep, reap, room, 
 toast, pour, poor, roar, &c., without a final e. Neverthe- 
 less, the sibilant letters c soft, s, and z, are exceptions to 
 
ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 the rule ; for these take a final e, even when they are pre- 
 ceded by two vowels. Examples in point are sluice, fleece, 
 piece, niece, cruise, choose, rouse, maize, breeze, sneeze. This 
 is owing, I suppose, to their semivowel character ; which 
 seems to admit of a kind of indistinct vowel-sound after 
 them, whenever they occur at the end of a word, especially 
 if preceded by a long vowel or diphthongal sound. But 
 the rule, one would think, should have been applied to 
 the letter f, which certainly largely partakes of a semi- 
 vowel character : yet it has not ; for we write belief, re- 
 proof, behoof, grief, thief, &c., without a final e ; and yet, 
 with strange inconsistency, the rule is allowed to have 
 force with the almost mute v ; as may be seen in the words 
 grieve, sleeve, bereave, retrieve, grove, &c. 
 
 The reason above given is sufficient to account for the 
 spelling with final e such words as have th and two vowels 
 before it, in which the deeper sound of th is required ; as 
 in breathe, loathe, soothe, seethe, &c. ; although, when this 
 prolonged and deep sound of th is not to be indicated, the 
 final e is dispensed with ; and we accordingly write breath, 
 death, south, loth, sooth, mouth, uncouth, &c. 
 
 The letter i terminates no purely English word. In 
 those few instances in which it is met with, it is as the sign 
 of the plural of words which still retain the formation 
 proper to the language from which they are derived. 
 Such are radii, literati, cognoscenti, &c. Its long sound is 
 represented, at the end of words, by y ; as, cry, dry, rely, 
 satisfy, deny, &c. In most cases in which y is not sub- 
 stituted for the sound of i final, a silent e is added to 
 i, as if to give corroboration to the general rule, that i can 
 never end an English word ; as in die, tie, lie, vie, hie. 
 But before an affix beginning with i, this ie is also changed 
 into y ; as in dying, trying, vying (not vieing as some- 
 times erroneously spelt), lying, &c. Dye is an anomaly not 
 countenanced by Johnson or Walker, but which custom 
 
THE VOWELS AS FINAL LETTERS. 
 
 has now pretty firmly established, in order to present a 
 different form to the eye, of what appears to be the same 
 word under another acceptation, although the sound of die 
 and dye is exactly alike. 
 
 Final o has sometimes its ordinary sound, as in so and 
 lo ; and sometimes the sound of oo, as in do and to (a 
 curious anomaly). At the end of words of foreign extrac- 
 tion, o has always its ordinary sound ; as in quarto, junto, 
 grotto, canto, &c. 
 
 In the formation of the plural of nouns with this ending, 
 the general rule is, thates is added to the singular ; as mpota- 
 toes, cargoes, buffaloes ; yet the following words add only s : 
 grotto, junto, canto, cento, quarto, portico, octavo, duodecimo, 
 tyro, solo (all, by the bye, foreign words); and also all nouns 
 ending in io ; as, folio, folios ; or, in fact, whenever o is 
 immediately preceded by a vowel ; as, cameo, embryo, &c. 
 
 A notable peculiarity is to be observed with regard to 
 nouns substantive ending with the sound of o. If they be 
 words of more than one syllable, they for the most part 
 end simply in o ; but if only of one syllable, they take 
 an 6 after the o : thus, canto, potato, quarto, hero; but, doe, 
 foe, hoe, roe, sloe, toe, woe, &c. Yet other monosyllables, 
 not nouns substantive, have no final e ; as, so, lo, no. 
 
 As to final u and w, little need here be said : they 
 never occur in English words, unless in connection with 
 some other vowel, with which they for the most part form 
 a diphthong ; as, tkou, you ; know, sow ; few, slew. 
 
 The letter y, in English root-words, is only to be met 
 with as an initial or as a final : in the former case, it is 
 a consonant, and in the latter, it is either quiescent, or it 
 may be a vowel or a diphthong. If y final be preceded by 
 a consonant, and the accent is on the last syllable, then y 
 is a diphthong, and is pronounced like long i; as in deny, 
 
10 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 rely ; but if the accent is not on the last syllable, then y 
 is a vowel, and has the sound of e ; as in pony, putty, &c. 
 Should final y be preceded by a or e, it is mute, wherever 
 the accent may be ; as in obey, journey, day, overlay ; and 
 is consequently, in reality, neither vowel nor consonant, 
 but, as was before said, as far as pronunciation is con- 
 cerned, an unnecessary symbol : but if it be preceded by 
 o, it forms a diphthong with that vowel ; as in the words 
 joy and employ. 
 
 When final y is preceded by a consonant, and has the 
 sound of long i, or of e, then y is changed into i before all 
 vowel additions, except i ; for two i's never meet together 
 in English. Thus we spell cries, cried, denied, vitrified, 
 multiplied, pitied, dainties, Sic., with an i before the ter- 
 mination, although we write crying, denying, vitrifying, 
 multiplying, pitying, &c., with a y. And the same rule 
 holds good also before consonant-beginning terminations, 
 but with one exception likewise. Examples : pitiful, 
 beautiful, embodiment, drily, slily,* craftiness, haughtiness. 
 The exception is, when ness is added to a word which has 
 the accent on the last syllable ; as, shyness, dry ness, slyness. 
 But I own I can see no valid reason for this variation 
 from the general rule, although custom seems to have 
 firmly established it. 
 
 Whenever?/ final is preceded by a vowel, y will remain 
 before all sorts of terminations ; as, pray, prayeth ; stay, 
 staying ; gay, gayer ; boy, boyish ; destroy, destroyed ; pay, 
 payment ; journey, journeyed ; enjoy, enjoyment ; day, dayly; 
 gay, gayly ; flay, flayed ; stay, stayed ; buy, buyer. 
 
 Notwithstanding the simplicity of this rule, some in- 
 corrigible irregularities have crept into the language ; such 
 as staid, paid, saith, said, daily, gaily, &c. ; which must? 
 I suppose, remain as incurable, for some time at least, f 
 
 * Not dryly, slyly, as frequently printed. 
 
 t I have observed lately, that the irregularity of the 
 
 - 
 
FINAL SEMIVOWELS. 11 
 
 Following the analogy of other words ending in y, the 
 plural of nouns is formed by changing y into ies, if y be 
 preceded by a consonant ; as fly, flies ; beauty, beauties; but 
 if a vowel come before y in the singular, s only is added ; 
 as, day, days ; boy, boys. Nevertheless, for a reason which 
 I shall hereafter give, nouns which terminate the singular 
 in ey, are by many spelt in the plural in ies ; as, money, 
 monies; attorney, attornies. 
 
 2. Of Final Semivowels. 
 
 A semivowel is a letter the sound of which is not en- 
 tirely closed when pronounced at the end of a syllable, or 
 when alone, but is capable of some degree of prolongation. 
 The more perfect semivowels are c soft, f t g soft, ,;, s, z, 
 and / ; the less perfect are m, n, r, and v. 
 
 F is perhaps the most perfect of all the semivowels ; 
 that is, its sound is capable of being prolonged at the end 
 of a word or syllable with a slighter effort than is re- 
 quired for the prolongation of any other semivowel. This 
 may be observed in pronouncing the words buff, cuff, re- 
 buff, leaf, loaf, woof, calf, and suffering the sound to be 
 extended somewhat longer than usual : for it will be found 
 that this can be done with the greatest ease. 
 
 It is for this very valid reason, I suppose, that our 
 lexicographers, in settling the system of orthography now 
 in use, always double this letter at the end of a word, 
 when it is preceded by a short vowel, whether the accent 
 
 paid has been adopted by the Times and other newspapers, in a 
 quite different acceptation of the word, in their account of the 
 operations of laying down the Atlantic telegraph-wire. "We there 
 constantly meet with the terms paid out so much cable. Now, 
 certainly, it would be much better in this case to adhere to analogy 
 and reason, and say payed out, especially as the word here has a 
 meaning so entirely different from its ordinary one. 
 
12 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 be on the last syllable or not. Hence we have cuff, snuff, 
 rebuff, bailiff, midriff, handcuff, &c. 
 
 Remark 1. //"and of are almost the only exceptions to this 
 rule in the language : the first is owing to the spelling of its 
 Saxon primitive, and the latter, perhaps, because /"has not its 
 ordinary sound, or else to distinguish it from off. 
 
 Remark 2. Clef is also usually spelt with one/, in order 
 that it may preserve its French form ; but as we have changed 
 the pronunciation from the original, we ought also, if we would 
 have a due regard to the consistency of our own principles, and 
 not be content with mere unreasoning literal imitation, to change 
 the spelling too, and write cleff. 
 
 But if /final be preceded by two vowels, then, as in the 
 emission of sound the breath is not so forcibly propelled 
 on this articulation, but is retarded by the longer utterance 
 of the vowel-sounds, in that case equally as judiciously as 
 before only one / is used. Example : proof, loaf, leaf, 
 Tioof, belief, waterproof. It is for this reason that we still 
 spell deaf with one /, although we have shortened the 
 sound of the two vowels into e: but they are, however, 
 in some parts of England, still pronounced long, somewhat 
 as in leaf. As remarked under the letter e, when / final 
 consonant is preceded by a single long vowel, it is invari- 
 ably followed by e ; as, life, knife, safe, strife. 
 
 C soft, g soft, and j, are never met with at the end of 
 English words, and therefore call for no remark in this 
 place. 
 
 S seems to claim the second place in the list of semi- 
 vowels, and thence, like/J it is for the 'most part doubled 
 at the end of monosyllables when preceded by a short 
 vowel,* and also at the end of polysyllables so circum- 
 
 * As, was, his, is, yes, thus, us, this, and gas, are about the 
 only exceptions not noted in the text. They are all too firmly 
 
FINAL SEMIVOWELS. 13 
 
 stanced ; but, unlike /, custom varies as to the doubling 
 of s when, although it may follow a short vowel, yet the 
 accent is not on the last syllable. Hence we have lass, 
 pass, cess, tress, kiss, miss, loss, moss, puss, truss, repass, 
 amass, distress, redress, across, emboss, discuss, &c., with 
 double 5; but when the accent is placed on other syllables 
 than the last, we meet with the utmost confusion ; some- 
 times having two s's, and sometimes only one, under 
 precisely corresponding circumstances. To me it appears, 
 as s is almost as complete a semivowel as f, the same rule 
 ought to apply to both letters, and that we ought to spell 
 all words ending in s preceded by a short vowel, with the 
 double letter, wherever the accent may happen to be, unless 
 in words which we have adopted unchanged from other lan- 
 guages ; such as crocus, genius, omnibus 9 pus, rebus, plus, and 
 its compounds nonplus, overplus, &c. In accordance with 
 this rule, it would certainly be more consistent with analogy 
 to spell canvass, Christmass, and Michaelmass with double s, 
 just as we invariably spell compass, harass, witness, poetess, 
 actress, authoress, goddess, blunderbuss, &c., with the final 
 letter doubled, although the accent in none of these in- 
 stances is on the last syllable.* 
 
 S also differs from f, as already hinted under that 
 
 fixed to admit of change, except the last, which certainly ought to 
 be brought under the general rule. For, to say that it is so spelt 
 in German, whence we have the word, is nothing to the purpose ; 
 for they, quite in accordance with their principles of orthography, 
 spell glas and gras with one s ; while we, in equally just accord- 
 ance with our principles, spell them glass and grass : so ought we 
 undoubtedly to do with gass, which is a word of comparatively 
 modern introduction, and not to be generally found even in old 
 German dictionaries; having been introduced, I believe, by Yan Hel- 
 mont, in the early part of the last century. 
 
 * I may note here, that canvas, meaning a kind of cloth, is gene- 
 rally spelt with one s ; but when meaning to ' examine,' * sift,' &c., 
 with two. This is solely for the sake of distinction, but is not 
 founded upon any more valid reason. 
 
14 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 letter, in taking a final e after it when it is preceded by 
 two vowels ; as, loose, louse, goose, grouse, mouse, &c. 
 
 It may be farther remarked of this letter, when fol- 
 lowed by final e, that if it be preceded by a long vowel, it 
 takes the sound of ,* as in rise, prose, Chinese ; but case, 
 erase, excuse (noun), &c., are exceptions. 
 
 The articulation of z differs very little from that of s ; 
 it is not so sharp as the ordinary sound of the latter letter, 
 and is yet sufficiently distinct to claim for itself the right 
 to be represented by its appropriate symbol, whenever 
 this can be done without intrenching too far on the vested 
 privileges of words. As a final, it occurs very seldom, but 
 when it does, it is always after a short accented vowel. 
 After i, it is single, as in 'phiz, quiz ; but after u, it is 
 doubled, as in buzz. There seems to be no ground for this 
 distinction other than that of established custom. 
 
 In addition to its generally recognized character of a 
 liquid, I is also a semivowel, although not so perfect a one 
 as f or s. Hence we generally find in the dictionaries, 
 that words ending in an accented short syllable, with I 
 final, double that letter. In monosyllables, this is almost 
 invariably the case ; as seen in shall, fell, ill, poll, full, &c.: 
 and with lexicographers, the rule holds for the most part 
 in words of more than one syllable also ; for we find in the 
 dictionaries, that even polysyllabic words coming under 
 the description above intimated are generally spelt with 
 this letter repeated. It is true that there are some ex- 
 ceptions, such as repel, compel, rebel, instil, until, and 
 some others, which have crept into use from inatten- 
 
 * A judicious regard to this rule has led our lexicographers to 
 distinguish between the verts advise, devise, and practise, and the 
 nouns advice, device, and practice ; and might have further led 
 them to the same distinction in excuse, in its verbal and in its 
 nominal capacity. 
 
FINAL SEMIVOWELS. 15 
 
 tion or ignorance of the simple rule above given ; and 
 some of our modern printers have taken upon themselves 
 by what authority, or for what reason, I am unable to 
 divine to spell all such words of more than one syllable 
 with but one I ; and hence we continually meet with the 
 absurd anomalies of fell and befel, call and recal, /all and 
 downfaly &c. &c. ; anomalies which would certainly never 
 have been allowed, had the subject of English ortho- 
 graphy met with that attention, and been prosecuted 
 with that regard to principles, which the learned men 
 of other nations have not thought beneath their dignity, 
 or undeserving their acumen. 
 
 There are other cases in which the letter I is doubled 
 
 when final, though not preceded by a short accented vowel ; 
 
 and these are when the articulation of I is preceded 
 
 by the vowel a having the sound of o, or o having its long 
 
 sound, or perhaps, rather that of ou or ow. Examples 
 
 in point are call, fall, stall, all, roll, toll, knoll. This 
 
 rule does not rest upon the just and natural basis pre- 
 
 dously given for the doubling of final semivowels in 
 
 iertain cases ; but it is an established and useful anomaly 
 
 with regard to these vowels under the particular circum- 
 
 tances mentioned ; and as it is well understood, and 
 
 seems consonant to the generality of people's notions, it 
 
 certainly ought to be strictly adhered to. For this reason, 
 
 because we use two Z's in the case of monosyllables, we 
 
 should employ two in all other situations where the same 
 
 rule applies. Hence it is preferable to spell appall, befall, 
 
 recall, enroll, controll, with double I at the end of the word ; 
 
 and I would also prefer, if I thought my example would 
 
 have any chance of being followed at present, to spell allso, 
 
 allways, allready, allbeit, with two in the middle : but for 
 
 the present I shall follow the ordinary practice. 
 
 The letters m, n, and r, may also lay claim to the cha- 
 racter of semivowels, although they are not so easily pro- 
 
16 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 longed at the end of a word as/, s, z, or I: they therefore 
 might, without impropriety, have been doubled at the end 
 of words having a short accented final syllable ; but as 
 none of our lexicographers have done so, the matter may 
 be regarded as settled, and not open to innovation. 
 
 Remark. Err, purr (name of a bird), banns, and inn, are 
 the only words I can readily call to mind in which this rule is 
 violated. 
 
 F is scarcely anything but a more densely articulated^ 
 and for some not very obvious reason (I suppose), is never 
 met with at the end of a word in English, whether the 
 vowel which precedes ,it be long or short. Thus we have 
 save, wave, brave, nave, have, live and live, knives, gives and 
 gives, drove and love, and numerous such-like discrepancies, 
 firmly fixed in the language. Nevertheless, I cannot help 
 thinking that it would have added to the consistency and 
 intelligibility of our orthography, if the short syllable had 
 not been graced with the unnecessary final e. Yet its re- 
 moval now would be considered an intolerable innovation. 
 
 3. Of Final Liquids. 
 
 A liquid is a letter the articulation of which can be 
 combined with that of other consonants, in the same sylla- 
 ble, without requiring the intervention of a vowel. Exam- 
 ples in point are, bring, blame, crime, cling, dream, flow, 
 grow, plain, prow, slow, strive, trow; and bald, ward, wharf, 
 calf, bulge, barge, bark, balk, whirl, furl, balm, warm, swoln, 
 warp, skelp, false, hearse, wart, salt, salve, wolves. It 
 will be observed, that the letters I and r easily amalga- 
 mate with all the letters which they either precede or 
 follow, in the examples adduced ; and the only cases 
 where such amalgamation cannot take place, are I with 
 r, either of these liquids with a preceding double letter, 
 or q, m, or n; nor, finally, can they combine with w 
 and y. 
 
THE DOUBLE LETTERS AS FINALS. 17 
 
 M and n are generally classed as liquids ; but as they 
 are incapable (in our language at least) of preceding and 
 combining with any mute consonant, and can only (in 
 common with some real mutes) amalgamate with the 
 sibilant s, as in smart, snarl, snub, snipe, spit, skate, stain, 
 swell, they would hardly have any claim to the character 
 of liquids with us, were it not that they can, in some 
 cases, be followed by the articulation of a mute consonant 
 without the intervention of a vowel ; as in lamb, plomb, 
 lamp, swamp, band, land, saint, want. 
 
 Beyond this definition, which is principally intended 
 for my younger readers, I have no remark to make on 
 these letters in this place. 
 
 4. Of the Double Letters as Finals. 
 
 In English, the double letters are g soft andy, both of 
 which, in fact, appear to be produced by the same articu- 
 lations, composed of d and the aspirated sibilant sJi, or 
 something very near it ; and x (formed of Ic and s) is 
 the remaining double letter. 
 
 G, when the last consonant of a word, always takes e 
 after it when it is sounded soft ; j never occurs in a similar 
 position, nor as a final, in English words, except in the 
 adopted Indian word raj ; and x must be content to be 
 named only. 
 
 If the vowel preceding g be long in quantity, then g 
 immediately follows that vowel ; as in rage, page, wage, 
 age, doge, &c. ; but if the preceding vowel be short, then 
 d is interposed between it and g ; as in badge, pledge, 
 bridge, dodge, judge, knowledge, &c.* Not that there is not 
 
 * Language, allege, andprivilege, are apparent exceptions ; but a 
 and e in the last syllable of these words were formerly pronounced 
 with a long quantity, as they are even yet by the generality of Scotch 
 
18 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 the articulation of d inherent in the first class of words, 
 although perhaps less forcibly expressed than in the second ; 
 but it is here added mainly fur the purpose of denoting 
 that the preceding vowel is short in quantity. 
 
 5. Of Final Mutes. 
 
 A mute is a consonant which, without the aid of a 
 vowel, can convey no sound. Such letters are b } c hard, 
 t/, g hard, k, p, q, and t. These letters coming after a 
 vowel, close the sound, and their articulation is incapable 
 of prolongation, although it may in some cases be followed 
 by a sibilant, or by a mute of another organic formation, ' 
 without the intervention of a vowel ; as in robs, robb'd; 
 rags, ragged; blocks, block' d ; raps, rapt; rats, &c. 
 
 It follows from the very nature of such consonants, 
 that is, their incapacity of prolongation at the end of a 
 word, that to write them double in this position, as if 
 they could in some measure be reproduced under peculiar 
 circumstances in that situation, is altogether incorrect. 
 And this natural law has been pretty strictly adhered to 
 by our compilers of dictionaries, in settling the present 
 English orthography (although the Germans, but for quite 
 another reason, not unfrequently repeat final mute conso- 
 nants) ; for the only words I can readily remember, as 
 ending with the same mute consonant repeated, are egg, 
 add, odd, and butt: the three last of which I take to be 
 for distinction-sake, or owing to the spelling of the words 
 addere, udda, and butte, from which they are derived. The 
 other may be regarded as a fixed anomaly, introduced by 
 inadvertence or caprice (for the Saxon original is ccg), to be 
 
 people. The quantity of the words has undergone a change in the 
 South, but we have nevertheless retained the form proper to the 
 long quantity, although instances are not rare, in old-printed 
 books, of the forms alledge andpriviledge. 
 
OF FINAL MUTES. 19 
 
 duly taken note of, but not to be imitated in other words 
 or regarded as resting upon a correct foundation. 
 
 Most of the mute consonants, considered as finals, 
 might be passed over without remark ; but there are one 
 or two on which a few observations may be made with 
 perhaps some advantage to the tyro, or even to the well- 
 instructed compositor. 
 
 1. There are very few words in the English language 
 which end with the letter c. This at least is the case in 
 Johnson's Dictionary ; and the same system has been fol- 
 lowed by the majority of our lexicographers. It is also 
 adopted by modern printers in nearly all monosyllables ; * 
 but in words of more than one syllable, they capriciously 
 and unadvisedly, as I venture to think, omit it in some 
 words, and retain it in others. Thus we have, uniformly, 
 black, speck, tricky block, buck, &c. &c. ; and we as con- 
 stantly meet with ransack, barrack, henpeck, toothpick, 
 bullock, paddock, padlock, buttock, &c. ; yet as constantly 
 find physic, tunic, havoc, and the great majority of poly- 
 syllabic words without a final k. But what reason there 
 can be for omitting it in some words, and inserting it in 
 others, under precisely similar circumstances, passes my 
 comprehension. It cannot be owing to the source from 
 which such words are derived, for in monosyllables from 
 the Saxon, which had no k, we invariably insert one ; and 
 
 * Arc is used in mathematics, and disc in Astronomy, for dis- 
 tinction-sake, I suppose. Zink is spelt zinck by Bailey, but more 
 correctly zink by Martin (1742), which is sanctioned by Maunder, 
 "Webster, and others, although they do not eschew zinc. Both talk 
 and zink are spelt with a k in German, and with a c in French ; 
 but as the former is in accordance with our own system of orthogra- 
 phy, and the latter opposed to it, there ought to be no doubt about 
 which is the more correct in English : the only plea for talc is, that 
 thus distinguished from the anomalously pronounced but very 
 common word talk. This, perhaps, may be generally regarded as a 
 good reason j but it is purely accidental. 
 c2 
 
20 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 for polysyllables from the Greek, which has no c, we as 
 invariably contrive to find one, even if we omit the k which 
 is found in the original word. Thus the words thick and 
 stick come from fticce and rtican, where no k is found ; 
 andphysic and traumatic, from ^VO-IK^ and rpav/jLariK^s, where 
 there is no c. How, then, can this anomaly be defended ? 
 It is not much countenanced in Bailey's Dictionary, which 
 is generally acknowledged to have been the best prior to 
 the appearance of Johnson's ; yet Mr. Martin, who com- 
 piled his somewhat pretentious work about 1740, remarks 
 that the practice was in his time coming into vogue ; and 
 he moreover adopts it. But what reason does he give for 
 this ? He simply says, at page 19 of his Introduction, 
 that c is more elegant than ck ; and at page 21, that k is 
 unnecessary. But if ck is inelegant in polysyllables, it is 
 equally inelegant in monosyllables and compounds ; yet 
 even Mr. Martin spells smack, thick, stick, &c. : and if k be 
 unnecessary in one place, it is equally so in another. These 
 opinions could not be unknown to Johnson, nor yet the 
 incipient elegant practice ; for they began to prevail some 
 years before the appearance of his great work ; yet he did 
 not suffer them to prevail with him, and has almost 
 uniformly preserved the ck final in all words preceded 
 by a short vowel. On referring to Webster's Dictionary, 
 I find that he lays down something like a rule on 
 this matter. He says that k is rejected in polysyllabic 
 words ending in ic and iac 9 but is generally retained 
 in those ending in ack and och; the exceptions being 
 almanac, sandarac^ limbec (from alembic), and havoc. But 
 this is a mere dictum as to the prevailing practice, sup- 
 ported by no argument, and for all that appears in the 
 voluminous Introduction to his really valuable work, rest- 
 ing upon no rational foundation. But I think it is due to 
 our national lexicographer, before adopting implicitly an 
 anomaly introduced by no one knows who, and unsupported, 
 as far as I know, by any argument of the least cogency, to 
 
OF FINAL MUTES. 21 
 
 consider whether he might not have had some reason for 
 declining to follow the turning tide, and for resisting a 
 practice which began to have some supporters before his 
 time. I do not know that he has anywhere expressed bis 
 reasons ; but it seems to me, that arguments such as the 
 following may probably have determined him to adhere to 
 a uniform system in this respect. 
 
 It frequently happens that a termination commencing 
 with e or i is added to words ending with the hard sound 
 of c, and that this sound is also preserved in the derivative 
 or inflected word. Now, it is true that either c or k would 
 represent this articulation, before the addition of the affix ; 
 but as c is uniformly pronounced soft before e and i, it 
 would be giving a power to this letter which it never else- 
 where possesses, were we to require it to be pronounced 
 hard in these particular circumstances. Hence we should 
 be obliged to assume an additional letter (k) as belonging 
 to the root-word, which never appeared in it, and to write 
 trafficked, physicked, trafficking, physicking; although we 
 might say that no other iinal letter than c was necessary 
 in traffic. It has been, no doubt, for the purpose of avoid- 
 ing this assumption in inflected words, that the final k has 
 been so uniformly assumed in monosyllables ; and if the 
 rule be suffered to prevail there, I am utterly at a loss to 
 imagine a sufficient reason why it should not also have 
 equal force in words of more than one syllable. I will 
 illustrate this by a few examples. Thick and sick have no 
 Jc in the original. Why then are they uniformly spelt with 
 one in English 1 Thic and sic would equally represent the 
 same syllable-closing articulation ; but then, in forming 
 certain inflectional words, there would be confusion ; for 
 thicen would represent the sound of thisen, not thicken ; 
 and were the c repeated, of thicsen ; which of course is 
 not what is wanted. K would have answered the purpose, 
 for it could have been doubled, as all other mutes are 
 before a vowel affix, if preceded by a short accented syl 
 
22 ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 lable ; and as it always represents the hard sound of c, 
 we should have written thikken, sikkening, and the pronun- 
 ciation would have been correctly indicated. But as all 
 our lexicographers have thought proper to eschew kk in 
 all cases, and to write ck at the end of words of one sylla- 
 ble when preceded by a short vowel, the reason, as I have 
 endeavoured to show, remains of equal force for adopting 
 ck with regard to other words similarly circumstanced, of 
 whatever length they may happen to be.* 
 
 But when an affix beginning with the vowel a, 0, or u, 
 is added to a word, k can well be dispensed with ; for, as I 
 have elsewhere shown, nothing is more common than to 
 drop an unnecessary final letter in inflected and derivative 
 words ; but to assume one in the derivative as part of the 
 root, which is absent in the primitive, is quite another 
 affair. Hence Dr. Johnson very properly spelt mnsical,pub- 
 lication, scientifically, terrifically, physically, &c. without k. 
 
 Observe, further, that as k always follows consonants 
 as a final letter, in words ending with the sound of hard c, 
 this k remains before the termination or affix, whatever 
 letter it may begin with. Hence we write remarked, 
 remarkable, embarked, embarkation, embankment, &c. ; al- 
 though, in the word demarcation, of which we have no 
 primitive demark in use in English, we correctly adhere to 
 the French, from which we have it. True to its character of 
 never properly ending a word in English, whenever c final 
 consonant has its soft sound, it is followed by e mute ; as, 
 race, mace, sacrifice, artifice, interstice, presence, lattice, &c. 
 
 * I have deemed it advisable to go so much at length into this 
 matter in -vindication of the practice of our great lexicographer, 
 because I think he was correct ; and my business being to endea- 
 vour to teach correct principles, it is necessary that I should exhibit 
 them, even when opposed to present practice, which, I may remark, 
 is in accordance with the dictum of Mr. Webster, adverted to in 
 the text, and which the compositor will find himself generally 
 obliged to follow, as I shall do in this book. 
 
OF FINAL MUTES. 23 
 
 G as a final is always hard ; for when soft, as before 
 remarked, it, like c soft, is also followed by e. Examples : 
 rag, rage ; wag, wage ; sing, singe ; rang, range ; flung, 
 plunge ; judge, pledge, ridge, badge, &c. 
 
 And this, I think, is all that need be said of the letters 
 under this head : in subsequent chapters, when treating of 
 the formation of compound, derivative, and inflected words, 
 we will enter more fully into the changes they undergo in 
 these several characters, but will, for the present, introduce 
 a chapter on miscellaneous matters, in order to relieve the 
 somewhat necessarily dry character of the subject. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 LITERARY MISCELLANIES, CHIEFLY ORTHO- 
 GRAPHICAL AND SYNTACTICAL. 
 
 1. A or AN before a Vowel or silent H. 
 
 IT is laid down by our grammarians, very correctly and 
 very judiciously, that the article a is to be used before 
 words beginning with a consonant, or with h aspirated (be- 
 cause h then partakes of the nature of a consonant), but an 
 before a word beginning with a vowel. Wherefore is this ? 
 Let us proceed to find the solution of this question. The 
 addition of the letter n to the article is purely euphonic 
 causa, in order to prevent the hiatus which would result 
 from terminating one word with a vowel and beginning the 
 next word with another. Hence it would seem legitimately 
 to follow, that an ought to be employed wherever these 
 conditions exist, and in none other. This has also been 
 provided for by most grammarians ; nevertheless, many 
 printers, and writers, not comprehending the spirit of this 
 rule, nor the reason which gave it birth, rigidly adhere to 
 the mere letter of the canon, in defiance of all euphony 
 and all good sense ; and because they see a word beginning 
 with a merely apparent vowel, or a nominal h aspirate, they 
 put an before the former, and a before the latter, utterly 
 regardless of what may be the real sound or power of the 
 initial letter of the word. Hence we frequently meet with 
 such expressions as an unit, an unicorn, a harmonious sound, 
 
THE PREFIXES 'iN* AND ' EN.' 25 
 
 &c. With equal propriety, and with equal judgement, and 
 with equal conformity to the spirit of the rule, they might 
 say an year, an yard, &c. ; for the actual articulation which 
 commences each of these words is identical with that of u 
 in unit and unicorn. On the other hand, how frequently 
 do authors and printers fall into the error of saying a 
 "historical, a historian, &c., merely because they see the word 
 history marked in the dictionaries with h aspirated. But 
 those gentlemen ought to consider, that in order actually 
 to aspirate h, it is necessary that the syllable which it 
 commences should be emphatically pronounced, or have 
 the accent ; otherwise, there is no consonantal articulation 
 at all, other than that which accompanies even the purest 
 vowel-commencing words. But if the accent be removed 
 from the first syllable, initial h is no longer aspirated, 
 that is, it loses its nature of a consonant ; and in fact the 
 word really commences, to the ear of the listener and in 
 the mouth of the speaker, with the vowel which follows h. 
 Hence we may lay down this general rule : Whenever a 
 word beginning with h nominally aspirated, is not accented 
 on the first syllable, that word ought to be preceded by the 
 article an, although kindred words, having the accent on 
 the first syllable, will take a before them. Therefore, a 
 history, an historian, an historical, &c., are strictly in accord- 
 ance with the spirit of the rule, are highly euphonious, and 
 consequently are correct. 
 
 This will not be an inappropriate place for a list of such 
 words as commence with h silent. They are, heir, herb, 
 honest, honor, hospital, hotel, hour, humble; with their 
 derivatives : but the last word, owing, I suppose, to the 
 feeble sound of u when preceded by an, has nowadays the 
 h aspirated by our best writers 
 
 2. The Prefixes IM or IN and EM or EN. 
 
 The prefix in we have from the Latin, and that of en 
 from the French and Greek. In generally signifies situa- 
 
26 
 
 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 tion, and en mostly expresses action. Hence, perhaps, in 
 strictness, inclose will signify ( to close in,' and enclose, i to 
 make close.' So, to inquire will be ' to seek in, or to search 
 in,' and enquire, to ' make search.' But this distinction is 
 not attended to by the generality of writers, and is, indeed, 
 too retined for general practice. 
 
 Before the letters b and p, en becomes em ; as in 
 embattle, empower ; and in before some letters becomes ig, 
 ilj im, or ir ; as in ignoble, illegal, improper, irresolute. 
 
 As it is sometimes a doubtful matter to the reader and 
 compositor, as to which is in most general acceptation, we 
 give a list of those generally spelt with im or in ; leaving 
 it to be inferred that the rest are more usual with em 
 
 imban 
 
 imbarn 
 
 imbastardize 
 
 imbed 
 
 imbibe 
 
 imboil 
 
 imbound 
 
 imbow 
 
 imbrue 
 
 imbrute 
 
 imbue 
 
 imburse 
 
 immaiiacle 
 
 immanation 
 
 immask 
 
 immense 
 
 immerge 
 
 immerse 
 
 immesh 
 
 immigrate 
 
 immingle 
 
 immit 
 
 immix 
 
 immold 
 
 immure 
 
 impact 
 
 impale 
 
 imparadise 
 
 impark 
 
 imparlance 
 
 impassioned 
 
 impawn 
 
 impeach . 
 
 impearl 
 
 impel 
 
 impeii 
 
 imperil 
 
 impinge 
 
 implant 
 
 implead 
 
 import 
 
 impose 
 
 impound 
 
 impregnate 
 
 impress 
 
 imprint 
 
 imprison 
 
 inarch 
 
 incase 
 
 inclasp 
 
 inclip 
 
 inclose 
 
 iiicloud 
 
 include 
 
 mcrassate 
 
 increase 
 
 incrust 
 
 incur 
 
 indart 
 
 indent 
 
 indict 
 
 indite 
 
 indoctrinate 
 
 indorse 
 
 indrench 
 
 induce 
 
 induct 
 
 ineye 
 
 infer 
 
 infest 
 
 intix 
 
 inflame 
 
 innate 
 
 inflect 
 
 inflict 
 
 infringe 
 
 infucate 
 
 infuscate 
 
 infuse 
 
 ingeminate 
 
 ino-enerate 
 
 
THE PREFIXES ' IN ' AND * UN.* 27 
 
 ingrain inseam intreasure 
 
 ingest insert intrench 
 
 ingurgitate inserve intrude 
 
 inhabit inset intrust 
 
 inhale inshell intwist 
 
 inhearse inship inumbrate 
 
 inhere insinew inure 
 
 inhold insphere iiiurn 
 
 inhume inspire invade 
 
 initiate inspirit inveigh 
 
 inject install invert 
 
 Dilapidate instate invest 
 
 inlay . insteep invigorate 
 
 inlet ' instil invite 
 
 inoculate instop invocate 
 
 inosculate insure invoice 
 
 inquire intake invoke 
 
 inrail inter inwall 
 
 inscribe intitule inweave 
 
 insculp intort 
 
 3. The Prefixes IN and UN. 
 
 In, as a prefix, also marks negation ; and is by some 
 supposed to have been derived from the Hebrew ain, sig- 
 nifying not ; but it is far more probable that we had it 
 from the Komans, with whom it had the same negative 
 power. Un, as a prefix, is synonymous with in. It is of 
 Saxon origin, and generally joined to words that flow 
 from a northern source, while in is oftener applied to such 
 as are of Latin derivation. To give a list of either would 
 swell our pages out of proportion : we must therefore be 
 content with the general distinction above given, and leave 
 the reader to his own observation as to particular instances. 
 
 4. On the Formation of the Plurals of Words compounded 
 of a Noun and an Adjective. 
 
 It is a general principle of the English language, that 
 adjectives have no plural number. Hence, if a word be com- 
 pounded of a noun and an adjective, the 5 significative of 
 
28 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 the plural number will be attached to the noun, in the mid- 
 dle of the word. According to this principle, the plural of 
 the following words is correctly formed in this manner : 
 
 Governor- general G overnors-general 
 
 Attorney -general Attorneys -general 
 
 Solicitor- general Solicitors-general 
 
 Lord-lieutenant Lords-lieutenant 
 
 Court-martial Courts-martial 
 
 But if the adjective be taken substantively, the mark 01 
 the plural will properly follow it. For example, Briga- 
 dier-generals, major-generals, lieutenant-generals ; where 
 the word general is used substantively. 
 
 In like manner, words compounded of a noun and the 
 adjective/wZZ would, by analogy, form their plurals in the 
 same manner, thus, spoonsful, cupsful, bucJcetsful, hands- 
 ful, did we not leave out of sight the adjectival character 
 of the word full, and regard the whole as representing 
 but one substantive idea of quantity, without adjectival 
 qualification. 
 
 As to the notion of some people, that two spoonsful 
 necessarily means that two different spoons are full, it 
 is quite erroneous ; for to give this signification the two 
 words should be written apart ; thus : two spoons full. 
 But the real reason for spelling handfuls, spoonfuls, c., 
 with the s at the end of the word, is that I have indicated 
 above ; namely, that the adjectival character of full is here 
 left out of sight, and the whole word is regarded as a 
 simple noun substantive. 
 
 5. On the Plural of Nouns ending in Y. 
 
 A s was remarked in the last chapter, the grammarians 
 lay it down as a general rule, that nouns ending in y, if 
 preceded by a consonant, change y into ies in the plural y 
 as, ruby, rubies ; but if y be preceded by a vowel, then s 
 only added to the singular ; as, day, days. 
 
THE PLURALS OF NOUNS IN <Y.' 29 
 
 Notwithstanding the apparent simplicity of th is rule, it 
 will be found in practice, that the great majority of writers 
 spell the plural of nouns substantive ending in ey in the 
 singular, in the same manner as if y were immediately 
 preceded by a consonant. Thus the printer continually 
 encounters authors who will spell monies, attornies, &c. 
 
 How is this ? For there surely must be some reason, 
 obvious and apparent, or concealed and latent, for this 
 determined penchant, in men of sense and education, to 
 transgress a rule which at first sight seems so simple and 
 conclusive ! 
 
 We shall be enabled to solve this question the better, if 
 we ask ourselves a few more ; for in answering them, we 
 shall also find the solution for this. First, then, is y really 
 preceded by a vowel in the singular, in the circumstances 
 indicated ? It is, on paper ; for the plural noun monies is 
 in the singular money. But is e a vowel here in effect 1 
 Does the sound of the last syllable of the word differ at all 
 from what it would be if no e were there, or from ny in 
 pony ? I opine not. Therefore, the apparent transgressors 
 of the rule would seem to adhere to it in spirit, and the 
 seeming adherents to the rule, to transgress its spirit, and 
 to conform only to the letter. 
 
 Moreover, there is another reason why ies is by some 
 preferred to eys in the plural of such words ; and that is, 
 that they mostly come from Saxon words in ig ; and ac- 
 cording to Mr. Booth, in the Introduction to his Analytical 
 Dictionary, " all words in ig were written with ie before 
 they assumed the y ; and it is hence that they form their 
 plural in ies; as, valley, vallies ; worthy r , worthies, &c." 
 
 I have thought it advisable to give the reason which 
 the fautors of this practice advance in its defence, in order 
 that the reader may see the ground on which it rests ; for 
 he will find in law-books and acts of parliament, and some 
 other works, that it is in them still rigidly adhered to. 
 Nevertheless the general practice is as stated at the com- 
 
30 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 mencement of this article. I must own, however, that 
 my own opinion leans to the former view. 
 
 6. On the use of Diphthongs and Diacritical Marks in 
 English Printing. 
 
 Happily the English language is unencumbered by 
 those combinations of letters commonly called diphthongs, 
 and by those marks of accentuation and other distinctive 
 symbols, incident to some languages, which, however much 
 they may assist the student, are a great annoyance to the 
 compositor and corrector. Nevertheless there are some 
 printers who, anxious to exhibit their modicum of learning, 
 will persist in the use of those unnecessary combinations 
 in a language which eschews them ; and nothing is more 
 common than to meet with such words as archceology, 
 coenobite, mediaeval, manoeuvre, &c. But these gentlemen 
 should bear in mind, that the diphthongs ce and 02 do not 
 differ in sound in English from the simple vowel e. They 
 are therefore in our language utterly useless, and are no 
 better than a pedantic encumbrance ; and have therefore 
 been excluded from numerous words Anglicised from the 
 Latin and Greek ; such as, Egypt, Ethiopia, economical, 
 ether, pedagogue, celestial, cemetery, &c. &c. But, say the 
 advocates of this slavish adherence to the logography of 
 other peoples, the primitives of those words are so spelt in 
 the Greek, Latin, or French language. Granted. But in 
 them they had, or have, a power different from that of the 
 simple vowel : they therefore answered an end, and were 
 consequently not devoid of their peculiar appropriateness. 
 But as they answer no end in English, save that of con- 
 founding and perplexing the unlearned reader, they ought 
 by all means to be abandoned ; the only instances where 
 there is any show of reason for retaining them being in 
 proper names, and a few other words, which we have 
 
THE TERMINATION ' ISE ' OR c IZE.' 31 
 
 prest i vcd without alteration ; such as Ccesar, Phoenicia, 
 dice res is, &c. 
 
 Again, some will employ a diaeresis or accented letter 
 when the same vowel is repeated in immediate succession 
 in two separate syllables ; as in cooperation, and reembark- 
 ation. But this also is quite unnecessary. The printer 
 should give the reader credit for common sense, and for 
 at least a moderate knowledge of his mother-tongue : and 
 I will be bound to say that there is not one reader in ten, 
 who knows the meaning of the words, who would feel the 
 least difficulty as to their pronunciation, without these 
 adventitious marks, which rather perplex than assist a 
 mere English reader. If anything at all be required for 
 his assistance in the matter, it is much better, because a 
 thing which an ordinary English scholar will under- 
 stand, to put a hyphen between the vowels, when they 
 are alike. 
 
 7. The Termination ISE or IZE. 
 
 I 
 
 There is a variance in the spelling of words of this 
 sort which requires the attention of the reader, while we 
 inquire a little into its cause. This variation arises prin- 
 cipally from the different sources from which we have 
 derived words of this description, and these sources differ- 
 ing in their manner of spelling corresponding words. 
 Thus the Greeks and Latins spelled words of this kind in 
 i fa and izo respectively, whereas the French spell them in 
 iser. Hence, in words of our own formation generally, 
 and in such as we derive from the Greeks and Latins, 
 our lexicographers have adopted the termination ize ; as, 
 authorize, baptize, neutralize ; but in those coming to us 
 more immediately from the French, ise is the prevalent 
 spelling ; as seen in the words enterprise) surprise, &c 
 Nevertheless the French themselves formerly spelt such 
 
LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 words in izer, as may be seen in any old book in that 
 language. 
 
 There is one exception to the general rule, even in 
 words derived from the Latin ; and that is, when the ter- 
 minating syllable begins with the sound of s ; for then we 
 use ise ; as in circumcise. 
 
 Whether we adopt ise or ize, no error in pronunciation 
 can arise ; for in that respect they are identical ; the main 
 thing for the compositor being to ascertain which plan 
 prevails in the office where he is employed. For this 
 reason, as many respectable offices follow the system I have 
 indicated, it will perhaps be advisable to append a list of 
 those words which preserve the 5 ; leaving it to be inferred 
 that all others have z. They are 
 
 advertise demise galliardise 
 
 advise despise mamimise 
 
 affranchise devise merchandise 
 
 aggrandise disfranchise misprise (mistake) 
 
 amortise disguise premise 
 
 catechise divertise reprise (take again) 
 
 chastise emprise supervise 
 
 circumcise enfranchise surmise 
 
 comprise enterprise surprise 
 
 compromise exercise 
 
 criticise exorcise 
 
 Together with their compounds and derivatives. 
 
 8. Of the Words SUCCEED, PROCEED, PRECEDE, &c. 
 
 Why should the words proceed and succeed be spelt 
 with eed, and the kindred words precede and intercede with 
 ede ? Undoubtedly either mode represents the same 
 sound, according to the English orthoepy ; nevertheless, it 
 is a wanton departure from analogy to spell several words 
 coming from the same root, and under precisely similar 
 circumstances, in a different manner ; and as no purpose 
 is answered by such an anomaly, the sooner it is aban- 
 doned the better. As the Latin root of all such words is 
 
OF THE VERB ' CAN.' 33 
 
 cedo, we had much better stick to the termination ede, 
 and spell succede, procede, especially as we even now spell, 
 with ridiculous inconsistency, succedent, procedure. The 
 change might be offensive to the eye for some little while ; 
 but this would soon wear off. 
 
 9. Of the Verb CAN. 
 
 Can, when followed by the negative adverb not, is 
 commonly combined with it in one word ; which would at 
 first sight appear to be injudicious : for, although can is a 
 defective verb, yet it mostly discharges a distinct func- 
 tion ; and the word not is another distinct word, and may 
 have also its proper office. They are, therefore, some will 
 be ready to conclude, two separate words. But a little 
 reflection will convince us that it is entirely within the 
 scope of a language to join its negative or modifying par- 
 ticle to the principal word, as they together may merely 
 denote a modification of the primary idea, or its contrary, 
 according to the intention of the writer in each case. 
 Hence we have negative prefixes in the words disobey, 
 noncompliance, ungrateful, &c. ; and the Latin has nequeo, 
 nonnisi, nonnihil, &c. And the mere fact of the adverb in 
 this case following the verb can make no difference, of 
 necessity. The true reason for this universal inclination 
 to unite the two words in one, I take to be partly the 
 difficulty of articulating the letter n twice distinctly in 
 immediate succession, when no emphasis is given to the 
 latter word ; for canst not, where st intervene between 
 the two w's, we uniformly write in two words. Another 
 reason is, that we generally intend to affirm a mere dis- 
 ability, equivalent to the Latin nequeo, and not a negation 
 of the verb can, in the sense in which Lord Bacon uses it 
 in the following sentence : " In place, there is license to 
 do good and evil ; whereof the latter is a curse : for in 
 evil, the best condition is not to will ; the second, not to 
 D 
 
34 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 can." Nevertheless, when peculiar stress is given to the 
 negative, the words are very judiciously written apart. 
 Such cases will depend upon the peculiar circumstances 
 belonging to each. 
 
 10. The Termination on or OUR. 
 
 This is a termination which we have from the Latin or 
 the French, from words in the former language ending in 
 or, and the latter in eur. Now, as we are not constrained, 
 as I have before shown, to follow the system of either the 
 one or the other language, if neither represents the sound 
 which we give to -the ending of our derivative words, En- 
 glish lexicographers were perfectly justified in adopting 
 our, or, or any other termination which they might consider 
 most nearly to represent the "sound ordinarily given to 
 the syllable. The question then is, Which form most eifec- 
 tually answers the purpose ? Before Dr. Johnson's time, 
 the ending our was in general use ; and it is the one 
 adopted by him, and generally followed by all succeeding 
 lexicographers, as far as I can ascertain. We may there- 
 fore presume that these letters pretty nearly represented 
 the ordinary English pronunciation of this termination in 
 his time. But, as a living language is never absolutely 
 fixed, a change may have occurred since then, which calls 
 for a different spelling, as the tendency now is to omit the 
 w, and follow the Latin termination. Let us devote a few 
 lines to the consideration of that subject. What is the 
 sound of such words now, however spelt ? Is it correctly 
 represented either by or or our? I think, decidedly, by 
 neither. The sound is extremely indefinite, and, as far 
 as the vowels are concerned, much resembles that which 
 we give to the termination ous, generally derived from 
 Latin words in us or osus. But if neither ou nor o repre- 
 sents that sound correctly, it may well be asked, What 
 does ? I own, I am at a loss to say what letter, or combi- 
 
THE TERMINATIONS 'OR* OB <OUR' AND 'ER.' 36 
 
 nation of letters, would properly represent it. It appears 
 to be somewhat diphthongal, but of so indefinite a charac- 
 ter, that I am unable to point out its proper representative 
 symbols. This is extremely unsatisfactory; and I therefore 
 lean to the side of those who are for introducing a uniform 
 ending in or, especially if that practice should induce a 
 corresponding pronunciation ; for certainly the ordinary 
 sound of o would be far preferable to that indistinct and 
 undefinable utterance we are now compelled to hear both 
 from the legislature, at the bar, in the pulpit, and in 
 general conversation also. 
 
 This is the spelling which I shall generally follow in 
 this book ; but as many respectable offices still adhere to 
 ;he our in several words, I append a list of them, for the 
 :onvenience of the corrector and compositor. They are 
 
 arbour endeavour rigour 
 
 ardour favour rumour 
 
 armour fervour savour 
 
 behaviour flavour saviour 
 
 candour harbour splendour 
 
 clamour honour succour 
 
 clangour humour tambour 
 
 colour labour tenour * 
 
 contour neighbour tumour 
 
 demeanour odour valour 
 
 dishonour parlour vapour 
 
 dolour rancour vigour 
 
 But, observe, the u is dropped when the termination ous 
 is added to any of these words; as, clamorous, dolorous, 
 humorous, laborious, odorous, rancorous, rigorous, valorous, 
 vigorous. And also in many derivative words ; such as 
 armory, honorary, colorable, &c. 
 
 11. The Terminations OR or OUR and ER. 
 
 As already remarked, or or our is a termination which 
 we derive from the Latin or the French; bub er is the 
 ending generally assigned to verbal nouns of northern 
 * In music, tenor. 
 * 
 
36 L1TERART MISCELLANIES. 
 
 origin. As mistakes are frequently made with regard tc 
 this class of words, I append a list of such of them whe 
 
 an error is at all 
 
 likely to be committed. 
 
 
 
 VERBAL NOUNS IN i OR. 
 
 
 abbreviator 
 
 creator 
 
 extirpator 
 
 abettor (in law) 
 abductor 
 
 creditor 
 councillor 
 
 extractor 
 fabricator 
 
 accumulator 
 
 counsellor 
 
 factor 
 
 actor 
 
 cultivator 
 
 flexor 
 
 adjutor 
 administrator 
 
 cunctator 
 debtor 
 
 fornicator 
 fumigator 
 
 adulator 
 
 decorator 
 
 generator 
 
 a^sjressor 
 
 delator 
 
 gladiator 
 
 agitator 
 animator 
 
 denominator 
 denunciator 
 
 governor 
 grantor (in law) 
 
 annotator 
 
 depredator 
 
 habitator 
 
 antecessor 
 
 depressor 
 
 imitator 
 
 apparitor 
 appreciator 
 arbitrator 
 
 detractor 
 dictator 
 dilator 
 
 impostor 
 impropriator 
 incensor 
 
 assassinator 
 
 director 
 
 inceptor 
 
 assertor 
 
 dissector 
 
 incisor 
 
 assessor 
 
 disseizor 
 
 inheritor 
 
 benefactor 
 
 disseminator 
 
 initiator 
 
 bettor 
 
 distributor 
 
 innovator 
 
 calculator 
 calumniator 
 
 divisor 
 dominator 
 
 insinuator 
 institutor 
 
 coadjutor 
 collector 
 
 donor 
 effector 
 
 instructor 
 interpolator 
 
 competitor 
 
 elector 
 
 interrogator 
 
 conductor 
 
 elevator 
 
 inventor 
 
 confessor 
 
 elucidator 
 
 juror 
 
 conjector 
 conqueror 
 conservator 
 
 emulator 
 enactor 
 equivocator 
 
 lector 
 legator 
 legislator 
 
 consessor 
 
 escheator 
 
 lessor 
 
 conspirator 
 constrictor 
 
 estimator 
 exactor 
 
 mediator 
 modulator 
 
 constructor 
 contaminator 
 contemplator 
 continuator 
 
 excavator 
 exceptor 
 executor (in law) 
 explorator 
 
 monitor 
 mortgagor (in lai 
 multiplicator 
 narrator 
 
 contractor 
 
 expositor 
 
 navigator 
 
 contributor 
 
 expostulator 
 
 negotiator 
 
 corrector 
 
 extensor 
 
 nonjuror 
 
VERBAL NOUNS IN *R.' 
 
 37 
 
 novator 
 
 proditor 
 
 sequestrator 
 
 numerator 
 
 professor 
 
 servitor 
 
 objector 
 
 progenitor 
 
 solicitor 
 
 obligor (iii law) 
 observator 
 
 projector 
 prolocutor 
 
 spectator 
 speculator 
 
 operator 
 
 promulgator 
 
 spoliator 
 
 opinator 
 
 propagator 
 
 sponsor 
 
 originator 
 
 propitiator 
 
 successor 
 
 pacificator 
 
 proprietor 
 
 suitor 
 
 paritor 
 
 prosecutor 
 
 supervisor 
 
 participator 
 
 protector 
 
 suppressor 
 
 peculator 
 perforator 
 
 purveyor 
 recognisor (in law) 
 
 surveyor 
 survivor 
 
 perpetrator 
 
 recriminator 
 
 testator 
 
 persecutor 
 
 reflector 
 
 tormentor 
 
 perturbator 
 
 regenerator 
 
 traitor 
 
 possessor 
 
 regulator 
 
 transgressor 
 
 preceptor 
 
 rotator 
 
 translator 
 
 precursor 
 
 scarificator 
 
 valuator 
 
 predecessor 
 
 scrutator 
 
 vendor (in law) 
 
 predictor 
 
 sculptor 
 
 venerator 
 
 prevaricator 
 
 sectator 
 
 ventilator 
 
 procrastinate* 
 
 selector 
 
 vindicator 
 
 procreator 
 
 senator 
 
 violator 
 
 procurator 
 
 separator 
 
 visitor 
 
 VERBAL NOUNS IN ' ER.' 
 
 abetter 
 
 disturber 
 
 jailer 
 
 abstracter 
 
 entreater 
 
 lamentcr 
 
 accepter 
 
 exalter 
 
 mortgager 
 
 aider 
 
 exasperater 
 
 obstructer 
 
 annoyer 
 
 exciter 
 
 offender 
 
 arbiter 
 
 execiiter 
 
 perfecter 
 
 assenter 
 
 expecter 
 
 perjurer 
 
 condenser 
 
 frequenter 
 
 preventer 
 
 conferrer 
 
 granter 
 
 propeller 
 
 consulter 
 
 idolater 
 
 probationer 
 
 continuer 
 
 imposer 
 
 propugner 
 
 contradictor 
 
 impugner 
 
 protester 
 
 contriver 
 
 inflicter 
 
 protracter 
 
 conveyer 
 
 insulter 
 
 regrater 
 
 debater 
 
 interrupter 
 
 relater 
 
 defender 
 
 interpreter 
 
 sorcerer 
 
 deserter 
 
 invester 
 
 supplanter 
 
 deviser 
 
 inviter 
 
 vender 
 
38 LITERARY MISCELLANIES, 
 
 12. Nouns Substantive in SIGN or TIOK. 
 
 The reason for a different termination to words of this 
 class is generally to be found in the Latin ; but for the 
 benefit of those who are ignorant of that language, I 
 append a rule for their guidance, which will be found 
 generally correct. 
 
 RULE. Primitive words which end (or might end, if 
 in use) in d, de, ge, mit, rt, se, or ss, take sion in their deri- 
 vatives; but all other words have tion. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 abscind, abscission reverb, reversion 
 condescend, condescension convert, conversion 
 
 evade, evasion confuse, confusion 
 
 intrude, intrusion revise, revision 
 
 absterge, abstersion impress, impression 
 
 emerge, emersion confess, confession 
 
 admztf, admission admir, admixtion 
 
 iQmit, remission promote, promotion 
 
 IRREGULARS. 
 
 adhesion divulsion recension attention 
 
 cohesion 1 evulsion recursion causation 
 
 compulsion exesion revulsion distention 
 
 declension expulsion scansion distortion 
 
 decursion impulsion tension coercion 
 
 depuision incursion transcursion suspicion 
 
 dissension propulsion version crucifixion 
 
 I2a. The Terminations ABLE and IBLE. 
 
 As the proper application of these terminations fre- 
 quently puzzles the unlearned printer, I will endeavor to 
 supply some rules for his guidance, or at least to show 
 him a path by which he may extricate himself from all 
 perplexity on this head, if he chooses. Let him, therefore, 
 attend to the following observations. 
 
 All words, considered as mere English words, without 
 regard to the source from which they have been derived,, 
 
THE TERMINATIONS 'ABLE* AND C IBLE. J 37 
 
 and those which come from Latin words ending in abilis, 
 or French ones in able, take the termination able in 
 English; as, procurable, amendable, desirable, allowable, 
 voidable, available, fordable, incontestable, &c. : but if the 
 word be not taken as a pure English word, but regard 
 be had to its source in the Latin or French, and these 
 languages terminate the corresponding word in ibilis or 
 ible, then the word will also end in ible in English. For 
 instance, accessible, sensible, defensible, convertible, &c. 
 
 In words ending in ce or ge, the final e is preserved 
 before the termination able, for the purpose of indicating 
 the soft sound of the consonant ; as in marriageable, 
 chargeable, traceable, serviceable (and I might, did custom 
 permit, add forceable and enforceable, which seem more 
 legitimate, because more in accordance with analogy, 
 than forcible and enforcible) ; but before the ending ible, 
 the final e of the primitive will disappear, and there will 
 be no e before the termination, even if no primitive is 
 in use in English ; for c is always soft before i, and g 
 may be. Examples : deducible, reducible, frangible, &c. 
 
 If the quantity of the last syllable of the root-word be 
 short, and the accent on it, the accent generally remains on 
 that syllable in the derivative word, and the final conso- 
 nant of the primitive is doubled ; as in compellable, rebut- 
 table, demurrable. 
 
 To remove all doubt, the following list of words in ible 
 is here added ; of course, leaving it to be inferred that all 
 others end in able. 
 
 accessible 
 admissible 
 adustible 
 appetible 
 apprehensible 
 audible 
 cessible 
 coercible 
 collectible 
 
 comminuible contractihle 
 compatible controvert ible 
 competible convertible 
 comprehensible convincible 
 compressible corrigible 
 conceptible corrosible 
 conclusible corruptible 
 congestible credible 
 contemptible deceptible 
 
 decerptible 
 decoctible 
 deducible 
 defeasible 
 defectible 
 defensible 
 depectible 
 deprehensible 
 descendible 
 
LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 destructible 
 
 extendible 
 
 legible 
 
 refrangible 
 
 digestible 
 
 extensible 
 
 miscible 
 
 regi le 
 
 discernible 
 
 fallible 
 
 partible 
 
 remissible 
 
 discerptible 
 
 feasible 
 
 passiblej 
 
 reprehensible 
 
 dispraisible 
 dissolvible 
 
 fencible 
 flexible 
 
 perceptible 
 permiscible 
 
 resistible 
 re-ponsible 
 
 distensible 
 
 forcible 
 
 permissible 
 
 reversible 
 
 divisible 
 
 frangible 
 
 persuasible 
 
 revertible 
 
 docible 
 
 fusible 
 
 pervertible 
 
 risible 
 
 edible 
 
 horrible 
 
 plausible 
 
 seducible 
 
 effectible 
 
 ignoscible 
 
 possible 
 
 sensible 
 
 eligible 
 
 illegible 
 
 producible 
 
 solvMe 
 
 eludible 
 
 immarcessible 
 
 quadrible 
 
 tangible 
 
 enforcible 
 
 immiscible* 
 
 reducible 
 
 terrible 
 
 evincible 
 
 impassible f 
 
 referrible 
 
 transmissible 
 
 expansible 
 
 intelligible 
 
 reflexible 
 
 visible 
 
 expressible 
 
 irascible 
 
 
 
 13. The Termination ANCE or ENCE. 
 
 The same causes which have influenced the spelling of 
 the termination able or ible have also operated with regard 
 to the ending ance or ence. When respect has been had to 
 a word considered as a mere English word, the ending of the 
 derivative will be found to be in ance; as, abundance, re- 
 monstrance, deliverance, importance; abundant, remonstrant, 
 important: but if the source of the English word has 
 been kept principally in view by tbe lexicographer, such 
 as its derivation from the French or Latin language, and 
 the corresponding words in them have e, then the English 
 words have been made to assume e also, and to end in ence 
 or ent; as, convenience, munificence, convenient, subsident. 
 
 It is from the considerations above stated, that we have 
 different spellings in words of kindred derivation. As: de- 
 fendant, attendant ; dependent, independent, superintendent 
 (substantive and adjective) ; and attendance, dependence, 
 independence, superintendence; and some others, which 
 practice will teach, and which are too firmly fixed in the 
 
 * For other words beginning with im, in, ir, or un negative^ 
 look for the simple word. 
 
 f Incapable of suffering. % Capable of suffering. 
 
OME PECULIARITIES OF THE LETTER C.' 39 
 
 language to be readily altered'. Nevertheless, the rule 
 will not be found without its use even to the mere 
 English reader. 
 
 14. Some Peculiarities of the Letter c. 
 
 "When treating of c as a final letter, I observed, that 
 when it was followed by le or re, as the final syllable of a 
 word, c was uniformly sounded hard, and e was pro- 
 nounced before the consonant I or r, although written 
 after it ; as in ancle (not ankle] , uncle, circle, acre, wise- 
 acre, lucre ) massacre. 
 
 There is a good plea for this anomaly : it answers a 
 definite purpose, and gives to the letter c a power which 
 it never otherwise has when immediately preceding the 
 vowel e. But to extend this peculiarity to other letters, 
 where it is not necessary, and answers no end except that 
 of producing confusion and irregularity, is a wanton and 
 ignorant departure from the real principles of ortho- 
 graphy, and ought, therefore, to be no longer tolerated. 
 Nevertheless, most of our dictionaries adopt such anoma- 
 lies as the words, centre, theatre, sepulchre, metre, antre, 
 reconnoitre, manoeuvre, ogre, &c. ; all which, and all such- 
 like, ought undoubtedly to have the vowel e before the 
 final consonant, just as we have in chamber, tiger, disaster, 
 letter, "barometer, register, disorder, copper, powder, and 
 hundreds of other words, although they all come from 
 foreign words where the consonant precedes the vowel. 
 
 Again, in words derived from the Greek, we, in ac- 
 cordance with the practice in Latin, change k into c. No 
 inconvenience resulted to the Eomans from this custom, 
 because their c was pronounced hard before all the vowels, 
 even as it was by our Saxon forefathers. But we have 
 departed from this rule, and pronounce c soft before the 
 vowels e and i. Hence arises an anomaly in our pro- 
 nunciation of words from the Greek, which we have 
 
40 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 constrained to follow the general English mode, and 
 pronounce c as s in all cases, before e and i, just as in 
 ordinary English words. Examples : scene, ocean, cephalic, 
 ceiling, circle, which we have, either directly or indirectly, 
 from the Greek ovoj^, wKeaj/bs, /ce^aA^, Ko1\os, ttipKos. 
 Therefore, we ought to write sceptic, and pronounce it as 
 septic, not skeptik, although it does come from the Greek 
 
 15. Defense, Pretense, Offense, Expense, fyc. 
 
 As the words commonly written defence and offence 
 come from the Latin words defensio and offensio, and as in 
 their derivatives, and also in those of the words above 
 indicated, we retain s, it would seem to me to be a prefer- 
 able method to spell those words with s in all cases ; just 
 as we do in defensive, pretension, offensive, expensive. The 
 alteration, I am convinced, would soon be generally 
 acquiesced in. 
 
 Again : to spell the same word in its verbal and no- 
 minal character in a different manner, is wrong, when 
 there is no difference in pronunciation ; for the verb is but 
 the noun in action. Therefore, eschew spelling licence and 
 license, &c. ; although advice and advise, and perhaps 
 practice and practise, are properly distinguished in their 
 spelling, being also distinguished in their pronunciation. 
 
 16. Dispatch or Despatch. 
 
 Dispatch seems to me to be more correct than despatch, 
 both as conveying a more exact representation of the 
 sound, as being more consistent with analogy, and more 
 in accordance with practice. For, though it may be alleged 
 that we get the word from the French depecher, or the 
 Spanish despachar; on the other hand, it may be replied, 
 
ORDINAL ADJECTIVES PRECEDING A NOUN. 41 
 
 that so we derive discharge from decharger, and disobey 
 from desobeir, and yet we adopt the i. But the truth, 
 appears to me to be that we, in common with the French, 
 have* the word from the Italian dispacciare ; and therefore 
 dispatch is in every way to be preferred. 
 
 17. Two or more Ordinal Adjectives preceding a Noun. 
 
 When two or more ordinal adjectives precede a noun, 
 each referring to one in the singular number, the sub- 
 stantive which, follows may properly be put in the singular 
 also ; for after each ordinal its appropriate substantive is 
 omitted by ellipsis, and the sole reason for its being repeated 
 only after the last is, because, from the context, it can 
 be easily supplied mentally after each of the other. Thus 
 the sentence, ( Take the first and the second man ' is not 
 incorrect ; because there is merely an ellipsis of the word 
 ' man ' after the first ordinal, and no men in the condition 
 severally of both first and second are intended. But ( the 
 first and the second men 1 would lead the reader to suppose 
 that there was more than one man in both the first and 
 the second place ; which is not what is meant. This is 
 more clearly seen in a language whose nouns and adjectives 
 are inflected. Thus in Latin, ( Tolle hominem primum et 
 secundiim ' would convey the sense above intended, and 
 would be correct in grammar. But, although similar 
 instances may be met with, yet I apprehend, ' Tolle 
 homines primum et secundum' is not so logically de- 
 fensible, though, from the nature of the inflections, the 
 meaning is equally clear. But this is not so in English, 
 owing to the want of inflection in our nouns. Hence it is 
 more judicious, and it is at least equally correct, to use the 
 singular noun, when only one of each class is intended. 
 For further illustration, the sentence ' If you will turn to 
 the fourth and fifth chapters of Micah' is, literally taken, 
 
42 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 ambiguous in English, Again : The l country and the 
 London attorney were present/ is correct ; meaning, that 
 there was one of each description : but were we to say, 
 1 The country and the London attorneys were present,' we 
 should leave it doubtful whether there were two only, or 
 two score, or any other number. 
 
 18. Double Possessives. 
 
 The preposition of after a noun may also be followed 
 by a noun in the possessive case, whenever the first is 
 preceded by an indefinite demonstrative ; but if preceded 
 by a word of definite determination, a noun in the pos- 
 sessive case can not follow it. Examples ; 
 
 This is a barn of my neighbor's. 
 That is a field of Mr. Jones's. 
 
 Here the word a leaves it to be inferred that my 
 neighbor has more barns than one, and that this, to which 
 allusion is made, is but one of them (a barn of [or among} 
 my neighbor's barns), or that Mr. Jones has more fields 
 than one, and that this, to which we allude, is but one of 
 them. But when I say, ' This is the book of John,' I do not 
 necessarily or by implication declare that there is more 
 than one book of John ; on the contrary, I rather assert 
 that that is John's only book, or, at any rate, that it is 
 emphatically his. Whenever an s is added to words after 
 a determinate demonstrative, as in the latter case, it is not 
 a sign of the possessive case, but merely added euphonic 
 gratia. Examples : ' The town of St. Albans.' ' The 
 borough of St. Leonards.' % The parish of St. Clements.' 
 But when such additional letter does not conduce to har- 
 mony, no s is added. For instance, we say, l The palace 
 of St. James; ' the church of St. Peter, 9 ' the district of 
 St. Mary: 
 
NOUNS OF WEIGHT, ETC. 43 
 
 19. Nouns of Weight, Dimension, Value, and Capacity. 
 
 Nouns of weight, dimension, value, and capacity, &c., 
 although in the plural, may be followed by a verb in the 
 singular. Examples : 
 
 Five hundred tons is the burden of the ship. 
 Fifteen feet is the measurement of the court. 
 Six pounds five shillings was all the money he had about 
 
 him. 
 Having a large stock of wheat in his granaries, he 
 
 shipped five hundred bushels to London, which was 
 
 all sold. 
 
 The reason for this is, that it is not the tons or the feet, the 
 pounds or the bushels, of which the affirmation is really 
 made, but rather of the weight, the extent, the money, and 
 the wheat, as aggregate wholes. But if a division of parts 
 is intended, and not a totality, then a plural verb will be 
 correctly employed ; as in the sentence, 'He had six 
 sovereigns in his pocket, which were all of a different date.' 
 Here the sovereigns are alluded to as separate pieces of 
 money, and not as an aggregate total ; and therefore the 
 verb is correctly put in the plural. Again : ' The farmer 
 shipped five hundred bushels of wheat, of which one 
 hundred were lost.' The same reason applies as before : a 
 number of parts is here intended, and not a totality, which 
 would have required a verb in the singular, whatever form 
 of words might have been employed.* 
 
 * The word pound, in naming sums of money, is by the gene- 
 rality of people, colloquially at least, used in the singular, even 
 after numerals higher than unity ; and it is commonly thought that 
 the employment of the plural in ordinary discourse wears an air of 
 stiffness and pedantry uncongenial to the vulgar ear. This seems 
 to result from the fact of our having no such coin as a pound; and 
 therefore the word does not so easily admit of individualization, and 
 consequently of plurality. This peculiarity, then, is not without 
 
44 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 20. Half -hour, Half-mile, Half an Hour, fyc. 
 
 It is correct to write half-hour, half-pound, half-circle, 
 or even half pound, &c., in one word; because the com- 
 bination represents but one substantive idea, and half is 
 not here used as a fractional quantity of another greater 
 unit, but is part of one word representing an integer of half 
 the value indicated by its last member. Hence these words, 
 and all such-like, are capable of a plural, and we can 
 correctly say, 'three half-hours,' ( three half-circles; 9 and 
 a well-known book is styled 'Half-hours ivith the best 
 Authors.' But when an article is interposed between a 
 fractional number and another noun, then the words 
 should be written separately : for in that case the fraction 
 performs its appropriate numerical function, and does not 
 enter into combination with another word, for the pur- 
 pose of representing one definite integral notion. Hence 
 we cannot correctly say ' three half-au-hours ;' but must 
 either adopt the former expression, or else individualize 
 the word half, and say, ' three halves of an hour,' or, ' an 
 hour and a half ;' which word half is in this case an 
 intregal number, and is therefore written separately from 
 the article which precedes it. 
 
 Notwithstanding the obvious necessity for this dis- 
 tinction, and the strictly logical and irrefragable grounds 
 
 some foundation ; and although not strictly correct, and therefore 
 not to be tolerated in print, is allowable enough in conversation. 
 Neither are the English people singular in this practice ; for it is 
 adopted by our kinsmen the Germans, who uniformly use pound 
 in the singular, although they pluralize shillings and pence. They 
 also say, ( Zwei Ries, drei Buck, und vier Bogen Papier ' (' Two 
 ream, three quire, and four sheet [of] paper ') ; ' Das Regiment ist 
 tausend Mann stark ' (' The regiment is a thousand man strong '). 
 So that the practice is not without good authority to countenance 
 it, even among a people who have paid far greater attention to the 
 grammar of their native language than the English have done. 
 
AS FOLLOWS, AS FOLLOW. 45 
 
 on which it is based, nothing is more common than to see, 
 even in books printed by the leading houses in the busi- 
 ness, and in first-rate public journals, such absurdities as 
 half-an-hour, half-a-pound, &c. They might just as cor- 
 rectly say half-a-year, lialf-an-ounce, half-a-million, or half- 
 a-century. 
 
 Of a somewhat similar character are the words a iveek, 
 an hour, a day, a year, &c., when used apparently in an 
 adverbial sense ; but as I shall treat of this matter more ' 
 fully in another place, I will here content myself with the 
 remark, that the words ahead, apiece, differ from them, 
 as possessing a distinct grammatical character, and are 
 therefore correctly written in one word. 
 
 21. As follows, as follow. 
 
 Is the expression ' The accounts are as follows' correct ? 
 To me it appears so. Here are my reasons : As is a word 
 of comparison, meaning ' according to,' ' like,' or, according 
 to Dr. Johnson, 4 in the same manner with something else. 9 
 There must therefore be some word in the sentence, 
 expressed or understood, with which the accounts can 
 be compared. Now, no such word is expressed : it must 
 therefore be understood. What, then, is understood ? 
 Clearly not accounts, for that is the express subject of the 
 proposition ; and by the very definition of the word as, 
 it is required that the subject of the sentence should be 
 compared with some other subject. Neither are the ac- 
 counts merely as, or like, the accounts which follow ; but 
 they are the very accounts themselves. We must then find 
 some other word which will answer our purpose. That 
 word I take to be statement or description, or a word of 
 similar import. And hence the proposition expressed in 
 full would be this : ' The accounts are as [like or according 
 to] the statement which follows.' Therefore this sentence, 
 expressed in the condensed form, * The accounts are as 
 
46 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 follows,' is correct. Again, in the sentence, ' Maxwell 
 describes the battle as follows.' What follows ? Why 
 not the battle itself, but a description or account of it. 
 That is, therefore, the word which must supply the ellip- 
 sis ; and so with other cases. Thus : ' The men were 
 arranged in the following order,' or f in the order which 
 follows ;' or, speaking elliptically, as follows. For the men 
 themselves are not supposed to follow here, but only a 
 list of their names. 
 
 22. Excellence, Excellency. 
 
 These words were by our earlier writers used indiffer- 
 ently ; or rather, perhaps, excellency was generally em- 
 ployed by them, as being nearer in form to the Latin 
 original, excellentia. But when the word came to denote 
 an ambassador, its French form (excellence) began to be 
 used to designate the quality denoting superiority or 
 eminence, and the Latinized form was confined to its more 
 conventional acceptation. Hence, it is better to keep 
 these words to their recognized meaning, and to form 
 their plurals according to the general rules of the lan- 
 guage, excellencies (ambassadors), and excellences (superior 
 qualities). 
 
 23. The Derivation of English Words. 
 
 Of course the Saxon forms the basis of our language 
 in its essential parts, and is the source whence we derive 
 the greater part of our ordinary and most emphatic words. 
 Nevertheless we have put under contribution various 
 other languages, especially the French, Latin, and Greek. 
 This will be evident from the following statement of deriva- 
 tions, which I insert in this chapter of miscellanies mainly 
 for the benefit of the unlearned reader, that he may see 
 how important it is to him that he should acquire some 
 knowledge of those languages, if he desires to attain to a 
 
THE DERIVATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 47 
 
 thorough proficiency in his business as an educated 
 printer. 
 
 I. From the Greek are derived 
 
 1. Words ending in gram, graph, smdgraphy ; as, tele- 
 gram, telegraph, geography, &c. ; from the word ypatya 
 (grapho\ I write, and some other Greek word. 
 
 2. Those in gon ; from ywvia (gonia), an angle ; as, 
 octagon. 
 
 3. All words in logue or logy ; as, epilogue, astrology ; 
 from \6yos (logos), a discourse. 
 
 4. Ic, ick, icSj are also Greek terminations, generally of 
 adjectives. 
 
 5. Words in meter are all of Greek origin, coming from 
 the verb (JLSTP& (metro), I measure, in combination with 
 some other word. 
 
 6. Most words into which the terminations agogue, asis, 
 esis, or ysis enter, are also of Greek origin : such as dema- 
 gogue, emphasis, parenthesis, analysis, &c. 
 
 II. But the main source whence we have derived words, 
 with the exception of the Saxon, is decidedly the Latin, as 
 will be at once shown by a mere inspection of the following 
 list : 
 
 1. Words ending in ance, ancy, or ant, and ence, ency, or 
 ent, come from Latin words ending respectively in am, 
 antia, or ens, entia ; as, abundance, from abundantia ; 
 infancy, from inf antia ; abundant, from abundans ; absence, 
 from absentia ; excellency, from excellentia ; and excellent, 
 from excellens. 
 
 2. Words in al have their Latin representatives in alis ; 
 as, corporal, from corporalis. 
 
 3. Verbs in ate mostly come from Latin verbs of the 
 first conjugation ; as, moderate, from modero. 
 
 4. Words in ator are generally the same in both lan- 
 guages ; as, orator, senator, moderator. 
 
 5. The termination id comes mostly from Latin words 
 
48 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 ending in idus ; as, acid, from acidus ; but sometimes words 
 of this ending are of Greek origin ; as oxide (more correctly 
 oxyd), from 6vs (oxys). And indeed most scientific words 
 of this ending ; as, carotid, from /capc<m5es,&c. ; rhomboid, 
 from pojugoeiS^s. 
 
 6. II or He is likewise from the Latin termination of 
 adjectives in His ; as, docile, from docilis ; civil, from 
 civilis. 
 
 7. The Latin termination osus has its English repre- 
 sentative in ious or ous ; as, copious, from copiosus ; nu- 
 merous, from numerosus. But sometimes the English 
 ending ous comes from a Latin word in ax ; as, capacious, 
 from cap ax. 
 
 8. The Latin ending to has its English corresponding 
 word in ion ; as, nation, from nafa'o ; oration, from oratio. 
 
 9. The endings we, re, and te after a vowel, are also* 
 for the greater part, of Latin origin ; as, fortune, from 
 fortuna ; aquiline, from aquilinus ; culture, from cultura ; 
 pure, from purus ; complete, from completus, &c. 
 
 10. Words in ty come from Lalin words in tas ; as, 
 equality, from cequalitas ; bounty, from bonitas ; rarity, from 
 raritas ; &c. 
 
 11. The termination wcfe is also of Latin origin ; coming 
 from words in udo ; as, fortitude, from fortitudo ; elude, 
 from eludo. 
 
 12. So also is wows, by inserting the letter o ; as, am- 
 biguous, from ambiguus ; continuous, from continuus, &c. 
 
 III. From the French we have 
 
 1. Most of our words in age ; as, page, rage, usage. 
 
 2. All those in eau ; as beau, flambeau, &c. 
 
 3. The French esse is represented by the English ess; 
 as, princess, from princes se. 
 
 4. "Words in que mostly come to us from the French 
 directly ; some from the Latin directly or indirectly ; as 
 antique (L. antiquus, F. antique), oblique, opaque. 
 
PREPOSITIONS BEFORE AND AFTER VERBS. 49 
 
 5. "Words ending in ment are, for the most part, the 
 same in both languages ; as, commencement, advancement 
 (F. avancement), &c. 
 
 These lists might undoubtedly be further extended ; 
 but what has been here adduced will be sufficient for my 
 present object, and, I trust, will be of some interest to 
 the generality of my readers. 
 
 24. Prepositions before and after Verbs. 
 
 Sometimes prepositions enter into composition with 
 verbs, or are added to them, for the purpose of modifying 
 their meaning. If the preposition precede the verb, it may 
 be joined to it in one word; but if it follow, then it must 
 be kept separate. Examples : ' To overturn, to turn 
 over ; ' ' to upset, to set up ; ' ' to underlay, to lie under ; ' 
 ' to overbalance, to balance over; ' ' to uplift, to lift up? The 
 reason is, when the particle follows the verb, it modifies it 
 adverbially ; but, as the verb is the principal word in a 
 sentence, it cannot act in subordination to a mere particle ; 
 therefore the particle preceding the verb, must enter into 
 combination with it, if it modifies its meaning ; because no 
 idea is expressed until the verb is enunciated ; and to do 
 this completely, both words are required. But when the 
 verb precedes, an idea is expressed by the verb itself, and 
 what follows merely modifies it. Inattention to this rule, 
 or perhaps, rather, ignorance of it, has led many printers 
 into an error of late years, as regards the words wind up. 
 Since the passing of a certain act of parliament, this word 
 has come into frequent use as an adjective, in order to 
 describe that act as the ' Winding-up act.' But here the 
 word has lost its verbal character, and become a mere 
 adjective. But this does not justify the union of the two 
 words by a hyphen when the verbal character of the word 
 is preserved, as is now usually done by printers ignorant 
 or careless of the principles which ought to guide them in 
 E 
 
50 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 these matters. Do not, therefore, insert the hyphen in this 
 and similar instances : ' The affairs of the partnership 
 were wound up by the commissioner.' For there is 
 surely no more reason for the hyphen here, than in the 
 sentence, ' The assets were ordered to be given over to the 
 assignees.' 
 
 25. Numbers, Weights, Measures, fyc. 
 
 No comma should be placed between the constituent 
 parts of the same number, however long it may be. Thus 
 we say, ' One million one hundred thousand five hundred 
 and twentyone,' without any interpunction. The reason is, 
 that there is no more than one numerical aggregate in- 
 tended, or but one complex notion ; and consequently, no 
 separation of parts or members can take place. The same 
 reasoning holds good as respects values, weights, &c. For 
 instance, when we say, ' Three pounds six shillings and 
 four pence/ we merely mean that aggregate amount, but 
 not necessarily any one of the coins indicated. If we did 
 so intend, then two commas should be introduced, one 
 after l pounds/ and the other after i shillings. 7 In like 
 manner we should act with such sentences as, * Five tons 
 three hundredweight two quarters and fifteen pounds ;' or 
 'Ten acres four roods and twentyseven perches;' and for 
 the very same reason: no division of parts is intended, but 
 merely one aggregate amount. 
 
 26. The Omission of s in the Possessive Case. 
 
 It is not uncommon with some persons to omit the s 
 after the apostrophe, in the possessive case of nouns, if 
 the name itself ends in s ; as, l James* book/ 'Barnes* Notes/ 
 But this is incorrect ; for if we ask, Whose book ? we should 
 directly answer, James's. The only case when, as it ap- 
 pears to me, the s can be judiciously omitted, and this 
 solely to avoid the too hissing sound of so many s's in sue- 
 
NOTHING, ANYTHING, SOMETHING, ETC. 51 
 
 cession, is when the first word ends with the sound of s in 
 its last two syllables, and the next word begins with s, 
 as in Misses 1 spectacles, righteousness' sake, conscience 1 
 sake. 
 
 2?. Nothing, Anything, Something, Everything ; None, 
 Some one, fyc. 
 
 The words no, any, some, every, are adjectives, or, as 
 they are commonly called, adjective pronouns ; and, like 
 all other words, ought, so long as they continue to fulfil 
 a distinct grammatical office, to be written separately. 
 This distinct function they do discharge before most nouns 
 substantive ; but the word thing has acquired, in process 
 of time, an indefinite, obscure meaning, not representing 
 any clearly-defined substantive idea, but at one time 
 relating to inanimate objects, and at another to rational 
 creatures. Hence has arisen the practice of combining 
 this word with the modifying words above enumerated ; the 
 two words still representing but one indefinite substantive 
 idea, without regard to any adjectival property possessed 
 by the first member of the compound word. And so long 
 as this single idea is represented by the combination, it is 
 undoubtedly correct ; but so soon as the substantive part 
 of the word takes a definite individual meaning, then the 
 two words perform different functions, and must conse- 
 quently be kept distinct. Hence we correctly say some 
 things, any thing, no thing, and every thing, when our in- 
 tention is to use the word thing in a definite substantive 
 sense ; otherwise, it is proper to say nothing, something, 
 anything, everything. 
 
 Following this practice, some printers have of late be- 
 gun to extend it to the word one : thus, anyone, everyone ; 
 although I cannot say that I have ever met with the word 
 someone. But this innovation seems to be not only un- 
 necessary but unadvisable. For although it is true that in 
 
 E2 
 
52 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 some languages, whose adjectives admit of inflection, sucli" 
 like ideas are represented by one word, as in Latin by 
 quidam, ullus, nullus ; yet these are used both of persons 
 and things ; whereas, in English, the word one, when the 
 subject of a proposition, has always a personal meaning, 
 and is therefore not so indefinite in its nature as the word 
 thing. For these reasons, two words are preferable in each 
 case, except in the particular one where one has taken the 
 indefinite meaning of person or thing ; as in none. But 
 this does not apply to any, some, or every, as some seem to 
 imagine ; nor yet even to no, when preceding the word 
 one with a substantive meaning : for then we say, correctly 
 and logically, no one ; and in like manner, a good one, a 
 bad one, such a one, this one, &c. 
 
 28. Sixpence, Ninepence, fyc. 
 
 Owing to the want of a clear perception of the reasons 
 which ought to guide us in the formation of compound 
 words, many printers have fallen into the habit of uniting 
 certain numerals with the word pence, when it represents 
 a mere value ; for, say they, this word represents no defi- 
 nite substantive idea ; but it, and the numeral with which 
 it is joined, denote a certain sum, it may be, of farthings, 
 halfpence, and pennies. Thus three pence is not the same 
 as three pennies ; but the amount may consist of one coin, 
 or be made up of several. And so, say they, with regard to 
 sixpence, ninepence, elevenpence, $c. 
 
 But the same argument might be urged with regard to 
 pounds and shillings ; for we have no coin called a pound, 
 and a sum of a certain number of shillings in value might 
 not contain one coin of that denomination. Besides, here, 
 the idea has a definite and well-defined existence in the 
 mind, as to value at least ; and it is to value, and not to 
 the number of pieces of money, that we usually have 
 regard. Moreover, we might extent the argument of the 
 
THE WORD 'WHOLELY.' 53 
 
 advocates of this innovation to measures of weight, quantity ', 
 or dimension ; and say, threetons, fifteenhundredweight, 
 and sixteenpounds ; which would be anything but logical 
 and perspicuous. 
 
 The truth is, that a numeral can never be properly 
 joined in one word with one of value, unless the two 
 represent one substantive idea. Hence we may properly 
 say a sixpence, even as we can say two sixpences ; but to 
 write six penee, two pence, three pence, &c., in one word, 
 when we merely mean sums of these respective amounts, is 
 incorrect both in grammar and logic ; and no more reason 
 can be adduced for the practice, than for writing two pounds 
 or six shillings in one word. If mere pronunciation is to 
 be our guide, we may as well go at once to the full extent, 
 and write tuppence and threppence, just as we pronounce 
 them. 
 
 29. Farther and Further. 
 
 Farther is nowadays only employed when speaking of 
 distance ; in all other acceptations of the word, further is 
 generally adopted. But both Johnson and "Webster agree 
 ih&t farther is a mere corruption of further, and that the 
 latter is the more correct word for all occasions. 
 
 30. The Word WHOLELY. 
 
 A more ludicrous deviation from analogy and com- 
 mon sense is hardly afforded by our whole language 
 than by the ordinary way of spelling this word, wholly. 
 What could have induced our printers to adopt it, or per- 
 suaded our authors to adhere to it, I am utterly at a loss to 
 conceive, unless it were a tacit understanding betwixt them 
 that absurdity should be the only guide to our orthography, 
 and common sense and analogy should by all means be 
 eschewed, as dangerous and exacting innovators. Both 
 
54 LITERARY MISCELLANIES. 
 
 pronunciation and analogy demand the spelling which 
 heads this article ; why, then, should we go out of our way 
 to find another diametrically opposed to both ? I need 
 hardly say that this adverb is formed in the usual way, 
 from the adjective whole, by adding the termination ly ; 
 just as we have solely from sole; purely from pure; and 
 hosts of other words. It is an absurdity so flagrant that 
 it should not be permitted to disgrace our orthography 
 another day. 
 
 31 . Peas and Pease. 
 
 There are scarcely any words in which a mistake is more 
 frequently made by authors, press-correctors, and com- 
 positors, than in the words peas and pease. Yet the 
 distinction between them is simple and well-defined. Peas 
 is the plural of pea, and consequently only follows numeral 
 adjectives; as, l ten peas/ 'a hundred peas,' ' a, few peas,' 
 1 many peas;' but pease is used when speaking of the 
 legumen in the aggregate, or generally. Thus we 
 correctly say, ( Pease are dear this year,' ' Pease were 
 plentifully supplied to the horses,' &c. 
 
 Pease is also employ edadjectively ; as, '^ease-pudding,' 
 p,' or 'pea-soup,' &c. 
 
55 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE PEOPEE FOEMATION OF DEEIVATIVE 
 AND INFLECTED WOEDS. 
 
 IN the course of the first chapter I was necessarily led 
 incidentally to touch on some matters which belong more 
 especially to this. But as this is a subject but indifferently 
 understood by the generality of compositors, and yet of 
 great importance to them, a little reiteration may well be 
 excused, especially if it have the effect of fixing the prin- 
 ciples therein explained more firmly in the mind of the 
 reader. I would therefore bespeak his attention to the 
 following rules, and the observations upon them. 
 
 EULE I. When a termination or affix beginning with 
 a consonant is added to a primitive word ending in silent 
 e, that e invariably remains in the inflected or derivative 
 word ; as, abasement, politeness, obscurely, estrangement, 
 judgeship, wakeful. Hence it follows, that the words 
 judgement, acknowledgement, abridgement, lodgement, ought 
 to retain the final e of their primitives, and not to be spelt 
 as they generally are, judgment, acknowledgment, abridg- 
 ment, lodgment. 
 
 EULE II. Whenever a termination beginning with a 
 vowel is added to words ending in silent e, the e is dropped 
 in the derivative or inflected word ; as, facing, pleasing, 
 prized, forced, amusing, forcible, procurable, mistakable 
 mistaken, pledging, judged, acknowledged. 
 
56 THE PROPER FORMATION OF 
 
 The reason for the omission of the final e of the primi- 
 tive, before affixes beginning with a vowel, seems to be 
 this : As the final e is generally added to the root-word 
 for the purpose of indicating the long quantity of the pre- 
 ceding vowel, or, as regards the letter g, of showing that 
 it has its soft sound, these circumstances are sufficiently 
 indicated by the initial vowel of the termination ; and the 
 final one of the primitive word therefore becomes unneces- 
 sary ; more especially as, were it retained, it would not be 
 pronounced, and would sometimes give rise to doubt and 
 confusion, as to whether the syllable in which it occurred 
 were long or short ; as may be seen by the following exam- 
 ples, with the final e retained : Judgeed, mistakeen, mis- 
 takeable, observeable, desireable, loveing, loveed, &c. But as 
 regards compound words, this reasoning does not apply ; 
 for in them each constituent part of the word is preserved 
 entire. Hence we spell hereafter, herein, and not her after, 
 herin, as in mere derivative words. The same remark 
 applies to moreover, whereas, and numerous other words.* 
 A want of attention to this simple rule has led to an 
 erroneous spelling in several words of recent introduction- 
 Thus we almost invariably find such words as ratable, 
 debatable, and some others spelt rateable, &c. ; a practice 
 directly opposed to the settled analogy of the language. 
 
 Again, according to Mr. Walker, moveable (as he spells 
 it) retains the silent e of the primitive word, because, 
 forsooth, the letter o has not its usual sound. But this 
 argument, to be of any cogency, ought to prevail in every 
 case to which it would be applicable ; and we ought, for 
 the same reason, to write moveing, proveable, proveing, 
 removeable, removeing, &c., for o has not its ordinary sound 
 in any of these cases. But the fact is, this argument, or 
 rather dictum, is of no force whatever, and the e ought to 
 
 * Wherever is an exception which cannot be defended by any 
 sound argument. 
 
DERIVATIVE AND INFLECTED WORDS. 57 
 
 be dropped in the inflected or derivative words of move and 
 prove, as in all similar words. Nevertheless there are two 
 cases where the final e of the primitive should be retained 
 in the derivative. These are, where it is preceded by c or 
 g, soft, and the same sound is required before increments 
 beginning with the vowels a, o, or u ; for if e were dropped 
 in those cases, to give c or g a soft sound, would be con- 
 trary to the universal practice of the language : hence it is 
 properly retained in all such words as serviceable, notice- 
 able, chargeable, marriageable, &c.* 
 
 RULE III. Whenever a termination or affix beginning 
 with a consonant is added to a word ending with a mute 
 consonant, the primitive word remains unaltered in the 
 inflected or derivative word ; as, badness, luckless, abut* 
 ment, shipment. 
 
 RULE IV. Whenever a termination beginning with a 
 vowel is added to words ending with a consonant, some- 
 times the final consonant is doubled before the termination, 
 and sometimes it remains single. The general rules which 
 guide this subject, are the following : 
 
 1. If an affix beginning with a vowel be added to a word 
 ending with a single simple consonant preceded by a short 
 accented vowel, the final letter of the primitive word must 
 
 * In strict compliance with the above rule, the present participle 
 of the verb singe ought to be written singing, although it may 
 thereby, perhaps, be liable to be confounded with the participle of 
 sing ; for we make no difference between ringing and ranging 
 flinging and. plunging (from ring and range, and. fling and plunge), 
 in this respect, although g is hard in the one case and soft in the 
 other. Nevertheless, as the vowel in sing and singe is the same, and 
 confusion might sometimes arise from spelling the participle of the 
 two words alike, it is an excusable anomaly, and rests upon some 
 basis, and is therefore generally adopted. But in tinge, where no 
 such danger of confusion exists, the participle is properly spelt 
 tinging. 
 
58 THE PROPER FORMATION OF 
 
 be doubled before the affix ; as in rub, rubbed; bid, bidding ; 
 wag t wagging ; sham, shamming ; plan, planned ; whip-, 
 whipping ; blur, blurred ; wet, wetted. 
 
 2. If the primitive word have not the accent on its 
 last syllable, then, although it may end with a simple conso^ 
 nant preceded by a short vowel, yet that final consonant must 
 not be doubled before the affix beginning with a vowel. Ex- 
 amples in point are such words as combat, combated ; register, 
 registered; worship, worshiping (not worshipping, as generally 
 spelt) . Nevertheless, it appears to me, if the accent be re- 
 moved beyond the antepenultimate, as the word is actually 
 pronounced, then, as the secondary accent on the penultimate 
 must necessarily be stronger than usual, the final consonant 
 of the primitive word may with great propriety be doubled 
 before such affix. Hence I prefer to spell benefltting and bene- 
 fltted with the t repeated. 
 
 3. If the primitive word end with a double letter, that 
 is a compound consonant, or with two or more consonants, 
 then, also, the final consonant must never be doubled before 
 an affix, although the last syllable of the primitive be short 
 and accented. For instance, waxed, mixed, blacking, building, 
 icashed, restricted, sheathed, and such-like words, receive no 
 additional letter before the affix. 
 
 4. If the final consonant of the primitive be immediately 
 preceded by more than one vowel, then, although the accent 
 be on the last syllable, its closing consonant is never doubled 
 in the formation of derivative and inflected words. Example : 
 routed, mooting, floating, shouting, fleeting, bailed, boiling, 
 leafless, flooring, &c. 
 
 As a question may here arise in the reader's mind, as 
 to the reason for these apparent anomalies, I will endeavor 
 to give such an explanation of them as may in some 
 measure satisfy his curiosity, and assist him in the de- 
 termination of any doubtful case that may come under 
 his observation. 
 
 First, as to the doubling of the final consonant of the 
 primitive. Whenever the accent is upon the last syllable 
 of a word ending in a simple consonant preceded by a 
 
DERIVATIVE AND INFLECTED WORDS. 59 
 
 short vowel, the organs of speech, as elsewhere remarked, 
 are enforced by this very circumstance to articulate that 
 consonant distinctly ; and as the next sound to be uttered 
 is a vowel-sound, it must necessarily commence with the 
 articulation already formed ; because it is much easier 
 audibly to resolve that articulation, than to open the 
 mouth, and give utterance to the next vowel-sound 
 without such audible resolution. This will be clearly seen 
 by a few examples distinctly pronounced ; such as bid- 
 ding, wag-giny, slam-ming, shun-ning, whip-ping, knit-ting, 
 &c. Hence, the reason for repeating the simple consonant 
 in words coming under the description above indicated, is 
 simply this very rational one, that two consonants are then 
 articulated, one after the vowel of the primitive, and the 
 next before the vowel of the termination : for it must ever 
 be borne in mind, that there is no more difficulty in com- 
 mencing a syllable with a consonant articulation than in 
 ending it with one. It is true, that this double articulation 
 is not so distinctly heard in English as in some languages, 
 and, to use the words of Dr. Forbes, in his Hindustani 
 Grammar, is somewhat slurred over ; yet there can be no 
 doubt that the articulation is expressed twice in all 
 the instances above enumerated. 
 
 But it may be objected : If this argument is good for 
 anything, it ought to be applied to every case similarly 
 circumstanced. I answer, So it ought ; and unless con- 
 trolled by reasons drawn from an overweening deference to 
 the method of spelling adopted in languages from which 
 we have derived many of our words, it is a principle that 
 will be found in general operation, even in other cases 
 besides that of the formation of derivative and inflected 
 words. An exemplification of this is seen in such words 
 as flattery, bladder, blubber, stammer, winnow, foppery, 
 summer, &c. True it is, that this rule is transgressed in 
 innumerable instances in the body of words ; but as I 
 before said, this is because our lexicographers have had 
 
60 THE PROPER FORMATION OF 
 
 more regard to the spelling of the learned and other 
 languages, than to the correct representation of each 
 sound by its appropriate symbol. But I am here treating 
 only of the proper formation of inflected and derivative 
 words, and have no intention to propose an alteration of 
 the spelling of the generality of root- words, which is too 
 firmly fixed to admit of material change. Nevertheless, 
 I will give a few instances in which a too great 
 regard for precedent has overborne those considerations 
 which ought undoubtedly to have formed one of the main 
 canons for the determination of correct spelling. For ex- 
 ample, from the Latin g&neralis,vre have general, &c., from 
 caput, capital ; fidelis, fidelity ; fatalis, fatality ; and 
 numerous other words ; in all which, had the simple and 
 rational rule above indicated been adhered to, the accented 
 short vowel would have been followed by a double conso- 
 nant. But it is not my purpose to propose any such change 
 now. I will only just further remark, that the French 
 have in some cases shown more independence, and also, as 
 I think, better judgement, in the spelling of some of their 
 words : for we find with them the words honneur, honnete, 
 deshonneur, &c., with two %'s ; although the Latin originals 
 have but one. 
 
 Secondly, as to the final consonant of the root- word not 
 being doubled when the accent is not on that syllable, and 
 the quantity is short. 
 
 This requires little explanation. The consonant of 
 the root in this case is not articulated at all with 
 what forms the primitive word, when an aifix is 
 added beginning with a vowel. Take for example the 
 word com-ba-ted ; where, in pronunciation, the t un- 
 doubtedly forms part of the last syllable, and not of the 
 penultimate. And the reason is this : it is much easier to 
 the speaker to commence a sound with a consonant-articu- 
 lation, after the utterance of a vowel, where the voice has 
 not been forcibly propelled on the consonant-articulation, 
 
DERIVATIVE AND INFLECTED WORDS. 61 
 
 than to close with an articulation, and commence 
 the next syllable with a vowel-sound.* Therefore this 
 rule is founded upon a rational principle, and is in ac- 
 cordance with the natural expression of the constituent 
 parts of the word. The only case that can admit of doubt 
 is, as I mentioned under the rule, in long words, where 
 the secondary accent in the derivative or inflected word falls 
 upon what was the ultimate of the primitive ; in which 
 case I incline to favor the repetition of the consonant. 
 
 Thirdly : If the primitive word ends in a double letter, 
 or in two or more consonants, then the last consonant will 
 not be repeated before a termination beginning with a 
 vowel, even if the ultimate syllable of the primitive 
 should be short and accented. 
 
 Tiiis rule also rests upon a rational basis. Every 
 compound consonant, and also every two consonants 
 pronounced in one emission of the breath, necessarily 
 combine two articulations, and to repeat those two articu- 
 lations in immediate succession, although not always im- 
 possible, is nevertheless somewhat difficult, and, I think, 
 never occurs in the English language in the same word. 
 For this reason, g soft,,/, and x are never doubled ; neither 
 is the last of two combined consonants repeated before an 
 affix beginning with a vowel, even sjiould the primitive 
 word end with a short accented syllable. 
 
 Fourthly : If the final consonant of the primitive word 
 is preceded by more than one vowel, that consonant will 
 not be doubled before an affix beginning with a vowel, 
 even if the accent be on the last syllable of the primitive. 
 
 Let us call to mind the reason assigned for doubling- the 
 consonant at all. It was, because, under certain circum- 
 
 * A judicious regard to similar euphonical considerations has 
 induced the French, as it did before them the Greeks, to interpose 
 a consonant-articulation between two pure vowel-sounds. As in 
 A-1-il Jini sa le$on? ffacrovtri-v e/ce?j/oz/. And the same reason 
 leads to the continual elision of vowel-sounds in poetry. 
 
62 THE PROPER FORMATION OF 
 
 stances, it was twice articulated, once in its formation, 
 and again in its resolution. But here, that reduplication 
 of articulation does not take place ; for the extended 
 pronunciation of the preceding vowels prevents it ; and 
 therefore the rule does not hold. Nay, when an affix 
 beginning with a vowel is added to such words, I am in- 
 clined to think that the last consonant of the simple word 
 is then rather pronounced with the termination than with 
 the root part of the word. 
 
 In treating of the consonants as final letters, or in their 
 word-terminating character, we saw that some were nearly 
 always doubled when the syllable of which they formed 
 part was accented ; and that one (/), whether the syllable 
 was accented or not, provided it were but short in quantity. 
 The other letters to which I allude, were Z, s, and z. We 
 will now inquire whether, and in what cases, this 
 privilege can be properly awarded them in the formation 
 of derivative or inflected words. 
 
 The letter / will very shortly be disposed of. The 
 reason for doubling it at all was, because, owing to its 
 semivowel character, its sound is easily capable of pro- 
 longation at the end of a word. This privilege it retains 
 in composition also ; for as it occurs before no augment 
 beginning with a consonant with which it readily com- 
 bines, its sound is of course prolonged, as if at the end of 
 a word, when preceded by a short vowel, whether accented 
 or not, as in primitive words ; and therefore the ortho- 
 graphy of the primitive undergoes no change. Hence we 
 write stiffness, handcuffing, bluffly, bluffness, rebuffing, &c. 
 
 The same remarks will apply to the letter I under 
 certain circumstances ; and those reasons which were 
 deemed valid for doubling it when final, will also apply in 
 composition, provided the conditions remain the same. 
 We will discuss this point somewhat in detail ; first laying 
 down the following rules : 
 
DERIVATIVE AND INFLECTED WORDS. 63 
 
 RULE I. If a word ending with II assume in inflection 
 or composition an augment beginning with a vowel, both 
 the final letters of the primitive will remain ; for in that 
 case the semivowel sound of I is not closed by the articu- 
 lation of a mute consonant immediately following, but is 
 continued by the still more open sound of the following 
 vowel. Hence we correctly spell calling, recalled, telling, 
 spelling, instilled, filled, rolling, enrolled, annulled, &c., with 
 the double consonants of the primitive words. 
 
 RULE II. If a word ending in U have added to it an 
 affix beginning with a consonant with which the articula- 
 tion of I can easily be combined, then one I of .the primi- 
 tive word may be dropped before the augment ; for the 
 sound of I is not then prolonged, but its articulation 
 becomes incorporated with that of the following con- 
 sonant. The letters with which I can most readily coalesce 
 are f and m, as in film and pilf. Before affixes, then, 
 beginning with either of those letters, one I of the primi- 
 tive word is very properly dropped ; and for this reason 
 we spell wilful, skilful, fulfilment, annulment, &e., with one 
 I : but before all other consonants both the letters ought 
 to be retained ; and therefore stillness, dullness, fullness is 
 the correct method of spelling these words. 
 
 But as there are cases where one I of the primitive 
 word is dropped in composition, so, on the other hand, 
 there are others where an additional I is assumed ; as 
 may be seen in the words cancelling, rebellious, cavilling, 
 quarrelling, and numerous others. 
 
 As this is a practice which has been universally 
 acquiesced in for a couple of centuries, and seems to be 
 adopted, as it were naturally, by the English under 
 certain circumstances, surely there must be some founda- 
 tion for it in the nature of this letter, the propriety of 
 which we intuitively perceive, although, as far as I know, 
 no one has hitherto attempted to give a satisfactory reason 
 for the adoption of this apparent anomaly. I will there- 
 
64 THE PROPER FORMATION OF 
 
 fore endeavor to supply this ' defect, and to place the 
 matter on a rational basis. 
 
 As all simple mute consonants are doubled when they 
 precede a termination beginning with a vowel, provided 
 they form part of a short accented syllable, surely if I be 
 a letter the articulation of which is more easily formed 
 than that of mute consonants, there may be cases where 
 it will be properly doubled, though they may remain 
 single under precisely similar circumstances. 
 
 We have before seen that this happens uniformly to the 
 letter/preceded by a short vowel, before an affix beginning 
 with a vowel, although the accent may not be on the syl- 
 lable of which/ forms part; as in handcuffing ; because 
 even then, the articulation off is not immediately closed, 
 but admits of a prolongation or reiteration. Now I is a 
 letter of the like nature as/"; it is a semivowel, second only 
 perhaps to/ in its vocal capacity : therefore it may well be 
 entitled to enjoy some of its privileges ; and if good reasons 
 can be shown for it, it ought to do so. This is the point 
 which we will now proceed to discuss. 
 
 It seems to me, then, such being the character of the 
 letter I, that it ought to be doubled whenever the accent 
 of the primitive word is not removed further than the 
 penultimate, and that penultimate is short in quantity; for 
 in that case, before an affix beginning with a vowel, a re- 
 iteration or prolongation of the letter I appears clearly 
 to take place. Examples in point are, travel, traveller : 
 cavil, cavilling ; model, modeller ; shovel, shovelling. 
 
 But if the accent be removed further back than the pe- 
 nultimate syllable of the primitive word, or even if that 
 penultimate be accented, but long in quantity, either na- 
 turally or by position, then only one I will be really re- 
 quired to denote the correct pronunciation before an affix 
 beginning with a vowel ; tor in that case the stress of voice 
 upon the I will be so faint, that it will not he pronounced at 
 all in the next word, but solely in the increment : conse- 
 
DERIVATIVE AND INFLECTED WORDS. 65 
 
 quently, no reiteration or prolongation thereof can then 
 take place. Appropriate examples of this single sound 
 of I are afforded by the following words : Naturalize, 
 memorialize, vocalize, centralize ; socialism, pugilism, van- 
 dalism ; federalist, sciolist, annalist ; pupilage, vassalage, &c. 
 Nevertheless, generally speaking, in the formation of 
 verbal nouns and adjectives, and the present and past 
 participles of verbs, the final I of the root-word is doubled, 
 even if its penultimate syllable be long by position; as 
 in quarreller, quarrelling, quarrelled, and marveller, mar- 
 vellous, marvelling, marvelled. And the reason perhaps 
 is, that the proper number of syllables is thereby more 
 clearly indicated ; for were such words as cancelled and 
 marvellous spelt with one I, they might easily be mistaken 
 for canceled, and marve-lous. And so with other termina- 
 tions also, where a similar mistake might be made, although 
 but one I is really required by the pronunciation ; as in 
 the words chancellor, counsellor, &c. 
 
 In accordance with the rule above stated, tranquilize 
 and crystalize are more analogous than tranquillize and 
 crystallize, although the one word does come from the 
 French tranquilliser, and the other from the Greek Kpv- 
 oroAAf ; nevertheless, the latter mode of spelling is almost 
 universally adopted by English printers. 
 
 It may be further observed, that words ending in ism 
 and ist (and even in ize, except the two words above men- 
 tioned) never repeat the I, even when the accent is on the 
 short penult of the primitive word ; as, cabalism, novelism, 
 novelist, moralist, moralize, novelize; where two Z's are,. 
 in accordance with the doctrine indicated in the rule, 
 really required by the pronunciation. The only exceptions 
 are the words medallist (from the French medailliste} and 
 metallist (from the Latin metallum, or the Greek ^T 
 
 ERRATUM. In the last line of the preceding page, for 'next 
 word' read ' root- word.' 
 
 a 
 
66 DERIVATIVE AND INFLECTED WORDS. 
 
 which follow the actual requirements of their pronun- 
 ciation ; together with duellist (from the Latin duellum}^ 
 which transgresses all rule. 
 
 If the directions above given hold good with regard 
 to the letter I, they certainly will apply to s with greater 
 force. Therefore, although I have elsewhere said that 
 some words might be spelt with one s at the end, even if 
 preceded by a short vowel, yet, if an affix beginning with 
 a vowel be added, the 5 ought to be doubled whenever 
 the accent is not removed beyond the antepenultimate, 
 even although that antepenultimate be long in quantity. 
 Hence, the following words are properly spelt as in- 
 dicated : Biassed, biassmg; embarrassed, embarrassing ; 
 nonplussed, nonplussing ; hocussed, hocussing; focussed, 
 focussing. And in like manner, omnibusses, owing to the 
 secondary accent on the penultimate syllable.* 
 
 N. B. The words duly, truly, aivful, woful, and perhaps 
 a few others, might have been adduced as exceptions to 
 Rule I, p. 55 ; and dyeing, hoeing, shoeing, to Eule II. 
 
 * S does not combine or coalesce with the initial consonant 
 of any increment ; therefore, in all those cases where the primitive 
 word is spelt with ss final, both letters will remain before affixes of 
 every kind. Instance the words, blissful, kissing, impressment 
 distressful, engrossment, &c. 
 
67 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 ON THE FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 OWING to an ignorance of the reasons which lie at 
 the foundation of all rules which can be devised for the 
 proper formation of compound words, many compositors 
 are not a little puzzled in their proper application, and at 
 the apparent contradictions in the practice of the press- 
 corrector who understands the subject. But I natter 
 myself, if the young printer will carefully consider what 
 I am about to say, he will rise from the perusal of the 
 following observations with much clearer notions on this 
 matter than he had before, and will be convinced that 
 this is not the arbitrary affair which the practice of 
 some people had led him to suppose, nor yet so inex- 
 plicable as the varying systems of different correctors had 
 induced him to imagine. 
 
 Let us begin by laying down an axiom which can 
 admit of no dispute. 
 
 No word, so long as it continues to discharge the func- 
 tions of a separate word, that is, so long as it continues 
 to represent a distinct idea, or to maintain a distinct 
 grammatical character, can ever enter into combination 
 with another word ; for this would be a contradiction in 
 terms : but whenever a word fails to discharge such dis- 
 tinct function, or to maintain such separate character, and 
 requires to be joined with another word for that purpose, 
 
 F2 
 
00 FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 then it individually has no definite meaning, and is there- 
 fore no longer, in fact, a word at all : it then becomes 
 necessary to join it with some other imperfect word like 
 itself, in order that the two combined may perform an 
 office which neither separate was capable of accomplishing. 
 Such is a compound word. 
 
 Hence it follows, as every real word is at least the 
 representative of one idea, or denotes the relation subsist- 
 ing between our ideas, whenever two apparent words are 
 required to perform this office, they constitute in fact but 
 one, and may therefore be united. \Vhether they be 
 written in one word, or be connected by a hyphen, is, as 
 
 1 shall elsewhere show, a matter of custom and discretion, 
 
 These are the principles which the printer must take 
 for his guidance whenever he is in doubt, in any case which 
 comes under his notice ; for, if attentively considered, and 
 well digested, they will be sufficient for all occasions. 
 But in order to render the matter clearer to those to whom 
 the language used may appear somewhat obscure or 
 abstruse, we will proceed to consider the subject more in 
 detail, even at the risk of a little repetition. 
 
 1. No two words of the same part of speech, represent- 
 ing two distinct ideas, can immediately follow one another 
 in the English language without the intervention of some 
 point, or some word of connection, unless the one be the 
 complement or object of the other, or the latter be a title 
 or designation of the former, in the nature of an adjective. 
 Thus, in the sentences, ( A iine white horse,' 'John's pen- 
 knife,' * He loves to read,' ' St. John Baptist/ there are 
 two words of the same part of speech in immediate suc- 
 cession, without any point between them ; but the latter 
 word is the complement of that which precedes it, or, as 
 in the last example, the word ' Baptist' is in the nature of 
 an adjective : therefore, although no point is placed be- 
 tween them, they are written apart, and can never enter 
 into composition as one word. But if two words of the 
 
FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. Gl) 
 
 same part of speech meet together, representing but one 
 idea, then they must be either connected by a hyphen, or 
 united into one word. Examples : Boot maker, dairy man, 
 ship builder. Plere, the words, taken singly, are both of 
 the same part of speech, representing each a distinct idea ; 
 but the latter word is not the complement of the former, 
 nor, as the words stand^ have they any necessary relation 
 the one with the other. Nothing is affirmed of them, 
 or necessarily understood to be affirmed of them ; yet 
 the intention is to represent but one idea. In order to 
 comply with this intention, therefore, it becomes neces- 
 sary that the same change in the literary symbols should 
 take place, that has occurred in the mind of the writer, and 
 that the two apparent words should enter into composition, 
 and become one : Bootmaker, dairyman, shipbuilder. 
 
 NOTE. In forming compound words of two nouns substantive, 
 the apostrophe, or sum of the possessive case, which was in the first 
 word out of composition, may be omitted in composition ; for the 
 one word is no longer the complement of the other, nor is it under 
 its regimen; the two words, now representing but one notion, can 
 therefore require no sign of dependence, which the possessive case 
 necessarily implies. But the letter s, following the apostrophe, 
 may be retained, if it add to the euphony of the compouDd word ; 
 for in the formation of compounds, the ear, as well as the head, 
 must be consulted. For this reason it is, that of King's Town is 
 formed Kingston; and of Somers' Town, Somerstown; Queen's 
 Borough, Queensborough : because the final consonant of the first 
 word does not easily commingle with the first consonant of the 
 second; and the sibilant s is preserved, in order that the continuity 
 of sound may not be broken, and that a word of more easy pronun- 
 ciation may be formed. This is a matter of which the ancient 
 Greeks were very sensitive. And in accordance with this principle 
 it is, that although we may write bees' wax, cow's hide, sheep's 
 skin, &c. ; yet, as the intention is generally not to express the rela- 
 tion of possession, that is, that the wax belongs to the bees, the 
 hide to the cow, or the skin to the sheep, as actually possessing 
 them, we shall more correctly write bees-wax or beeswax, and 
 cowhide, sheepskin, oxtail; because, in the last three instances, 
 the euphonic or sound-prolonging s is not necessary to an easy 
 
7-0 FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 utterance of the following letter. Following out this rule, we 
 'may write ' Lincoln's Inn./ * Prince Edward's Island,' ' St. PauFs 
 Churchyard ;' but, except in instances like the last, where the place 
 is supposed to be under the especial tutelage of a particular saint, 
 and so, in some sense, may be said to be his, it is better to drop the 
 sign of the possessive case, where no relation of possession is in- 
 tended, and to write such words as these in this manner \ * Lincolns 
 Inn,' ' Prince-Edward Island ;' retaining the s in the first example, 
 euphonice gratia, but omitting it in the last, where it is not 
 so much required for that purpose. But 'Lincoln's-inn,' is not 
 correct, although ' Lincolns-inn Fields ' is not objectionable. 
 
 In reference to the rules for compounding the names 
 of places, I will make one or two further observations. 
 The practice of late years has much increased, of writing 
 all such names, when formed of two or more words, by 
 hyphens. Now, undoubtedly, whatever number of ap- 
 parent words may enter into the composition of the name 
 of any person or place, when the relation of possession is 
 not intended or assumed, such words represent but the 
 idea of one particular person or place, without, in general, 
 specifying any distinguishing characteristic inherent or 
 belonging to the one or the other. Such names mighty 
 therefore, be not incorrectly written in one word, and we 
 should then not unfrequently meet with such combinations 
 of letters as ' Johnthomasjosephbrown.' However, as the 
 original design in giving more names than one to one 
 person or thing, was to point out some special charac- 
 teristic, whereby they might be distinguished from other 
 persons or things with the like general denomination, 
 such names partake of the nature of adjectives, and such 
 undoubtedly they originally were : they therefore per- 
 formed a separate function ; and this, in fact, they in some 
 measure do still, though not generally so characteristically 
 as in more remote times. The parts of a name, therefore, 
 of two or more words, resolving themselves into two 
 kinds, general and special, it is evident that such parts 
 should be clearly indicated by keeping them separate, so 
 
FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 71 
 
 long as these two characters are kept in view. In names 
 composed of two words, no difficulty will occur ; for they 
 must be written separate, the one necessarily being ge- 
 neral and the other special (whenever these distinctions 
 are intended, as they mostly are). So, in names composed 
 of more than two words, whatever belongs to the general 
 designation must be united by a hyphen, or written in one 
 word ; and so also that which belongs to the special 
 branch. Hence it is, that we should write, ( Queen Street,' 
 ' Dorset Square,' ' Hanover Place,' ' Wynyard Terrace,' 
 1 John Brown,' ' White Sea,' &c. ; because the latter word 
 retains its general character, and the first is specific, dis- 
 tinguishing these particular places or persons from others 
 with the same general designation. But when this general 
 nature of the last word is lost sight of, or not intended to 
 be pointed out, then the first performs no special function, 
 the two words represent but one idea simply, and without 
 special modification : they should then coalesce. Such 
 words are May/air, Kingston, Somerstown, Claxton, Bo- 
 roughbridge, Northallerton, Doncaster, Exeter, Greenland, 
 Iceland, England, &c. ; in which the first constituent of 
 the word has lost its specific character, and the latter its 
 general intention. In names of more than two words, 
 the same rule applies : those which belong to the general 
 name must form one part of the word ; and those which 
 belong to the special, the other. Therefore write, Great 
 Queen-street, Little Ormond-street, Wellington-street 
 North, John-Thomas Brown, William-Henry Fox-Talbot, 
 Prince-of- Wales Island, East-India Company. But when 
 the relation of possession is assumed, of course the words 
 affected by sucli relation should not be united by a hyphen ; 
 for that would be a contradiction, the possessive case ne- 
 cessarily implying two ideas, and the combination of words 
 equally strongly implying but one. Hence we should 
 write Saint Paul's Churchyard ; although the relation is 
 not real but assumed merely. The Germans do not even 
 
72 FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 assume this relation of possession to exist ; for they write 
 Petersldrche (Peter's Church), &c., in one word. 
 
 2. "Whenever the defining noun substantive (or rather 
 the word which is a noun substantive in its ordinary 
 acceptation) which precedes another noun substantive, is 
 intended to bear to that noun substantive the relation of 
 an adjective (for words are really of that nature which the 
 user of them intends them to be*), the two words can never 
 coalesce ; for they represent two distinct notions, one of 
 things, and the other of the properties of things : but if 
 the two words are merely intended to denote but one idea, 
 or one notion, then they must be united in on word, 
 or (which is in effect the same thing) be connected by a 
 hyphen. 
 
 Hence, as I had occasion to hint in another place, we 
 write in two words gold pin, silver candlestick, leather 
 strap, land animal, ship canal, city walls, country residence, 
 &c. ; because the first word stands to the last, in the mind 
 of the writer, in the relation of an adjective, denoting 
 either the material of which a thing is made, or conveying 
 the notion of possession, or some other adjectival adjunct 
 which he wishes to represent distinctly. Such words 
 would generally be rendered by an adjective, a genitive 
 case, or a preposition and its complement, in other 
 languages, according to their genius, or the discretion of 
 the person using them. Thus we might write rb Xvxviou 
 Xpv<reov, or rb Xvxviov rov xp v <rov> candelabrum argenteum, 
 or candelabrum ex argento factum ; ein goldener Leuchter, 
 ein Leuchter von Gold; chandelier d'argent, candelliere 
 di argento, &c. ; and so of all other words denoting the 
 material of which a thing is made. But when such 
 words are not used adjectively, that is, when they are not 
 
 * I may 'here not inaptly quote an observation of Priscian: 
 ** Non similitude declinationis onmimodo conjungit vel discernit 
 partes orationis inter se, sed vis ipsius significations "-Li\>. iii, 
 p. 170. 
 
FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 73 
 
 intended to express an accident of the nouns to which they 
 are attached, but merely denote the purpose for which 
 such nouns are used, then the very same words which we 
 have above shown ought to be kept distinct in the circum- 
 stances there denoted, must, in this latter case, be joined 
 by a hyphen to the following word, or else be incorporated 
 with it ; for the two words are now merely intended to 
 denote one substantive idea. Example : Silver-minej sil- 
 versmith ; gold-washing, goldbeater, coal-pit, coal-mine. So 
 glass-house, where glass is merely manufactured ; but glass 
 house, a house made of glass.* 
 
 This rule extends to all words formed of what appear 
 to be two nouns substantive ; but each case must depend 
 upon its peculiar circumstances ; that is, upon the inten- 
 tion of the writer in each instance. Thus we may put 
 wheat flour in two words, when we mean to affirm distinctly 
 and emphatically that it is wheaten, or made of wheat; 
 but if we do not intend to affirm this emphatically, then 
 we mean to express but the notion of one noun substan- 
 tive, and must therefore make but one word ; as in oat- 
 meal, barleymeal, although we might correctly write oat 
 flour. Judgement must be used in every case : there is 
 nothing arbitrary in the matter ; but a clear perception of 
 the writer's intention is always indispensable. 
 
 * In determining to which class any example may belong, it 
 will be some guide to the young printer to consider whether he can 
 turn the first word into an adjective of an homogeneous meaning. 
 If he can do so with propriety, the words must be kept distinct ; if 
 he can not, they must be united by a hyphen, or formed into one 
 word, according as the word is of common acceptation or not; 
 for, in fact, both operations are one and the same, and the hyphen 
 is merely introduced, as I have said elsewhere, to assist the eye 
 of the reader in ascertaining the composition of the word. For 
 instance, in place of leather strap, we may say leathern strap; for 
 gold snuffbox, golden snuffbox ; and although silvery candlestick 
 would not convey the same meaning as silver candlestick, and we 
 have no adjective which could be used in its stead, this arises from 
 
74 FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 3. A noun substantive is used adjectively, and there- 
 fore is, pro hdc vice, an adjective, and cannot enter into 
 composition with the following noun, when it denotes the 
 place to which that noun belongs or appertains. For in- 
 stance, * a county magistrate,' ' a city alderman,' ( country 
 affairs,' ' a London tradesman,' ' Paris fashions.' The proof 
 of this is, that these words would be rendered by an 
 adjective, a genitive case, or a preposition and its com- 
 plement, in several other languages. Thus, res rusticce, 
 or mercator Londinensis or Londini, les modes de Paris, &c. 
 
 If the reader should be in doubt as to the proper appli- 
 cation of this rule, in any case which may come under his 
 notice, he may test it by the word ' of.' If he can introduce 
 this particle between the two nouns, by changing their 
 order, the first is then generally used adjectively, and must 
 in that case be kept distinct from the following one. 
 Examples : ' A county magistrate ' (a magistrate of the 
 county) ; ( a London tradesman' (a tradesman of London); 
 Paris fashions' (fashions of Paris), &c. But if of cannot 
 be properly introduced between the two words, or, when 
 it can, if it do not convey the notion of appurtenance or 
 possession , the two words must be joined ; as in oak-tree 
 (not a tree of oak), ash-tree, fig-tree, water-carrier (carrier 
 of water, but not in & possessory tense) ; seashore (because, 
 although we can properly say ' shore of the sea,' even in a 
 possessory sense, yet the intention is not, generally, so 
 to regard it, but only as one substantive notion, without 
 regard to its accidents), sea-breeze, land-storm, hail-storm 
 
 the poverty of the language, and we are compelled to have recourse 
 to another mode of expression, and to say, * a candlestick of silver : 
 but nevertheless, an appropriate adjective might be coined ; and I 
 very much doubt whether * silvern candlestick' would not be quite 
 as legitimate as 'golden opportunities.' But we cannot say 'a 
 papery knife,' ' a bookish seller,' and thereby convey the meaning 
 of paper-knife and bookseller. Such words are therefore not in- 
 tended to be used adjectively, and must consequently coalesce with 
 the following word. 
 
FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 75 
 
 (consisting of hail, but not belonging to it); and so of 
 other words. 
 
 N. B. These are all mere attempts to illustrate a rule ; 
 but the basis of all the examples must be sought for in the 
 reason of the thing, as indicated by the general rule at the 
 beginning of this chapter. 
 
 4. When the former word denotes the purpose to which 
 the latter is applied, it does not partake of the nature of 
 an adjective, nor can it be turned into one in other lan- 
 guages ; for it in fact represents no quality or property of 
 that noun, as all real adjectives do : it therefore performs 
 no separate function, and must necessarily enter into com- 
 position with the following word, as representing, with it, 
 but one idea. Such words are woodman, lamp-post, ink~ 
 stand, teapot, garden-rake, flowerpot, corkscrew, &c.; which 
 may each be written in one word, or connected by a 
 hyphen : for it must be constantly borne in mind, as I will 
 again remark, once for all, that a hyphen is used only for 
 the purpose of avoiding confusion, or assisting the reader 
 the more easily to see the composition of a word ; and that 
 all words that can properly be joined by a hyphen, may, 
 whenever they become sufficiently common (which is a 
 matter entirely at the discretion of the printer to deter- 
 mine), be united in one word. On the other hand, it is 
 equally certain, that if two words cannot properly be com- 
 bined, neither can they, under the same circumstances, be 
 properly connected by a hyphen. 
 
 5. The present participle, or participial adjective (or 
 rather what, in certain cases, literally appears to be such), 
 is sometimes joined to the following noun, and sometimes 
 is written separate from it. This is a subject which fre- 
 quently puzzles not only many compositors, but even some 
 press-correctors of considerable experience and standing ; 
 yet the matter is quite simple, and the only rule which 
 it is necessary to bear in mind, is one of universal applica- 
 tion, and founded upon the most obvious principles. If 
 
76 FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 the word which appears to be a participle, or participial 
 adjective, is such in fact, that is, if it discharge the func- 
 tion of a word of that character, it can never be properly 
 united with another word ; but if it perform neither of 
 these offices, then it merely helps, with the accompanying 
 noun substantive, to represent but one integral idea ; 
 and therefore the two apparent words required for this 
 purpose form, in fact, but one. We will adduce some 
 examples : ' A working man/ ' a loving woman,' ' an ad- 
 miring child,' ' a biasing fire,' ' the rolling sea.' All these 
 words, and all such as these, are properly kept distinct, 
 whenever an action is implied, or the nature, quality, or 
 condition, for the time being, of the following noun is 
 intended to be designated : in the former of which cases 
 the word will be a participle, and in the latter an ad- 
 jective. But when these words lose that character, as 
 was before said, they become one with the noun to which 
 they have reference, and must consequently be joined with 
 it. Examples in point are: ' A rolling-pin^ i a warming* 
 pan/ a ( printing+pice8& 9 ' ( a (feocAtngr-machine, 9 ' writing-ink^ 
 In the cases here given, and in all similar ones, the first 
 word merely indicates the purpose to which the latter is 
 applied, and does not denote any action in the apparent 
 participle, nor is any inherent or assumed property or 
 quality pointed out by what might seem at first a pure 
 adjective : for ' a rolling-pin' is not a pin which at the 
 time necessarily rolls, nor is a 6 warming-pan.' always in 
 use in performing any warming* operation : and so of the 
 other words. They must, therefore, be either united by a 
 hyphen or written in one word ; but, not performing a 
 separate office, ought never to be seen apart from the 
 accompanying substantive. On the other hand, we may 
 well say of a man on the point of death, that he has 
 
 * This word is here an adjective, and is therefore kept distinct 
 from * operation.' 
 
FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 77 
 
 arrived at his dying day, dying hour, or dying moment ; for 
 these respective portions of time are certainly, to him, 
 dying, or expiring, or terminating. 
 
 6. As all numbers are but the aggregation of certain 
 units, each aggregate representing but one numerical 
 whole, there can be no necessarily valid reason why the 
 numberjftt'e should be written in one word, and the number 
 five thousand in two words. It is only to avoid the con- 
 fusion that would arise from the assemblage of an extra- 
 ordinary number of letters in one word, that has induced 
 most of the nations of modern Europe to write large 
 numbers in several words. This will appear from a few 
 instances. The English write two hundred, three hundred, 
 ten thousand, &c., in separate words, as do the French, 
 Germans, nnd others ; but the Greeks wrote ^LOLKCXTLOI, 
 Tpiatt6(noi, /j.vpioi- and the Latins, ducenti, trecenti, decies 
 mille. Indeed, in numbers higher than ten, the Greeks 
 wrote, almost indifferently in one or more words, nearly 
 all their numbers. Distinctness, then, being the only 
 reason that can be alleged for writing any given number 
 in more than one word, it would appear that the hyphen, 
 which is commonly used by English printers in words 
 from twenty to a hundred, except the even tens, might be 
 dispensed with ; for either these words are too long to be 
 written in continuous succession, or they are not too long, 
 If too long, they should certainly be written in separate 
 words ; but if not too long, then decidedly in one. In 
 either case, the hyphen is entirely unnecessary ; for I have 
 already explained, that any number, however large, repre- 
 sents but one complex idea. As any rule which can be 
 given on this head must be entirely arbitrary, I do not see, 
 as I am the only writer, as far as I know, who has handled 
 this particular subject, why I may not be allowed to state 
 what appears to me to be a convenient system to be 
 adopted by English printers. It is this : that all numbers 
 under a hundred be printed in one word, and all numbers 
 
78 FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 above a hundred in two or more words. Thus : fifteen, 
 twenty five, eighty eight, ninetyseven, three hundred and 
 t went) two, seven thousand five hundred and one, &c. 
 Consequently, I would only introduce the hyphen when 
 there is an inversion of the order in. words which I pro- 
 pose to print in one ; as when we say five-and-twenty 
 instead of twvntyfive : for certainly there is but one aggre- 
 gate number, although our cousins the Germans, in this 
 and similar instances, say, in three words, funfund zwan-* 
 tig, &c. 
 
 7. Fractional numbers should be printed in separate 
 words ; for the numerator of a fraction denotes the 
 number of the parts contained in that fraction, and the 
 denominator, the value of each separate part, or a sub- 
 stantive minor division of some whole, real or imaginary. 
 Each word, therefore, has a separate office ; the nume- 
 rator is always a numeral adjective, but the denominator 
 is a real noun substantive. Hence they can never pro- 
 perly enter into composition, or form but one word. Let 
 us proceed to illustrate this. ' Three fourths' is equiva- 
 lent to ' three fourth - parts,' or ' three fourth - shares ; ' 
 and all words are, pro hdc vice at least, of that part of 
 speech to which they are equivalent in hdc vice. But the 
 word ' fourth' is not here an ordinal adjective, as in its 
 usual acceptation ; for it does not denote the fourth part 
 in order, three of which parts have preceded it ; but, in 
 conjunction with the word which here follows it, but which 
 is generally understood, a certain quantity or unit of a 
 value less by so many times than a certain other unit of 
 a higher denomination. These two apparent words, then, 
 represent but one single quantity, and form, therefore, in 
 fact, but one word ; and should be so printed, or else con- 
 nected by a hyphen, thus; i three fourth-parts.' Again, 
 what clearly shows that the denominator of a fraction 
 represents a real noun substantive, is, that it admits of a 
 plural, which a noun adjective, in English, never does, 
 
FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 79 
 
 "Thus, we may say one fourth, three fourths, ten fourths, 
 a hundred fourths, a thousand fourths, &c. ; which are 
 equivalent to ' one fourth-part,' ' three fourth-parts,' * a 
 hundred fourth-parts? &c.; these compound words being 
 but the representatives of a certain unit, of a value by 
 them defined, in relation to a certain other larger unit. 
 
 To further illustrate my meaning, I will adduce a 
 familiar example. A penny is divided into four parts, 
 and one of these parts is called a farthing. ' Three far- 
 things,' then, are three quarters of a penny, or three 
 fourths, or three fourth-parts, or three parts. Now, 
 ' three' is a pure numeral adjective in all these instances, 
 denoting the number of divisions ; and all the other words 
 perform but one and the same function : they are neces- 
 sarily, then, from what we have above said, all of the 
 same part of speech. But were I to combine these words in 
 the manner nowadays almost universally, but, neverthe- 
 less, erroneously, adopted by English printers, and say, 
 ' three-fourth parts,' the denning word, or numeral adjec- 
 tive, would then be ' three-fourth? and would mean, that a 
 certain unit was divided into parts, each equal to three 
 fourths of itself; which, of course, could never hold of 
 more than one subdivision, and is not what is intended to 
 be expressed ; or that there were several parts of several 
 wholes, each equivalent to three fourths of one of them. 
 From this, the tyro will see the necessity of paying atten- 
 tion to the real character of a word in each instance of its 
 application, and not suppose, that because a word is of a 
 certain part of speech in one given case, it is therefore so 
 in all. 
 
 8. Another ludicrous practice has sprung up of late 
 years ; namely, that of connecting the word a, when it 
 means each, or there is an ellipsis of a preposition, with 
 the noun which follows it. Thus, it is not uncommon to 
 see such a sentence as this : * He sold his corn at ten shil- 
 lings a-bushel.' Now, a bushel is not here an adverb : the 
 
80 FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 farmer did not sell his corn buslielly (if I may coin such a 
 word), and in no other quantities ; but he sold it in 
 various quantities, at the rate of ten shillings for each 
 bushel, or for a bushel. It is an idiomatic, elliptical way 
 of speaking, but by no means an adverbial one, and is 
 expressed in French by the definite article : Le b!6 se 
 vendait a dix francs le boisseau.' And so in other lan- 
 guages. 
 
 The same remarks apply to such words as an hour, a 
 day, a week, a month, a year, an ounce, a hundred, a score, a 
 thousand, a peclc, a quarter, &c. Examples : ' The laborer 
 received a penny an hour, or a shilling a day, or six shil- 
 lings a week, and a suit of clothes once a year, for his 
 wages.' ( Mustard was selling at six pence an ounce, eight 
 shillings a pound, or forty pounds a hundredweight.' 
 
81 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 SYLLABICATION, OR THE PROPER DIVISION 
 OF WORDS. 
 
 WERE the only object of syllabication what in strict- 
 ness it purports to be, namely, to determine what letters 
 represent one sound or emission of the voice, the only 
 matter for the consideration of the printer, when he might 
 have occasion to divide a word at the end of a line, would 
 be to determine what letters entered into each such con- 
 stituent part of the 'word, and to divide it accordingly, 
 without considering what might be its derivation, or how 
 its various parts were etymologically connected. But such 
 is not the practice with English printers, who, for the 
 most part, run into the opposite extreme, and frequently 
 neglect real syllabication, in order that they may display 
 their knowledge of derivation. Perhaps, as in a great 
 many other things, a middle course may be advanta- 
 geously adopted, which, without slavishly conforming to 
 either, may yet not egregiously transgress the one or the 
 other. I will subjoin the rules which are generally given 
 by writers on this subject, and to them I \yill append my 
 own remarks, in which my notion of their propriety or 
 impropriety will be stated at length, with my reasons 
 for approval or disapproval. 
 
 RULE I. If a consonant come between two vowels, it 
 belongs to the latter syllable ; as, a-bove, be-fore, gra-cious, 
 sta-ble. 
 
 G 
 
82 SYLLABICATION, OR THE 
 
 Remark. This rule can admit of no doubt whenever 
 the first syllable is long in quantity, or, although shortj 
 whenever the accent is on the following syllable, as in the 
 two first examples given above ; but if the accent be on 
 the preceding short syllable, then the matter assumes a 
 less simple character, and does not admit of so easy a 
 solution. Thus, in the words reference and disability, where 
 the accented syllables are short, there is no doubt that the 
 consonant is articulated in the same emission of sound 
 with the preceding vowel, and therefore belongs to that 
 syllable, according to the law of syllabication laid down 
 at the commencement of this chapter. But it is also true, 
 that /and I are, in the examples adduced, also articulated 
 in the following syllable ; for, whenever the accent is upon 
 a short vowel, followed by a simple consonant, the articula- 
 tion proper for that consonant must thereby be firmly fixed, 
 and, as a matter of course, whenever the sound in imme- 
 diate succession is a vowel-sound, the emission of that 
 sound must commence with the articulation already formed : 
 for if that law of the Eastern grammarians be not without 
 foundation, that no syllable can, strictly speaking, begin 
 with a pure vowel-sound, how much less can it do so 
 when the organs of speech are strongly fixed in a particu- 
 lar articulation. There is, then, no choice, but the next 
 vowel-sound must be preceded by the resolution of that 
 articulation. To do otherwise would produce a disagree- 
 able hiatus, which, perhaps, may be tolerably executed in 
 singing, but not in pronouncing an articulate-syllable- 
 ending language like the English. Hence it follows, that 
 the simple consonant, following a short accented vowel, 
 and having another vowel after it, is then twice articu- 
 lated, and ought, in strictness, did orthography always 
 correspond with the sounds which it represents, to be twice 
 written. The first syllable, therefore, has really no more 
 claim to the consonant than the following syllable ; and, 
 unless overruled by considerations which will be hereafter 
 
PROrER DIVISION OF WORDS* 83 
 
 noticed, I would not make this an exception to the general 
 rule ; and would therefore divide those words, so far as 
 respects the point under discussion, thus : disabi-lity, re- 
 ference. It is laid down, however, as a rule by many 
 writers, that if the accent be on the antepenultimate 
 syllable, the consonant will belong to that syllable ; as in 
 odorif-erous, suprem-acy, &c. 1 own I can see no more 
 validity for the adoption of it here than in any other 
 accented syllable under the same circumstances ; never- 
 theless it is a distinction generally observed. 
 
 EULE II. If a consonant be doubled, the first will 
 belong to the first syllable, and the last to the following 
 one ; as in im- moderate, con-nivance, bid-ding. 
 
 Remark This rule is invariable, so far MS regards 
 mute consonants at least > as it is utterly impossible to 
 articulate two such letters in one emission of sound* 
 
 KULE III. Two consonants between two vowels must 
 be separated ; as, in-terpret, mis-con-ceive, lan-guage, ob- 
 duracy. 
 
 Remark. This is generally true when both the con- 
 sonants are mutes ; for it is much easier to close a vowel- 
 sound with one articulation, and commence the next sylla- 
 ble with another, than to compress two articulations, as it 
 were, into one, as one might attempt to do in int-erpret, 
 misc-onceive, obd-uracy, and begin the next syllable, after 
 a disagreeable hiatus, almost with a pure vowel-sound. 
 Nevertheless, if the primitive word ends in a compound 
 articulation, its derivatives will also end in the same 
 manner, and must be therefore so divided ; as in siny-ing, 
 ring-ing, young-er, weld-ing, scold-ing ; although finger 
 should be divided^/w-^er : and so of other words not end- 
 ing in their root with the double articulation. But if, in 
 
 G2 
 
84 SYLLABICATION, OR THE 
 
 the body of a word, the second mute be followed by a 
 liquid with which it is capable of easily coalescing, or if 
 a semivowel be followed by a mute and a liquid under the 
 same conditions, then the two or more consonants will 
 belong to the latter syllable ; as may be seen in the words, 
 pa-tron, qua-drature, esta-blish, re-strain. 
 
 Here the objection might be repeated which was ad- 
 duced under Eule I, as to accented short vowels claiming 
 the consonant along with them ; but as I did not suffer 
 that objection to prevail with me there, neither do I think 
 it of sufficient force in the case now under consideration, 
 and would not, therefore, divide in the following manner 
 such words as quad-rangle, estab-lishment. 
 
 ETJLE IV. Whenever a word begins with a prefix, 
 whether a preposition or other particle, that prefix can be 
 separated from the rest of the word, whenever necessary 
 for the purpose of the printer. Examples : de-scribe, per- 
 suade, re-form, inter-est, dis-able, mis-interpret, post-pone, 
 ex-cuse, sub-scribe, cis-alpine, trans-port, sur-charge, in- 
 oculate. But if a letter be omitted, by reason of the pre- 
 fix ending with the same letter as the body of the word 
 begins with, the root part of the word must be kept en- 
 tire, and the letter be lost to the prefix ; as in tran-scribc, 
 (fully, trans-scribe). 
 
 Remark 1. The reason for the foregoing rule is suf- 
 ficiently clear. Whenever we can, we endeavour to pro- 
 nounce the prefix in a distinct syllable ; and as, in 
 addition to this, the division helps to show the com- 
 position of the word, these have been deemed sufficient 
 reasons for the establishment of the rule. It is true, that 
 in this case, as in Eule I, there may be a double articula- 
 tion of a consonant, indicated but once only, and that may 
 come in the first syllable, contrary to the canon there laid 
 down. But this is the exception to which I then alluded, 
 
PUOPER DIVISION OF WORDS. 85 
 
 as being of sufficient force to establish for itself the right 
 to be exempted from its purview. 
 
 Remark 2. A prefix should never be divided from 
 the word with which it enters into composition, if it 
 consist of one letter only, as in e-lope ; neither should 
 an affix, if it consist of not more than two letters, as in 
 wakeful-ly ; because, except in very narrow measures* 
 this can always be avoided with a little attention, and 
 such divisions have at all times an unsightly appearance, 
 
 KULE V. Whenever an affix or termination is added 
 to a word, if the root-word be preserved entire, and be 
 pronounced as in the root, then the allix must be sepa,rated 
 from it in the division of a word ; as, delight-ful, market- 
 able, respect-able conquering t laugh-ing, sick-ness. 
 
 But if the root-word be not preserved entire, or if it be 
 not sounded as in the simple word, then such divisions 
 should be avoided, for they are contradictory. Neverthe- 
 less, if you must divide them, it is preferable to adopt 
 abun-dance, desig-nation (where the sound of the original 
 word is departed from) ; and stri-ving, dri-ving, &c. But 
 it is much better to avoid all such divisions, wherever the 
 primitive has lost its final letter, as in the examples adduced. 
 
 But some printers are so wedded to what they call 
 dividing the terminations from the root, that I have not 
 unfrequently met with such divisions, where the latter 
 part of a word only bore some resemblance to an affix; 
 as, for instance, histor-ian, separ-ate, and many such-like 
 fantasies. 
 
 A question may, perhaps, here arise, as to which sylla- 
 ble of the inflected or derivative word the compound or 
 double final consonant g of the primitive word may be- 
 long ; whether to- the syllable of which it originally formed 
 part, or to the first syllable of the termination. I will 
 endeavour to meet that question. If the preceding vowel 
 is long, the double consonant belongs to the syllable of 
 
86 SYLLABICATION, OR THE 
 
 the termination, as in rd-ging, wa-ging ; because no part 
 of the letter g is then pronounced in the root portion 
 of the word. But if the preceding vowel is short and ac- 
 cented, then part of such compound consonant is articulated 
 in one syllable, and part in another ; as in alleging, pro- 
 nounced nearly as al-led-shing. But as the compound letter 
 is never in those circumstances thus resolved into its con- 
 stituent parts, it must necessarily appear, in the division 
 of words into syllabi es, wholly in one or the other. But 
 as I have before shown that the spelling of such words 
 without a d preceding g is incorrect, I will confine my 
 observations to the proper orthography of words of this 
 description. There can be no doubt, then, that in words 
 of this formation, the letter d is always pronounced in the 
 radical portion of the word, and therefore belongs to it ; 
 but g (or at least a part of it) will belong to the syllable 
 of the affix, if it begin with a vowel, but to the radical, 
 if it commence with a consonant: for although we can 
 combine three articulations at the end of such words as 
 plunge, which is pronounced nearly as plundsh, it does not 
 follow, nor is it the fact, that all three are combined in 
 plunging ; but the word is rather pronounced plun-ging ; 
 which is therefore the correct division. So is it with the 
 letter d before g, as to syllabication at least : for although 
 d necessarily enters into the sound of g soft, yet, as it has 
 here a separate form (though this is solely for the purpose of 
 indicating the short quantity of the preceding vowel), and 
 is pronounced in the syllable of the primitive, and the 
 sihilant portion of g is not. I prefer, if I must perforce 
 divide such words, to do it thus, pled-ging jud-ging ; yet 
 such divisions of words ought to be altogether avoided, if 
 possible. But, as before remarked, if the affix begins with 
 a consonant, the two portions of the word are properly 
 kept distinct in syllabication. Hence we rightly divide 
 judge-ment, acknowledgement, abridge-ment, according to* 
 their actual pronunciation. 
 
PROPER DIVISION OF WORDS. 87 
 
 The preceding rules and observations are intended to 
 apply to English words only ; but they are not applicable 
 to all languages. The Germans conform pretty strictly to 
 the principle laid down in the introductory remarks of 
 this chapter, taking very little account of affixes, or pre- 
 fixes, or anything of the kind, if they interfere with the 
 actual syllabication. Again, in Greek, Latin, Italian, and 
 other languages, they are frequently inapplicable : for 
 these are vowel-ending languages, in a far greater degree 
 than the English, which may not improperly be styled 
 a consonant-ending tongue. Therefore, when any assem- 
 blage of consonants can be amalgamated in a kind of 
 compound articulation, these languages will begin a syl- 
 lable with them, even if a short pause be required for the 
 purpose, and close the preceding one with a vowel. 
 
 As works in Latin are frequently reprinted in this 
 country, and quotations made continually from Latin 
 authors, and press-eorrectors and compositors will not 
 unfrequently find that editors insist upon the Latin 
 method of division being adhered to ; for the benefit of 
 the unlearned in these matters, I will transcribe the words 
 of no mean authority on this subject.* He says : 
 
 "I. When a consonant happens to be between two 
 vowels, it must always be .put with the last, as a-mor, 
 le-go, &c. 
 
 " II. If the same consonant be doubled, the first shall 
 belong to the former syllable, and the second to the latter, 
 as an-nus, flam-ma. 
 
 "III. Consonants that cannot be joined in the begin- 
 ning of a word, generally speaking, are not joined together 
 in the middle, as ar-duus, por-cus. Though there are some 
 examples of the contrary in Greek, as e'xfy^s, liostis. 
 
 "IV. But consonants that maybe joined together in 
 the beginning of a word, ought also to be joined in the 
 middle, without parting them. And Kamus asserts that 
 
 * Port Royal Latin Grammar, vol, ii, p. 290, Eng. trans, 
 
88 
 
 SYLLABICATION, OR THE 
 
 to act otherwise is committing a barbarism. Therefore we 
 ought to join 
 
 bdellium. 
 
 K/j.e\e6pa, tabes 
 
 Cneus 
 
 Ctesiphon 
 
 gnatus 
 
 Mnemosyne 
 
 phthisis 
 
 psittacus 
 
 Ptolemseus 
 
 bd. 
 
 he-bdomus ^ 
 
 cm. 
 
 Pyra-cmon 
 
 en. 
 
 te-chna 
 
 ct. 
 
 do-ctus 
 
 gn. 
 
 a- gnus 
 
 mn. 
 
 o-mnis 
 
 phth. 
 
 na-phtha 
 
 ps. 
 
 scri-psi 
 
 pt. 
 
 a-ptus 
 
 sb. 
 
 Le-sbia 
 
 sc. 
 
 pi-scis 
 
 
 
 
 sm. 
 
 Co -sinus 
 
 sp. 
 
 a-sper 
 
 sq. 
 
 te-squa 
 
 St. 
 
 pa-stor 
 
 tl. 
 
 A-tlas 
 
 tm. 
 
 La-tmius 
 
 in. 
 
 ^E-tna 
 
 because we say \ 
 
 scamnum 
 
 smaragdus 
 
 spes 
 
 squama 
 
 sto 
 
 Tlepolemus 
 
 Tmolus 
 
 " Exception to this Rule. 
 
 "Words compounded of prepositions are an exception 
 to this rule, since in these we must ever separate the 
 compounding particle, as in-ers, ab-esse, abs-trusus, ab- 
 domen, dis-corSj &c. 
 
 "And the same judgment we ought to form of o 
 compounds, as juris-consultus, alter-uter, amphis-bcena, et- 
 enim, &c." 
 
 In these latter respects, the system of division agrees 
 with the English ; and for the same reason ; because, in 
 these instances, we generally endeavour to show, both by 
 pronunciation and on paper, what are the constituent 
 parts of a compound word. But the combination of con- 
 sonants at the commencement of a syllable seems repug- 
 nant to our notions of propriety. This arises, however, 
 from the fact which I before noticed : the Latin endea- 
 vours to end its syllables with a full vowel-sound, where- 
 ever this is not interfered with by the composition of the 
 
PROPER DIVISION OF WORDS. 89 
 
 word ; whereas the English chooses rather to end with a 
 consonant, if preceded by a short accented vowel, and to 
 begin again with the next consonant. The first is much 
 more sonorous, and therefore better adapted to music ; 
 but the latter is more energetic and forcible, and therefore 
 suited to oratory. 
 
 The system of division in Greek is the same as in 
 Latin and Italian. The author of an excellent Greek 
 Grammar, in French,* thus lays down the rule ; which I 
 give in his own words, as they will no doubt be perfectly 
 understood by all those to whom a knowledge of Greek 
 syllabication is at all a matter of interest : 
 
 " Les consonnes qui s'unissent au commencement d'un 
 mot s'unissent 'aussi au milieu ; ainsi, comme on dit 
 ipdovos, envie, en faisant une syllabe de q>06, on dira egale- 
 ment &<j)9oi>os, exempt denvie, ainsi divise &-<$>Qo~vos. C'est 
 d'apres ce principe que nous avons divise [in a preceding 
 page] les mots deja cites, 6-Kr6. 6 ySoos, -x#os, etc." And to 
 the same purport say all other grammarians. 
 
 Now, there is nothing unnatural or difficult in this, 
 only that, as it appears to me, a short pause must be made 
 before some of the combinations of consonants, as the 
 Italians of the present day do in certain cases. Were the 
 English to do so occasionally, our pronunciation would 
 sometimes be much more effective, and would oft better 
 convey the real meaning of our words. For we should 
 then say, di-phtTiong, tri-phtkong, geo-graphy, apo-strophe, 
 apo-stasy, &c., in accordance with the true composition 
 of the words. 
 
 * Methode pour etudier la Langue Greeque, par J. L. Burnouf, 
 p. 7. 
 
90 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 SECT. 1. Preliminary Observations. 
 
 OF all the subjects which engage the attention of the 
 press-corrector and the compositor, none proves a greater 
 stumbling-block, or is so much a matter of uncertainty 
 and doubt, as the Art of Punctuation. This partly arises 
 from the necessarily somewhat inexact nature of the art 
 itself, but far more from an ignorance of the foundation on 
 which its rules ought to be based, and the illogical and 
 ungrammatical construction of sentences. In the latter 
 case, it is utterly impossible to punctuate artistically, it is 
 a mere matter of guess-work : a liberal use of dashes will 
 thereby be necessitated, a sure sign except in very ani- 
 mated or impassioned discourses either of confusion in 
 the mind of the writer, or of the printer's inability to 
 understand his meaning. 
 
 Some have denned punctuation as the " art of pointing 
 written composition in such a manner as may naturally 
 lead to its proper meaning, construction, and delivery;" 
 others, as "the art of marking in writing the several 
 pauses, or rests, between sentences, and the parts of sen- 
 tences, according to their proper quantity or proportion, 
 as they are expressed in a just and accurate pronun- 
 ciation ;" but as I think, better by others, as " the art of 
 dividing a literary composition into sentences, and parts of 
 sentences, by means of points, for the purpose of exhibit- 
 
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 91 
 
 ing the various combinations, connections, and dependen- 
 cies of words." However, I am not much inclined to cavil 
 at any of these definitions. But when we come to examine 
 the means which the authors of Printers' Guides, Hand- 
 books, &c., have prescribed for the attainment of this 
 desirable object, all is confusion or confessed empiricism, 
 nothing like science or art is pretended to. And if we go 
 beyond the members of our immediate profession, and 
 search the works of those whose object it was to treat this 
 subject in a didactic manner, with very few exceptions, 
 our labor will not be bestowed to much better purpose. 
 
 Like everything else, if we would master the groiind- 
 work of this science or art, we must begin at the beginning. 
 The neglect of tliis necessary and all-important rule, and 
 the desire of rushing in medias res, before the way has 
 been cleared of the obstructions which beset its entrance, 
 have muinly produced the confusion which pervades most 
 minds on the subject of punctuation. For these reasons I 
 would fain bespeak the attention of the reader, and more 
 especially of the young printer, to the following pre- 
 liminary remarks, which lie at the root of the matter. 
 
 If we consider the nature of language, oral or written, 
 we find that it is the vehicle for the communication of our 
 ideas to our fellow-men, by means of certain sounds, signs, 
 or symbols, to which an arbitrary but generally understood 
 meaning is attached. Now, an idea is a pure conception of 
 the mind ; and the number of our ideas is the measure of 
 our knowledge : but, kept in our own breasts, and uncom- 
 inunicated to others, knowledge is comparatively useless ; 
 its great advantage consisting in the benefit which man- 
 kind derives from the mutual interchange of ideas. But 
 before any such communication can be made, we must 
 form an internal judgement as to some particular relation 
 which some idea, of which we have formed a conception, 
 bears to some other idea, or else to itself. The mental 
 
92 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 determination of this relation constitutes a thought; and 
 expressed thoughts is language. 
 
 The longest sentence that can be formed is but an 
 assemblage of affirmations of mentally predetermined 
 thoughts, having a certain mutual relation or dependence 
 in grammatical construction. Hence, the art of punc- 
 tuation would plainly appear to consist in the deter- 
 mination of rules for measuring the various degrees of 
 affinity or dependence subsisting between our thoughts 
 when expressed in writing, and apportioning to each its 
 proper symbol or character ; that thus the reader might be 
 enabled to enter as it were into the mind of the writer, 
 catch his spirit, and consequently pausn the requisite time 
 between the enunciation of each thought, even as the writer 
 himself would pause in uttering his own words. 
 
 On this basis, could the affinities of our connected 
 thoughts be strictly adjusted, and the laws for measuring 
 those affinities be determined with accuracy, we might 
 rear a solid superstructure, worthy the name of a science ; 
 which could be exactly applied at all times ; which would 
 remove the stigma of empiricism which now too generally 
 attaches to the practice of the art of punctuation ; and 
 which would enable the writer so to marshal his thoughts 
 before his reader's eye, that he could never misunderstand 
 his meaning, if he but understood the signification of the 
 words employed. But so varied are our thoughts, so mul- 
 tiform their degrees of dependence, and so few the symbols 
 we employ to denote them, that any attempt to arrive at 
 absolute accuracy must be abandoned as impracticable. 
 Nevertheless, making the basis above adverted to our 
 guide, we may approach to this accuracy ; and if we cannot 
 symbolically distinguish every shade of difference, we shall 
 not at least grope wholly in the dark, as has been but too 
 often the practice ; we shall have the guidance of a 
 rational conductor, though not at all times, the infallible 
 one we might desire. 
 
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 93 
 
 It will therefore be necessary, before giving any rules 
 as to the placing of the points themselves, to form a clear 
 notion of the logical construction of sentences ; for without 
 this knowledge it is impossible either to write or to punc- 
 tuate correctly. Let the tyro therefore observe, 
 
 I. 
 
 No affirmation can be made concerning any idea of 
 which the mind is cognisant, but by showing its relation 
 to some other idea, or else to itself : for as an idea is but 
 a mental perception, or pure knowing, it is clear, that in 
 communicating any knowledge of that idea to another, we 
 must affirm something of it, either with respect to itself or 
 to some other idea; because there remains nothing else 
 within the compass of our minds of which anything can be 
 affirmed. This affirmation of a thought constitutes a pro- 
 position. It cannot consist of less than three parts : the 
 idea of which anything is affirmed; the affirming word, 
 which expresses the relation; and the idea to which the 
 principal one stands in relation. - Yet, notwithstanding 
 that the simplest proposition inherently comprises three 
 parts, all those parts may be expressed by one or more 
 words. The main idea of a proposition is denominated the 
 subject; the affirming word is designated the copula, 
 because it unites the two substantive ideas; and that idea 
 towards which the relation, tends, is commonly called the 
 predicate, object, or complement of the proposition. The 
 following may be taken as examples : 
 
 Peter admires paintings. 
 
 Man thinks. 
 
 Love. 
 
 In the first proposition, the word 'Peter* is the sub- 
 ject : it represents to the mind a certain substantive idea, 
 of which I am desirous of communicating some knowledge, 
 which I have already mentally determined to be subsist- 
 
94 ON PUNCTUATION* 
 
 ing with respect to it. The word by which I do this is 
 the verb ' admires.' The verb, therefore, is the affirming 
 word in all propositions, it is the word which expresses 
 the relation subsisting between the connected ideas ; and 
 without a verb, expressed or understood, no assertion can, 
 be made, nor, consequently, any knowledge be communi- 
 cated. ' Paintings ' expresses the object towards which the 
 action of the verb tends as its complement. 
 
 Take the next example : 'Man thinks.' Here the sub* 
 ject is 'man,' and the affirming word is ' thinks.' But 
 there is no object or complement expressed; yet there 
 is one understood. What does man think ? Evidently, 
 thoughts. Thoughts^ then, may be regarded as the com- 
 plement of the proposition ; or the object may be identical 
 with the subject: Man is (as to himself) a thinking 
 being. 
 
 Again, let us consider the last example, ' Love.' Here 
 the word of relation (that is, the' verb) only is expressed ; 
 but a subject necessarily exists, who commands the act, 
 and an object, towards which his volition tends ; and 
 therefore there is a complete proposition or affirmation 
 expressed or implied.* 
 
 II. 
 
 A thought being the mental determination of the re- 
 lation subsisting between one or more ideas, it necessarily 
 follows, that an expressed thought, or affirmation, can 
 
 * In propounding a proposition, it is not necessary that the 
 words be arranged in any particular order ; the fact will be the 
 same, whether the subject comes first or last ; and so with any 
 other of the constituent parts of the proposition. The custom of 
 each language is that alone which must determine the place of its 
 words. The order of subject, predicate, and object, is generally 
 called the natural order ; but there is nothing of nature in it ; only 
 the prevailing custom of so arranging words in the English 
 language causes us to regard it as apparently a thing settled 
 by nature. 
 
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 95 
 
 never be less than a proposition ; for, as We have already 
 seen, no affirmation can be made, unless by words com- 
 prehending all the parts of such a proposition, either ex- 
 pressed or implied. But an affirmation may comprehend 
 much more than a bare simple proposition ; for each of its 
 essentially constituent parts may have various accidents 
 attached to it, and yet each part will represent but one 
 complex idea in the mind ; and there will consequently 
 be but one affirmation. Example : ' The industrious man 
 performs his daily labor diligently? 
 
 Further : two ideas may be joined in each part of a 
 proposition, provided they be congruous and admit of ap- 
 parent union ; and yet there will be but one affirmation. 
 Thus : The rich-and-the-poor suffer-and-enjoy evil-and- 
 good. Here are two members to each constituent part of 
 the proposition ; but they are combined by a conjunction, 
 and constitute, as it were, a united subject seeking a com- 
 bined object by a conjoined relation : they express, there- 
 fore, but one thought. 
 
 III. 
 
 A sentence may be the expression of one thought only, 
 or it may comprise the affirmation of several thoughts, in 
 some way connected or dependent the one upon the other. 
 The first is a simple sentence ; the last a compound one. 
 The following may be taken as an example of a compound 
 sentence : 
 
 " Supposing the matter of these transgressions to be ever 
 so small in. its own nature, yet the moral characters of men 
 become stained and bloated by their frequent accumulations ; 
 just as so many ulcers, w T hen allowed to form and spread, will 
 grow by degrees into a great disease, and contaminate the 
 whole frame." BLAIR. 
 
 IT. 
 
 One affirmation can never contain more than one inde- 
 pendent verb, although, as we have before seen, two verbs 
 
96 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 may be united by a conjunction in the same affirmation, if 
 they indicate, as it were, a combined or an indifferent 
 action. , For, as each independent verb expresses a dis- 
 tinct relation, that is of itself a complete affirmation. 
 Nevertheless, one verb, especially one in the infinitive 
 mood, may become the complement of another verb, either 
 really or presumedly ; and in that case the two verbs will 
 constitute but one affirmation, or express but one thought. 
 Examples: John loves to read* (real object). -'The 
 constable threatened that he would take him up* (presumed 
 direct object).* 
 
 Y. 
 
 In the expression of one thought or affirmation (for I 
 shall use the words indifferently) no mark of interpunc- 
 tion can be required ; for as the mind proceeds but in one 
 direction, if I may so speak, in the contemplation of one 
 relation subsisting betwixt our ideas, and makes no de- 
 flection in other directions, no point can be required to 
 denote what has not taken place ; namely, a pause in the 
 progress of the mind's operation. 
 
 VI. 
 
 As soon as the mind diverges from the contemplation 
 of some certain relation subsisting between our ideas, 
 towards another relation, and to other objects, then a 
 mark of punctuation becomes necessary; but not before. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Did language contain no connecting particles, nor any 
 words significative of a dependence of one affirmation 
 upon another affirmation, each proposition would consti- 
 
 * I say here, " presumed direct object ;" because it is not so in 
 fact : and hence the Germans invariably put a comma before all 
 such clauses introduced by a conjunction. But this would be too 
 stiff for general adoption in English, 
 
SYMBOLS USED IN PUNCTUATION. 97 
 
 tube an independent thought, which could not be gram- 
 matically connected with any other thought, and would 
 therefore constitute a complete sentence. In that case, but 
 one point would be required, namely, the full-stop, to 
 show the close of each affirmation. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 But by the use of connecting particles, and of words 
 significative of dependence or affinity, a sentence may be 
 formed of any length, as the taste or discretion of the 
 writer may determine ; the various constituent thoughts 
 of which may be connected in different degrees of affinity. 
 
 The consideration of these affinities necessarily brings 
 us to the investigation of the marks used by printers to 
 denote them ; and this will form the subject of the fol- 
 lowing section. 
 
 SECT. 2. The Symbols used in Punctuation. 
 
 To denote the different degrees of affinity in which our 
 thoughts are combined, or the relative dependence they 
 have on one another, certain characters have been de- 
 vised, which are commonly called points. They are, 
 
 1. The comma [ , ]. This sign is employed for the 
 purpose of showing that the two affirmations between 
 which it is placed are immediately connected by a con- 
 junction, or that the latter flows from, or directly depends 
 upon, the former. 
 
 2. The semicolon [ ; ]. This point shows that the 
 two affirmations between which it is placed are not ini 
 mediately connected by a conjunction, or that the latter 
 does not directly flow from, or depend upon, the former 
 affirmation, although there is a mere remote connection 
 or dependence between them. 
 
 3. The colon [ : ] denotes a dependence or affinity still 
 further removed, or, where the relation is that proper 
 
98 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 for the semicolon, the omission of the connecting par- 
 ticle between the affirmations. There is, in all cases where 
 a colon can be placed, some dependence or affinity existing, 
 in construction or by implication. 
 
 4. The period or full-stop [ . ] signifies that the affirm- 
 ation which it closes, has no connection, in grammatical 
 construction, with the one that follows : in short, that the 
 sense is complete. 
 
 There are some other symbols generally regarded as 
 marks of punctuation ; but as they are not strictly such, 
 but rather signs adopted for the purposes of elocution, 
 they will be noticed in another place. 
 
 An investigation of the question as to who were the 
 inventors of those symbols, and at what time they first 
 came into use, would be a work of much labor and of but 
 very little profit, as the learned themselves are far from 
 agreed on the point. But however uncertain these matters 
 may be, there can be no doubt of the utility of point- 
 marks when judiciously employed, and their advantage in 
 more clearly denoting the meaning of the writer. 
 
 SECT. 3. On the Nature of Sentences, and the Combination 
 of Propositions. 
 
 Having already thrown out hints as to the true natur 
 of the art of punctuation, and explained the symbols 
 employed in its elucidation, it may perhaps be expected 
 that I should now enter upon the subject in detail ; but 
 have yet something further, of a more general nature, to 
 submit to the reader's notice, before I can proceed with 
 the particulars illustrative of each individual point ; as, 
 after all, the statement of these particulars will be little 
 more than an elaboration of the principles I have before 
 laid down, or of those which I am now about to enume- 
 rate. 
 
NATURE OF SENTENCES, ETC. 99 
 
 In addition, then, to what has been before said, it may 
 be further remarked, 
 
 I. 
 
 That a long sentence may consist of several simple 
 affirmations, without any conditional clause attached to 
 any of them ; and that, consequently, all these affirmations 
 may stand in the same relation to each other, and hence 
 require to be separated by the same point : but if a con- 
 dition be attached to any affirmation, that addition can 
 hardly stand in the same relation to the affirmation from 
 which it depends, and to another affirmation, on which it 
 does not depend ; and must therefore, in general, be parted 
 from it by a stronger point. 
 
 II. 
 
 Whenever the connecting word is omitted between two 
 affirmations, and those affirmations are still intended to 
 bear the relation which the conjunctive particle would 
 have indicated, such omission is equivalent to a step in 
 punctuation, and therefore mostly calls for a point a degree 
 stronger than would have been employed had such con- 
 necting particle been inserted. 
 
 To illustrate my meaning, I will adduce examples. 
 
 1. Simple affirmations connected by the same particle : 
 The cattle walk, and the birds fly, and the fishes swim. 
 
 Here, the three affirmations are simple propositions, and 
 they are also connected by a conjunctive particle : they 
 therefore stand in the same relation to each other, and 
 are separated by the same point. 
 
 2. Affirmations with a condition annexed : 
 
 Man is ever seeking after variety, that he may satisfy his 
 manifold aspirations ; but he never attains to perfect fruition, 
 because his desires are infinite. 
 
 Here, the first affirmation has a clause dependent upon 
 it : tn is clause, therefore, is separated by a stronger point 
 H 2 
 
100 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 from the following affirmation, than it is from the affirma- 
 tion upon which it depends. 
 
 3. Affirmations with the connecting particle omitted : 
 The cattle walk ; the birds fly ; and the fishes swim. 
 
 Here a semicolon is used to part all the affirmations, 
 although, in the first example, a comma was the point 
 employed, when the connecting particle was inserted 
 betwixt each proposition. The reason is, that, the par- 
 ticle being omitted, a link of the connection of the mem- 
 bers of the sentence is broken : a longer pause is hence 
 necessitated, and the consequent employment of a stronger 
 point. The same point is preserved between the second 
 and third propositions, although the connecting particle 
 is there inserted. This is, because the third proposition 
 stands in no closer relation to the second than to the first ; 
 and the affinity of the first and the second having been 
 before determined, that of the second and third necessarily 
 follows the same ratio : the connecting particle is here 
 added more for the purpose of aiding an easy delivery, 
 than for the sake of indicating any closer degree of affinity. 
 
 Of course, this principle can be extended to other 
 points ; but the examples given are sufficient for illus- 
 tration. Let us now proceed to show how it happens that 
 several propositions can be condensed into one affirmation. 
 
 The proposition * The miser loves money,' is a complete 
 affirmation, and, as it stands here, also a complete sentence. 
 The same may be affirmed of the proposition ' The miser 
 hates generosity/ But if we wish to destroy this inde- 
 pendence of construction, it is evident, either that we 
 must use some word as a substitute for the subject of the 
 second proposition, or else employ a word of connection, 
 which would necessarily denote that the two affirmations 
 were no longer independent, but stood in a certain de- 
 pendent relation the one to the other ; or, we might even 
 adopt both these methods. 
 
NATURE OF SENTENCES, ETC. 101 
 
 I will reproduce the abovo examples "in a' uoimeciked' 
 form. 
 
 The miser loves money he hates generosity. 
 
 Now, what degree of relation or connection is here 
 established between these two affirmations 1 They were 
 independent in their separate form : how are they related 
 now? A substitute (the pronoun 'he') takes the place of 
 the subject (' miser') of the second "proposition, which of 
 itself has no meaning ; but by the force of custom it is 
 made to stand for some other word which does represent 
 an idea, solely that we may thereby be enabled to avoid 
 the disagreeable tautology of continually repeating the 
 same word. Hence it appears, that we have advanced 
 but one step from an independent construction, and con- 
 sequently, the point to be employed on this occasion ought 
 also to be removed but one degree from that which denotes 
 an entirely Independent construction. This point is the 
 colon. The sentence will therefore correctly stand, 
 
 The miser loves money : he hates generosity. 
 
 If, in addition to the substituted subject, we also in- 
 troduce a word of connection, it is clear that we shall draw 
 the bonds of affinity between the two affirmations still 
 closer, and shall therefore require a still weaker point. 
 We shall then have, 
 
 The miser loves money ; and he hates generosity. 
 
 Note. It will be observed in this example, that when 
 a substituted subject is used in the second affirmation, 
 a semicolon is required ; but had this pronoun represented 
 a subject different from that of the first proposition, then 
 a comma would have sufficed. The reason is obvious. 
 1 He ' would then have represented a different idea, sup- 
 posed to be known to the reader, without reference to 
 the subject of the first proposition. Two real propositions, 
 each having its proper subject, would then have been 
 
102 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 expressed, joinecl "by i, word. denoting the closest of affinities, 
 and therefore requiring the weakest point. But in the 
 instance adduced, two propositions with different subjects 
 are not connected : the mind, in the second case, is thrown 
 back on the first for its subject ; and therefore the reader 
 or speaker must raake a longer pause while reverting to 
 the first-mentioned subject. It is useful to bear this 
 distinction in mind, and to know that ' The miser loves 
 money ; and he hates generosity, 'is not the same in mean- 
 ing as ( The miser loves money, and he [meaning somebody 
 else] hates generosity.' 
 
 To connect the two propositions still more closely, and 
 thereby necessitate the adoption of a still weaker point than 
 a semicolon, as the meaning of the sentence would be very 
 well understood without the repetition of the bastard sub- 
 ject in the second affirmation, we will leave it out, and thus 
 still further decrease the independence of construction. A 
 comma will then be the proper point. 
 
 The miser loves money, and hates generosity. 
 
 Such sentences as these, where the two verbs denote two 
 incongruous relations, can never be drawn into one affirma- 
 tion ; because that would be contradictory in its very terms : 
 and we have before seen, that the expression of each rela- 
 tion of the subject is the affirmation of a distinct thought. 
 But had there been but one relation expressed, or even two 
 congruous relations, admitting of an imaginary or real com- 
 bination, then the two propositions might have been made 
 to constitute but one affirmation. For instance, had the 
 sentences been, 'The miser loves gold The miser loves 
 silver,' they might, as there is but one relation predicated 
 of the subject, by adopting tlie process above exhibited, 
 have been combined into one sentence, forming not more 
 than one affirmation, although still containing the two pro- 
 positions ; and we should then have had, * The miser loves 
 old and silver.' 
 
NATURE OF SENTENCES, ETC. 103 
 
 Or, had the sentences been, ' The miser loves gold 
 The miser admires gold/ they might still have been 
 compressed into one affirmation ; because, although it may 
 be true that there are two different relations expressed, 
 yet the ideas they convey are of a like nature : they are 
 congruous, and easily combine in one homogeneous action. 
 Consequently, we can very properly say, ' The miser loves 
 and admires gold/ without separating the propositions by 
 any point. 
 
 This must constantly be borne in mind, that wherever 
 there is incongruity of idea in the relations expressed, 
 there is more than one affirmation or thought ; and con- 
 sequently, between each proposition there must intervene 
 some point : but if the relations be congruous, or of a like 
 nature, arid the propositions be simple, then two or more 
 propositions may be combined in one affirmation ; and no 
 intervening point-mark will then be necessary. 
 
 I say, two or more such propositions may be combined 
 in one affirmation; yet this cannot always be the case: 
 for if each verb has a different object, it is clear that there 
 are two relations of the subject expressed, one towards 
 the object of each proposition. For instance, ' The miser 
 loves gold, and admires usury.' Therefore, in all cases 
 of this sort, a point must separate each affirmation ; . that 
 is, each relation of the subject to each object. But since, 
 in the instance quoted, the two relations are congruous, 
 nay, nearly synonymous, they might well be combined 
 in one homogeneous relation, having both the objects for 
 its complements ; and then the* two propositions would 
 constitute but one affirmation, and would require no point 
 to part them. We should then have, ' The miser loves and 
 admires gold and silver.' 
 
 Similarly, as two congruous relations may be united in 
 one affirmation, and two objects made unitedly to receive 
 this combined action, so may two subjects be also joined, 
 to stand in an equal degree in a simple or combined 
 
104 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 relation to one object, or to two objects, receiving in an 
 equal ratio the action of the verbs. Example : 
 
 The brave man and the coward both dread and abhor the 
 thought of annihilation. 
 
 Again, let it be observed, that the two subjects must 
 unite in the action, which must proceed, with respect to 
 them, paripassu; for if it does not, there is evidently not 
 one and the same relation expressed of each subject, but 
 a different relation; and this being so, there must be a 
 point, to denote that difference. For instance, in the 
 example given, had it been intended to affirm that the 
 brave man views the thought of annihilation with a less 
 degree of dread and fear than the coward, special words 
 ought to have been introduced to that effect, which would 
 consequently have prevented the formation of one com- 
 bined or united action. 
 
 SECT. 4. Of the Adjuncts of Propositions, and of Separable 
 and Inseparable Subordinate Propositions. 
 
 We have already seen how several simple propositions 
 come to be united in one affirmation : we will next inquire 
 how it happens that several adjuncts may be combined 
 with each essential constituent part of a proposition, and 
 yet that such proposition, or even more than one, may 
 still comprehend no more than one affirmation. Afterwards, 
 we will proceed to examine how the action of a verb 
 can be extended to objects other than those on which it 
 immediately falls, without exceeding the limits of one 
 affirmation ; as also some other modes of extending the 
 scope of an affirmation. 
 
 I. 
 
 As we had occasion to remark in another place, the 
 subject, the relation- word, and the complement of a 
 
ADJUNCTS OF PROPOSITIONS, ETC. 105 
 
 proposition, may each have modifying words attached to 
 them, and yet the proposition in which they are found, 
 may constitute but one affirmation. Example : 
 
 The good man sincerely loves his neighbor. 
 
 Here, the adjuncts, or modifying words, good, sincerely, 
 and his, do not express independent ideas, nor indicate 
 more than one relation : they merely denote a quality acci- 
 dental to the words to which they are attached, rendering 
 the ideas more complex, but not increasing their number ; 
 for did the copiousness of our language furnish us with 
 appropriate words to denote these modifications in their 
 combined state, no more words would be used than in a 
 simple proposition. We may approach this sentiment by 
 the words ' Bonus peramat vicmum.' Hence, but one 
 affirmation is propounded; and consequently no point is 
 required to separate its parts. 
 
 II. 
 
 / Not only can simple propositions receive an adjunct 
 to each of their constituent members, but compound pro- 
 positions are also capable of receiving like modifications, 
 without still exceeding the limits of one affirmation ; 
 providing there be but one relation, simple or combined, 
 expressed. Example : 
 
 The idle man and his careless wife ate and drank their 
 whole substance. 
 
 Here, although two verbs are used, yet their action 
 is combined in one congruous relation, meaning that they 
 consumed their whole substance. There is, then, but one 
 thought enunciated, or one conjoint affirmation. 
 
 III. 
 
 The action of a verb can be conveyed to a remote ob- 
 ject by means of a preposition, and yet this will express 
 
106 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 but one relation, and consequently but one affirmation. 
 Example : 
 
 The man planted a tree in the garden. 
 
 Here is but one action, that of planting ; and this 
 action is only extended beyond its immediate object, not 
 varied from it. Consequently, no point-mark can be 
 required to denote any deviation of the original relation ; 
 because no such deviation is affirmed. 
 
 As was observed before, and may not perhaps be again 
 uselessly noted, the order in which the words may happen 
 to be placed, cannot necessarily have any influence in 
 varying the relation expressed, nor, consequently, of in- 
 creasing the number of affirmations ; providing there is 
 but one action, simple or combined, intended. Hence, the 
 foregoing sentence might have stood thus : 
 
 In the garden the man planted a tree ; or, 
 A tree in the garden the man planted ; or, 
 The man in the garden planted a tree. 
 
 For in all these cases the same notion is expressed, and 
 the arrangement of the words is optional with the writer, 
 who generally follows the prevailing idiom of the language 
 in which he composes, according to his notion of per- 
 spicuity or harmony. The mere fact of a longer pause 
 being required between some words than others, can 
 exercise no influence on the number of relations expressed ; 
 for the variation of pause between the words of the same 
 thought is a matter of rhetoric and feeling, but punctuation 
 depends entirely upon the variation of relation, upon 
 logical and grammatical principles. And although it may 
 be true, that no point ought to be placed where no pause 
 takes place, yet the converse does not hold ; for the style 
 of writing employed may not unfrequently demand a pause 
 where no point can with propriety be used. 
 
ADJUNCTS OF PROPOSITIONS, ETC. 107 
 
 IY. 
 
 The instrumentality through which the relation is 
 effected may also be added to a proposition, without in- 
 creasing the number of affirmations. Example : 
 
 The master beat the scholar with a strap. 
 
 For as some instrument must be employed in effecting 
 most actions, the addition of this instrument to the pro- 
 position does not necessarily increase the number of 
 relations of the subject with its objects, nor, consequently, 
 can it per se affect the punctuation. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Not only can a verb be followed by its direct comple- 
 ment and the instrumental efficient of action, without 
 exceeding the limits of one affirmation, but the action 
 may be modified in any other manner, and the operation 
 of the verb be extended, or not, to a remoter object, and 
 yet with the same effect. Example : 
 
 The man planted a tree in the garden with his own hands. 
 The sailors waded through the river to the opposite bank. 
 
 But if the modifying or extending word be merely added 
 as explanatory information, and not as a necessary part 
 of the modification or extension of one action, then a 
 comma would be required ; because, then, two relations 
 would be intended. Hence it appears, that no verb can 
 be followed by two prepositions, with their cases, without 
 the intervention of a comma, if a separate relation be 
 intended to be expressed as to each of these remote 
 objects. For instance, 
 
 I paid the money into the hands of the banker, in three 
 different payments. 
 
 The man planted a tree in the garden, near the south 
 wall. 
 
108 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 The result of all this is, that we must always, in such 
 cases, bear in mind, whether it is the intention of the 
 writer to express two separate relations, or only an 
 extension or modification of one relation, and to punctuate 
 accordingly. 
 
 Further, two prepositions with their complements may 
 follow a verb, without any point being required, when the 
 one is used with some other word as a mere adverbial 
 qualification. Example : 
 
 The letters were sent by mail to Southampton. 
 
 In this case, the words ' by mail' merely denote the 
 manner of sending, and therefore constitute a mere ad- 
 verbial modification of the words ' were sent.' No fresh 
 relation of the subject is indicated, and consequently no 
 point is required. 
 
 VI. 
 
 The action 'of an intransitive verb can never fall upon 
 a direct object, unless that object be of cognate meaning ; 
 as, ' I think thoughts ;' * He lives a life of pain.' But if 
 such action does purport, in words, to fall upon a direct 
 complement which is not of cognate meaning, that object 
 is the indirect complement, to which tire action of the 
 verb is conveyed by means of a preposition understood. 
 Example : 
 
 John Levett ran John Jackson. 
 
 Here, the action of running purports to fall directly on 
 the complement, ' John Jackson. ' But this is not the 
 case in fact. So far as the act of Levett's running was 
 concerned, it was confined to himself alone, and never 
 directly affected his opponent : he merely ran with him, 
 against him, or in opposition to him. 
 
 A means of knowing whether the action falls directly 
 on the object, or not, is to try whether that action can be 
 
ADJUNCTS OF PROPOSITIONS, ETC. 109 
 
 extended further by means of a preposition. If it can, 
 then the verb is transitive ; if it can not, then the verb is 
 intransitive. Thus, in the example, 'The gallant fellow 
 conveyed his companion from the field of battle on his 
 shoulders,' the action of the verb is extended from its im- 
 mediate object, l his comrade,' by means of a preposition, 
 to the scene on which it took place, ' the field of battle.' 
 Such verb is therefore transitive. But in the sentence, 
 * I believe your proposition,' the action of the verb can be 
 carried no further; for although we may add, 'in its full 
 extent,' this is a modification of the object, and not an 
 extension of the action of the verb. The verb * believe' is 
 therefore intransitive, and a preposition is understood 
 between it and what appears as its direct object : ' I 
 believe in your proposition.' 
 
 It is for this reason, I suppose, that such words, in 
 several languages, are not followed by the casus directus, 
 or accusative, but by some oblique case. For instance: 
 ' Credo verbis ejus.' ' Je me fie d ses paroles.' ' iLorefo 
 \6yo is e/ceiVou.' (I believe his words.)* 
 
 VII. 
 
 A proposition may have another proposition subor- 
 dinate to it, but yet so intimately dependent upon it, as 
 together to constitute but one affirmation. Example : 
 All men respect him who is upright in his dealings. 
 
 * It is true that in some languages there are verbs which 
 govern two accusative or direct cases ; as in Greek, verbs of ' teach- 
 ing,' 'concealing,' 'naming,' 'asking,' 'clothing,' &c. ; and, 
 similarly, some Latin verbs have a like power ; but that does not 
 really give such verbs two direct objects ; but only shows that it 
 was the custom of those nations arbitrarily to assign such power to 
 certain verbs. But the fact seems to be, that the latter accusative 
 case depends upon a preposition understood. This perhaps explains 
 why, in French, where no preposition governs the direct objective 
 case, there is no verb which governs two objective cases, or, which is 
 the same thing, has two direct complements. 
 
110 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Here, the proposition ' who is upright in his dealings,' is 
 so intimately connected with the first proposition, 'All men 
 respect him/ as to be indispensable to it, denoting a quality 
 essentially inherent in the object which inspires respect, 
 and therefore constituting no more than an adjectival 
 'addition, equal to ' the just man.' Hence, there is but one 
 affirmation. 
 
 The German printers, I believe, make no such distinction 
 between essential subordinate propositions and those 
 merely contingent, but insert a point between all such 
 propositions. Thus, with them, the above sentence would 
 be thus punctuated : 
 
 All men respect him, who is upright in his dealings. 
 
 But to me it seems that the English system is prefer- 
 able, as confusion frequently arises when a comma is in- 
 serted before an inseparable dependent proposition ; only 
 it must be borne in mind, that the subordinate proposition 
 must constitute a quality essential to the character of the 
 object of the preceding proposition. 
 
 If the order of the propositions be reversed, and the 
 explanatory proposition take the place of the principal one, 
 then the comma may be inserted, whenever confusion 
 would arise from its omission. Example : 
 
 Him who is upright in his dealings, all men respect. 
 
 Because, although the sense is the same as in the for- 
 mer example, yet the second proposition does not form 
 the object of the first, nor can it be regarded as a mere 
 adjectival adjunct thereof. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 If the second proposition merely explains some cir- 
 cumstance connected with the object of the first proposition, 
 then the two cannot be amalgamated into one affirma- 
 tion ; for, in that case, the object of the first proposition 
 
ADJUNCTS OF PROPOSITIONS, ETC. Ill 
 
 becomes the subject of the second, and enters into another 
 and separate relation with its own object. Example : 
 
 The pilgrim found himself entangled in the wood, which 
 abounded in prickly bushes. 
 
 The last proposition is here merely added to explain 
 an accidental circumstance connected with the wood. But 
 were it the intention to show that this condition of the 
 wood was an essential adjectival condition, no comma 
 ought to be used. Thus : 
 
 The pilgrim got entangled in a wood which abounded with 
 prickly bushes. * 
 
 IX. 
 
 Two subjects, relation- words, or complements, may be 
 joined by a conjunction, without the intervention of any 
 point. Example : 
 
 Peter and John were disciples. 
 
 A wise and good man will speak and act conscientiously. 
 
 Truth and virtue elevate and ennoble man or woman. 
 
 But observe, 1st, The connecting words must be con- 
 gruous^ and consistent with a combined action ; for (it can 
 hardly be too often repeated) wherever there is difference 
 
 * Propositions of this sort are called incidental : they are 
 divided into two classes, determinative and explicative. An in- 
 cidental determinative proposition expresses some indispensable 
 circumstance of the principal proposition, in such a manner that it 
 cannot be retrenched without destroying or altering the sense. 
 Example : ' The passions which make the greatest ravages, are 
 ambition and avarice.' But an incidental explicative proposition 
 is added to another proposition for the purpose of explaining some 
 circumstance not strictly necessary to it, in such sort that it can be 
 omitted without destroying the sense. Example : * The passions, 
 which are the maladies of the soul, arise from our revolt against 
 reason.' In the former, no comma is inserted before the incidental 
 proposition, although one may, for a reason which will be here- 
 after given, very well follow it, as here ; in the latter, two commas 
 are required. 
 
112 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 of relation, expressed or implied, it is impossible that 
 there can be but one thought. For instance, if one pro- 
 position be positive, and the other negative, they must 
 be separated by a mark of punctuation, although they 
 may be joined by the conjunction and. Example : 
 Mary, and not Martha, was at the feast. 
 
 2nd. If the qualifying word belonging to one subject do 
 not belong to the other subject with which it is connected 
 by a conjunction, then the two subjects, &c., must be 
 separated by a comma ; as, 
 
 Great merit, and industry, do not always lead to success. 
 
 In this example there is an incongruity between the 
 subjects of the proposition, the one having a qualifying 
 adjunct, which does not belong to the other ; and, con- 
 sequently, they cannot admit of strict union. 
 
 But perhaps such sentences as these are faulty ; since 
 the ordinary property of the conjunction and is to denote 
 combination ; and as this is not the intention here, the 
 connecting words would more properly be e \vith,' ' com- 
 bined with,' ' united with/ or something of that kind : 
 ' Great merit, with [united with] industry, does not always 
 lead to success.' 
 
 X. 
 
 Although the conjunction usually employed to denote a 
 conjoint action is 'and,' yet other conjunctions may also 
 be used for that purpose, provided they imply a union of 
 ideas or relations between the words they connect. So 
 also a disjunctive conjunction may connect any two parts 
 of a complex affirmation without the intervention of a 
 point, provided the writer leaves it undetermined which 
 of them he selects, or takes indifferently the one or the 
 other. Examples : 
 
 Neither the master nor the servant attends to business. 
 Either the soldier or the sailor volunteered his services. 
 
AUJUNCTS OF PROPOSITIONS, ETC. 113 
 
 The reason is, that in each of these sentences there is 
 but one relation expressed, which either applies to both 
 the subjects indifferently, or, as in the last example, the 
 writer is doubtful to which it applies. But when the in- 
 tention is to refer distinctly and specially to each subject, 
 &c., then, as a relation is intended to be affirmed expressly 
 of each, a comma must part such connected words, what- 
 ever may be the conjunction used to connect them. Thus : 
 
 Thomas, or John, took the paper to the post-office. 
 You may have the black mare, also the gray horse. 
 
 Because, here, in each case, two affirmations are intended 
 to be expressed. In the first, the affirmation is made 
 principally of i Thomas,* and only supplementarily or du- 
 biously of ' John ;' and in the latter, the same may be also 
 affirmed of the objects ' mare' and ' horse.' There is not a 
 parity of relation intended : there must consequently be a 
 modification assumed by the mind ; and such modification 
 constitutes a difference, and therefore demands the intro- 
 duction of a point to denote it. 
 
 XI. 
 
 Two propositions may be compared together without 
 the intervention of a point, if one affirmation only is ex- 
 pressed or implied. Examples : 
 
 Peter is as wise as James. 
 
 Boys love playing as well as reading. 
 
 Man is cut down like a flower. 
 
 For here the comparison is made pari passu, and but one 
 assertion is made of the subject in each case. But if two 
 affirmations be intended, then a point must separate each 
 relation, although the very same words may be employed 
 which ordinarily denote but one relation. Example : 
 
 The industrious love diversion, as well as the idle. 
 I 
 
114 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 But one kind of relation is expressed in this sentence,- 
 that of love ; but its degrees are different. There is not, 
 therefore, a comparison pari passu, as there would be de- 
 noted were the comma omitted. 
 
 Several propositions, I doubt not, may be compressed 
 into one affirmation in other ways than those I have 
 pointed out ; but those given will be sufficient to guide the 
 reader in forming an opinion in any case which may come 
 under his notice. 
 
 SECT. 5. The Connection of Affirmations, or Compound 
 Sentences. 
 
 The preceding sections of this chapter have been prin- 
 cipally devoted to the definition of the nature of proposi- 
 tions, and the illustration of the amalgamation of two or 
 more of them in one affirmation ; nevertheless, various 
 uses of the point-marks have incidentally, as a matter of 
 course, been therein elucidated. Indeed, I trust I may 
 say, that the groundwork of the art of punctuation has 
 been already clearly exhibited ; and I miglit, perhaps, here 
 leave the subject, with a reasonable conviction that the 
 attentive reader will have reaped more real information 
 from the few foregoing pages, than is contained in some 
 volumes written expressly on this subject. But that I may 
 make the matter as clear as I can to those to whom the 
 language may appear at times somewhat abstruse, or the 
 method unusual, I will proceed, in the next place, to the 
 consideration of compound sentences, and the \ariouspoints 
 used in their connection ; of which I will treat in order, 
 although, during the investigation of one point, another 
 will occasionally obtrude itself upon our notice, and call 
 for a passing remark. We will begin, then, with the comma, 
 and illustrate its use by sundry rules and observations. 
 
THE COMMA. 11 
 
 EULE I. Two affirmations may be directly united con- 
 junctively, and will then require to be parted by a comma. 
 Examples : 
 
 Truth ennobles man, and learning adorns him. 
 Civility is a desire to receive civilities, and to be accounted 
 well-bred. 
 
 Eemark 1. If the subject of the first proposition be 
 also the subject of the second, but not expressed therein, 
 such proposition must nevertheless be parted by a comma ; 
 for the first proposition is the expression of a complete 
 thought ; and we have already seen, that when once a 
 thought has been fully expressed, no mechanism of lan- 
 guage can embody another with it. Examples : 
 
 Virtue ennobles man, and adorns him. 
 
 Truth is born with us, and is only discarded when we throw 
 off the godlike simplicity of nature. 
 
 Remark 2. If the connecting word be omitted, a link 
 of union is consequently dropped ; and if the thoughts be 
 still intended to stand in a dependent or connected relation, 
 such omission must, as was observed in a previous section, 
 be indicated by a point a degree stronger than would other- 
 wise have been used. Examples : 
 
 Truth ennobles man ; learning adorns him. 
 
 The daisy is the flower of spring ; the rose, of summer. 
 
 This observation will apply to all the rules which follow, 
 wherever the nature of the point will admit of it. Neverthe- 
 less, instances may arise when this mode of punctuation 
 would be too stiff, especially when the object common to 
 each proposition is followed by a preposition. Example : 
 
 Mathematicians have sought knowledge in figures, philoso- 
 phers in systems, logicians in subtilties, and metaphysicians in 
 sounds. 
 
 EULE II. Two affirmations connected disjunctively are 
 properly separated by a comma. Examples : ; 
 
 i 2 
 
116 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 The Queen may arrive on Monday, or she may come some 
 other day. 
 
 The Parliament is not dissolved, but only prorogued. 
 
 Remark 1. This rule results from the fact, that the kind 
 of dependence or connection subsisting between twoaffirma- 
 
 ns does not, of itself, bring them closer, or remove them 
 further ; but the degree of dependence is the only guide. 
 
 Remark 2. If this disjunctive relation be expressed 
 indirectly, or there be an incongruity of time or other cir- 
 cumstance, then a semicolon will be required. Examples : 
 
 The Scholar's Handbook ; or, a Guide to Knowledge. 
 
 Man may lay down wise plans ; but Fortune is the great 
 arbiter of events. 
 
 In the first example, the disjunctive relation is not ex- 
 pressed equally, and therefore not in the most direct' 
 manner ; the book indicated not being called indifferently 
 either by one or the other name, but, emphatically, * The 
 Scholar's Handbook,' and by way of supplement, as it 
 were, f A Guide to Knowledge. 1 In the second example 
 there is an incongruity in the propositions, the one being 
 suppositions, and the other positive ; and as the latter 
 does not immediately depend or flow from the other, they, 
 necessarily, cannot be connected in the mind in the most 
 intimate degree. Hence the necessity for a stronger point. 
 
 HULE III. Affirmations may be connected compara- 
 tivety, relatively, causatively, conditionally > infer entially, or 
 in some other manner ; and if this be done in the most 
 direct way, the proper point to separate any of these 
 relations will be the comma. Examples : 
 
 I love to walk in the meadows, as well as to sail on the 
 wide sea. 
 
 As many perished of hunger, as were slain by the sword. 
 
 That man is remembered by posterity, who hath benefitted 
 his kind. 
 
 He gave money to the poor, that he might thereby pro- 
 cure the reputation of a charitable man. 
 
THE COMMA. 117 
 
 Should the governor come to town, the cotmcil will be 
 held forthwith. 
 
 From what has been already revealed, the minister inferred 
 villanous treachery. 
 
 Remark. The reason for this is clear, from what has 
 been before stated. 
 
 RULE IY. When the expression of an affirmation is 
 interrupted by some explanatory or incidental affirmation, 
 the beginning and the close of that parenthetical affirma- 
 tion are generally denoted by a comma.* Examples : 
 
 Romulus, who was the founder of Rome, lived 750 years 
 before the Christian era. 
 
 A lawgiver whose counsels are directed by views of general 
 utility, and obstructed by no local impediment, would make 
 the marriage contract indissoluble during the joint lives of 
 the parties. 
 
 Remark 1. If the interrupting words be of little con- 
 sequence, that is, if they do not constitute an affirmation, 
 but only denote a mere modification of an affirmation, 
 then the comma may be properly omitted. Example : 
 
 The marquis will certainly arrive to-morrow. 
 
 Remark 2. The proper use of the comma, or its 
 omission, in instances of this kind, must of course depend 
 upon the judgement of the printer, not his mere whim or 
 taste, as is sometimes erroneously fancied. Indeed, the 
 process of punctuation constantly demands the exercise of 
 judgement on the part of the compositor, to enable him to 
 comprehend the meaning of his author, ,and to distribute 
 and marshal his thoughts according to their relative 
 degrees of dependence. 
 
 Remark 3. Again, the subject of an affirmation may 
 have certain words attached to it, which at first sight may 
 
 * For the reason of this rule, and of some others which follow, 
 the reader is referred to the general principles in the early part of 
 the chapter. 
 
118 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 look like a thought interposed between it and its pre- 
 dicate, but may be nothing of the kind, but, in fact, con- 
 stitute the predicate and complement of that proposition. 
 Example : 
 
 The French demurring to the conditions which the Eng- 
 lish commander offered, again commenced the action. 
 
 Here, the Frenchmen's demurring to the conditions is 
 not mentioned incidentally, as a parenthetical explanation, 
 but is the principal proposition of the sentence, from 
 which the next proposition depends, having the same 
 subject as the first, only not expressed, simply because it 
 is sufficiently obvious without being repeated. This may 
 be rendered clearer by a somewhat different example. 
 Thus : 
 
 The French having occupied Portugal, a British squadron, 
 under Rear- Admiral Sir Samuel Hood, sailed for Madeira. 
 
 In this sentence, it is evident that the proposition ' the 
 French having occupied Portugal,' is that upon which all 
 that follows depends. No point is put after the word 
 ' French,' because it does not constitute a subject separated 
 from the predicative portion of the proposition of which it 
 forms part, but is a subject having the other members of 
 the proposition immediately following it. Let us try to 
 sever it, and it will read : 
 
 The French, having occupied Portugal, a British, &c- 
 
 If having occupied Portugal is a merely explanatory 
 proposition, it can be dispensed with ; and then how will 
 the proposition which it is supposed to sever, read ? Thus : 
 ' The French a British squadron, &c.' It will be arrant 
 nonsense. 
 
 From want of observing this distinction, the most ab- 
 surd punctuation is frequently adopted, confounding the 
 sense and misleading the reader. 
 
THE COMMA. 119 
 
 BULE V. Three or more subjects, predicates, or com- 
 plements, with or without adjuncts, and also three or more 
 adjuncts of any of the essential constituent parts of a pro- 
 position, are separated by a comma. Example : 
 
 Industry, honesty, and temperance, are essential to hap- 
 piness. 
 
 The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated land- 
 scape, the boundless ocean, and the starry firmament, are 
 beautiful and magnificent objects. 
 
 To live soberly, righteously, and piously, comprehends 
 the whole of our duty. 
 
 The man of virtue and honor will be trusted, relied upon, 
 esteemed, respected. 
 
 Remark 1. The reason on which the above rule is 
 founded is this : Each word after which a point is placed, 
 has its own relation, although, it may be common to it 
 and others ; and as each relation must be parted from all 
 other relations, and this cannot be done by a weaker point 
 than a comma, whenever those relations, or words which 
 leave them implied, immediately follow each other, that 
 point then becomes the proper mark to denote it. 
 
 Remark 2. Some printers omit the comma before the 
 conjunction, and also the one immediately preceding the 
 verb ; thus : ' Mermaids, fairies and pigmies are imaginary 
 beings.' This is incorrect ; because, as the introduction 
 of a comma after the first subject denotes that it is thereby 
 separated from its copula and complement by an inter- 
 vening thought, and as no comma is introduced to show 
 the termination of that intervening thought, the first 
 subject consequently stands alone, without any meaning 
 whatever, as part of a distinct affirmation, with any of the 
 following words, and, as here pointed, having a meaning 
 entirely different from that intended to be conveyed : for 
 ' mermaids ' is here made a vocative case. Other printers 
 only omit the comma immediately before the verb ; which 
 
120 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 is not so objectionable ; nay, is perhaps sometimes ad- 
 visable. 
 
 Eemark 3. A comma should always be put after the 
 last noun in a series, if it is not joined to the others by a 
 conjunction, and does not end a sentence or clause; as, 
 * Reputation, virtue, happiness, depend greatly on the 
 choice of companions.' 
 
 RULE VI. When three or more subjects, predicates, 
 or complements, follow each other in immediate succes- 
 sion, and connected by the conjunction and, each must 
 take a comma after it, if the intention is thereby to point 
 out each separate relation with greater emphasis: for the 
 conjunctive particles do not necessarily always denote a 
 union of relation. Examples : 
 
 And there were voices, and thunderings, and lightnings, 
 and an earthquake. 
 
 By skill, and by resolution, and by caution, and by circum- 
 spection, and by foresight, and by penetration, I brought that 
 enterprise to a fortunate conclusion. 
 
 But if the intention be to express as it were but one 
 united action, by three or more combined agents, in short, 
 if the object be the union of all the members, and not their 
 emphatic individual action, then the comma may be pro- 
 perly omitted. Example : 
 
 God is wise and righteous and faithful. 
 
 Let us freely drink in the soul of love and beauty and 
 wisdom, from all nature and art and history. 
 
 RULE VII. Three or more adjectives in immediate 
 succession, with the conjunction and before the last only, 
 will have a comma after each, except the last, if each 
 adjective refers immediately to the noun which it qualifies. 
 Examples : 
 
THE COMMA. 121 
 
 Peter was a wise, holy, and energetic man. 
 
 His method of handling the subject was ornate, learned, 
 and perspicuous. 
 
 The most innocent pleasures are the sweetest, the most 
 suitable, the most affecting, and the most lasting. 
 
 But if the preceding adjective merely modifies another 
 following adjective (without, however, constituting with it 
 but one compound word), and has not immediate reference 
 to the noun substantive common to both, then, as such 
 adjective does not denote a distinct and separate modifi- 
 cation, no comma should part it from the adjective to 
 which it refers as it were adverbially. Examples : 
 
 Mr. Byng was a fine old English gentleman. 
 
 The square contained sixty large brick houses. 
 
 Plain honest truth wants no coloring. 
 
 True religion gives a native unaffected ease to the behaviour. 
 
 Remark 1. It may be sometimes rather difficult to 
 determine whether an adjective qualifies another, or not. 
 A convenient help towards settling this point, is to con- 
 sider whether the adjectives are of a similar character, 
 and to separate them if they are ; for although an adjec- 
 tive may easily modify another of a different nature, it 
 cannot so easily ally itself to one of a like kind with itself, 
 unless the two together constitute but one compound 
 word. Examples : 
 
 He was a good, kind father to his children. 
 
 Ulysses was a wise, eloquent, cautious, and intrepid leader. 
 
 Here we place a comma after each adjective but the last, 
 in truth, because each points out a distinct accident of the 
 following noun ; but it will be observed, they are of a like 
 character, expressive of certain moral or mental attri- 
 butes. But in the following sentence we put no comma : 
 
122 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 The sailor was accompanied by a great rough. Newfound- 
 land dog. 
 
 The reason for this distinction is given above. For 
 our present purpose, I need only remark, that the adjec- 
 tives are all of a different kind, each being, as it were, 
 of a successively more generic character than its prede- 
 cessor. In the former examples, the adjectives could be 
 well connected by the conjunction and ; in the latter, they 
 could not. 
 
 But, as was before stated, two adjectives may together 
 constitute but one modification : they will then, conse- 
 quently, form but one word, the parts of which (as 
 explained more at large in another place) may be sepa- 
 rated by a hyphen, or the two words may coalesce ; as in 
 this sentence : 
 
 The singer possessed a remarkably clear-toned voice, which 
 echoed through the many-aisled church. 
 
 EULE VIII. Adverbs, conjunctions, and other par- 
 ticles, must sometimes be parted from the rest of the 
 sentence by a comma, and sometimes no point should 
 intervene. 
 
 Remark. The reason for this is, that all adverbs and 
 conjunctions, and perhaps all other particles, contain in 
 themselves some latent proposition ; and as we have before 
 seen that a proposition may be a complete affirmation, or 
 may not, and that when it does constitute a complete 
 affirmation, some point must part it from other affirma- 
 tions ; even so is it with particles, or sentence-words : 
 when they are intended to constitute a distinct affirma- 
 tion, then a point must part them from other affirmations ; 
 but if they are but a mere modification of an affirmation, 
 they necessarily belong to it, and must not be parted from 
 it by any point. The discovery of this distinction, in each 
 case, must afford matter for the discrimination of the 
 compositor, guided by the emphasis which the writer may 
 
THE COMMA. 123 
 
 desire to give to each particular word ; font it is never a 
 matter on which the sheer whim or caprice of the press- 
 corrector can be exercised at random. Subjoined are some 
 examples where the distinction may be pretty clearly 
 discerned. 
 
 I believed, and therefore I spoke. 
 
 In accordance, therefore, with the priest's wishes, the man 
 was liberated. 
 
 In any case, however, the siphon may be filled. 
 
 However the siphon may be filled. 
 
 However, the siphon may be filled. 
 
 The messenger reported the words correctly. 
 
 Truly, what he said was correct. 
 
 Truly has it been said, the heart of man is deceitful, and 
 desperately wicked. 
 
 KTJLE IX. Strictly speaking, as hns been before 
 observed, no. intransitive verb can be followed by a direct 
 object, unless that object be a word of cognate meaning ; 
 for, by its very nature, it is a verb which does not operate 
 beyond its own sphere. Neither can any clause introduced 
 by a conjunction be the direct complement of any verb; 
 for the introduction of the conjunction necessarily indicates 
 a deviation from the direct line of the action of the verb, 
 in order to introduce some other relation in an oblique or 
 contingent manner. Hence, although we may properly 
 say, * The man ran a race/ i I think thoughts,' without 
 a comma between the intransitive verb and its cognate 
 object, we cannot, strictly and logically speaking, say, 'I 
 think you speak truly,' ' I believe that he will come,' 
 without using a comma after the verb; for the latter pro- 
 position is not the direct complement of the former : my 
 4 thinking' or ' believing' being an act entirely confined to 
 myself, the operation of the mind does not pass on directly 
 to any object. Therefore, in instances of this sort, all 
 such clauses might not incorrectly be separated from the 
 
124 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 principal clause by a comma, as is invariably done by the 
 German printers. Thus, they would point, * 
 
 I believe, that they spoke truly. 
 
 Nevertheless, when the verb is active, although in- 
 transitive, and its action seems to fall immediately on the 
 following proposition, it is customary in English (and 
 I do not think it would be advisable, as a general rule, to 
 alter the practice) to dispense with the comma ; as in this 
 sentence : 
 
 They say that Parliament will assemble in tlyree weeks. 
 
 But with impersonal passive verbs, the comma is better 
 retained. Example : 
 
 It is said, that the Government intend to propose a new 
 Reform Bill early in the session of parliament. 
 
 Because, here, the subjective part of the sentence 
 occupies the place of the objective, and in that objective 
 part there is assumed a subject, gathered from the 
 apparent objective, upon which the action of the verb 
 seems to terminate. But if an impersonal verb in the 
 passive voice be followed by another verb in the infinitive 
 mood, the comma may be omitted ; for then there is only 
 something affirmed of the assumed indefinite subject. 
 Example : 
 
 It is believed to be true. 
 
 Remark. Although I have, I hope, pretty clearly shown 
 that no intransitive verb can have a direct complement 
 or object, yet such verbs may have indirect complements, 
 the relation subsisting between which will be indicated 
 by means of a preposition, expressed or understood. 
 
 Example : 
 
 The jury believed the witnesses. 
 
 At first sight, 'the witnesses' would appear to be 
 the direct complement of the verb ' believe ;' but a little 
 
THE COMMA. 125 
 
 reflection will show that, in fact, the belief of the jurors 
 does not act at all immediately on the witnesses ; but that 
 they believe in, or give credence to, their words. * In * or 
 4 to' is, therefore, the preposition (understood) which 
 applies here, and indicates the indirect relation of the 
 preceding subject to the noun following the verb. 
 
 EULE X. It has been already shown, that no two verbs 
 can, strictly speaking, enter into one affirmation, unless 
 the one be the direct complement of the other : therefore, 
 in sentences formed with the verb * to be ' and its accom- 
 paniments, and another verb and its accompaniments, a 
 comma must intervene. Examples : 
 
 My opinion is, that it can be done. 
 
 The question is, Can it be performed ? 
 But if no other verb be introduced in the sentence, 
 then a comma is not required ; for but one relation is then 
 expressed ; as in this sentence : 
 
 The result was a verdict of manslaughter. 
 
 Numerous other rules might be introduced, for the 
 purpose of illustrating the use of the comma in parting 
 two affirmations; but as these could only be further 
 elucidations of the same principle, I will confine myself to 
 such as are generally laid down by writers on this subject, 
 and to an explanation of the grounds on which they are 
 based ; even although that may involve some repetition of 
 what has been already said. 
 
 EULE XI. When a phrase is inverted, it should be 
 separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, if the 
 omission of the point would lead to obscurity of meaning. 
 Examples : 
 
 To the wise and good, old age presents a scene of tranquil 
 enjoyment. 
 
 Of all our senses, sight is the most perfect and delightful. 
 
126 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Of all the passions, vanity is the most universal. 
 Of good delivery, distinct articulation is a fundamental 
 requisite. 
 
 To every one of these, young persons are strangers. 
 
 Remark. Strictly speaking, this rule transgresses one 
 of the fundamental laws of punctuation, and should there- 
 fore only be adopted when confusion or mistake would 
 arise from the omission of the comma ; in all other 
 instances, no point should intervene between the parts of 
 what is, after all, but one affirmation. Therefore omit it 
 in cases like the following : 
 
 In infancy the mind is peculiarly ductile. 
 With that portion of the work I am the least satisfied. 
 That interesting and valuable history he did not read. 
 At the bottom of the garden ran a little rivulet. 
 
 EULE XII. Substantives, or any words of the same 
 part of speech, immediately following one another, in the 
 same case, tense, &c., and joined in pairs by the con- 
 junction and or or, are separated in pairs by a comma. 
 Examples : 
 
 Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and 
 enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in all 
 public transactions. 
 
 Let subtle schoolmen teach their friends to fight, 
 More studious to divide than to unite ; 
 And Grace and Virtue, Sense and Reason split, 
 With all the rash dexterity of wit. 
 
 In the eclogue there must be nothing rude or vulgar ; 
 nothing fanciful or affected ; nothing subtle or abstruse. 
 
 Remark, This rule depends upon the same principle 
 as that by which any two subjects, predicates, objects, or 
 adjuncts, may be combined, without any point-mark inter- 
 vening. 
 
 RULE XIII. Expressions in direct addresses, or what 
 
THE COMMA. 127 
 
 is called in Latin the vocative case, are separated from 
 the rest of the sentence by a comma. Examples : 
 
 My son, give me thy heart. 
 
 I am obliged to you, my friend, for your many favors. 
 
 These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good ! 
 
 Remark. The reason for this is clear. This vocative 
 case is a proposition, either interposed in another pro- 
 position, or preceding or following one ; but not consti- 
 tuting therewith but one affirmation. 
 
 KULE XIY. Two words of the same part of speech, 
 and in the same construction, without a conjunction to 
 unite them, are separated by a comma. Examples : 
 
 Lend, lend your wings. 
 
 The dignity of man consisteth in thought, intelligence. 
 Can flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death ? 
 We are fearfully, wonderfully made. 
 
 Remark 1. Besides the comma inserted between two 
 nouns, another is put after the last, when it does not end 
 a sentence or a clause. Example : 
 
 Thought, thought, is the fundamental distinction of mind. 
 
 This is done for the purpose of showing that both 
 nouns have an equal relation to what follows. 
 
 Remark 2. When the iterated word resumes an inter- 
 rupted sentiment, a dash is used before the repetition, 
 instead of the comma. Example : 
 
 But I fear I fear Richard hardly thought the terms pro- 
 posed were worthy of his acceptance. 
 
 RULE XY. Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns 
 added to other nouns in the same case, by way of explica- 
 tion, when accompanied with adjuncts, are separated 
 from the rest of the sentence by commas. Examples : 
 
128 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal 
 and knowledge. 
 
 Romulus, the founder of Rome, lived 750 years before the 
 Christian era. 
 
 But if the nouns are not accompanied by adjuncts, 
 and the one is used as it were demonstratively of the 
 other, then they are not divided by a comma. Examples : 
 
 The patriarch Abraham was called the father of the faithful. 
 
 Edward the Confessor was guilty of great cruelty to his 
 mother. 
 
 Edward the Black Prince wore black armour. 
 
 Remark. In the first case there is an explanatory 
 proposition interposed between the subject of the main 
 proposition and its predicate ; but in the latter the words 
 bear more the relation of Christian and surname, than of 
 an explanatory clause defining some accidental condition 
 or circumstance. 
 
 RULE XVI. A noun or pronoun in what is called 
 the case absolute, and the participle, &c., with which it is 
 connected, when it commences a sentence, or occurs in the 
 middle of one, should be separated from the rest of the 
 sentence by a comma. Examples : 
 
 Harold being slain in the field, the conqueror marched 
 directly to London, 
 
 The armada being thus happily defeated, the nation 
 resounded with shouts of joy. 
 
 God, from the mount of Sinai, whose gray top 
 Shall tremble, he descending, will himself ordain 
 Them laws. 
 
 Remark. This case absolute constitutes a conditional 
 proposition, from which what follows depends ; and hence, 
 as was more largely illustrated under a previous rule, a 
 point-mark must intervene. 
 
THE COMMA. 129 
 
 ROLE XVII. If words be placed in opposition to 
 each other, or with some marked variety, they should be 
 distinguished by the insertion of a comma. Examples : 
 
 Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, 
 not only in union with, but in opposition to, the views and 
 conduct of one another. 
 
 The goods of this world were given to man for his occa- 
 sional refreshment, not for his chief felicity. 
 
 But if the word to which the prepositions refer comes 
 alone, or with merely an adjunct after the last preposition, 
 it is better to omit the comma before it. Examples : 
 
 Many states are in alliance with, and under the protection 
 of France. 
 
 Several nations, particularly the United States, trade with, 
 and are greatly influenced by England. 
 
 It is better to be friends with, than enemies to our brethren. 
 
 Remark. In the latter case there can be no possibility 
 of mistaking the common complement of each proposition, 
 whilst, in the former, such mistake might easily take 
 place, were there no comma. 
 
 RULE XVIII. In a compound sentence, where a verb, 
 or other word of connection, is not expressed, but under- 
 stood, a comma should be introduced. Examples : 
 
 From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from 
 curiosity, knowledge. 
 
 If spring put forth no blossoms, in summer there will be 
 no beauty, and in autumn, no iruit. So, if youth be trifled 
 away without improvement, manhood will be contemptible, 
 and old age, miserable. 
 
 Remark. This rule derives its force from the fact, 
 that there is here a link in the chain of connection 
 omitted ; and such omission, I may be pardoned for again, 
 repeating, is equivalent to a step in punctuation. 
 
130 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 KULE XIX. Such words as nay, so, hence, again, first, 
 secondly ', &c., formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on 
 the contrary, in the next place, in short, and all other 
 words and phrases of a like nature, should, or should not, 
 be separated from the context by a comma, according to 
 the circumstances of each case. Examples : 
 
 Be assured, then, that order, frugality, and economy, are 
 the necessary supporters of every personal and private virtue. 
 
 Here all is bustle and tumult ; there all is serene and orderly. 
 
 Remark. The circumstances on which this rule depends 
 are these : All such words and phrases are propositions, 
 expressed with more or less clearness ; and every proposi- 
 tion may either constitute a complete affirmation, or it 
 may be only a modification of a more important proposi- 
 tion. When the first is the case, of course words of this 
 kind must be parted from the context by a comma ; when 
 the latter, the comma must be omitted. Nevertheless, 
 the rule is not arbitrary, as some seem to imagine, but re- 
 quires a nice appreciation of the intention of the writer, 
 in its application. 
 
 KULE XX. When a new member is added to a sen- 
 tence, that member, with its connecting particle, must be 
 separated from the preceding member by a comma at tlie 
 least. The principal of such connecting words are and, 
 as, because, before, both, but t either, or, neither, nor, even, 
 except, if, less, provided, since, so, than, that, then, thoygh, 
 unless, when, while, whether, &c. Examples : 
 
 Virtue is the highest proof of a superior understanding, 
 and the only basis of greatness. 
 
 Good-nature never appears to so much advantage, as when 
 it is polished by good-breeding. 
 
 Meadows and rivulets have their charms, as well as moun- 
 tains and oceans. 
 
 Some people are unpolite, because they do not kno\v the 
 world. 
 
THE COMMA. 131 
 
 A diamond must be polished, before it can appear to advan- 
 tage. 
 
 Affectation will not only destroy beauty, but even change 
 it into deformity. 
 
 A good man will certainly be happy, either in this life or 
 in the next. 
 
 Remark. The reason for this rule, and the exceptions 
 to it, must be sought for in previous remarks. 
 
 EULE XXI. Such words as namely, that is, &c., if 
 they serve only to introduce an explanatory clause, and 
 form but one affirmation with it, must not be separated 
 from that clause by a comma ; but if they constitute of 
 themselves an affirmation, then a comma must part them 
 from the affirmation which follows. Example : 
 
 One of this author's works namely his treatise on optics 
 displays considerable knowledge of the laws of nature. 
 
 For how does this sentence really differ from the fol- 
 lowing : Some of this writer's works especially his trea- 
 tise on optics display, &c. 
 
 There is one disease to which the human frame is subject 
 (which is gout), which is never wholly eradicated from the 
 human constitution. 
 
 Furnish a proper answer to the following query ; that is, 
 explain it in such a manner that it can be readily understood 
 by a person of ordinary capacity. 
 
 JRemark. Sometimes such words as namely, that is, &c., 
 require to be parted from the preceding member of the 
 sentence by a comma, and sometimes by a semicolon. A 
 simple rule to guide us in the right application of this 
 distinction is the following : If the preceding member of 
 the sentence contains the explanation to which namely, &c., 
 refers, then this word must necessarily be more closely 
 connected with it, than it would be were the explanation 
 contained in the clause which follows. For example : 
 K 2 
 
132 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 1 In the investigation of the value of life-interests, that is,, 
 the condition and circumstances of the parties must be 
 well considered.' But if the explanation is contained in 
 the part of the sentence which follows namely, it is evident 
 that a stronger point, generally a semicolon, must precede. 
 Example : 
 
 The fable contains an exceedingly just and prudent admo- 
 nition; namely, that we are not to expect the discovery of 
 things useful in common life from abstract philosophy. 
 
 2. The Semicolon. 
 
 Incidentally, in the previous parts of this chapter, 
 various applications of this point have been elucidated, 
 which cannot have escaped the attentive reader's observa- 
 tion ; but its principal uses will be shown in the following 
 rules : 
 
 EULE I. The main purpose of this point is to mark 
 the assumption of a leading proposition, connected by 
 some particle, after the expression of some other prin- 
 cipal proposition and its dependent clause or clauses. 
 Examples : 
 
 The temperate man's pleasures are durable, because they 
 are regular ; and all his life is calm and serene, because it is 
 innocent. 
 
 Whoso loveth instruction, loveth knowledge ; but he that 
 hateth reproof, is foolish. 
 
 To feel old age coming on, will so little mortify a wise 
 man. that he can think of it with pleasure ; and the'decay of 
 nature shows him, that the happy change of state for which 
 he has been all his life preparing himself, is drawing nearer. 
 
 Remark. The reason on which this rule is based is 
 clear: no principal affirmation of a sentence can be so 
 intimately connected with another affirmation, as the 
 dependent clauses of that affirmation are. 
 
THE SEMICOLON. 133 
 
 RULE II. If a consequence be deduced from a leading 
 proposition and its clauses, or from more than one leading 
 proposition, that consequence will be parted from those 
 clauses by a semicolon or a colon. Examples : 
 
 That patriotism which, catching its inspirations from the 
 immortal God, and leaving at an immeasurable distance below, 
 all lesser, grovelling, personal interests and feelings, animates 
 and prompts to deeds of self-sacrifice, of valour, of devotion, 
 and of death itself ; that is public virtue, that is the noblest, 
 the sublimest, of all public virtues. 
 
 If you desire to live honored and respected in the world, 
 and to be remembered when your bones are crumbling in the 
 dust ; live more for the benefit of others than for your indi- 
 vidual advantage. 
 
 When ambition practises the monstrous doctrine of millions 
 made for individuals, their playthings, to be demolished at 
 their caprice ; sporting wantonly with the rights, the peace, 
 the comforts, the existence, of nations, as if their intoxicated 
 pride would, if possible, make God's earth itself their football : 
 is not the good man indignant ? 
 
 Remark. In drawing a conclusion from more than 
 one affirmation, the mind must necessarily pause for a 
 longer time in taking a survey of all that has gone before, 
 than it did in the affirmation of any of those connected 
 thoughts. Hence, the rule is founded on good sense and 
 reason. Nevertheless, some punctuators use a comma and 
 a dash for this purpose ; and as it avoids all confusion, it 
 is generally preferable. Example : 
 
 As soon as the Queen shall come to London, and the 
 houses of Parliament shall be opened, and the speech from 
 the throne delivered, then will begin the great struggle of 
 the contending factions. 
 
 RULE III. If a consequence be drawn, not from the 
 preceding affirmation, but from something which follows, 
 that consequence must be parted from the preceding affirm- 
 ation by a semicolon. Examples : 
 
 Those faults whiph. arise from the will are intolerable ; for 
 
134 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 dull and insipid is every performance where inclination- bears 
 ho part. 
 
 Economy is no disgrace ; for it is better to live on a little 
 than to outlive a great deal. 
 
 The conveniences of fraud are of short duration ; for if a 
 person be once detected in uttering a falsehood, he will not be 
 believed when he speaks the truth. 
 
 Remark. This rule calls for no observation, if what 
 has been already said be borne in mind. 
 
 RULE IV. Although adverted to more than once 
 before, it may perhaps be as well to repeat here, as in its 
 peculiarly appropriate place, that when the connecting 
 particle is omitted between two affirmations, a semicolon 
 then becomes the proper point. Examples : 
 
 To err is human ; to forgive, divine. 
 
 Never speak concerning what you are ignorant of ; speak 
 little of what you know ; and whether you speak or say not a 
 word, do it with judgement. 
 
 Remark. When, in a series of short sentences, each 
 particular is constructed exactly alike, and the last is 
 preceded by the conjunction and, the separation may be 
 indicated by a comma, instead of a semicolon ; as, ' The 
 pride of wealth is contemptible, the pride of learning is 
 pitiable, the pride of dignity is ridiculous, and the pride 
 of bigotry is insupportable.' 
 
 RULE Y. A semicolon is put between two or more 
 parts of a sentence, when these, or any of them, are divi- 
 sible by a comma into smaller portions. Examples : 
 
 The noblest prophets and apostles have been children once ; 
 lisping the speech, laughing the laugh, thinking the thought, 
 of boyhood. 
 
 As we perceive the shadow to have moved, but did not 
 perceive its moving; so our advances in learning, as they 
 consist of such minute steps, are only perceivable by the 
 distance. 
 
THE COLON. 135 
 
 Remark. It is obvious, that if. the smaller portions of 
 a sentence require to be separated by commas, the larger 
 divisions must necessarily be separated by a stronger 
 point. 
 
 RULE VI. When the particulars in a series of clauses 
 depend on a commencing or a concluding portion of the 
 sentence, they are separated from each other by a semi- 
 colon. Example : 
 
 To give an early preference to honor above gain, when they 
 stand in competition ; to despise every advantage which cannot 
 be attained without dishonest arts ; to brook no meanness, and 
 stoop to no dissimulation,- are the indications of a great mind, 
 the presages of future eminence and usefulness in life. 
 
 3. The Colon. 
 
 During the course of the preceding investigations, 
 various uses of this point have also been incidentally 
 pointed out. We may say of it generally, that it is used 
 to separate those parts of a sentence which have very 
 little dependence on each other in construction, or which 
 re only removed one degree from complete independ- 
 ence. What I shall do now will be merely to point out 
 more specifically the generality of those uses ; but as 
 the fundamental principles on which they rest have been 
 before explained, these must be sought for in the earlier 
 sections of this chapter. 
 
 EULE I. A colon is used to separate the members 
 of a compound sentence, when the connecting word is 
 omitted, and yet the parts are not independent. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 Suspect a talebearer, and never trust him with thy secrets 
 who is fond of entertaining thee with those of others : 110 wise 
 man will put good liquor in a leaky vessel. 
 
 In business there is something more than barter, exchange, 
 price, payment : there is a sacred faith of man hi man. 
 
136 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Rebuke thy son in private: public rebuke hardens the 
 heart. 
 
 Study to acquire a habit of thinking : no study is more 
 important. 
 
 Remark. If both the members of a sentence depend 
 upon one verb, then, even when the connecting particle is 
 omitted, a semicolon will be the proper point ; as, ' The 
 path of truth is a plain and safe path ; that of falsehood, a 
 perplexing maze. 
 
 RULE II. If any of the parts of the members of a 
 compound sentence are separated by a semicolon, then the 
 principal members must be parted by a colon, although 
 a connecting word may be used. Examples : 
 
 As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, 
 but did not see it moving ; and it appears that the grass has 
 grown, though nobody ever saw it grow : so the advances we 
 make in knowledge, as they consist of such minute steps, are 
 only perceivable by the distance. 
 
 Without the capacity of suffering, we might have been 
 what the world, in its common language, terms happy ; the 
 passive subjects of a series of agreeable sensations : but we 
 could not have had the delights of conscience ; we could not 
 have felt what it is to be magnanimous, to have the toil and 
 the combat and the victory. 
 
 RULE III. The colon is admissible when the matter 
 which precedes it is complete in grammatical construc- 
 tion, but is followed by some illustrative observation. 
 Example : 
 
 To give alms is the action ofj a man who may be supposed 
 to know the value of what he bestows, and the want his fellow- 
 creature has of it : a child, who knows nothing of either, can 
 have no merit in giving alms. 
 
 Remark. This rule is almost identical with Rule I. 
 
 RULE IV. Several colons may follow in succession, 
 when a sentence is composed of various detached affirma- 
 
THE COLON. 137 
 
 tions, having no necessary connection, but only an implied 
 or suppositions one, arising from the same general ten- 
 dency of all the affirmations. Example : 
 
 If you have providence to foresee a danger, let your pru- 
 dence rather prevent it than fear it : the fear of future evil 
 brings oftentimes a present mischief : whilst you seek to pre- 
 vent it, practise to bear it : he is a wise man that can avoid an 
 evil ; he is a patient man that can endure it ; but he is a valiant 
 man that can conquer it. 
 
 Remark. This rule depends upon the general principle 
 already adverted to more than once. 
 
 EULE Y. A colon is used before the introduction of a 
 quotation, a speech, a course of reasoning, or a specifica- 
 tion of articles or subjects, when formally introduced. 
 Examples : 
 
 Always remember the ancient maxim : Know thyself. 
 Thomson begins his Hymn on the Seasons in the following 
 manner : 
 
 These as they change, Almighty Father, these 
 Are but the varied God. 
 
 The air was sweet and plaintive ; and the words, literally 
 translated, were these : ' * The winds roared and the rains fell, 
 when the poor white man, faint and weary, came and sat 
 under our tree." 
 
 Remark 1. If such words as as, namely, that is, &c., 
 introduce a quotation, they should be preceded by a semi- 
 colon and followed by a comma; for the introduction of 
 these connecting words necessarily indicates a closer de- 
 pendence. Example : ' I purchased the following articles ; 
 namely, tea, sugar, coffee, and raisins.' But if the words 
 thus introduced form altogether but a parenthetical ex- 
 pression, a comma only should precede ; as, ' The word 
 reeky that is, care, denotes a stretching of the inind.' 
 
 RemarkZ. When the subjects, or things specified, 
 consist of words or phrases in apposition with a preceding 
 noun, or with that which is equivalent to it, without any 
 
138 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 formal introduction, a comma and a dash are used. 
 Example : ' Energy and audacity of will characterize all 
 ruling men, statesmen, generals, reformers, orators.' 
 
 Before dismissing the colon, it may not be improper to 
 observe, that every verse in the Psalms, the Te Deum, and 
 some other parts of the Liturgy of the Church of England, 
 are divided by a colon, although no point is required b 
 the sense. The use of the colon, however, in the Liturgy, 
 is of great service, it being calculai/ed for choirs, where the 
 parts are always chanted ; the chant being divided by it 
 into two portions. We are told that the Psalms are 
 tc pointed as they are to be sung or said in churches ;" but 
 the colon is not to be regarded in reading them, unless it 
 happens to be placed in conformity to the rules of punc- 
 tuation. Indeed it frequently happens that no point 
 (properly so called) should be inserted where the colon is 
 placed : sometimes a comma is requisite, and sometimes a 
 semicolon, for the right understanding of the passage. 
 
 4. The Period, or Full Stop. 
 
 When an affirmation has no dependence or connection, 
 in construction, with the one that follows it, that affirma- 
 tion constitutes a complete sentence, and demands a full 
 stop, however short it may be. Examples : 
 
 Fear God. Honor the King. Pray without ceasing. 
 Truth is the basis of every virtue. Let its precepts be reli- 
 giously obeyed. 
 
 Remark 1. The notion of parting short independent 
 sentences otherwise than by a full stop, rests upon no 
 rational foundation, and leads to endless perplexities : for 
 how is the standard of mere length to be defined, without 
 regard to the constituent parts of a sentence 1 
 
 Remark 2. If a deduction, inference, &c., be drawn 
 
THE PERIOD. 139 
 
 from several affirmations, a colon should precede the word 
 which introduces such inference, &c. ; but if the sentence 
 be very long, and stronger points than the comma have 
 been before introduced, a full point even may be employed. 
 Example : 
 
 There is no one of ever so little understanding in what 
 belongs to the human constitution, who knows not, that 
 without action, motion, and employment, the body languishes 
 and is oppressed ; its nourishment runs to disease ; the spirits, 
 employed abroad, help to consume the parts within ; and 
 nature, as it were, preys upon herself. For, although an incli- 
 nation to ease, and moderate rest from action, be as natural 
 and useful to us as the inclination we have towards sleep, yet 
 an excessive love of rest, and a contracted aversion to employ- 
 ment, must be a disease in tha mind, equal to that of a lethargy 
 in the body. 
 
 Remark 3. It is by no means a certain sign that a 
 sentence has some dependence, in construction, on the one 
 that precedes it, simply because the latter may be intro- 
 duced by a conjunction ; for those words sometimes serve 
 as a mere starting-point to a sentence, without having any 
 very definite meaning. In the Bible they even frequently 
 begin a chapter. Take an example in illustration : 
 
 There are thoughts and images flashing across the mind 
 in its highest moods, to which we give the name of inspiration. 
 But whom do we honor with this title of the inspired poet ? 
 
 Remark 4. Another use of the full point, which often 
 occurs, is to mark abbreviations ; of which we will speak 
 in another place; merely observing here, that in contrac- 
 tions of words derived from a foreign language, and used 
 in English, in an abbreviated form, as if they were real 
 words, the full point should be omitted. Examples : 
 ' Two per cent is but small interest.' ' The pros and the 
 cons were equally divided.' 
 
 The remaining point-marks, to which we adverted in 
 p. 97, here follow, together with directions for their proper 
 application. 
 
140 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 5. The Interrogation. 
 
 BULE I. A note of interrogation is used at the end of 
 an interrogative sentence ; that is, whenever a question is 
 asked. Examples : 
 
 What does the pedant mean ? 
 
 Shall little, haughty ignorance pronounce 
 His work unwise, of which the smallest part 
 Exceeds the narrow vision of the mind ? 
 
 How can he exalt his thoughts to anything great or noble, 
 who only believes, that, after a short turn on the stage of 
 existence, he is to sink into oblivion, and to lose his con- 
 sciousness for ever ? 
 
 EULE II. Sometimes several apparent questions are 
 included in one sentence ; when it may not be necessary 
 to use more than one interrogation at the end. Ex- 
 amples: 
 
 Do the ambitious lay such mighty projects, and compass 
 their designs with such pain and difficulty, for mere pageantry 
 and gaudy trifles ; and shall I, who am a candidate for heaven, 
 a probationer for celestial dignity, lose my title for want of 
 diligence ? 
 
 Ah ! whither now are fled those dreams of greatness ; those 
 busy, bustling days ; those gay-spent, festive nights ; those 
 veering thoughts, lost between good and ill, that shared 
 thy life ? 
 
 Remark 1. The fact is, that there is in these examples 
 but one cumulative question, to which but one, if any, 
 answer is required. Were there distinct questions put, 
 and an answer required to each, then each interrogation 
 should be marked with its appropriate sign ; for there 
 would be so many interrogative sentences. Example : 
 
 Was the prisoner alone when he was apprehended ? Was 
 he drunk? Is he known to the police ? Has he any regular 
 occupation ? Where does he dwell ? What is his name ? 
 
THE INTERROGATION. 141 
 
 Remark 2. When sentences or expressions, which 
 were affirmative when spoken or written, are quoted by a 
 writer in the form of a question, the interrogative point- 
 mark should follow the quotation-marks, and not precede 
 them. For example : 
 
 " The passing crowd" is a phrase coined in the spirit of 
 indifference. Yet, to a rrian of what Plato calls " universal 
 sympathies," and even to the plain, ordinary denizens of this 
 world, what can be more interesting than ** the passing 
 crowd"? 
 
 The reason is clear : the words quoted are those of 
 another, but the question is the writer's own. Never- 
 theless, for the sake of neatness, the ordinary points, such 
 as the comma, semicolon, colon, and full stop, precede the 
 quotation-marks in instances analogous to the one quoted ; 
 but the exclamation follows the same rule as the interro- 
 gation. 
 
 RULE III. An interrogation should not be used in 
 cases where it is only stated that a question has been 
 asked, and where the words are not used as a question. 
 Examples : 
 
 The Cyprians asked me why I wept. 
 
 Diogenes being asked how one should be revenged of his 
 enemy, answered, By being a virtuous and an honest man. 
 
 I was asked if I would stop for dinner. 
 
 Remark. To put a note of interrogation at the end of 
 these apparent interrogative sentences would be wrong ; 
 for the design here is not to elicit an answer, but merely 
 to state a fact. Hence it follows, that whenever the in- 
 tention is to evoke an answer, the words employed for that 
 purpose must be followed by an interrogative point, 
 whether they assume the ordinary form of an interroga- 
 tion, or not. Example : ' You are deprived of the com- 
 pany of your friend?' For here, although the sentence 
 has the form of a positive affirmation, yet the speaker is 
 
142 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 not so certain of the fact which he appears to assert, but 
 that he requires his opinion to be further corroborated. 
 He therefore indicates such wish by the manner in which 
 lie utters the words ; and that wish or intention constitutes 
 the essence of the interrogation. 
 
 6. The Exclamation. 
 
 EULE I. This point is used to denote any sudden 
 emotion of the mind, whether of joy, grief, surprise, fear, 
 or any other sensation ; and whether expressed by one or 
 more words. Examples : 
 
 My friend ! this conduct amazes me ! 
 
 Away ! all ye Csesars and Napoleons ! to your own dark 
 and frightful domains of slaughter and misery. 
 
 What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ! how 
 infinite in faculties ! in form and moving, how express and 
 admirable ! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how 
 like a God ! 
 
 Ah ! the laborious indolence of him who has nothing to 
 do ! the preying weariness, the stagnant ennui, of him who 
 has nothing to obtain ! 
 
 Hail, source of Being ! Universal Soul ! 
 
 Remark. Unless attention be paid to what was said 
 under the head of the interrogation, it may sometimes be 
 difficult to distinguish an interrogative from an excla- 
 matory sentence ; but a sentence in which any wonder or 
 admiration is expressed, and no answer is either expected 
 or implied, must be terminated with a note of admiration. 
 As for example : 
 
 How mischievous are the effects of war ! 
 Who can sufficiently express the goodness of our Creator ! 
 What must God himself be, when his works are so mag- 
 nificent ! 
 
 RULE II. When an ironical expression is used, in the 
 form of an exclamation, the note of admiration must be 
 inserted. Examples : 
 
THE EXCLAMATION. 143 
 
 excellent guardian of the sheep ! a wolf ! 
 Entomb' d within this vault a lawyer lies, 
 Who, fame assureth us, was just and wise ! 
 An able advocate, and honest too ! 
 That's wondrous strange indeed if it be true. 
 
 What an admirable man he is ! how careful of his own 
 interests ! 
 
 Remark 1. Some printers invariably place an admira- 
 tion after certain words which generally denote a sudden 
 mental emotion, although they are followed by other words 
 which make part of the affirmation expressing the emotion : 
 but this is wrong ; for the mark of admiration ought 
 certainly to be placed only at the end of those words which 
 constitute the exclamatory phrase. Examples : 
 
 Alas for his poor family ! 
 Alas, my noble boy ! that thou shouldst die. 
 Ah me ! she cried, and waved her lily hand. 
 O despiteful love ! unconstant womankind. 
 
 Remark 2. The interjections and oh are often used 
 almost indiscriminately ; but there is, nevertheless, an im- 
 portant difference in their proper application. The former 
 is used in a direct address only, but the latter ought never 
 to be so employed. If it is thought necessary to use 
 a mark of exclamation after 0, it ought to follow the 
 words which accompany that letter ; for they all form part 
 of the exclamatory sentence or address. Example : 
 ' When, my countrymen ! when will you begin to exert 
 your vigor V But oh may sometimes of itself form an 
 exclamation, and sometimes other words which accompany 
 it may be necessary for that purpose. For instance, take 
 the sentences : l Oh ! what a glorious thing it is to die for 
 one's country ! ' ' Oh that man were guided in his conduct 
 more by reason and good sense, than by passion and preju- 
 dice !' In the latter case, the words which follow oh are so 
 closely connected with it, that they would constitute no 
 
144 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 sense, were that particle omitted : the point-mark is there- 
 fore properly placed at the end of the sentence. This 
 example further illustrates what was said under Remark 1. 
 
 Remark 3. Sometimes oh, even with the words which 
 accompany it, does not constitute an exclamation, or denote 
 any emotion of the mind at all. In those cases no point 
 should be used to part them; neither should an exclama- 
 tion be inserted at the end. Such phrases are, oh yes, 
 oh no ; where oh is almost redundant. But if there be 
 emotion of the mind indicated, then the point-mark will 
 follow the words which denote it, and oh will be parted 
 from the accompanying words by a comma, as in oh, 
 indeed ! oh, certainly ! oh, wonderful ! &c. 
 
 Remark 4. The Spaniards make use of inverted inter- 
 rogations and exclamations at the beginning of sentences, 
 and the ordinary mark at the end. Examples of this will 
 be given in the following chapter. 
 
 
 
 7. The Parenthesis. 
 
 Although neither the parenthesis, nor the dash, nor per- 
 haps even the interrogation or the exclamation, as before re- 
 marked, can be called point-marks in the strict grammatical 
 sense ; nevertheless, in a rhetorical point of view, they are 
 so essential, that their omission in this place would be in- 
 excusable : for certainly, to no other branch of our sub- 
 ject can they be so properly assigned. 
 
 RULE I. The parenthesis (so called from ira,pVTi6rifj.i, I 
 place between) is generally employed to separate such 
 matter from the context as, although furnishing some 
 useful hint or necessary remark, is not connected in 
 grammatical construction with the body of the sentence. 
 Examples : 
 
 I have seen charity (if charity it may be called) insult with 
 an air of pity. 
 
THE PARENTHESIS. 145 
 
 Left now to himself (malice could not wish him a worse 
 adviser), he resolves on a desperate project. 
 
 Note. The occasional use of parentheses may add live- 
 liness and spirit to a discourse, but their frequent employ- 
 ment is very injudicious : for nothing so much weakens 
 the force of language as the continual dropping of the 
 voice, and the consequent diversion of the attention from 
 the main object of inquiry, which a constant recurrence of 
 parenthetical observations necessitates. 
 
 Remark 1. Some writers on the subject of punctuation 
 lay down the rule, "that parenthetical remarks demand 
 every point which the sense would require, if the paren- 
 thesis were omitted : the proper point ought therefore to 
 be placed before the parenthesis begins, and likewise be 
 inserted within the parenthetical mark at the close." To 
 me this seems an error. For, if the parenthetical matter 
 is unconnected in construction with that which precedes 
 it, and may be dispensed with altogether, without injuring 
 the sense, whence arises the necessity of inserting a point- 
 mark to denote a connection or dependence which does not 
 exist 1 ? The inserted parenthetical remark may be inde- 
 pendent in construction, both of what has gone before, and 
 of what may follow : all, then, that is requisite in that 
 case, is to indicate that such a remark is there made. 
 The parenthesis itself serves that purpose : therefore it is 
 all that is necessary, until the thread of the discourse is 
 again renewed ; which is, when the parenthetical matter 
 is ended, and the subject is again continued. Consequently, 
 the point should be put outside the last parenthesis, when- 
 ever the interpolated remark is unconnected in gramma- 
 tical construction with the context. Example : 
 
 All I contend for is, that the aristocracy cannot subsist 
 long in any free country like our own (especially since the 
 example of France), when unsupported by personal merit. 
 
 Remark 2. If the parenthetical insertion denotes in- 
 
146 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 quiry, or expresses an emotion of wonder, astonishment, 
 delight, &c., and requires a note of interrogation or ex- 
 clamation, that point must necessarily come within the 
 parenthesis, to the remark contained in which it of course 
 essentially belongs. For instance : 
 
 The rocks (hard-hearted varlets !) melted not into tears, 
 nor did the trees hang their heads in silent sorrow. 
 
 Death onward conies, 
 
 With hasty steps, though unperceived and silent. 
 Perhaps (alarming thought !), perhaps he aims 
 Ev'n now the fatal blow that ends my life. 
 
 Remark 3. But if the general discourse also requires 
 a point at the interposition of the parenthesis, according 
 to what we have before said, that point should follow the 
 parenthesis, and the one required by the parenthetical 
 matter immediately precede it ; as in the following ex- 
 ample : ' While the Christian desires the approbation of 
 his fellow-men (and why should he not desire it ?), he 
 disdains to secure their goodwill by dishonorable means.' 
 Nevertheless, as the two points together have a somewhat 
 unsightly appearance, some printers place the point belong- 
 ing to the general construction of the sentence before the 
 parenthesis, as follows : ( While they wish to please, (and 
 why should they not wish it ?) they disdain dishonorable 
 means.' But this does not seem advisable. 
 
 Remark 4. In reports of speeches, where a particular 
 reference is made to some speaker, or where the approba- 
 tion or disapprobation of the auditors is signified, it is 
 usual to inclose the inserted words within parentheses. 
 For example : 
 
 The lucid exposition which has been made of the objects 
 of the meeting by the right honorable gentleman (Mr. 
 Disraeli) lightens the task of recommending it to an audience 
 like this. Indeed, I think I should act more advisedly if I 
 left his cogent and persuasive statement to produce its natural 
 effect, without any attempt on my part to enforce it. (No, no.) 
 
THE DASH, OH RULE. 147 
 
 8. The Dash, or Rule. 
 
 The dash is frequently employed in a very capricious 
 and arbitrary manner, as a substitute for all sorts of 
 points, by writers whose thoughts, although, it may be, 
 sometimes striking and profound, are thrown together 
 without order or dependence ; also by some others, who 
 think that they thereby give emphasis and prominence to 
 expressions which in themselves are very common-place, 
 and would, without this fictitious assistance, escape the 
 observation of the reader, or be deemed by him hardly 
 worthy of notice. Nevertheless, this mark has a use, and, 
 when judiciously introduced, materially assists the proper 
 understanding and the correct enunciation of certain 
 kinds of writing, poetical and rhapsodical especially. 
 The following are the rules which are given by the best 
 writers on the subject. 
 
 RULE I. The dash is used when a sentence is broken 
 off before its conclusion, and the reader is left in suspense, 
 or to supply, from his supposed knowledge of the matter, 
 what the author thinks it prudent to withhold. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 I own, the decision is in your favor ; but . 
 
 A question of precedence in the class of wit and humour, 
 over which you preside, having arisen between me and my 
 countryman Dr. Swift, we beg leave . 
 
 Remark. Some printers use a longer line in this case 
 than the common dash, ordinarily a two-em rule, as in 
 the last example ; which appears to me to be the prefer- 
 able plan of the two. 
 
 RULE II. It may be employed where the sense breaks 
 
 off abruptly ; where there is a significant pause required ; 
 
 or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment. 
 
 Hence it follows, that it may be properly inserted where 
 
 L 2 
 
148 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 no point is required ; but it does not dispense with the 
 use of the ordinary points at the same time, when the 
 grammatical construction of the sentence requires them. 
 Examples : 
 
 Was there ever a holder captain of a more valiant band ? 
 Was there -ever but I scorn to boast. 
 
 This world is a prison in every respect, 
 Whose walls are the heavens in common ; 
 The jailer is Sin, and the prisoners men, 
 And the fetters are nothing but women. 
 
 HERE LIES THE GREAT False marble ! where ? 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here. 
 
 RULE III. A dash may be used after several words 
 or expressions, when these constitute a nominative which 
 is broken off, and resumed in a new form ; and after a 
 long number, or a series of phrases or clauses, when they 
 lead to an important conclusion. Example reproduced : 
 
 That patriotism which, catching its inspiration from the 
 immortal God, and leaving at an immeasurable distance below, 
 all lesser, grovelling, personal interests and feelings, animates 
 and prompts to deeds of self-sacrifice, of valor, of devotion, 
 and of death itself, that is public virtue ; that is the noblest, 
 the sublim^st, of all public virtues. 
 
 llemark. Were not the dash used in instances of this 
 sort, as remarked a few pages previous, a stronger point 
 than any that had been before introduced, would be 
 required ; for the mind must perforce pause a loDger 
 time in contemplating all its previously expressed thoughts, 
 before it can resume them collected into one subject. But 
 as this could not always be done, owing to the paucity of 
 the point-marks, the dash seems preferable. 
 
 RULE IV. The dash is used before what is termed by 
 elocutionists the echo ; that is, before a word or phrase 
 repeated in an exclamatory or very emphatic manner. 
 Examples : 
 
THE DASH, OR RULE. 149 
 
 You speak like a boy, like a boy who thinks the old 
 gnarled oak can be twisted as easily as the young sapling. 
 
 Shall I, who was born, I might almost say, but certainly 
 brought up, in the tent of my father, that most excellent 
 general shall I, the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and not 
 only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps themselves shall 
 I compare myself with this half-year captain? a captain! 
 before whom should one place the two armies without their 
 ensigns, I am persuaded he would not know to which of them 
 he is consul. 
 
 Newton was a Christian ; Newton ! whose mind burst 
 forth from the fetters cast by nature on our finite concep- 
 tions; Newton ! whose science was truth, and the foundation 
 of whose knowledge of it was philosophy ; not those visionary 
 and arrogant presumptions which too often usurp its name, 
 but philosophy resting on the basis of mathematics, which, 
 like figures, cannot lie ; Newton ! who carried the line and 
 rule to the utmost barriers of creation, and explored the prin- 
 ciples by which, no doubt, all created matter is held together, 
 and exists. 
 
 Remark 1. No poiiit is put with the dash before 
 ' shall I,' in the second example, to show that what pre- 
 cedes is unfinished ; while, in the third, a semicolon precedes 
 the word ' Newton ;' because the members of the sentence 
 are divisible into clauses. But in more simple sentences, 
 like the first, a comma is sufficient. 
 
 Remark 2. If there be a mere echo of the thought, the 
 dash may generally be omitted, unless the sentence be 
 very rhetorical in its character. 
 
 RULE Y. The dash may sometimes be judiciously used 
 in place of the parenthesis ; where, namely, a parenthetical 
 observation is interposed, which is not thought sufficiently 
 irrelevant to demand that mark. Examples : 
 
 In every well-regulated community such as that of 
 England, the laws own no superior ; but in ill-organized or 
 tyrannous governments the Turkish for instance, there is 
 always some power which sets itself above the law, and obeys 
 or disobeys it, as suits its convenience or caprice. 
 
150 ON PUNCTUATION. 
 
 The whole external deportment of a child is delightful. 
 Its smile always so ready when there is no distress, and so 
 soon recurring when that distress has passed away is like an 
 opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond. 
 
 Remark 1, As the dash in this case supplies the place 
 of the parenthesis, strictly speaking, the grammatical 
 point should follow the last dash ; but as this would have 
 an unsightly appearance, it is always placed before it, as 
 in the first example. 
 
 Remark 2. If the parenthetical observation requires a 
 mark of interrogation or exclamation, of course it must 
 be used, whether any point has preceded it or not. Ex- 
 ample in point : ' How little may it not be ? that the 
 most considerate feel the import of a grateful acknow- 
 ledgement to God.' 
 
 RULE VI. The dash is commonly used where there is 
 an ellipsis of the adverb namely, or of other words having 
 a similar import. Examples : 
 
 The four greatest names in English poetry are almost the 
 lirst we come to, Chaucer, Spencer, Shakspeare, and Milton. 
 
 Nicholas Copernicus was instructed in that seminary where 
 it is always happy when any one can be well taught, the 
 family circle. 
 
 Remark. In works where the frequent repetition of 
 the dash would be unsightly, a semicolon may generally 
 be substituted for it. 
 
 RULE VII. The dash is inserted between a side-head 
 and the subject-matter, and also between the subject- 
 matter and the authority from which it is taken. It is 
 also used between a question and an answer when in the 
 same paragraph ; and to denote an omission of some letters 
 or figures, when it must be longer or shorter, according to 
 the number of letters omitted. Examples : 
 
 The Cares of Subsistence. What multitudes are there, who, 
 
THE DASH, OR RULE. 151 
 
 wholly occupied with the care of obtaining subsistence, have 
 no time for speculation! The rise of the sun is only that 
 which calls them to toil ; and the finest night, in all its soft- 
 ness, is mute to them, or tells them only that it is the hour of 
 repose. Diderot. 
 
 Who created you? God. 
 Matt, ix, 16. 
 By H ns ! 
 
 Remark 1. If the authority intervene in the middle 
 of a sentence, it is better to inclose it in a parenthesis 
 also; for thus confusion and mistake are avoided. Ex- 
 ample : 
 
 In the preceding year, Politiano had inscribed to the Pope 
 his elegant translation of Herodian, in return for which, 
 Innocent had not only written to him, but had presented him 
 with, two hundred pieces of gold. (Polit. Ep., viii, 1, 2, 3, 4.) 
 Politiano had also addressed to the Pope, soon after his eleva- 
 tion, a fine Sapphic ode. Roscoc. 
 
 Remark 2. When, at the beginning or end of a poetical 
 quotation, a portion of the line is omitted, it is better to 
 leave a blank space than to insert an ugly long rule, as is 
 done by many ; for the ellipsis is sufficiently indicated by 
 the position of the lines. Example : 
 
 Oh ! it is excellent 
 To have a giant's strength. 
 
152 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS USED BY PRINTERS. 
 1. Marks of Quotation. 
 
 I. 
 
 EXTRACTED matter is usually marked at the com- 
 mencement of each paragraph, and still more distinctly, 
 and better, where the object, as in law-books, is to show 
 clearly how far the quoted or documentary matter extends 
 (although this would not suit the purpose of all writers), 
 by placing inverted commas at the commencement of each 
 line : thus (*'); and the close of the extract is denoted 
 by two apostrophes, in like manner ("). I will give an 
 example of each ,mode, but will premise, as I just now 
 hinted, that the quotation-marks are used in each line in 
 law- works, leading articles of newspapers, and where the 
 object is to point out most clearly the extent and place of 
 the quotation. Examples : 
 
 "It is impossible but that he who has long exercised his 
 mind in defining, dividing, and distinguishing, arguing and 
 methodizing, should excel the majority of men with whom he 
 converses." 
 
 " Go now, and with some daring drug 
 " Bait thy disease ; and, whilst they m^, 
 " Thou, to maintain their precious strife, 
 " Spend the dear treasures of thy life.'* 
 
 II. 
 
 When an extract occurs within an extract, its com- 
 
QUOTATION-MARKS. 153 
 
 mencement is denoted by a single inverted comma, and its 
 close, by a single apostrophe : as below. 
 
 " If the physician sees you eat anything that is not good 
 for your body, to keep you from, it, he cries, * It is poison !' If 
 the divine sees you do anything that is hurtful for your soul, 
 he cries, ' You are damned !' " 
 
 Remark. The Scotch printers generally reverse this 
 order ; denoting a simple extract by a single mark, and a 
 compound one by a double mark. For reasons which may 
 be gathered from what I shall say presently, I would not 
 advise the general adoption of this peculiarity ; which, 
 besides, seems to give the most distinct mark to that which 
 is subordinate, and the less distinct to that which it is the 
 intention to exhibit the most prominently. 
 
 III. 
 
 To avoid the use of too much italic, it is not unusual to 
 put explanatory or emphatic words within single quo- 
 tation-marks. Examples : 
 
 By 'experiment' is meant the process of altering the 
 arrangements presented by nature. 
 
 The verb active frequently takes the accusative of a kin- 
 dred substantive ; as, aphs aparat, ' he imprecates curses.' 
 
 Remark. Some writers .use the double marks in such 
 cases ; but they appear to me clumsy and unsightly. Of 
 course, if italic letters are used, these elucidatory marks 
 are dispensed with. I will give examples of various 
 systems ; so that the reader may judge for himself, as to 
 which ought to be preferred ; merely remarking, that 
 much will depend upon the nature of each particular 
 book : but whichever plan be adopted, in grammars, and 
 other works where they will be of constant recurrence, the 
 compositor ought to be certified respecting the plan 
 determined on, when he first takes copy ; for it is too 
 
154 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS. 
 
 much to leave such matters to his discretion, and then 
 make him alter his plan, at his own expense, to suit the 
 whim or the taste of an overseer or a press-corrector. 
 Examples : 
 
 The root of the verb with the future of * chukna ' is con- 
 sidered very properly as the future perfect of such root : thus, 
 * jabmain lilih-chukunga,' postquam scripsero. 
 
 Ao/ceT, it seems ; e'5<tae, it did seem ; e5o|e, it hath seemed ; 
 TO SOKOVV, that which seems. 
 
 npeVet, it becomes; eTrpcTre, it did become ; Trpfirciv, to become ; 
 ?b irptTrov, that which becomes. 
 
 Me'Aet, * it is a care ;' e/ueAe, * it w r as a care ;' jueArjo-ct, ' it shall 
 be a care ;' /ie^e'ArjKe, * it hath been a care.' 
 
 Xprj, "it behoveth;" c'xpV, "it did behove;" xpV**, "it 
 shall behove ;" xp^ vai an d XPV V > " to behove." 
 
 Which has the advantage of neatness and perspicuity ? 
 I leave each individual to judge for himself. For my own 
 part, I think the common Koman letter, without any quo- 
 tation-marks, is quite distinct enough after Greek, or any 
 other unusual alphabet ; but in other cases, italic is cer- 
 tainly the best seen, although I think the single quotation- 
 marks are to be preferred, on the whole ; and therefore I 
 have generally adhered to them in this book ; although, if 
 the reader will turn to p. 71, he will there see examples 
 of three different styles in that one page. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Marks of quotation are also employed in what is com- 
 monly called by printers conversation matter ; but as they 
 sadly disfigure the appearance of a page, when of frequent 
 occurrence, and are a great nuisance both to the com- 
 positor and the reader, and moreover assist very little in 
 the elucidation of the dialogue, the various speakers being 
 in general sufficiently indicated by the turn of the lan- 
 guage, it is to me a matter of much doubt, whether their 
 occasional utility, under the circumstances indicated, be 
 
QUOTATION-MARKS. 155 
 
 not more than counterbalanced by their undoubted practical 
 annoyance, and by the disfigurement of the page occasioned 
 by their constant occurrence. I will subjoin an example, 
 as I find it in a printed book, and also another without 
 any of these elucidatory parasites ; in order that the reader 
 may see on which side lies the balance of perspicuity : on 
 that of appearance there can be no doubt. The first 
 example is given as a quotation in a well-known periodical, 
 and is the approved method in almost all offices in London 
 at the present day. Here it is : 
 
 " When the Oxonian returned home in the vacation, the 
 squire made many inquires about how he liked his college, his 
 studies, and his tutor. 
 
 " ' Oh, as to my tutor/ replied he, * I have parted with 
 him some time since.' 
 
 " * You have ; and pray, why so ? ' 
 
 " * Oh, Sir,' continued the Oxonian, ' hunting was all the 
 go at our college, and I was a little short of funds ; so I dis- 
 charged my tutor, and took a horse, you know.' " 
 
 I will now give an example from the authorized 
 version of the English Bible, where conversation matter 
 is never quoted. It occurs in the twentyseventh chapter 
 of Genesis, beginning at the eighteenth verse, and here 
 follows : 
 
 And he came unto his father, and said, My father : And he 
 said, Here am I ; who art thou, my son ? 
 
 And Jacob said unto his father, I am Esau thy first born ; 
 I have done according as thou badest me : arise, I pray thee, 
 and eat of my venison, that thy soul may bless me. 
 
 And Isaac said unto his son, How is it that thou hast found 
 it so quickly, my son ? And he said, Because the Lord thy 
 God brought it to me. 
 
 And Isaac said unto Jacob, Come near, I pray thee, that I 
 may feel thee, my son, whether thou be my very son Esau 
 or not. 
 
 Now, look upon this picture, and on that ; and if it is 
 intended by these marks to point out more clearly to the 
 general reader what each individual says, I think they 
 
156 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS. 
 
 answer this purpose very little better than the plan 
 adopted in the last quotation ; and as far as appearance 
 goes, they are a complete eyesore. 
 
 2. The Apostrophe. 
 
 In addition to the use of the apostrophe for the pur- 
 poses indicated in the preceding section, it has other 
 offices. These are, 1. As a sign of the possessive case of 
 nouns substantive ; as, ' John's book/ 2. To denote the 
 omission of one or more letters in a word ; as, ' Fll,' for 'I 
 will ;' ' heav'n,' for ' heaven,' &c. 
 
 Remark 1. The apostrophe is sometimes used in the 
 singular number without the additional s, when the nomi- 
 native ends in s, ss, or ce; as, ' Moses' rod ;' ' for righteous- 
 ness' sake ;' ' for conscience' sake.' This observation is 
 particularly applicable to foreign proper names, and to 
 common nouns which are seldom used in the plural, such 
 as righteousness and conscience. The reason for this is, 
 that we thus avoid the disagreeable hissing sound which 
 would arise from the concurrence of so many s's. Never- 
 theless, recourse should not be had to it when its adoption 
 would cause ambiguity, or when the additional 5 is but 
 little offensive to the ear ; as in such instances as ' James's 
 book,' ' Thomas's cloak,' ' Burns's poems,' &c. 
 
 JRemark 2. When a vowel is omitted at the end of a 
 word, before another word beginning with a vowel, the 
 practice of different languages varies, as to the union of 
 the two words, or their separation. I will subjoin a few 
 observations on such as the generality of printers are ever 
 likely to meet with, and will illustrate the practice by 
 examples. 
 
 The French, in such cases, unite the two words, whether 
 they form one syllable or more, so that both appear to the 
 eye as one word. Thus : 
 
 Cependant les amours d'Astarbg rietaient ignorees que de 
 Pygmalion ; et il s'imaginait qu'elle riaimerait jamais que lui. 
 
THE APOSTROPHE. 157 
 
 But in Latin, Greek, and Italian, the practice is the 
 reverse : a space is placed between each word, whether 
 the two syllables coalesce or not. Examples : 
 
 Egon J mea bona ut dem Bacchidi dono sciens ? 
 
 Ipsu' mihi Davus, qui intimu' est eorum consiliis, dixit. 
 
 But in Latin poetry such omissions are of rare occurrence. 
 As a general rule, the final vowel, and even m final, are 
 elided in pronunciation and scanning when followed by a 
 word beginning with a vowel; but, nevertheless, those 
 letters are for the most part retained in appearance. 
 Example : 
 
 Postquam res Asise Priamique evertere gentem 
 Immeritam visum Superis, ceciditque superbum 
 Ilium, et omnis humo fumat Neptunia Troja ; 
 Diver sa exilia, et desertas queerer e terras, 
 Auguriis agimur Divum ; classemque sub ipsa 
 Antandro, et Phrygise molimur montibus Idae ; 
 Incerti quo fata ferant, ubi sistere detur ; 
 Contrahimusque viros. 
 
 Here it will be observed that no final vowel is elided 
 to the eye, nor an initial vowel following ; yet in all those 
 cases marked with a crescent the two vowels coalesce in 
 pronunciation into one syllable. 
 
 In Greek poetry the elision of the final vowel is much 
 more common than in Latin, as the following extract will 
 show : 
 
 Tov 5' au0 5 iTT-rroAox 010 TpotTT/uSa <pcu8t/uos vios* 
 
 OLTJ Trep (t>v\\(av yeveiri, Toa/Se KCU avfipcav. 
 *u\\a TO. psv T' avefj.05 xM a ^ts X 66t > a\\a Se 0' fa 
 TrjAedococra <|)U6f eapos 5* Giriyiyverat &py 
 Hs avfycev ysvet], rj fJ&v ^>uet, 7} 5' 
 
158 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS. 
 
 So with the Italian : 
 
 O si, ti so dir io, 
 
 Ch' or ben t' apponi : tutt' i rischi , tutti , 
 I disagi , che mai ponno dur noja 
 A chi va errando , s' odi lei , gia tutti 
 Stanno intorno al suo figlio. 
 
 In Spanish, elisions, real or apparent, are of very rare 
 occurrence : when they do happen, the plan above indi- 
 cated is followed. I subjoin an extract from a Spanish 
 comedy, more for the purpose of elucidating their plan of 
 using the notes of interrogation and exclamation, than for 
 the elisions to be found in it ; for in fact there are none. 
 
 ; Ay ! Seiior , esto va malo , 
 
 Malo , malo ; picaruela ! 
 
 { Si parecera la Have ? 
 Muiioz dice bien , no es ella 
 Quieii tiene la culpa ; yo , 
 
 Yo la he tenido si fuera 
 
 Decir pero si, ; enmendarse! 
 
 Cuando cumpla los ochenta. 
 j Bien dice Mufioz ! ; mal afto 
 Si dice bien ! 1 me inquieta 
 Con sus cosas , pero encaja 
 
 Unas verdades tan secas 
 
 Si yo se lo hubiera dicho 
 Antes , no me sucediera 
 Este chasco , si por cierto. 
 
 t* Pobre Don Roque ! ; qu6 buena 
 a hiciste ! ; pobre Don Roque ! 
 
 Where it will be observed, that a space is interposed 
 before all the points except the period. But this is 
 common to French and Italian also; at least, to works 
 printed in either of those countries. 
 
 The Germans adopt a plan different from either of the 
 foregoing. If the elision of the vowel is for the purpose of 
 causing two syllables to coalesce into one, then no space is 
 interposed betwixt the words ; otherwise, the words 
 remain apart, as though no elision had taken place, 
 example or two will fully illustrate my meaning. 
 
THE APOSTROPHE. 159 
 
 Lass mich Dir iris Auge sehen, 
 Ob's das fruh're Antlitz 1st. 
 Schoner, alter siehst Du aus, 
 Sonst ist's ganz so, wie es war. 
 
 Du Herrlicher, so hab" ich Dich yerloren ! 
 Nicht hor' ich Deinen Trost, Dein Lob fortan. 
 
 Du hast Dich. gesehnt ? Fiirwahr ? ! * 
 Grade so erging's auch mir. 
 
 In English prose, elisions are rare, except in colloquial 
 and familiar discourse, where they are far from being 
 uncommon. They are also of constant occurrence in 
 poetry. 
 
 It hath been the aim of some printers, of late years, to 
 bring the English system into conformity with the Greek, 
 &c., in this respect. Hence we frequently meet, in recently- 
 printed books, with instances like the following. 
 
 That 's monstrous : Oh, that thou wert out. 
 
 ' T were false, if I should speak it, 
 For / 'm sure she is not buried. 
 
 There was a play on V, 
 
 And had the poet not been bribed to a modest 
 Expression of your antic gambols in 't, 
 Some darks had been discover'd. 
 
 Now my young guest ! methinks you 're allycholly : I pray 
 you, why is it ? 
 
 But this seems repugnant to our taste, and contrary to 
 the practice till lately universally adopted. And as we 
 have as good a right to a system of our own as any other 
 nation, I do not see why we should not follow that which 
 has been hitherto current, especially if it is as clear, if not 
 clearer than that which some fantastic people, fond of 
 unnecessary innovation, would fain have us to imitate. 
 The English system seems to me to have been nearly iden- 
 
 * Observe the occurrence of the two points together. This is 
 strictly correct, and is customary in German. 
 
160 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS. 
 
 tical with the German ; and as that is more consonant to 
 our notions of propriety, and has been, until lately, gene- 
 rally acquiesced in, it would certainly be better to adhere 
 to it, as no advantage is derived from adopting that of 
 the learned languages. I subjoin some illustrative ex- 
 amples : 
 
 What hour o' the clock is't? What's o' clock? 
 If there be ten, shrink not, but down with 'em. 
 
 Look, as a sweet rose fairly budding forth, 
 Betrays her beauties to tK enamoured moon. 
 
 Ay, by my beard, will we ; 
 For he's a proper man. 
 
 Thou'lt yet survive the storm, and bloom in paradise. 
 If Pd a throne, Pd freely share it with thee. 
 
 An exception is generally made with nouns substantive 
 followed by s, to distinguish the elision from a possessive 
 case. Example : 
 
 Tell me not that woman 's fair, 
 
 Where truth 's unknown, and honor 's dead. 
 
 Before quitting this subject, I may observe, that in 
 English poetry the e of the termination ed is frequently 
 omitted by some printers, and a mark of elision substi- 
 tuted for it. Now, as this e is scarcely ever pronounced 
 in such cases, unless it follows the hard mutes d or t, such 
 elision seems hardly necessary, as it does not in general 
 furnish the reader with a more correct guide to the pro- 
 nunciation required. I will give a few quotations without 
 any elision ; from which it will be evident that no con- 
 fusion or error of meter arises in them from the retention 
 of this letter, and where, consequently, no advant 
 would ensue from its omission. 
 
 Was this the face that launched a thousand ships, 
 And burned the topless towers of Ilium ? 
 
TIIE APOSTROPHE. 161 
 
 Besides, a famous monk of modern times 
 
 Has left of cocks recorded in his rhymes, 
 
 That of a parish priest the son and heir 
 
 (When sons of priests were from the proverb clear) 
 
 Affronted once a cock of noble kind, 
 
 And either lamed his legs, or struck him blind ; 
 
 For which the clerk, his father, was disgraced, 
 
 And in his benefice another placed. 
 
 I certainly cannot see the beauty, or the advantage, of 
 printing the verbs in the two last lines without the e, as 
 I find them in a book now before me, otherwise very well 
 printed.* 
 
 For which the clerk, his father, was disgraced, 
 And in his benefice another plac'd. 
 
 In the few instances other than after d and t, where 
 the e in the termination ed is required to be sounded in a 
 distinct syllable, the letter may be accented ; and thus all 
 doubt will be removed. Example : 
 
 Hence loathed Melancholy, 
 
 Of Cerberus and blackest Midnight born, 
 
 In Stygian cave forlorn. 
 
 Another method, followed by some printers, and gene- 
 rally satisfactory to most writers, is to insert an apostrophe 
 only in those instances where the root-word is entire, and 
 the termination erttire, before contraction; but to Ketain 
 the e in those cases where an elision of the last letter of 
 the root-word has been already made, even in the full 
 form of the derivative or inflected word, in order to avoid 
 the confusion which would be apt to arise in pronuncia- 
 tion, from the occurrence of two e's in one syllable ; as in 
 such words as placed (=place-ed), bruised (=bruise-ed), 
 loved ( love-ed), &c. An example will illustrate my 
 meaning : 
 
 * Chambers's History of English Literature. 
 
162 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS. 
 
 Oh ! bloodiest picture in the book of Time ! 
 Sarmatia fell unwept, without a crime ; 
 Found not a generous friend, a pitying foe, 
 Strength in her arms, nor mercy in her woe ! 
 Dropp'd from her nerveless grasp the shatter' d spear, 
 Closed [== close' d] her bright eye, and curb'd her high career : 
 Hope for a season bade the world farewell, 
 And Freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell. 
 
 Strictly speaking, if this plan be adopted, an accent is 
 only required on those final syllables where one e is 
 dropped in the composition of the word, and that final 
 sellable is required to be pronounced ; as in closed: for in 
 all other words, the insertion of the simple e is sufficient 
 for the purpose. Nevertheless, it is, perhaps, on the 
 whole, better to accent the letter wherever a generally 
 silent e is intended to be pronounced distinctly, as in the 
 following line : 
 
 His days are numbered, his race is run. 
 
 Whichever of the two plans may be adopted by the 
 printer, is perhaps of no great moment, although I must 
 confess I rather affect the latter, and therefore generally 
 follow it. But, at all events, when a work in poetry is 
 put into the hands of the compositor, the system to be 
 followed ought to be pointed out, if not well known 
 throughout the office. Authors also ought to follow the 
 one plan or the other, and not to elide or write in full at 
 random, without any system, as most of them do. It 
 may seem a matter of little moment to them ; but to the 
 compositor, every alteration which is made in his proof 
 involves a loss of time ; and the use of that time is the 
 means whereby he procures his daily bread : for no accurate 
 printer or corrector, of any taste, will allow such irregu- 
 larities to pass in a proof-sheet ; and all alterations of this 
 kind must be made at the cost of the compositor. 
 
THE HYPHEN. 163 
 
 3. The Hyphen. 
 
 The hyphen, as its name implies (</>' e/, sub wno), is 
 employed to connect compound words; as, Map-dog,' 'to- 
 morrow.' It is also used at the end of a line, when a 
 word is not finished, but part of it is carried into the next 
 line. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the last member of a com- 
 pound word is common to one or more other preceding 
 words, but is expressed only with the last ; in which case, 
 the German printers very properly annex the hyphen to 
 all the words where such last member is understood, and 
 write the last only in full. For instance, * The main- and 
 mizen-masts were split into a hundred pieces/ But very 
 few English printers follow this rational system : some 
 omit the hyphen in both cases, to show that the first 
 member of each word is incomplete without the other, 
 thus, main and mizen masts ; while others insert the 
 hyphen, or omit it, just as they do when the word occurs 
 unconnected with any other to which a part of it is common. 
 Examples : 
 
 The main and mizen-masts were shattered in pieces, 
 The fore and yardarm also suffered the same fate. 
 
 For my part, I would strongly advise the adoption of 
 the German system, for it is the only rationally defensible 
 one ; but as that may seem repugnant to the ideas of the 
 many, who are governed by routine rather than by reason, 
 of the two above cited, I prefer the latter, especially as, 
 when an entire word comes first, we never use a hyphen 
 with the following curtailed one ; as may be seen in this 
 example : 
 
 The schoolmaster and mistress were discharged without a 
 moment's notice. 
 
 Other uses of the hyphen may be seen under the heads 
 Syllabication, Compound Words, &c. 
 M 2 
 
164 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS. 
 
 4. The Brace. 
 
 The brace is sometimes employed in poetry to connect 
 the three lines of a triplet, where all the final syllables 
 have one rhyme. But as it has a somewhat unsightly 
 appearance, its use for this purpose is becoming obsolete. 
 Nevertheless, if the braces are neat and light, I can see 
 no objection to their more general application, as they 
 undoubtedly contribute to the avoidance of confusion. 
 Example : 
 
 Waller was smooth ; but Dry den taught to join^ 
 The varying verse, the full- resounding line, 
 The long, majestic march, and energy divine. ) 
 
 Braces are also used to connect a number of words, 
 figures, i&c., having one common term ; and are adopted 
 merely to prevent a repetition of that term. For ex- 
 ample, 
 
 There are established in France twentynine tribunals of 
 appeal, in the places and for the departments hereunder 
 mentioned : 
 
 TOWNS. DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 T Gers 
 Agen ................. 3 Lot-et- Garonne 
 
 (Lot 
 
 SBouches-du-Rhon 
 Var 
 Basses-Alpes 
 \ Alpes-Maritimes. 
 
 And so on for the remaining twentyseven tribunals. 
 Again : 
 
 favrl, against \ ^o^Qa\^.os avrl o^>0aA/*ou, eye for 
 
 eve ' 
 
 i aTrb deiirvov, to be after 
 
 Gen. 
 
 or e, out of 
 pb, before 
 
 v 
 
 supper. 
 ye\av e'/c taitpfav, to laugh after 
 
 tears. 
 
 the king. 
 
 rpb foaKToSf to fight for 
 
THE CROTCHET, OR BRACKET. 165 
 
 5. The Crotchety or Bracket. 
 
 These marks are used to inclose one or more words 
 which may be substituted for others which immediately 
 precede ; as also to supply some deficiency, or rectify some 
 mistake ; or to give some direction as to the nature of the 
 words which are to be there supplied. Examples : 
 
 This is the first [second or third] time of asking. 
 
 He restored to [the inhabitants of] his island that tran- 
 quillity to which they had been strangers during his absence. 
 
 A well- wrote [well- written] treatise. 
 
 The directors of this society shall be six in number, and 
 shall be elected [here insert the manner of election], and shall 
 remain in office [state the time], and no longer. 
 
 The bracket is also used in a quotation, in preference 
 to parentheses, to inclose an observation of the author 
 quoting ; for it thus distinguishes a parenthetical observa- 
 tion of the author quoted from an interpolation made by 
 the writer quoting him. Example : 
 
 " They [the Lilliputians] bury their dead with their heads 
 directly downwards, because they hold an opinion, that in 
 eleven thousand moons they are all to rise again ; hi which 
 period the earth (which they conceive to be flat) will turn 
 upside down, and by this means they shall, at then- resurrec- 
 tion, be found ready standing on their feet." 
 
 In addition to the uses of the bracket above indicated, 
 it is also employed in poetry, and other matter in lines, 
 to separate a word which will not come into the line to 
 which it properly belongs, from the body of the line, above 
 or below, to the end of which it is tacked. 
 
 Weary knife-grinder ! little think the proud ones, 
 Who in their coaches roll along the turnpike- [and 
 Koad, what hard work 'tis, crying all day, " Knives 
 Scissors to grind O !" 
 
166 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS* 
 
 But this is only done where the saving of space is an 
 object. When that consideration does not limit the dis- 
 cretion of the printer, it is much better to place such 
 words in the next line, indenting them an em or two 
 more than the general range of the lines, somewhat in the 
 manner shown below : 
 
 Shall we build to the purple of Pride, 
 The trappings which dizen the proud ? 
 
 Alas ! they are all laid aside, 
 And here's neither dress nor adornments allow' d, 
 But the long winding -sheet and the fringe of the 
 shroud. 
 
 6. The Ellipsis. 
 
 The omission of part of a word is denoted by a short 
 line, technically called a rule, of various lengths, according 
 to the number of letters omitted, as shown in the following 
 example : 
 
 He not only disparaged his abilities, but loaded him with 
 
 the most opprobrious epithets ; such as 1 r, f w, t f, and 
 
 other terms of a like nature, which I do not care to mention. 
 
 If one or more words are omitted, or supposed to be 
 omitted, it is more usual, and also has a neater appear- 
 ance, to use dots, or leaders. Thus : 
 
 The comparative of superiority is expressed in Spanish by 
 the words mas que ; and that of inferiority by menos que. 
 
 If a line or more be omitted, then the usual and most 
 conspicuous marks are asterisks ; as under. 
 
 And Shakespeare receive him with praise and with love, 
 And Beaumonts and Bens be his Kellys above. 
 
 ****** 
 Here Reynolds is laid ; and, to tell you my mind, 
 He has not left a wiser or better behind. 
 
 7. Marks of Reference. 
 
 Notes at the foot of a page are usually referred to by 
 the following signs : 
 
MARKS OF REFERENCE. 167 
 
 * Star or Asterisk Section 
 
 f Dagger or Obelisk || Parallels 
 
 j Double Dagger IF Paragraph 
 
 And when the number of notes on one page exceeds six, 
 the reference-marks are doubled, so far as may be neces- 
 sary. But a much neater plan is to use what are called 
 by printers superior letters or figures ; that is, small letters 
 or figures, which range with the upper part of the ordinary 
 type ; thus, a b c , or l * 3 ; or even common Italic letters 
 may be used, within parentheses, or with a parenthesis 
 after the letter ; thus, (a) or a). 
 
 Whilst I am on this subject, I may make an observa- 
 tion or two as to the best way of arranging short notes at 
 the foot of a page. It is common to most French printers, 
 and to some of their English imitators, to begin such notes 
 uniformly with an indention of one em from the beginning 
 of the line, however short the notes may be ; as shown in 
 the examples hereunder quoted, which I take from a book 
 printed in Paris in 1846. 
 
 (1) Ego Gulielmus Chilling worth omnibus hisce articulis, &c. 
 
 (2) Ibid. 
 
 (3) Ibid. 
 
 (4) Beattie on Truth. 
 
 Generally speaking, the French are undoubtedly taste- 
 ful printers ; but in the case of the arrangement of foot- 
 notes, they seem to lose sight of the beautiful, in order 
 that they may rigidly adhere to a system. How much 
 neater the page whence these notes are selected would 
 have looked, had the three last been placed in one line, I 
 will leave the reader himself to imagine. 
 
 If the lines in the text are long, as they must neces- 
 sarily be in all folios, quartos, and large octavos, whenever 
 they extend across the whole page, it is better to set the 
 notes in two columns ; for it is difficult to read small type 
 in long lines, or at least it is not easy to catch the first 
 word of the next line with facility. And as there are 
 
168 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS. 
 
 generally many short notes in all works which have notes 
 to any extent, they would not be so dispersed in short lines 
 as in those of double the length. 
 
 When all the notes in a page form each but one line, 
 and that not a full one, they should be indented equally, 
 so as to throw the body of the matter into the middle of 
 the foot of the page. I will subjoin an example or two in 
 illustration. 
 
 1 Appian, Bell. Mithrid. tom. i, p. 02. 
 
 2 Plut. in Syll. c. 80; et in Cic. c. 2. 
 
 3 Id. ibid. c. 2, s. 8. 
 
 4 Bacon's Noyum Organum, c. 1. 
 
 Tn instances like these, to place each line in what is 
 called tombstone fashion, has to me a very unsightly 
 appearance. Nevertheless, if the notes make but two 
 lines, and the first line comprises two or more notes, tliat 
 plan may be judiciously followed. Examples : 
 
 * 1 John, iv, 5 ; 1 Pet. i, 6. f Luke, xviii, 15. 
 
 t Mark, xiv, 15 ; John, ix, 5. 
 
 Where, the reader will remark, the comma is omitted 
 after ' 1 Pet.' although inserted after ' John,' &c. This is 
 for appearance' sake only, the meaning being sufficiently 
 clear without the double points; as is, indeed, the case 
 with the generality of notes of this kind. Neither is any 
 quotation-mark necessary in cases like these to distinguish 
 the names of books ; although, when they occur in the 
 middle of a sentence, single quotation-marks, or italics, 
 may be very properly employed.* 
 
 * Some lay down the rule, that when figures run in succession, 
 a comma should part them, as pp. 15, 16, 17, &c.; but an inter- 
 ruption should be marked by a full-point, as, pp. 21, 22. 28. 3@, 
 &c. But this seems to me absurd. Neither do I think any full- 
 point required after Roman numerals, and have therefore generally 
 dispensed with them throughout this book. 
 
ACCENTS, ETC. 169 
 
 8. Accentual and other Marks. 
 
 Happily the English language (or rather, English 
 printing and writing) is unencumbered by any marks of 
 accentuation, and yet no one tolerably acquainted with it 
 feels the want of them. But as such diacritical symbols are 
 employed in some kinds of books (especially those of an 
 educational character), and are very common in several 
 languages which make use of the ordinary Roman letter, 
 an explanation of the most usu.il, and such as are likely 
 continually to fall under the notice of the printer, could 
 not well be omitted from this chapter. We will therefore 
 commence with 
 
 (1.) Marks of Quantity. 
 
 Syllables are considered either as long or short, as 
 regards their quantity, or the time occupied in their pro- 
 nunciation. The long quantity is indicated by a short 
 horizontal line over the vowel of the long syllable, as in 
 Patroclus ; and the short, by a concave semicircle in the 
 same position ; as in Caucasus. 
 
 (2.) The Accents. 
 
 The acute accent is generally supposed to denote that 
 the vowel over which it is placed has a rising inflection ; 
 or it may only mean, that the syllable in which it occurs 
 has the principal accent of the word; as in authoritative, 
 ejusque. In French, accents are rather marks of quantity, 
 or at least they mostly denote a modification of the 
 sound of the letter over which they are placed, although 
 that is sometimes accompanied by a difference of inflection 
 also. E is the only letter that has the acute accent in that 
 language. 
 
O MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS. 
 
 In common with the other accents, the grave performs 
 in French the office of a sound-modifier: in Latin, and some 
 other languages, it denotes a certain class of words, or dis- 
 tinguishes similar words of different parts of speech ; as, 
 valde, mirifice, secundum, sard, amero, virtu, post, supra, 
 &c. It is also sometimes used in English, especially in 
 poetry, with foreign words that end in e, when this letter 
 is to be pronounced in a distinct syllable, in order that the 
 unlearned may see it at a glance. Example : 
 
 And Mycale, and proud Olympus shine ; 
 Bceotus for his Dirce seeks in vain. 
 
 This accent is never employed in Spanish. 
 
 The circumflex is functionless in English; but it is 
 employed sometimes in Latin (especially in books intended 
 for learners) to denote the ablative case singular of the 
 first declension, and the genitive singular of the fourth. 
 It is also used to denote the contraction of two syllables 
 into one; as, audtsti,for audivisti ; mandrat for manaverat. 
 In French, as I before stated, when treating of the acute, 
 these marks are rather, for the most part, quantitative 
 or phonetic, than anything else. But there is one use of 
 the circumflex in French which it may be as well to 
 mention; and that is, that it is generally placed over a 
 vowel which was formerly followed by the letter s, but 
 which has now disappeared from the word ; as in chateau, 
 fete, maitre, apotre, coutume, &c. In Welsh, w and y, as 
 well as the other circumflexed letters, are employed either 
 to direct the pronunciation, or for distinction-sake. 
 
 (3.) The Diuresis. 
 
 This mark placed over a vowel denotes, in general, 
 that that vowel forms a syllable, and does not constitute 
 part of one with another vowel preceding or following it. 
 
ACCENTS, ETC. 171 
 
 Thus, aerial is pronounced a-e-rial. So preeminent, and 
 such-like words, where the two vowels are part of two dif- 
 ferent syllables, are distinguished by the diseresis. Others 
 insert a hyphen between the two vowels, as in co-operate ; 
 and, indeed, this is the more prevalent custom, and that 
 which the compositor will generally have to follow ; 
 because .it is better understood by the ordinary English 
 reader. Either might, perhaps, be omitted, without 
 much danger of confusion, in ordinary words ; but in words 
 that are uncommon, especially in poetry, the diaeresis is 
 frequently very useful. Take a few instances by way of 
 example ; 
 
 The swans that in Caystus waters glide. 
 In flames Caicus, Peneus, Alpheus roll'd. 
 The Tanais smoked amid his boiling wave. 
 
 In German, this mark denotes a modification of the 
 usual vowel-sound : it also frequently distinguishes the 
 singular number from the plural, and has various other 
 uses, which the inquiring tyro may learn by applying 
 himself to the study of that language. 
 
 (4.) The Cedilla. 
 
 The cedilla frequently occurs in French words, sub- 
 joined to the letter c, which is by them commonly called 
 c d la queue, or c with a tail. The cedilla c is something 
 like an inverted figure 5, which is not seldom substituted 
 for it, when the compositor is not able to lay his hands on 
 the real letter. Its use is to indicate that the letter c has 
 then the sound of s ; and as this is always the case with 
 the ordinary c before e and t, of course the cedilla c can 
 only precede a, o, or u. Examples :per$ant, pronounced 
 persant ; gar$on, pron. garson; aper^umes, pron. aper- 
 sumes, &c. 
 
172 MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS. 
 
 (5.) The Tilde. 
 
 This mark ( ") called by the Spaniards tilde, and corre- 
 sponding in shape with the sign ordinarily employed in 
 Greek to denote the circumflex accent, is placed in Spanish 
 over the letter n, which is then pronounced something like 
 double n, or rather like ni ; but short and quick ; as in 
 Espana. It is more common in the middle of words than 
 at the beginning. 
 
 (6.) The Inverted Comma. 
 
 This mark is used in place of a c, in proper names 
 having the prefix Mac, contracted into Me or M'; as 
 Macdougall, MDougall, or M' Doug all ; where, it will be 
 observed that no space intervenes between the two parts 
 of the word. In a similar manner, the apostrophe is 
 employed in certain Irish names beginning with ; as, 
 CTDonnell, O'Brien, &c. But this, I think, is to denote an 
 ellipsis of some letters, and not a mere contraction on 
 paper. 
 
 (7.) Double Commas. 
 
 These marks are not unfrequently substituted for the 
 word ditto or do., as having a neater appearance. Some 
 printers invert them ; but I think their ordinary position 
 is best. Example : 
 
 Colonel Haygarth, commanding 48th regiment 
 Smith 62nd ^, 
 
 ,, Broughton 9oth 
 
 (8.) Miscellaneous. 
 
 The index or hand ( QC^ ) points out something which 
 the writer thinks of great importance. Similarly, the 
 letters N.B. (nota bene) and three stars (***) are used for 
 the same purpose. 
 
 Leaders, or dots, guide the eye to the end of a line, 
 
LEADERS, OR DOTS. 173 
 
 when some space intervenes between the words and the 
 figures, &c., to which they refer. They are used in tables 
 of contents, and other matter which requires anything to 
 guide the eye of the reader. Examples : 
 
 On Punctuation Page 22 
 
 The History of Printing 83 
 
 Schemes of Imposition 165 
 
 Or full-points may be used for this purpose, with an 
 em quadrat betwixt each two. 
 
174 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ON THE PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 THE Hebrew and other Oriental alphabets have no 
 distinction of great and small letters ; and the Greeks and 
 Romans for a long time followed the same system in their 
 writing, neither having difference of character nor a 
 discriminating space between the words, but all jumbled 
 higgledy-piggledy in one unvarying mass of capitals, not 
 to be read fluently or accurately except by persons of 
 great skill and knowledge of the language. After the 
 invention of small letters, the larger, or capitals, were 
 preserved for the sake of emphasis and distinction. Hence 
 it follows, that their use is entirely arbitrary, and can be 
 applied by the printers of any country according to any 
 system they may deem most consistent with the object for 
 which they are retained. From this cause, it has been 
 found expedient, in all the languages of modern Europe, 
 to contrive some rules for general guidance, in order 
 that something like uniformity may be preserved in books 
 printed in the same language, and the compositor be 
 spared the annoyance of having to vary his system of 
 eapitalling, according to the mere whim or caprice of 
 every fanciful writer. 
 
 Formerly it was customary, not only in English but 
 in other European languages also, to begin every noun 
 substantive or other important word with a capital letter ; 
 a plan still adhered to pretty closely by the German 
 
PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 175 
 
 printers, and also in English acts of parliament. But as 
 so many capitals greatly disfigure the appearance of a 
 page, and by their frequency destroy their utility, they 
 are nowadays (at least in ordinary book-work) discon- 
 tinued in all common words, and only used in the following 
 
 I. 
 
 The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or 
 any other piece of writing, must commence with a capital. 
 
 II. 
 
 Also the first word after a period or full stop ; and, if 
 the following sentence be unconnected in syntax with the 
 preceding, after every note of exclamation or interroga- 
 tion. But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory 
 sentences are thrown into one general group, or if the 
 construction of the latter sentence depends, or is in con- 
 nection with, the former, then all of them, except the first, 
 should begin with a small letter. Examples : 
 
 How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity ; and the 
 scorners delight in scorning ; and fools hate knowledge ? 
 
 Alas ! how different I yet how like the same I 
 
 III. 
 
 The appellations of the three persons of the deity, 
 such as God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, 
 the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit, Lord 
 of lords, King of kings, &c., are begun with capital letters. 
 So also the appellations of the devil ; as, Satan, the Man 
 of Perdition, the Evil One, &c. 
 
 So Providence, Heaven, and Nature, commence with a 
 capital when they have a personal reference, as, indeed, 
 do all other personifications ; likewise the personal pro- 
 nouns (not possessive pronouns) when referring to tli 
 
1 76 PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 Divine Being ; but only when emphatic, and unaccom- 
 panied by a noun. Examples : 
 
 "Who can unfathom the designs of Providence f 
 
 Be witness, O Heaven, to my vow. 
 
 The operations of Nature are silent but certain. 
 
 O Thou, who dwell' st throughout all space, 
 And mak'st the world thy throne. 
 
 Remark. The practice illustrated in the last example 
 is of recent origin : it is not countenanced by the autho- 
 rized version of the Bible, and seems to me entirely 
 uncalled for ; nevertheless, as it is frequently insisted on by 
 authors, it is well that the compositor should be made 
 acquainted with the recognized rule, and bear it in mind. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Titles of honour and respect, in direct addresses, are 
 sometimes printed with a capital initial letter ; as, your 
 Highness, your Grace, your Lordship, your Excellency, 
 my Lord, my Lady, Sir, Madam. 
 
 Remark. Capitals are now generally discontinued in 
 these instances, in ordinary book- work at least ; but they 
 are preserved in newspapers and pamphlets, and works 
 f such-like character ; as also in dedications, prefaces, 
 &c., where they seem to give importance or imply great 
 respect. 
 
 Titles preceding proper names are also in English 
 begun with a capital letter ; as, General Havelock, Captain 
 Clark, Lord Derby, King Philip, President Buchanan, the 
 Marquis of Northampton, the Countess of Blessington, &c. ; 
 but in the latter instances, in ordinary book- work, if the 
 title merely denotes an office^ it is more usual to commence 
 it with a small letter ; as, ' the king of Hanover,' * the 
 governor of Canada/ * the bishop of London,' ' the sheriff 
 of Middlesex,' ' the rector of Edinburgh High School, 7 * the 
 provost of Eton,' &c. The same distinction must be ob- 
 
PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 177 
 
 served if the title is preceded by a defining word, such as 
 the definite article. Examples : ' the emperor Claudius, 5 
 * the sultan Mahmood,' ' the tyrant Dionysius.' But if no 
 office is implied in the title, even in the case last adverted 
 to, it must commence with a capital ; as, ' the Princess 
 Mary, 3 ' the Prince Consort,' ' the Infanta Isabella,' &c. 
 
 V. 
 
 Capital letters are used at the commencement of the 
 names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships, 
 months, days of the week, &c. ; in short, to begin any 
 word which points out any single person, thing, or place, 
 as distinguished thereby from other persons, things, or 
 places ; as, George, London, the Strand, the Alps, the 
 Thames, the Centaur, April, Sunday. 
 
 Remark. It is frequently a puzzle to the young printer, 
 and indeed is a matter but imperfectly understood by 
 many other people, what are the essential constituents of 
 a proper name. I have indicated them generally in the 
 rule ; but for still greater clearness, we will examine this 
 matter more in detail. A proper name, then, as just stated, 
 is that word, or those words, which point out some par- 
 ticular person, place, or thing, as distinguished thereby 
 from other persons, places, or things of a like kind ; or it 
 may denote a person or thing which constitutes a kind by 
 itself. In accordance with this rule, it is evident that com- 
 mon nouns substantive may become proper names, whenever 
 they discharge the office above indicated. For instance, 
 the word Pope is a proper name, in its ordinary sense of 
 pointing out a particular bishop, as distinguished thereby 
 from all other bishops. So it may also be with king, 
 queen, or any other title, or even any ordinary noun sub- 
 stantive, when a particular person, place, or thing, is 
 characterized distinctively by that name ; as, for instance, 
 the Sultan, the Mall, the Tulip, convey to the mind a 
 
178 PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 distinct notion of a certain emperor, place, and flower (in 
 the abstract, but not the less, therefore, a proper name). 
 And although it is not now customary to print such words 
 with a capital letter in the generality of books, unless they 
 are words limited in their ordinary signification to one 
 person or thing, nevertheless, no valid argument can be 
 brought against their more general adoption ; for there is 
 no doubt that a bishop, a king, an emperor, or a president, 
 &c., can be, and are, designated by that title only in the 
 respective places of their jurisdiction ; and their title con- 
 sequently becomes, with respect to them, to all intents 
 a proper name.* Again, a noun adjective may enter into, 
 or may itself constitute, a proper name: indeed, the 
 majority of what are commonly designated proper names, 
 are in their origin nothing but pure nouns adjective, and 
 are applied to individuals from their possessing the proper- 
 ties or qualities thereby denoted. Such names are White, 
 Black, Young, Theophilus, George, Henry, &c. Further, a 
 proper name necessarily comprises all the words required 
 to point out the particular person, place, or thing intended 
 to be specified ; all of which, therefore, except mere par- 
 ticles, it seems to me, should begin with a capital letter. 
 Thus, 'John George Parry' is but one name, denoting 
 but one person, and is separated into three words, only 
 
 * " We may carry this reasoning farther, and show how, by the 
 help of the article, even common appellatives may come to have 
 the force of proper names, and that unassisted by epithets of any 
 kind. Among the Athenians, irXolov meant ship ; eVSa/ca, eleven ; 
 and &v6pcairos, man. Yet, add but the article, and Tb IIAoiW, 
 THE SHIP, meant that particular ship which they sent annually to 
 Delos ; Oi^EfSeiea, THE ELEVEN, meant certain officers of justice ; 
 and 'O "Av6p<airos, THE MAN, meant their public executioner. So 
 in English, city is a name common to many places ; and speaker, a 
 name common to many men. Yet if we prefix the article, THE 
 CITY means our metropolis, and THE SPEAKER, a high officer in 
 the British Parliament." HARRIS, Hermes, b. ii, c. i. 
 
PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS, 179 
 
 because each word is, or is supposed to be, of a more 
 specially distinctive character than the word which fol- 
 lows it. The French very correctly unite all those words 
 with a hyphen which together constitute the surname or 
 the Christian name ; as, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Gay- 
 Lussac, &c. ; because, however many words may be used, 
 they represent but one individual, under his generic and 
 his specific designations, if I may so say. All those words, 
 then, which belong to the general name, should, as was 
 shown in a former chapter, be united in one compound 
 word, as should also those which belong to the specific 
 appellation. And so it is with the names of places : for 
 although every name might logically be compressed into 
 one word, as denoting but one place, generally without any 
 implied attribute, yet, since it is usual to regard many 
 places under a general and a specific character, when more 
 than one word is used, they ought, in those instances, to be 
 written separately, in the same manner as directed for 
 proper names of persons, and each commence with a capital 
 letter ; for each word is essential to the name. For these 
 reasons, it is correct to write l Black Sea,' ' Blue Moun- 
 tains/ ' White Sea,' ' Orange Eiver,' 'Fish River,' &c. 
 with two capital letters ; for the words * Black/ * Blue,' 
 'White,' &c., are not here used as ordinary adjec- 
 tives, to express a property or quality of those particular 
 places, however appropriate the appellative may be, but 
 as mere specific nominal designations, thereby to distin- 
 guish these places from others of the same general denomi- 
 nation. But when the general word is lost sight of in its 
 distinct character (to repeat what I have before said), then 
 the two words are properly joined in one. Hence we 
 correctly write Kingston, Boroughbridge, Peterborough, 
 Somerstown, and numerous other names of places, where 
 the latter member of the word has lost its distinctive 
 character, in one word only. 
 
 In connection with this subject, let me call your atten- 
 N 2 
 
180 PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 ticn to the word of. This word, you well know, is a pre- 
 position, generally expressing the relation of possession, or 
 of appertaining to. When it does so, the common word 
 which it connects with a proper name, cannot be also a 
 proper name ; for that would be a contradiction : but when 
 it does not denote such relation of appertaining or belong- 
 ing to, tli en the connected words form but one proper 
 name, and ought to be both printed with a capital letter. 
 I will illustrate my meaning. ' The court of Borne/ ' the 
 people of England/ ' the coast of France/ In these in- 
 stances we use no capital letter to the words court, people, 
 or coast, because they denote things which stand in a 
 possessive relation to the respective places to which they 
 are prefixed ; but in such cases as * the Straits of Dover/ 
 * Bay of Fundy/ ' Gulf of Finland/ we do commence the 
 words which, in their ordinary acceptation, are common 
 nouns, with a capital letter ; because here, the relation of 
 mere appurtenance or proprietorship is not intended : for 
 although these names may be derived from the contiguity 
 of certain places, they nevertheless do not belong to them 
 exclusively. They consequently constitute but one proper 
 name. So also adjectives derived from proper names, 
 wlien they lose their possessory character, and become 
 merely nominal, constitute but one proper name with the 
 word which follows them. For instance, * English Channel/ 
 1 Irish Sea/ ' German Ocean/ Adriatic Gulf.' For cer- 
 tainly the English Channel no more naturally belongs to 
 England than to France ; neither does the Irish Sea more 
 pertain to Ireland than to England. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Adjectives derived from proper names are also begun 
 with a capital letter ; as, ' Grecian/ ( Roman/ ' English/ 
 ' French/ 'Linnsean,' &c. 
 
 Remark. A practice has come into vogue within the 
 last few years with some printers, in imitation of the 
 
PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 181 
 
 French and Italians, of beginning all such words when 
 pure adjectives with a small letter. Thus, I have met in 
 books printed in London, with 'french author,' 'english 
 cheer,' Italian air/ * egyptian mummy/ and a host of 
 similar whimsicalities. But this practice ought to be con- 
 demned, as being contrary to the best usage, and a quite 
 unnecessary innovation. It is true, the French may have 
 some reason for wishing to restrict the use of capital 
 letters within narrow limits ; for their books are at all 
 times unavoidably disfigured by so many accentual marks, 
 breaking the continuity of the line of the body of the type, 
 that any excuse for increasing the number of the ordinary 
 letters may readily be allowed them. But English print- 
 ers have no such excuse, and therefore are not justi6ed 
 in departing from a custom which has been so long 
 adopted, and sanctioned by the best writers of the lan- 
 guage, in order to follow in the wake of a foreign innova- 
 tion, recent even in the languages in which it is adopted. 
 The reason which the fautors of this system allege in 
 its defence, is, that these words are, in such instances, mere 
 adjectives. This I grant. But they are words of specific 
 limitation, and so far partake of the nature of proper 
 names. And besides, as I said just now, their use with a 
 capital initial is sanctioned in this country by long prac^ 
 tice ; and custom in this, as in so many other things, is 
 the jus et norma agendi: the use or disuse of capital letters 
 at all rests upon no firmer basis. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Titles of books, as Pope's ' Eape of the Lock/ Swift's 
 6 Tale of a Tub/ Thomson's * Seasons/ commence all the 
 important words, of whatever part of speech, with a 
 capital letter. 
 
 Remark. It is not uncommon to print titles of books 
 in italic letters, or else to denote them by signs of quota- 
 
182 PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 tion. But when these are numerous, they sadly disfigure 
 the sightliness of a page; and as they very little assist 
 the reader in the matter, for the title is always easily 
 enough distinguished from the context, their usage in 
 such cases might, without much detriment, be dispensed 
 with altogether. This observation especially applies to 
 footnotes, which are not uufrequently composed of little 
 else than references to the works of other authors, in cor- 
 roboration of the opinions of the writer. The utmost that 
 I would advise, would be to put such titles in what are 
 technically called single turns; but that only when they 
 come in the midst of a sentence, never when they follow 
 a sentence as an authority (where perhaps italic is the best, 
 because more distinct), nor yet when they are merely 
 adduced as an authority in a footnote, without any ac- 
 companying matter. An example will fully explain my 
 meaning. 
 
 " Although I have entitled the following work, ' The Life 
 and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth/ yet I have not only thought 
 it excusable, but even found it necessary, to enter into the 
 general history of the times ; without which it would have 
 been impossible to give so full an idea of the character and 
 conduct of this celebrated pontiff, as it was my wish to com- 
 municate." ROSCOE, Life and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth, 
 Preface, p. viii. 
 
 Or as a footnote : 
 * Life and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth, Preface, p. viii. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 "Words denoting well-known events, which constitute 
 as it were an epoch, either in the world's or in a nation's 
 history, are also very properly began with a capital letter. 
 Such words are, ' the Deluge,' ' the Captivity,' ' the Flight/ 
 ' the Reformation/ ' the Restoration/ &c., when these 
 words are applied to designate certain well-known his- 
 torical events or periods. 
 
PROPER USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 183 
 
 Remark. This rule applies to all sorts of book-work ; 
 but in pamphlets, newspapers, and works of an ephemeral 
 character, minor events, of only local and circumscribed 
 importance, are dignified with a grenadier at their head. 
 
 IX. 
 
 The first word of every line of poetry commences with 
 a capital. 
 
 Remark. If, as sometimes happens in humorous 
 verses, a word is divided at the end of a line, of course 
 the next line will begin with a small letter ; as, 
 
 Paganini, Paganim ! 
 Never was there such a geni- 
 us before as Paganini. 
 
 In works in Greek the custom varies ; some printers 
 beginning every line with a capital ; while others, especi- 
 ally the Germans, only do so when such word happens to 
 commence a sentence. To me, the usual plan seems the 
 more preferable. 
 
 X. 
 
 The first word of a quotation introduced after a colon, 
 or in a direct form, must begin with a capital letter : thus, 
 Pythagoras says, " Eeverence thyself." But when a quo- 
 tation is brought in obliquely, that is, generally, with some 
 word to introduce it, after a comma, then a capital 
 letter is not used : thus, Plato observes, " that God 
 geometrizes." 
 
 XI. 
 
 The pronoun 1 1,' and the interjection *O,' are written 
 in capitals ; as, ' I write,' ' Hear, O heavens ! ' 
 
184 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL, ALGEBRAICAL, MATHEMA- 
 TICAL, BOTANICAL, MEDICAL, AND OTHER 
 SIGNS. 
 
 IT forms no part of my design, even had I the means at 
 hand, to swell the size, and consequently thereby enhance 
 the price of this book, by the introduction and explanation, 
 under this head, of all the symbols which may be found in 
 the writings of astronomers, mathematicians, and chemists, 
 or in other branches of science and art. I shall content 
 myself with explaining to the young printer such as are 
 not of unusual occurrence ; and if he has at any time 
 occasion to look for others, he must refer to some of those 
 works which have been compiled for the express eluci- 
 dation of this subject. The symbols which we shall 
 attempt to explain, will be, 
 
 I. ASTRONOMICAL SIGNS. 
 The twelve signs of the zodiac are thus characterized : 
 
 V* Aries, the Ram. h Libra, the Balance. 
 
 \$ Taurus, the Bull. n\ Scorpio, the Scorpion. 
 
 n Gemini, the Twins. f Sagittarius, the Archer. 
 
 o Cancer, the Crab. , V? Capricornus, the Goat. 
 <5^ Leo, the Lion. 2 Aquarius, the Waterman. 
 
 flJJ Virgo, the Virgin. > Pisces, the Fishes. 
 
ASTRONOMICAL SIGNS. 185 
 
 These symbols are said to represent the twelve "houses 
 of the sun, and are here placed in the order in which that 
 luminary appears to enter that part of the heavens 
 assigned to each division, commencing with Aries, the 
 first of the spring solstice, and so proceeding from east to 
 west. The tyro no doubt will remember Dr. Watts's lines 
 on this matter ; or he may see their order in the following 
 Latin distich, the first line of which represents the 
 northern constellations, and the second the southern. 
 
 Sunt Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Yirgo, 
 Libraque Scorpius, Arcitenens, Caper, Amphora, Pisces. 
 
 The Sun, the centre of our system, is generally indicated 
 by the sign or ; the planets and principal asteroids 
 by the following symbols ; 
 
 ^ Mercury. 
 
 T/. Jupiter. 
 
 ^ Juno. 
 
 Q Venus. 
 
 T? Saturn. 
 
 p Ceres. 
 
 or 5 Earth. 
 
 Ijl Herschel, or 
 
 $ Pallas. 
 
 Q* Mars. 
 
 Uranus. 
 
 g Vesta. 
 
 The names of the sun and some of the planets also 
 designate the days of the week. Thus : 
 
 Dies Solis, Sunday. Dies Jovis, Thursday. 
 
 Dies Lunee, Monday. Dies Veneris, Friday. 
 
 Dies Martis, Tuesday. Dies Saturnii, Saturday. 
 Dies Mercurii, Wednesday. 
 
 Some of the planets are accompanied by moons, the 
 phases of which are thus represented : 
 
 $ New Moon. O Full Moon. 
 
 > First Quarter. ([ Last Quarter. 
 
 Eclipses happen with us when the Sun is in a certain 
 position with respect to the Earth or Moon : when this 
 
186 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 occurs in the ascending node, it is denominated Dragon's 
 Head, and is thus distinguished, 3 . 
 
 When it happens in the descending node, it is called 
 Dragon's Tail, and is indicated by the symbol $. 
 
 The aspects of the planets, which we commonly meet 
 with in astronomical works, are five in number : 
 
 A Trine; when two planets stand three signs from each 
 other, which makes 90 degrees, or the fourth of the ecliptic. 
 
 CJ Quartile; when a planet stands from another four signs, 
 or 120 degrees; or one third of the ecliptic. 
 
 >j< Sextile is the sixth part of the ecliptic, or two signs ; or 
 60 degrees. 
 
 tf Conjunctio^ happens when two planets stand under each 
 other in the same sign and degree. 
 
 Opposifio, when two planets stand diametrically opposite 
 each other. 
 
 The sign for degree is [ ] ; minute [ / ] ; second [ " ] ; 
 third ["']; &c. 
 
 As this book is principally intended for the rising 
 generation of printers, I perhaps may be excused if I 
 endeavor to relieve the general dryness of the subjects of 
 which it treats, by adding a few observations connected 
 with astronomy, of a more general character, but not the 
 less interesting or instructive to those who may not have 
 made this science at all their study. I shall speak more 
 particularly of time and its divisions, as these are matters 
 of every-day life. 
 
 Time is naturally divided, as far as the inhabitants of 
 the earth are concerned, into days and years; it is also 
 artificially divided into weeks and months ; and other 
 divisions have at various times been adopted by different 
 nations. Some of the most interesting of these I will 
 explain. 
 
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 187 
 
 1. The Day. 
 
 The most frequently recurring natural division of time 
 is the day ; but as to when we shall account it to begin ? 
 and when to end, this is a matter on which the opinion 
 of mankind hath considerably varied. The Babylonians 
 began their day with the sunrise ; the Jews, Arabs, and 
 Athenians, began it with sunset : and in this they are 
 imitated by the modern Italians and others, who reckon 
 their first hour from the setting of the sun. The Egyptians 
 began it as we do at present. 
 
 2. The Tear, 
 
 There is but one natural year, which comprises the 
 space of time during which the earth performs one revo- 
 lution round the sun ; but as to where we shall fix the 
 starting-point, this is a matter entirely at man's discretion, 
 so far as concerns the propriety of his reckoning ; for 
 various parts of the sun's course in the ecliptic have at 
 one time or another been considered the most proper with 
 which to commence the year. Whichever may be fixed 
 upon, the time of revolution must be the same, 365 days 
 5 hours 48 minutes and 49 seconds. 
 
 The Julian year so named from its having been esta- 
 blished by Julius Caesar, although somewhat modified by 
 his successor comprises 365 days 6 hours ; but as these 
 six hours are omitted in the computation of three succes- 
 sive years, a day is added to the month of February 
 every fourth year, which is then called Bissextile, from bis, 
 'twice,' and sextus, ' sixth ;' because this day was the sixth 
 of the Calends of March, and was reckoned twice. By com- 
 paring the Julian year with the true solar year, you will 
 observe that the former exceeds the latter by more than 
 eleven minutes ; which forms a day in 131 years. Whence 
 it follows, that the spring equinoxes, which fell in the 
 first Julian year on the 25th of March, fell on the 21st in 
 
188 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 the year of Christ 325, the epoch of the Council of 
 Nice ; and on the llth in 1582. To prevent the extension 
 of this error, Pope Gregory XIII struck off ten entire 
 days from the calendar; the day which followed the 4th of 
 October, 1582, was consequently accounted the 15th. By 
 this means the equinox was fixed to the 21st of March. 
 At the same time, another modification was made, to 
 prevent the recurrence of an error of some importance. 
 The intercalary day, which had been regularly added to 
 February every fourth year, was suppressed in every even 
 hundredth year which cannot be divided by 4 ; so that the 
 last year of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth 
 centuries do not count as leap-years. This alteration of 
 the calendar has approached so near the truth, as to vary 
 but one day in three thousand years ; and in honor of 
 the pope under whose influence it was established, it is 
 called the Gregorian calendar. It was not adopted in 
 England until 1752, when the 3rd of September was 
 reckoned the 14th ; the Julian calendar being at that 
 time wrong eleven days. The Russians still adhere to 
 this calendar, which is commonly known as the Old Style, 
 while the improved method of reckoning is denominated 
 the New Style. It is owing to this that you will frequently 
 observe dates with two figures, when reference is made 
 to some period near the time of the alteration; in this 
 
 manner: Jan. i_, 1757. 
 
 Both the length of the year and the epoch of its com- 
 mencement have varied among different nations. The 
 year of the early Romans contained but ten months, com- 
 prising in all about 304 days ; the Egyptian year contained 
 365 days, and that of the ancient Greeks was reckoned of 
 different lengths at various periods of their history. Tt 
 Chaldeans and Egyptians commenced their year at th 
 autumnal equinox ; the Jews dated their civil year frc 
 the same epoch, but commenced their ecclesiastical ye 
 in the spring. Certain of the states of Greece began the 
 
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 189 
 
 year in the summer; others in the autumn. The Roman 
 year began at one time in March, but afterwards it was 
 altered to January. The year of the Church of Rome is 
 fixed to commence on the Sunday which precedes the full 
 moon of the spring equinox. In England, the year com- 
 menced in March until 1752, when the alteration of style 
 took place, and when the new year was declared by 
 authority to begin on the 1st of January. It is owing 
 to this circumstance that the period intervening between 
 January 1st and March 25th used to be represented thus : 
 1753-4, or 175|. These are facts which it is worth while 
 that the young printer should bear carefully in mind. 
 
 3. The Week. 
 
 The division thus named has much varied with the 
 epochs of nations. The first Greeks divided their months 
 into three quarters, of ten days each ; the Chinese of the 
 north have a week of fifteen days ; and the Mexicans had 
 one of thirteen. The most general division is that of the 
 Jews, who divided their months into periods of seven 
 days. This division was adopted by the Chaldees and 
 the greater part of the Oriental nations; but it was not 
 adopted in the West until after the establishment of the 
 Christian religion, in the reign of the emperor Theodosius. 
 
 4. The Month. 
 
 This division of time is probably due to the revolution 
 of the moon, each revolution occupying about twentynine 
 days; but the difficulty of adjusting the lunar month to 
 the annual period of the earth's progress round the sun 
 has given rise to other divisions, comprised under the 
 same name. The only one of these which need be noticed 
 here, is the civil or political month, a portion of time 
 determined by the custom of nations. 
 
 There are reckoned twelve of these months in the year 
 by almost all the nations of Europe ; a number which was 
 first adopted 'in the time of Julius Caesar. Each of his 
 
190 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 months was composed alternately of thirty and thirtyone 
 days ; but this arrangement was modified by the emperor 
 Augustus, whose name was given to the month before called 
 Sextilis ; and to render it equal with the rest, he raised 
 the number of its days from thirty to thirtyone, bringing 
 one from February, which afterwards had but twenty- 
 eight, except in Bissextile. 
 
 In the time of the early Romans the year consisted 
 but of ten months, beginning in the spring ; the last of 
 the months being named December, because the tenth 
 (decimus) from the spring (a vere). Hence Decemver or 
 December. So, in like manner, November (the ninth), 
 October (the eighth), and September (the seventh), (a vere). 
 Numa added January and February ; but we cannot place 
 much reliance upon this early period of Roman history. 
 
 I subjoin an account of the origin of the names of the 
 rest of the months, which will perhaps prove interesting 
 to some of my readers : 
 
 January is said to be derived from Janus, a divinity 
 who presided over the commencement of all undertakings. 
 
 February, from februo, 'I purify;' because in that 
 month funeral lustrations were performed at Rome. 
 
 March, from Mars, the god of war, because campaigns 
 were generally entered upon in this month. 
 
 April, perhaps from aperire, 'to open,' in allusion to 
 the budding of vegetation. 
 
 May, from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom 
 sacrifices were offered on the first day. 
 
 June, according to some, from Junius, Juno, or Junioris. 
 
 July, as before stated, was named in honor of Julius 
 Caesar ; previously called Quintus. 
 
 August from Augustus : otherwise Sextilis. 
 
 The various months of the year, according to the 
 systems of the principal nations of the earth, will be seen 
 at a glance in the accompanying table ; but it must be 
 remembered, as has been before said, that they do not all 
 commence at the same time. 
 

 | 
 
 g 
 
 OS 
 01 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 OS O 
 01 CO 
 
 05 
 01 
 
 O 
 CO 
 
 05 
 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 OI 
 
 
 ! 
 
 ^3 
 
 1 
 
 Muharram . 
 
 i 
 
 m 
 
 Rabia prior . 
 
 Rabiapost.... 
 Jornada prior 
 
 od 
 
 
 1-7, 
 
 i 
 '$ 
 
 Shaaban .... 
 
 d 
 
 Shawall 
 Dulkaadah . 
 
 Dulheggia 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 OS 
 
 oq 
 
 
 CO 
 
 os o 
 oq co 
 
 O5 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 Ol 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 OS O 
 
 oq co 
 
 5 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Months. 
 
 J 
 
 Marheslr 
 
 i 
 
 1 1 
 
 * rd 
 
 H 53 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 .1 
 
 I 
 
 I = 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 hd 
 
 1 
 
 fi 
 
 05 
 (M 
 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 01 
 
 O OS 
 CO 01 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 OS 
 
 
 CO 
 
 OS 
 
 O OS 
 CO Ol 
 
 O 
 CO 
 
 
 ATTIC GREE 
 
 Months. ] 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 MaifJLO.KTIlpl&l' 
 
 Tlvavetyiciw .... 
 
 & 
 -3 
 <o 
 
 2 
 b 
 
 o 
 
 '1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 -1 1 
 
 o " 
 
 s 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 
 tz 
 
 ! 
 
 
 CO 
 
 .+3 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o o 
 
 CO CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o o 
 
 CO CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 - 
 
 cr 
 
 xc 
 
 PERSIA] 
 
 Months. 
 
 Fervardin.. 
 
 <D 
 
 Chordad .. 
 
 : 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 Sharivar . . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ' 0> 
 
 J -g 
 
 Q M 
 
 Esphandarn 
 
 Additional 
 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 co co 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO CO 
 
 s 
 
 iO 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 e! 
 
 i 
 
 Months. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ?H 
 
 1 
 
 "o ^ 
 
 r3 f^ 
 
 O EH 
 
 f_l 
 
 I 
 
 Pharmu 
 
 1 
 
 PH H 
 
 o 
 
 Additioi 
 
 
 1 
 
 T 1 
 
 CO 
 
 s 
 
 T 1 
 
 CO 
 
 CO CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 rH 
 CO 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 >-l 
 
 CO CO 
 
 g 
 
 
 jz; 
 
 i 
 
 
 J 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 . rO 
 
 i 
 
 
 3 
 
 t> 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 0> 
 
 I 
 
 t SP 
 
 ^ a 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 02 
 
 1 a 
 
 -o g 
 8 o 
 
 fc 
 
 1 
 p 
 
 
192 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 At the period of the French revolution, the Christian 
 calendar was replaced by the republican. The era of this 
 new date was the 22nd of September, 1792, the epoch of 
 the foundation of the Eepublic. It contained twelve 
 months of thirty days each : the five complementary 
 days received the name of sans-culottides. These months 
 were named 
 
 Autumnal Months. 
 Vend^miaire 
 Bmmaire 
 Frimaire 
 
 Winter Months. 
 Nivose 
 Pluviose 
 Ventose 
 
 Spring Months. 
 Germinal 
 Flor^al 
 Prairial 
 
 Summer Months. 
 Messidor 
 Thermidor 
 Fructidor 
 
 This method of computation lasted till after the esta- 
 blishment of the Empire : it was discontinued in 1805. 
 
 5. Cycles. 
 
 The cycle of the sun is composed of twentyeight years ; 
 at the end of which the date of the month falls on the 
 same day of the week, and the sun finds himself in the 
 same sign, and the same degree of the ecliptic, in which 
 he was at the commencement. 
 
 The cycle of the moon is a period of nineteen years ; 
 at the end of which, the moon and the sun return very 
 nearly to the same position which they occupied in the 
 heavens at the commencement of the period. 
 
 6. Epochs or Eras. 
 
 The most remote epoch as regards man, as well as 
 the most remarkable, is that of the establishment of the 
 present order of nature, commonly called the Creation. 
 This event is supposed to have taken place 4004 years 
 before the birth of Jesus Christ. 
 
 The latter event forms the epoch of Christian nations, 
 and was adopted about six hundred years after Christ ; 
 but is mostly thought to have been dated back four years 
 too much. 
 
MATHEMATICAL SIGNS, ETC. 193 
 
 The Greeks reckoned by Olympiads, or periods of 
 four years. The first commenced 775 years before the 
 Christian epoch. The Eomans dated from the foundation 
 of their city, a period not well ascertained, but reckoned 
 at; 753 years before the birth of Christ. 
 
 The Mahometan era dates from the journey of Maho- 
 met to Medina, A.D. 622. 
 
 II. MATHEMATICAL AND ALGEBRAICAL SIGNS. 
 
 The signs commonly used in these sciences are, 
 
 -f- Plus, the sign of addition ; meaning, that the quantities 
 between which it is placed are to be added together ; thus, 
 2 + 4 signifies that 2 is to be added to 4. In algebra it repre- 
 sents real existence, and is called an affirmative or positive 
 sign. 
 
 Minus, the sign, of subtraction, denotes that the latter 
 quantity is to be taken from the former ; as 4 2 means that 
 2 is to be subtracted from 4. This sign algebraically repre- 
 sents a negative existence ; or a quantity less than any positive 
 number ; or perhaps, more strictly speaking, a number of a 
 contrary nature to that to which it is opposed. 
 
 c/~> Differentia, signifies the difference of the quantities 
 between which it is placed. By Wolfius, Leibnitz, and others, 
 it is used for the mark of similitude. 
 
 + Plus or minus, signifies the sum or difference of two 
 quantities. 
 
 X into or with, the sign of multiplication, denotes that the 
 quantities on each side of it are to be multiplied together ; as, 
 4X8 ; read 4 into 8, or 4 with 8, or 4 multiplied by 8. But in 
 algebra this sign is frequently omitted, and the two quantities 
 are joined together. Thus, bd signifies that b is to be 
 multiplied by d ; that is, the quantities represented by those 
 letters. 
 
 Note. The German mathematicians introduced a dot as 
 the sign of multiplication, thus, 3-6 (i.e. 3X6), the wrong 
 o 
 
194 MATHEMATICAL AND ALGEBRAICAL SIGNS. 
 
 placing of which, has led to much confusion in some English- 
 printed scientific books.* 
 
 -f- by, the sign of division : thus, lO-j-2 denotes that 10 is 
 to be divided by 2 ; and a +- b denotes that the quantity repre- 
 sented by a is to be divided by the quantity represented by 6. 
 
 * The error arises from the fact that a dot is also regarded as 
 the mark for decimals ; so that the only way, sometimes, of know- 
 ing which is meant, is by the position of this symbol. It is neces- 
 sary, therefore, that this position should be accurately determined 
 and strictly acted upon, in order to secure uniformity of application. 
 A recent writer on arithmetic says, when speaking on this subject : 
 " In writing decimals, you must be careful to put the decimal point 
 against the upper part of the figures, not against the lower. When 
 figures are separated by a point even with the lower part of the 
 figures, the multiplication of the figures separated is understood, 
 the point in that position standing in the place of the sign X : 
 thus, 3.7 is the same as 3X7, while 3'7 is 3 and 7 tenths; or, as 
 it is usually read, 3 decimal 7, or 3 point 7." 
 
 To me this appears entirely erroneous. The point, as remarked 
 in the text, was introduced in place of the X, by the German 
 mathematicians, during the last century ; but as a mark for deci- 
 mals it was in use long before then ; and in all the old works I have 
 consulted, I uniformly find it ranging with the bottom of the figure 
 when used in that capacity. Why, then, should we alter this well- 
 settled system and adopt a new one, entirely uncalled for ? The 
 best plan would be to place the dot, when used as a multiple, in 
 the same position as the symbol it has in some measure displaced. 
 Therefore I think it ought to be cast stronger than an ordinary full- 
 point (on an en quadrat -at least), and be placed midway of the 
 letter. It would then occupy the position of the other symbols, 
 and there would be no danger of confounding it with the decimal 
 point, which should certainly be maintained in its old position, as, 
 I observe, is now done in the Athenceum and some other respect- 
 able journals. The following will illustrate my meaning: 
 2.5 + 3.6.5.1 = 31.11. 
 
 The decimal point has also lately been applied to another 
 purpose ; namely, to part hours and minutes : thus, 12.30 ; mean- 
 ing half-past twelve; but it would be much better to contrive a 
 distinct symbol for this object, something similar to this, 12/30, 
 which would obviate all confusion ; or the figures might be sepa- 
 rated by an en quadrat : 12 30 ; which is best of all. 
 
MATHEMATICAL AND ALGEBRAICAL SIGNS. 195 
 
 Wolfius (with, the genuine German love of mystification) 
 makes the sign of division two dots ; thus, 12:4; but in this 
 he has not been followed. The division of one quantity by 
 another is frequently denoted by placing the dividend over the 
 divisor, with a line between them: thus, -~ signifies that 
 a is to be divided by b. 
 
 = equal to, the sign of equality. Descartes and some others 
 use the mark x . 
 
 Points are used to denote proportion : thus, a : b : : x : y 
 signifies that a bears the same proportion to b that x does to 
 y ; and in reading it we say, a is to b so is x to y. 
 
 - involution, denotes that the quantity is to be multiplied 
 by itself; as, 4 & 4 == 64. 
 
 > , cr~, or S , is a sign of majority ; thus, a > b denotes that 
 a t or its equivalent quantity, is greater than b. 
 
 /_, ~D, or "Z., marks minority \ or that the first quantity is 
 less than the second. 
 
 00 the sign of infinity, signifies that the quantity to which 
 it refers is of unlimited value. 
 
 A/ evolution, the radical sign, or irrationality, signifies that 
 the quantity which it precedes is to be extracted, according to 
 the index of the power which accompanies it. Thus V denotes 
 the extraction of the square root; / the extraction of the 
 third or cube root ; */ that of the fourth root ; n *j that of the 
 nth root, whatever n may represent ; and so of any other. But 
 the roots of quantities are more commonly represented by 
 fractions placed a little above the quantities, to the right hand. 
 Thus a* means the same as Ja or */; a*, the same as */a, &c. 
 The numbers J, J, &c., are called indices. 
 
 The powers of quantities are represented by whole numbers, 
 placed in the same manner as the fractions are which represent 
 the roots. Thus, a 2 denotes the square of a ; a 3 , the cube of a; 
 &c. Those numbers are also called indices. 
 
 a vinculum. and \ -i ., n i 
 
 r -, , ' . > are used to collect several 
 
 t j brace or parenthesis ) 
 
 quantities into one. Thus, a-J-6 a 6, or {+&} { -b } t 
 denote that a and b, taken as one quantity, is to be multiplied 
 by a b, taken as another quantity. 
 o 2 
 
196 BOTANICAL SIGNS, ETC. 
 
 Note. All the letters which constitute but one factor, or 
 represent but one quantity or object, ought to be placed close to- 
 gether, as figures are, however many in number : thus, 2ab 3cd 
 = 5y ; or, the line ABC is twice the length of the line CDE ; 
 and so on : but not separated in this manner, 2 a b 3 c d. 
 
 D Quadrat, or regular quadrangle. Thus, nAB=rn BC 
 means that the quadrangle upon the line AB is equal to the 
 quadrangle upon the line CD. 
 
 A Triangle; as, AABC = A ADC. 
 
 L Angle ; as L ABC = Z ADC. The middle letter always 
 denotes the angular point. 
 
 _[_ Perpendicular ; as ABJJBC ; meaning that the line 
 represented by the letters AB is perpendicular to that repre- 
 sented by BC. 
 
 CU Eectangled Parallelogram, or the product of two lines. 
 
 1 1 Parallelism. 
 
 V Equiangular or similar. 
 
 J. Equilateral. 
 
 |_ Right Angle. 
 
 7-r The mark of Geometrical proportion continued, implies 
 that the ratio is still carried on without interruption; as, 
 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, -H- signifies that these numbers are in the same 
 uninterrupted proportion. 
 
 : Difference or excess. 
 
 Q or q, a Square. 
 
 C or c, a Cube. 
 
 QQ, the ratio of a square number to a square number. 
 
 III. BOTANICAL AND MEDICAL SIGNS. 
 In Botanical works, 
 
 Denotes annual plants, which bear but once. 
 
 (1) A plant bearing single fruit once a year. The plant may 
 
 continue one or more years. 
 
 (2) A biennial monocarpian. It flowers in the second year, 
 
 and afterwards dies. 
 (g) A plant which only bears after several years, and then dies. 
 
MEDICAL SIGNS. 197 
 
 Z* A plant whose root continues vital, and produces a stem 
 
 every year. 
 
 $ A plant whose root persists, and bears fruit several times. 
 A small bush. 
 $ A bush. 
 5 A small tree. 
 
 S A tree of more than twentyfive feet high. 
 O A climbing plant. 
 (j A plant climbing to the right. 
 A plant climbing to the left. 
 A An evergreen. 
 C? Male plant. 
 $ Female plant. 
 '<? Hermaphrodite. 
 
 I, II, III, IV, &c., denote the months of flowering. Thus, 
 IV VI signifies that the plant flowers from April to 
 June. Words compounded of an organ and an absolute 
 number, are often written with the number in figures : 
 thus, 10-^e?ws, W-petalus, for decemfidus, decapetalus. 
 X Denotes an indefinite number. Thus, petala x, for petala 
 
 plurima ; stamina x , for stamina plurima, &c. 
 ? Expresses uncertainty as to a name, &c. 
 ! Denotes certitude. 
 
 -f- After a word denotes that the object is not well known. 
 * After a synonyme, indicates that in the author cited there 
 is a description made after nature. 
 
 The symbols of common use in Medicine : 
 R stands for Recipe, 'take.' 
 a or aa is a contraction of the Greek distributive preposition 
 
 ai/ct, and means ' equal parts of each.' 
 Ss or ft semis, ' half.' 
 
 ft * libra, ' a pound,' in apothecaries' weight = 12 ounces. 
 3 or oz. f an ounce = 8 drachms. 
 
 * This sign should never have an s after it; for the plural of 
 libra is libra. Ibs. is quite as ridiculous as 5. ozs. ds. would be. 
 f A contraction of the Spanish onza. 
 
198 MEDICAL SIGNS. 
 
 3 a drachm = 3 scruples. 
 
 9 a scruple = 20 grains. 
 
 gr. a grain. There are 5,760 grains in a pound. 
 
 j stands for one, ij for two, iij for three, and so on. 
 
 P. pugillum or particula ; that is, such a quantity of flowers, 
 
 seeds, or the like, as may be taken up between the thumb 
 
 and the two forefingers. It is accounted the eighth part 
 
 of a maniple. 
 M. manipulum, ' a handful,' or as much as can be grasped by 
 
 the hand at once. 
 
 P. seq. paries aquales, or equal parts. 
 Cong, congius, ( a gallon.' 
 Cochl. cochleare, ' a spoonful ;' that is, half an ounce of syrup, 
 
 but only three drachms of distilled water, 
 f. m. fiat mixtura, let a mixture be made, 
 q. s. quantum sufficit, or as much as is sufficient, 
 q. p. quantum placet, or as much as you please ; or, q. 1. 
 
 quantum libet. 
 s. a. secundum artem> or according to art. 
 
199 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS, AND LISTS OF LATIN, FRENCH, 
 AND ITALIAN PHRASES, ETC. 
 
 I. ABBREVIATIONS OF BOOKS OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 Gen Genesis 
 
 Exod Exodus 
 
 Lev Leviticus 
 
 Num Numbers 
 
 Deut Deuteronomy 
 
 Josh Joshua 
 
 Judg Judges 
 
 Sam Samuel 
 
 Chron Chronicles 
 
 Neh Nehemiah 
 
 Esth Esther 
 
 Ps Psalms 
 
 Prov. Proverbs 
 
 Eccl Ecclesiastes 
 
 S. or Song 
 
 of Sol Song of Solomon 
 
 Isa Isaiah 
 
 Jer Jeremiah 
 
 Lam Lamentations 
 
 Ezek Ezekitl 
 
 Dan Daniel 
 
 Hos Hosea 
 
 Obad Obadiah 
 
 Mic Micah 
 
 Nah Nahum 
 
 Hab Habakkuk 
 
 Zeph Zephaniah 
 
 Hag Haggai 
 
 Zech Zechariah 
 
 Mai Malachi 
 
 Esd Esdra 
 
 Tob Tobit 
 
 Jud Judith 
 
 Wisd Wisdom 
 
 Eccles Ecclesiasticus 
 
 Bar Baruch 
 
 Sus Susannah 
 
 Man. Manasses 
 
 Mace Maccabees 
 
 Matt Matthew 
 
 Jo John 
 
 Rom Epistle to Romans 
 
 Cor Corinthians 
 
 Gal Galatians 
 
 Eph Ephesians 
 
 Phil Philippians 
 
200 ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES, ETC. 
 
 Col Colossians 
 
 Thess Thessalonians 
 
 Tim Timothy 
 
 Tit Titus 
 
 Philem Philemon 
 
 Heb Hebrews 
 
 Pet Peter 
 
 Jas James 
 
 N 
 
 Rev Revelation 
 
 Apoc Apocalypse 
 
 Books not included in this list are better in full. 
 
 II. ABBREVIATED NAMES OF MONTHS. 
 
 Jan. ......January 
 
 Feb February 
 
 Mar March 
 
 Apr April 
 
 Aug August 
 
 Sept September 
 
 Oct October 
 
 Nov November 
 
 Dec. ., ...December 
 
 These abbreviations should have place only when they 
 stand in connection with the day of an occurrence ; as, * The 
 first telegraphic message betwixt England and America 
 was a communication from the Queen to the President, 
 dated Aug. 7, 1858.' In other cases they should be in 
 full ; as, ' The Atlantic cable was laid down in the month 
 of July, 1858.' 
 
 III. ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES, OFFICES, PROFESSIONS, 
 
 INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 
 A.A.S Academics Americana Socius, Fellow of the 
 
 American Society 
 
 A.B Artium Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Arts 
 
 Admr Administrator 
 
 Admx Administratrix 
 
 A.M Artium Magister, Master o Arts 
 
 A.P.G Professor of Astronomy in Gresham College 
 
 Archb. or Abp.... Archbishop 
 
 Assist. Sec Assistant Secretary 
 
 Atty.-Gen Attorney-General 
 
 B.A Bachelor of Arts 
 
 Bart Baronet 
 
 B.C.L Bachelor of Civil Law 
 
ABBREVIATION'S OF TITLES, ETC. 201 
 
 B.D Baccalaureus Divinitatis, Bachelor of Divinity 
 
 B.L Baccalaureus Legum, Bachelor of Laws 
 
 B.M Baccalaureus Medicine, Bachelor of Medicine 
 
 Bp Bishop 
 
 B.K Banco Regis (or Regina) King's (or Queen's) 
 
 Bench 
 
 Brit. Mus British Museum 
 
 Bro Brother. Bros. Brothers 
 
 B. V Beata Virgo, the Blessed Virgin 
 
 Capt Captain 
 
 C.B Companion of the Bath 
 
 C.C Caius College 
 
 C.C County Court 
 
 C.C.C Corpus Christi College 
 
 C.C.P Court of Common Pleas 
 
 Cl. Dom. Com. ...Clerk of the House of Commons 
 
 Co Company 
 
 Col Colonel 
 
 Coll College 
 
 Com Commodore ; Commissioner ; Committee ; Com- 
 mander 
 
 Cor. Sec Corresponding Secretary 
 
 C.P Court of Probate 
 
 C.P.S Custos Privati Sigilli, Keeper of the Privy.Seal 
 
 C.R Custos Rotulorum, Keeper of the Rolls 
 
 Cr Creditor 
 
 C.S Court of Sessions 
 
 C. S Custos Sigilli, Keeper of the Seal 
 
 D.C.L Doctor of the Civil Law 
 
 D.D Divinitalis Doctor, Doctor of Divinity 
 
 Dea Deacon 
 
 Dep Deputy 
 
 D.F Dean of Faculty (Scotland) 
 
 Dft Defendant 
 
 D.P Doctor of Philosophy 
 
 Dr Doctor; Debtor 
 
 Ed Editor. Eds. Editors 
 
 E.I.M. Coll East-India Military College 
 
 Esq Esquire. Esqs. Esquires 
 
202 ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES, ETC. 
 
 Exec, or Exr. ...Executor 
 
 Execx Executrix 
 
 F. A.S Fraternitatis Antiquariorum Socius, Fellow of 
 
 the Society of Antiquaries 
 
 F.D Fidei Defensor, Defender of the Faith 
 
 F.E.S Fellow of the Entomological Society 
 
 F.G.S Fellow of the Geological Society 
 
 F.H.S Fellow of the Horticultural Society 
 
 F.L.S Fraternitatis Linnearuz Socius, Fellow of the 
 
 Linnean Society 
 F.R.S . Fraternitatis Regice Socius, Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Society 
 F.R.S. & AS Fraternitatis Regies Socius et Associatus, Fellow 
 
 and Associate of the Royal Society 
 
 F.R.S.E Fellow of the Royal Society, Edinburgh 
 
 F.R.S.L Fellow of the Royal Society, London 
 
 F.S.A Fellow of the Society of Arts 
 
 G.C.B Grand Cross of the Bath 
 
 G.C.H Grand Cross of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic 
 
 Order 
 
 Gen General 
 
 Gent Gentleman 
 
 Gov Governor 
 
 G.R Georgius (or Gulielmus) Rex, King George (or 
 
 William) 
 
 H.B.M His or Her Britannic Majesty 
 
 H.E.I.C Honorable East-India Company 
 
 H.M His or Her Majesty 
 
 H.M. S His or Her Maj esty 's Ship or Service 
 
 H.R.H His or Her Royal Highness 
 
 Hon. Honorable 
 
 Eon. Mem Honorable Member 
 
 Hon. Sec Honorary Secretary 
 
 H.P Half-pay 
 
 I.H.S Jesus Hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of 
 
 Men 
 
 J.D Jurum Doctor, Doctor of Laws 
 
 J.P Justice of the Peace 
 
 Just Justice 
 
ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES, ETC. 203 
 
 J.V.D. or J.U.D... Juris utriusque Doctor, Doctor of both Laws 
 (of the Canon and the Civil Law) 
 
 K.B Knight of the Bath 
 
 K.B King's Bench 
 
 K.C .King's Counsel 
 
 K.C.B Knight Commander of the Bath 
 
 K.G Knight of the Garter 
 
 K.M Knight of Malta 
 
 Knt. or Kt Knight 
 
 K.P Knight of St. Patrick 
 
 K.T Knight of the Thistle 
 
 L.C.J Lord Chief Justice 
 
 L.C.P .Licentiate of the College of Preceptors 
 
 L.D Lady Day 
 
 Ld Lord. Ldp. Lordship 
 
 Lieut Lieutenant 
 
 Lieut.- Gov Lieutenant-Governor 
 
 LL.B Legum Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Laws 
 
 LL.D Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws (the Canon and 
 
 the Civil Law) 
 
 M Monsieur, Sir 
 
 M.A Master of Arts 
 
 Maj Major 
 
 Maj.-Gen Major-General 
 
 M.B Musicce Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Music 
 
 M.C Member of Congress 
 
 M.D Medicince Doctor, Doctor of Medicine 
 
 Messrs Messieurs, Gentlemen 
 
 MM Messieurs 
 
 Mons. or M Monsieur, Sir 
 
 Mde Madame, Madam 
 
 Mdlle Mademoiselle, Miss 
 
 -M.P Member of Parliament 
 
 Mr Mister 
 
 Mrs Mistress 
 
 M.R. A.S Member of the Royal Asiatic Society 
 
 M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons 
 
 M.R.I.A Member of the Royal Irish Academy 
 
 Mus. D Doctor of Music 
 
 Ph. D Philosophic Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy 
 
204 ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES, ETC. 
 
 Plff. Plaintiff 
 
 P.M Postmaster 
 
 P.M.G .Postmaster-General 
 
 P.M.G Professor of Music at Gresham College 
 
 P.O Post-office 
 
 Pres President 
 
 Prof Professor 
 
 P.R.S President of the Royal Society 
 
 P.S Privy Seal 
 
 P. Th. G Professor of Divinity at Gresham College 
 
 Q Queen 
 
 Q.B Queen's Bench 
 
 Q.C Queen's Counsel ; Queen's College 
 
 R Rex, Regina, King, Queen 
 
 R.A Royal Academician 
 
 R.A Royal Artillery 
 
 R.E Royal Engineers 
 
 Rec. Sec Recording Secretary 
 
 Rect Rector 
 
 Reg Register 
 
 Rep Representative 
 
 Rev Reverend 
 
 R.M Royal Marines 
 
 R.N" Royal Navy 
 
 R.S.S Regies Societatis Socius, or Regalls Societatis 
 
 Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society 
 
 Rt. Hon Right Honorable 
 
 Rt. Rev Right Reverend 
 
 Rt. Wpful Right Worshipful 
 
 S.A.S Societatis Antiquariorum Socius, Fellow of the 
 
 Society of Antiquaries 
 
 Sec Secretary 
 
 Sen Senate, Senator 
 
 Serj Serjeant 
 
 S.J.C Supreme Judicial Court 
 
 St Saint; SS. Saints 
 
 S.T.D Sanctce Theologies Doctor, Doctor of Divinity 
 
 S.T.P Sancta Theologies Professor, Professor of Di- 
 vinity 
 
MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 205 
 
 Tr. Br. Mus Trustees of the British Museum 
 
 Treas .....Treasurer 
 
 Typ Typographer 
 
 U.E.I.C United East-India Company 
 
 U.J.C Utriusque Juris Doctor, Doctor of both Laws 
 
 U.S.A United States Army 
 
 U.S.M United States Mail 
 
 U.S.N United States Navy 
 
 V.Pres. or V. P.... Yice- President 
 
 V.R Victoria Regina, Queen Victoria 
 
 W.S Writer of the Signet 
 
 IV. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 a 
 
 abl 
 
 A.C. .. 
 
 A.JLC. 
 
 ace 
 
 acct. . . . 
 A.D. ... 
 
 adj 
 
 ad lib.... 
 set 
 
 A.M. . . . 
 
 A.M. ... 
 
 Amer. . . . 
 anon. . . . 
 Ans. or A 
 art. 
 A.U.C. . 
 
 , acre or acres 
 . ablative case 
 . ante Christum, be 
 
 fore Christ 
 . anno cerce Christiance, 
 
 in the year of the 
 
 Christian era 
 accusative case 
 account 
 .anno Domini, in the 
 
 year of our Lord 
 adjective 
 
 ad libitum, at pleasure 
 . cetatis, of age, aged 
 . ante meridiem, before 
 
 noon 
 anno mundi, in the 
 
 year of the world 
 . American 
 anonymous 
 answer 
 . article 
 .ab urbe condita, or 
 
 anno urbis conditce, 
 
 in the year after 
 
 the building of the 
 city (Rome) 
 
 Auth.Ver. Authorized Version 
 b ....... book or books 
 
 B.C. ....before Christ 
 
 br ....... brig 
 
 bu ....... bushel or bushels 
 
 Cal ....... Calender, the Calends 
 
 cap ..... capital ; caps, capi- 
 
 tals 
 
 cap. or c. caput, chapter 
 cf. ...... confer, compare 
 
 ch ....... chaldron or chaldron s 
 
 chap. c. or 
 
 ch ..... chapter 
 
 co ....... county or company 
 
 Com. Ver. Common Version 
 
 comp 
 
 conj 
 
 ct. c 
 
 cwt 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 compare 
 conjunction 
 cent ; cts. cents 
 hundredweight 
 day or days 
 denarius, a penny ; 
 
 denarii, pence 
 dative case 
 
206 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 D.D.D. . 
 
 deg. , . . 
 do. ditto, 
 doll. ... 
 D.O.M. . 
 
 (used in dedications), 
 dat, dicat, dedicat, 
 he gives, he de- 
 votes, he dedicates 
 degree or degrees 
 , the same 
 
 dollar; dolls, dollars 
 Deo optima maxima, 
 to God who is all- 
 powerful 
 , dozen or dozens 
 drachm or drachms 
 duodecimo (a sheet of 
 twenty-four pages) 
 Deo volente, God will- 
 ing 
 
 pennyweight 
 east 
 edition 
 
 English ell or ells 
 , ell or ells Flemish 
 ell or ells French 
 ell or ells Scotch 
 
 doz 
 
 dr 
 
 12mo 
 
 D.V. ... 
 
 dwt 
 
 E 
 
 edit, or ed. 
 EE. ... 
 E. PI. . . . 
 E. Fr. . . . 
 E. S. ... 
 e. g. or 
 ex. g. . . exempli gratia, for 
 
 ep epistle 
 
 et al et alibi, and else- 
 where ; et alii, &c., 
 and others 
 
 ex example 
 
 Fahr Fahrenheit 
 
 fath fathom or fathoms 
 
 fcap foolscap 
 
 fig figure or figures 
 
 fir firkin or firkins 
 
 f. m. . . . .fiat mixtura, let a 
 mixture be made 
 
 ft foot, feet 
 
 fol. fo. or 
 
 f folio, folios 
 
 fur furlong or furlongs 
 
 gal gallon ; gals, gallons 
 
 gen genitive case 
 
 gr grain or grains 
 
 guin. or G. guinea, guineas 
 h. or hr. . . hour, hours 
 
 h. e hoc est, that is 
 
 hhd hogshead or hogs- 
 heads 
 
 hund hundred or hundreds 
 
 ibid, or ib. ibidem, in the same 
 
 place 
 
 id idem, the same (per- 
 son or thing) 
 
 i. e id est, that is 
 
 in inch or inches 
 
 incog incognito, unknown 
 
 in lim. . .in limine, at the out- 
 set 
 
 in loc in foco,onthe passage 
 
 inst instant, of this month 
 
 int interest 
 
 i. q idem quod, the same 
 
 which 
 jun. or jr. junior 
 
 1 line 
 
 lat latitude 
 
 Ib pound or pounds (in 
 
 weight) 
 
 1. c loco citato, in the 
 
 passage cited 
 leag. lea. 
 
 or 1. . .league, leagues 
 lib. or 1. . . liber, book 
 
 liv. livre, book 
 
 long longitude 
 
 LXX Septuagint (Version) 
 
MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 207 
 
 L S 
 
 locus sigilli, place of 
 
 8vo 
 
 octavo (a sheet of 
 
 m 
 
 the seal 
 mile or miles 
 
 
 sixteen pages) 
 pole or poles 
 
 M ...... 
 
 meridies, meridian 
 
 
 page i pp. pages 
 
 
 noon 
 
 par. 
 
 paragraph 
 
 Mag 
 
 magazine 
 memento* remember 
 
 per ann. . 
 
 per annum, by the 
 year 
 
 mo 
 
 month ; mos. months 
 
 per cent. . 
 
 per centum, by the 
 
 MS 
 
 manuscriptum, manu- 
 
 
 hundred 
 
 M.S. . . . 
 
 script 
 . memorice. sacrum, sa- 
 cred to the me- 
 
 P.M 
 DOT). 
 
 post meridiem, after- 
 noon 
 population 
 
 
 mory 
 
 P.P.D. . 
 
 propria pecunia de- 
 
 MSS 
 N 
 
 manuscripta, manu- 
 scripts 
 north 
 
 
 dicavit, with his 
 own money he 
 dedicated it 
 
 n 
 
 note or notes 
 
 prep. . . . 
 
 preposition 
 
 N.B 
 N.B 
 
 nem. con. 
 nem. diss. 
 
 nota bene, mark well 
 North Britain (Scot- 
 land) 
 nemine contradicente, 
 nobody opposing 
 nemine dissentiente, 
 unanimously 
 
 prob. . . . 
 prop. ... 
 pro tern. 
 
 prox. . . . 
 P.S. 
 
 problem 
 proposition 
 pro tempore, for the 
 time being 
 proximo, next 
 (month) 
 post scriptum, post- 
 
 nl 
 
 nail ; nls. nails 
 
 
 script 
 
 N No. . . 
 
 numeTO in number \ 
 
 pt. 
 
 pint ; pts. pints 
 
 
 number 
 
 pun. 
 
 puncheon or pun- 
 
 nom. . . . 
 Nos 
 
 NS 
 
 nominative case 
 numbers 
 New Style 
 
 Q. or Ques. 
 
 cheons 
 question 
 quadrans, farthing 
 
 N.T. or 
 New Test/ 
 obedt. . 
 
 New Testament 
 obedient 
 
 q. d.., 
 
 quadrantes, far- 
 things 
 .quasi dictum, as if 
 
 obi . . 
 
 objection, objective 
 
 
 said 
 
 Olym 
 O.S 
 O.T. or 
 Old Test, 
 oz 
 
 Olympiad 
 Old Style 
 
 Old Testament 
 . ounce or ounces 
 
 Q.E.D. . . . 
 Q.E.F. . . . 
 
 . quod erat demon- 
 strandtim, which 
 was to be proved 
 . quod erat faciendum, 
 which was to be done 
 
208 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 qr quarter ; qrs. quar- 
 ters 
 
 qt quart ; qts. quarts 
 
 4to quarto (a sheet of 
 
 eight pages) 
 
 Qy query 
 
 r rood or roods ; rod 
 
 or rods 
 
 Reed received 
 
 Rom Roman 
 
 S south 
 
 s. or sec. . . second, seconds 
 
 5 solidus, shilling ; 
 
 solidi, shillings 
 
 sc scruple or scruples 
 
 s. caps .... small capitals 
 
 schr schooner 
 
 S.D salutem dicit, he 
 
 sends his respects 
 
 scil. or sc. scilicet, namely 
 
 sect section ; sees, or ss. 
 
 sections 
 
 sen senior 
 
 sol solution 
 
 S.P salutem precatur, he 
 
 prays for his pro- 
 sperity 
 
 S.P.D. ..salutem plurimam 
 dicit, he wishes 
 much health, or 
 sends his best 
 
 S.P.Q.R. . .Senatus populusque 
 Eomanus, the se- 
 nate and people 
 of Rome 
 
 sq. m square mile or miles 
 
 sq. or seq. sequente; sqq. se- 
 quentibus, in the 
 (places) following 
 
 ster sterling 
 
 t ton or tons 
 
 Text. rec. Textus receptus^the 
 Received Text 
 
 theor theorem 
 
 tier tierce or tierces 
 
 T. turnover 
 
 torn, or t. tomus, tome, volume 
 
 trans translation, trans- 
 lator 
 
 tr. transpose 
 
 ult ultimo, in the last 
 
 (month) 
 
 U. S United States 
 
 v. or vid. vide, see, refer to 
 
 v versus, against 
 
 ver.. verse; vv. verses 
 
 v. g verbi gratia, for ex- 
 ample 
 
 viz videlicet L , namely, to 
 
 wit 
 
 voc vocative case 
 
 vol volume ; vols. vo- 
 lumes 
 
 vv. 11 varicR lectiones, dif- 
 ferent readings 
 
 W west ' 
 
 wk. week; wks. weeks 
 
 wt weight 
 
 Xmas Christmas 
 
 Xn Christian 
 
 Xnty Christianity 
 
 Xt Christ 
 
 y, the ; yn, then 
 
 ys, this ; yt, that 
 
 yr. year ; yrs. years 
 
 &c. or etc. et cateri, et cater a, 
 et catera, and the 
 others 
 
209 
 
 V. SOME FRENCH ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 B n Baron 
 
 Ch er Chevalier 
 
 Compie, C e Compagnie 
 
 CP Constantinople 
 
 C e Comte 
 
 D r Docteur 
 
 DM Docteur-Me'decin 
 
 D.M.P. Docteur- Medecin 
 
 Praticien 
 
 LL. AA. . . Leurs Altesses 
 LL. A A. II. Leurs Altesses Im- 
 
 periales 
 LL.AA.RR. Leurs Altesses 
 
 Royales 
 
 LL. EE. Leurs Excellences 
 LL. EEm. Leurs Eminences 
 LL.HH.PP. Leurs Hautes 
 Puissances 
 
 LL.MM Leurs Majeste's 
 
 LL. MM. II. Leurd Majestes Im 
 
 periales 
 Le R.P. .*. . . Le Reverend Pere 
 
 Le S.P Le Saint Pere (Le 
 
 Pape) 
 
 Les SS. PP. Les Saints Peres (de 
 1'Eglise) 
 
 M is Marquis 
 
 M rae Madame 
 
 M lle Mademoiselle 
 
 M., M r .... Monsieur 
 
 M d Marchand 
 
 M Maitre 
 
 M* r or Mgr. Monseigneur 
 
 NeV Negociant 
 
 N.D Notre-Dame 
 
 N.S. J.C Notre-Seigneur Je- 
 sus-Christ 
 
 S.E Son Excellence 
 
 S.Em Son Eminence 
 
 S.G Sa Grace 
 
 S.H Sa Hautesse (1'em- 
 
 pereur de Tur- 
 quie) 
 
 S.M Sa Majest^ 
 
 S.M.B Sa Majeste" Britan- 
 
 nique 
 
 S.M.C Sa Majeste Catho- 
 
 lique 
 
 S.M.P Sa Majeste" Prus- 
 
 sienne 
 
 S.M.T.C. ..Sa Majest^ tres- 
 Chre"tienne 
 
 S.M.T.F. ..Sa Majeste tres- 
 Fidele 
 
 S.S. Sa Saintete 
 
 V.E Votre Excellence 
 
 c centime 
 
 cent centimetre 
 
 ch chant 
 
 chap chapitre 
 
 do dito 
 
 &, etc et csetera 
 
 ff Digeste 
 
 f o folio 
 
 f r franc 
 
 gram gramme 
 
 gr gros 
 
 hect hectare 
 
 hectol hectolitre 
 
 kil kilogramme 
 
210 
 
 GERMAN ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 lig ....... ligne 
 
 Ms., Mss. Manuscrit, Manu- 
 
 scrits 
 m ....... metre 
 
 mill ..... millimetre 
 
 pag. 
 p 
 pc 
 l er > 2 e 
 
 .page 
 
 pied 
 
 pouce 
 . premier, deuxieme 
 
 1 2 etc. primo, secundo, &c. 
 
 qq quelques 
 
 r recto 
 
 sect section 
 
 v vers 
 
 vers verset 
 
 v verso 
 
 vg village 
 
 vl ville 
 
 voy voyez. 
 
 VI. SOME GERMAN ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 a. a. am angefuhrten Orte (at the place quoted) 
 
 d. h das heisst (that is called) 
 
 Fr Frau (lady) 
 
 Gr Groschen (name of a coin) 
 
 heil heilig (holy) 
 
 h. S heilige Schrift (holy Scripture) 
 
 Hr., Hrn. . . Herr, Herrn (gentleman, gentlemen) 
 
 i. J im Jahre (in the year) 
 
 kaiserl kaiserlich (imperial) 
 
 Kap Itapitel (chapter) 
 
 konigl. . . . koniglich (kingly) 
 
 Kr Kreuzer (name of a coin) 
 
 1 leset (read) 
 
 Maj Majestat (majesty) 
 
 N. S Nachschrift (postscript) 
 
 S Seite (side) 
 
 s siehe (see) 
 
 Sr Seiner (his) 
 
 Thlr Thaler (name of a coin) 
 
 z. B zu Beispiel (for example) 
 
 z. E zum Exempel (for example) 
 
 u. s. f. ... .und so ferner (and so further) 
 u. s. w und so weiter (and so forth) 
 
211 
 
 VII. ABBREVIATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL GREEK AND 
 LATIN AUTHORS. 
 
 J3s3h. . . . 
 
 ^Eschylus 
 
 Ale. 
 
 Alcseus, Alcman 
 
 Amm. Marc 
 
 Ammianus Mar- 
 
 
 cellinus 
 
 Anac 
 
 Anacreon 
 
 Anthol. . . . 
 
 Anthologia 
 
 Antiph. . . . 
 
 . Antiphanes 
 
 Apol. Rhod. 
 
 Apollonius Rhodius 
 
 Apollin. . . . 
 
 Apollinaris 
 
 Apul 
 
 Apuleius 
 
 Arat 
 
 Arat us 
 
 Arist 
 
 Aristoteles 
 
 Aristoph. . 
 
 . Aristophanes 
 
 Asc. Fed. . 
 
 . Asconius Pedianus 
 
 Astramp. . 
 
 . Astrampsychus 
 
 A then. . . . 
 
 . Athenseus 
 
 August. . . . 
 
 . Augustinus 
 
 Aul. Gell. . 
 
 .Aulus Gelius 
 
 Aur. Viet. . 
 
 . Aurelius Victor 
 
 Auson. . . . 
 
 , Ausonius 
 
 Bacchyl. . . . 
 
 . Bacchylides 
 
 Bibl 
 
 . Biblia 
 
 Bud 
 
 . Budseus 
 
 Cses 
 
 Julius Caesar 
 
 Comm. 
 
 Julii Csesaris Com- 
 
 
 mentaria 
 
 Cal. Quint. 
 
 Calaber Quintus 
 
 Callim. . . . 
 
 . Callimachus 
 
 Calpurn. . 
 
 . Calpurnius 
 
 Cat. 
 
 ,Cato 
 
 Catul. . . . 
 
 . Catullus 
 
 Cels. 
 
 Cornelius Celsus 
 
 Chrystod. . 
 
 . Chrystod or us 
 
 Chrysost. . 
 
 . Chrysostomus 
 
 Cic Cicero 
 
 Orat. . . Ciceronis Orationes 
 
 de Off. Cicero de Officiis, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Claud Claudianus 
 
 Col.,Colum. Columella 
 
 C. Nep Cornelius Nepos 
 
 Curt Quintus Curtius 
 
 Cyr. Theod. Cyrus Theodorus 
 Damasc. Joh. Damascenus Jo- 
 hannes 
 
 Demet Demetrius 
 
 Diog. Laert. Diogenes Laertius 
 
 Enn Ennius 
 
 Erasm. ....Erasmus 
 
 Eurip Euripides 
 
 Euseb Eusebius 
 
 Fest. Pomp. Festus Pompeius 
 
 Flor Florus 
 
 Front Frontinus 
 
 Gell Aulius Gellius 
 
 Greg. Naz.. .Gregorius Itfazian- 
 
 zensis 
 
 . Herodianus 
 . Herodotus 
 . Hesiodus 
 
 "I Hesiodi Opera et 
 3 j Dies, &c. 
 
 Herod. . . 
 Herodot. 
 Hesiod. . 
 Op. , 
 et Dies J 
 
 Hirt Hirtius 
 
 Horn Homerus 
 
 ,, II Homeri Ilias 
 
 Odys. Homeri Odyssea 
 
 Horat Horatius 
 
 Ars ) Horatii Ars Po- 
 Poet. j etica 
 
212 
 
 GREEK AND LATIN ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 Horat. Od . 
 Sat.. 
 Hort 
 
 Horatii Odae 
 Satirse, &c. 
 Hortensius 
 
 Papin. jur.. 
 Paul ^Emyl 
 
 Papinianus juris- 
 consultus 
 Paulus ^Emylins 
 
 Hygin. . . . 
 
 Hyginus 
 
 Paus . 
 
 Pausanias 
 
 Jer 
 
 Jeromus 
 
 Pers. 
 
 Persius 
 
 Jul. Cap. . 
 
 Julius Capitolinus 
 
 Petr 
 
 Petronius 
 
 Jul. Firm. . 
 Justin 
 
 Julius Firmicus 
 Justinus 
 
 Phsed. .... 
 Phil 
 
 Phaedrus 
 Philemon 
 
 Juv 
 
 Juvenalis 
 
 Pind 
 
 Pindarus 
 
 Lactant. 
 
 Lactant us 
 
 Plat. 
 
 Plato 
 
 Lamprid. . 
 Liv 
 
 Lampridius 
 Titus Livius 
 
 Plaut. . . . 
 Plin. 
 
 Plautus 
 Plinius historicus 
 
 Longin. . . . 
 Lucan. 
 
 Longinus 
 Lucanus 
 
 Plin. jun. . 
 Plut. 
 
 Plinius junior 
 Plutarchus 
 
 Lucian 
 Lucil 
 Macr. 
 Marcian. . . 
 Marc. Mus-. 
 Mart 
 Mela .... 
 
 Lucianus 
 Lucilius 
 Macrobius 
 Marcianus Capella 
 Marcus Musurus 
 Martialis 
 Pomponius Mela 
 
 Mor. . 
 Vit. . 
 Pomp. jur. 
 
 Pomp. Mel. 
 Procop. . . . 
 Propert. . . . 
 
 Plutarchi Moralia 
 Vitae 
 Pomponius juris- 
 consultus 
 Pomponius Mela 
 Procopius 
 Propertius 
 
 M enand 
 Modest, jur. 
 
 Mosc 
 Mus 
 
 Menander 
 Modestinus juris- 
 consultus 
 Moschus 
 Musseus 
 
 Pythag. . . . 
 Quint. &Q.C 
 Quintil. . . . 
 dej 
 Orat. \ 
 Sail 
 
 Pythagoras 
 . Quintus Curtius 
 Quintilianus 
 de Re 
 Oratorica, &c. 
 Sallustius 
 
 Nic 
 
 Nicander 
 
 Sap 
 
 Sappho 
 
 Non. . . . 
 
 Nonnus 
 
 Scsevol. . . . 
 
 Scsevola juriscon- 
 
 Opp 
 Urph 
 Ovid 
 
 Oppianus 
 Orphseus 
 Ovidius 
 
 Scrib 
 Sen 
 
 sultus 
 Scribonius 
 Seneca Philosophus 
 
 
 
 Sen. Tr. 
 
 Seneca Poeta tra- 
 
 Epist. / 
 Her. \ 
 
 phoses 
 Epistolae 
 Heroicse 
 
 Sibyl. Orac. 
 Sil. Ital. . . 
 
 gicus 
 Sibyllina Oracula 
 Silius Italicus 
 
 Trist... 
 Pacuv 
 Pallad 
 
 Tristia, &c. 
 Pacuvius 
 Palladius 
 
 Simm. Ehod 
 Simon 
 Socrat 
 
 Simmias Khodius 
 Simonides 
 Socrates 
 
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Soph Sophocles 
 
 Stat Statius 
 
 Strab Strabo 
 
 Suet. Suetonius 
 
 Tac Cornelius Tacitus 
 
 Ter , Terentius 
 
 Tertul Tertullianus 
 
 . . Theocritus 
 
 . . Theognis 
 
 . . Thucydides 
 
 , . Tibullus 
 
 Rh d } Timocreon Rhodius 
 
 Tyrt Tyrtaeus 
 
 Ulp. jur. . .Ulpianus juriscon- 
 
 sultus 
 Val. Flae. Valerius Flaccus 
 
 Theoe. 
 
 Theog 
 
 Thuc 
 
 Tibul. 
 
 Timoe. 
 
 Val. Max. . .Valerius Maximua 
 
 Varr Terentius Varro 
 
 Vel. Pat.. .Velleius Paterculus 
 
 Virg Virgilius 
 
 Mn. Virgilii JEneis 
 Georg. Georgica 
 Buc. Bucolica 
 
 Vitr Vitruvius 
 
 Vol Volusius 
 
 Vopisc .... Vopiscus 
 
 Xen. . . . Xenophon 
 Cyrop. Xenophontis Cy- 
 
 ropsedia 
 
 Anab, Anabasis 
 
 Memor. Memora- 
 bilia, &c. 
 
 VIII. EXPLANATION OF FRENCH, LATIN, AND ITALIAN 
 WORDS AND PHRASES IN COMMON USE. 
 
 F. French ; L. Latin ; i. Italian ; s. Spanish. 
 
 A bas (F). Down with. 
 
 A fortiori (L). "With stronger reason; with greater force, 
 
 A la bonne heure (F). Luckily ; in good time. 
 
 A la mode (F). According to the fashion. 
 
 A posteriori (L). From the effect ; from the latter. 
 
 A priori (L). From cause to effect ; from the former. 
 
 Ab initio (L). From the beginning. 
 
 Ab urbe conditd (L). From the building of the city 
 
 (Rome). 
 Absit invidia (L). All offence apart; let there be no 
 
 malice. 
 
 Absit omen (L). May it not prove ominous. 
 Ad arbitrium (L). At pleasure. 
 
214 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Ad dbsurdum (L). To show the absurdity. 
 
 Ad captandum vulgus (L). To catch the mob or the vulgar. 
 
 Ad eundem (L). To the same point or degree. 
 
 Ad Grcecas calendas (L). An indefinite postponement. 
 
 (The Greeks had no calends.) 
 Ad infinitum (L). Without end. 
 Ad interim (L). In the meanwhile. 
 Ad libitum (L). >At pleasure. 
 Ad nauseam (L). To a disgusting degree. 
 Ad referendum (L). For further consideration. 
 Ad rem (L). To the purpose. 
 Ad valorem (L). According to the value. 
 Addendum (L). An addition or appendix. 
 Affaire de cceur (F). A love affair ; an amour. 
 Afflatus (L). Inspiration. 
 Agenda (L). Things to be done. 
 
 Aide-de-camp (F). An officer attendant on a general, &c. 
 Alga (L). A kind of sea-weed. 
 Alguazil (Sp. alguacii). A Spanish constable. 
 Alias (L). Otherwise. 
 Alibi (L). Elsewhere ; not present. 
 Allemande (F). A kind of German dance. 
 Alma mater (L). Benign mother (applied to a university), 
 Alter ego (L). A second self. 
 Amateur (F). A lover of any sort of science. 
 Amende (F). Compensation ; apology. 
 Anglice (L). In English. 
 Anno Domini (L). In the year of our Lord. 
 Anno lucis (L). In the year of light. 
 Anno mundi (L). In the year of the world. 
 Ante meridiem (L). Before noon. 
 Antique (F). Ancient. 
 Apergu (F). A brief sketch of any subject. 
 Apropos (Fr. a propos)^ To the purpose. 
 Arcana, imperil (L). State secrets. 
 Arcanum (L). A secret. 
 
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 215 
 
 Argumentum ad fidem (L). An appeal to our faith. 
 Argumentum ad hominem (L) An argument to the person. 
 Argumentum ad ignorantiam (L). A foolish argument. 
 Argumentum adjudicium (L). An appeal to the common 
 
 sense of mankind. 
 
 Argumentum adpopulum (L). An appeal to the people. 
 Armiger (L). One bearing arms ; an esquire. 
 Assumpsit (L).- -It is assumed or taken for granted. 
 Aufond (F). To the bottom, or main point. 
 Au pis alter (F). At the worst. 
 Audi alteram partem (L). Hear the other side. 
 Auto-da-fe (F), Auto defe (Sp. and Port.). A decree of 
 
 faith; burning of heretics. 
 Badinage (F). Light or playful discourse. 
 Bagatelle (F). A trifle. 
 Bateau (F). A long light boat. 
 Beau-ideal (F). Ideal excellence. 
 Beau monde (F). The fashionable world. 
 Bel esprit (F). Man of wit. 
 
 Bella-donna (i). The deadly nightshade; fair lady. 
 Belle (F). A fine or fashionable lady. 
 Belles-lettres (F). Polite literature. 
 Billet-doux (F). A love-letter. 
 Bon gre mal gre (F). With a good or ill grace ; whether 
 
 the party will or not. 
 Bon jour (F). Good day. 
 
 Bon mot (F). A piece of wit ; a jest ; a quibble. 
 Bon ton (F). High fashion ; first-class society. 
 Bon vivant (F). A high liver. 
 
 Bond fide (L). In good faith (before a noun, bond-fide}. 
 Bonhomie (F). Simplicity of manners or character. 
 Bonne bouche (F). A delicious morsel. 
 Boreas (L). The north wind. 
 Boudoir (F). A small private apartment. 
 Bourgeois (F). A citizen of the trading class. 
 Bourgeoisie (F). The body of citizens. 
 Bravura (i). A song of difficult execution. 
 
216 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Brutum fulmen (L). Non-augural lightning; unreasoning 
 
 bluster. 
 
 Burletta (i). A musical farce. 
 Cachet (F). A seal. Lettre de cachet. A secret order of 
 
 arrest. 
 
 Cacoethes (L). A bad habit or custom. 
 Cacoethes scribendi (L). An itch for writing. 
 Cadenza (i). The fall or modulation of the voice, in 
 
 music. 
 
 Cceteris paribus (L). Other things being equal. 
 Calibre (F). Capacity or compass ; mental power ; a term 
 
 in gunnery. 
 
 Camera obscura (L). A dark chamber used by artists. 
 Cantata (i). A poem set to music. 
 Cap-a-pie (corrupt). From head to foot. 
 Capriccio (i). A fanciful irregular kind of musical com- 
 position. 
 
 Capriole (i). A leap without advancing ; capers. 
 Caput mortuum (L). Dead head ; the worthless remains. 
 Caret (L). Is wanting or omitted. 
 Carte blanche (F). Unconditional terms. 
 Caveat emptor (L). Let the purchaser take heed or beware. 
 Chanson (F). A song. 
 Chansonnette (F). A little song. 
 Chapeau (F). A hat. 
 Chaperon (F). An attendant on a lady, as a guide and 
 
 protector. 
 
 Charge d'affaires (F). An ambassador of second rank. 
 Chateau (F). A castle ; a country mansion. 
 Chef-d'oeuvre (F). A masterpiece (pi. chefs-d'ceuvre). 
 Chiaro-oscuro or Chiaroscuro (i). Light and shadow in 
 
 painting. 
 
 Cicerone (i). A guide or conductor. 
 Ci-devant (F). Formerly. 
 Clique (F). A party, a gang. 
 Cognomen (L). A surname. 
 Comme ilfaut (F). As it should be. 
 
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 217 
 
 Communia proprie dicere (L). To express common things 
 
 with propriety. 
 
 Compos mentis (L). Of sound mind. 
 Con amore (i). With love or hearty inclination. 
 Conge d'elire (F). Permission to elect. 
 Connoisseur (F). A skilful judge. 
 Contour (F). The outline of a figure. 
 Contra (L). Against. 
 
 Contra bonos mores (L). Against good manners. 
 Cornucopia (L). The horn of plenty. 
 Corrigenda (L). Words to be corrected. 
 Cotillon (F). A lively dance. 
 Coup de grace (F). The finishing blow. 
 Coup d'etat (F). A master stroke of state policy. 
 Coup de main (F). A bold and rapid enterprise. 
 Coup d'oeil (F). A glance of the eye (pi. coups d'oeil). 
 Coute que coute (F). Cost what it may. 
 Cm bono ? (L). To what good or advantage ? 
 Cum privilegio (L). With privilege. 
 
 Curiosa felicitas (L). A happy choice of words in writing. 
 Currente calamo (L). With a running pen ; written off- 
 
 liand. 
 
 Gustos rotulorum (L). Keeper of the rolls. 
 Da capo (i). Over again. 
 Data (L). Things granted (sing, datum). 
 De facto (L). In fact, in reality. 
 De jure (L). By law or right. 
 De mortuis nil nisi bonum (L). Say nothing but what is 
 
 good of the dead. 
 De novo (L). Anew ; over again. 
 Deficit (L). -A want or deficiency. 
 
 Debut (F). Beginning of an enterprise; first appearance. 
 Dei gratia (L). By the grace of God. 
 Dejeuner d lafourchette (F). A breakfast or luncheon 
 
 with meats. 
 Dele (L). Blot out or erase. 
 
218 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Delta (the Greek letter A), a triangular tract of land 
 towards the mouth of a river. 
 
 Denotement (F). An explanation or unravelling. 
 
 Deo volente, or D. V. (L). God willing. 
 
 Depot (F). A store ; the recruiting reserve of regiments. 
 
 Dernier ressort (F). The last resort. 
 
 Desideratum (L). Something desired or wanted (pi. desi- 
 derata). 
 
 Desunt ccetera (L). The rest are wanting. 
 
 Detur digniori (L). Let it be given to the most worthy. 
 
 Deus ex machind (L). A god from the clouds ; unexpected 
 aid in an emergency. 
 
 Dexter (L). The right hand. 
 
 Dictum (L). A positive assertion (pi. dicta). 
 
 Dieu et mon droit (F). God and my right. 
 
 Diluvium (L). A deposit of superficial loam, sand, &c.> 
 caused by a deluge. 
 
 Disjecta membra (L). Scattered parts, limbs, or writings. 
 
 Distringas (L). A writ for distraining. 
 
 Divide et impera (L). Divide and govern. 
 
 Doloroso (i). Soft and pathetic. 
 
 Domicile (F) (L. domicilium). An abode. 
 
 Domine dirige nos (L). O Lord direct us. 
 
 Double entendre (F). A phrase with a double meaning. 
 
 Douceur (F). A present or bribe. 
 
 Draco (L). A dragon ; a constellation. 
 
 Dramatis persons (L). The characters in a play. 
 
 Duet (Ital. duetto). A song for two performers. 
 
 Dulia (Gr.). An inferior kind of worship. 
 
 Duo (L). Two ; a two-part song. 
 
 Duodecimo (L). A book having twelve leaves to a sheet. 
 
 Durante placito or beneplacito (L). During pleasure. 
 
 Durante vita (L). During life. 
 
 E pluribus unum (L). One from many: the motto of 
 the United States. 
 
 Ecce homo (L). Behold the man. 
 
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 219 
 
 Ecce signum (L). Behold the sign. 
 
 Eclaircissement (F). The clearing-up of an affair. 
 
 Eclat (F). Splendor, with applause. 
 
 Elegit (L). He hath elected ; a writ of execution. 
 
 Eleve (F). A pupil. 
 
 Embonpoint (F). Good condition. 
 
 Emeritus (L). One who has deserved well ; applied to a 
 soldier who had served his full time, and was entitled 
 to his discharge. 
 
 Ennui (F). Wearisomeness. 
 
 Ensemble (F). The whole taken together. 
 
 Entre nous (F). Between ourselves. 
 
 Entree (F). Entrance; also used in cookery for a prin- 
 cipal dish. 
 
 Entremets (F). A small dish set between the principal 
 ones at dinner. 
 
 Equilibrium (L). Equality of weight ; even balance. 
 
 Ergo (L). Therefore. 
 
 Erratum (L). A mistake or error (pi. errata). 
 
 Esprit de corps (F). The spirit of attachment to a 
 party, &c. 
 
 Est modus in rebus (L). There is a medium in everything. 
 
 Esto perpetua (L). May it always continue. 
 
 Et ccetera (L). And the rest. 
 
 Ex (L). Out of; late (as, ex-consul). 
 
 Ex concesso (L). From what has been granted. 
 
 Ex curia (L). Out of court. 
 
 Ex parte (L). On one side (before a noun, ex-parte}. 
 
 Excerpta (L). Extracts. 
 
 Exempli gratia (L). For the sake of example. 
 
 Expose (F). A n exposition. 
 
 Extempore (L). Without premeditation. 
 
 Facile primus, jacile princeps (L). By far the first or 
 chiefest. 
 
 Fac-simile (L). An exact copy. 
 
 Faux pas (F). A false step. 
 
220 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Felo de se (L). A suicide ; a self-murderer. 
 
 Femme-de-chambre (F). A chamber-maid. 
 
 Festina lente (L). Make slow haste ; advance steadily 
 
 rather than hurriedly. 
 Fete (F). A feast or celebration. 
 Feu dejoie (F). A bonfire; also a discharge of musketry 
 
 on days of rejoicing. 
 Fiat (L). Let it be done. 
 
 Fieri facias (L). Cause it to be done (a kind of writ). 
 Finale (i). The close or end. 
 Finis (L). The end. 
 
 Flagrante bello (L). While the war is raging. 
 Fleur-de-lis (F). The flower of the lily (p\. fleurs-de-lis.) 
 Forte (i). In music, a direction to sing or play with force 
 
 or spirit. 
 
 Fortissimo (i)= Yery loud. 
 Fracas (F). Bustle; a slight quarrel ; more ado about the 
 
 thing than it is worth. 
 Fugam fecit (L). He has taken to flight. 
 Gaucherie (F). Awkwardness. 
 Gendarme (F). A military policeman. 
 Gendarmerie (F). The body of the gendarmes. 
 Gratis (L). Free of cost. 
 Gratis dictum (L). Said for nothing. 
 Grisette (F). Dressed in gray (a term applied to French 
 
 shop-girls, &c.) 
 Gusto (i). Great relish. 
 
 Habeas corpus (L). You are to have the body : a writ of 
 right, by virtue of which every British subject can, 
 when imprisoned, demand to be put on his trial. 
 Haricot (F). A kind of ragout ; a kidney-bean. 
 Hauteur (F). Haughtiness. 
 Hie et ubique (L). Here, there, and everywhere. 
 Homo multarum literarum (L). A man of much learning. 
 Honi soit qui mal y pense (F). Evil be to him that evil 
 thinks. 
 
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 221 
 
 Horafugit (L). Time flies. 
 
 Hors de combat (F). Disabled for fighting ; vanquished. 
 
 Hotel-Dieu (F). The chief hospital in French cities. 
 
 Ibidem, contracted ibid, or 16. (L). In the same place. 
 
 Ich dien (Ger,). I serve. 
 
 Idem, contracted id. (L). The same. (Id. ib., the same 
 
 author, in the same place.) 
 Idoneus homo (L). A fit man. 
 Imperium in imperio (L). One government existing within 
 
 another. 
 
 Imprimatur (L). Let it be printed. 
 Imprimis (L). In the first place. 
 Impromptu (L). A prompt remark or piece of wit. 
 In articulo mortis (L). At the point of death. 
 In coelo quies (L). There is rest in heaven. 
 In commendam (L). For a time. 
 In conspectufori (L). In the eye of the law; in the sight 
 
 of the court. 
 
 In curia (L). In the court. 
 In duplo (L). Twice as much. 
 In forma pauper is (L). As a pauper. 
 Inforo conscientice (L). Before the court of conscience, 
 In loco (L). In the place. 
 In petto (i). In reserve ; in one's breast. 
 In posterum (L). For the time to come. 
 In proprid persona (L). In person. 
 In statu quo (L). In the former state. 
 In terrorem (L). By way of warning. 
 In toto (L). Altogether. 
 In transitu (L). On the passage. 
 In vacuo (L). In empty space. 
 Incognito (L). Disguised, unknown. 
 Instar omnium (L). One will suffice for all. 
 Inter nos (L). Between ourselves. 
 Ipse dixit (L). He himself said it ; an assertion. 
 Ipso facto (L). By the fact itself; actually. 
 
222 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Ip so jure (L). By the law itself. 
 
 Item (L). Also. 
 
 Jacta est alea ; judicium Dei (L). The die is cast ; the 
 judgement of God. 
 
 Je ne sais quoi (F). I know not what. 
 
 Jet d'eau (F). An ornamental fountain. 
 
 Jeu de mots (F). Play upon words. 
 
 Jeu $ esprit (F). Ptay of wit, a witticism. 
 
 Jure divino (L). By divine law. 
 
 Jure Tiumano (L). By human law. 
 
 Labor omnia vincit (L). Labor conquers all things. 
 
 Lapsus calami (L). A slip of the pen ; an error in writing. 
 
 Lapsus linguae (L). A slip of the tongue. 
 
 Lege (L). Read. 
 
 Levee (F). A morning visit or reception. 
 
 Lex non scripta (L). The unwritten or common law. 
 
 Lex talionis (L). The law of retaliation. 
 
 Lex terrce, lex patrice (L). The law of the land. 
 
 Liqueur (F). A cordial. 
 
 Literati (L). Men of letters or learning. 
 
 Locum tenens (L). One who holds a place for another. 
 
 Mademoiselle (F). A young unmarried lady. 
 
 Magna charta (L). The great charter of England. 
 
 Maitre d* hotel (F). An hotel-keeper ; a house-steward. 
 
 Majordomo (ItaL maiordomo). One who has the manage- 
 ment of a household. 
 
 Mai a propos (F). Out of time, unbecoming. 
 
 Malaria (i). Noxious exhalations. 
 
 Malum in se (L). A thing evil in itself. 
 
 Mandamus (L). We command : a writ from the Queen's 
 Bench. 
 
 Manege (F). A riding-school. 
 
 Matinee (F). A morning party. 
 
 Mauvaise honte (F). False modesty, bashfulnesa. 
 
 Maximum (L) The greatest. 
 
 Memento mori (L). Bemember death. 
 
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 223 
 
 Memorabilia (L). Things to be remembered. 
 
 Memoriter (L). By rote. 
 
 Menage (F). Housekeeping. 
 
 Hens sana in corpore sano (L). A sound mind in a sound 
 body. 
 
 Meum et tuum (L). Mine and thine. 
 
 Minimum (L). The least. 
 
 Minutice (L). Minute concerns, trifles. 
 
 Mirabile dictu (L). Wonderful to tell. 
 
 Mittimus (L). We send : a warrant for the commitment 
 of an offender. 
 
 Mot du guet (F). Watchword. 
 
 Multum inparvo (L). Much in little. 
 
 Mutanda (L). Things to be altered. 
 
 Mutatis mutandis (L). Changing one term for the other, 
 when required, in reasoning by analogy. 
 
 Nawete (F). Ingenuousness, simplicity. 
 
 Necessity s non habet leg em (L). Necessity has no law. 
 
 Nemine contradicente (L). No one contradicting. 
 
 Nemine dissentiente (L). Without opposition or dissent. 
 
 Ne plus ultra (L). To the utmost extent. 
 
 Ne quid nimis (L). Not too much of anything ; do nothing 
 to excess. 
 
 Ne tentes aut perfice (L). Attempt nothing without accom- 
 plishing it. 
 
 Niaiserie (F). Silliness. 
 
 Nil desperandum (L). Never despair. 
 
 Nolens miens (L). Willing or unwilling. 
 
 Nolo episcopari (L). I am not willing to be made a bishop 
 (an old formal way of declining a bishopric). 
 
 Nom-de-guerre (F). An assumed name. 
 
 Non compos mentis (L). Not of a sound mind. 
 
 Non est disputandum (L). It is not to be disputed. 
 
 Non nobis solum (L). Not merely for ourselves. 
 
 Non obstante (L). Notwithstanding ; none opposing. 
 
 Nonchalance (F). Coolness, easy indifference. 
 
224 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Nosce teipsum (L). Know thyself. 
 
 Noscitur ex sociis (L). He is known by his companions. 
 
 Nota bene (L). Mark well. 
 
 Nullum quod tetigit, non ornavit (L). Whatever he touched 
 
 he embellished. 
 
 tempora ! o mores ! (L). what times ! what manners ! 
 Omnes (L). All. 
 
 On-dit (F). A rumour, a flying report. 
 Onusprobandi (L). The responsibility of producing proof. 
 Ore rotundo (L). With full-sounding voice. 
 Otium cum dignitate (L). Ease with dignity. 
 Outre (F). Extraordinary, eccentric. 
 Pari passu (L). With equal step; in the same degree. 
 Parole (F). Word of honor. 
 Pas (F). A step ; precedence. 
 Passim (L). In many places ; everywhere. 
 Patois (F), Provincial dialect. 
 Penchant (F). An inclination, a leaning towards. 
 Pendente lite (L). While the suit is pending. 
 Per se (L). By itself; alone. 
 Per cent or per centum (L), By the hundred. 
 Per fas et nefas (L). Through right and wrong. 
 Per saltum (L). With a leap ; at once. 
 Petit (F). Small; little. 
 Petit-maitre (F). A little master, a fop. 
 Peu dpeu (F). Gradually ; by gentle approach. 
 Pinxit (L). Painted it : placed after the artist's name on 
 
 a picture. 
 
 Plateau (F). A plain ; a flat surface. 
 Poeta nascitur, non fit (L). A poet is born, not made. 
 Posse comitatus (L). The power of the country. 
 Postulata (L). Things assumed. 
 Prcecognita (L). Things previously known. 
 Prima facie (L). On the first face ; according to the first 
 view of a thing (before a noun, primd facie). 
 
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 225 
 
 Primum mobile (L). The primary motive, or moving 
 power. 
 
 Pro aris etfocis (L). For our altars and our hearths. 
 
 Pro bono publico (L). For the public good. 
 
 Pro et con [for contra] (L). For and against. 
 
 Pro forma (L). For form's sake ; according to form. 
 
 Pro hdc vice (L). For this turn or occasion. 
 
 Pro raid (L). In proportion. 
 
 Pro re natd (L). For a special purpose. 
 
 Pro tempore (L). For a time. 
 
 Probatum est (L). It has been tried and proved. 
 
 Protege (F). Taken charge of, or patronized; a ward, &c. 
 
 Quamdiu se bene gesserit (L). So long as he shall conduct 
 himself properly. 
 
 Quantum libet (L). As much as you please. 
 
 Quantum sufficit (L). A sufficient quantity ; enough. 
 
 Quasi dicas (L). As if you should say. 
 
 Qui capit, illefacit (L). If the cap fits, let him wear it. 
 
 Qui tarn? (L). Who so 1 ? The title given to a certain 
 action at law. 
 
 Qui va Id f (F). Who goes there 1 
 
 Qui-vive (F). On the alert. 
 
 Quid nuncf (L). What now ? A term applied to gossip- 
 ing politicians. 
 
 Quid pro quo (L). One thing for another ; ' tit for 
 tat.' 
 
 Quis separabit f (L). Who shall separate us ? 
 
 Quo animo (L). With what inclination. 
 Quo warranto (L). By what warrant or authority. 
 Quoad (L). As to. 
 Quondam (L). Former. 
 
 Quorum (L). Of whom, a term signifying a sufficient 
 number for a certain business. 
 
 Ragout (F). A highly-seasoned dish. 
 Kegium donum (L). A royal donation (a grant from the 
 Crown to the Irish Presbyterian clergy). 
 Q 
 
226 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Re infectd (L). The business not being done. 
 
 Rencontre (F). An encounter. 
 
 Requiescat in pace (L). May he (or she) rest in peace. 
 
 Requiescant in pace (L). May they rest in peace. 
 
 Res angusta domi (L). Narrow circumstances at home; 
 poverty. 
 
 Respicefinem (L). Look to the end. 
 
 Respublica (L). The common-weal ; the commonwealth, 
 
 Restaurateur (F). A tavern-keeper who provides din- 
 ners, &c. 
 
 Resurgam (L). I shall rise again. 
 
 Rouge (F), Bed coloring for the skin. 
 
 Rouge et noir (F). Eed and black (a kind of game). 
 
 Ruse de guerre (F). A stratagem of war. 
 
 Sang-froid (F). Coolness; self-possession. 
 
 Sans (F). Without. 
 
 Sans-culottes (F). Without breeches (a term applied to 
 the rabble of the French revolution). 
 
 Saucisse (F). A sausage. 
 
 Savant (F). A learned man. 
 
 Scandalum magnatum (L). Scandal of the great, or libels 
 on the nobility or judges. 
 
 Scripsit (L). Wrote it. 
 
 Sculpsit (L). Engraved it (placed after the engraver's 
 name in prints). 
 
 Secundum artem (L). According to the rules of art. 
 
 Semper idem (L). Always the same. 
 
 Seriatim (L). In order ; successively. 
 
 Sic passim (L). So everywhere. 
 
 Sic transit gloria mundi (L). Thus passes away the glory 
 of the world. 
 
 Sic in originali (L). So it stands in the original. 
 
 Simplex munditiis (L). Simple yet elegant ; neat ; unos- 
 tentatious. 
 
 Sine die (L). Without naming a day. 
 Sine invidid (L). Without envy. 
 
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 227 
 
 Sine qua non (L). Indispensably requisite. 
 
 Sobriquet (F). A nickname. 
 
 Soi-disant (F). Self-styled; pretended. 
 
 Soiree (F). An evening party. 
 
 Souvenir (F). Remembrance; a keepsake. 
 
 Spectas et spectaberis (L). You will see and be seen. 
 
 Statu quo, or in statu quo (L). In the same state. 
 
 Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re (L). Gentle in manner, 
 
 resolute in deed. 
 Subpoena (L). Under a penalty (a summons to attend a 
 
 court as a witness). 
 Succedaneum (L). A substitute. 
 Sui generis (L). Of its own kind ; peculiar. 
 Summum bonum (L). The chief good. 
 Suum cuique (L). Let every one have his own. 
 Table d'hote (F). An ordinary at which the master of the 
 
 hotel presides. 
 
 Tcedium mice (L). Weariness of life. 
 Tale quale (L). Such as it is. 
 Tapis (F). The carpet. 
 Tartufe (F). A nickname for a hypocritical devotee, 
 
 derived from the principal character in Holier e's 
 
 comedy so called. 
 
 Tempus edax rerum (L). Time the devourer of all things. 
 Tempus fugit (L). Time flies. 
 Tempus omnia revelat (L). Time reveals all things. 
 Tete-d-tete (F). A conversation between two persons. 
 Tirade (F). A tedious and bitter harangue. 
 Ton (F). The fashion. 
 
 Torso (i). The fragmentary trunk of a statue. 
 Tot homines quot sententice (L). So many men so many 
 
 minds. 
 
 Toto corde (L). With the whole heart. 
 Tour (F). A journey. 
 Tour a tour (F). By turns. 
 Tout ensemble (F). The whole. 
 Q 2 
 
228 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Triajuncta in uno (L). Three united in one. 
 
 Tutto e buono che men da Dio (i). All is good which 
 
 comes from God. 
 
 Ultimatum (L). A final answer or decision. 
 Un bel esprit (F). A pretender to wit; a virtuoso. 
 Unique (F). Singular ; the only one of its kind. 
 Vade-mecum (L). Go with me (applied to portable articles 
 
 in frequent use). 
 
 Valet-de-chambre (F). A footman. 
 Veluti in speculum (L). As in a mirror (applied to the 
 
 drama). 
 
 Veni, vidij vici (L). I came, I saw, I conquered. 
 Verbatim et literatim (L). Word for word; to the very 
 
 letter. 
 
 Veritas vincit (L). Truth conquers. 
 Versus (L). Against. 
 
 Vertu (F), Virtu (i). Yirtue ; taste ; art ; skill. 
 Veto (L). I forbid (used substantively, 'a forbidding'). 
 Vi et armis (L). By force and arms ; by unlawful means. 
 Via (L), By the way of. 
 Vice (L). In the room of. 
 
 Vice versd (L). The terms being reversed ; reversely. 
 Vide (L). See. 
 
 Vide et crede (L). See and believe. 
 Vignette (F). A name given to slight engravings, with 
 
 which books, bank-notes, &c. are ornamented. 
 Virtuoso (i). One skilled in matters of taste or art, 
 Vis-a-vis (F). Face to face. 
 Vis inertia (L). Inert power ; the tendency of every body 
 
 to remain at rest. 
 
 Viva voce (L). By word of mouth ; by the living voice. 
 Vivat regina (L). Long live the queen. 
 Vivant rex et regina (L). Long live the king and queen. 
 Vive la bagatelle (F). Success to trifles. 
 Vive Vempereur (F). Long live the emperor. 
 Vive Vimperatrice (F). Long live the empress. 
 
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 229 
 
 Vive le roi (F). Long live the king. 
 
 Vive la reine (F). Long live the queen. 
 
 Volga gran bestia (i). The mob is a great beast. 
 
 Vox Dei (L).- The voice of God, 
 
 Vox populi (L). The voice of the people. 
 
 Vox stellarum (L). The voice of the stars (applied to 
 
 almanacs). 
 
 Vulgb (L). Vulgarly; commonly. 
 Vultus est index animi (L). The countenance is the index 
 
 of the mind. 
 
230 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 LITERAL NOTATION. 
 
 BEFORE the introduction of figures into Europe, the 
 letters of the alphabet (or at least some of them) were 
 employed to denote numbers; but as their use singly 
 was extremely incommodious, a necessity arose for their 
 combination, or for the substitution of some single letter, 
 or an arbitrary mark, as the representative of a large 
 number : and as letters are frequently employed for this 
 purpose at the present day, I think it will not be a 
 misapplication of our space, if we devote a few pages to 
 their illustration. But since this system was not confined 
 to the Romans, but was adopted by the Hebrews and 
 Greeks before them, and also by other Eastern nations, 
 any explanation of this matter would be very imperfect, 
 which omitted all reference to the plan of more ancient 
 peoples. I will therefore notice such of them as I think 
 are likely to fall in the way of the generality of composi- 
 tors and press-correctors; and first I will commence with 
 that which is the most usual, and which should consequently 
 be the most familiar to the mind of the printer. 
 
 I. ROMAN LITERAL NOTATION. 
 
 The method of using the Roman letters as numerical 
 symbols at the present day is as follows ; 
 
ROMAN LITERAL NOTATION. 
 
 231 
 
 1 
 
 I. 
 
 20 
 
 XX. 
 
 2 
 
 II. 
 
 21 
 
 . . . XXI, &c. 
 
 3 
 
 . . . III. 
 
 30 
 
 XXX. 
 
 4 
 
 IV. 
 
 40 
 
 XL. 
 
 5 
 
 V. 
 
 50 
 
 L. 
 
 6 
 
 VI. 
 
 60 
 
 LX. 
 
 7 ... 
 
 VII. 
 
 70 
 
 .. . LXX. 
 
 8 
 
 VIII. 
 
 80 
 
 .. LXXX. 
 
 9 
 
 IX 
 
 90 
 
 xc. 
 
 10 ... 
 
 X. 
 
 100 
 
 c. 
 
 11 
 
 XI. 
 
 200 
 
 cc. 
 
 12 
 
 . . . XII. 
 
 300 . 
 
 ccc. 
 
 13 
 
 XIII 
 
 400 
 
 . CCCC or CD. 
 
 14 
 
 . . . XIV. 
 
 500 . 
 
 10 or D. 
 
 15 
 
 XV. 
 
 600 
 
 IOC or DC. 
 
 16 
 
 XVI. 
 
 700 
 
 IOCC or DCC. 
 
 17 
 
 XVII. 
 
 800 
 
 IOCCC or DCCC. 
 
 18 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 900 . 
 
 . IOCCCC or DCCCC. 
 
 19 . 
 
 . XIX. 
 
 1000 . 
 
 . M or CIO, or 00 or X'. 
 
 2,000 MM, IICIO, CIOCIO. or 
 
 3,000 MMM, CIOCIOCIO. 
 
 4,000 MMMM, &c. 
 
 5,000 100. T, or V00._ 
 
 10,000 CCIOO CMO, X, XOO, or XM. 
 
 20,000 . . XXOD. 
 
 100,000 CM, COO, or CCCIOOO. 
 
 200,000 CCM or CCOO. 
 
 1,000,000 CCCCIOOOO. 
 
 It will be observed, that in this system but five letters 
 are used ; namely I, V, X, L, and C : for, as regards those 
 numbers into which D or M enters, I will presently show 
 that they are composed of I and C. Whenever a letter 
 of less value precedes a higher, it signifies that we are to 
 deduct so many from the latter; but when the higher 
 number comes first, the following lesser are added to it. 
 With respect to the I and C, it may be remarked that C 
 always faces the I, whether it precedes or follows it. Every 
 
232 LITERAL NOTATION. 
 
 additional C on the right hand increases the value ten 
 times : thus, as 10 stands for 500, so 100 stands for 
 5,000, and 1000 for 50,000. Each C on the left doubles 
 these quantities: thus CIO is 1,000, CCIOO is 10,000, 
 and CCCIOOO is 100,000 ; beyond which the system with 
 the ancients was not carried ; but for larger numbers they 
 prefixed bis, ter, quater, quinquies, decies, centena, millia, 
 &c. : nevertheless an author of the sixteenth century, when 
 giving a list of the number of citizens of the Boman em- 
 pire, says that they amounted to CCCCCCCIOOOOOOO* 
 10000000* CCCIOOO, CCIOO ; a number which I will 
 leave to the student's ingenuity to find out. 
 
 Various ingenious theories have been started to account 
 for this mode of reckoning. Some say that I came to be 
 employed to denote one, because it is the most simple of 
 all letters ; and V, for five, because it is the fifth vowel ; 
 X, for ten, because it is the union of two Vs ; C, for a 
 hundred, because it is the first letter of the word centum ; 
 L, for fifty, because it is half of an angular C ( ), as 
 perhaps anciently written ; and M for a thousand, because 
 it is the first letter of the word mille. Others think that 
 all these letters are but representations of rude shapes, 
 formed by combinations of the letter I : thus V, L, ,K, C, 
 D, m. Substituting for the words 'letter I,' the words 
 ' straight line,' I concur in this opinion : for as mankind 
 would be more cogently driven to represent numbers by 
 some sign, than any other of their ideas, it is highly 
 probable that some species of numeration by symbols 
 would precede all writing ; or rather, more correctly 
 speaking, that this would be the first species of writing 
 invented. Now, it may safely be asserted, that the signs 
 used for this purpose would be simple and easily avail- 
 able. And what could be readier than the fingers of the 
 hand 1 Hence one came to be denoted by one finger 
 extended, = a straight line; and the three following num- 
 bers by so many extended fingers. Five might be similarly 
 
ROMAN LITERAL NOTATION. 233 
 
 represented; but as it is natural that this would terminate - 
 the first series, the number of fingers on one hand being 
 now exhausted, a junction of any two fingers might soon 
 come to denote it ; just as we see people unable to write, 
 keep their accounts by straight lines, crossing every 
 four to denote five. As a curious illustration of this 
 primitive way of keeping accounts, I remember a case in 
 which an ignorant publican, who had recourse to this 
 method, summoned one of his customers for a debt, and 
 actually carried the door on which his account was scored, 
 on his back into the court ; and it was admitted as evidence, 
 and gained him his suit. 
 
 From this single symbol all the others are derived; 
 V, as I have just said, being only the junction of two 
 straight lines at the bottom, opening at an angle; X is 
 two lines, or two fingers, crossed, or two Vs meeting at 
 their apex ; L is but an horizontal and a perpendicular I, 
 or it is the representative of the elevation of one finger 
 and the horizontal extension of another ; C is but double 
 L, when written square, as it probably was in the primi- 
 tive ages, thus E ; or the representative of a correspond- 
 ing combination of the fingers of the hand. D is the 
 completion of the square, or four straight lines combined ; 
 D, M, or more properly CD, is but D doubled. This is 
 much strengthened by the fact that CIO, which is as near 
 CD (or CCD) as can be represented by letters, is much the 
 more ancient form of representing 1,000. 
 
 The Romans also expressed any number of thousands 
 by a line drawn over any numeral less than one thousand. 
 Thus V denotes 5,000, LX 60,000. So, likewise, M is 
 one million, and MM two millions. 
 
 In this system of notation, it cannot have escaped the 
 reader's observation, that the symbols are first quintuples, 
 and then doubles; and so alternately to the end. Thus 
 
 and M-=DX2. 
 
234 LITERAL NOTATION. 
 
 II. GREEK NUMERALS. 
 
 The Greeks used the letters of the alphabet as nume- 
 rical signs in three different ways. 
 
 1. To express a small series of numbers, each letter 
 was reckoned according to its order in the alphabet; as 
 A for 1, B for 2, E for 5, fl for 24, &c. In this manner 
 the books of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey are distinguished. 
 The technical syllable HNT will assist the memory in 
 using this kind of notation : for if the alphabet be divided 
 into four equal parts, H will be the first letter of the 
 second part, or 7 ; N, the first of the third, or 13; and 
 T, of the fourth, or 19. 
 
 2. The capital letters were used in denoting large 
 series of numbers : thus I, 1 (pia or la) ; n, 5 (irevTe) ; 
 
 A, 10 (S&a); H, 100 (c/earbv) ; X, 1,000 (x^uot); and M, 
 10,000 (nvpiot) : which, it will be seen, are all combinations 
 of straight lines. A large n round any of the characters, 
 except I, denoted five times as much as that character 
 represented; as [A] = 50. 
 
 3. To express the nine units, the nine tens, and the 
 nine hundreds, the Greeks divided the alphabet into three 
 parts ; but as there are only twentyfour letters in it, they 
 used s-', called eTrto-r^o*', for 6 ; Q or 4, called KJinra, for 90 ; 
 and 9, called a-wn'i, for 900. In using this kind of nota- 
 tion, the memory will be much assisted by the technical 
 syllable aip : that is, d denotes 1; i, 10; and //, 100. It 
 is to be observed also, that all the numbers under 1,000 
 are denoted by letters with a small mark like an accent 
 over them; and that a similar mark placed under any 
 letter, denotes that it represents so many thousands. The 
 following table will clearly illustrate what has been 
 said : 
 
GREEK NUMERALS. 
 
 235 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 7. 
 8. 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 30. 
 40. 
 
 50. 
 60. 
 70. 
 80. 
 90. 
 
 I 
 
 . .. d 
 
 100. 
 200. 
 300. 
 400. 
 500. 
 600. 
 700. 
 800. 
 900. 
 1,000. 
 2,000. 
 
 3,000. 
 4,000. 
 5,000. 
 6,000. 
 7,000. 
 8,000. 
 9,000. 
 10,000. 
 20,000. 
 50,000. 
 
 100,000. 
 &c. 
 
 H 
 
 r ' 
 
 II 
 
 
 HH 
 
 . . . a' 
 
 Hi 
 
 y 
 
 HHH 
 
 
 mi 
 
 . s' 
 
 HHHH 
 
 v / 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 m 
 
 
 "HJH If 
 
 TTTI 
 
 f 
 
 mil 
 
 , 
 
 !THH a/' 
 
 mm 
 
 0' 
 
 TJHHH ... 
 
 T|HHHH . 
 x 
 
 ... ^ 
 
 A 
 
 i' 
 
 AI 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 AIII 
 
 fv' 
 
 XX 
 
 
 
 Aim 
 
 18' 
 
 XXX 
 
 
 An 
 
 
 xxxx 
 
 ?) 
 
 Am 
 
 / 
 
 Ann 
 
 if 
 
 fxl . 
 
 
 
 Anin 
 
 
 
 
 ATTTTTT 
 
 , 
 
 AA 
 
 K' 
 
 X XX 
 
 i, 
 
 AAI, &c. 
 
 
 "xjxxx .. 
 
 7j 
 
 AAA 
 
 A' 
 
 Y|xxxx . 
 
 M 
 
 .. e 
 
 AAAA 
 
 
 [11 
 
 i/ 
 
 TJA 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ~A~IAA 
 
 
 "Ml . 
 
 
 "AJAAA , 
 
 TT' 
 
 
 ' P 
 
 A AAAA 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 According to this system, the year 1859 would be 
 thus written : x|lf[HHH[T|niIII, or aAv'Q'. 
 
 Fractions were generally denoted by those letters 
 marked with a grave accent : thus S v , one fourth ; e, one 
 fifth, &c. Numbers beyond 900,000 were mostly written 
 in words at length in aocient manuscripts. Above 10,000, 
 the system admitted of some variation; and Archimedes 
 extended it by taking the square of the myriad as a new 
 
236 
 
 LITERAL NOTATION. 
 
 unit or period, and forming a series of periods containing 
 eight figures in each. 
 
 III. HEBREW NUMERALS. 
 
 The ancient Jews also adopted the plan of denoting 
 numbers by the letters of the alphabet, indeed, it is 
 supposed by some that the practice was first introduced 
 by this people ; but as their system is more artificial than 
 that of the Greeks and Latins, and presupposes the know- 
 ledge of an entire alphabet, I am rather inclined to think 
 that these latter must have adopted theirs spontaneously 
 from the suggestions which seem naturally to arise to the 
 untutored mind on this subject. 
 
 The letters were classed into three divisions, according 
 to their order in the alphabet, in the following manner ; 
 the first column denoting the units, the second the tens, 
 and the third the hundreds. Thus : 
 
 N Aleph . . . 
 
 1 
 
 ^ Yod 
 
 10 
 
 P Coph ,. 106 
 
 2 Beth 
 
 
 2 Caph 
 
 20 
 
 "| Kesch 200 
 
 J Gimel . . . 
 *f Daleth 
 
 . . 3 
 .. 4 
 
 7 Lamed . . . 
 ft Mem 
 
 . 30 
 40 
 
 {j; Shin 300 
 11 Thau .... 400 
 
 nHe 
 
 5 
 
 3 Nun 
 
 fiO 
 
 *| Caph final 500 
 
 1 Yau 
 
 .. 6 
 
 D Samech. . . 
 
 60 
 
 D Mem 600 
 
 f Zain 
 
 7 
 
 y Gnain . . 
 
 . 70 
 
 ] Nun 700 
 
 
 3 
 
 S Phe 
 
 80 
 
 ^ Phe 800 
 
 M Teth.. 
 
 9 
 
 V Tzade 
 
 . 90 
 
 V Tzade 900 
 
 The reader will see that there are twentyseven letters 
 used for this purpose; but as the Hebrew alphabet con- 
 tains only twentytwo, for the last five in the series of 
 hundreds they adopted the final letters of cap h, mem, nun, 
 phe, and tzade ; a fact which strengthens my previous con- 
 jecture, that this system must have come into use among 
 
ARABIC AND INDIAN NUMERALS. 
 
 237 
 
 the Jews after their language had arrived at a consider- 
 able degree of perfection, and that a much more simple 
 and natural way must have been in use in the more 
 remote period of their history. 
 
 In combining different numbers, the greater is put 
 first, according to the Hebrew mode of writing : thus, 
 tfl 11, and JOP 121. The number 15 is denoted by the 
 letters "|3, instead of the letters fp, because the latter 
 enter into the name of Jehovah in Hebrew. The thousands 
 are denoted by the unit signs, with two dots or a stroke 
 above : thus, jtf or J$ 1000. Gesenius, in his Grammar, 
 says that the numeral use of the letters did not occur in 
 the text of the Old Testament, but was first found on the 
 coins of the Maccabees, in the middle of the second 
 century before the Christian era. 
 
 IY. ARABIC AND INDIAN NUMERALS. 
 
 Those inhabitants of the East who employ the Arabic 
 and Indian characters, have also a system of notation by 
 letters; and as they differ from those in ordinary use in 
 writing, it will perhaps be advisable to give them in this 
 place. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Persi- 
 
 Arabic. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Persi- 
 
 Arabic. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 < 
 
 2 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 7 
 
 V 
 
 va 
 
 3 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 8 
 
 A 
 
 * 
 
 4 
 
 f 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 _ 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 y, 
 
 10 
 
 1. 
 
 V 
 
238 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ON CORRECTING A PROOF-SHEET. 
 
 IN correcting a proof-sheet, there are certain symbols 
 employed by correctors of tjie press, and well understood 
 by compositors, with which it will be necessary for every 
 gentleman about to enter upon the honorable career of 
 literature to become acquainted. I will therefore devote 
 a short chapter to their illustration, to which I will 
 append a few remarks, which may, perhaps, be found of 
 some utility to the inexperienced. 
 
 The marks in common use for this purpose, then, are 
 the following : 
 
 To change one letter for another, strike the wrong 
 letter through with a pen, and write the correct one in 
 the margin. 
 
 To strike out superfluous words or letters, draw a line 
 through them, and place the annexed mark in the margin, 
 thus : 
 
 There were many brave men in ia the army. 
 
 But if the author, by inadvertence, or from some other 
 cause, should strike out more than he intends, or words 
 which he afterwards determines to retain, he must under- 
 score the word, and write stet in the margin; in this 
 manner, erasing the deleting symbol: 
 
 Over the hills and feaz away. $7 
 
ON CORRECTING A PROOF-SHEET. 2 
 
 To change Roman into Italic, and vice versa, 
 draw a line under the word, and write in the 
 nargin Ital. or Rom. according to circumstances; 
 thus : 
 
 The ambassador was not deputed by his government. ^Ma 
 The ambassador was deputed by his government. fy>o-m. 
 
 In like manner, should it be thought advisable 
 to' change ordinary letters to small capitals or 
 capitals, for the former draw two lines under the 
 words to be changed, and in the latter, three, and 
 write in the margin sm. caps, or caps., as the case dm. ca 
 may require. ^ ca 
 
 Again, to change capital or small capital letters 
 into ordinary type, draw a line under them, and 
 write 1. c. in the opposite margin. S. c. 
 
 If the punctuation is faulty, erase the wrong 
 point, or if there be none, indicate the place by a 
 caret, and annex the proper point in the margin, in 
 this manner, as the requirements of the case may ,/ ;/ ?/ 
 demand : 
 
 The place of an omitted hyphen must be indi- 
 cated by a caret where required, and the adjoining /./ 
 symbol placed opposite. 
 
 For a dash, a longer mark must be made; / / 
 thus : 
 
 If words are transposed, write tr. in the margin, 
 and encircle or number the words to be transposed ; 
 thus : 
 
 (0) 
 
240 ON CORRECTING A PROOF-SHEET. 
 
 between them, and another opposite to the line 
 where the defect occurs, in this manner : 
 
 Boast not L f to-morrow. 
 
 If more space be required between two words, 
 draw a line at the requisite place, and annex the 
 accompanying sign : 
 
 When words, or parts of words, are separated 
 which should be joined, draw a curve under them, 
 and annex a similar one in the margin : 
 
 Any thing you choose to pro Tide. 
 
 Should a paragraph be made where not intended, 
 connect the matter by a line, and write Run on in 
 the margin. On the other hand, to denote a para- 
 graph in a solid line, draw a bracket at the proper 
 place, and write Fresh par. or N. P. opposite to it. 
 
 The place of omitted words is of course indicated 
 by a caret, and the words supplied in the margin, 
 where most convenient ; but, for long omissions, a 
 caret is made at the proper place and the words, 
 Out, see copy, written opposite. 
 
 A wrong-fount letter must be underscored, and 
 wf written opposite the line. 
 
 An omitted apostrophe (or quotation- mark) must 
 also be written in the margin, accompanied by the 
 annexed mark, to distinguish it from the comma. 
 
 Imperfect letters are underscored, and a cross 
 placed opposite, in the margin ; thus : 
 
 Should the damaged letters be numerous, -as 
 sometimes happens, a circle should be drawn round 
 the whole, and the word batter written in the 
 margin. 
 
 N.B. After correction, the wJiole of the lines 
 where the batter occurs should be carefully com- 
 
ON CORRECTING A PROOF-SHEET. 241 
 
 pared with the copy, or the previous proof-sheet. Many 
 a blunder occurs from inattention to this necessary 
 process. 
 
 To say a word more on this matter to the man of 
 experience would be ridiculous ; but perhaps I may be 
 pardoned a few observations for the benefit of the unini- 
 tiated in these matters. I would remark, then, in the first 
 place, that it is very unadvfsable to make more marks 
 than are absolutely necessary ; and in the second, never 
 accompany your marks with any observations: for, if the 
 marks are at all intelligible, the compositor perfectly 
 understands them ; and all unnecessary remarks only tend 
 to his confusion, and give a dirty appearance to the proof, 
 of which, in all probability, he will not be slow to take 
 advantage, and that to the author's detriment, if he pays 
 his printer's bill himself. 
 
 I have known writers of considerable experience, who, 
 in addition to the requisite symbol, must needs rewrite 
 the corrected word in the margin, as they thought, with 
 the view of making the matter quite clear. But I can 
 assure such gentlemen that they labor under a great 
 mistake ; and, as I said before, I will say also to them, 
 every unnecessary mark is a source of confusion and loss of 
 time to the compositor and the corrector, and consequently 
 adds to the amount of the printer 1 s bill. 
 
 Perhaps, when I am on this subject, I may be allowed 
 to advert to another somewhat connected with it, although 
 it hardly comes under my province; and that is, the 
 proper way of preparing copy ft r the press. I would beg 
 leave to suggest, therefore, 
 
 1. That the author write on one side of the paper only. 
 This will be advantageous both to himself and the com- 
 positor : for he can then write his notes at the back of the 
 preceding page, which will of course face the page where 
 they occur ; and if he should find it advisable to make any 
 extensive alteration in the manuscript, he can do it much 
 
242 ON COKKECTING A PROOF -SHEET. 
 
 more clearly on the opposite page than by means of inter- 
 lining or cramming it into the margin. Or, better still, 
 he can leave a large margin, equal to a third of the whole, 
 in the side of each page of manuscript, and write his notes 
 and alterations there. 
 
 2. That he write a tolerably legible hand. It need not 
 be like copperplate ; for compositors are, generally speak- 
 ing, adepts at deciphering manuscript : but there is a 
 wide difference between that and the miserable illegible 
 scrawls that frequently find their way into the compo- 
 sitor's hands, to his great annoyance, and loss of time and 
 money. For, although it may happen sometimes that he 
 is allowed extra for bad copy, he is never allowed enough 
 to compensate him for the time he is compelled to consume 
 in his efforts to unravel the hieroglyphics, and the still 
 longer time in correcting the proof-sheet. Besides, all 
 this adds unnecessarily to the expense of a work, and 
 often causes much vexation and delay, and is the main 
 cause of the most absurd blunders escaping the notice of 
 both corrector and author. 
 
 3. For the same purpose, i.e. the saving of unneces- 
 sary expense, it is very desirable that an author should 
 write as nearly as possible what he would like to see in 
 print. Let him, therefore, revise his copy thoroughly, if 
 an unpractised writer, and make the corrections in the 
 manuscript ; and if these are extensive, let him re-write 
 the whole. This may be laborious and tiresome ; but he 
 will eventually reap the benefit, in the acquisition of a 
 more correct mode of reasoning, and a clearer perception 
 of the relation between his words and his ideas. 
 
 4. An author need not trouble himself much about 
 punctuation. Let him mark the end of his sentences 
 distinctly, and insert a few points where confusion is likely 
 to arise, and he will generally find that the printer, if at 
 all equal to his business, will point his book pretty satis- 
 factorily. But if the author is unwilling to trust this 
 
ON CORRECTING A PROOF-SHEET. 243 
 
 matter to the printer, let him do the work thoroughly 
 himself, and insert every point just as he wishes it to 
 appear, and then the compositor will thank him. 
 
 Having said thus much of the author, perhaps I may 
 be allowed to say a few words also of the reader or 
 corrector, and what I consider the best way of performing 
 his part of the business. Undoubtedly it is desirable that 
 a corrector of the press should have been brought up to 
 the practical part of the business ; otherwise imperfections* 
 of workmanship are apt to escape his eye, however well 
 qualified he may otherwise be for the responsible office he 
 has assumed. Not but that literary gentlemen, who have 
 no practical acquaintance with the art of printing, may in 
 course of time become adepts in detecting even practical 
 deficiencies ; but while they are acquiring this necessary 
 qualification, the work is being turned out in an imperfect 
 state, and in a manner which will reflect little credit on 
 the establishment where it is executed, if not superin- 
 tended by a competent practical printer before being sent 
 to press. Indeed, judging from my own experience, I 
 should say that mere literary gentlemen seldom make 
 really good readers. 
 
 The principal qualifications for a reader are, that he 
 should have a good knowledge of the English language, 
 be generally well-informed (as all kinds of subjects come 
 under his supervision), have a quick eye and a clear head, 
 combined with patience and perseverance. If he adds to 
 these qualifications a tolerable acquaintance with the lan- 
 guages which enter so largely into the constitution of our 
 own (for no man can correct errors in a language he does 
 not understand), he may be regarded as an accomplished 
 corrector of the press. But, however good a scholar he 
 may have the reputation of being, if he has not, in addition, 
 the qualifications above alluded to, he will never be fully 
 equal to the task he has undertaken, and will never be 
 the man to whom any work should be wholly intrusted. 
 R 2 
 
244 ON CORRECTING A PROOF-SHEET. 
 
 But supposing him possessed of the necessary acquire- 
 ments, he will still, if inexperienced, require a little 
 instruction; and in aid of that object I will venture to 
 offer a few hints as to the routine of his proceeding. 
 
 When a sheet is put into his hands to read a first 
 time, let him look carefully to the primer marked in his 
 copy by the reader of the previous sheet, if it be not the 
 first of a work, and compare it with a table of signatures, 
 ' which he should always have hanging before him for 
 ready reference (something similar to the one which will 
 be given in the next chapter). If the page and signature 
 correspond with the table, they may be supposed to be 
 correct ; if not, let him ascertain the cause, and if wrong, 
 rectify the error at once. He will then look and see that 
 the folios follow in regular succession ; that the chapter 
 corresponds with the directions in the primer; as also 
 the sections and other divisions, if such there be. The 
 pages must also be examined, in order to see that they 
 are of a proper length : the footnotes will likewise re- 
 quire his attention, to see that they also follow in order, 
 and correspond with the marks indicated in the text. He 
 may then venture to read the sheet carefully by eye, 
 keeping the copy by his side for reference when he is in 
 doubt. Having done this to the whole sheet, or a portion 
 of it, if wanted by the compositor for correction, let him 
 transfer the copy to his reading-boy, and cause him to 
 read it distinctly and audibly (not grumblingly and 
 almost unintelligibly, as boys are apt to do if not well 
 looked after), and give it out to be corrected in such 
 portions as may suit the urgency of the case. If the proof 
 is very foul, it is better to read it at once by the copy, in 
 order to clear it of its most important blunders, have it 
 corrected, and re-read by the copy. But, supposing the 
 sheet finished, the corrector must carefully mark where it 
 ends, writing distinctly in the margin of the copy, the 
 following signature, its first folio, the chapter, section, and 
 
0& CORRECTING A PROOF-SHEET. 245 
 
 every other division, together with the compositor's name, 
 and send this and the remainder of his copy, not wanted 
 for the sheet, again to the compositor. 
 
 "When corrected and revised, a proof is sent to the 
 author, who, on his part, should lose no time in examining 
 it, and then return it without delay ; for upon his regu- 
 larity in this particular mainly depends the expeditious and 
 satisfactory execution of the whole. When the author's 
 alterations have been carefully made and revised by the 
 reader, if no further proof is required, the sheet should 
 then be read by a competent corrector for press ; and 
 as such a person will be well acquainted with his duties, 
 it is unnecessary that they should be specified here. We 
 will therefore proceed to the next chapter. 
 
246 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 TABLES USEFUL TO THE AUTHOR, CORRECTOR, 
 AND COMPOSITOR. 
 
 IN the previous chapter .1 advised the corrector to 
 have a table of signatures and folios always at hand ; and 
 as it will perhaps be more secure in a book, and almost 
 as convenient for reference, as anywhere else, I append 
 one here, which will be sufficient for all ordinary pur- 
 poses ;* for it will be a very easy matter, should he be 
 engaged on works in folio or quarto, which frequently run 
 through three or four, or even five and six alphabets, to 
 draw up a special table for that purpose : but as works 
 in those sizes are not common nowadays, it would not be 
 worth while to give them to that extent in this place. 
 
 In addition to this, the reader will find subjoined, an 
 abstract table, containing only those signatures whose first 
 page ends with the figure 1. These form so many starting- 
 points, from which the pages of intermediate signatures 
 can easily be calculated, and much time saved ; for if these 
 are once thoroughly fixed in the mind, reference to more 
 extended tables is hardly ever necessary, in the most 
 common sizes, such as 8vo and 12mo, at least. 
 
 * This table is printed in a separate form, and sold by the 
 publisher of this work, price \d. y or 2d. on card-board. 
 
TABLE I. SIGNATURES AND FOLIOS. 
 
 No. 
 
 Sigs. 
 
 Folio. 
 
 4to. 
 
 8vo. 
 
 |8vo. 
 
 12mo. 
 
 i 
 
 12mo. 
 
 16ino. 
 
 Sigs. 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 C 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 33 
 
 C 
 
 3 
 
 D 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 33 
 
 17 
 
 49 
 
 25 
 
 65 
 
 D 
 
 4 
 
 E 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 49 
 
 25 
 
 73 
 
 37 
 
 97 
 
 E 
 
 5 
 
 F 
 
 17 
 
 33 
 
 65 
 
 33 
 
 97 
 
 49 
 
 129 
 
 F 
 
 6 
 
 G 
 
 21 
 
 41 
 
 81 
 
 41 
 
 121 
 
 61 
 
 161 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 H 
 
 25 
 
 49 
 
 97 
 
 49 
 
 145 
 
 73 
 
 193 
 
 H 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 29 
 
 57 
 
 113 
 
 57 
 
 169 
 
 85 
 
 225 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 K 
 
 33 
 
 65 
 
 129 
 
 65 
 
 193 
 
 97 
 
 257 
 
 K 
 
 10 
 
 L 
 
 37 
 
 73 
 
 145 
 
 73 
 
 217 
 
 109 
 
 289 
 
 L 
 
 11 
 
 M 
 
 41 
 
 81 
 
 161 
 
 81 
 
 241 
 
 121 
 
 321 
 
 M 
 
 12 
 
 N 
 
 45 
 
 89 
 
 177 
 
 89 
 
 265 
 
 133 
 
 353 
 
 K 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 97 
 
 193 
 
 97 
 
 289 
 
 145 
 
 385 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 P 
 
 53 
 
 105 
 
 209 
 
 105 
 
 313 
 
 157 
 
 417 
 
 p 
 
 15 
 
 Q 
 
 57 
 
 113 
 
 225 
 
 113 
 
 337 
 
 169 
 
 449 
 
 Q 
 
 16 
 
 R 
 
 61 
 
 121 
 
 241 
 
 121 
 
 361 
 
 181 
 
 481 
 
 R 
 
 17 
 
 S 
 
 65 
 
 129 
 
 257 
 
 129 
 
 385 
 
 193 
 
 513 
 
 S 
 
 18 
 
 T 
 
 69 
 
 137 
 
 273 
 
 137 
 
 409 
 
 205 
 
 545 
 
 T 
 
 19 
 
 U 
 
 73 
 
 145 
 
 289 
 
 145 
 
 433 
 
 217 
 
 577 
 
 U 
 
 20 
 
 X 
 
 77 
 
 153 
 
 305 
 
 153 
 
 457 
 
 229 
 
 609 
 
 X 
 
 21 
 
 Y 
 
 81 
 
 161 
 
 321 
 
 161 
 
 481 
 
 241 
 
 641 
 
 Y 
 
 22 
 
 Z 
 
 85 
 
 169 
 
 337 
 
 169 
 
 505 
 
 253 
 
 673 
 
 Z 
 
 23 
 
 2A 
 
 89 
 
 177 
 
 353 
 
 177 
 
 529 
 
 265 
 
 705 
 
 2 A 
 
 24 
 
 B 
 
 93 
 
 185 
 
 369 
 
 185 
 
 553 
 
 277 
 
 737 
 
 B 
 
 25 
 
 C 
 
 97 
 
 193 
 
 385 
 
 193 
 
 577 
 
 289 
 
 769 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 D 
 
 101 
 
 201 
 
 401 
 
 201 
 
 601 
 
 301 
 
 801 
 
 D 
 
 27 
 
 E 
 
 105 
 
 209 
 
 417 
 
 209 
 
 625 
 
 313 
 
 833 
 
 E 
 
 28 
 
 F 
 
 109 
 
 217 
 
 433 
 
 217 
 
 649 
 
 325 
 
 865 
 
 F 
 
 29 
 
 G 
 
 113 
 
 225 
 
 449 
 
 225 
 
 673 
 
 337 
 
 897 
 
 G 
 
 30 
 
 H 
 
 117 
 
 233 
 
 465 
 
 233 
 
 697 
 
 349 
 
 929 
 
 H 
 
 31 
 
 I 
 
 121 
 
 241 
 
 481 
 
 241 
 
 721 
 
 361 
 
 961 
 
 I 
 
 32 
 
 K 
 
 125 
 
 249 
 
 497 
 
 249 
 
 745 
 
 373 
 
 993 
 
 K 
 
 33 
 
 L 
 
 129 
 
 257 
 
 513 
 
 257 
 
 769 
 
 385 
 
 1025 
 
 L 
 
 34 
 
 M 
 
 133 
 
 265 
 
 529 
 
 265 
 
 793 
 
 397 
 
 1057 
 
 M 
 
 35 
 
 N 
 
 137 
 
 273 
 
 545 
 
 273 
 
 817 
 
 409 
 
 1089 
 
 N 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 141 
 
 281 
 
 561 
 
 281 
 
 841 
 
 421 
 
 1121 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 P 
 
 145 
 
 289 
 
 577 
 
 289 
 
 865 
 
 433 
 
 1153 
 
 P 
 
 38 
 
 Q 
 
 149 
 
 297 
 
 593 
 
 297 
 
 889 
 
 445 
 
 1185 
 
 Q 
 
 39 
 
 R 
 
 153 
 
 305 
 
 609 
 
 305 
 
 913 
 
 457 
 
 1217 
 
 R 
 
 40 
 
 s 
 
 157 
 
 313 
 
 625 
 
 313 
 
 937 
 
 469 
 
 1249 
 
 S 
 
 41 
 
 T 
 
 161 
 
 321 
 
 641 
 
 321 
 
 961 
 
 481 
 
 1281 
 
 T 
 
 42 
 
 U 
 
 165 
 
 329 
 
 657 
 
 329 
 
 985 
 
 493 
 
 1313 
 
 U 
 
 43 
 
 X 
 
 169 
 
 337 
 
 673 
 
 337 
 
 1009 
 
 505 
 
 1345 
 
 X 
 
 44 
 
 T 
 
 173 
 
 345 
 
 689 
 
 345 
 
 1033 
 
 517 
 
 1377 
 
 Y 
 
 45 
 
 Z 
 
 177 
 
 353 
 
 705 
 
 353 
 
 1057 
 
 529 
 
 1409 
 
 Z 
 
TABLE I. Continued. 
 
 No. 
 
 Sigs. 
 
 Folio 
 
 4 to. 
 
 8vo. 
 
 -| 8vo. 
 
 12mo 
 
 I2mo 
 
 I8mo. 
 
 Primer 
 
 46 
 
 3A 
 
 181 
 
 361 
 
 721 
 
 361 
 
 1081 
 
 541 
 
 Sigs. 
 
 
 47 
 
 B 
 
 185 
 
 369 
 
 737 
 
 369 
 
 1105 
 
 553 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 48 
 
 c 
 
 189 
 
 377 
 
 753 
 
 377 
 
 1129 
 
 565 
 
 C 
 
 37 
 
 49 
 
 D 
 
 193 
 
 385 
 
 769 
 
 385 
 
 1153 
 
 577 
 
 D 
 
 73 
 
 50 
 
 E 
 
 197 
 
 393 
 
 785 
 
 393 
 
 1177 
 
 589 
 
 E 
 
 109 
 
 51 
 
 F 
 
 201 
 
 401 
 
 801 
 
 401 
 
 1201 
 
 601 
 
 F 
 
 145 
 
 52 
 
 G 
 
 205 
 
 409 
 
 817 
 
 409 
 
 1225 
 
 613 
 
 G 
 
 181 
 
 53 
 
 H 
 
 209 
 
 417 
 
 833 
 
 417 
 
 1249 
 
 625 
 
 H 
 
 217 
 
 54 
 
 I 
 
 213 
 
 425 
 
 849 
 
 425 
 
 1273 
 
 637 
 
 I 
 
 253 
 
 55 
 
 K 
 
 217 
 
 433 
 
 865 
 
 433 
 
 1297 
 
 649 
 
 K 
 
 289 
 
 56 
 
 L 
 
 221 
 
 441 
 
 881 
 
 441 
 
 1321 
 
 661 
 
 L 
 
 325 
 
 57 
 
 M 
 
 225 
 
 449 
 
 897 
 
 449 
 
 1345 
 
 673 
 
 M 
 
 361 
 
 58 
 
 JS 
 
 229 
 
 457 
 
 913 
 
 457 
 
 1369 
 
 685 
 
 N 
 
 397 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 233 
 
 465 
 
 929 
 
 465 
 
 1393 
 
 697 
 
 O 
 
 433 
 
 60 
 
 P 
 
 237 
 
 473 
 
 945 
 
 473 
 
 1417 
 
 709 
 
 P 
 
 469 
 
 61 
 
 Q 
 
 241 
 
 481 
 
 961 
 
 481 
 
 1441 
 
 721 
 
 Q 
 
 505 
 
 62 
 
 R 
 
 245 
 
 489 
 
 977 
 
 489 
 
 1465 
 
 733 
 
 R 
 
 541 
 
 63 
 
 S 
 
 249 
 
 497 
 
 993 
 
 497 
 
 1489 
 
 74.5 
 
 S 
 
 577 
 
 64 
 
 T 
 
 253 
 
 505 
 
 1009 
 
 505 
 
 1513 
 
 757 
 
 T 
 
 613 
 
 65 
 
 U 
 
 257 
 
 513 
 
 1025 
 
 513 
 
 1537 
 
 769 
 
 U 
 
 649 
 
 66 
 
 X 
 
 261 
 
 521 
 
 1041 
 
 521 
 
 1561 
 
 781 
 
 X 
 
 685 
 
 67 
 
 Y 
 
 265 
 
 529 
 
 1057 
 
 529 
 
 1585 
 
 793 
 
 Y 
 
 721 
 
 68 
 
 Z 
 
 269 
 
 537 
 
 1073 
 
 537 
 
 1609 
 
 805 
 
 Z 
 
 757 
 
 69 
 
 4 A 
 
 273 
 
 545 
 
 1089 
 
 545 
 
 1633 
 
 817 
 
 24ino. 
 
 
 70 
 
 B 
 
 277 
 
 553 
 
 1105 
 
 553 
 
 1657 
 
 8^9 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 71 
 
 C 
 
 281 
 
 561 
 
 1121 
 
 561 
 
 1681 
 
 841 
 
 C 
 
 49 
 
 72 
 
 D 
 
 285 
 
 569 
 
 1137 
 
 569 
 
 1705 
 
 853 
 
 D 
 
 97 
 
 73 
 
 E 
 
 289 
 
 577 
 
 1153 
 
 577 
 
 1729 
 
 865 
 
 E 
 
 145 
 
 74 
 
 F 
 
 293 
 
 585 
 
 1169 
 
 585 
 
 1753 
 
 877 
 
 F 
 
 193 
 
 75 
 
 G 
 
 297 
 
 593 
 
 1185 
 
 593 
 
 1777 
 
 889 
 
 G 
 
 241 
 
 76 
 
 H 
 
 301 
 
 601 
 
 1201 
 
 601 
 
 1801 
 
 901 
 
 H 
 
 289 
 
 77 
 
 I 
 
 305 
 
 609 
 
 1217 
 
 609 
 
 1825 
 
 913 
 
 I 
 
 337 
 
 78 
 
 K 
 
 309 
 
 617 
 
 1233 
 
 617 
 
 1849 
 
 925 
 
 K 
 
 385 
 
 79 
 
 L 
 
 313 
 
 625 
 
 1219 
 
 625 
 
 1873 
 
 937 
 
 L 
 
 433 
 
 80 
 
 M 
 
 317 
 
 633 
 
 1265 
 
 633 
 
 1897 
 
 949 
 
 M 
 
 481 
 
 81 
 
 N 
 
 321 
 
 641 
 
 1281 
 
 641 
 
 1921 
 
 961 
 
 N 
 
 529 
 
 82 
 
 O 
 
 325 
 
 649 
 
 1297 
 
 649 
 
 1945 
 
 973 
 
 
 
 577 
 
 83 
 
 P 
 
 329 
 
 657 
 
 1313 
 
 657 
 
 1969 
 
 985 
 
 P 
 
 625 
 
 84 
 
 Q 
 
 333 
 
 665 
 
 1329 
 
 665 
 
 1993 
 
 997 
 
 Q 
 
 673 
 
 85 
 
 R 
 
 337 
 
 673 
 
 1345 
 
 673 
 
 2017 
 
 1009 
 
 R 
 
 721 
 
 86 
 
 S 
 
 341 
 
 681 
 
 1361 
 
 681 
 
 2041 
 
 1021 
 
 S 
 
 769 
 
 87 
 
 T 
 
 345 
 
 689 
 
 1377 
 
 689 
 
 2065 
 
 1033 
 
 T 
 
 817 
 
 88 
 
 U 
 
 349 
 
 697 
 
 1393 
 
 697 
 
 2089 
 
 1045 
 
 U 
 
 865 
 
 89 
 
 X 
 
 353 
 
 705 
 
 1409 
 
 705 
 
 2113 
 
 1057 
 
 X 
 
 913 
 
 90 
 
 Y 
 
 357 
 
 713 
 
 1425 
 
 713 
 
 2137 
 
 1069 
 
 Y 
 
 961 
 
 91 
 
 Z 
 
 361 
 
 721 
 
 1441 
 
 721 
 
 2161 
 
 1081 
 
 Z 
 
 1009 
 
TABLE OF SIGNATURES, ETC. 
 
 249 
 
 But as the reader may not have an opportunity, at all 
 times, of referring to the table, I have, as mentioned before, 
 contrived a formula which will much assist him, if carefully 
 borne in mind. I may remark, in the first place, that all 
 sheets other than folios must necessarily be multiples of four 
 pages, or of folios ; and as 5 times 4 is 20, so will five times 
 any multiple of 4 end in even tens. For instance, 5X8=40, 
 5X12 = 60, 5X16 = 80, 5X20=100, 5X24= 12'0, &c. 
 Hence it follows that the sixth sheet, and every fifth sheet 
 after it, whatever the number of pages the sheet may con- 
 tain, will commence with a number whose last figure will 
 be 1; and if this be well fixed in the memory, it will be no 
 difficult matter to calculate from each fifth sheet, the com- 
 mencing folio of any one intervening, as also the number 
 of that sheet. Those starting-points, as I call them, I will 
 submit to the reader's inspection in a tabular form, so that 
 they may be seen at a glance, and be readily committed to 
 memory. 
 
 No. of 
 Sheet. 
 
 Sig. 
 
 COMMENCING PAGE. 
 
 Octavo. 
 
 12rao. 
 
 Quarto, or 
 Octavo. 
 
 12mo. 
 
 6 
 
 G 
 
 81 
 
 121 
 
 41 
 
 61 
 
 11 
 
 M 
 
 161 
 
 241 
 
 81 
 
 121 
 
 16 
 
 K 
 
 241 
 
 361 
 
 121 
 
 181 
 
 21 
 
 Y 
 
 321 
 
 481 
 
 161 
 
 241 
 
 26 
 
 2 D 
 
 401 
 
 601 
 
 201 
 
 301 
 
 31 
 
 I 
 
 481 
 
 721 
 
 241 
 
 361 
 
 36 
 
 O 
 
 561 
 
 841 
 
 281 
 
 421 
 
 41 
 
 T 
 
 641 
 
 961 
 
 321 
 
 481 
 
 46 
 
 3 A 
 
 721 
 
 1081 
 
 361 
 
 541 
 
 51 
 
 F 
 
 801 
 
 1201 
 
 401 
 
 601 
 
250 EXPLANATION OF TABLE. 
 
 I have given the folios of half-sheets of 12mo and 8vo 
 ( 4to); but as they are but the halves of their corres- 
 ponding sheets, it will not be necessary to commit them to 
 memory. But with respect to the 8vo and 12mo, the most 
 usual of all sizes, if the reader will impress upon his 
 memory the technical word G(e)MBYDIOTAF (all, 
 observe, different letters), and suppose them to stand 
 respectively for the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ; if he 
 multiply any of them by 5 and add 1, he will obtain the 
 number of the sheet represented by each of the letters ; 
 thus: 5Xl + l = 6=z:G; 5X2+1 = 11 = M; 5X3 + 1 
 =zl6 = K; 5X4 + 1~21 = Y; 5 X 5+1 = 26 = 2 D ; 
 
 36=: 2 O; 5X8+1 = 41 
 5 X 10+1 =51 = 3 F. And 
 from these he will readily determine the number of any 
 intermediate sheet. 
 
 Again, on referring to the table, he will remark that 
 the first page of each of these signatures commences with 
 a number which ends with 1, beginning in 8vo with 81 
 (the highest even digit), and increasing by 80 each signa- 
 ture ; consequently, the even figure becoming 2 less on each 
 occasion, and the first figure generally one more ; thus, 81, 
 161, 241, 321, 401 ; then again with 8, 481, 561, 641, 
 721, 801, and so on. But in 12mo, the even figure is the 
 lowest in G, and the increase is by 120 ; consequently, the 
 second figure increases 2 at every step; thus: 121, 241, 
 361, 481, 601 ; and so on, 
 
 Bearing these data in mind, it is a very easy matter to 
 calculate the number and folio of any intermediate sheet, 
 without referring to any table of signatures at all. I have 
 myself derived much assistance in this matter from this 
 simple table ; and I feel convinced, if impressed on the 
 mind at an early period of life, the number and folio of 
 every sheet in 8vo and 12mo will be at the fingers' 
 ends. 
 
MISTAKES IN PROPER NAMES. 251 
 
 ur next table shall be one intended equally for the 
 literary gentleman and the printer. 
 
 I have frequently observed that Authors and Cor- 
 rectors, but especially Translators, are oft at a loss for 
 the corresponding names of places, peoples, and persons in 
 various languages, and not having the means of reference 
 at hand, the most absurd mistakes are continually com- 
 mitted : for I could recall to my mind several cases where, 
 in works translated from the French, the translator has 
 put down, as English names, the Escaut for the Scheldt; 
 Pouille, for Apulia; la Manche, for the English Channel, 
 and other blunders equally showing his superficial know- 
 ledge of the language he was treating, and the subject he 
 proposed to illustrate. To assist in avoiding such errors 
 in future, I had compiled several tables ; but as I find that 
 they would intrench too much on the space at my dis- 
 posal, I have abbreviated and condensed them all into 
 one ; but, should I find that this meets with the approba- 
 tion of my readers, and the approval of the public, I may, 
 at some future time, publish the whole in extenso, and in a 
 separate form ; so that they may be available for use both 
 in schools, colleges, offices, and the library. The original 
 tables are hexaglossal ; but, from the narrowness of the 
 page, I have been obliged to dispense with two of the 
 languages embraced in them, and content myself with 
 four ; nevertheless, even in the present mutilated state, I 
 hope that they will not be found entirely useless, and that 
 my labor has not been altogether bestowed in vain. 
 
252 
 
 PROPER NAMES* 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 PROPER NAMES OF PERSONS, AND THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, CITIES, 
 TOWNS, RIVERS, AND MOUNTAINS IN THE WORLD, IN FOUR Of 
 THE PRINCIPAL MODERN EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Aaron 
 
 Aaron 
 
 Aarone 
 
 Aaron 
 
 Abel 
 
 Abel 
 
 Abele 
 
 Abel 
 
 Abraham 
 
 Abraham 
 
 Abramo 
 
 Abraham 
 
 Abyssinia 
 
 Abissinie 
 
 Abissinia 
 
 Abyssinien 
 
 Abyssinian 
 
 Abissin t f. -e 
 
 AbissinianOy f.-a 
 
 Abyssinier 
 
 Achilles 
 
 Achille 
 
 Achille 
 
 Achilles 
 
 Adam 
 
 Adam 
 
 Adamo 
 
 Adam 
 
 Adolphus 
 
 Adolphe 
 
 Adolfo 
 
 Adolph 
 
 Adrastus 
 
 Adraste 
 
 Adrasto 
 
 Adrastus 
 
 Adrian 
 
 Adrien 
 
 Adriano 
 
 Adrian 
 
 Adrianople 
 
 Andrinople 
 
 Andrinopoli 
 
 Adrianopel 
 
 Adriatic Sea 
 
 Adriatique (la 
 
 Adriatico (il 
 
 Adriatisches Meei" 
 
 
 mer) 
 
 mar) 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 Afrique 
 
 Affrica, Africa 
 
 Afrika 
 
 African 
 
 Africain, -e 
 
 Africano, -a 
 
 Afrikaner, -isch 
 
 Agamemnon 
 
 Agamemnon 
 
 Agamennone 
 
 Agamemnon 
 
 Agatha 
 
 Agathe 
 
 Agata 
 
 Agathe 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 Aquisgrana 
 
 Aachen 
 
 Ajax 
 
 Ajax 
 
 Ajace 
 
 Ajax 
 
 Alaric 
 
 Alaric 
 
 Alarico 
 
 Alarich 
 
 Alban 
 
 Alban 
 
 Albano 
 
 Albanus 
 
 Albania 
 
 Albanie 
 
 Albania 
 
 Albanien 
 
 Albanian 
 
 Albanais, -e 
 
 A Ibanese 
 
 Albanier, -isch 
 
 Albert 
 
 Albert 
 
 Alberto 
 
 Albert, Albrecht 
 
 Albigensis 
 
 Albigeois, -e 
 
 Albigese 
 
 W oldens er 
 
 Alexander 
 
 Alexandre 
 
 Alessandro 
 
 Alexander 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 Alexandrie 
 
 Alessandria 
 
 Alexandrien 
 
 Alfred 
 
 Alfred 
 
 Alfredo 
 
 Alfried 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Alghier, Alger 
 
 Alghier, Algari 
 
 Algier 
 
 Algerian 
 
 Algerien, -ne 
 
 Algerino, -a 
 
 Algierer 
 
 Alphonso 
 
 Alphonse 
 
 Alfonso 
 
 Alphons 
 
 Alps 
 
 Alpes 
 
 Alpi ^ 
 
 Alpen 
 
 Alsace 
 
 Alsace 
 
 Alsazia 
 
 Elsass 
 
 Ambrose 
 
 Ambroise 
 
 Ambrogio 
 
 Ambrosias 
 
PROPER NAMES. 
 
 253 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 America 
 
 Ame'rique 
 
 America 
 
 Amerika 
 
 I American 
 
 Americain, -e 
 
 Americano, -a 
 
 Americaner, -isch 
 
 Amilcar 
 
 Amilcar 
 
 Amilcaro 
 
 Amilcar 
 
 [Amphitrite 
 
 Amphitrite 
 
 Anfitrite 
 
 Amphitrite 
 
 rJAmsterdam 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 lAnastasius 
 
 Anastase 
 
 Anastasio 
 
 Anastasius 
 
 'Andalusia 
 
 Andalousie 
 
 Andalusia 
 
 Andalusien 
 
 Andrew 
 
 Andre* 
 
 Andrea 
 
 Andreas 
 
 Anjou 
 
 Anjou 
 
 Angi<5 
 
 Anjou 
 
 jJAnne, Ann 
 
 Anne 
 
 Anna 
 
 Anna 
 
 nnibal 
 
 Annibal 
 
 Annibale 
 
 Annibal 
 
 Anselm 
 
 Anselme 
 
 Anselmo 
 
 Anselm 
 
 Imithony 
 
 Antoine 
 
 Antonio 
 
 Anton 
 
 idntioch 
 
 Antioche 
 
 Antiochia 
 
 Antiochien 
 
 llntwerp 
 
 Anvers 
 
 Anversa 
 
 Antwerpen 
 
 [(Apennines 
 
 Apennins 
 
 Apemiini 
 
 Apenninien 
 
 |Apollo 
 
 Apollon 
 
 Apolone 
 
 Apollo 
 
 Apulia, Puglia 
 
 Pouille 
 
 Puglia 
 
 Apulien 
 
 j|Aquitaine 
 
 Aquitaine 
 
 Aquitania 
 
 Aquitaine 
 
 JArabia 
 
 Arabie 
 
 Arabia 
 
 Arabien 
 
 | Arabian 
 
 Arabe 
 
 Arabo, -a 
 
 Araber, -isch 
 
 iAragon 
 
 Aragon 
 
 Aragona 
 
 Aragon 
 
 Arcadia 
 
 Arcadie 
 
 Arcadia 
 
 Arcadien 
 
 B Arcadian 
 
 Arcadien, -ne 
 
 Arcade 
 
 Arcadisch 
 
 (Archipelago 
 
 Archipel 
 
 Arcipelago 
 
 Archipelagus 
 
 lAnnenia 
 
 Arme"nie 
 
 Armenia 
 
 Armenien 
 
 tl Armenian 
 
 Armenien, -ne 
 
 Armeniano, -a 
 
 Armenier, -isch 
 
 ttArtois 
 
 Artois 
 
 Artesia 
 
 Artois 
 
 tfAsia 
 
 Asie 
 
 Asia 
 
 Asien 
 
 1 Asiatic 
 
 Asiatique 
 
 A&iatico, -a 
 
 Asiate, -inn, f.; -isch 
 
 jAssyria 
 
 Assyrie 
 
 Assiria 
 
 Assyrien 
 
 1 Assyrian 
 
 Assyvien, -ne 
 
 Assirio, -a 
 
 Assyrisch 
 
 tjAsturia 
 
 Asturie 
 
 Asturia 
 
 Asturien 
 
 :jAthanasius 
 
 Athanase 
 
 Atanasio, -agio 
 
 Athaiiasius 
 
 ;jAtheus 
 
 Athenes 
 
 Atene 
 
 Athen 
 
 U Athenian 
 
 Athenian, -ne 
 
 Ateniese 
 
 Athenienser, -isch 
 
 |A.tlantic Sea 
 
 Atlantique (la 
 
 Atlantico, (il 
 
 Atlantisches Meer, 
 
 
 mer) 
 
 mar) 
 
 Westsee 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 Augsbourg 
 
 Augusta, Aus- 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 
 
 bourg 
 
 
 Augustine 
 
 Au"gustin 
 
 Agostino 
 
 An gust in 
 
 [Augustus 
 
 Auguste 
 
 Augusto 
 
 August 
 
 |A.urelian 
 
 Aurele 
 
 Aurelio 
 
 Aureliau 
 
154 
 
 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Austrasia 
 
 Austrasie 
 
 Austrasia 
 
 Westerreich 
 
 Austria 
 
 Autriche 
 
 Austria 
 
 Oestreich 
 
 Austrian 
 
 Autrichien, -ne 
 
 Austriaco, -a 
 
 Oestreicher, -isch 
 
 Babylon 
 
 Babylone 
 
 Babilonia 
 
 Babel, Babylon 
 
 Babylonian 
 
 Babylonien, -ne 
 
 Babilonio, -a 
 
 Babylonier -isch 
 
 Bacchus 
 
 Bacchus 
 
 Bacco 
 
 Bacchus 
 
 Baltic Sea 
 
 Baltique (la mer) 
 
 Baltico (il mar) 
 
 Baltisches Meer, 
 
 
 
 
 Ostsee 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Baptiste 
 
 Battista 
 
 Baptista 
 
 Barbary 
 
 Barbarie 
 
 Barbaria 
 
 Berberei 
 
 Barbarian 
 
 Barbare 
 
 Barbara, -a 
 
 Berber 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 Barcelone 
 
 Barcellona 
 
 Barcellona 
 
 Barnabas 
 
 Barnab6 
 
 Barnaba 
 
 Barnabas 
 
 Bartholomew 
 
 Barthelemy 
 
 Bartolommeo 
 
 Barthel, Bartho- 
 
 
 
 
 lomaus 
 
 Basle, Basil (t.) 
 
 Bale 
 
 Basilea 
 
 Basel 
 
 Basil 
 
 Basile 
 
 Basilio 
 
 Basilius 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Batavien 
 
 Batave 
 
 Batave 
 
 Batavo, -a 
 
 Bataver 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Baviere 
 
 Baviera 
 
 Baiern 
 
 Bavarian 
 
 Bavarois, -e 
 
 Bavarese 
 
 Baier, -isch 
 
 Bayonne 
 
 Bayonne 
 
 Bajona 
 
 Bayonue 
 
 Beatrice 
 
 Beatrice 
 
 Beatrice 
 
 Beatrix 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Belgique 
 
 Belgica 
 
 Belgien 
 
 Belgian 
 
 Beige 
 
 Belgio, -a 
 
 Belgisch 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 Belgrad 
 
 Belvedere 
 
 Belvedere 
 
 Belvedere 
 
 Belvedere 
 
 Benedict 
 
 Benoit 
 
 Benedette 
 
 Benedict 
 
 Beneventum 
 
 Be'ne'vent 
 
 Benevento 
 
 Benevent 
 
 Bengal 
 
 Bengale 
 
 Bengala 
 
 Bengalen 
 
 Benjamin 
 
 Benjamin 
 
 Benjamino 
 
 Benjamin 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Berlino 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Bern 
 
 Berne 
 
 Berna 
 
 Bern 
 
 Bernard 
 
 Bernard 
 
 Bernardo 
 
 Bernhard 
 
 Bertha 
 
 Berthe 
 
 Berta 
 
 Bertha 
 
 Besangon 
 
 Besangon 
 
 Besanzone 
 
 Besangon 
 
 Bethlehem 
 
 Bethleem 
 
 Betelemme 
 
 Bethlehem 
 
 Biscay 
 
 Biscaye 
 
 Biscaglia 
 
 Biscaya 
 
 Black Forest 
 
 Foret Noire (la) 
 
 Selva JSTegra (la) 
 
 Schwarzwald 
 
 Black Sea 
 
 Mer Noire (la) 
 
 Mar Negro (il) 
 
 Schwarzes Meer 
 
 Blanche 
 
 Blanche 
 
 Bianca 
 
 Bianca 
 
 Blasius, Blaise 
 
 Blaise 
 
 Biaggio 
 
 Blasius 
 
ITIOPER NAMES. 
 
 255 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 Boheme 
 
 Boemia 
 
 Bohmen 
 
 Bohemian 
 
 Bohemien, -ne 
 
 Boemo -a 
 
 Bohme, -isch 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Bologne 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Boniface 
 
 Boniface 
 
 Bonifacio 
 
 Bonifacius 
 
 Bonn 
 
 Bonn 
 
 Bonn 
 
 Bonn 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Bosnia 
 
 Bosnie 
 
 Bosnia, Bossina 
 
 Bosnien 
 
 Bospiiorua 
 
 Bospliore 
 
 Bosforo 
 
 Bosporus 
 
 Boulogne 
 
 Boulogne 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Boulogne 
 
 Brabant 
 
 Brabant 
 
 Brabante 
 
 Brabant 
 
 Brandenburg 
 
 Brandebourg 
 
 Brandeburg 
 
 Brandenburg 
 
 Brasil 
 
 Brasil 
 
 Brasile 
 
 Brasilien 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Breme 
 
 Brema 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Breslau 
 
 Breslau 
 
 Breslavia 
 
 Breslau 
 
 Bridget 
 
 Brigitte 
 
 Brigida, -ta 
 
 Brigitte 
 
 Brindisium 
 
 Brindes,Brindisi 
 
 Brindisi 
 
 Brindisi, Brundu- 
 
 
 
 
 sium 
 
 Britain 
 
 Bretagne 
 
 Bretagna 
 
 Britannien 
 
 Briton,, British 
 
 Breton, -ne 
 
 Bret one 
 
 Britte, Brittisch 
 
 .Brittany 
 
 Bretagne 
 
 Bretagna 
 
 Bretagne 
 
 I Brunswick 
 
 Brunswich 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 Braunschweig 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Bruxelles 
 
 Brusselles 
 
 Briissel 
 
 <Buda 
 
 Bude 
 
 Buda 
 
 Ofen 
 
 f Bulgaria 
 
 Bulgarie 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Bulgarien 
 
 Bulgarian 
 
 Bulgare 
 
 Bulgaro, -a 
 
 Bulgar, -isch 
 
 Burgundy 
 
 Bourgogne 
 
 Borgogna 
 
 Burgund 
 
 Burgundian 
 
 Bourgignon, -e 
 
 Boryhignone 
 
 Burgunder 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 Cadix 
 
 Cadice 
 
 Cadix 
 
 Csesar 
 
 Cesar 
 
 Cesare 
 
 Casar 
 
 Caesarea 
 
 Cesaree, Kesaria 
 
 Kesaria, Cesarea 
 
 Casarea 
 
 Cairo 
 
 Caire 
 
 Cairo 
 
 , Cairo 
 
 Calabria 
 
 Calabre 
 
 Calabria 
 
 Calabrien 
 
 Camillus 
 
 Canrille 
 
 Camillo 
 
 Camillus 
 
 Canaries 
 
 Canaries 
 
 Canarie 
 
 Canarische Inseln 
 
 Candia, Crete 
 
 Candie 
 
 Candia 
 
 Candien 
 
 Candiot 
 
 Candiot, -e 
 
 Candiotto, a 
 
 Candiener 
 
 Canterbury 
 
 Cantorbery 
 
 Cantorbery 
 
 Canterbury 
 
 SlCape of Good 
 
 Cap de Bonne 
 
 Capo di Buona 
 
 Vorgebirge gutes 
 
 , Hope 
 
 Esperance 
 
 SperaczLi 
 
 Hoffnuug 
 
 { Capua 
 
 Capoue 
 
 Capua, Capova 
 
 Capua 
 
 Caroline 
 
 Caroline 
 
 Carolina 
 
 Caroline 
 
 Carthage 
 
 Carthage 
 
 Cartagine 
 
 Carthago 
 
 Carthaginian 
 
 Carthayinois } -e 
 
 Cartaginese 
 
 Carthaginienser 
 
256 
 
 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITxVLIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Carinthia 
 
 Carinthie 
 
 Carintia 
 
 Kiirnthen 
 
 Caspian Sea 
 Cassandra 
 
 Mer Caspienne 
 Cassandre 
 
 Mar Caspiano 
 Cassandra 
 
 Caspisches Meer 
 Cassandra 
 
 Castile 
 Castilian 
 Castor 
 
 Castille 
 Castillieti, -ne 
 Castor 
 
 Castiglia 
 Ca&tigliano, -a 
 
 Castore 
 
 Castilien 
 Castilianer, -isch 
 Castor 
 
 Catalonia 
 
 Catalonie 
 
 Catalonia 
 
 Catalonien 
 
 Catalonian 
 Catharine 
 
 Catalonien,-ne 
 Catherine 
 
 ,Cataloniano,-a 
 Catterina 
 
 Catalonier, -isch 
 Catharine 
 
 Caucasus 
 
 Caucase 
 
 Caucaso 
 
 Caucasus 
 
 Cecily 
 Celsus 
 
 Cecile 
 Cels 
 
 Cecilia 
 Celso 
 
 Cacilie 
 Celsus 
 
 Ceres 
 
 Ce"res 
 
 Cerere 
 
 Ceres 
 
 Ceylon 
 Chaldea 
 
 Ceilan 
 Chaldee 
 
 Ceilan 
 Caldea 
 
 Ceylon 
 Chaldaa 
 
 Chaldean 
 Champagne 
 Charles 
 
 Chaldeen, -ne 
 Champagne 
 Charles 
 
 Caldeo, -a 
 Sciampagna 
 Carlo 
 
 Chaldaer, -isch 
 Champagne 
 Carl 
 
 Charlotte 
 Chary bdis 
 Chersonesus 
 
 Charlotte 
 Carybde 
 Chersonese 
 
 Carliua, Carlotta 
 Cariddi 
 Chersonese 
 
 Charlotte 
 Charybdis 
 Chersonesus 
 
 China 
 
 Chine 
 
 China 
 
 China 
 
 Chinese 
 Christopher 
 Chrysostom 
 Cimbri 
 
 Chinois, -e 
 Christ ophe 
 Chrysostome 
 dm bres 
 
 Chinese 
 Cristofo 
 Crisostomo 
 Cimbri 
 
 Chineser, -isch 
 Christoph 
 Chrysobtom 
 Cimbri 
 
 Clara 
 
 Claire 
 
 Chiara 
 
 Clara 
 
 Claudius 
 
 Claude 
 
 Claudio 
 
 Claudius 
 
 Clement 
 
 Clement 
 
 Clemente 
 
 Clemens 
 
 Coblentz 
 
 Coblentz 
 
 Coblens 
 
 Coblenz 
 
 Cologne 
 Conrad 
 
 Cologne 
 Conrad 
 
 Cologne, Colonia 
 Corrado 
 
 Coin 
 Conrad 
 
 Con stan tine 
 
 Constantin 
 
 Constantino 
 
 Con stan tin 
 
 Constantinople 
 Copenhagen 
 Cordova 
 
 Constantinople 
 Copenhague 
 Cordoue 
 
 Constantinopoli 
 Copenaghen 
 Cordova 
 
 Constantinopel 
 Copenhagen 
 Corduba 
 
 Corfu 
 
 Corfou 
 
 Corfu 
 
 Corfu 
 
 Corinth 
 
 Corinthe 
 
 Corinto 
 
 Corinth 
 
 Corinthian 
 Cornelius 
 
 Corinthien t -ne 
 Corneille 
 
 Corintiano, -a 
 Cornelio 
 
 Cor in t her 9 -isch 
 Cornelius 
 
 Correggio 
 Corsica 
 
 Correggio 
 Corse 
 
 Correggio 
 Corsica 
 
 Correggio 
 Corsica 
 
 Cossack 
 
 Cosaque 
 
 Cosacco, -a 
 
 Cosack 
 
PROPER NAMES. 
 
 257 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Courland 
 
 Curlande 
 
 Curlandia 
 
 Curland 
 
 Cracow 
 
 Cracovie 
 
 Cracovia 
 
 Cracau 
 
 Crete 
 
 Crete 
 
 Creta 
 
 Creta, Candien 
 
 Cretan, Candiot 
 
 Cretois, -e 
 
 Cretense 
 
 Candiot 
 
 Crimea 
 
 Crime"e 
 
 Crimea 
 
 Crim 
 
 Croatia 
 
 Croatie 
 
 Croazia 
 
 Croatien 
 
 Croat, Croatian 
 
 Croate 
 
 Croazese 
 
 Croate 
 
 Cupid 
 
 Cupidon 
 
 Cupido 
 
 Cupido 
 
 Cybele 
 
 Cybele 
 
 Cibele 
 
 Cybele 
 
 Cyclades 
 
 Cyclades 
 
 Cicladi 
 
 Cyclades 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 Cypre 
 
 Cipro 
 
 Cypern 
 
 Cyprian, Cy- 
 
 Cyprien, -ne ; 
 
 Cipriano, -a 
 
 Cyprier, Cyprisch 
 
 priot 
 
 -ot, -ote 
 
 
 
 Dalmatia 
 
 Dalmatie 
 
 Dalmatia 
 
 Dalmatian 
 
 Damascus 
 
 Damas 
 
 Damasco 
 
 Damask 
 
 Damasus 
 
 Damase 
 
 Damaso 
 
 Damasus 
 
 Daniel 
 
 Daniel 
 
 Daniele 
 
 Daniel 
 
 Dantsic 
 
 Dantzic 
 
 Danzica 
 
 Danzig 
 
 Danube 
 
 Danube 
 
 Danubio 
 
 Donau 
 
 Dardanelles 
 
 Dardanelles 
 
 Dardanelli 
 
 Dardanellen 
 
 Dauphiny 
 David 
 
 Dauphine" 
 David 
 
 Delfinato 
 Davide 
 
 Dauphine 
 David 
 
 Delhi 
 
 Delhi 
 
 Deli 
 
 Delli, Dehli 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Danemark 
 
 Danimarca 
 
 Danemark 
 
 Dane, Danish 
 
 Danois, -e 
 
 Danese 
 
 Dane, Ddnisch 
 
 Denys, Dionysi- 
 
 Denys 
 
 Dionisio, -igi 
 
 Dionysius 
 
 Deuxponts [us 
 
 Deuxponts 
 
 Dueponti 
 
 Zweibriicken 
 
 Diana 
 
 Diane 
 
 Diana 
 
 Diana 
 
 Dnieper 
 
 Nieper 
 
 Nieper 
 
 Dnieper 
 
 Dominic 
 
 Dominique 
 
 Domenico 
 
 Dominicus 
 
 Domingo 
 
 Domingue 
 
 Domingo 
 
 Domingo 
 
 Donatus 
 
 Donat 
 
 Donato 
 
 Donatus 
 
 Dorothy 
 
 Dorothe"e 
 
 Dorotea 
 
 Dorothea 
 
 Dover 
 
 Douvres 
 
 Duvre 
 
 Dover 
 
 Dresden 
 
 Dresde 
 
 Dresda 
 
 Dresden 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Dublino 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Dunkirk 
 
 Dunkerque 
 
 Dunquerque 
 
 Diinkirchen 
 
 Dusseldorf 
 
 Dusseldorp 
 
 Dusseldorp 
 
 Dusseldorf 
 
 Dwina 
 
 Douine, Dwina 
 
 Duina 
 
 Dwina 
 
 East Indies 
 
 Indes Orientales 
 
 Indie Orientali 
 
 Ostindien 
 
 Ebro 
 
 Ebre 
 
 Ebro 
 
 Ebro 
 
 Ecclesiastical 
 
 Etats Eccle"sias- 
 
 Stati Ecclesias- 
 
 Kirchenetaat 
 
 States 
 
 tiques 
 
 tic! 
 
 
258 
 
 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Edimbourg 
 
 Edimburgo 
 
 Edinburg 
 
 Edward 
 
 Edouard 
 
 Eduardo, Edoar- 
 
 Eduard 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Egypte 
 
 Egitto [do 
 
 Aegypten 
 
 Egyptian 
 
 Egyptien, -ne 
 
 Egizio, -a 
 
 Aegypter 
 
 Elbe 
 
 Elbe 
 
 Elba 
 
 Elbe 
 
 Eleanor 
 
 Ele"onore 
 
 Eleonore 
 
 Leonore 
 
 Elias 
 
 Elie 
 
 Elia 
 
 Elias 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 Elisabeth 
 
 Elisabetta 
 
 Elisabeth 
 
 Emilius 
 
 Emile 
 
 Emilio 
 
 Emilius 
 
 England 
 
 Angleterre 
 
 Inghilterra 
 
 England 
 
 English 
 
 Anglais, -e 
 
 Jnqlese 
 
 Englisch 
 
 Ephesus 
 
 Ephese 
 
 Efeso 
 
 Ephesus 
 
 Ephesian 
 
 Ephe'sien, -ne 
 
 Efesiano, -a 
 
 Ephesianer 
 
 Epiphaniua 
 
 Epiphane 
 
 Epifanio 
 
 Epiphanius 
 
 Erasmus 
 
 Erasme 
 
 Erasmo 
 
 Erasmus 
 
 Ernest 
 
 Ernest 
 
 Ernesto 
 
 Ernst 
 
 Ethiopia, ^Eth- 
 
 Ethiopie 
 
 Etiopia 
 
 Aethiopien 
 
 Ethiopian, JE- 
 
 Ethiopien, -ne 
 
 Etiopo, -a 
 
 Aethiopier 
 
 Etrurian 
 
 Hetrurien, -ne 
 
 Etrusco, -a 
 
 Etrurianer, -isch 
 
 Eudoxus 
 
 Eudoxe 
 
 Eudossio 
 
 Eudoxus 
 
 Eugene 
 
 Eugene 
 
 Eugenio 
 
 Eugen 
 
 Euphrates 
 
 Euphrate 
 
 Eufrate 
 
 Euphrat 
 
 Europe 
 
 Europe 
 
 Europa 
 
 Europa 
 
 European 
 
 Europeen, -ne 
 
 Europeo, -a 
 
 Europcier, -isch 
 
 Eusebiua 
 
 Eusebe 
 
 Eusebio 
 
 Eusebius 
 
 Eustace 
 
 Eustache 
 
 Eustachio 
 
 Eustachius 
 
 Eve 
 
 Eve 
 
 Eva 
 
 Eva 
 
 Ezekiel 
 
 Eze"chiel 
 
 Ezechiele 
 
 Ezechiel 
 
 Fabian 
 
 Fabien 
 
 Fabiano 
 
 Fabian 
 
 Fabricius 
 
 Fabrice 
 
 Fabrizio 
 
 Fabricius 
 
 Felix 
 
 Felix 
 
 Felice 
 
 Felix 
 
 Ferdinand 
 
 Ferdinand 
 
 Ferdinand o 
 
 Ferdinand 
 
 Finland 
 
 Finlande 
 
 Finlandia 
 
 Finnland 
 
 Finlander 
 
 FinlandaiS) -e 
 
 Finlandese 
 
 Finnldnder 
 
 Flaminius 
 
 Flamine 
 
 Flaminio 
 
 Flaminius 
 
 Flanders 
 
 Flandre 
 
 Fiandra 
 
 Flandern 
 
 Fleming 
 
 Flamand, -e 
 
 Fiammingo, -a 
 
 Flamdnder 
 
 Flora 
 
 Flore 
 
 Flora 
 
 Flora 
 
 Florence (t.) 
 
 Florence 
 
 Firenze 
 
 Florenz 
 
 Flushing 
 
 Flessingue 
 
 Flessinga 
 
 Vliessingen 
 
 Fontainebleau 
 
 Fontainebleau 
 
 Fontanablo 
 
 Fontainebleau 
 
 France 
 
 France 
 
 Francia 
 
 Frankreich 
 
 Frerrth 
 
 Fra?i$ais, -e 
 
 Francese 
 
 Franzos, -inn t 'isch 
 
PROPER NAMES. 
 
 259 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Franche-Comt6 
 
 Franche-Comte 
 
 Franca-Contea 
 
 Hocliburgund 
 
 Frances 
 
 Franoise 
 
 Francesca 
 
 Franciske 
 
 Francis 
 
 Franyois 
 
 Francesco 
 
 Franciskus, Franz 
 
 Franconia 
 
 Franconie 
 
 Franconia 
 
 Franken, Franken- 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Francfort 
 
 Francfort 
 
 Frankfurt [land 
 
 Frederick 
 
 Frederic 
 
 Federico 
 
 Friedrich 
 
 Friburg 
 
 Fribourg 
 
 Friburgo 
 
 Freiburg 
 
 Friesland 
 
 Frise 
 
 Frisia 
 
 Friesland 
 
 Prison 
 
 Frison, -ne 
 
 Frisone 
 
 Frieslander 
 
 Friuli 
 
 Frioul 
 
 Friuli 
 
 Friaul 
 
 Frozen Ocean 
 
 Mer Glaciale 
 
 Mar Glaciale 
 
 Eismeer 
 
 Gabriel 
 
 Gabriel 
 
 Gabriele 
 
 Gabriel 
 
 Galicia 
 
 Galice 
 
 Galizia 
 
 Gallicien 
 
 Galilee 
 
 Galilee 
 
 Galilea 
 
 Galilaa 
 
 Ganges 
 
 Gange 
 
 Gange 
 
 Ganges 
 
 Gascony 
 
 Gascogne 
 
 Gascogna 
 
 Gasconien 
 
 Gascon 
 
 Gascon, -ne 
 
 Gascone 
 
 Gasconier, -i&ch 
 
 Gaul 
 
 Gaule 
 
 Gallia 
 
 Gallien 
 
 Gaul, Gallic 
 
 Gaulois, -e 
 
 Gallo, -a 
 
 Gallier 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Geneve 
 
 Ginevra 
 
 Genf 
 
 Genevese 
 
 Genevois, -e 
 
 Ginevrino, -a 
 
 Genfer 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Genes 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Genua 
 
 Genoese 
 
 Genois, -e 
 
 Genovese 
 
 Genueser, -isch 
 
 George 
 
 George 
 
 Giorgio 
 
 Georg 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Georgie 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Georgien 
 
 Gerard 
 
 Gerard 
 
 Gerardo 
 
 Gerhard 
 
 Germany 
 
 Allemagne 
 
 Alemagna 
 
 Deutschland 
 
 German 
 
 Allemand, -e ; 
 
 Tedesco, -a; 
 
 Deutscher, Deutsch 
 
 
 Germain, -ne 
 
 Germano, -a 
 
 
 Gertrude 
 
 Gertrude 
 
 Gertruda 
 
 Gertraud, Gertrud 
 
 Ghent 
 
 Gand 
 
 Gand 
 
 Gent 
 
 Gideon 
 
 Gideon 
 
 Gedeone 
 
 Gideon 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Glascovie 
 
 Glascovia 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Godfrey 
 
 Godefroi 
 
 Gofiredo 
 
 Gottfried 
 
 Goths 
 
 Goths 
 
 Goti 
 
 Gothen 
 
 Gottingen 
 
 Gottingen 
 
 Gottingen 
 
 Gottingen 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Bretagne (la 
 
 Gran Brettagna 
 
 Grossbritannien 
 
 
 Grande) 
 
 
 
 Greece 
 
 Grece 
 
 Grecia 
 
 Griechenland 
 
 Greek 
 
 Grec, -gue 
 
 Greco, -a 
 
 Grieche, -isch 
 
 Greenland 
 
 Greenland 
 
 Greenland 
 
 Gronland 
 
 Gregory 
 
 Gregoire 
 
 Gregorio 
 
 Gregorius 
 
 Grisons 
 
 Grisons 
 
 Grigioni 
 
 Graubiinden 
 
 
 
 
 82 
 
260 
 
 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Guinea 
 
 Guine'e 
 
 Guinea 
 
 Guinea 
 
 Guy 
 
 Guy 
 
 Guido 
 
 Guido 
 
 Hague 
 
 Haye (la) 
 
 Haye 
 
 Haag 
 
 Hainault 
 
 Hainaut 
 
 Hainaut 
 
 Hanau 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hambourg 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Annover 
 
 Hannover 
 
 Hanoverian 
 
 Hanovrien, -ne 
 
 Annoveriano, -a 
 
 Hannoveraner 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 Hebreu 
 
 Ebreo, -a 
 
 Hebraer, -isch 
 
 Hector 
 
 Hector 
 
 Ettore 
 
 Hector 
 
 Helena, Helen 
 
 Helene 
 
 Elena 
 
 Helene 
 
 Henry 
 
 Henri 
 
 Enrico 
 
 Heinrich 
 
 Hercules 
 
 Hercule 
 
 Ercole 
 
 Hercules 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Essea, Assia 
 
 Hessen 
 
 Hessian 
 
 Hessien -ne 
 
 Essiano -a 
 
 Hesse, -isch 
 
 Hibernian 
 
 Hibernien, -ne; 
 
 Iberno, -a 
 
 Hibernisch 
 
 
 Hibernois, -e 
 
 
 
 Hilary 
 
 Hilaire 
 
 Ilario 
 
 Hilarius 
 
 Hippolytus 
 
 Hippolyte 
 
 Ippolito 
 
 Hippolytus 
 
 Holland 
 
 Hollande 
 
 Olanda 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Hollandais, ~e 
 
 Olandese 
 
 Hollander, -isck 
 
 Horace 
 
 Horace 
 
 Orazio 
 
 Horatius 
 
 Hortensius 
 
 Hortense 
 
 Ortenzio 
 
 Hortensius 
 
 Hugh 
 
 Hugues 
 
 Ugo 
 
 Hugo 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Hongrie 
 
 Ungheria 
 
 Ungarn 
 
 Hungarian 
 
 Hongrois, ~e 
 
 Unghero, -a 
 
 Vngar, -isch 
 
 Huns 
 
 Huns 
 
 Unni 
 
 Ungarnen 
 
 Hyacinthus 
 
 Hyacinthe 
 
 Giacinto 
 
 Hyacinthus 
 
 Iceland 
 
 Islande 
 
 Islanda 
 
 Island 
 
 Icelander 
 
 Islandais, -e 
 
 Islandese 
 
 Islander 
 
 Idumea 
 
 Idum^e 
 
 Idumea 
 
 Idumaa 
 
 Ignatius 
 
 Ignace 
 
 Ignazio 
 
 Ignatius 
 
 India 
 
 Inde 
 
 India 
 
 Indien 
 
 Indian 
 
 Indien, -ne 
 
 Indiana, -a 
 
 Indianer, -sch 
 
 Indus 
 
 Inde 
 
 Indo 
 
 Indus 
 
 Ingria 
 
 Ingrie 
 
 Ingria 
 
 Ingermannland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Iriande 
 
 Irlanda 
 
 Irland 
 
 Irishman, Irish 
 
 Irlandais, -e 
 
 Irlandese 
 
 Irldnder 'isch 
 
 Iris 
 
 Iris 
 
 Iride 
 
 Iris 
 
 Iroquois 
 
 Iroquois , -e 
 
 Irochese 
 
 Iroquois 
 
 Isaac 
 
 Isaac 
 
 Isaco 
 
 Isaak 
 
 Isabel 
 
 Isabelle 
 
 Isabella 
 
 Isabelle 
 
 Isaiah 
 
 Isa'ie 
 
 Isaia 
 
 Jesaias 
 
 Ishmael 
 
 Ismael 
 
 Ismaele 
 
 Ismael 
 
PROPER NAMES. 
 
 261 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Italy 
 
 Italie 
 
 Italia 
 
 Italien 
 
 Italian 
 
 Halien> -ne 
 
 Italiano, -a 
 
 Italiener, -isch 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Jama'ique 
 
 Giamaica 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 James 
 
 Jacques 
 
 Giacomo 
 
 Jacob 
 
 Jane 
 
 Jeanne 
 
 Giovanna 
 
 Johanna 
 
 Japan 
 
 Jappon, Japon 
 
 Giappone, Giap. 
 
 Japan 
 
 Japanese 
 
 Japponais, -e 
 
 Giapponese 
 
 Japaner 
 
 Jason 
 
 Jason 
 
 Giasone 
 
 Jason 
 
 Jeremiah 
 
 J6*4mie 
 
 Geremia 
 
 Jeremias 
 
 Jerome 
 
 Jdrome 
 
 Geronimo 
 
 Hieronymus 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 Gerusalemme 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 Jesus 
 
 J^sus 
 
 Gesii 
 
 Jesus 
 
 Jew 
 
 Juif, -ve 
 
 Giudeo, -a 
 
 Jude 
 
 Job 
 
 Job 
 
 Giobbe 
 
 Hiob 
 
 John 
 
 Jean 
 
 Giovanni 
 
 Johann 
 
 Jonas 
 
 Jonas 
 
 Giona, lona 
 
 Jonas 
 
 Jordan 
 
 Jourdain 
 
 Giordano 
 
 Jordan 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Giuseppe 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Joshua 
 
 Josu6 
 
 Giosu6 
 
 Josua 
 
 Jovian 
 
 Jovien 
 
 Gioviano 
 
 Jovianus 
 
 Judaea 
 
 Jude"e 
 
 Giudea 
 
 Judaa 
 
 Juno 
 
 Junon 
 
 Giunone 
 
 Juno 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Giove 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Justus, Just 
 
 Juste 
 
 Giusto 
 
 Just 
 
 Juvenal 
 
 Juvenal 
 
 Giovenale 
 
 Juvenalis 
 
 Konigsberg 
 
 Konigsberg 
 
 Konigsberg 
 
 Konigsberg 
 
 Lacedsemon 
 
 Lacde'mone 
 
 Lacedemonia 
 
 Lacedamon 
 
 Lacedaemonian 
 
 Lacedemonien 
 
 Lacedemone 
 
 Lacedamonier 
 
 Laconia 
 
 Laconie 
 
 Laconia- 
 
 Laconien 
 
 Lampsacus 
 
 Lampsaque 
 
 Lampsaco 
 
 Lampsacus 
 
 Languedoc 
 
 Languedoc 
 
 Linguadoca 
 
 Languedoc 
 
 Lapland 
 
 Laponie 
 
 Lapponia 
 
 Lappland 
 
 Laplander 
 
 Lapon, -e 
 
 Lappone 
 
 Lapplander, Lapps 
 
 Latin 
 
 Latin, -e 
 
 Latino^ -a 
 
 Latein t -isch 
 
 Laura 
 
 Laure 
 
 Laura 
 
 Laura 
 
 Lausanne 
 
 Lausanne 
 
 Losanna 
 
 Lausanne 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Laurent 
 
 Lorenzo 
 
 Lorentz 
 
 Leghorn 
 
 Livourne 
 
 Livorno 
 
 Livorno 
 
 Leipsic 
 
 Leipsic 
 
 Lipsia 
 
 Leipzig 
 
 Leo 
 
 Leon 
 
 Leone 
 
 Leo 
 
 Leonard 
 
 Leonard 
 
 Leonardo 
 
 Leonhard 
 
 Leonidas 
 
 Leonidas 
 
 Leonida 
 
 Leonidas 
 
 Leopold 
 
 Leopold 
 
 Leopoldo 
 
 Leopold 
 
262 
 
 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Lewis 
 
 Louis 
 
 Luigi 
 
 Ludchen, Ludwig 
 
 Leyden 
 
 Leyde 
 
 Leide 
 
 Leiden 
 
 Libyan 
 
 Lybien -ne 
 
 Libiano, -a 
 
 Libyaner 
 
 Liege 
 
 Liege 
 
 Liege 
 
 Luttich 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 Lisbonne 
 
 Lisbona 
 
 Lissabon 
 
 Lisle 
 
 Lille 
 
 Lilla 
 
 Lille, Ryssel 
 
 Lithuania 
 
 Lithuanie 
 
 Lituania 
 
 Lithauen 
 
 Lithuanian 
 
 Lithuanien, -ne 
 
 Lituaniano, -a 
 
 Lithauer 
 
 Livy (Titus) 
 
 Tite-Live 
 
 Livio 
 
 Livius 
 
 Lombardy 
 
 Lombardie 
 
 Lombardia 
 
 Lombardei 
 
 Lombard 
 
 Lombard, -e 
 
 Lombardo, -a 
 
 Lombarde 
 
 London 
 
 Londres 
 
 Londra 
 
 London 
 
 Longinus 
 
 Longin 
 
 Longino 
 
 Longinus 
 
 Lorraine 
 
 Lorraine 
 
 Lorena 
 
 Lothringen 
 
 Louisa 
 
 Louise 
 
 Luigia 
 
 Luise 
 
 Louvain 
 
 Louvain 
 
 Lovanio 
 
 Lowen 
 
 Lucerne 
 
 Lucerne 
 
 Lucerna 
 
 Luzern 
 
 Lucretius 
 
 Lucrece 
 
 Lucrezio 
 
 Lucretius 
 
 Luke 
 
 Luc 
 
 Luca 
 
 Lucas 
 
 Lusatia 
 
 Lusace 
 
 Lusazia 
 
 Lausitz 
 
 Lycurgus 
 
 Lycurgue 
 
 Lycurgo 
 
 Lycurg 
 
 Lyons 
 
 Lyon 
 
 Lione 
 
 Lyon 
 
 Macedonia 
 
 Mace"doine 
 
 Macedonia 
 
 Macedonien 
 
 Macedonian 
 
 Macedonien, -ne 
 
 Macedone 
 
 Macedonier, -isch 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Madere 
 
 Madera 
 
 Madera 
 
 Madras 
 
 Madras 
 
 Madrasso 
 
 Madras 
 
 Maestricht 
 
 Mastricht 
 
 Mastricht 
 
 Mastricht 
 
 Magdalen 
 
 Madeleine 
 
 Madalena 
 
 Magdalene 
 
 Main 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maine 
 
 Main 
 
 Majorca 
 
 Majorque 
 
 Majorca 
 
 Mojorca 
 
 Malachi 
 
 Malachie 
 
 Malachia 
 
 Malachias 
 
 Malaga 
 
 Malgue, Malaga 
 
 Malgua, Malaga 
 
 Malacca 
 
 Malay 
 
 Malais, -e 
 
 Malese 
 
 Malais 
 
 Malta 
 
 Malte 
 
 Malta 
 
 Malta 
 
 Mo Itese 
 
 Maltais, -e 
 
 Maltese 
 
 Malte ser 
 
 Mantua 
 
 Mantoue 
 
 Mantova 
 
 Mantua 
 
 Marc- Antony 
 
 Marc-Antoine 
 
 Marc- Antonio 
 
 Marcus Antonius 
 
 Margaret 
 
 Marguerite 
 
 Margarita 
 
 Margaretha 
 
 Marius 
 
 Marius 
 
 Mario 
 
 Marius 
 
 Mark 
 
 Marc 
 
 Marco 
 
 Marcus 
 
 Marseilles 
 
 Marseille 
 
 Marsiglia 
 
 Marseille 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Martinica 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Mary 
 
 Marie 
 
 Maria 
 
 Marie 
 
PROPER NAMES. 
 
 263 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Matthias 
 
 Mathias 
 
 Mattia 
 
 Matthias 
 
 Matthew 
 
 Matthieu 
 
 Viatteo 
 
 Matthaus 
 
 Maurice 
 
 Maurice 
 
 Maurizio 
 
 Moritz 
 
 Mauritania 
 
 VEauritanie 
 
 Mauritania 
 
 Mohrenland 
 
 Maximilian 
 
 \! aximilien 
 
 Massimiliano 
 
 Maximilian 
 
 Maximus 
 
 Maxime 
 
 Massimo 
 
 Maximus 
 
 Mede 
 
 Mede 
 
 Medo, -a 
 
 Medaer 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 Mediterranee 
 
 Mediterraneo (il 
 
 Mittellandisches 
 
 Sea 
 
 (la mer) 
 
 mare) 
 
 Meer 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Mercure 
 
 Mercuric 
 
 Merkur 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Mexique 
 
 Messico 
 
 Mexiko 
 
 Mexican 
 
 Mexicain, -ne 
 
 Messicano, -a 
 
 Mexikaner 
 
 Michael 
 
 Michel 
 
 Michele 
 
 Michael 
 
 Milan 
 
 Milan 
 
 Milano 
 
 Mailand 
 
 Minerva 
 
 Minerve 
 
 Minerva 
 
 Minerva 
 
 Minorca 
 
 Minorque 
 
 Minorca 
 
 Minorka 
 
 Misnia 
 
 Misnie 
 
 Misnia 
 
 Meissen 
 
 Modena 
 
 Modene 
 
 Modena 
 
 Modena 
 
 Moldavia 
 
 Moldavie 
 
 Moldavia 
 
 Moldau 
 
 Monica 
 
 Monique 
 
 Monica 
 
 Monica 
 
 Mons 
 
 Mons 
 
 Mons 
 
 Bergen 
 
 Moor 
 
 More, Maure 
 
 Moro, -a 
 
 Mohr 
 
 Moravia 
 
 Moravie 
 
 Moravia 
 
 Mahren 
 
 Moravian 
 
 Morave 
 
 Moravo t -a 
 
 Mdhrener 
 
 Morea 
 
 More"e 
 
 Morea 
 
 Morea 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Maroc 
 
 Marocco 
 
 Marocco 
 
 Moscow 
 
 Moscou 
 
 Mosca 
 
 Moskau 
 
 Moscovite 
 
 Moscooite 
 
 Moscovito, -a 
 
 Moskauer 
 
 Moselle 
 
 Moselle 
 
 Mosella 
 
 Mosel 
 
 Moses 
 
 Moi'se 
 
 Mosfe 
 
 Moses 
 
 Mount Cenis 
 
 Mont-Ce"nis 
 
 Monte Cenisio 
 
 Mont Cenis 
 
 Munich 
 
 Munich 
 
 Munich 
 
 Miinchen 
 
 Naples 
 
 Naples 
 
 Napoli 
 
 Neapel 
 
 Neapolitan 
 
 Napolttain, -ne 
 
 Napolitano, -a 
 
 Neapolitaner 
 
 Narbonne 
 
 Narbonne 
 
 Narbona 
 
 Narbonne 
 
 Narcissus 
 
 Narcisse 
 
 Narcisso 
 
 Narcissus 
 
 Navarre 
 
 Navarre 
 
 Navarra 
 
 Navarra 
 
 Nehemiah 
 
 Ne"h&me 
 
 Neemia 
 
 Nehemiah 
 
 Neptune 
 
 Neptune 
 
 Nettuno 
 
 Neptun 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Fays Bas 
 
 Paesi Bassi 
 
 Niederlande 
 
 Neuchatel 
 
 Neuchatel 
 
 Neuchatel 
 
 Welschneuburg 
 
 Nice 
 
 Nice 
 
 Nizza 
 
 Nice, Nizza 
 
 Nicholas 
 
 Nicolas 
 
 Nicola, Nicolo 
 
 Nicolaua 
 
264 
 
 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Nicias 
 
 Nicias 
 
 Niciade 
 
 Nicias 
 
 Nicodemus 
 
 Nicodeme 
 
 Nicodemo 
 
 Nicodemus 
 
 Nile 
 
 Nil 
 
 Nilo 
 
 Nil 
 
 Nineveh 
 
 Ninive 
 
 Ninive 
 
 Ninive 
 
 Normandy 
 
 Normandie 
 
 Normandia 
 
 Normandie 
 
 North Sea 
 
 Mer du Nord 
 
 Mare del Norte 
 
 Nordsee 
 
 Norway 
 
 Norwege 
 
 Norvegia 
 
 Norwegen 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 Norwegien, -ne 
 
 ftorvegianOy -a 
 
 Norweger 
 
 Nubia 
 
 Nubie 
 
 Nubia 
 
 Nubien 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Niirnberg 
 
 Octavius 
 
 Octave 
 
 Ottavio 
 
 Octavius 
 
 Olympus 
 
 Olympe 
 
 Olimpo 
 
 Olympus, Olymp 
 
 Onesimus 
 
 One"sime 
 
 Onesimo 
 
 Onesimus 
 
 Orange 
 
 Orange 
 
 Orange 
 
 Oranien 
 
 Orpheus 
 
 Orphe"e 
 
 Orfeo 
 
 Orpheus 
 
 Osnabruck 
 
 Osnabruck 
 
 Osnabruck 
 
 Osnabruck 
 
 Ostend 
 
 Ostende 
 
 Ostenda 
 
 Ostende 
 
 Ostrogoths 
 
 Ostrogoths 
 
 Ostrogoti 
 
 Ostgothen 
 
 Otho 
 
 Otton 
 
 Ottone 
 
 Otto 
 
 Ovid 
 
 Ovide 
 
 Ovidio 
 
 Ovidius 
 
 Padua 
 
 Padoue 
 
 Padova . 
 
 Padua 
 
 Palatinate 
 
 Palatinat 
 
 Palatinate 
 
 Pfalz 
 
 Palestine 
 
 Palestine 
 
 Palestina 
 
 Palastina 
 
 Pallas 
 
 Pallas 
 
 Pallade 
 
 Pallas 
 
 Palus Maeotis 
 
 Palus-Me"otide 
 
 Palude Meotide 
 
 Palus Mseotis 
 
 Paris 
 
 Paris 
 
 Parigi 
 
 Paris 
 
 Parthia 
 
 Parthie 
 
 Partia 
 
 Parthenland 
 
 Parthian 
 
 Parthe 
 
 Parto, -a 
 
 Farther, -isch 
 
 Patagonian 
 
 Patagon, -ne 
 
 Patagone 
 
 Patagonianer 
 
 Patrick 
 
 Patrice 
 
 Patrizio 
 
 Patricius, Patrick 
 
 Paul 
 
 Paul 
 
 Paolo 
 
 Paulus, Paul 
 
 Pavia 
 
 Pavie 
 
 Pavia % 
 
 Pavia 
 
 Pelagius 
 
 Pelage 
 
 Pelagio 
 
 Pelagius 
 
 Persia 
 
 Perse 
 
 Persia 
 
 Persien 
 
 Persian 
 
 Perse, Persan 
 
 PersianOy -a 
 
 Perser, -isch 
 
 Peru 
 
 P^rou 
 
 Peru 
 
 Peru 
 
 Peter 
 
 Pierre 
 
 Pietro 
 
 Peter 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 Petersbourg 
 
 Petersburgo 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 Petronius 
 
 Petrone 
 
 Petronio 
 
 Petronius 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Philadelphie 
 
 Filadelfia 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Philip 
 
 Philippe 
 
 Filippo 
 
 Philipp 
 
 Phoenicia 
 
 Phe"nicie 
 
 Fenicia 
 
 Phonicien 
 
 Phoenix 
 
 Pheuix 
 
 Fenice 
 
 Phonix 
 
PROPER NAMES. 
 
 265 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Phrygia 
 
 Phrygie 
 
 Frigia 
 
 Phrygien 
 
 Picardy 
 
 Picardie 
 
 Piccardia 
 
 Picardie 
 
 Pict 
 
 Picte 
 
 Pitto, -a 
 
 Picte 
 
 Piedmont 
 
 Pidmont 
 
 Piemonte 
 
 Piemont 
 
 Pius 
 
 Pie 
 
 Pio 
 
 Pius 
 
 Pluto 
 
 Pluton 
 
 Plutone 
 
 Pluto 
 
 Po 
 
 Po 
 
 Po 
 
 Po 
 
 Poitou 
 
 Poitou 
 
 Poitu 
 
 Poitou 
 
 Poland 
 
 Pologne 
 
 Polonia 
 
 Polen 
 
 Pole 
 
 Polonais, -e 
 
 Polonese t Po- 
 
 Pole 
 
 
 
 lacco, -a 
 
 
 Pollux 
 
 Pollux 
 
 Polluce 
 
 Pollux 
 
 Pomerania 
 
 Porneranie 
 
 Pomerania 
 
 Pommern 
 
 Pomeranian 
 
 Pomeranien t -ne 
 
 Pomeraniano t -a 
 
 Pommeraner 
 
 Pompey 
 
 Poinpe'e 
 
 Pompeo 
 
 Pompejus 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Portogallo 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 Portugais, -e 
 
 Portoghese 
 
 Portugiese, -isch 
 
 Prague 
 
 Prague 
 
 Praga 
 
 Prag 
 
 Procopius 
 
 Procope 
 
 Procopio 
 
 Procopius 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Prusse 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Preussen 
 
 Prussian 
 
 Prussien, -ne 
 
 Prussiano, -a 
 
 Preusse, -isch 
 
 Pyrenees 
 
 Pyre'ne'es 
 
 Pirenei 
 
 Pyrenaen 
 
 Rachel 
 
 Rachel 
 
 Rachele 
 
 Rahel 
 
 Ragusan 
 
 Ragusais, -e 
 
 RaguseOy -a 
 
 Ragusaner 
 
 Ralph 
 
 Raoul 
 
 Raolo 
 
 Rudolph 
 
 Raphael 
 
 Raphael 
 
 Rafaele 
 
 Raphael 
 
 Ratisbon 
 
 Ratisbonne 
 
 Ratisbona 
 
 Regensburg 
 
 Rebecca 
 
 Rebecca 
 
 Rebeca 
 
 Rebecca 
 
 Red Sea 
 
 Mer Rouge (la) 
 
 Mar Rosso (il) 
 
 Rothes Meer 
 
 Remigius 
 
 Remi 
 
 Remigio 
 
 Remigius 
 
 Rhine 
 
 Rhin 
 
 Reno 
 
 Rhein 
 
 Rhodes 
 
 Rhodes 
 
 Rodi 
 
 Rhodus 
 
 Rhodian, Rho- 
 
 Rhodien, -en ; 
 
 liodio, -a 
 
 Rhodiser 
 
 diot 
 
 Rhodiot, -e 
 
 
 
 Rhone 
 
 Rhone 
 
 Rodano 
 
 Rhone 
 
 Rio Janeiro 
 
 Rio-Janeiro 
 
 Rio Gianeiro 
 
 Rio Janeiro 
 
 Rome 
 
 Rome 
 
 Roma 
 
 Rom 
 
 Roman 
 
 Komain, -e 
 
 Romand, a 
 
 Romer, -isch 
 
 Rosamond 
 
 Rosamonde 
 
 Rosamonda 
 
 Rosamunde 
 
 Roussillon 
 
 Roussillon 
 
 Rossiglione 
 
 Roussillon 
 
 Rupert 
 
 Rupert 
 
 Ruperto 
 
 Ruprecht 
 
 Russia 
 
 Russie 
 
 Russia 
 
 Russland 
 
 Russian 
 
 Russe ; Russien 
 
 RussOf -ano 
 
 Russe, -isch 
 
266 
 
 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Samson 
 
 Samson 
 
 Sansone 
 
 Simson 
 
 Samuel 
 
 Samuel 
 
 Samuele 
 
 Samuel 
 
 Saone 
 
 Saone 
 
 Saona 
 
 Saone 
 
 Saracen 
 
 Sarrazin, -e 
 
 Saracino, -a 
 
 Sarazene 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Sardaigne 
 
 Sardegna 
 
 Sardinien 
 
 Sardinian 
 
 Sarde 
 
 Sardo, -a 
 
 Sar dirtier, -isch 
 
 Save 
 
 Save 
 
 Sava 
 
 Sau 
 
 Savoy 
 
 Savoie 
 
 Savoja 
 
 Savoyen 
 
 Savoyard 
 
 Savoyard, -e 
 
 Savtyardo, -a 
 
 Savoyard 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Saxe 
 
 Sassonia 
 
 Sachsen 
 
 Saxon 
 
 Saxon, -e 
 
 Sassone 
 
 Sacfyse, -ische 
 
 Scheld 
 
 Escaut 
 
 Escaut 
 
 Schelde 
 
 Scipio 
 
 Scipion 
 
 Scipione 
 
 Scipio 
 
 Sclavonia 
 
 Esclavonie 
 
 Schiavonia 
 
 Sclavonien 
 
 Sclave 
 
 Sclave; Escla- 
 
 Sclavone 
 
 Sclavonier 
 
 
 von, -ne 
 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ecosse 
 
 Scozia 
 
 Schottland 
 
 Scotsman, Scotch 
 
 Ecossais, -e 
 
 Scozzese 
 
 Schotte, -lander, -isci 
 
 Scythian 
 
 Scythe 
 
 Scito -a 
 
 Scythianer 
 
 Sebastian 
 
 Se"bastien 
 
 Sebastiano 
 
 Sebastian 
 
 Seine 
 
 Seine 
 
 Senna 
 
 Seine 
 
 Semiramis 
 
 Semiramis 
 
 Semiramide 
 
 Semiramis 
 
 Servia 
 
 Servie 
 
 Servia 
 
 Servien 
 
 Severus 
 
 Se"v&re 
 
 Severo 
 
 Severus 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Sicile 
 
 Sicilia 
 
 Sicilien 
 
 Sigismund 
 
 Sigismond 
 
 Sigismondo 
 
 Siegmund 
 
 Silesia 
 
 Sile"sie 
 
 Silesia 
 
 Schlesien 
 
 Silesian 
 
 Silesian, -ne 
 
 SUesiano, -a 
 
 Schlesier, -isch 
 
 Simeon 
 
 Simeon 
 
 Simeone 
 
 Simeon 
 
 Sixtus 
 
 Sixte 
 
 Sisto 
 
 Sixtus 
 
 Solomon 
 
 Salomon 
 
 Salomone 
 
 Salomo 
 
 Sophia 
 
 Sophie 
 
 Sofia 
 
 Sophie 
 
 Sound 
 
 Sund 
 
 Sund 
 
 Sund 
 
 South Sea 
 
 Mer du Sud 
 
 Mar del Sud 
 
 Siidsee 
 
 Spain 
 
 Espagne 
 
 Spagna 
 
 Spanien 
 
 Spaniard, 
 
 Lspagnol, -e 
 
 Spagnuolo, -a 
 
 Spanier, -isch 
 
 Spanish 
 
 
 
 
 Spartan 
 
 Spartiate 
 
 Sparziate ; Spar- 
 
 Spartaner 
 
 
 
 tano, -a 
 
 
 Spire 
 
 Spire , 
 
 Spire 
 
 Speier 
 
 Stephen 
 
 Etienne 
 
 Stefano 
 
 Stephan 
 
 Stiria 
 
 Stirie 
 
 Stiria 
 
 Styrum, Stirum 
 
 Strasburg 
 
 Strasbourg 
 
 Strasburg 
 
 Strasburg 
 
PROPER NAMES. 
 
 267 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Stutgard 
 
 Stutgard 
 
 Stutgard 
 
 Stuttgart, -dt 
 
 Suabia 
 
 Souabe 
 
 Suevia 
 
 Schwaben 
 
 SSitevi 
 
 Sueves 
 
 Soevi 
 
 Suevi 
 
 Sulpicius 
 
 Sulpice 
 
 Sulpizio 
 
 Sulpicius 
 
 Susanna, Susan 
 
 Suzanne 
 
 Susanna 
 
 Susanna 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Suede 
 
 Svezia 
 
 Schweden 
 
 Swede 
 
 Suedois, -e 
 
 Svezzese, Svedese 
 
 Schwedc t -isch 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Suisse 
 
 Svizzeri 
 
 Schweiz 
 
 Swiss 
 
 ISuisse 
 
 Svizzero, -a 
 
 Schweizer, -if' 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Siracusa 
 
 Syrakus 
 
 Syria 
 
 Syrie 
 
 Siria, Soria 
 
 Syrien 
 
 Syrian 
 
 $yrien, -ne 
 
 Siriano, -a 
 
 Syrer, -isch 
 
 Tagus 
 
 Tage 
 
 Tago 
 
 Tagus 
 
 Tancred 
 
 Tancrede 
 
 Tancredi 
 
 Tancred 
 
 Tarsus 
 
 Tarse 
 
 Tarso 
 
 Tarsus 
 
 Tartary 
 
 Tartarie 
 
 Tartaria 
 
 Tartarei 
 
 . Tartar 
 
 Tartare 
 
 Tartaro, -a 
 
 Tartar 
 
 Terence 
 
 Terence 
 
 Terenzio 
 
 Terentius 
 
 Thames 
 
 Tamise 
 
 Tamigi 
 
 Themse 
 
 Thebes 
 
 Thebes 
 
 Tebe 
 
 Thebes, Theba 
 
 Theobald 
 
 Tdobald 
 
 Teobaldo 
 
 Theobald 
 
 Theodore 
 
 Theodore 
 
 Teodoro 
 
 Theodor 
 
 Theophilus 
 
 Theophile 
 
 Teofilo 
 
 Gottlieb 
 
 Theresa 
 
 Therese 
 
 Teresa 
 
 Therese 
 
 Thetis 
 
 Thetis 
 
 Teti, Tetide 
 
 Thetis 
 
 Thomas 
 
 Thomas 
 
 Tonimaso 
 
 Thomas 
 
 Thrace 
 
 Thrace 
 
 Tracia 
 
 Thracien 
 
 Thracian 
 
 Thrace 
 
 Trace 
 
 Thracier, -isch 
 
 Thuringia 
 
 Thuringe 
 
 Turingia 
 
 Thiiringen 
 
 Tiber 
 
 Tibre 
 
 Tevere 
 
 Tiber 
 
 Tigris 
 
 Tigre 
 
 Tigre 
 
 Tiger 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Timothee 
 
 Timoteo 
 
 Timotheus 
 
 Tirol, Tyrol 
 
 Tirol 
 
 Tirolo 
 
 Tirol, Tyrol 
 
 Titian 
 
 Titien 
 
 Tiziano 
 
 Titian 
 
 Titus 
 
 Tite 
 
 Tito 
 
 Titus 
 
 Tobias 
 
 Tobie 
 
 Tobia 
 
 Tobias 
 
 Toledo 
 
 Tolede 
 
 Tolede 
 
 Toledo 
 
 Toulouse 
 
 Toulouse 
 
 Tolosa 
 
 Toulouse 
 
 Touraine 
 
 Touraine 
 
 Turrena 
 
 Touraine 
 
 Tournay 
 
 Tournay 
 
 Tournay 
 
 Dornick 
 
 Transylvania 
 
 Transylvanie 
 
 Transilvania 
 
 Siebenbiirgen 
 
 Trent 
 
 Trente 
 
 Trento 
 
 Trident 
 
 Treves 
 
 Treves 
 
 Treves 
 
 Trier 
 
268 
 
 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Tripolis 
 
 Triton 
 
 Triton 
 
 Tritone 
 
 Triton 
 
 Troy 
 
 Troie 
 
 Troia 
 
 Troja 
 
 Trojan 
 
 Troyen, -ne 
 
 Trojano, -a 
 
 Trojaner, -isch 
 
 Turin 
 
 Turin 
 
 Torino 
 
 Turin, Torino 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Turquie 
 
 Turchia 
 
 Tiirkei 
 
 Turk 
 
 Turc, Turque 
 
 Turco, -a 
 
 Turk, -isch 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Toscane 
 
 Toscana 
 
 Toscana 
 
 Tuscan 
 
 Toscan, -ne 
 
 Toscano, -a 
 
 Toscaner 
 
 Ukraine 
 
 Ukraine 
 
 Ukrania 
 
 Ukraine 
 
 United States 
 
 Etats-Unis 
 
 Stati Uniti 
 
 Staaten Vereinigte 
 
 Urban 
 
 Urbain 
 
 Urbano 
 
 Urban 
 
 Urbino 
 
 Urbin 
 
 Urbino 
 
 Urbino 
 
 Uriah 
 
 Urie 
 
 Uria 
 
 Uriah 
 
 Usbecs 
 
 Usbecs 
 
 Usbecchi 
 
 Usbecken 
 
 Valentine 
 
 Valentin 
 
 Valentino 
 
 Valentin 
 
 Valerian 
 
 Vale"rien 
 
 Valeriano 
 
 Valerian 
 
 Vandal 
 
 Vandale 
 
 Vandalo, -a 
 
 Wende, -isch 
 
 Venice 
 
 Venise 
 
 Venezia 
 
 Venedig 
 
 Venetian 
 
 Venitien, -ne 
 
 Veneziano t >a 
 
 Venetianer, 'isch 
 
 Venus 
 
 Venus 
 
 Venere 
 
 Venus 
 
 Vertumnus 
 
 Vertumnus 
 
 Vertunno 
 
 Vertumnus 
 
 Vesuvius 
 
 Ve*suve 
 
 Vesuvio 
 
 Vesuv 
 
 Victor 
 
 Victor 
 
 Vittore 
 
 Victor 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Vienne 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Wien 
 
 Viennese 
 
 Viennais, ~e 
 
 Viennese 
 
 Wiener 
 
 Vincent 
 
 Vincent 
 
 Vincenzo 
 
 Vincenz 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Virginie 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Virginius 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Virginio 
 
 Virginius 
 
 Vistula 
 
 Vistule 
 
 Vistula 
 
 Weichsel 
 
 Volhinia] 
 
 Volhinie 
 
 Volinia 
 
 Volhynien 
 
 Vulcan 
 
 Vulcain 
 
 Vulcano 
 
 Vulcan 
 
 Wales 
 
 Galles 
 
 Galles 
 
 Wales 
 
 Wallachia 
 
 Valachie 
 
 Valacchia 
 
 Wallachei 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 Varsovie 
 
 Varsovia 
 
 Warschau 
 
 Wenceslaus 
 
 Venceslas 
 
 Venceslao 
 
 Wenzel 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Indes Occiden- 
 
 Indie Occiden- 
 
 Westindien 
 
 
 tales 
 
 tali 
 
 
 Westphalia 
 
 Westphalie 
 
 Westfalia 
 
 Westphalen 
 
 William 
 
 Guillaume 
 
 Guglielmo 
 
 Wilhelm 
 
 Xavier 
 
 Xavier 
 
 Saverio, Zaverio 
 
 Xavier 
 
 Xenophon 
 
 Xenophon 
 
 Zenofonte 
 
 Xenophon 
 
 Xerxes 
 
 Xerces 
 
 Serse 
 
 Xerxes 
 
PROPER NAMES. 
 
 269 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Ypres 
 
 Ypres 
 
 Ypres 
 
 Ypern 
 
 Zaccheus 
 
 Zache'e Zacheo 
 
 Zachaus 
 
 Zachariah 
 
 Zaccharie 
 
 Zaccaria 
 
 Zachariaa 
 
 Zeeland 
 
 Zelande 
 
 Zelanda 
 
 Seeland 
 
 Zembla 
 
 Zemble 
 
 Zembla 
 
 Zembla 
 
 Zeno 
 
 Ze"non 
 
 Zenone 
 
 Zeno 
 
 I Zenobia 
 
 Ze'nobie 
 
 Zenobia 
 
 Zenobia 
 
 Zurich 
 
 Zurich 
 
 Zurigo 
 
 Zurich 
 
 Zutphen 
 
 Zutphen 
 
 Zutfen 
 
 Zutphen 
 
 Zuyder Sea 
 
 Zuiderzee 
 
 Zuiderzee 
 
 Zuidersee 
 
 
 END OF THE FIRST PABT. 
 
 London: Printed by Adams & Gee, 23, Middle-street, West Smithficld, 
 
PAET II. 
 
 t Umiia 0f 
 
GUIDE TO TYPOGEAPHY, 
 
 IN TWO PAETS, 
 LITEEAEY AND PEACTICAL; 
 
 OE, 
 
 Ruhr's ganbhok 
 
 AND THE 
 
 COMPOSITOR'S VADE-MECUM. 
 
 BY HE1STEY BEADNELL, 
 
 P E I N T E K. 
 
 PART II. PRACTICAL. 
 
 LOKDON: 
 F. BOWEBItfG, 211, BLACKFEIARS EOAD; 
 
 AND ALL BOOKSELLERS. 
 
PHINTED BY ADAMS AND GEE, MIDDLE 8TREKT, 
 WEST SMITH 1'IELD, E.C. 
 
EISIKG GENEBATION OF PBINTERS 
 
 ON THE LITERATURE AND PRACTICE OF THE NOBLE ART TO 
 WHICH THEY HAVE DEVOTED THEMSELVES, 
 
 IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, 
 
 BY THEIR SINCERE WELL-WISHER, 
 
 THE AUTHOR 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 WITH the conclusion of this Second Part, the author 
 has worked out the design set forth in his original pro- 
 gramme ; and if quantity alone be taken as the test of hig 
 labors, it will be found that he has somewhat exceeded 
 the prescribed limits: nevertheless he hopes that the 
 quality of the additional matter will, in some measure, 
 justify the increase of bulk, and the consequent extra 
 demand upon the patience and the pockets of his sub- 
 scribers. 
 
 It has been his aim, in this division of his work, to 
 render to the young compositor, in the daily prosecution of 
 his calling, all the assistance in his power, so far as it can 
 be given in books ; but yet to say nothing which may not, 
 directly or indirectly, be of practical utility. By adopt- 
 ing this method, the author has been enabled, on the one 
 hand, to avoid the cumbersome bulk and the tedious 
 minuteness which* distinguish the productions of many 
 writers on this subject, and on the other, to escape the 
 charge of meagerness and jejuneness to which mere hand- 
 books and abridgements are generally obnoxious. For if 
 a comparison be instituted between this Part and the simi- 
 lar writings of others, he ventures to think that it will be 
 found to contain all that is really useful to the compositor, 
 to be met with in the most voluminous of them, with the 
 addition of some things not elsewhere treated of. 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 To render the work still more deserving of general 
 support, it is the author's intention at some future period, 
 to publish a supplementary volume, which he designs to 
 call t The Mechanics of Typography,' in which will be 
 included press and machine work, and the other depart- 
 ments of the printer's business not handled in the Parts 
 already published. 
 
 He cannot, however, close these few remarks without 
 returning his thanks to the editors of those journals, both 
 in this country and America, who have favorably noticed 
 his exertions, and also to those who have taken the 
 trouble to point out their defects or their deficiencies ; 
 for he hopes thereby to be stimulated in his endeavors to 
 render future editions, should such be called for, still more 
 worthy of public approbation. 
 
 PILGRIM STREET, KENNINGTON, 
 Aug. 20, 1861. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Typography of some sort of very ancient origin 
 
 The Chinese the first Printers . . . . . . 4 
 
 Movable Types invented by the Germans , . . 6 
 
 The claims of Haerlem and Mentz discussed .. ., 7 
 
 Introduced into England by Caxton . . . . . . 11 
 
 Other claimants to that honor . . . . . . 13 
 
 The successors of Caxton . ,. .. .. 24 
 
 The Dutch great Type-founders .. .. .. 25 
 
 Stereotype invented by Ged . , . . . . , . . 26 
 
 Printing-presses .. .. .. .. .. 27 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS NAMES AND SIZES 
 OF TYPE, ETC. 
 
 Various sizes of Type, with specimens .. .. .. 29 
 
 Relative sizes of Type . . . . , , . . 34 
 
 Ornamental Types, with specimens . . . . . 36 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DISTRIBUTING AND COMPOSING, AND THEIR ALLIED 
 OPERATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Education of the Young Printer . . . . . . 39 
 
 Plan of a Pair of Cases . . . . . . . . 41 
 
 Hints to the Tyro, as to his position on Picking up type, 
 
 Spacing, Justification, &c. .. .. , , .. 42 
 
 Companionships, Clickerships, &c, .. .. .. 45 
 
 Compositors' Check-book ., .. .. .. 54 
 
 News-work .... 57 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 IMPOSING, MAKING UP FURNITURE, ETC. 
 
 Method of Imposing Folio . . . . . . . . 65 
 
 Quarto .. .. ,. .. 68 
 
 ,, Octavo .. .. .. 71 
 
 ,, Twelves .. .. .. .. 75 
 
 ,, Sixteens.. ,. .. .. 81 
 
 ,, Eighteens .. .. .. .. 83 
 
 ,, Twenties .. ,. .. 90 
 
 ,, Twentyfours .. .. .. 91 
 
 Thirtytwos .. .. .. 97 
 
 ,, Thirtysixes .. .. .. 101 
 
 ,, Forties and Fortyeights .. 104 
 
 Sixty fours .. .. .. ..107 
 
 ,, Seventytwos .. .. .. 109 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations .. .. .. ,.110 
 
 Table of Furniture for Ordinary Bookwork ., .. 112 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COMPOSITORS' SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Preliminary Observations .. .. .. .. 114 
 
 Works in the English Language .. .. .. 117 
 
 Dictionaries, Grammars, &c. .. .. .. .. 119 
 
 Pamphlets, Sixteens and smaller sizes .. .. 120 
 
 Bottom Notes .. .. .. .. ,, ..121 
 
 Side Notes .. .. .. .. .. 123 
 
 Greek, Hebrew, &c. .. .. .. ..124 
 
 Index Matter, Booksellers' Catalogues . . . . 124 
 
 Night-work, Jobs, Auctioneers' Catalogues, &c. .. .. 125 
 
 Broadsides, &c. .. .. .. ,. .. 126 
 
 Reprints .. .. .. ., .. ..127 
 
 Appeal Cases, Column Matter . . . . . . 128 
 
 Tabular and Table Work .. ,. ,, ..129 
 
 Wrappers .. .. .. .. .. 130 
 
 Miscellaneous .. .. .. .. .. 131 
 
 Abstract of Scale .. .. .. .. .. 134 
 
 Appendix to Scale News-work .. .. .. 135 
 
 ,, Parliamentary Work . . . . 139 
 
 Periodical Publications . . . . . . . . 141 
 
 Country Prices .. .. .. .. 143 
 
 Table of Prices of Letters from 10,000 to 50,000 . . . . 146 
 
 Table of Number of Lines per Hour. . . . . . 148 
 
 Lines per Thousand . . . . . . . , 150 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PLANS OP CASES IN VARIOUS ALPHABETS, WITH REMARKS 
 THEREON. 
 
 Poulter's Combined Case .. .. .. -. 152 
 
 Foreign Alphabets, &c. .. .. .. .. 156 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 PAG* 
 
 The Saxon Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . 156 
 
 The Greek Alphabet .. .. .. .. 157 
 
 Pair of Greek Cases . . . . . . . . . . 162 
 
 The Hebrew Alphabet .. .. .. .. 164 
 
 Hebrew Cases . . . . . . . . . . , . 169 
 
 The Syriac Alphabet . . . . . . . . 172 
 
 The Persi- Arabic Alphabet .. .. .. ..177 
 
 Arabic Cases .. .. .. .. .. 182 
 
 The Devanagari Alphabet .. .. .. .. 184 
 
 The German Alphabet . . . . . . . . 190 
 
 Musical Characters . . . . . . , . . . 193 
 
 Pair of Music Cases .. ., .. 196 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 JOBBING OE DISPLAYED WORK. 
 
 Preliminary Remarks .. .. .. .. .. 198 
 
 Broadsides .. .. .. .. .. 199 
 
 Particulars of Estates .. .. ,. .. .. 200 
 
 Auctioneers' Catalogues .. .. .. .. 200 
 
 Circulars . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 
 
 Handbills .. .. .. .. .. 201 
 
 Cards, their various sizes . . , . . . . . 202 
 
 Furniture.. .. .. .. fc . .. 202 
 
 Sizes of Writing and Printing Paper . . . . . . 203 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LAW WORK AND LAW BOOKS. 
 
 Preliminary General Observations . . . . .. 204 
 
 Abbreviations used in Law Books 206 
 
CONTENTS. XL 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bastard Founts .. .. ,. ..219 
 
 Bill of Letters .. .. ., .. 221 
 
 Breaks .. .. .. .. ..222 
 
 Cancels .. .. .. .. .. -. 223 
 
 Casting off Copy .. .. .. 223 
 
 Head-lines to Chapters, &c. .. . .. 227 
 
 Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 
 
 Making Measure .. .. .. .. .. 228 
 
 Margin - .. .. .. . . .. .. 229 
 
 Notes , 229 
 
 Pages, their proper length .. .. ., 231 
 
 Preliminary Matter .. .. .. .. 232 
 
 Proofs 233 
 
 Quoted Matter .. .. .. ,. .. 234 
 
 Rule-work .. .. .. .. .. ,.235 
 
 Rules to be observed by Compositors . , 237 
 
 Signatures . . . , . . . . . . . , 240 
 
 White Lines .. .. .. .. ,. 241 
 
 Poetry .. .. .. .. .. .. 241 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER TO PART I. 
 
 Latin, Greek, and other Foreign Nouns in common use, 
 
 with their Plurals .. .. .. .. ..242 
 
 On the Changes which some Letters undergo in English 
 
 Words derived from the Greek and Latin . . 246 
 
 * Shall and will' .. .. .. .. .. 249 
 
 Words ending in ' in ' or ' ine ' . . . , . . 249 
 
Til CONTENTS. 
 
 PACK 
 
 Abbreviations used in Chemical Works .. .. .. 251 
 
 Collective Nouns . 252 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ABSTRACTS OF THE ACTS OF PARLIAMENT WHICH RELATE 
 TO PRINTERS. 
 
 13 Geo. II, cap. 19, relating to horse-races .. .. 255 
 
 25 Geo. II, cap. 36, advertising with < No questions asked " 255 
 
 39 Geo. Ill, cap. 79, Press and Types to be registered . . 255 
 ,, Name and Abode of Printer to be 
 
 affixed to the first and last leaf of every book, &c. . . 256 
 39 Geo. Ill, cap. 79, A copy of everything printed to be 
 
 kept, and the name, &c. of the employer written thereon 257 
 39 Geo. Ill, cap. 79, Form of Notice to be given to the 
 
 Clerk of the Peace 257 
 
 51 Geo. Ill, Appeal lies to the Quarter Sessions ., 258 
 
 60 Geo. Ill, cap. 9, Definition of Newspapers .. .. 259 
 
 ,, Printers of Newspapers to give bond 260 
 Actions for penalties to be commenced 
 
 by the Attorney-General 261 
 
 Additional observations .. .. 261 
 
 INDEX 263 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 A SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 STRICTLY speaking, and according to the literal inter- 
 pretation of the word, Typography, or the art of trans- 
 ferring, by pressure, some design from one body to another, 
 has been practised from the most remote antiquity, in all 
 ages and by all peoples, in however primitive a state of 
 society they may have lived, and may, therefore, confi- 
 dently be asserted to have been an invention of the very 
 earliest times. 
 
 Of this fact we have authentic and indubitable evi- 
 dence ; for, in that most ancient and most authoritative 
 of all books, the Bible, so soon as the time of Moses, we 
 find the Israelites (Lev. xix, 28) prohibited from printing 
 or stamping any marks upon their persons ; which is of 
 itself sufficient proof that the practice was at that time 
 extremely common, and had been generally used ages 
 before. 
 
 The early Egyptians, moreover, and also the Babylo- 
 nians, were in the habit of stamping inscriptions on their 
 bricks, many of which remain to the present day ; ex- 
 amples of them being to be seen by the curious in the 
 British Museum and other places. The art of stamping 
 or printing from seals (which is also, according to the 
 definition of the word given above, pure Typography) is 
 
 6 2 
 
4 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 mentioned in history so early as the thirtyeighth chapter 
 of Genesis, where we read that Judah, one of the sons x of 
 Jacob, gave his seal or signet in pledge to Tamar ; and it 
 is recorded of Jezabel, the wife of Ahab, that "she wrote 
 letters in Ahab's name, and sealed them with his seal, 
 and sent the letters unto the elders and to the nobles in 
 his city, dwelling with Naboth," whose vineyard Ahab 
 coveted, but could not obtain. That the Eastern nations, 
 as well as the early Greeks and Romans, used seals as 
 authoritative evidence of the genuineness of the docu- 
 ments on which the symbols they contained were impressed, 
 is vouched for by the most remote historical evidence, as 
 well as by some of the seals themselves, which are in 
 existence to this day, both in Europe and in Asia, 
 
 The art of stamping money with some effigy was 
 another step in Typography, introduced at a very early 
 period. Herodotus (Clio, i, 94*) assigns the invention to 
 the Lydian.s, nearly a thousand years before the birth of 
 Christ; and the Hindoos had a coin which they declared 
 to be no less than 4,000 years old, and which is now in 
 the Museum of the East-India House. 
 
 But the first step in the discovery of the art of what 
 is now generally considered Typography, or word-print- 
 ing, that is, the transference of letters or words from one 
 body to another, by the means of some viscid liquid or ink 
 distributed over the surface of the type, and pressed upon, 
 not into, another body, is undoubtedly to be assigned to 
 the Chinese, and probably took place somewhere about 
 the tenth century of our era. The invention of this all- 
 important step in the art is, by the Chinese themselves, 
 awarded to a learned mandarin, named Foong-taon. 
 His method of proceeding was as follows : " He placed a 
 
 * His words are : AuSol Trp&roi Se avOpwircav rav 
 vofit pa xpvrrov Kal apjvpov /cotl/cfyiei'oi expycravro. The Lydians 
 were the first people, as far as known to us, who used stamped 
 gold and silver money. 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 5 
 
 page of writing, while it was wet, upon the face of a 
 smooth piece of wood. The writing made a mark on the 
 wood, just as a letter does when it is turned down upon a 
 sheet of blotting-paper. A copy of the writing was, in 
 other words, impressed on, or transferred to, the wood. 
 Then all that part of the surface of the wood not touched 
 by the writing, that part between and around the 
 strokes of tlie characters, was cut away with a chisel or 
 graver ; so that the wood was converted into an engraved 
 tablet ; with this difference, that in an engraving the 
 letters are cut into the face of the material, like the in- 
 scription on a tombstone, while, in this kind of printing, 
 the face itself was cut away, leaving the letters standing 
 out, like the raised letters we see on a shop-front. The 
 letters thus formed by Foong-taon were wetted with some 
 kind of ink ; paper was then pressed upon them, and an 
 inken copy of the letters was thereby transferred to the 
 paper. This was really and truly the art of printing." 
 And to this practice of block-printing the Chinese adhere 
 to the present day; being in some measure cons :-amed 
 thereto by the nature of their language, which does not 
 possess any alphabet, according to our notion of the term^ 
 but is completely logographic, or word-formed, and would 
 consequently necessitate the use of an immense number of 
 separate types, were they used singly. 
 
 It was not until the time of Marco Polo, the celebrated 
 Venetian traveller, about the middle of the thirteenth 
 century, that Europe became practically acquainted with 
 China, its arts or its sciences, nor, consequently, with the 
 discovery of printing : till that time China was known but 
 in name, as no European had ever before set foot in the 
 empire. Nevertheless, shortly after this period, printing 
 from wooden blocks began to be practised even in the 
 West ; the first to exercise the art being the two Cunios, 
 relatives of Pope Honorius IV, who resided at Kavenna, 
 on the borders of the Gulf of Venice. Playing-cards, 
 
6 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 supposed by some to have been invented to amuse the 
 unfortunate Charles VI, were also printed from blocks, 
 about 1350, in exactly the same way as the Chinese print, 
 that is, with a brush; as also were little books. subse- 
 quently ; some of which are still in existence. 
 
 The introduction of movable types, however, consti- 
 tutes the most important step in the progress of the art 
 as now practised ; and to this our observations will be 
 confined. But, from the uncertainty in which the inven- 
 tion is involved (the earliest printers concealing as much 
 as possible their knowledge of the art, and passing otf the 
 productions of their presses as genuine manuscripts), it 
 was long a disputed point, and is so still, whether Mentz 
 or Haerlem could claim the honor of being the seat 
 where the noble art was first practised ; both places finding 
 advocates, who asserted the claims of their favorite city 
 with the utmost vehemence and confidence. The learned 
 Dr. Willis delivers his opinion in the following concise 
 manner : -" About the year 1450 the art of printing was 
 invented and practised in Germany, but whether first at 
 Mentz or Haerlem, is not determined ; for it appears, 
 upon an impartial inquiry, that those who had it in con- 
 sideration before it was brought to perfection, disagreeing 
 among themselves, separated company, and some of them 
 at Haerlem, and others at Mentz, pursued the practice of 
 their former employ, at one and the same time." 
 
 This is probably a tolerably correct statement of the 
 case, with which I should be inclined, in a practical work 
 of this nature, to remain satisfied ; although, after reading 
 all the arguments, on both sides, which have come under 
 my cognizance, my own opinion decidedly tends to award 
 the palm to the latter city. Nevertheless, as some of my 
 younger readers may desire to know a little more on the 
 subject, I will submit for their inspection a short outline 
 of the matter, as given by those favorable to the claims 
 of Haerlem. 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 7 
 
 The city of Haerlem, in the north of Holland, it is 
 said, was a flourishing place even as early as the twelfth 
 century. The streets were adorned with groves of trees 
 by the liberal public spirit of its rich merchants ; and for 
 these, as well as for the culture of flowers, it had been 
 long famous. Amongst the inhabitants of Haerlem in 
 the year 1424, was one Laurence Zanssen. He was church- 
 warden, treasurer, and sexton of the parish church of 
 St. Bavon ; and for that reason assumed the surname of 
 Coster, that is, sexton. He lived in a large house oppo- 
 site the royal palace : it is now the Town Hall, and, 
 owing to its association with Coster's name, is one of the 
 show-places of the city at the present day. Coster was in 
 the habit of walking in the groves which adorned the 
 neighbourhood of the city, and, to amuse his grand- 
 children, hit upon the plan of cutting some letters from 
 the bark of the beech-tree in a reversed position, and, 
 daubing them with some kind of color, thus printed their 
 names. The thought immediately occurred to him, that 
 this could be carried to any extent ; and hence, in conjunc- 
 tion with his son-in-law, Thomas Peter, this simple 
 amusement led to the formation of movable wooden types, 
 and to the printing of a book with them ; although, as 
 must be evident to the reader, this was a work of infinite 
 trouble. Their first production contained the letters of 
 the alphabet, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and three 
 short prayers. A copy of this book, on parchment, printed 
 on one side only, but with the leaves pasted together, is 
 said to be still in existence, and is thought to have been 
 completed about the year 1439. 
 
 Finding that wooden letters were not hard enough to 
 resist the pressure used in printing, Coster is reported, 
 afterwards, to have invented lead, and next pewter types ; 
 and as the demand for his productions increased rapidly, 
 he found it necessary to increase the number of his work- 
 men, to whom he administered an oath, binding them 
 
8 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 not to divulge the secret of his art. But one of these, 
 asserted to have been John Guttemberg, a native of 
 Mentz, was not able to resist the allurements of the 
 great profit which would accrue to himself, were he to 
 commence business on his own account. On the Christmas- 
 eve, therefore, of 1439, he seized the opportunity of Coster's 
 absence at church, to purloin a quantity of his master's 
 type, and to flee no one knew whither. He eventually, 
 however, turned up at Amsterdam ; from thence removed 
 to Cologne; and finally settled at Mentz, or Mayence, 
 where he immediately commenced operations as a printer. 
 His first productions were a grammar, then in high repute, 
 entitled ' Alexandri Galli Doctrinale,' and the ' Tractatus 
 Logicus' of Petrus Hispanus. His younger brother, also 
 called John (the elder being distinguished by the appella- 
 tion of Geinsfleisch) went to Strasburg, and there entered 
 into an agreement with some of its citizens to disclose to 
 them the important secret ; but as he had never acquired 
 a knowledge of the art, his promises turned out abortive, 
 and the scheme came to nothing. 
 
 His elder brother, however, with the assistance of a 
 wealthy goldsmith, named John Faust, continued the 
 successful practice of the art at Mentz ; the first book that 
 they printed with metal types being the Bible, commonly 
 known as the Mazarine Bible : it consisted of 637 leaves, 
 with two columns of print on each page, and occupied 
 seven years in its production; being printed on vellum, 
 and on one side only. 
 
 In 1450, the elder Guttemberg ceased to be the partner 
 of Faust, who, in the following year, joined the younger 
 brother ; but, disputes arising between them, this partner- 
 ship also ceased in 1455, when the business was conducted 
 by Faust alone. Shortly after this period, a workman of 
 Faust's, called Peter Schoeffer, succeeded in the art of 
 casting metal types, which had been previously cut on 
 solid pieces of metal. By this process, the manufacture 
 of types became more easy, the cost less, and their 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 9 
 
 uniformity and regularity much improved. For this 
 essential piece of service, Schoeffer was rewarded with 
 the hand of his master's daughter. The first book printed 
 with this kind of type was the 'Rationale Divinorum 
 Officiorum,' in 1459. 
 
 After the younger Guttemberg parted from Faust, he 
 was enabled, through the assistance of Conrad Humery, 
 syndic of Mentz, to recommence business. Among other 
 works, he printed the ' Catholicon,' in which lie ascribed 
 the honor of the invention of printing to the city of 
 Mentz ; an honor before claimed both by Faust and 
 Schoeffer. 
 
 In order to dispose of an edition of the Bible to which 
 we before alluded, Faust proceeded to Paris, and sold one 
 copy to the king for 750 crowns, and another to the arch- 
 bishop of Paris for 300 ; and others, at inferior prices, 
 to people less eminent ; not, be it remarked, as printed 
 books (for this, as previously observed, the printers care- 
 fully concealed), but as manuscripts. But the exact simi- 
 larity of each copy, and the rapidity with which they 
 were produced, are said to have led to the apprehension 
 of Faust as a magician, and as one having dealings with 
 the devil : he was consequently arrested and imprisoned, 
 when, to save himself from death, he revealed his secret, 
 and was set at liberty ; but died soon after, probably in 
 Paris, of the plague, which was raging there at that time. 
 
 The elder Guttemberg died in 1462,* and the younger 
 
 * There is at Mentz, on the front of the house wherein Guttem- 
 berg lived, the following inscription, which was put up in the year 
 1507 or 1508 : 
 
 JOANNI GUTTEMBERGENSI 
 
 MOGUNTINO, 
 QUI PRIMUS OMNIUM LITERAS JERE 
 
 IMPRIMENDAS INVENIT, 
 HAG ARTE DE ORBE TOTO BENE MERENTI, 
 
 YVO VINTIGENSIS 
 
 HOC SAXUM PRO MONUMENTO POSUIT. 
 
10 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 in 1468 ; but the art continued to be practised at Mentz 
 by Schoeffer, in conjunction with a kinsman of Faust and 
 Conrad Humery. 
 
 To the earlier part of this account it is objected by the 
 advocates of Mentz, 1. That it is only sustained by hearsay 
 evidence, first broached by the historian Junius, about a 
 hundred and twenty years after the supposed invention 
 of the art by Coster ; 2. That the account of the process 
 of the discovery is improbable, if not absurd : for the bark 
 of the beech-tree is not at all adapted to the purpose of 
 forming letters; 3. That there is no evidence of the 
 results of the Haerlem press for twenty years after its 
 supposed establishment; 4. That there is no proof of 
 any rivalry having, existed between the press of Haerlem 
 and that of Mentz, as there would have been had Mentz 
 become possessed of the art in the clandestine way repre- 
 sented by Junius ; 5. That no productions of this press 
 are extant, neither does any contemporary historian make 
 any mention thereof. 
 
 These, and other objections, are urged, with consi- 
 derable force, by the partisans of Mentz ; but as it does 
 not enter into my plan to pursue the matter at any length, 
 and to weigh the arguments on 'both sides of the question 
 in detail, I shall here leave it, content with the expression 
 of my opinion already given, and with having indicated 
 the antagonism which exists ; but should any of my readers 
 
 And, on his death (or his brother's), the following monument was 
 placed near his tomb, in the church of the Recollects, in that 
 city : 
 
 D.O.M. S. 
 JOHANNI GEINSFLEISCH, 
 
 ARTI8 IMPRESSORIJE REPERTORI, 
 
 DB OMNI NATIONB ET LINGUA OPTIME MERITO, 
 
 IN NOMINIS SUI MEMORIAM IMMORTALEM, 
 
 ADAM GELTHUS POSUIT. 
 
 And, in 1887, a statue to Guttemberg, by Thorwaldsen, was inau- 
 gurated at Meutz with much splendor. 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 11 
 
 feel disposed to investigate the matter at greater length, 
 they will find abundant occupation for their leisure hours, 
 in weighing the conflicting accounts of the hundred and 
 thirty writers who have given this subject the benefit of 
 their lucubrations. 
 
 However, when the secret was once divulged, a know- 
 ledge of the art of printing from cast metal types spread 
 with wonderful rapidity. It soon found its way to Italy, 
 and was practised at Subiaco, in the Roman states, as 
 early as 1465 ; in England, at Oxford, in 1468 (1) ; in 
 France, at Paris, in 1469 ; in Spain, at Barcelona, in 1475 : 
 in the year 1490 it also reached Turkey, and penetrated 
 into Eussia in 1560. The shape of the types was also 
 changed from Gothic or German to semi-Gothic, a kind of 
 Roman letter, first used in Rome in 1467 ; and three years 
 afterwards, Jenson of Venice cut the first Roman type in 
 the shape we have it to this day. Aldus of Venice invented 
 Italic letters in 1488, and the productions of the Aldine 
 press soon became famous. Greek types were cast at 
 Mentz in 1465, and Hebrew ones in 1482; and not many 
 years after, the Vatican and Paris printers introduced the 
 Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Armenian, and Coptic or Egyptian 
 characters. Aldus printed the works of nearly all the 
 Greek authors, with Greek types of singular beauty. But 
 although the art thus spread so rapidly, it met with a 
 great deal of opposition from the copyists, whose occupa- 
 tion, it was at once seen, it would ultimately destroy. 
 Nevertheless, as is the case with all real improvements, 
 it continued to spread wider and wider, and the benefits 
 thereof became day by day more and more appreciated. 
 
 It is supposed by some, that the art of printing was 
 practised in the University of Oxford before the time of * 
 Caxton, who is generally regarded as the first English 
 printer : for a book, containing forty pages, and entitled 
 1 Expositio Sancti leronimi in Simbolum Apostolorum, ad 
 
12 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 Papam Laurent ium,' has been found in the University of 
 Cambridge, and at the end of it is a statement that the 
 printing of it was completed at Oxford, on the 17th of 
 December, 1468 ; and, consequently, some years before 
 Caxton commenced the practice of the art. It is printed 
 in the German type, very similar to that used by Faust 
 and Guttemberg, while Caxton employed in his first books 
 a different style of letter. 
 
 The arguments on both sides of the question, as well 
 as on the discovery of the art of printing itself, I will 
 here condense from the learned Dr. Conyers Middleton's 
 account of the matter : 
 
 It was, he says, the concurrent opinion of our histo- 
 rians, that the art of printing was introduced and first 
 practised in England by William Caxton, a mercer and 
 citizen of London, who, by his travels abroad, and a resi- 
 dence of many years in Holland, Flanders, and Germany, 
 in the affairs of trade, had an opportunity of informing 
 himself of the whole method and process of the art ; and 
 by the encouragement of the great, and particularly of 
 the abbot of Westminster, first set up a press in that 
 abbey, and began to print books soon after the year 1471. 
 
 This was the tradition of all our writers, until the book 
 alluded to above, which had scarce been observed before 
 the Eestoration, was then taken notice of by the curious, 
 and was immediately considered, by many, a clear proof 
 and monument of the exercise of the art of printing in 
 England several years before Caxton began to practise it. 
 
 The only difficulty was, to account for the silence 
 of history on an event so memorable, and the want 
 of any memorial in the university itself, concerning 
 the establishment of a new art amongst them, of such 
 k use and benefit to learning. But this likewise has 
 been supposed to be cleared up by the discovery of a 
 record, which had lain obscure and unknown at Lambeth 
 House, in the register of the see of Canterbury, which gives 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 13 
 
 a narrative of the whole transaction, drawn up at the very 
 time. 
 
 An account of this record was first published in a 
 thin quarto volume, in English, with this title : ' The 
 Original Growth of Printing, collected out of History and 
 the Records of this Kingdom : wherein is also demon- 
 strated, that Printing appertaineth to the Prerogative 
 Royal, and is a Flower of the Crown of England. By 
 Richard Atkyn.s, Esq., London, 1664.' 
 
 It sets forth, in short, that as soon as the art of print- 
 ing made some noise in Europe, Thomas Bourchier, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, moved King Henry YI to use all 
 possible means to procure it to be brought into England : 
 the king approving the proposal, dispatched one Mr. 
 Robert Tumour, an officer of the robes, into Flanders, 
 with money for the purpose, who took to his assistance 
 William Caxton, a man of abilities, and knowledge of 
 the country ; and these two found means to bribe and 
 entice over into England one Frederick Corsellis, an under- 
 workman in the printing-house at Haerlem, where John 
 Guttemberg had lately invented the art, and was then 
 personally at work ; which Corsellis was immediately sent 
 down to Oxford under a guard, to prevent his escape, and 
 to oblige him to the performance of his contract ; where 
 he produced the book before mentioned, but without any 
 name of the printer. 
 
 From the authority of this record, some later writers 
 namely, Mr. Wood, the learned Mr. Mattaire, Palmer, and 
 Bagford, who published proposals for a History of Print- 
 ing declare Corsellis to have been the first printer in 
 England. But it is strange that a piece so fabulous, and 
 carrying such evident marks of forgery, could impose upon 
 men so well-informed and sagacious. 
 
 For, first, the asserted fact does not correspond with 
 the condition of the times, towards the close of the reign 
 of the sixth Henry, in the very heat of the civil wars, 
 
14 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 when it is not credible that a prince, struggling for life as 
 well as his crown, could have leisure or disposition to 
 attend to a project that could hardly be thought of, much 
 less executed, in times of such calamity. The printer, it 
 is said, was graciously received by the king, made one of 
 his sworn servants, and sent down to Oxford with a 
 guard, &c. ; all which must have passed before the year 
 1459 ; for Edward IV was proclaimed in London before 
 the end of it, and crowned about the midsummer follow- 
 ing ; and yet we have no fruit of all this labor and 
 expense till ten years after, when the little book before 
 described, is supposed to have been published from that 
 press. 
 
 Secondly : the silence of Caxton concerning a fact in 
 which he is said to have been a principal actor, is a suffi- 
 cient confutation of it ; for it was a constant custom with 
 him, in the prefaces or conclusions of all his works, to 
 give an historical account of all his labors and trans- 
 actions, as far as they concerned the publishing and print- 
 ing of books. And what is still stronger, in the Conti- 
 nuation of the ( Polychronicon,' compiled by himself, and 
 carried down to the end of the reign of Henry VI, he 
 makes no mention of the expedition in quest of a printer, 
 which he could not well have omitted, had it been true ; 
 whilst, in the same book, he takes notice of the invention 
 and beginning of printing in the city of Mentz. 
 
 There is a further circumstance in Caxton's history 
 that seems inconsistent with the record ; for we find him 
 still beyond sea, about twelve years after the supposed 
 transaction, learning with great charge and trouble the 
 art of printing, which he might have done with ease at 
 home, if he had got Corsellis into his hands, as the record 
 imports, so many years before ; but he probably learnt it 
 at Cologne, where he resided in 1471, and where books 
 had been first printed with a date the year before. 
 
 To the silence of Caxton, we may add that of the 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 15 
 
 Dutch writers : for it is very strange, as Mr. Ohevillier 
 observes, if the story of the record be true, that Adrian 
 Junius, who has collected all the groundless ones that 
 favor the pretensions of Haerlem, should never have heard 
 of it. 
 
 But, thirdly, the most internal and direct proof of its 
 forgery, is its ascribing the origin of printing to Haerlem, 
 where John Guttemberg, the inventor, is said to have been 
 personally at work, when Corsellis was brought away, 
 and the art itself to have been first carried to Mentz by a 
 brother of one of Guttemberg's workmen : for it is certain, 
 says the learned doctor, that printing was invented and 
 propagated from Mentz. Caxton's testimony seems alone 
 decisive, who, in the Continuation of the ' Polychronicon,' 
 says, " About this time [viz. 1455] the crafte of emprynting 
 was first found in Mogounce in Almayne." Now Caxton 
 was in Germany at the very time when the first rude 
 essays in printing were attempted; and there he continued 
 for thirty years, viz , from 1441 to 1471 ; and as he was 
 particularly curious and inquisitive after this new art, of 
 which he was endeavoring to get perfect information, he 
 could hardly be ignorant of the place where it was first 
 exercised. 
 
 Besides the evidence of Caxton, we have another con- 
 temporary authority, from the ( Black Book, or Kegister 
 of the Garter/ published by Mr. Anstis, where, in the 
 thirty fifth year of Henry VI, anno 1457, it is said, " In 
 this year of our most pious King, the art of printing books 
 first began at Mentz, a famous city of Germany." 
 
 Fabian also, the writer of the Chronicle, an author of 
 good credit, who lived at the same tim,e with Caxton, 
 though some years younger, says, " This yere [viz. 35th of 
 Henry VI], after the opynyon of dyverse wryters, began 
 in a Citie of Almaine, namyd Mogunce, the Crafte of 
 empryntynge Bokys, which sen that tyme hath had won- 
 derful en crease." 
 
16 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 We need not pursue this question any further, the 
 testimonies commonly alleged on it, may be seen in 
 Mattaire, Palmer, &c. ; and shall only observe, that we 
 have full and authentic evidence for the cause of Mentz, 
 in an edition of Livy from that place, dated 1518, by John 
 Schoeffer, the son of Peter, the partner and son-in-law of 
 John Faust ; where the patent of privilege granted by the 
 emperor to the printer, the prefatory epistle of Erasmus, 
 the epistle dedicatory to the prince by Ulrich Hutten, the 
 epistle to the reader, of the two learned men who had the 
 care of the edition, all concur in asserting the origin of 
 the art to that city, and the invention and first exercise of 
 it to Faust ; and Erasmus particularly, who was a Dutch- 
 man, would not have decided against his own country, 
 had there been any ground for the claim of Haerlem. 
 
 But to return to the Lambeth record : as it was never 
 heard of before the publication of Atkyns's book, so it has 
 never since been seen or produced by any man, though 
 the registers of Canterbury have on many occasions been 
 diligently and particularly searched for it. They were 
 examined, without doubt, very carefully by Archbishop 
 Parker, for the compiling of his 'Antiquities of the British 
 Church;' where, in the life of Thomas Bourchier, though 
 lie congratulates that age on the noble and useful inven- 
 tion of printing, yet is silent as to the introduction of it 
 into England by the endeavors of that archbishop ; nay, 
 Las given the honor of the invention to Strasburg ; which 
 clearly shows that he knew nothing of the story of Corsellis 
 being conveyed from Haerlem, and that the record was not 
 in being in his time. Palmer himself owns that it was not to 
 be found there when he wrote ; neither has any subsequent 
 investigation succeeded in bringing it to the light of day. 
 On these grounds, we may pronounce the record to be a 
 forgery, notwithstanding what may have been asserted at 
 various times in favor of its authenticity. 
 
 But, although we have thus got clear of the record, the 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 17 
 
 book itself, nevertheless, stands firm, as a monument of 
 the exercise of printing in Oxford, six years before the 
 date of any book printed by Caxton. This fact is strong, 
 and, in ordinary cases, would be regarded as certain 
 evidence of the age of a book ; but in this particular case, 
 there are such contrary facts to balance it, and such 
 circumstances to turn the scale, that, to speak freely, 
 warrants us in coming to the conclusion that the date has 
 been falsified by the printer, either by design or through 
 mistake, and that an x has been dropped or omitted in 
 the date of the impression of the book. 
 
 Examples of the kind are quite common in the course 
 of printing. It has been observed that several dates have 
 been altered very artfully after publication, to give them 
 the credit of greater antiquity. They have at Haerlem, 
 in large quarto, a translation into Dutch of Bartholomseus 
 *De Proprietatibus Kerum,' printed in M.CCCC.XXXV, by 
 Jacob Bellart. This they show to confirm their claim 
 to the earliest printing, and deceive the unskilful. But 
 Mr. Bagford, who had seen another copy with a true date, 
 discovered the cheat ; by which the L had been erased 
 so cunningly, that it was not easy to perceive it. But 
 besides the frauds of an after- contrivance, there are many 
 false dates originally given by the printers ; partly by 
 design, to raise the value of their works, but chiefly by 
 negligence and blunder. There is a Bible at Augsburg, 
 dated 1449, where the two last figures a,re transposed, 
 and should stand thus, 1494. Chevillier mentions three 
 more: one at Paris, of 1443; another at Lyons, 1446; a 
 third at Basle, 1450 ; though printing was not used in any 
 of these places till many years after. Orlandi describes 
 three books with the like mistakes from Mentz ; .and 
 J. Koelhoff, who first printed about the year 1470, at 
 Cologne, has dated one of his books ann > M.CCCC. ; that is, 
 with a c omitted ; and another, anno 1458, which Palmer 
 imputes to design rattier than mistake. 
 c 
 
18 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 But what makes most for our argument, is a book 
 from the famous printer Nicholas Jenson, of which Mr. 
 Mattaire gave the first notice, called f Decor Puellarum,* 
 printed in the year M.CCCC.LXI. All the other works of 
 Jenson were published at Venice between 1470 and 1480, 
 which justly raised a suspicion that an x had been dropped 
 from the date of this, which ought to be advanced ten 
 years forward ; since it was not credible that so great a 
 master of the art, who at once invented and perfected it, 
 could lie so many years idle and unemployed. 
 
 These instances, with many more that might be col- 
 lected, show the possibility of Dr. Middleton's conjecture ; 
 and, for the probability of it, the book itself affords 
 sufficient proof : for, not to insist on what is less material,- 
 the neatness of the letter, and regularity of the pages, &c., 
 above those of Caxton, it has one mark that seems to 
 carry the matter beyond the probable, and to make it even 
 certain ; namely, the use of signatures, or letters of the 
 alphabet placed at the bottom of the page, to show the 
 sequel of the sheets and leaves of each book ; an improve- 
 ment contrived for the direction of the bookbinders, which 
 yet was not practised or invented at the time when this 
 book is supposed to have been printed : for we find no 
 signatures in the books of Faust or Schoeifer at Mentz, 
 nor in the more improved and beautiful impressions of 
 John de'Spira, and Jenson at Venice, till several years 
 later. There is a book in the public library at Cambridge 
 that seems to fix the very time of their invention, at least 
 in Venice, the place where the art itself received the 
 greatest improvements. It is styled : 'Baldi Lectura 
 super Codic.,' &c., printed by John de Colonia and John 
 Man then de Gherretzem, in the year M.CCCC.LXXIIII. It is 
 a large handsome volume in folio, without signatures, till 
 about the middle of the book, in which they are first 
 introduced, and so continued forward ; which makes it 
 probable, that the first thought of them was suggested 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 19 
 
 during the time of the impression; They were used 
 at Cologne in the year 1475 ; at Paris, 1476 ; by Caxton, 
 not before 1480 : but if the discovery had been brought 
 into England, and practised at Oxford twelve years before, 
 it is not probable that he would have printed so long at 
 "Westminster without them. 
 
 Mr. Palmer, indeed, says that Anthony Zarot was 
 esteemed the inventor of signatures, and that they are 
 found in a Terence printed by him at Milan, in 1470, in 
 which year he first printed. Allowing them to be in the 
 Terence, and Zarot the inventor, it confutes the date of 
 our Oxford book, as effectually as if they were of later 
 origin at Venice, as there is reason to imagine, from the 
 testimony of all old books. 
 
 What further confirms this opinion is, that from the 
 time of the pretended date of this book, 1468, we have no 
 other fruit or production from the press at Oxford for 
 eleven years next following ; and it cannot be imagined 
 that a press, established with so much pains and expense, 
 could be suffered to lie so long idle and useless ; whereas, 
 if our conjecture be admitted, all the difficulties that seem 
 insuperable and inconsistent with the supposed era of 
 printing there, will vanish at once. For, allowing the 
 book to have been printed ten years later, in the year 
 1478, then the use of signatures can be no objection : a 
 foreign printer might introduce them ; Caxton follow his 
 example ; and the course of printing, and sequel of books 
 published at Oxford, will proceed regularly, beginning 
 that year, and proceeding in order, and almost uninter- 
 ruptedly, downward. 
 
 We shall now return to Caxton, and state, as briefly as 
 we can, the positive evidence that remains of his being the 
 first printer of this kingdom ; for what has already been 
 alleged is chiefly negative or circumstantial. And here, 
 as before hinted, all our writers before the ^Restoration, 
 who mention the introduction of the art amongst us, give 
 c 2 
 
20 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 him the credit of it, without any contradiction or varia- 
 tion. Stowe, in his ' Survey of London,' speaking of the 
 thirtyseventh year of Henry VI, or A.D. 1458, says : " The 
 noble science of printing was about this time found at 
 Magunce, by Joh. Guttemberg, a knight ; and William 
 Caxton, of London, mercer, brought it into England, 
 about the year 1471, and practised the same in the Abbey 
 of Westminster." Trussel gives the same account in the 
 ' History of Henry VI,' and Sir Eichard Baker in his 
 1 Chronicle ;' and Mr. Howell, in his * Londinopolis,' 
 describes the place where the abbot of Westminster set 
 up the first press for Caxton's use, in the Almonry or 
 Ambry. As a confirmation of this opinion, Mr. New- 
 court, in his ' Eepertorium/ vol. i, p. 721, speaks thus : 
 "St. Ann's, an old chapel, over against which the Lady 
 Margaret, mother to King Henry VII, erected an alms- 
 house for poor women, which is now turned into lodgings 
 for singing-men of the college. The place wherein this 
 chapel and almshouse stood, was called the Eleemosynary, 
 or Almonry, now corruptly the Ambry ; for that the alms 
 of the abbey were there distributed to the poor ; in which 
 the abbot of Westminster erected the first press for book- 
 printing that ever was in England, about the year of 
 Christ 1471, and wherein William Caxton, citizen and 
 mercer of London, who first brought it into England, 
 practised it." This chapel was a retired place, and free 
 from interruption ; and from this, or some other chapel, 
 it is supposed the name of Chapel has been in use in all 
 printing-offices in England ever since. But, above all, 
 the famous John Leland, librarian to Henry VIII, who, by 
 way of honor, had the title of the Antiquary, and lived 
 near to Caxton's own time, expressly calls him the first 
 printer of England, and speaks honorably of his works : 
 and as he had spent some time in Oxford, after having 
 first studied and taken a degree at Cambridge, he could 
 hardly be ignorant of the origin and history of printing 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 21 
 
 in that university. We cannot forbear adding, for the 
 sake of a name so celebrated, the testimony also of 
 Mr. Henry Wharton, who affirms Caxton to have been 
 the first that imported the art of printing into this king- 
 dom. On whose authority, the no less celebrated M. du 
 Pin styles him likewise the first printer of England. 
 
 To the attestation of our historians, who are clearly in 
 favor of Caxton, and quite silent concerning an earlier 
 press at Oxford, the works of Caxton himself add great 
 confirmation : the rudeness of the letter, irregularity of 
 the page, want of signatures, initial letters, &c., in his 
 first impressions, give a prejudice at sight of their being 
 the first productions of the art amongst us. But, besides 
 these considerations, notice has been taken of a passage in 
 one of his books, that amounts, in a manner, to a direct 
 testimony of it. " Thus end I this book," he says ; " and 
 for as moche as in wrytyng of the same my penne is worn, 
 myn hande wery, and myn eyen dimmed with overmoche 
 lokyng on the whit paper and that age crepe th on me 
 dayly and also because I have promysid to dyverce 
 gentilmen and to my frendes to adresse to hem as hastely 
 as I myght this sayd book, therefore I have practysed, and 
 lerned at my grete charge and dispense to ordeyne this 
 sayd book in prynte after the maner and forme as ye may 
 here see, and is not wreton with penne and ynke as other 
 bokes ben, to thende that every man may have them 
 attones [at once] ; for all the books of this storye, named 
 the Kecule of the historyes of Troyes, thus emprynted as 
 ye here see, were begonne in oon day and also finished in 
 oon day," &c. 
 
 This is the very style and language of the first printers, 
 as everybody knows who has been at all conversant with 
 old books. Faust and Schoeffer, among the first inventors, 
 set the example in their first works from Mentz, by 
 informing the public, at the end of each, that they were 
 not drawn or written by a pen (as all books had been 
 
22 THE HISTORY OP TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 before), but made by the new art and invention of printing, 
 or stamping them by characters or types of metal set in 
 forms. In imitation of whom, the succeeding printers, in 
 most cities of Europe, where the art was new, generally 
 gave a similar notice ; as we may see from Venice, Eome, 
 Naples, Basle, Augsburg, Louvain, &c. ; in the works of 
 their earliest typographers ; just as our Caxton in the 
 above instance. 
 
 As this is a strong proof of his being our first printer, 
 so it is a probable one that this very book was the first 
 of his printing. Caxton had finished the translation of 
 the two first books at Cologne, in 1471 ; and having then 
 good leisure, resolved to translate the third at that place ; 
 in the end of which we have the passage before cited. 
 Now, in his other books, translated, as this was, from the 
 French, he commonly marks the precise time of his 
 entering on the translation, of his finishing it, and of his 
 putting it afterwards into the press ; which used to follow 
 each other with little or no intermission, and were gene- 
 rally completed within the compass of a few months. So 
 that in the present case, after he had finished the transla- 
 tion, which must have been in, or soon after 1471, it is not 
 likely that he would delay the impression longer than was 
 necessary for preparing his materials ; especially as he was 
 engaged by promise to his friends, who seem to have been 
 pressing and in haste, to deliver copies of it to them as 
 soon as possible. 
 
 But as in the case of the first printer, so in this of his 
 first work, we have a testimony, also from himself, in 
 favor of this book ; for we have observed that in the re- 
 cital of his works, he mentions it the first in order, before 
 the book of Chess ; which seems to be a good argument of 
 its being actually the first. " When I had accomplished 
 dyvers werkys and hystorys translated out of Frenshe 
 into Englyshe at the requeste of certayn lordes ladyes 
 and gentylmen, as the Kecuel of the hystoryes of Troye, 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 23 
 
 the boke of Chesse, the hystorye of Jason, the hystorye of 
 the mirrour of the world I have submysed myself to 
 translate into Englyshe the legende of sayntes, called 
 Legenda aurea in Latyn and Wylyam Erie of Arondel 
 desyred me and promysed to take a resonyble quantyte 
 of them sente to me a worshipful gentylman promysing 
 that my sayd lord should durying my lyf give and graunt 
 to me a yerely fee, that is to note, a bucke in sommer and 
 a doo in wynter," &c. 
 
 All this, added to the common marks of earlier an- 
 tiquity, which are more observable in this than in any 
 other of his books, viz., the rudeness of the letter, the 
 incorrectness of the language, and the greater mixture of 
 French words, than in his later pieces, makes us conclude 
 it to be his first work, executed when he came fresh from 
 a long residence in foreign parts. Nay, there are some 
 circumstances to make us believe that it was actually 
 printed abroad, at Cologne, where he finished the trans- 
 lation, and where he had been practising and learning 
 the art ; for, after the account given above of his having 
 learnt to print, he immediately adds: " Whiche book I have 
 presented to my said redoubtid lady Margrete, Duchesse 
 of Burgoyne, &c., and she hath well acceptid hit, and 
 largely rewarded me," &c. ; which seems to imply his 
 continuance abroad till after the impression, as well as the 
 translation of the book. The conjecture is much strength- 
 ened by another fact attested by him, that he did really 
 print at Cologne the first edition of Bartholomgeus ' De 
 Proprietatibus Eerum,' in Latin ; which is affirmed by 
 Wynkyn de Worde, in an English edition of the same 
 book, in the following lines : 
 
 "And also of your charyte beare in remembrance 
 
 The soul of William Caxton first printer of this boke, 
 In Laten tongue at Coleyn himself to advance, 
 That every well disposyd man may thereon loke." 
 
 It is certain that the same book was printed at Cologne 
 
24 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 by John Koelhoff, and the first that appears of his printing, 
 1470, whilst Caxton was at the place, and busying him- 
 self in the art ; and if we suppose him to have been the 
 encourager and promoter of the work, or to have fur- 
 nished the expense of it, he might possibly, on that account, 
 be considered at home as the author of it. 
 
 It is now time to draw to a conclusion, to avoid being 
 censured for spending too much pains on an argument 
 so apparent, where the only view is to set right some 
 points of history that have been falsely or negligently 
 treated by our writers, and, above all, to do a piece of 
 justice to the memory of our worthy countryman William 
 Caxton, and not suffer him to be robbed of the glory so 
 clearly due to him, of having first introduced into this 
 kingdom an art of great use and benefit to mankind ; a 
 kind of merit that, in the sense of all nations, gives the 
 best title to true praise, and the best claim to be com- 
 memorated with honor to posterity : and it ought to be 
 inscribed on his monument, what is declared of another 
 printer, Bartholomaeus Bo tt onus of Reggio : Primus ego 
 in patria modo chartas cere signavi, et novus bibliopola 
 fui, fyc. 
 
 Caxton died in 1491, and was succeeded in his business 
 by Wynkyn de Worde and Richard Pynsent. The first- 
 named of these introduced the Roman letter into England, 
 and the shape of his letters was retained by the printers 
 for two centuries afterwards. The punches and matrices 
 he used for casting his types were to be seen as late as 
 1758. The art of printing from this time continued to 
 spread with great rapidity, and numerous privileges were 
 conferred by our mouarchs, at different times, on its 
 professors. But, as the art began to be looked upon, in 
 the course of time, as an ordinary trade, the education of 
 those that followed it underwent a corresponding decline ; 
 and thus, instead of improving, it rather retrograded with 
 its extension ; and, although it has much improved within 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 25 
 
 the last half-century, it hardly now, even in the best 
 offices, excels the standard which it attained in the first 
 century after its discovery. 
 
 The Dutch, for a long period, were the principal type- 
 founders in Europe, and by them wef e the English printers 
 mainly supplied, owing to a stupid law which prohibited 
 the extension of their number in this country. The first 
 person who became eminent in this art in England was 
 William Caslon, about the commencement of the eighteenth 
 century ; his principal patrons being Mr. Watts, an eminent 
 printer of that day, and the Society for Promoting Christian 
 Knowledge. He so much improved the form of the type 
 in use before his time, that England became an exporter 
 thereof to Holland, instead of an importer from that 
 country. In 1750 Baskerville, who had originally been a 
 schoolmaster, still further improved the art. He was, 
 besides, a manufacturer of presses, ink, and paper, and, 
 in truth, of the whole of the apparatus used in the 
 trade. His printing was very beautiful, the letters used 
 being of slender and delicate form ; and the books 
 printed by him possess, even at this day, a high value 
 throughout Europe, for accuracy, as well as for typo- 
 graphical beauty. Yet, it is melancholy to state, so little 
 taste existed in England during Baskerville's lifetime for 
 good printing, that he could not get employment ; for he 
 writes to Dr. Franklin : " Is it not to the last degree pro- 
 voking, that, after having obtained the reputation of ex- 
 celling in the most useful art known to mankind, I cannot 
 get even bread by it ?" It is no wonder, then, that little 
 improvement was made in this respect for a considerable 
 period ; and, indeed, it was not until after the close of 
 the great war of the French revolution, that taste began 
 again to revive, and typefounding and printing again 
 aspired to rival the productions of the early professors 
 of the art. 
 
26 THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 Type, we may here remark, was for a long period, cast 
 by hand only ; but Mr. Nicholson obtained a patent for a 
 type-casting machine in 1 790. Dr. Church, of Birmingham, 
 also obtained a patent in 1825 for a plan of casting 75,000 
 letters in an hour ; and Mr. J. L. Pouch6e actually suc- 
 ceeded in casting 24,000 letters an hour. Machine-made 
 type, however, is used more generally in America than in 
 Europe. 
 
 But there is another process of printing besides that 
 with movable type, very much in use even in the present 
 day; and that is, the kind of block-printing known as 
 Stereotype. This is formed by taking a page or more of 
 movable types, fixing them in a frame, and covering their 
 surface with a liquid plaster or other substance, and when 
 this is dry and rendered thoroughly hard, it is ready to be 
 used as a mould, or matrix, for casting the metal plates 
 which are to be printed from. The invention of this pro- 
 cess is much disputed ; but its real discoverer would seem 
 to have been one William Ged, a goldsmith of Edinburgh. 
 This happened about .the year 1725 ; and after spending 
 two years in experiments, he succeeded in producing metal 
 plates from movable type, in the manner described above. 
 In 1729 he removed to London, and took into partnership a 
 stationer and a typefounder, named respectively Fenner and 
 James, to whom the privilege of printing Bibles and Prayer- 
 books was granted by the University of Cambridge. Yet 
 he met with such opposition, that he returned to Edin- 
 burgh, where he printed an edition of Sallust from stereo- 
 type plates in 1746. Here, however, he encountered as 
 much opposition as in London, and continued to struggle 
 on in poverty until his death, which happened in 1749. 
 His invention now lay dormant for nearly half a century, 
 when it was re-discovered by Mr. Tilloch, of Edinburgh, 
 editor of the ' Philosophical Magazine,' who, in conjunction 
 with Mr. Foulis, printer to the University of Glasgow, 
 produced several works from stereotype plates. 
 
THE HISTORY OF TYPOGRAPHY. 27 
 
 This process is commonly adopted with all books likely 
 to go through several editions, as it is much cheaper than 
 recomposing ; but the plates require care in their treat- 
 ment, as they are apt to get broken and damaged both at 
 the press and in the process of packing and unpacking. 
 
 The first method of printing consisted in placing the 
 paper on the types with the hand, and rubbing the back of it 
 with a brush, as the Chinese continue to do at this day. 
 But as the art advanced, the increased size of the surface 
 to be printed required the application of increased pres- 
 sure. The screw would naturally suggest itself as at once 
 the simplest and the most powerful means of obtaining 
 great pressure ; and it seems to have been adopted at the 
 earliest period in the history of printing. The first press 
 resembled the linen-press, the cider-press, and the other 
 screw presses of the present day ; specimens of which, 
 with very little alteration, may even now be seen in some 
 of the old-established London printing-offices. The first 
 principal improvement was made by Blaen, a Dutchman, 
 in the year 1620. Blaen's press was superseded by the 
 Stanhope press, so called from Lord Stanhope, the inventor 
 of it. The next improvement was the Albion press, 
 which entirely superseded the screw, retained by the 
 Stanhope, and substituted for it the lever. Other presses, 
 which also adopt the lever as the moving power, are the 
 Imperial and tjie Columbian ; but, as this part of our book 
 has regard to the Compositor only, a description of them, 
 as also of printing-machines, would be out of place here ; 
 we will therefore proceed to the more immediate occupa- 
 tion of the Compositor. 
 
28 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS - NAMES AND 
 SIZES OF TYPE, ETC. 
 
 ON entering on this branch of our subject, it is perhaps 
 necessary to caution the young printer against running 
 away with the notion that skill in the more mechanical 
 branches of his business can be acquired by the mere 
 perusal of a book, or, indeed, that they can be effectually 
 taught by these means ; and therefore, all that I shall 
 attempt to do, will be to give him such general instruc- 
 tions, and throw out such practical hints, as the nature of 
 each subject of our investigation may seem to require ; but 
 manipulatory skill and expedition, and general practical 
 efficiency, must be attained by careful attention to the 
 mode of working of the most skilful operators, and a 
 continual and persevering effort to arrive at the same 
 degree of perfection. Neither shall I waste time and 
 space in explaining the duties of the various individuals 
 employed in a printing-office, nor in describing the imple- 
 ments used there ; for a few weeks' intercourse with the 
 one, and use of the other, will do more to enlighten the 
 tyro on all such matters, than volumes of mere description 
 on paper, with however many well-executed woodcuts 
 adorned, or however entertaining, and apparently instruc- 
 tive, these may appear to the mere dilettante printer. 
 
 Let us proceed, then, at once with our subject, and 
 suppose a youth newly entered upon the duties of his 
 
NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 29 
 
 noviciate as a compositor. "What shall he learn first ? To 
 me it appears, as the names of the various sizes of type 
 will come continually under his notice, and will be men- 
 tioned as matters of course in describing the modus 
 operandi of composing, that we cannot, therefore, do better 
 than commence our labors in this department by giving a 
 description of them, and showing their relative propor- 
 tions ; so that the learner will hereafter clearly understand 
 our meaning when mentioning any description of type 
 by its generally recognized appellation. 
 
 The standard size of letter is called Pica. For 
 although all the sizes of type generally employed in book- 
 work have peculiar designations, yet all large-sized letters 
 are reckoned as so many lines pica, and brass rule, leads,* 
 and furniture are cast or made up to this standard. Of 
 this standard letter, then, six lines are, within a shade, 
 equal to an inch of lineal measure, or 7 If lines to a foot. 
 Here follows a specimen of it : 
 
 Pica. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium conservatrix. 
 
 This size is called Cicero by the French and Germans ; 
 by the Dutch Mediaan. 
 
 * The following are the proportions which leads bear to the 
 various sizes of type : 
 
 Pearl One four and one eight-to-pica. 
 
 Ruby One four and one six-to-pica. 
 
 Nonpareil Two fours, or three sixes, or four eight-to-pica. 
 
 Emerald One four, one six, and one eight. 
 
 Minion One four and two sixes. 
 
 Brevier Two fours and one six. 
 
 Bourgeois Three eights and two sixes. 
 
 Long Primer Three fours, or six eights. 
 
 Small Pica Two fours arid two sixes. 
 
 Pica Four fours, or six sixes, or eight eights. 
 
 English Three fours and two sixes. 
 
30 NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 
 
 Descending in the scale of sizes, the next in order is 
 
 Small Pica. 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium conservatrix. 
 
 It seems to have been so called merely because it is 
 somewhat less than pica, and filled up a gap between that 
 size and the next to be mentioned. The French call it 
 Philosophic; the Germans Brevier or RJieinldnder ; and 
 the Dutch Dessendiaan. A lineal foot contains 83 lines. 
 
 Next to it is a very useful size, called 
 
 Long Primer. 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium conservatrix. 
 
 This size is three fourths of the size of pica, and is 
 the kind of type in which the ' Corpus Juris' was first 
 printed by the Germans. The French call it Petit- 
 Romain; the Germans Corpus (for the reason above 
 alluded to) or Garmond. Of it there are 89 lines to a 
 foot. 
 
 Next comes a sized type much used in leaders of 
 newspapers : 
 
 Bourgeois. 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium conservatrix. 
 
 It is of French origin, and is there known by the title 
 of Gaillarde ; but the Eoglish name we took from the 
 Dutch. It is equal to half a great primer, and is twice 
 the size of diamond; or requires 102! lines to measure 
 one foot. 
 
 Descending further in the scale, we next come to 
 
 Brevier. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium conservatrix. 
 It is supposed to have been so called because first used 
 
NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 31 
 
 to print the book of prayers called the Breviary. But the 
 French name it Petit-Texte, or merely Petit, and the 
 Germans, Jungfer. 112| lines = one foot. 
 
 Coming to a smaller size, but yet a type of very common 
 use at the present day in the news part of newspapers and 
 periodical publications, we arrive at 
 
 Minion. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium conservatrix. 
 It is an irregular size, not being exactly an aliquot 
 part of any other type. In Trance it is known as 
 Mignonne ; in Germany, as Colonel. Of this size 121 lines 
 measure a lineal foot. 
 
 The next size in order is half the depth of English, and 
 is denominated 
 
 Emerald. 
 
 Typographia ars est artinm omnium conservatrix. 
 
 Smaller still, and indeed, quite as small as can be read 
 with any comfort, is 
 
 Nonpareil. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium conservatrix. 
 
 It is equal to half a pica, and in France and Germany 
 is known as Nonpar eille. 
 
 The desire of compressing a great deal of matter into 
 small space has led our founders to cast, and our printers 
 to use, types even smaller than Nonpareil. They are 
 
 Ruby, which is equal to half a Small Pica; Pearl, 
 equal to half a Long Primer ; and Diamond, which is not 
 more than half a Bourgeois. Specimens of them here 
 follow. 
 
 Ruby. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium conservatrix. 
 
32 NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 
 
 Pearl. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium conservatrix. 
 
 Diamond. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium conservatrix. 
 
 Having illustrated the smaller descriptions of type, 
 such, as are commonly used in book- work, we will next 
 begin again with Pica, and proceed in an ascending scale. 
 
 Pica. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium conservatrix. 
 
 The next size larger than Pica is by us denominated 
 English ; but by the Germans it is called Mittel> as being 
 about midway between the largest and the smallest types 
 formerly used in book- work. But the French and Dutch 
 designate it as Saint Auguslin. As before remarked, it is 
 equal to two lines of emerald ; or, in other words, 64 lines 
 thereof measure a foot. 
 
 English. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium conserv. 
 
 We next come to the largest-sized type ordinarily used 
 in book work at the present time : it is denominated 
 Great Primer, and is equal to two lines of Bourgeois, and, 
 of course, four of Diamond. It is called Gros Romain by 
 the French, Tertia by the Germans, and Text by the Dutch. 
 
 Great Primer. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium. 
 
 For the next kind of type in the order of size we are 
 
NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 33 
 
 indebted to the French, who, as well as ourselves, call it 
 Paragon. It is equal to two Long Primers, but is not 
 much in use. 
 
 Now intervene three sizes of letter which speak for 
 themselves ; viz. Double Pica (or, rather, Two-line iSmall 
 Pica), Two-line Pica, and Two-line English. Specimens 
 of them are subjoined. 
 
 Double Pica. 
 
 Typographia ars est, &c. 
 
 Two-line Pica. 
 
 Typographia ars. 
 
 Two-line English. 
 
 Typographia ars. 
 
 Betwixt the last and Two-line Great Primer, comes 
 another type with a distinct appellation. It is called 
 Albion, and is equal in depth to four lines of Brevier,, 
 but is rarely met with in printing-offices in this country. 
 
 Two-line Great Primer. 
 
 Typographia. 
 
 Then we have Two-line Double Pica, which is of course 
 equal to (our lines of Small Pica ; and next, Trafalgar t 
 which intervenes midway between it and the next size, 
 styled French .Canon, equal to four lines of Pica, and the 
 largest-sized type with a distinct appellation ; all beyond 
 
 d 
 
34 
 
 NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 
 
 being reckoned as so many lines Pica. The only difference 
 between French Canon and Four-line Pica is, that the 
 latter has the face fully charged, and hence appears larger 
 on paper than the former, which has what is called a 
 large beard ; or, in other words, is bevilled from the face 
 to the shank or body of the type. But it is not neces- 
 sary to give examples of these sizes, as they are very 
 rarely used except in jobbing. 
 
 The following tabular statement will show the real, or 
 approximate, relative sizes of the ordinary printing-types, 
 reckoning from Pica downwards, and commencing with ten 
 lines of that letter. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 '1 
 
 02 PH 
 
 1 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 *o 
 o> 
 
 b 
 M 
 
 o 
 PQ 
 
 Brevier. 
 
 Minion. 
 
 Nonpareil. 
 
 >\ 
 
 rQ 
 ti 
 
 b 
 
 KS 
 
 a 
 
 PM 
 
 10 
 
 11* 
 
 m 
 
 14 
 
 15* 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 11 
 
 12| 
 
 14 
 
 1* 
 
 17 
 
 18* 
 
 22 
 
 25* 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 18* 
 
 20* 
 
 24 
 
 27^ 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 15 ! 16i 
 
 18* 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 171 
 
 20 9 
 
 2U 
 
 23J 
 
 28 
 
 32i 
 
 35 
 
 15 
 
 ra 
 
 19 
 
 21* 
 
 23 
 
 25| 
 
 30 
 
 34i 
 
 38 
 
 16 
 
 18* 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 27^ 
 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 17 
 
 19* 
 
 21* 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 28* 
 
 34 
 
 39| 
 
 43 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 22i 
 
 25* 
 
 28 
 
 30* 
 
 36 
 
 4H 
 
 45 
 
 19 
 
 .22 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 38 
 
 4.4 
 
 48 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 28J 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 26f 
 
 30 
 
 32J 
 
 35i 
 
 42 
 
 48i 
 
 53 
 
 22 
 
 25* 
 
 27 
 
 31* 
 
 34 
 
 37" 
 
 44 
 
 51 
 
 55 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 
 32i 
 
 35* 
 
 39 
 
 46 
 
 53 
 
 58 
 
 24 
 
 27i 
 
 30 
 
 34" 
 
 37 
 
 40| 
 
 48 
 
 55i 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 35^ 
 
 38^ 
 
 42 
 
 50 
 
 58 
 
 63 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 32| 
 
 37 
 
 40" 
 
 44 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 27 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 
 38* 
 
 42 
 
 454 
 
 54 
 
 62i 
 
 68 
 
 28 ! 32 
 
 35 
 
 40" 
 
 43 1 
 
 47* 
 
 56 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 36* 
 
 41 
 
 45 
 
 49 
 
 58 
 
 67 
 
 73 
 
 30 
 
 34* 
 
 38 
 
 42i 
 
 46| 
 
 50i 
 
 60 
 
 69 1 
 
 75 
 
VARIETIES OF TYPE. , 35 
 
 We have seen above, that types are known by various 
 names, according to their size; but they are also dis- 
 tinguished according to the formation and shape of the 
 letter. The common distinctions of Roman and Italic are 
 known to everybody ; but, besides these, there are types 
 called Egyptian, Sans-serif, Outline, Black, Albion, Skeleton, 
 Antique, Clarendon, Rustic, Elongated, Compressed, Old 
 English, Elizabethan, Alhambra, Tuscan, Open, Shaded, 
 Church Text, Ornamental, and other descriptions ; to which 
 the ingenuity and taste of our typefounders and the 
 increased demand for ornament and display, are continually 
 making additions. Illustrations of some of the most usual 
 of these we proceed to adduce. 
 
 Egyptian (Brevier). ^ 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium 
 
 Sans-serif (Brevier). 
 TYPOGRAPHIA ARS EST ARTIUM OMNI 
 
 Sans-serif Extended (Nonpareil). 
 
 TYPOGRAPHIA ARS EST ARTIUM CONSERVATRIX 
 
 Outline (Long Primer). 
 
 Albion (Long Primer). 
 TYPOGRAPHIA ARS EST ARTICM 
 
 Antique (Minion). 
 
 TYPOGKAPHIA AUS EST AKTIUM OMNIUM 
 
 d2 
 
36 VARIETIES OF TYPE. 
 
 Club (Pica). 
 
 Typographia ars cst artium conservatrix 
 
 Clarendon (Brevier). 
 TYPOGRAPHIC ARS EST ARTIUM OMNIUM 
 
 Skeleton Clarendon (Pica). 
 
 TYPOGRAPHIA ARS EST ARTIUM OlfflJM 
 
 Extended Roman (Nonpareil). 
 TYPOGRAPHIA ARS EST ARTIUM OMNIUM 
 
 Rustic (Pica). 
 
 Augustine Black (Pica). 
 
 st arfmm 0mmttm 
 
 Black (Brevier). 
 ta ar tit art turn omnium ron&rfoatrtj: 
 
 Elizabethan, or Church Text (Pica). 
 
 ia m mi artiimi nmEmra 
 
 Alhambra (Double Pica). 
 
VARIETIES OF TYPE. 37 
 
 Etruscan (Long Primer). 
 
 ""* A&TIUB 
 
 Shaded (English). 
 (H~ 
 
 Ornamental (Brevier), 
 
 Condensed Albion (Long Primer). 
 Typographia ars est artium omnium coiiserratrii 
 
 Tuscan (Brevier). 
 TYPOGRAPHIA ARS EST ARTIUM OMNIUM 
 
 De la Rue (Pica). 
 
 TYPOGH1PHIA ARS EST ARTIUM 
 
 Elzevir (Two-line Nonpareil). 
 
 TYPOGRAPHIA ARS EST 
 
 Condensed Roman (Two-line Nonpareil). 
 
 TYPOGRAPHIA AES EST ARTIUM 
 
38 VARIETIES OF TYPE, 
 
 Compressed Roman (Great Primer}. 
 
 Typographia ars est artium 
 
 Expanded Roman (Long Primer}. 
 Typographia ars est artium 
 
 Court Hand (Two-line English). 
 
 Script (Two-line English). 
 
 Italian (Two-line Pica}, 
 
 JmkjOMjQMaj 
 
39 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DISTRIBUTING AND COMPOSING, AND THEIR 
 ALLIED OPERATIONS. 
 
 SUPPOSING our neophyte to have obtained a tolerable 
 knowledge of the various sizes of type, by means of sorting 
 pie, or any other process which the judgement of those to 
 whom his education is intrusted, may suggest, or circum- 
 stances render desirable, he will next proceed to the act 
 of distributing ; that is, placing each letter in the box or 
 compartment assigned to it. But, before entering upon this 
 operation, let us take a glance at what ought to have been 
 his previous occupations, and his present qualifications. 
 
 Firstly, then, we may state broadly, that he ought to 
 have received a tolerable education ; he ought to be well 
 acquainted with the principles of English grammar, and 
 especially of its orthography ; as also with the art of 
 punctuation, the laws of syllabication, and the formation of 
 derivative, inflected, and compound words ; the proper use 
 of capitals, and other kindred subjects. But as he will not 
 have had much opportunity of mastering these subjects at 
 school, nor will he, in all probability, be able to acquire 
 them from the persons under whose tuition he may 
 be placed, his best plan will be to read and re-read, until 
 he is quite familiar with their contents, the whole of 
 the chapters in the First Part of this book, where he will 
 find the true principles which ought to govern those 
 subjects illustrated at length. And, although he will 
 
40 DISTRIBUTING AND COMPOSING. 
 
 sometimes find the doctrines there laid down, opposed 
 to the practice of the house where he may be employed, 
 let him not be discouraged thereby ; for as these prin- 
 ciples are founded in truth, and are in accordance with 
 the real genius of the English language, they will ulti- 
 mately prevail, and practice, as it becomes better in- 
 formed, will, by degrees, conform to principle, and not 
 principle degenerate into the routine of mere unreflect- 
 ing practice. He ought, moreover, to have learned the 
 rudiments of the Latin arid French languages; for he will 
 find a knowledge of them of great importance to him 
 in his after-career. Secondly, he ought to have had 
 a year or eighteen months' practice as a reading-boy ; for 
 that is the best of all schools to teach him a readiness 
 and aptitude in deciphering difficult manuscript, and 
 giving him a general notion of those matters which will at 
 a future period demand more of his attention, and which 
 he will be required to master, if he aims at attaining 
 a reputable position in his business. Lastly (in order, 
 but perhaps not in importance), he should have a quick 
 eye, a clear head, a light hand, a good temper, and 
 a spirit of perseverance ; and, with these qualifications, 
 there is no situation in the business to which he may not 
 reasonably aspire, if fortune should at any time place her 
 favors within his reach. 
 
 To return to our subject. To be enabled to place the 
 types in their proper places, he must have some scheme of 
 the boxes before him : hence we submit one for his 
 inspection ; merely premising, that circumstances, and the 
 peculiar nature of some kinds of work, may occasionally 
 suggest judicious alterations of arrangement. 
 
 An entirely novel scheme was given in the first 
 number of the ' Journal of the Typographic Arts ; ' 
 but it does not strike us as possessing any peculiar 
 advantages over the cases constructed on the plan givea 
 in the next page. 
 
DISTRIBUTING AND COMPOSING. 
 
 41 
 
 PLAN OP A PAIR OP CASES. 
 
 Upper Case. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 ' G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 X. 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 T 
 
 V 
 
 W 
 
 P 
 
 Q 
 
 B 
 
 S 
 
 T 
 
 V 
 
 W 
 
 X 
 
 Y 
 
 Z 
 
 JE 
 
 <E 
 
 U 
 
 J 
 
 X 
 
 T 
 
 Z 
 
 m 
 
 <E 
 
 U 
 
 J 
 
 a 
 
 e 
 
 ii 
 
 6 
 
 u 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 e 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 6 
 
 u 
 
 II 
 
 t 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ft 
 
 1 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 fe 
 
 \ 
 
 b 
 
 u 
 
 IT 
 
 * 
 
 Lower Case. 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 6 
 
 ce 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 THINS 
 
 d 
 
 ! 
 
 ; 
 
 
 fl 
 
 & 
 
 
 C 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 f? 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 e 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 H.S. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 ffl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 & 
 
 ffl 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 i 
 
 
 Z 
 
 V 
 
 u 
 
 t 
 
 THICK 
 
 SPACES 
 
 a 
 
 r 
 
 q 
 
 
 
 QUADS 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 As a boy is always, for some time, placed under a man 
 of considerable experience, any directions as to how 
 he shall hold the lines of type he takes up, or how many 
 of them he shall lift at one time, are quite superfluous : 
 practical demonstration and a little experience will be 
 worth pages of verbal directions. I will merely observe, 
 that he need not be in too great a hurry to acquire 
 a reputation for quickness: let him be careful to place 
 each letter in its appropriate place, and expedition will 
 come by practice ; let him also be careful not to throw the 
 letter into the case with the face downwards; for this will 
 necessarily batter the type, and so deface it, and con- 
 
42 PICKING UP TYPE. 
 
 sequently cause him the trouble of removing it in his 
 proof. But, suppose his case is now full of letter, 
 but not too fully for in that case the letters will get 
 intermixed, and a foul proof will be the consequence, he 
 will proceed to the important act of Composing ; and on 
 this a few hints may be offered, which he will find of great 
 use, if carefully borne in mind. 
 
 1. As to his Position. The standing posture is un- 
 doubtedly the best adapted for composing with expe- 
 dition, and should therefore be enforced on the young 
 compositor ; sitting being only tolerated occasionally, by 
 way of relief from the fatigue which the maintenance of 
 any one attitude for a lengthened period must necessarily 
 occasion. He should stand perfectly upright, without 
 stiffness or restraint, with his feet very little apart. There 
 should be no resting of one foot on the other, or on the bed 
 or rail of the frame, nor by any other means. His case 
 should be at such a height as to occasion, no stooping ; for 
 it is mainly from want of attention to this precaution that 
 so many compositors, especially tall men, become round- 
 shouldered. There should be no nodding of the head, or 
 unnecessary movement of the body, or any other useless 
 gesticulations ; for all these are ridiculous in themselves, 
 cause great loss of time, and fatigue and exhaust those who 
 have unfortunately contracted such habits, more than the 
 actual performance of their real labor. 
 
 2. Picking up Type. The young compositor should 
 endeavor to see the position of the letter before he lays 
 hold of it ; he should then seize it in the manner most 
 favorable for his conveying it to his composing-stick, 
 without any twisting, twirling, ticking, or turning of the 
 letter ; operations which consume much time, and produce 
 no other effect than that of wearjing himself at the 
 expense of his own pocket. Hence, he should avoid 
 a hurried manner, and should go about his work calmly 
 and deliberately, with a fixed determination of acquiring 
 
SPACING. 43 
 
 * 
 
 a good and easy method, even although he may for some 
 time appear slow and unprogressive. It will not be long 
 before he finds the benefit of this practice, and instead of 
 being a slow workman, he will soon be found expeditious, 
 methodical, and accurate. He should also abstain from 
 unnecessary conversation, and should keep his mind fixed 
 on the operation he is performing ; for this is quite 
 sufficient to engage his attention : one thing at a time, he 
 will find an excellent motto. 
 
 3. Spacing. The tyro should by all means endeavor to 
 preserve something like evenness of spacing ; that is, the 
 words should generally be kept pretty nearly the same dis- 
 tance apart, according to the nature of the work ; for leaded, 
 and especially double-leaded matter, should, as a general 
 rule, be more widely spaced than solid matter, to be in 
 harmony with the light appearance of the page. He 
 should avoid spacing one part of the line wide and the 
 other close, merely for the purpose of saving a little labor ; 
 neither should one line be wide and those immediately 
 above or below, close; for this transgresses the funda- 
 mental rule laid down above ; namely, the preservation of 
 uniformity throughout the whole of the pages of a book, 
 in keeping with its character. He should also avoid the 
 paltry and far too common practice of driving out a word, 
 at the sacrifice of good workmanship, merely for the 
 purpose of making a line. More space should generally be 
 placed after a point than in other places, especially after 
 the semicolon, colon, interrogation, and admiration ; and 
 after a full-stop, an em quadrat. Full-faced letters such 
 as 1, f, h, k, &c., will also bear wider spacing than those 
 which are not full on the face, such as v, w, A, T, Y, &c. ; 
 for in the latter there is a space in the letters themselves, 
 which necessarily increases the distance of the words on 
 paper, if the same space is preserved on all occasions in 
 the metal. It may even be necessary to place a hair-space 
 
44 JUSTIFICATION. 
 
 
 between some letters of the same word, where the serif of 
 one letter touches, or even more than touches, the serif of 
 the other : in such instances, for example as (f), f h, f ', &c. 
 Quotation-marks should also be separated from the word 
 they precede or follow by a thin or other space, or should 
 be close, according to the formation of the letter or point. 
 At the beginning of a quotation, some space should always 
 be inserted between the quotation-mnrks and the first 
 letter of the word, as also at the end, if the last letter 
 be full-faced without a point-mark, or the closing point be 
 either a semicolon, a colon, an interrogation, or an 
 exclamation ; but after or before a narrow- topped letter, 
 or after a comma or full-point, no space should be inter- 
 posed ; unless, occasionally, in the former case, according 
 to the formation of the letter, a thin or hair-space. 
 Examples. 
 
 A thin space and no space. " A wise man acts discreetly." 
 Two thin spaces. " Our intentions may he good ; " but are 
 
 they wise ? 
 Two middling spaces. The boy has learned " how to space 
 
 well" already. 
 
 Here, you will observe the spacing appears equal to the 
 eye of the reader, although different in the metal ; but it is 
 the appearance on paper tliat the compositor must bear in 
 mind, and not a mere unreasoning application of the same 
 kind of space on all occasions. In open work, especially 
 leaded poetry, the same distinctions should be observed 
 with regard to the one-em rule. 
 
 4. Justification. This is the art of spacing out lines 
 in such a way that each of them shall be precisely of the 
 same length, -not one line tight in the stick and the other 
 slack ; but every line of a uniform tightness. Simple as 
 this operation may appear, it is nevertheless very im- 
 portant ; for if not properly attended to in the act of 
 composing, it becomes almost impossible to lock up a form 
 
COMPANIONSHIPS. 45 
 
 satisfactorily. Letters are continually falling out at each 
 laying- up and taking off the stone : errors in print are 
 thereby constantly occasioned, for which nobody can 
 account, and for which no one seems answerable ; but the 
 real delinquent is the bad workman who neglected, in the 
 first instance, to avoid it by even and regular justification 
 of his lines in his stick : for no after-application of 
 the bodkin will remedy this important defect. 
 
 Bearing these observations in mind, our tyro will, 
 if placed under judicious superintendence, undoubtedly 
 become a good workman. So long as he is under such 
 superintendence, his principal occupation will be to com- 
 pose and correct his matter. On this last operation 
 nothing need be here said ; for expeditious methods must 
 be learned by practice, and, as Mr. Smith says, " by dint 
 of the bodkin." But, supposing him to commence to work 
 without any immediate oversight, he will in most cases 
 join a companion ship ; that is, a certain number of men 
 united in one body for the performance of a certain work. 
 
 Now, there are two modes in general operation for this 
 purpose ; the one wherein each compositor makes up his 
 own matter and charges for it, and the other, termed 
 clickership, where the making-up is performed by one man 
 only, or his assistants, and the rest of the companionship 
 merely compose. No opinion is here given as to which 
 system is the most to be preferred ; because I believe that 
 that depends entirely upon the nature of the work. 
 Where much material and various sorts are required, 
 or the work is intricate, the latter is undoubtedly the 
 best ; but in plain book- work, the other seems, on the 
 whole, to have tlie advantage, although not much 
 countenanced by overseers, as it entails upon them more 
 labor and calls for greater vigilance. 
 
 But supposing, for our present purpose, that the former 
 system is adopted, the following is the mode in which it is 
 
46 COMPANIONSHIPS. 
 
 generally practically carried out, as given in the Green 
 Book, and as I have frequently seen works satisfactorily 
 executed. 
 
 On the giving out of a work, A., the first in copy, having 
 set the whole of his taking, on passing the making up to B., 
 the second in copy, gives him the gauge, and also a book in 
 which he has entered the lines borrowed from B. [if any], to 
 complete the last page, or the number of lines he has given 
 over his last page, to B., if less than half a page. If A. have 
 borrowed 10 lines, the entry in the book will be in the follow- 
 ing form : 
 [Compositor's Names.] A. to B. Polish Tales. [Title of work.] 
 
 Folio 7 7th in B. 
 [Running Head] The Fugitives. 
 Owes Owing to 
 A. 10 lines | B. 10 lines. 
 
 B., having set the whole of his copy, text as well as notes, 
 which must in the first and subsequent takings be always done 
 before applying for fresh copy, immediately commences making 
 up ; which having completed, and taken 5 lines from C., who 
 follows him, B. passes the book in the following form : 
 
 B. to C. -Polish Tales. 
 Folio 12 12th in B. 
 
 Head The Fugitives. 
 Owes Owing to 
 
 A. 10 I B. - 5 
 
 I C 5 
 
 C. passes the making-up to D., and probably borrows 12 
 lines from D., when the book will appear as follows : 
 
 C. to D. Polish Tales. 
 Folio 21 5th in C. 
 
 Head The Round Tower. 
 Owes Owing to 
 
 A. 10 | B. 5 
 
 C. 7 I D. 12 
 
 17 17 
 
COMPANIONSHIPS. 47 
 
 The first preceding form shows that on passing the first 
 making-up, there are 10 lines due to B. When, however, B. 
 passes the making-up, he diminishes the debt due to him by 
 borrowing 5 lines, and the name of the creditor C. appears in 
 the second column for 5 lines ; when C. passes the making-up, 
 he not only pays himself these 5 lines, but becomes a debtor 
 to the amount of 7 lines ; his name is therefore transferred to 
 the first column, and the number of lines he owes is placed 
 against his name. Should D. pass the making-up to A. and 
 take 14 lines, the following will be the form of the table : 
 D, to A. Polish Tales. 
 Folio 33 1st in D. 
 
 Head as before. 
 Owes. Owing to. 
 
 C. 7 I A. 4 
 
 D -------- _2j B. J> 
 
 9 9 
 
 It will be seen that the total of the lines owed and owing 
 must always correspond : if care be taken to observe this rule, 
 no error or misunderstanding can possibly arise. When the 
 first sheet is out, A. and B. impose ; the second is imposed by 
 C. and D. ; the third by E. and F. ; the fourth by G. and H.; 
 and when there is a return of letter, the forms are laid up by 
 those whose turn it is to impose ; and if the letter for distri- 
 bution be equally shared, the quantity composed by each com- 
 panion will be nearly uniform ; and upon this principle it has 
 been found that at the end of a large volume, the difference 
 between that composed and imposed by each companion has 
 not varied either w r ay more than a few pages. 
 
 The utility of the above system, it is presumed, will be 
 easily seen, and in numerous instances where it has been, 
 adopted, it has been found admirably calculated to prevent 
 dissension and promote the execution of a work. If any de- 
 rangement arises in the account of transfer of lines, it is best 
 to pay off the lines appearing in the book, and commence the 
 account anew. 
 
 As the compositor, as before remarked, makes up his 
 
48 
 
 COMPANIONSHIPS. 
 
 own pages under this system, he is more likely to acquire 
 a thorough knowledge of this department of his business, 
 under it, than under the plan next to be adverted to. He 
 must be careful, therefore, to make his pages of an even 
 length, and to preserve a uniformity of whiting, before 
 notes, and in other places where required ; for by these 
 means he will gain the reputation of an apt and quick 
 maker-up, and will, consequently, be more likely to be 
 selected for a clicker than one who makes up his pages of 
 almost all lengths and without regard to uniformity of 
 system. 
 
 But if the plan of clickership be adopted, the following 
 will be found to be somewhat near the process in use. 
 The men to form it must be selected by the overseer, and 
 they must elect the man they think best adapted for the 
 office of clicker. Having done this, they proceed with 
 the distribution of their letter, while he receives the copy 
 from the overseer, taking his instructions respecting it, 
 and providing the necessary material and sorts that may 
 be required. He then provides himself with a rough book 
 of blauk paper, and draws out the following scheme : 
 
 Compositors' Names. 
 
 Folios of Copy. 
 
 Lines Composed. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
COMPANIONSHIPS. 49 
 
 In the first column lie enters the name of each com- 
 positor when he takes copy ; and in the next, the folios of 
 the copy. In the third he places the number of lines 
 each man has composed, opposite his name, as the galleys 
 are brought to him. The fourth column is for such re- 
 marks as he may consider necessary ; the commencing 
 and finishing words, &c. 
 
 In giving out copy, of course the clicker will have 
 regard to the peculiar circumstances of each case, and will 
 assign to ench compositor large or small portions, as he 
 may best think adapted to expedite the work ; and during 
 the time the first taking is in hand, he will employ himself 
 in setting the half-head, head-lines, white lines, signatures, 
 side-notes, &c. ; and he will proceed with the making-up as 
 soon as a sufficient quantity is composed. 
 
 When the first sheet is made up, the clicker lays the 
 pages on the stone, and communicates the state of matters 
 to the person whose duty it is to provide him with chases, 
 furniture, &c. ; which being furnished, he proceeds to lock- 
 up the form and forward the copy and sheet, when pulled, 
 to their proper destination. 
 
 He also receives the proof from the reader, for correc- 
 tion, and hands it to the compositor whose name may 
 stand first on the list ; and thus the work proceeds in 
 order, the clicker, or his assistant, correcting the errors in 
 the heads, notes, &c. 
 
 In this system a certain number of lines are assigned 
 at the outset as an hour's work (as near a thousand letters 
 as may be), and each compositor is paid according to the 
 quantity he may have produced. The heads and whites, 
 and short pages, are thrown into the fat of the work, and 
 go towards paying the clicker and augmenting the value of 
 the hour's labor. The clicker's share is generally reckoned 
 with that of the highest of the companionship ; or he may 
 be paid by the hour, at the rate of the bill. Another 
 method is to make a previous agreement, that he shall be 
 
50 TAKING COPT. 
 
 paid so much per sheet for making up ; and if he has any 
 vacant time, he employs it in composing, the same as one 
 of the companionship. But to enter further into this 
 matter will be useless, as all those persons who are deemed 
 by their companions fit for the office of clicker may be 
 presumed to have already made themselves familiar with 
 the duties of the office. Nevertheless, the following ge- 
 neral rales for the guidance of companionships, principally 
 selected from Cowie's "Printers' Pocket-Book," may be 
 perused with much profit by the apprentice and the 
 unpractised compositor. 
 
 Taking Copy. If printed copy, and the compositor is 
 desired to follow page for page, each sheet, as it is given 
 out, should be divided into as many parts as the com- 
 panionship may consist of, and the choice of each part, 
 if it materially varies, should be thrown for. During the 
 absence of one of the companionship, if he be likely soon 
 to return, some one should throw for him, on condition 
 that he will be able to get through this fresh taking, with 
 what remains of the last, so as not to impede the imposi- 
 tion of the sheet. 
 
 Another method may be adopted, viz., for each person 
 to agree to receive regularly of the different takings a 
 certain number of pages ; but if this plan be followed, the 
 bulk of the copy must not be subject to the inspection of 
 the companionship, but kept by the overseer, and dealt 
 out by him as it is wanted, or it will inevitably cause 
 contention ; for the compositor likely to be first out of 
 copy, if he has free access to that which remains unfinished, 
 will observe whether the next taking be/a or lean : if the 
 latter, he will hold back and loiter away his time, in order 
 to avoid it, and thus materially delay the work. On the 
 other hand, if this taking appear to be advantageous, 
 and there should happen to be two or three of the 
 companionship out of copy at the same time, a sort 
 of scramble will take place who shall have it, which will 
 
MAKING UP LETTER. 51 
 
 end in dispute and confusion ; on no account, therefore, 
 should the copy be open to examination, unless for the 
 purpose of ascertaining the charge per sheet. 
 
 With manuscript copy it will be better to take one 
 from the other in such a manner as not in the smallest 
 degree to delay the imposition, or block up the letter ; 
 that is, that no compositor may retain the making-up too 
 long-, by holding too large a taking of copy. Compositors 
 are apt to grasp at a large portion of copy, with the view 
 of advantage in the making-up, though nine times in ten 
 it will operate as a loss to them, by their eventually 
 standing still for want of letter. If by mistake too much 
 copy has been taken, the compositor should hand a part of 
 it to the person next in the making-up, to set up to 
 himself. 
 
 If parts of the copy should be particularly advantageous, 
 or otherwise, each of the companionship should throw for 
 the chance of it : the person to whom it may fall, if he 
 have copy in hand, must turn that copy over to him who 
 is about to receive more copy ; but for trifling variations 
 from the general state of the copy, it cannot be worth the 
 loss of time necessary to contest it ; though it frequently 
 happens that a litigious man will argue half an hour on a 
 point that would not have made five minutes' difference to 
 him in the course of his day's work. 
 
 If one of the companionship absent himself from busi- 
 ness, and thereby delay the making-up, and there is the 
 smallest probability of standing still for letter, the person 
 who has the last taking must go on with this man's copy, 
 whether it be good or bad. 
 
 Making up Letter. The number of the companion- 
 ship, if possible, should always be determined at the 
 commencement of the work, that they may all proceed 
 upon an equal footing. It should be well ascertained that 
 the letter appropriated for the work will be adequate to 
 keep the persons on it fully employed. 
 
 e 2 
 
52 IMPOSING AND DISTRIBUTING. 
 
 If any part of the matter for distribution, whether in 
 chase or in paper, be desirable or otherwise, for the sorts 
 it may contain, it should be divided equally, or the choice 
 of it thrown for. 
 
 When a new companion is put on a work after the 
 respective shares of letter are made up, and if there be not 
 a sufficiency to carry on all the companionship without 
 making up more, he must make up an additional quantity 
 before he can be allowed to partake of any part of that 
 which comes from the press. 
 
 Making up Furniture. It is the duty of the overseer, 
 or quoin-drawer overseer where there is one, to make up 
 the furniture for the first sheet, and indeed all other new 
 furniture, for the compositors ; that is to say, as far as 
 providing proper chases, gutters, backs, leads, side and 
 foot-sticks : the forms are then left to the compositor. 
 
 By observing a proper method in cutting up furniture, 
 where wood is used, it will be serviceable for other works, 
 even though the size of the page may not be the same, 
 provided it agrees with the margin of the paper. The 
 gutters should be cut two or three lines longer than the 
 page ; the Lead-bolts wider ; the back-furniture may run 
 down to the rim of the chase, but must be level with the 
 top of the page, which will admit of the inner head-bolt 
 running in : the difference of the outer head-bolt may go 
 over the side-stick. 
 
 Imposing and Distributing Letter. The person to whose 
 turn it falls to impose, must lay up the form for distribu- 
 tion ; but as disputes sometimes arise on this subject, and 
 as it can only be ascertained by comparing the number of 
 pages composed, with the number put in chase by each 
 person, it will be advisable to keep an exact account of 
 these pages, which had better be done agreeably to the 
 following plan : 
 
IMPOSING SCALE. 
 
 53 
 
 Signatures. 
 
 Compositors' Names. 
 
 By whom imposed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 This scale should always be kept by the compositor in 
 the making-up, who, when he gives it away to the person 
 that follows him, marks down the number of pages he has 
 made up opposite to the proper signature, and under his 
 own name ; also, when he imposes, he inserts his name in 
 the column appropriated for that purpose. By following 
 strictly this mode, every sort of dispute will be prevented : 
 and though a private account, something like the one in 
 next page, may be necessary for individual satisfaction, yet 
 it will not avail in settling a general misunderstanding, as 
 the various private accounts may differ, and the charge of 
 inaccuracy may be alleged with as much reason against one 
 as the other ; but in this general scale a mistake can be im- 
 mediately detected. It also operates as a check on those 
 who may be inclined to write out of their proper signature, 
 or to charge more pages than they have imposed. 
 
54 COMPOSITOR'S CHECK-BOOK. 
 
 PLAN OF A COMPOSITOR'S CHECK-BOOK. 
 
 Sig. 
 
 X 
 "B" 
 "c" 
 
 Set. 
 
 Imposed. 
 
 Charged. 
 
 Sig. 
 
 T 
 IF 
 
 ~c~ 
 "D" 
 "E" 
 
 F 
 
 "G^ 
 
 Set. 
 
 Imposed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 E 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Set in all. 
 
 
 G 
 Iff 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 Sheets. 
 
 Pages. 
 
 i 
 
 "K" 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 "M 
 N" 
 "o" 
 "F 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 _Q_ 
 R 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 "u 
 x" 
 Y 
 z 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 "u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
CORRECTING. 55 
 
 In making up his matter, a compositor should be parti- 
 cularly careful ; as, if the work he is on be very open, with 
 whites, &c., he must see that the depth of the page corre- 
 sponds with the regular body of the type which the work 
 is done in ; for unless care is taken in this particular, 
 the register of the work must be incomplete ; neither can 
 the pressman make the lines back, if accuracy is not 
 observed in making up the matter. 
 
 As the letter is laid up, it should be divided in equal 
 proportions ; and, if it can be so managed, each person had 
 better distribute the matter originally composed by him ; 
 for, by this means, the sorts which may have made his 
 case uneven will again return to him. 
 
 It may happen, from one of the companionship absent- 
 ing himself, that his former share of letter remains undis- 
 tributed at a time a second division is taking place ; under 
 these circumstances he must not be included in this divi- 
 sion. In the event of a scarcity of letter, if any man 
 absent himself beyond a reasonable time, his undistributed 
 matter should be divided equally among his companions; 
 and when he returns, he may then have his share of the 
 next division. 
 
 Correcting. The compositor whose matter is in the 
 first part of the proof, lays up the forms on the imposing- 
 stone, and corrects. He then hands the proof to the 
 person who has the following matter. The compositor who 
 corrects the last part of the sheet locks up the forms. 
 
 The compositor having matter in the first and last part, 
 but not the middle of the sheet, only lays up the forms 
 and corrects his matter ; the locking up is left to the 
 person who immediately precedes him in his last taking. 
 
 A compositor having the first page only of the sheet is 
 required, in some houses, to lay up one form only ; also to 
 lock up but one form if he has only the last page. 
 
 If from carelessness in locking up the form, viz. the 
 furniture binding, the quoins badly fitted, &c,, any letters, 
 
56 CORRECTING. 
 
 or even a page, should fall out, the person who has thus 
 locked up the form must immediately repair the damage. 
 But if from bad justification, or, in leaded matter, the 
 letters ride upon the end of the leads, the loss attending 
 any accident from this circumstance must fall upon the 
 person to whom the matter belongs. 
 
 It is the business of the person who locks up the form, 
 to ascertain whether all the pages are of an equal length ; 
 and though a defect in this respect is highly reprehensible 
 in the person to whom it attaches (whose duty it is to 
 rectify it), yet if not previously discovered by the locker- 
 up, and an accident happen, he must make good the 
 defect. 
 
 The compositor who imposes a sheet must correct the 
 chargeable proofs of that sheet, and take it to the ready- 
 place. He must also rectify any defect in the register, 
 arising from the want of accuracy in the furniture. 
 
 Forms will sometimes remain a considerable length of 
 time before they are put to press. When this happens, 
 and particularly in the summer, the furniture is liable to 
 shrink, and the pages will, in consequence, if care be not 
 taken, fall out ; it is therefore the business of the person 
 who has locked up the form, to attend to it in this respect, 
 or he will be subject to make good any accident which his 
 neglect may occasion. 
 
 When forms are wrought off, and ordered to be kept 
 standing, they are then considered under the care of the 
 overseer. When they are desired to be cleared away, it is 
 done in equal proportions by the companionship. During 
 the time any forms may have remained under the care of 
 the overseer, should there have been any alteration as to 
 former substance, such alterations not having been made 
 by the original compositors, they are not subject to clear 
 away those parts of the form that were altered. 
 
 If the pressmen unlock a form on the press, and from 
 carelessness in the locking-up any part of it fall out, they 
 
PRACTICE OF NEWS-WORK. * 57 
 
 are subject to the loss that may happen in consequence. 
 The compositor who locks up a sheet takes it to the 
 proof-press, and the pressman, after he has pulled the 
 proof, puts by the forms in the place appointed for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Transposition of Pages. Each person in the companion- 
 ship must lay down his pages properly on the stone for 
 imposition. The compositor whose turn it is to impose, 
 looks them over to see if they are rightly placed : should 
 they, after this examination, lie improperly, and be thus 
 imposed, it will be his business to transpose them ; but 
 should the folios be wrong, and the mistake arise from 
 this inaccuracy, it must be rectified by the person to 
 whom the matter belongs. Pages being laid down for 
 imposition without folios or head lines, must be rectified 
 by the person who has been slovenly enough to adopt this 
 plan. 
 
 Although the foregoing observations and instructions 
 are more particularly directed to the practice of book- 
 work, yet many of them will be found equally applicable 
 to every description of work, whether book, jobbing, 
 or news ; still, as in news-work there are a great many 
 peculiarities with which the young compositor may desire 
 to become acquainted, indeed, of which he ought not to 
 be entirely ignorant, even if he intends wholly to devoto 
 his time to the book department of the business, we will 
 proceed to explain such of them as are the most necessary 
 to be known, or as differ most materially from the practice 
 of ordinary offices ; premising, by the way, that a candi- 
 date for employment on a morning paper ought not only 
 to be a tolerably quick workman, but also a clean one, and 
 well able to decipher difficult manuscript ; for a great 
 deal of this is furnished by the editors and reporters 
 under circumstances of considerable pressure, and cannot 
 well be expected to be of that legible description supplied 
 
58 PRACTICE OF NEWS-WORK. 
 
 to a schoolboy for his copy; neither is there time to 
 correct the numerous blunders which a stupid and 
 incompetent workman will invariably make when laboring 
 under the difficulties of illegible manuscript, and no time 
 to unravel it. Such a one, therefore, had better make up 
 Lis mind at once to content himself with whatever he can 
 obtain, and by no means aspire to employment on a daily 
 paper, until he first remedies the material defects in his 
 qualifications which we have just pointed out. He should 
 also endeavor to acquire a tolerable knowledge of general 
 history and geography, and of the biography of the most 
 celebrated men who have lived in all ages and in all 
 countries of the world. He should also render himself 
 acquainted with contemporaneous history and events, so 
 that the subjects which come under his notice in the 
 prosecution of his daily labors may not be altogether 
 unfamiliar to him and matters of which he is totally 
 ignorant. This knowledge he will find of great use, even 
 when he is otherwise well qualified to assume the 
 laborious but better-paid duties of a morning-paper hand. 
 He must also make up his mind to be punctual in his 
 attendance to his duties, for this is an indispensable 
 requisite ; and he must nerve himself to withstand the 
 dangerous and insinuating temptations which unnatural 
 hours, fatigue, and money in his pocket (or at any rate a 
 light at the public) will strew in his path, to lead him to 
 inevitable destruction and an untimely grave. But, to 
 proceed with our subject, let us begin with that important 
 individual 
 
 The Printer. To conduct the operations of the 
 printing-room, a superintendent, or, as he is technically 
 called, a ' printer,' is invariably appointed, who must 
 necessarily possess a good practical knowledge of the art, 
 and be familiar with the mode in which morning papers 
 are managed. He acts as the medium between the 
 compositor and the editor ; receives and gives out all 
 
PRACTICE OP NEWS-WORK. 59 
 
 copy, in such portions, and with such directions, as he may 
 think most conducive to its speedy execution ; and he, or 
 his deputies, make up the paper into columns and pages, 
 the printer, however, being held responsible for the acts of 
 those whom he appoints to assist him. He also has, 
 generally, the power of engaging or dismissing Lands, as 
 being, from his peculiar position, the best able to judge 
 whether any particular compositor discharges his duties 
 efficiently or not. From this it is evident, that the printer 
 of a morning, or indeed any other paper, is a person 
 of considerable consequence in a printing-office ; as upon 
 his decision, regularity, and ability, must depend, in a 
 great measure, the regular and satisfactory production of 
 the paper at the stated times. 
 
 The Hands. These are generally divided into several 
 classes, known, in some offices, as Full Hands, Supernu- 
 meraries, Assistants, Outsiders, and Advertisement hands ; 
 the various duties of whom are thus described in Ford's 
 ' Compositor's Handbook.' 
 
 Full Hands. The duty of the Full Hands "is to 
 attend at the specified time to take copy, having pre- 
 viously distributed their letter. They are expected to 
 produce two galleys of composition for their salary, to 
 take their regular turn in proofs, and to attend to the 
 stone-work ; such as tying up and laying down columns, 
 imposing, &c. Should they produce matter beyond their 
 stipulated quantity, up to the time fixed for going to 
 press, they are paid for the excess ; after which they are 
 paid on time. If there be standing for copy, the time is 
 usually occupied in distribution ; by which means a man 
 may often get the greater part of his letter in by the time 
 of going to press; and if he can obtain letter, he had 
 better always fill his cases before he leaves the office. 
 At all events, it must be done before the time of taking 
 copy." 
 
 Supernumeraries. "These have a fixed salary, for 
 
60 PRACTICE OF NEWS-WORK. 
 
 which they are expected to produce one galley. Should 
 they exceed this quantity before the regular time of going 
 to press, they, like the full hands, are paid for the excess : 
 after that time, they also are paid by the hour. If kept 
 standing for copy after producing their galley, they are 
 paid time. If they are kept standing for want of copy, so 
 that they cannot produce a galley, they are entitled to add 
 the time to their lines, and to charge all over four hours, 
 that being the time allowed for producing a galley, or one 
 quarter per hour. 
 
 " The Assistants are not salaried, but in other respects 
 are on the same footing as Supernumeraries." 
 
 The term Outsiders is used in The Times office ex- 
 clusively. " It implies that the persons have not frames 
 allotted to them. It is right, however, to say, that the 
 managers recognize them as a portion of the establish- 
 ment. Originally, their only duty was to take the place 
 of absentees ; but the great increase in the quantity of 
 matter inserted, the frequent expresses, &c., enable the 
 conductors to give this class of hands a very fair amount 
 of employment." 
 
 The Advertisement hands "attend in the morning, and 
 finish their work during the day. Some of them are 
 frequently called upon to assist on mid-day expresses, 
 but they still retain the designation of Advertisement 
 hands." 
 
 The above is stated by the authority we have quoted 
 to be the system adopted on the paper to which we have 
 alluded ; but it does not hold good, in every respect, on all 
 morning papers. The system adopted by another paper 
 is said to be as follows. 
 
 u The Full Hands take copy first. They are expected 
 to produce for their first work about a galley and a 
 quarter. This can be done by quick hands in much less 
 than five hours. Consequently, the time gained by a 
 whip may be devoted to rest and refreshment. He has to 
 
PRACTICE OF NEWS-WORK. 61 
 
 work five hours more on time, which is called the finish, 
 that is, he must work the five hours immediately pre- 
 ceding the time fixed for going to press, which entitles 
 him to his salary. After that time he is paid by the hour." 
 
 Supernumeraries " are entitled to charge a galley, 
 though there may not be copy to produce it. This, 
 however, rarely happens. They generally proceed with 
 composition while the copy lasts, and thereby are often 
 enabled to earn more than full hands." 
 
 In addition to the description of hands adverted to in 
 the preceding remarks, there is another class, who are only 
 occasionally employed. They are called Grass Hands, 
 and are only employed in cases of emergency, or to 
 supply the place of a more regular hand. 
 
 The above was the plan generally pursued on most 
 London morning papers a few years ago ; but now there 
 are only two classes of hands generally recognized, Full 
 Hands and Assistants ; and some papers pay a certain sum 
 per week to the Full Hands, but require a certain amount 
 of work to be produced for the money. But as we are not 
 fully acquainted with all the particulars, we refrain from 
 saying more on the subject. As regards the routine 
 of those offices, of course that must approximate to the 
 system adopted in other offices. 
 
 The rate of payment on the London daily papers is 
 according to the following scale : 
 
 PER WEEK. PER GALLEY. PER HOUR. 
 
 Morning Papers. ..2 85. Od. 3s. lOd. 
 Evening Papers... 2 3s. 6d. 3s. 7d. 
 
 The Routine of Practice. Having made himself 
 acquainted with the peculiarities of the paper on which 
 he is about to be engaged, its method of capitalling, 
 small-capitalling, or italicising (if I may use such a word), 
 which he can easily do by carefully inspecting a few 
 
62 PRACTICE OF NEWS-WORK. 
 
 recent numbers of the paper, the compositor will enter 
 upon his duties with a much greater chance of seeing 
 clean proofs returned to him from the reading-closet, and 
 with a well-grounded confidence that his first efforts in 
 his situation will not leave an unfavorable impression on 
 the mind of the printer, and so risk the permanency of 
 his tenure of office. By these means, he will understand, 
 when he takes copy, the size of type in which it is to be 
 composed, from the nature of the article or subject, 
 and whether it requires a full-head, or a side-head, or no 
 head at all ; he will also be thus enabled to judge whether 
 the orthography and capitalling are in accordance with 
 the system he will find it incumbent on him to pursue, 
 and to act accordingly. The following practical ob- 
 servations will nevertheless, we think, be found worthy of 
 his attention. He will find the folios of his copy num- 
 bered, either by the printer or the writer of the article, if 
 it be of any length. On receiving it, he should look and 
 see whether it ends with a break ; and if it does not, 
 he should ascertain how far it is to a break, in the taking 
 which follows, and apprise the compositor next to him 
 that he is going to make even, or not, as may be mutually 
 convenient. By pursuing this course, all inconvenience 
 on the score of making even will be avoided. When the 
 copy has no break, the compositor must closely note the 
 proportion which a line of copy bears to a line he is com- 
 posing ; for, by this means, in a taking of average length, 
 he will be able to cast off, as he proceeds, whether he will 
 be able to make even without proceeding to the unsightly 
 expedient of very wide spacing ; and a hint to the next 
 hand, informing him that he is likely to want a word or 
 two, or the reverse, will enable him to space as evenly 
 towards the end of his taking as at the commencement of 
 it. The compositor must task his ingenuity on this point ; 
 for, towards the close of the evening, takings will get 
 short, when a correct judgement on this point will be 
 
PEACTICE OF NEWS-WORK. 63 
 
 found of the utmost advantage to himself, and will much 
 facilitate the object the printer has in view in resorting 
 to them. When he has finished his copy, he should place 
 his name at the back, or else his number. Having 
 emptied his matter, if more copy be lying in the place 
 assigned for it, he takes it, without troubling the printer, 
 always observing to take the first in order. He should 
 make a memorandum of the number of lines, and the first 
 and last words of each taking. Should there be no copy, 
 it must be ascertained who was out last ; so that a rotation 
 of copy may be insured when there is another supply. 
 
 Emptying. It is the duty of the first person who 
 empties to put up a galley, even if he has not the first or 
 the second takmg, placing his matter in such a position 
 on the galley as will leave room for those who precede 
 him. If the first galley of an article, a direction- line will 
 not be required ; for that will be shown by the head -line ; 
 but in other galleys it will be required. When the 
 taking is emptied, the following matter must be closed 
 up to it, by the person emptying, if the following matter 
 is already on the galley ; if not, by the one who follows 
 When the article is completed, the last compositor must 
 place a proper rule at the end, according to the custom of 
 the paper. 
 
 Pulling. When a galley is completed, the person 
 whose turn it is must quoin it up, and pull two proofs, 
 one of which is forwarded, with the copy, to the reader, 
 and the other is retained by the printer. 
 
 Correcting. On daily papers, proofs are corrected in 
 rotation. When a galley is more than half full, two 
 persons correct it, each counting a turn. The one who 
 corrects last pulls two proofs ; but if more are required, 
 he is allowed lines for his extra trouble. When he has 
 done, he should give notice to the next in rotation. On 
 one morning paper, persons are employed especially to 
 pull the galleys composed during the night. 
 
64 PRACTICE OF NEWS-WORK. 
 
 It is a general rule in most news offices, that if a com- 
 positor has more than six lines to compose of his taking 
 in hand, when the proof is passed to him, he must 
 relinquish it, and attend to his corrections ; but if he has 
 less than six, he is allowed to finish his taking before 
 correcting. 
 
 Dividing Letter. To prevent disputes, it is usual with 
 companionships on newspapers to pay a person to lay up 
 the forms and divide the letter in equal portions for each 
 individual. This person distributes the useless heads, and 
 is responsible for the clearance of the boards. 
 
 The letter for the next day's publication is usually 
 distributed after the composition for the day is completed, 
 in some offices, also at intervals while waiting for copy, 
 or by an earlier attendance than the usual hour, to avoid 
 any loss of time, by having this operation to perform when 
 copy is ready to be put in hand. 
 
 Much more might undoubtedly be here said as to the 
 peculiarities of certain papers, and on the mode of display 
 adopted both in advertisements and other matters; but 
 we very much question whether its utility would corre- 
 spond with the space we should be compelled to occupy : 
 for, as regards any particular paper or periodical, all these 
 matters are easily learued by a little experience, and much 
 more readily and effectually than they can be taught on 
 paper. We will therefore proceed to a subject of much 
 more essential importance. 
 
65 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 IMPOSING, MAKING UP FURNITURE, ETC. 
 
 HAVING completed as many pages as are requisite for 
 a sheet or a half-sheet of paper, accordingly as it may be 
 determined by those in authority to adopt the one or the 
 other mode of working, the next business of the compositor 
 is so to arrange them on the imposing-stone, that they 
 will fall in proper consecutive order when printed and 
 the sheet of paper correctly folded. This act is called 
 Imposing; and as it is very important to the young artist 
 that he should early acquire a knowledge of the principles 
 which govern all operations of this nature, we will pro- 
 ceed to explain them at some length, beginning with the 
 most simple of all schemes of imposition. 
 
 I. FOLIO. 
 
 The least number of pages which can be printed on 
 any sheet of paper folded into leaves, provided it be 
 printed on all its divisions, is four. This is called fdio, 
 from the Latin word folium^ a leaf, or the Italian foglio. 
 This word seems to have been applied to this scheme of 
 imposition, from the fact, that in the infancy of the art, 
 the paper was printed but on one side, and in single 
 leaves; each page, consequently, constituting a leaf or 
 folium, and a complete scheme of imposition. And hence 
 
 f 
 
66 IMPOSITION; 
 
 it is, that, even now, when both sides of the paper are 
 printed, each page is still technically called a folio, and 
 the simplest scheme of imposition also retains the same 
 name. In that scheme, the pages are arranged on the 
 imposing-stone in the manner here given. 
 
 1. A SHEET OF FOLIO* 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 Here the tyro will observe that the first page is on the 
 left, with its foot towards him, as he stands at the stone. 
 This is, because the first page of every sheet, in English 
 books at least, begins on the right ; and as the order of 
 the pages must be necessarily reversed by taking an 
 impression from their surface on a sheet of paper, their 
 order of imposition in the chase must also be the contrary 
 of what they appear on the printed sheet. He will 
 observe, further, that the fourth page is imposed with the 
 first. The reason is obvious. Unfold a sheet of paper in 
 folio, and you will immediately perceive that the first and 
 fourth pages are on the outside; therefore they must be 
 imposed together ; so that the impression from both may 
 appear on the same side of the paper. The second and the 
 third page are all that remain ; and if you bear in mind, 
 that the odd page must always be to your left, when its 
 foot is towards you on the stone, because every odd page 
 is to your right in a printed sheet, and all schemes of 
 imposition must necessarily be the reverse on the stone, of 
 what they appear when printed, you will have no difficulty 
 in determining where to place it. You will remark, in 
 addition, that the sum of the folios of the pages in each 
 
FOLIO. 67 
 
 chase is one more than the aggregate number in the sheet. 
 Thus, in a folio sheet, there are four pages ; and in the 
 outer form 1+4 = 5; and in the inner, 34-2 = 5 also. 
 This observation holds good in all regular schemes of 
 imposition, and may sometimes help you out of a difficulty, 
 when you might otherwise be at a loss to know whether 
 you were proceeding rightly or not. This you will notice 
 as we go on. 
 
 Sometimes two or more sheets of folio, and even of 
 other sizes, are required to be folded one within the other, 
 so that they may be stitched through the back as one sheet, 
 for the purpose of being more compact, and more easily 
 opened. Now, if you bear in mind what has been just 
 stated, you will experience no difficulty in accomplish- 
 ing this task, should such a work fall into your hands, 
 although you may never have seen it done before, nor 
 have any scheme for your guidance. Eecollect, then, that 
 every four pages of the total number, beginning from the 
 two extremes, form a sheet. Her.ce, the first and the last 
 page must be in the same chase, constituting the outer 
 form ; and the next from each extreme must compose tne 
 inner form of the same sheet : and so on till you arrive at 
 the center pages. For instance, suppose you were required 
 to impose four sheets of folio, to fold into one another as 
 one sheet. The total number of pages is 16. Therefore? 
 the 1st and the 16th would be the outer form of signature 
 A, and the 15th and 2nd the inner form ; the 3rd and the 
 14th, the outer form cf B, or A 2, as it might be more 
 appropriately called; and the 13th and 4th, the inner; 
 the 5th and 12th, and the llth and 6th, of C, or A 3 ; 
 and the four center pages, that is, the 7th and 10th, and 
 9th and 8th, would be D, or A 4 ; the sum of every two 
 of which, you will remark, amounts to 17. Thus : 
 
 A. B, or A 2. c, or A 3. D, or A 4. 
 
 1-16 15-2 3-14 13-4 5-12 11-6 7-10 9-8 
 
IMPOSITION. 
 
 2. ABSTRACT TITLE-DEEDS OF ESTATES. 
 
 Abstracts of title-deeds of estates are printed with 
 blanks at the backs, with all the margin on the left side, 
 and on single leaves ; being stitched at the corner. The 
 following is the method of imposing the form, to save 
 press- work : 
 
 Outer. Inner. 
 
 II. QUAETO. 
 
 A sheet of quarto comprises eight pages : it is^ in fact, 
 two sheets of folio imposed quire- wise, but in two chases 
 instead of four, as you will see by inspection. The manner 
 of doing this is as follows : 
 
 1. A SHEET OF QUAKTO. 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 Remarks. If you take a sheet of eight pages, fold it, and 
 cut it in two crosswise, you will have two sheets of four pages 
 each ; which is the same thing as two sheets of folio. Hence 
 it follows, that a sheet of 4to is, as remarked just now, but 
 
QUARTO. 69 
 
 two sheets of folio imposed the one within the other, or quire, 
 wise ; the only difference being, that in the former case only 
 two pages were in one chase, but in the latter there are four. 
 Moreover, in the case of folios imposed quire-wise, it was 
 remarked that each odd page, beginning with the first, and 
 each even page commencing from the last, were in the outer 
 form ; but in the case of 4to you will see that this is not so ; 
 for we have, outer form, 1-8 and 4-5 ; and in the inner, 7-2 
 and 6-3. How is this ? you will probably ask ; and a very 
 reasonable question it is. I will endeavor to answer it. The 
 first section requires no remark : the first and the last page of 
 the sheet are always on the outside thereof ; but the third 
 and the sixth, in a sheet of 4to, are not on the outside of a sheet 
 when printed, but only after being folded. Spread out a 
 printed sheet of 4to, and you will find the first and the eighth 
 and the fourth and fifth pages on the outside of the paper ; 
 but if the same paper be folded, then the fourth and the fifth 
 page will be brought into the center, and will constitute the 
 two inner pages of the inner folio sheet, and the third and the 
 sixth will be really on the outside of that inner folio sheet, or, 
 which is the same thing, the half of a sheet of 4to. For these 
 reasons it is, that the really outer part of the inner division of 
 the sheet (that is after folding) is imposed with the inner part 
 of the outer division, and the outer part of the outer division, 
 with the really inner part of the inner division, fctill they are 
 but two folios, the one within the other, imposed with the 
 heads of the pages towards the crossbar of the chase, in two 
 chases instead of four ; the first page of each folio sheet being 
 placed 011 the left hand, with its foot towards you, and their 
 position altered to suit the requirements of the folding. 
 
 Sometimes, in tables and other special works, imposed 
 tandem- wise, the matter is read from the bottom of the page 
 to the top, instead of across ; but this makes no difference in 
 the method of imposing ; only it is necessary to bear in mind 
 that the head of the matter (not of the page) must be to the 
 left, when placed on the stone, so that the lines will follow 
 from left to right ; the headline being at the tail of the matter, 
 
70 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 with, the folio opposite the first line in the even page, and 
 opposite the last line on the odd page. 
 
 2. TWO HALF-SHEETS OF QUARTO WORKED TOGETHER. 
 
 Calling to mind what has been said above, you will 
 recollect that it was stated that a sheet of 4to is nothing 
 more than two sheets of folio worked together, in such a 
 manner, that, when folded the one within the other, the 
 continuity of the reading was not broken. Hence it 
 follows, if we leave out the consideration of the whole 
 eight pages following in regular succession, as one sheet, 
 and divide it into two, we shall have two actual sheets of 
 folio, or, in other words two half-sheets of 4to worked 
 together. The imposition will then consist in placing 
 each folio sheet opposite the other, in the following man- 
 ner : 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
 Remark. The paging, of course, of the two half -sheets, 
 may either follow successively, or they may be independently 
 paged, according to the requirements of the case. 
 
 3. A HALF-SHEET OF QUARTO. 
 
 A half-sheet of 4to, you need hardly be reminded, is 
 nothing else than a sheet of folio imposed in one chase ; 
 so that two copies are impressed on each sheet of paper, 
 
OCTAVO. 71 
 
 which is afterwards cut into two, and the parts separated. 
 This is evident from an inspection of the scheme. 
 
 4. A SHEET OF BROAD QUARTO. 
 
 There is no difference between this scheme of impo- 
 sition and a sheet of ordinary 4to, as regards the laying- 
 down of the pages ; the only difference being, that the 
 chase is laid length wise on the stone, and not cross-wise. 
 
 III. OCTAVO. 
 
 A sheet of Svo comprises sixteen pages, and is equi- 
 valent to four sheets of folio, imposed in such a manner, 
 that the first page of each folio sheet must fall on that 
 part of it which is the first when the sheet is folded. The 
 following scheme will answer that purpose, as you may 
 prove at your leisure. 
 
 1. A SHEET OP OCTAVO. 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 B2 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
IMPOSITION. 
 
 Remark.-* Here the four extreme pages of the sheet (1-16 
 15-2) form one folding, or a sheet of folio ; the next four (3-14 
 13-4), another ; the next four (5-12 11-6), another; and the 
 four inner pages (7-10 8-9), the inner: and the pages are 
 arranged in the chase according to the foregoing scheme, in 
 order that the paging may follow in regular succession, when 
 the sheet is folded. 
 
 As this is the reason for all sorts of imposition, it may 
 serve you as a guide whenever you are in doubt as to the proper 
 position of your pages. Fold a sheet into the required number 
 of leaves ; mark the number on each page, without cutting the 
 sheet ; spread it out on the stone, and you will have the order 
 of imposition on the page facing the stone. By this means, if 
 you had never seen a sheet of 8vo imposed, and had no scheme 
 to refer to, you could easily arrive at the proper method of 
 doing it. 
 
 2. A SHEET OF BROAD OCTAVO, 
 
 The following scheme exhibits the best method of 
 imposing this kind of 8vo sheet. 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
 3. TWO HALF-SHEETS OF OCTAVO WORKED TOGETHER. 
 
 When two half-sheets of 8vo are required to be worked 
 together on one sheet of paper, you will see at a glance, if 
 you have paid proper attention to what has been already 
 stated, that this is but two sheets of 4to worked at once, 
 or, in other words, four sheets of folio ; and as the first 
 
OCTAV^. 
 
 73 
 
 page of the sheet must always be on the outside, to the 
 left hand, when on the stone, it follows, that the first half- 
 sheet will be the outer sheet of 4to, and the second half- 
 sheet necessarily the inner. The method of imposing will 
 therefore be as follows : 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 5* 
 
 
 4* 
 
 0* 
 
 
 C* 
 
 
 7 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Remark. Here you will observe that the pages of signa- 
 ture A are all in the outside divisions of the chases, imposed 
 like a sheet of 4to ; and those belonging to signature B, in the 
 inner divisions, imposed in the same manner. 
 
 4. A HALF-SHEET OF COMMON OCTAVO. 
 
 This, you will see from the scheme below, is nothing 
 else but a sheet of 4to, imposed in one chase instead of 
 two ; and of which a double impression is produced by 
 working it on both sides of the paper, each section of 
 which of course forms an independent sheet of 4to, or, as 
 it is commonly called, a half-sheet of 8vo. 
 
 5. TWO QUARTERS OF A COMMON OCTAVO. 
 
 This, again, is two folios worked in one chase, so im- 
 
74 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 posed, as you will see from an inspection of the scheme, 
 as to form two independent sections of four pages each. 
 
 6. PART OF A SHEET OF OCTAVO AND OTHER ODD PAGES. 
 
 When a sheet of 8vo is not complete, and it is neces- 
 sary to fill up the remainder with pages of another work, 
 or of a miscellaneous character, those pages may be put 
 anywhere in the sheet, provided that they are imposed, in 
 relation to each other, as one or more sheets of folio, or 
 parts of a sheet of folio. Thus, if you have four pages of 
 odd matter to impose with twelve others of a sheet of 8vo, 
 those four pages might form any folio section of the sheet, 
 and would follow in regular succession when detached 
 therefrom ; but the most convenient plan is, generally 
 speaking, to place them in the center folio section ; that 
 is, to put them in the place of pages 7-10,9-8 of the 
 regular 8vo sheet. If there are six pages, then four of 
 those pages will be better in the third folio section of the 
 sheet ; that is, in the place of 5-12, 11-6 ; and the two odd 
 pages of each be thrown in the center, and cut off as single 
 leaves. "We subjoin a scheme with four odd pages so im- 
 posed. 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 9 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 *T- 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TWELVES. 
 
 75 
 
 Remark. Here the odd pages are marked as Z ; and you 
 will see that they occupy, as above hinted, the ordinary places 
 of pages 7 8, 9, 10 of a regular sheet of 8vo : for, although the 
 last page of the sheet A is numbered 12, yet it is in fact the 
 16th on the printed sheet ; only, the continuity of the paging 
 is broken by the interposition of an independent folio section. 
 
 7. A SHEET OB" OCTAVO IN HEBREW WORK. 
 
 In Hebrew, and all those languages which, as we 
 would say, begin at the end of a book, the position of 
 the pages is merely reversed, 16 being put in the place of 
 1, 15 in that of 2, &c. &c., and vice versa ; or the following 
 plan may be adopted : 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 A 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B2 
 
 IV.-TWELVBS. 
 
 Granted that you have mastered all the schemes of 
 imposition hitherto laid down, and it fell to your lot to 
 impose a sheet of 12mo, how would you proceed, without 
 any scheme for your guidance, and no previous knowledge 
 but that which you have gained from what, has been above 
 stated ? Perhaps you are somewhat puzzled.* Let us 
 then examine what it is that you really have to perform. 
 What is a sheet of 12mo ? No more than this, it is a 
 sheet of ,8vo, with a 4to sheet within it. Then all you 
 have to do is to impose a sheet of 8vo in the 8vo part of 
 the chase, or the larger division thereof, and a sheet of 
 
 * I here suppose myself to be addressing the young printer, not 
 the initiated. 
 
76 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 4to in the smaller division, or what is commonly called the 
 offeut. I will submit the scheme, and then acid a few- 
 remarks. 
 
 1. A SHEET OF TWELVES. 
 
 Outer Form. ' Inner Form. 
 
 81 
 
 
 CI 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 S 
 6 
 
 Remarks. In this scheme, the division of the chase below 
 the cross-bar comprises a sheet of Svo, having the four extreme 
 pages of the sheet (1-24, and 2-23) as its outer folio division, 
 and the rest in the same order as an ordinary Svo sheet. The 
 orient comprehends two folio divisions, folding the one 
 within the other; and as the first page of the outer folio, 
 namely 9, must necessarily (in order that the sheet may fold 
 conveniently) be to the left of the outer form when you stand 
 with its foot towards you, and the first page of the inner folio, 
 namely 11, on the left-hand corner of the inner form, the 
 place of the remainder is easily ascertained ; for, as in turning 
 a sheet at press, 10 must necessarily be made to fall upon 9, it 
 must consequently be placed to the right of the inner form ; 
 and as 12, in like manner, must back 11, so must it be placed 
 in a position opposite to it in the outer form ; namely, to the 
 extreme right. 
 
 In the scheme above given, the inner eight pages, or those 
 which form the offeut, must be cut off in folding, and inserted 
 in the sheet ; for, otherwise, the heads of these pages would 
 range with the foot of the others: in other words, they would 
 be upside down. But it is possible to impose a sheet of 
 12mo so that this offeut, as it is called, need not be cutoff; for 
 if you place the heads of the pages composing it, towards 
 
TWELVES. 
 
 77 
 
 the rim of the chase, in the manner ^iven below (No. 1), 
 and in folding the sheet, first fold the offcut on the adjoining 
 division, the heads of those pages will all be one way, and 
 nothing more will be necessary than to double the sheet up 
 into the required size, keeping the first page fixed to the left. 
 Or you may impose the sheet as in No. 2. 
 
 2. A SHEET OF TWELVES, WITHOUT CUTTING. 
 No. 1. 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 !'! 
 
 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2-1 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 B 
 
 L _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 61 1 
 
 
 9 
 
 8T 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 2 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 2. 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 5 
 
 B3 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 8 
 
 , 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 12 
 
 [ 7 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 ZZ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 2 
 
 This difference of arrangement is caused solely by the 
 peculiar method of folding the printed sheet, twice the short 
 way of the paper, then in the direction of the long-cross. 
 
78 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 3. A SHEET OP TWELVES, WITH TWO SIGNATURES. 
 
 This imposition could be accomplished in more ways 
 than one ; but the following will answer the purpose. 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 C-Z\ 
 
 
 &1 
 
 
 931 
 
 
 821 
 
 Q 
 
 !-l 
 
 11 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Remark. Here the part represented by signature M is an 
 independent 4to section, and, as was said before, might be 
 differently imposed, but not more conveniently than in the 
 scheme given above. 
 
 4. A SHEET OF LONG TWELVES. 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 10 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
 z 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 ZZ 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
TWELVES. 79 
 
 A HALF- SHEET OF LONG- TWELVES. MUSIC WAY. 
 
 6. A COMMOH HALF-SHEET OF TWELVES. 
 
 This is merely a half-sheet of 8vo, with a folio division 
 in the offcut. If you are master of wnat has been before 
 fully explained in the preceding remarss you will find no 
 difficulty here. However, a scheme is subjoined for your 
 guidance. 
 
 &emark.~- Of course, any four odd pages not connected 
 with the rest of the matter, might be placed in the offcut, and 
 be separated in folding, where it is desirable so to fill up the 
 complete number of twelve pages. 
 
 Now, were you required to impose a half-sheet of 12mo 
 without cutting, that is, when the offcut, in folding, must 
 not be separated from the rest of the sheet, but only folded 
 
80 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 with it, it is evident that a different scheme of imposition 
 would be necessary. For the head of the pages in the 
 offcut must be turned towards the rim of the chase, and 
 their order reversed, so that they may range with the 
 others when the sheet is folded, and follow in regular 
 order. This will be accomplished by the following scheme. 
 
 7. A HALF-SHEET OF TWELVES. WITHOUT CUTTING. 
 
 It is sometimes desirable to work two half-sheets of 
 12mo together; and this, on reflection, you will see may 
 easily be done, by irnposiDg one naif of each half-sheet in 
 the outer division ol the cnase, and the other in the inner, 
 according to the following plans ; either of which will 
 answer the purpose ; but the jast has this advantage, 
 that the sheets do not require turning. 
 
 8. TWO HALF-SHEETS OF TWELVES WORKED TOGETHER. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 9 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 *9 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 ** 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 1* 
 
 
 12* 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 01 
 
SIXTEENS. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 9 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 *8 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 *9 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 L 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 *C 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 *OT 
 
 ** 
 
 
 *6 
 
 2 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 11* 
 
 
 2* 
 
 
 1* 
 
 
 12* 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 9. A SHEET OF TWELVES, HEBtlEW. 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 Ql 
 
 LJ1 
 
 81 
 
 01 
 
 61 
 
 2 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 3 
 
 B2 
 
 r:i 
 
 91 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 SI 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 /I 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 V.SIXTEENS. 
 
 A sheet of 16mo is nothing more than eight sheets of 
 folio, so imposed, that, when folded, the pages shall follow 
 in regular order. This you will see from an inspection of 
 the subjoined scheme : the rationale of imposition is left 
 to your own ingenuity to find out ; but, in this respect, 
 9 
 
82 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 you can be at no loss, if you have paid due attention to 
 what has been before stated. 
 
 1. A SHEET OF SIXTEENS, WITH ONE SIGNATURE. 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 13 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 12 
 
 91 
 
 
 L\ 
 
 
 fZ 
 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 08 
 
 
 5* 
 
 8 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 14 
 
 01 
 
 
 ez 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 51 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 2. A SHEET OF SIXTEENS WITH TWO SIGNATURES, OR A 
 DOUBLE OCTAVO. 
 
 A sheet of IGmo with two signatures is the same thing 
 as two sheets of 8vo, worked in two chases instead of 
 four ; the outer form of the first half-sheet being imposed 
 with the inner form of the second, and vice versa ; or the 
 two outers may be in one form, and the two inners in the 
 other. 
 
 3. A HALF-SHEET OF SIXTEENS. 
 
 This, again, is but a sheet of 8vo imposed in one 
 chase, instead of two ; the outer form thereof in one 
 division, and the inner in the opposite half, as you will 
 observe from a mere inspection of the following scheme. 
 
EIGHTEENS. 
 
 4. TWO QUARTER-SHEETS OF SIXTEENS. 
 
 This imposition is accomplished in the following 
 
 manner : 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 B2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 8 
 
 VLEIGHTEENS. 
 
 A sheet of 18mo is equivalent to three half-sheets of 
 12mo, and may be so imposed as to make, when folded, 
 three sections of twelve pages each ; or into two sections, 
 one of twenty-four pages, and the other of twelve ; or 
 the whole may be comprised in one section of thirtysix 
 
84 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 continuous pages. The various schemes of imposition 
 answering to these several purposes are given below. 
 
 1. A SHEET OF E1GHTEENS WITH ONE SIGNATURE. 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 8 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 SS 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 S3 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 
 14 
 
 Form. 
 
 91 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 1C 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 
 2 
 
 B4 
 
 
 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Or the offcut may be better imposed according to the 
 following plan : 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 Zl 
 
 
 <?s 
 
 
 86 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
EIGHTEEN S. 
 
 85 
 
 '2. A SHEET OF EIGHTEENS WITH TWO SIGNATURES. 
 
 (One section of 24 pages, and another of 12.) 
 Outer Form. 
 
 8 
 
 
 L\ 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 OJ> 
 
 
 Gf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 B 
 
 
 48 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
 9* 
 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 38 
 
86 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 3. A SHEET OF EIGHTEENS WITH THREE SIGNATURES. 
 
 (Three sections of 12 pages each.) 
 Outer Form. 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 $Z 
 
 
 eg 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 B 
 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 c 
 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 D 
 
 
 36 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
 fg 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 ZZ 
 
 
 ei 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 
 5 
 
EIGHTEENS. 
 
 87 
 
 4. A SHEET OF EIGHTEENS, TO BE FOLDED UP TOGETHER. 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 29 
 
 t 
 
 
 88 
 
 
 8S 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 IZ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 36 
 
 25 
 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 24 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B7 
 
 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
 ZZ 
 
 
 83 
 
 ei 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 LZ 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 
 26 
 
 35 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 BG 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 This sheet folds twice across the entire length of the sheet, 
 after which it is folded twice at the backs and once at the 
 gutters. 
 
88 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 5. A HALF-SHEET OF EIGHTEENS. 
 
 H 
 
 
 8* 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 II 
 
 Zl 
 
 
 It 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 
 13 
 
 91 
 
 
 Z* 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 2 
 
 Remark. The white paper of this form being worked off v 
 the four lowermost pages in. the middle must be transposed ; 
 viz., pages 8-11 in the room of 7-12, and pages 7-12 in the room 
 of 8-11. 
 
 The offcut may be arranged in the following order, which 
 is more convenient for the folder : 
 
 H 
 
 6. A HALF-SHEET OF EIGHTEENS, WITHOUT TRANSPOSITION. 
 
 Remark. The necessity for transposing the pages in the 
 previous instance, arises from the fact of a half-sheet of 18mo 
 not consisting of a number of complete sections of folio, but 
 of four such sections and a half. This is avoided by the foL 
 lowing scheme, which, however, leaves three single leaves 
 instead of one ; and is, on that account, very objectionable. 
 
E1GHTEENS. 
 
 89 
 
 7'. SIXTEEN PAGES TO A HALF-SHEET OF E1GHTEENS. 
 
 
 
 Z* 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 Remark, When the white paper is worked off, the four 
 pages, 7, 10, 9, 8, must be transposed; 7 and 10 in the place 
 of 9 and 8, and 9 and 8 in the place of 7 and 10 : the trans- 
 posed pages will appear as given in Egyptian figures. 
 
 If the position of pages 5 and 12, and 11 and 6, be re- 
 versed, the same convenience will arise to the folder as secured 
 by the scheme in the previous page. 
 
90 
 
 IMPOSITION 
 
 VIL-TWENTIES. 
 
 A sheet of 20mo of course comprises 10 sheets of folio, 
 imposed in such a manner that the pages, when the sheet 
 is folded, shall follow in proper numerical order ; each folio 
 section folding within the one preceding and following, as 
 so many sheets of folio worked quirewise. The method of 
 imposition is as follows : 
 
 1. A SHEET OF TWENTIES. 
 
 Outer Form. Inner Form. 
 
 y 
 
 Z 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 ya 
 61 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 te 
 
 
 98 
 
 
 2* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 12 
 
 OZ 
 
 
 IZ 
 
 
 fZ 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z* 
 
 9 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 8S 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 I"! 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 zs 
 
 
 t* 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 8 
 
 B 
 
 - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 T8 
 
 
 95 
 
 
 ei 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 I 
 
 Remark. This scheme has the offcut first separated and 
 folded as the sheet lies flat ; the remainder of the sheet is 
 folded as a sheet of sixteens, which it in fact is, with an inset 
 sheet of quarto in the offcut. 
 
TWENTYFOURS. 
 
 91 
 
 2. A HALF-SHEET OF TWENTIES, WITH TWO SIGNATURES. 
 
 This is nothing else but a half-sheet of 12mo in one 
 division of the chase, and a half-sheet of 8vo in the other ; 
 as the tyro will observe on referring to these schemes in 
 their appropriate place. 
 
 8 
 
 
 a 
 
 T 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 SV 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 VIII. TWENTYFOUES. 
 
 1, A SHEET OF TWENTYFOURS, WITH TWO SIGNATURES. 
 
 This, of course, is but a duplicate sheet of 12mo, the 
 two outer forms of which are in one chase, and the two 
 
IMPOSITION. 
 
 inner in the other ; and of course, as the outer form of 
 ig. B is to the left of the outer form, the inner must be to 
 the right of the other form. The method of imposition 
 will therefore be as follows : 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 7,1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 LI 
 
 u 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 
 ZS 
 
 
 Ofr 
 
 Inner Form, 
 
 *8 
 
 
 68 
 
 
 se 
 
 
 93 
 
 se 
 
 
 
 08 
 
 ^ 
 
 03 1 
 
 
 __2L 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 26 
 t 
 
 01 
 
 
 51 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 9S 
 II 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I'l 
 
 3 
 B'2 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 23 
 
TWENTYFOURS. 93 
 
 2. A SHEET OF TWENTYFOURS, WITH THREE SIGNATURES* 
 
 This scheme is equivalent to imposing three sheets 
 of 8vo in two chases instead of six ; and is sometimes 
 adopted in books of 8vo size, to save press- work. The me- 
 thod is as follows : 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 f 
 
 
 ei 
 
 
 0& 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 98 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 
 28 
 
 37 
 
 
 44 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 *5 
 
 
 S& 
 
 
 Ofr 
 
 
 I* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 c 
 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 D 
 
 
 48 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
 ft 
 
 
 8* 
 C 
 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 ., 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
IMPOSITION. 
 
 3. A HALF-SHEET OF TWENTYFOURS, THE SIXTEEN WAV. 
 
 zz 
 
 
 Z* 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 6 
 
 91 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 L\ 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 24 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 " 1 
 
 4. A HALtf-SHEET OF TWENTYFOUKS, WITH TV/O SIGNATURES, 
 SIXTEEN PAGES AND EIGHT PAGES, 
 
 16 
 
 ** 
 
 *S 
 
 
 *8 
 
 
 *I 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 9 
 
 II 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TWENTTFOURS. 
 
 95 
 
 5. A COMMON HALF-SHEET OF TWENTYFOURS. 
 
 
 
 
 S* 
 
 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 Zl 
 
 81 
 
 91 
 
 6 
 
 
 01 
 
 si 
 
 H 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 /I 
 
 05 
 
 e 
 
 9 
 
 61 
 
 81 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 6. A HALF-SHEET OF TWENTYFOURS, WITHOUT CUTTING. 
 
 5 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 IS 
 
 19 
 
 
 6 
 
 B3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 9T 
 
 
 ga 
 6 
 
 01 
 
 
 ei 
 
 5S 
 
 
 t> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Remark. This imposition is much used for periodicals, 
 where great nicety of folding is not requisite, as it saves time 
 in the operation : it is the same as a sheet of twelves, p. 77. 
 
96 IMPOSITION. 
 
 7. A HALF-SHEET OF LONG TWBNTYFOURS. 
 
 B2 
 
 OT 
 
 I 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 SZ 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 y 
 
 OS 
 
 IS 
 
 24 
 
 8. A HALF-SHEET OF LONG TWENTTFOURS, WITHOUT CUTTING. 
 20 17 J 8 
 
 7 
 
 r 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OT 
 
 zz 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 * 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
THIRTYTWOS. 
 
 IX. THIKTYTWOS. 
 
 1. A HALF-SHEET OF THIRTYTWOS. 
 
 97 
 
 of 
 
 2. 
 
 * 
 
 
 6Z 
 
 
 82 
 
 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 tz 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 B7 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 BS 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 ga 
 6 
 
 01 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 ga 
 91 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 2 
 
 Remark. This, you will observe, is no more than a sheet 
 16mo in one chase, and is imposed accordingly. 
 
 A HALF-SHEET OF THIRTYTWOS WITH TWO SIGNATURES. 
 
 81 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 08 
 
 
 23 
 
 61 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 6S 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 ZI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 c4 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 c3 
 
 
 i8 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 t* 
 
 L 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 51 
 
 
 e 
 e 
 
 9 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 B2 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 Remark. This, you will also perceive, is no more than 
 two sheets of 8vo imposed in one chase, one in one half thereof, 
 and the other in the other half. 
 
 h 
 
IMPOSITION. 
 
 3. A SHEET OF THIRTYTWOS. 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 8 
 
 
 y 
 
 95 
 
 
 ga 
 6 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 J 
 
 ' 
 
 09 
 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 Bll 
 
 I 1 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 Bl3 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 24 
 
 44 
 
 37 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 SI a 
 
 se 
 
 
 8* 
 
 
 L\ 
 
 05 
 
 98 
 
 ^1 
 
 , 1 
 
 49 
 
 
 3 
 
 Inner Fo 
 
 13 
 
 B7 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 P 
 
 52 
 
 61 
 
 9 
 
 
 rm. 
 
 
 6C 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 93 
 ii 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 SS 
 
 95 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 B 14 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 Bl2 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 01 a 
 
 OS 
 
 
 GS 
 
 
 9* 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! o 
 
 
 62 
 
 
 51 
 
 
 14 
 
 E2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 91 a 
 
 81 
 
 
 z* 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I" 
 
 IBS 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 2 
 
THIRTTTWOS. B9 
 
 4. A SHEET OF THIRTYTWOS WITH FOUR SIGNATURES. 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 09 
 
 89 
 
 
 59 
 
 
 23 
 15 
 
 I 
 
 
 98 
 
 
 <?* 
 
 
 8^ 
 
 a 
 SS 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 E4 
 
 58 
 
 54 
 
 37 
 
 D3 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 21- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 C 
 5 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 92 
 
 fS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 C2 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 31 
 
 18 
 
 
 Innt 
 
 r Fo 
 
 rw. 
 
 
 *9 
 
 
 w 
 
 & 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 ZQ 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 6^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 _!!_ 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 39 
 
 T>1 
 
 42 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 38 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 52 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 IS 
 
 II 
 
 
 01 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 c 
 
 32 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 B2 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 Remark. Upon inspecting this scheme, you cannot fail to 
 remark that it is the same as four sheets of 8vo, imposed in 
 two chases instead of eight ; two outer forms of 8vo and two 
 inner forms being in each chase. This imposition is much used 
 in what may be called quadruple 8vo, as it saves a great deal 
 of press- work. 
 
100 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 5. A SHEET OF THIRTYTVYOS. 
 
 Outer Form. 
 
 83 
 
 
 Ze 
 
 
 09 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 53 
 
 
 12 
 
 Bll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 6* 
 
 
 8* 
 
 l"l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 64 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 ts 
 
 
 t> 
 
 
 99 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 57 
 
 
 8 
 
 Bl3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inner Form. 
 
 9 
 
 
 6? 
 
 
 88 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 il 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 4) 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 5S 
 
 
 Zf 
 
 
 gg 
 
 
 7 
 
 B4 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 39 
 
 26 
 
 08 
 
 
 se 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 51 
 
 BlO 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 LjJ 
 
 Remark. This sheet, when printed, is folded first in the di- 
 rection of the long-cross, then the short- cross ; after this it is 
 folded into long 8vo ; the remaining folds follow in regular 
 order, but they are too numerous to al'ow the sheet to be folded 
 neatly. 
 
THIRTYSIXES. 
 
 101 
 
 X. THIBTYSIXES. 
 
 For the remainder of the schemes of imposition, as 
 they are but rarely used, it will be sufficient merely to 
 give the necessary forms. 
 
 1. A HALF-SHEET OF THIRTYSIXES. 
 
 I 
 
 
 ss 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 
 9 
 II 
 
 ZS 
 
 
 8* 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 4 
 
 K 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 ""H 
 
 _^j 
 
 83 
 tl 
 
 OS 
 
 { 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 14 
 
 Remark. This imposition has one-third of the sheet sepa- 
 rated, which is folded as a half-sheet of twelves : the two- 
 thirds portion is folded as a sheet of twelves, having pages 13 
 to 24 insetted in the center. 
 
102 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 2. A HALT-SHEET OF THIRTTSIXES WITHOUT CUTTING. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I I 
 
 '" 1 
 
 t 
 
 z 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 95 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 Z 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 27 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 22 
 
 Bt2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1C 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 8[ 
 
 y 
 
 5 
 
 B3 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 S2 
 
 y 
 
 25 
 
 
 1T 
 
 LL_, 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 B 
 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 54 
 
 B7 
 
 
 
 Remark. The tyro will- observe, if lie turns, to the method 
 of imposing I8mo, that this is but a sheet of that size imposed 
 in one chase instead of two ; the lower half being the outer form, 
 and the upper half, the inner. 
 
THIRTYSIXES. 
 
 103 
 
 3. A HALF-SHEET OP THIRTYSIXES WITH TWO SIGNATURES. 
 
 z 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 A4 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 B 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 95 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 gl 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 00 
 
 *8 
 
 
 AS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8V 
 
 05 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 . 
 
 Pemark. This the young printer cannot fail to observe, if 
 he looks attentively at the scheme, that it is nothing more than 
 a sheet of 12mo with a half-sheet of the same size in the middle. 
 
IMPOSITION, 
 
 XI. FORTIES. 
 
 A HALF-SHEET OF FORTIES. 
 
 0& 
 
 
 IZ 
 
 
 1C 
 
 
 Ll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 8 
 
 B3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 5S 
 
 
 8S 
 
 
 Z* 
 
 ei 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 B 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 4 
 
 81 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 S5 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 6 
 
 B4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 9S 
 
 
 ei 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 31 
 
 BO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 2 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XII. FOKTYEIGHTS. 
 
 1. A COMMON QUARTER-SHEET OF FORTYBIGHTS. 
 
 21 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 ZT 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 ei 
 
 n 
 
 It 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 *a 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 B2 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 2 
 
FORTYEIQHTS. 
 
 105 
 
 2. TWO QUARTERS OP A SHEET OF FORTYEIGHTS, WORKED 
 TOGETHER. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 Z 
 
 
 C5 
 
 
 ZZ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 6 
 
 B4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 10 
 
 B6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g* 
 
 51 
 
 
 Cl 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 6 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 Ll 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 9Z 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 9* 
 
 
 IZ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 30 
 
 c4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. A QUARTBR-SHIET OP FORTYEIGHTS, WITHOUT CUTTING. 
 
 5 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S* 
 
 * 
 
 
 IZ 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 12 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 B4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 SI 
 
 ZZ 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 B6 
 
 
 
 
 
106 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 4. HALF-SHEET OF FORTYEIGHTS, WITH THREE SIGNATURES. 
 
 te 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 9* 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 9S 
 
 
 st 
 
 
 8* 
 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 c3 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 08 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 ie 
 
 61 
 
 
 08 
 
 
 65 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 B3 
 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 SI 
 
 
 g 
 
 9 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 A2 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 Remark. This sheet perfects as a sheet of twelves. For 
 folding, it divides by the long-cross ; each half then divides into 
 three sections, which are respectively folded as a sheet of octavo. 
 
SIXTYFOURS 
 
 107 
 
 XIII. SIXTYFOUKS. 
 
 1. A COMMON QUARTER-SHEET OF SIXTYFOURS. 
 
 f 
 
 
 6Z 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 B7 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 12 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 ts 
 
 
 ga 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 B 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 LZ 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 Z* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 B6 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 14 
 
 01 
 
 Q 
 
 81 
 
 
 8a 
 SI 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 B4 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 2 
 
 2. A QUARTER-SHEET OF SIXTYFOURS, WITH TWO 
 SIGNATURES. 
 
 81 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 08 
 
 
 &* 
 61 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 6S 
 
 
 ZS 
 
 
 a 
 
 Zl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 B4 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 B3 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 Zl 
 
 
 SV 
 
 5 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 tv 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 A2 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 J 
 
108 
 
 IMPOSITION . 
 
 3. A HALF-SHEET OP SIXTYFOURS. 
 
 1 S 
 
 
 ea 
 
 
 te 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 B8 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 47 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 
 e* 
 
 
 ts 
 
 
 ga 
 11 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 59 
 
 
 6 
 
 |V 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 9S 
 
 
 65 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 45 
 
 
 20 
 
 52 
 
 s7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 09 
 
 44 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 6* 
 
 
 8* 
 
 i:i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 
 64 
 
 
 33 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fZ V 95 
 
 25 
 
 D 
 
SEVENTYTWOS. 
 
 109 
 
 XIY. SEYENTYTWOS. 
 
 A HALF-SHEET OP SEVENTYTWOS, WITH THREE SIGNATURES. 
 
 o fe 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 W (> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *] 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 10 o 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 w w 
 c w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O) 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 |.. 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 !a l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Li 
 
 1 
 
 1C -H 
 
 
 I 
 
110 IMPOSITION. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Having placed all his pages on the stone, whatever 
 may be the size, the compositor must run his eye over 
 them to see that they are in their proper place ; for it is 
 much easier to alter their position now than at any after- 
 period of the process of imposition. 
 
 2. He must then procure a pair of chases, as nearly 
 alike as possible, or rather, we ought to say, the overseer 
 or quoin-drawer will provide him with them, on his ap- 
 plication to either of those individuals, according to the 
 custom of the office ; and he must be careful to use those 
 chases, ever after, in future sheets, in the same position in 
 which he uses them in the first, as this will save consider- 
 able trouble to the pressman. 
 
 3. Furniture ought to be provided for him of a proper 
 length ; and in order that that may be done easily, the 
 quoin-drawer overseer should keep it in separate pigeon- 
 holes or drawers, each length by itself ; as this will save a 
 great deal of time, and dispense almost entirely with the 
 use of the saw. The gutters, and narrows for the short- 
 cross, are placed even with the foot of each page, leaving 
 the upper end to project beyond the head-line and between 
 the head-bolts, so as to secure the folios. The side-sticks 
 should be of about the same length as the gutters, as they 
 will thereby bind both the folios and white-lines. The 
 foot-sticks should be long enough to include the gutter and 
 back, but should by no means extend beyond the side- 
 stick. These articles, with a supply of scaleboard and 
 quoins, are all that are required for this purpose. 
 
 4. The compositor will now proceed to remove the page- 
 cords. Commencing with any inner page, let him care- 
 
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERYATIONS. Ill 
 
 fully untie the cord, and push up the furniture and the 
 adjoining page by the side-stick ; and so proceed with all 
 the pages of the quarter in succession ; carefully ascer- 
 taining, when he has done so, whether the pages are of 
 equal length ; and if not, causing the defect to be remedied 
 by those by whom the fault has been committed. He 
 must then secure that section with quoins, and so proceed 
 with all the rest, and, after gently planing, lock up 
 each section evenly, first going lightly round the whole, 
 and with his quoins so placed that there shall be no hang- 
 ing of the corners of the pages ; but everything so well 
 secured, that the form will lift safely, if the lines are all 
 properly justified. 
 
 5. Of course the compositor will have been supplied 
 with furniture pretty near the mark, and which will an- 
 swer his purpose for all the operations up to being sent to 
 press. Before that takes place, it must be correctly ascer- 
 tained whether it suits the paper on which the work is to 
 be printed, or not, and must then be correctly adjusted. 
 To assist him in ascertaining the furniture proper for his 
 purpose in the first instance, the following table of the 
 size of pages and the requisite furniture, is given by 
 Mr. Euse, in his handy little book, called l Imposition 
 Simplified,' which, I have no doubt, will be found 
 useful to the generality of the readers of this book. 
 I will merely premise, that Mr. Euse, quite correctly 
 no doubt, considers that what is deemed the back of a 
 book by the binder, ought also to be so considered by the 
 printer ; but as that is not the notion generally adopted 
 when speaking of imposition, it will be necessary to bear 
 in mind, that what Mr. Euse here calls the back, is by the 
 generality called the gutter, and vice versa. 
 
112 
 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 Table of Furnitures for Ordinary Bookwork. 
 
 SIZE. 
 
 Width of 
 page. 
 
 Length of 
 page 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 If 
 
 <5| 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 o 
 
 Boyal. 
 4to 
 
 pica ems 
 
 48 
 26 
 20 
 21 
 18 
 13 
 
 40 
 23 
 19 
 19 
 16 
 12 
 
 32 
 20 
 15 
 16 
 15 
 11 
 
 29 
 18 
 15 
 15 
 12 
 
 pica ems 
 
 62 
 48 
 39 
 28 
 32 
 23 
 
 53 
 
 42 
 36 
 25 
 29 
 21 
 
 47 
 35 
 32 
 22 
 23 
 18 
 
 394 
 32 
 28 
 19 
 21 
 
 pica ems 
 
 11 
 10 
 9 
 
 74 
 c 
 
 5 
 
 104 
 9 
 
 64 
 
 54 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 9 
 6i 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 3} 
 
 tt 
 
 6j 
 
 si 
 
 4| 
 
 pica ems 
 
 12 
 10 
 10 
 
 7* 
 6 
 
 12 
 10 
 8 
 
 7* 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 ? 
 
 pica ems 
 
 124 
 
 104 
 9J 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 11* 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 ioj 
 
 8 
 7 
 
 ei 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 pica ems 
 
 "9* 
 
 "7 
 
 "9 
 "6 
 
 "*i 
 '5 
 
 7 
 
 pica ems 
 
 ioj 
 
 "?i 
 "8i 
 
 "ej 
 
 7J 
 
 "i 
 
 "i 
 "i 
 
 8vo 
 
 12mo 
 16nio 
 
 18mo 
 32mo 
 
 Demy. 
 
 4to 
 8vo 
 
 12mo 
 16mo 
 18mo 
 32mo 
 
 Crown. 
 4to 
 
 8vo 
 
 12mo 
 16mo 
 18mo 
 32mo 
 
 Foolscap. 
 4to 
 
 8vo . 
 
 12mo 
 16mo 
 18mo 
 
 N.B. These measurements are, of course, inclusive of crossbars. 
 
 Remark. Should the width or length of a page be altered 
 from the dimensions here given, it will necessarily follow, that 
 a corresponding alteration should be made in the furniture. 
 For instance, should a page, in any case, be increased an em 
 
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 113 
 
 in length, and width, a corresponding decrease must be made 
 in the furniture, so as to advance all the printed matter of 
 each page an en in every direction on the paper when 
 workecl. This would in fact be, in 8vo, to take an em out of 
 the gutter,* and an en from the back* and head, on each side 
 of the bar. 
 
 6. Making Margin. Several writers have consumed 
 pages in describing methods of effecting this operation, 
 but generally witli the result of rendering the matter the 
 more obscure by their diffuseness. I will therefore con- 
 tent myself with quoting the pithy but pertinent remarks 
 of the author from whom I have copied the above table, 
 merely altering his terminology to make it correspond 
 with that in common use ; and adding, by the way, that 
 Mr. Euse gives in his little book, which only costs 6d., and 
 can be carried in the waistcoat-pocket, diagrams illus- 
 trative of the process adopted, which will be found useful 
 to the young compositor. He says : 
 
 " To ascertain the Gutters, fold the sheet to size of work ; 
 then measure from left side of last page, letting it extend over 
 the left side of the first, to allow for the cutting, which can be 
 varied at will, according to the size of the book from non- 
 pareil to great primer. For Hacks, open the sheet one* fold, 
 and measure from the left side of the third page to the right 
 [i-e. in Svo the 13th page], to left side of the first page, 
 EXACTLY OUT-AND-OUT. For Heads, fold sheet to size of work ; 
 then measure from head of page at top of page 1 [i.e. in Svo 
 the 8th page], letting it extend over the foot of page 1, 
 same as for Gutters. For Tails, open the sheet contrary 
 way to that for Backs ; then measure from foot of third 
 page up, to foot of first page, EXACTLY OUT-AND-OUT, as for 
 Backs. If no Tails, as in Quarto or Octavo, the same over- 
 hang should be left ; as the binder would make the same re- 
 duction as though there were more folds. For off- cuts, leave 
 half the overhang allowed in measuring for the Heads." 
 
 * I here use those words in their ordinary acceptation. 
 i 
 
114 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 COMPOSITOBS' SCALE OF PEICES. 
 
 IN the infancy of the art of printing, and indeed for 
 many years after its general dissemination, the mode 
 of payment was undoubtedly similar to that adopted in 
 other occupations ; namely, by weekly wages. No scale 
 of prices would then be required, but each workman would 
 be paid according to his general efficiency and usefulness. 
 But when the notion of piece-work began to be enter- 
 tained, it would, of course, become necessary to fix upon 
 some standard, to determine the value of the labor done, 
 in order that each man might be paid in just proportion 
 to what he had actually earned. 
 
 This standard was arrived at by determining that for 
 every thousand letters composed, ascertained by counting 
 the width of the page by ens and its depth by ems, and 
 multiplying them together for the product, a certain sum 
 should be paid, according to the nature of the work, with 
 certain allowances in cases where extra labor might be 
 required. 
 
 The first scale of prices of which we have any account, 
 was adopted in the year 1785, although it is pretty certain 
 that some work was done on piece even before that time. 
 It was agreed to at a general meeting of master printers 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 115 
 
 held at the Globe Tavern, in Fleet Street, on Friday, the 
 20th of November. By this scale it was provided : 
 
 That the price of work paid for by letters, be advanced 
 from four pence to four pence halfpenny per thousand, 
 including English and brevier ; and in leaded matter, the 
 ems and ens at the beginnings and ends of the lines not 
 to be reckoned in the width. 
 
 That pamphlets of five sheets and under be paid one 
 shilling per sheet above what they come to by letters. 
 
 That all works wholly printed in a foreign language, 
 though common type, be paid five pence per thousand. 
 
 That five pence per thousand be paid for all dictionaries 
 of two languages, in brevier or larger type, but not for 
 English dictionaries, unless attended with peculiar trouble. 
 
 That the price of Greek be advanced in the same pro- 
 portion as that of common work. 
 
 Some additional rales were adopted at a meeting of 
 master printers held on Monday, the llth of March, 1793, 
 according some slight advantages to the journeyman ; as 
 also at a meeting held at the Globe Tavern, in December, 
 1795. 
 
 But these alterations not giving complete satisfaction to 
 the compositors, another meeting of the master printers 
 was convened on the 24th of December, 1800, for the pur- 
 pose of taking into further consideration the state of the 
 trade, both in respect of the workmen and their employers. 
 
 The men asked for an advance of one halfpenny per 
 thousand on manuscripts. But with this the masters re- 
 fused to comply, but agreed to a general advance of one 
 farthing upon all kinds of work, without regard to the 
 question of manuscript copy or reprint. 
 
 In 1805 the charge for all works in the English lan- 
 guage, including Engli3h and brevier, was advanced to 5fcd. 
 per thousand ; and various other alterations were made, 
 and remained in force until the year 1810, when a distinc- 
 
116 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 tion was made, for the first time, between leaded and solid 
 matter. In 1816, also, the masters succeeded, without 
 consulting the men, in effecting a reduction of three 
 farthings per thousand on reprints, which, as before re- 
 marked, had hitherto been paid the same as manuscripts, 
 
 From that time to 1847 the scale underwent no alter- 
 ation whatever. But as some of its provisions admitted 
 various interpretations, and its rules omitted all mention 
 of many important matters of daily occurrence in a print- 
 ing-office, and were thus the cause of constant disputes and 
 never-ending doubt and perplexity, it was mutually agreed, 
 in that year, both by masters and men, to hold a confer- 
 ence for the settlement of all that was doubtful, and for 
 the introduction of further rules for the determination of 
 matters which the scale of 1810 had altogether omitted. 
 
 Taking this scale as the basis of procedure, the respec- 
 tive committees, after many meetings, went through the 
 whole seriatim, and finally agreed that the following should 
 henceforward constitute the standard of charges for com- 
 positors' work in the book-offices of the London district. 
 
17 
 
 SCALE OF PEICES 
 
 COMPOSITORS' WORK, 
 
 Agreed upon at a General Meeting of Master Printers, at 
 Stationers' Hall) April 16, 1810, commencing on all 
 Volumes or Periodical Numbers begun after the 30th 
 inst. ; 
 
 With additions, definitions, and explanations, agreed upon at a 
 Conference held in the months of July, August, September, and 
 October, 1847, between eight Master Printers and eight Com- 
 positors, duly authorised by their respective bodies to discuss and 
 finally settle all points in dispute, or not touched upon or clearly 
 defined in the scale of 1805-10. 
 
 ART. 1. ALL Works in the English language, common 
 matter, with space lines, including English and Brevier, 
 to be cast up at 5|d. per 1000 ; if in Minion, 6d. ; in Non- 
 pareil, 6fc. Without space lines, including English and 
 Brevier, 6(2. per 1000 ; in Minion Q\d. ; in Nonpareil, *ld.\ 
 in Pearl, with or without space lines, 8d. ; Heads and Di- 
 rections or Signature lines included. A thick space to be 
 considered an en in the width, and an en to be reckoned 
 an em in the length of the page ; and where the number of 
 letters amounts to 500 1000 to be charged ; if under 500, 
 not to be reckoned : and if the calculation at per 1000 
 shall not amount to an odd threepence, the odd pence to 
 be suppressed in the price of the work ; but where it 
 
118 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 amounts to or exceeds threepence, there shall be sixpence 
 charged. Em and en quadrats, or whatever is used at the 
 beginning or end of lines, to be reckoned as an em in the 
 width. 
 
 Ruby, with space lines, to be cast up at 7\d. per 1000 ; with- 
 out space lines, *l\d. per 1000. 
 
 Diamond, with space lines, to be cast up at 9fd, per 1000 ; 
 without space lines, at Wd. per 1000. 
 
 The extra price per 1000 for Minion and all founts below 
 Minion to be paid upon all descriptions of work. 
 
 The usual deduction for leaded matter to be made for 8 to 
 Pica leads, when used with Long Primer or smaller type ; for 
 10 to Pica leads with Brevier or smaller type ; and for 12 to 
 Pica leads when used with Nonpareil or smaller type ; Pearl 
 not excepted. If leads of intermediate size be used, 9 to Pica 
 to be reckoned as 10 to Pica, and 11 to Pica as 12 to Pica, 
 No deduction to be made for any thinner lead than 12 to Pica 
 with any sized type. 
 
 All matter Stereotyped by the present method, namely, by 
 using plaster of Paris, to be cast up, if with high spaces, at \d. 
 per 1000 additional ; if with low spaces, at \d. per 1000 addi- 
 tional. Should any other method be adopted obviating the 
 inconvenience experienced by the compositor, no extra charge 
 per 1000 to be made ; but, if imposed in small chases, Is. per 
 sheet to be allowed. 
 
 Bastard founts of one remove to be cast up to the depth 
 and width of the two founts to which they belong. 
 
 Works, although printed in half-sheets, to be cast up in 
 sheets. 
 
 2. Works printed in Great Primer to be cast up as 
 English ; and all works in larger type than Great Primer, 
 as half English and half Great Primer. 
 
 3. All works in foreign languages, though common 
 type, with space lines, including English and Brevier, to be 
 cast up at 6|d. per 1000; if in Minion \d. ; Nonpareil, 
 *l\d. -, without space lines, including English and Brevier, 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 119 
 
 6kd. ; Minion 7d. ; Nonpareil 7|d. ; and Pearl, with or 
 without space lines, 8f d. 
 
 If Dictionary matter, to take frf. advance per 1000. 
 
 Works in the Saxon language, set up in common type with 
 the two Saxon characters for th, to be cast up at \d. per 1000 
 additional. 
 
 Works in the Saxon or German languages set up in the 
 Saxon or German character, to be paid Id. per 1000 extra. 
 
 4. English Dictionaries of every size, with space lines, 
 including English and Brevier, to be paid 6Jd. per 1000 ; 
 without space lines, 6%d. (In this article are not included 
 Gazetteers, Geographical Dictionaries, Dictionaries of 
 Arts and Sciences, and works of a similar description, 
 except those attended with extra trouble beyond usual 
 descriptive matter.) 
 
 Dictionaries, of two or more languages, of every size, 
 with space lines, including English and Brevier, to be paid 
 6f d. per 1000 ; without space lines, 6|d. If smaller type 
 than Brevier, to take the proportionate advance specified 
 in Article 1. 
 
 5. English Grammars, Spelling Books, and works of 
 those descriptions, in Brevier or larger type, with space 
 lines, to be paid Qd. per 1000 ; without space lines, 6|c?. 
 
 If in two languages, or foreign language, with space 
 lines, Q^d. per 1000 ; without space lines, 6%d. 
 
 Grammars wholly in a foreign language to be paid \d. per 
 1000 extra beyond the price of works in foreign languages, as 
 settled by Art. 3. 
 
 6. Small-sized Folios, Quartos, Octavos, and works 
 done in Great Primer or larger type (English language) 
 which do not come to Is. when cast up at the usual rate, to 
 be paid as follows : English and larger type, not less than 
 7s. ; Pica, 8s. 6d. ; English 12mo. to be paid not less than 
 10*. 6d. ; and Pica not less than 11 s. 6d. per sheet. 
 
120 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 The words " including every item of charge" to be under- 
 stood after the words " when cast up at the usual rate." 
 
 7. Reviews, Magazines, and works of a similar descrip- 
 tion, consisting of various- sized letter, if cast up to the 
 different bodies, to be paid 2s. 6d. per sheet extra. 
 
 No deduction to be made for printed copy partially intro- 
 duced in Reviews, Magazines, &c. ; nor for leads occasionally 
 used in them, unless with sizes of type leaded throughout ac- 
 cording to the plan of the work. 
 
 8. Pamphlets of five sheets and under, and parts of 
 works done in different houses, amounting to not more 
 than five sheets, to be paid one shilling per sheet extra ; 
 but as it frequently occurs that works exceeding a pam- 
 phlet are often nearly made up without a return of letter, 
 all such works shall be considered as pamphlets, and paid 
 for as such. 
 
 In works of more than five sheets, where two-thirds are 
 made up without a return of letter and leads, either of its own 
 or of a similar work, Is. per sheet extra to be paid upon the 
 whole work. If, however, the work be published in separate 
 volumes, and the letter of the first volume be used for the 
 second, or of the second for the third, no charge for making 
 up letter to be made beyond the first volume. 
 
 Parts of works done at different houses to be cast up ac- 
 cording to the respective merits of the different parts ; and if 
 consisting of a sheet, or less, to be cast up according to Art. 20. 
 
 9. "Works done in Sixteens, Eighteens, Twenty-fours, 
 or Thirty-twos, on Small Pica and upwards, to be paid 
 Is. 6d. per sheet extra. If on Long Primer, or smaller 
 type, Is. per sheet extra. Forty-eights to be paid 2s. per 
 sheet extra, and Sixty-fours 2s. 6d. per sheet extra. 
 
 In casting up, no sheet to be considered single which ex- 
 ceeds 520 superficial inches of printed matter, including borders 
 and rules and the inner margins ; all of larger dimensions to 
 be cast up as two single sheets of half the number of pages of 
 
SCALE OF PRTCES. 121 
 
 which, the whole sheet consists, viz., 4to as folio, 8vo. as 4to., 
 &c., as the case may be. This rule not to include Parliamen- 
 tary work. 
 
 10. Works requiring an alteration or alterations of 
 margin, to be paid for each alteration Is. per sheet to the 
 pressmen, if altered by them, and 6d. to the compositor, 
 as a compensation for making up the furniture ; if altered 
 by the compositor, then he is to be paid Is. for the altera- 
 tion, and the pressmen 6d. for the delay. This article to 
 be determined on solely at the option of the employer. 
 
 11. Bottom notes consisting of twenty lines (or two 
 notes, though not amounting to twenty lines) and not ex- 
 ceeding four pages in every ten sheets, in quarto or octavo : 
 one page (or two notes, though not amounting to one 
 page) and not exceeding six pages in twelves : two pages 
 (or two notes, though not amounting to two pages) and 
 not exceeding eight, in eighteens or above, to be paid Is. 
 per sheet ; but under the above proportion, no charge to 
 be made. Bottom notes consisting of ten lines (or two 
 notes, though not amounting to ten lines), in a pamphlet 
 of five sheets or under, and not exceeding two pages, to be 
 paid Is. per sheet extra. Quotations, mottoes, contents to 
 chapters, &c., in smaller type than the body, to be con- 
 sidered as notes. [Where the notes shall be in Nonpareil 
 or Pearl, in twelves, the number of pages to be restricted 
 to four ; in eighteens, to five pages.] This Article is in- 
 tended only to fix what constitutes the charge of Is. per 
 sheet for bottom notes : all works requiring a higher charge 
 than Is. for bottom notes are to be paid for according to 
 their value. 
 
 In order to constitute the charge of Is. per sheet for notes, 
 there must be, 011 the average, in every ten sheets, in 4 to. or 
 8vo., one note of 20 lines, or two notes though not amounting 
 to 20 lines ; in 12mo. one page, or two notes though not 
 amounting to one page ; in 18mo. and above, two pages, or two 
 notes though not amounting to two pages. 
 
122 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 Thus, in 4to. and 8vo. work, there must be 
 In 10 sheets, 1 note of 20 lines . . . or 2 notes not amounting 
 
 to 20 lines, 
 15 ,, 2 notes amounting to 40 lines, or 3 ditto, 
 
 20 ditto or 4 ditto, 
 
 25 ,, 3 notes amounting to 60 lines, or 5 ditto, 
 
 30 ditto or 6 ditto, 
 
 and so on in proportion. 
 
 Notes exceeding the maximum quantity specified in this 
 
 article, to be paid Is. 6d. per sheet. If the quantity of notes 
 
 entitle to a further advance, the whole to be measured off and 
 
 cast up as a distinct body, Is. per sheet being paid for placing. 
 
 Example : In a work of Sixteen Sheets. 
 
 . s. d. 
 
 Pica, 12 sheets at 14s. per sheet . . .880 
 Long Primer, 4 sheets at 21s. 6d. per sheet . 460 
 Placing 16 
 
 13 10 
 
 In measuring off notes, quotations, &c., the actual quantity 
 of small type to be reckoned ; and when it exceeds one line, 
 one line extra to be allowed for the white, but when there is 
 only one line of small type, one line only to be reckoned ; i.e. 
 for each separate quantity of note, quotation, &c., exceeding 
 one line, one line 'extra to be reckoned for the space which 
 separates it from the text. Where no space appears, no line 
 to be reckoned. 
 
 If two or more notes occur in one line, each reference to 
 be considered a note in counting, but not a separate line in 
 measuring off. 
 
 In calculating the charge of Is. per sheet for notes, the 
 note type to be considered as two sizes less than the text 
 type. Notes set up in a type three or more removes from that 
 used for the text to be reckoned according to the relative 
 proportions of two removes. 
 
 Works having notes upon notes, quotations, &c., set up in 
 a smaller type than the notes, to be paid Is. per sheet extra on 
 every sheet where such notes, &c. occur. If, however, this 
 extra charge be not equivalent to the value of the matter set 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 123 
 
 in any one sheet, such, matter to be measured off and paid for 
 upon the same principle as bottom notes. 
 
 Type between the sizes of the text and the notes to be paid 
 for as follows :The quantity to be measured off, and the 
 difference of value between it and the text type charged, with 
 the addition of Is. per sheet for placing in every sheet in which 
 it occurs ; if occurring in three-fourths of the work, Is. per 
 sheet for placing to be paid throughout. 
 
 12. Side notes to folios and quartos not exceeding a 
 broad quotation, if only chapter or date, and not exceeding 
 three explanatory lines on an average in each page, to be 
 paid Is. per sheet ; in octavo, if only chapter or date, and 
 not exceeding three explanatory lines on an average in 
 each page, Is. 6d. per sheet. Cut-in notes in smaller type 
 than the body to be paid for in a similar manner. Side 
 and bottom notes to many, particularly historical and law 
 works, if attended with more than ordinary trouble, to be 
 settled between the employer and journeyman. 
 
 Side notes in 12mo. to be paid 2s. per sheet ; in 16mo., 
 18mo., and above, 2s. Qd. per sheet. 
 
 Side notes set up in Nonpareil, though not exceeding the 
 quantity specified in this article, and not cast up to their value, 
 to be paid 6d. per sheet additional ; if in Pearl, Is. per sheet 
 additional. 
 
 Where side notes exceed the maximum quantity specified, 
 viz., chapter or date, and three explanatory lines on an average 
 in each page, the actual number of lines set up to be counted 
 and paid at treble their price as common matter, as an equi- 
 valent for composing and making up. In casting up, the 
 actual width only of the text and side notes to be taken 
 respectively. 
 
 Side notes and Cut-in notes, occurring in distinct portions 
 of works, or in less than one-fourth part of a work, not to 
 form a pro raid charge per sheet, but to be paid on those sheets 
 only in which they appear. 
 
 Double side notes, or notes upon each side of the page, to 
 be paid double the price specified for notes on one side of the 
 
*24 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 page ; but if occurring occasionally, to be paid on those sheets 
 only in which they appear. 
 
 Figures in the margin down the side of a page not to be 
 considered as side notes ; but to be charged extra according to 
 the trouble occasioned. 
 
 Under-runners not to be cast up with the side notes, but 
 to be paid by agreement between the employer and journey- 
 men. 
 
 13. Greek, Hebrew, Saxon, &c., or any of the dead cha- 
 racters, if one word and not exceeding three lines in any 
 one sheet, to be paid for that sheet Is. extra ; all aboye to 
 be paid according to their value. 
 
 Greek, &c., exceeding 3 lines in any one sheet, to be paid 
 Is. per sheet in addition to its value as cast up ; the 3 lines 
 specified for the Is. charge being deducted. 
 
 14. Greek, with space lines, and without accents, to be 
 paid 8%d. per 1000 ; if with separate accents, 10<#.; without 
 space lines, and without accents, 8f d. ; with accents, 10|cL ; 
 the asper not to be considered an accent. (If Dictionary 
 matter, to take one halfpenny advance.) 
 
 15. Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, &c., to be paid double. 
 Hebrew with points to be cast up as half body and half 
 points doubled. 
 
 16. Music to be paid double the body of the sonnet type. 
 
 Music to be paid by agreement between the employer and 
 journeyman, the foregoing article being wholly inapplicable to 
 instrumental music. 
 
 17. Index matter, though but one measure, to be paid 
 2. per sheet extra. 
 
 18. Booksellers' Catalogues (in whatever language) to 
 be cast up at 7d. per 1000 ; not including the numbering. 
 
 This Article applies to Booksellers' Catalogues only. 
 "Not including the numbering" means, that, when the 
 compositor has to supply or correct the numbers used in a 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 125 
 
 bookseller's catalogue, an extra charge shall be made equiva- 
 lent to the loss of time occasioned. 
 
 The words "in whatever language" mean those in which 
 common type is used. 
 
 Notes or remarks in smaller type inserted in a bookseller's 
 catalogue, to be paid as bottom notes. 
 
 19. Night- work to commence and be paid for, from ten 
 o'clock till twelve, Is. ; all after to be paid 3d. per hour 
 extra till six. Morning work, commencing at four o'clock^ 
 to be paid Is. extra. Sunday work, if not exceeding six 
 hours, to be paid for, Is.; if for a longer time, 2d. an hour. 
 
 20. Jobs of one sheet or under (except Auctioneers' 
 Catalogues and Particulars) to be cast up at 7d. per 1000 ; 
 if done in smaller type than Brevier, to take the 
 proportionate advance specified in Article 1. If in 
 foreign language, of one sheet or under (except Auc- 
 tioneers' Catalogues), to be cast up at 8d. per 1000 ; if 
 done in smaller type than Brevier, to take the propor- 
 tionate advance specified in Article 1. 
 
 Auctioneers' Catalogues and Particulars to be cast up at 
 6d. per 1000 leaded or solid, and irrespectively of extent. 
 Small type introduced, or any other extra, to be paid as in 
 book-work. The " Conditions" page, if standing, to be paid 
 as a page of the catalogue ; but if composed, according to the 
 type in which it is set up. 
 
 Tracts of one sheet or under, printed for Religious or other 
 Societies, or forming part of an uniform series, not to be con- 
 sidered jobs, but to be cast up according to Article 1, with the 
 addition of 2s. 6d. per sheet. 
 
 Jobs of the character of bookwork to be cast up in sheets, 
 with the usual extras, and the portion of the sheet which is 
 actually set up or imposed to be charged. 
 
 21. Where two pages only are imposed, either opposite 
 to or at the back of each other, they shall be paid for as 
 two pages j but if with an indorse, or any other kind of 
 
126 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 matter constituting a third, then to be paid as a sheet if 
 in folio, a half-sheet if in quarto, and so on. 
 
 In works printed on every alternate page only, the blank 
 at the back of each page not to be charged. 
 
 22. Broadsides, such as Leases, Deeds, and Charter- 
 parties, above the dimensions of crown, whether table or 
 common matter, to be paid the double of common matter ; 
 on crown and under, to be paid one and one-half common 
 matter. The indorse to be paid one-fourth of the inside 
 page as common matter. 
 
 This article to apply to undisplayed Broadsides of one mea- 
 sure ; if set up in 2, 3, or 4 columns, to be paid one-fourth the 
 price of common matter extra. 
 
 Displayed Broadsides to be paid as follows : 
 If containing more than 16 lines 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Foolscap or Crown 50 
 
 Demy ..70 
 
 Royal '...86 
 
 Double Crown 10 
 
 If containing 13, and not more than 16 lines, three-fourths 
 of the prices specified ; if 12 lines and under, one-half. 
 
 23. All corrections to be paid 6d. per hour. 
 
 24. The imprint to be considered as two lines in the 
 square of the page. 
 
 25. Different volumes of the same work to be paid for 
 distinctly, according to their value. 
 
127 
 
 At a Meeting of the Masters, held at the Globe Tavern, 
 Jan. 16, 1816, the following modification took place 
 in the Compositors' Scale of Prices of 1810, as far as 
 regards Reprints : 
 
 All Eeprinted Works to be paid Three Farthings per 
 1000 less than the scale of 1810. All Manuscript or Ori- 
 ginal Works shall continue to be paid for as at present. 
 
 Reprints, with numerous MS. insertions interspersed 
 throughout ; or so materially altered as to consist of half MS. 
 and half reprint ; or derived from various sources not being 
 the compilation of the works of one author, to be considered 
 Manuscript or Original works. 
 
 [An entire chapter or portion in MS. not to be considered 
 as part of the one-half above mentioned, but to be paid as 
 MS.] 
 
 Reprints having less MS. alterations than above stated, to 
 be paid one halfpenny per 1000 less than the scale of 1810. 
 
 [Verbal corrections, simple alterations of style, or typo- 
 graphical alterations, not to be considered MS. alterations.] 
 
 The text of an author reprinted with a MS. commentary at 
 the foot of the page, to be paid one halfpenny per 1000 less 
 than the scale of 1810. 
 
128 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 APPEAL CASES. 
 
 APPEAL CASES to be cast up at 7d. per 1000 j* if above 40 
 ems Pica in width., to be cast up at 8d. per 1000. Side notes 
 to Appeal Cases, whether light or heavy, to be paid per sheet 
 of 4 pp. folio, if on a broad quotation, 3s. ; double narrow, 5s. ; 
 double broad, 6s. 
 
 COLUMN MATTER. 
 
 Column Matter, as distinguished from Table and Tabular, 
 is matter made up continuously in two or more columns not 
 dependent upon each other for their arrangement. To be paid 
 as follows : 
 
 2 column matter in sizes less than folio : 
 
 In 4to. and 8vo . . . .Is. Od. per sheet. 
 
 12mo Is. 6d. 
 
 16mo. and smaller sizes . . 2s. Qd. 
 
 3 columns : 
 
 In pages 21 ems Pica or less wide, one-fourth more than 
 
 common matter. 
 In pages of greater width, 2s. per sheet extra. 
 
 4 columns : 
 
 In folio and 4to., 4s. per sheet. 
 
 In 8vo. and smaller sizes, in pages 22 ems Pica and less 
 wide, one-half more than common matter ; in pages of 
 greater width, one-fourth more than common matter. 
 
 * When Chancery Bills were first printed, they were charged 
 at the game rate as Appeal Cases, Id. per 1000 ; hut the price has 
 since been reduced to 6|df. 
 
SCALE OF PEICES. 129 
 
 5 columns : 
 
 In folio and 4to., one-half more than common matter ; 
 in 8vo. and smaller sizes, double the price of common 
 matter. 
 
 Column matter not exceeding 5 ems Pica in width to be 
 paid one-half more than common matter ; not exceeding 4 
 ems Pica, double the price of common matter. 
 
 The above charges to be made upon every description of 
 work, and to include the insertion of column rules when re- 
 quired. 
 
 Parallel matter, dialogues, vocabularies, comparative 
 statements, and matter of a similar description, although 
 arranged in columns depending upon each other, to be con- 
 sidered as column matter ; if attended with extra trouble, to 
 be arranged between the employer and journeyman. 
 
 Two-column matter interspersed throughout the text of a 
 work, to be paid in 4to., 8vo., and 12mo., 6d. per sheet extra ; 
 in 16mo. and smaller sizes, Is. per sheet extra; if constituting 
 more than half the work, to be paid as if the whole sheet were 
 column matter. 
 
 TABULAR AND TABLE WORK. 
 
 Tabular and Table Work is matter set up in three or more 
 columns depending upon each other and reading across the 
 page. To be paid as follows : 
 
 3 columns without headings, one-fourth extra. 
 
 3 columns with headings, or 4 columns without, one-half 
 extra. 
 
 4 columns with headings, and 5 or more with or without, 
 double the price of common matter. 
 
 Headings in smaller type than the body, but not exceeding 
 
 two removes from it, if not more than 3 lines in depth, to be 
 
 paid Is. per sheet extra ; if more than 3 lines, or if in smaller 
 
 type than two removes, to be cast up according to the relative 
 
 k 
 
130 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 values of the two bodies ; the greatest number of appearing 
 lines being considered the depth. 
 
 The following to be considered a definition of the word 
 heading : 
 
 Parish. 
 
 Name of Voter. 
 
 Residence. 
 
 Chelsea . . . 
 
 John Smith . . 
 
 Belgrave-place. 
 
 Or thus, when set in smaller type, and forming three or 
 more lines : 
 
 Name Trade Place 
 
 of or of 
 
 Voter. Profession. Residence. 
 
 John Smith Wheelwright Chelsea. 
 
 Blank Tables to be cast up double the price of the text 
 type of the work. No extra charge to be made for headings 
 in smaller type, unless such headings constitute one-half of 
 the table. 
 
 The extra price for table, tabular, and column matter to 
 be paid upon its actual dimensions only, with the following 
 exceptions : 
 
 Title headings to table and tabular matter to be reckoned 
 as part of such matter ; but if they exceed 5 ems of the body 
 of the table, &c. in depth, 5 ems only to be charged as table, 
 the remainder as common matter. 
 
 Bottom Notes to tables to be paid on the same plan as Title 
 Headings : not to constitute a pro ratd charge per sheet. 
 
 The extra price for table, tabular, and column matter, 
 when paid by an addition to the price per 1000, to be cast up 
 according to Art. 1 ; thus, a Greek table to be paid as once 
 Greek and once English matter. 
 
 WRAPPERS. 
 
 The companionship on a Magazine or Review to be entitled 
 to the first or title-page of the Wrapper of such Magazine or 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 131 
 
 Review ; but not to the remaining pages of such. Wrapper, nor 
 to the Advertising Sheets which may accompany the Maga- 
 rine or Review. 
 
 Standing Advertisements or Stereo-blocks, if forming a 
 complete page, or, when collected together, making one or 
 more complete pages, in a Wrapper or Advertising Sheet of a 
 Magazine or Review, not to be chargeable ; the compositor to 
 charge only for his time in making them up. The remainder 
 of the matter in such Wrapper or Advertising Sheet, including 
 Standing Advertisements or Stereo-blocks not forming a com- 
 plete page, to be charged by the Compositor, and cast up ac- 
 cording to the 8th or 20th Articles of the Scale, as they may 
 respectively apply ; but the charge of 2s. 6d., as given by 
 Article 7, is not to be superadded. 
 
 Advertisements, and Woodcuts connected with advertise- 
 ments, occurring in Periodical Publications, to be charged in 
 a similar manner. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Prefatory matter, Preliminary Dissertations, Biographical 
 Memoirs, &c., not exceeding a sheet, if set up in type not less 
 than the body of the text, to be paid as pages of the work ; if 
 set up in smaller type, to be cast up with the addition of the 
 extras of the work ; but if either exceed a sheet, to be cast up 
 as Appendices. Half-titles, Titles, Dedications, &c., in all 
 cases to be paid as pages of the work. Appendices, portions 
 of works, &c., set up in a different type from the text, and 
 made up in separate pages, to be cast up upon their own 
 merits ; and if not exceeding five sheets, or if made up without 
 a return of letter, to take one shilling per sheet extra, accord- 
 ing to Art. 8. Indexes being provided for by Art. 17, are not 
 included in this rule. 
 
 Works with rules or borders round the pages, to be cast up 
 according to the actual dimensions of the type, an extra price 
 being paid for the rules or borders according to the trouble 
 occasioned. 
 
 2 
 
132 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 Pedigrees to be paid double the price of common matter ; 
 and the heads and notes upon the same principle as the heads 
 and notes of tables. 
 
 Algebraical and other mathematical works, consisting of 
 mathematical fractional workings numerously interspersed 
 throughout, to be paid double the price of common matter. 
 When, however, such workings are not numerous, they only 
 shall be cast up as double, the remainder of the work being 
 cast up as common matter, with such extra for fractions, &c., 
 as shall be mutually agreed upon between the employer and 
 journeyman. 
 
 Interlinear matter, on the plan of the Hamiltonian system, 
 to be cast up at one and one-half the price of common matter; 
 the actual number of lines of small type only being reckoned, 
 In grammars, &c., where words and figures; not being a literal 
 translation, are arranged between the lines, one-fourth more 
 than common matter to be paid. 
 
 All works to be cast up as sent to press, except by mutual 
 agreement between the employer and the journeyman. 
 
 "Works sent out in slips not made up into perfect pages, 
 to be made up at the expense of the employer ; if in two or 
 three columns, provided that each column exceeds 12 ems 
 Pica in width, no charge for column matter to be made in the 
 casting up. If set up in Long Primer or smaller type, the 
 charges for 16mo., 18mo., &c., under Art. 9, to be relinquished ; 
 if sent out without head-lines, the value of the head-lines to 
 be deducted from the casting-up. 
 
 Matter driven out by insertions to be charged by the com- 
 positor, but the value to be deducted from the time taken in 
 driving out such matter ; when driven out by leads, the over- 
 matter to be charged by the compositor, deducting the time 
 taken in inserting the leads ; when driven out by the insertion 
 of woodcuts, the matter to be charged, but the time taken in 
 justi tying such woodcuts to be deducted. 
 
 When, in consequence of notes being struck out in authors' 
 proofs, the pro ratd charge per sheet is destroyed, the com- 
 positor shall only charge for notes upon the sheets where they 
 originally appeared. 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 133 
 
 Blank pages to be filled up at the option of the author, 
 the compositor charging for his previous trouble in making 
 up the blank. 
 
 Cancels in all cases to be charged as pages of the work. 
 
 When woodcuts constitute more than one-fourth of the 
 work, the mode of charging such woodcuts shall be settled 
 between the employer and journeyman. 
 
 Bills in Parliament : 
 
 English, 26 ems wide by 47 ems long. 
 
 Without side notes, per sheet 6*. Qd. 
 
 With broad quotation side notes, ditto 9s. Qd. 
 
 With double narrow side notes, ditto 10s. Qd. 
 
 Pica, 29 ems wide by 53 ems long. 
 
 Without sides notes, per sheet 7*. Orf. 
 
 With broad quotation side notes, ditto 10*. Od. 
 
 With double narrow side notes, ditto 11s. Qd. 
 
 Compositors on the establishment to receive not less than 
 33s. per week, for 10| hours of full work per day. An extra 
 allowance to be made for working beyond the time specified. 
 
 Compositors to receive and give a fortnight's notice previ- 
 ously to their engagement being terminated. 
 
 The above Scale to come into operation on the 1st 
 December, 1847, and to be applicable to all descriptions of 
 work mentioned therein commenced after that date. 
 
 On behalf of the Masters. On behalf of the Compositors. 
 
 (Signed) WILLIAM RIVIBGTON. (Signed) WILLIAM DREW. 
 
 JNO. A. D. Cox. ROBERT CHAPMAN. 
 
 ALEX. MACINTOSH. GEO. EDW. ADCOCK. 
 
 T. R. HARRISON. FRANCIS FELTOE. 
 
 RICHARD CLAY. JOHN FERGUSON. 
 
 GEORGE CLOWES. WM. CRAIG. 
 
 J. ILIFFE WILSON. LEWIS MILLER. 
 
 CHARLES WHITTINGHAM. EDWARD EDWARDS. 
 
 Freemasons' Tavern, 
 
 Nov. th, 1847. 
 
134 
 
 ABSTRACT OF THE SCALE. 
 
 ENGLISH to ) 
 BREVIER \ 
 
 ( leaded 
 \ solid 
 
 PEi - f s 
 
 DIAMOND .. j l 
 ( 
 
 ead *<* 
 solid 
 
 DICTION- 
 ARIES. 
 
 g 
 
 English a 
 Foreign 
 
 GRAMMARS, 
 ETC. 
 
 ish a 
 reign 
 
 Without 
 Accents 
 
 81 
 
 ENGLISH to ) I leaded 
 BREVIER \ \ solid 
 
 64 
 
 71 
 
 91 
 
 D, iM OND_... 
 
 10 
 
 Reprints with MS. inseitions add %d. to the price stated above. 
 Stereotyped matter with high spaces adds \d. to the price stated. 
 Stereotyped matter with low spaces adds d. to the price stated. 
 
 Notes constituting the charge of One Shilling per Sheet. 
 See Article 11, 
 
 4to and 8vo. 20 Lines or 2 Notes, and not exceeding 4 pages in 
 every 10 Sheets. 
 
 1 2mo. 1 Page or 2 Notes, and not exceeding 6 pp. in every 1 Sheets. 
 
 18mo or above. 2 Pages or 2 notes, and not exceeding 8 pages in 
 every 10 Sheets. 
 
 Pamphlets. 10 Lines or 2 Notes, and not exceeding 2 pp. in 5 Sheets. 
 
135 
 
 APPENDIX TO SCALE. 
 
 NEWS AND PARLIAMENTARY WORK, ETC. 
 
 As the preceding Scale is applicable only to book work, 
 as charged in the London district, and makes no reference 
 to news or parliamentary work, nor yet to country prices, 
 it will be desirable to append them in this place. 
 
 SCALE FOR NEWS-WORK. 
 
 Per Week. Per Galley. Per Hour. 
 
 Morning Papers . . . 2 8 - 3s. Wd. - IHd. 
 Evening Papers . . . 2 3 6 - 3s. 7d. - \0\d. 
 
 The charge of tenpence halfpenny per hour refers solely 
 to employment upon time ; every odd quarter of a galley, on 
 quantity, must carry the charge of \\d. ; as the charge of 10^. 
 would bring down the galley to 3s. 6d. ; which is contrary to 
 the scale. 
 
 Assistants on other Journals are paid the same as 
 Evening Papers ; the Sunday Papers, having their galleys 
 of various lengths, are paid at the rate of 8%d. per 1000, 
 or lOd. per hour. 
 
 The only meaning that can be gathered from the first part 
 of this article is, that papers which are published twice or 
 three times a week are paid the same as Evening Papers. 
 With respect to the second part, the price per thousand for a 
 Sunday or weekly paper is the same, but time-work is paid 
 only 10c?. per hour. 
 
 Long Primer and Minion galleys cast as nigh 5000 
 letters as possible (at present varying from that number 
 
136 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 to 5200, partly arising from a variation in the founders' 
 standard), are per 1000 on 
 
 Morning. Evening. 
 
 Long Primer and Minion. . . . 9d. - 8%d. 
 
 Nonpareil Wd. - 9d. 
 
 Pearl * . lid. - I0|d. 
 
 Or a reduction in proportion to value, on the galley quantity. 
 
 This article has been greatly misunderstood ; it has been 
 supposed to contain a license for the news compositor to set 
 up 5200 letters for a galley, but it does not say any such thing ; 
 it simply states the fact, that at the period when the Scale was 
 framed, some galleys contained more than 5000 letters. As 
 the price per thousand is clearly established, the compositor 
 should set up neither more nor less than just such a number 
 of lines as will amount to 3s. IQd. on a Morning Paper, or 3s. Id. 
 on an Evening Paper. 
 
 The galley on Morning Papers consists of 120 lines 
 long primer, and 40 after-lines minion 88, and 30 after- 
 lines on Papers 22 ems long primer wide ; other widths 
 in proportion ; and & finish of five hours. Another mode 
 is, one galley, and a finish of six hours. Twelve hours 
 on and twelve off (including refreshment-time) was the 
 original agreement. 
 
 "The galley on. Morning Papers consists of 120 lines long 
 primer, and 40 after-lines ;" which amounts to just this, that 
 it consists of a galley and a quarter and ten lines (long primer) ; 
 that the workman shall compose 7040 letters for 3s. IQd., instead 
 of receiving his just reward, 5s. 3^d. ; and that the full hand 
 on his first work is paid at the rate of 6^d. per thousand, though 
 the Scale gives him 9d. 
 
 There is also a mis-statement in respect to the length of 
 the galley ; for it will be found that on casting up a galley of 
 the length and width given, it would contain 5280 letters, thus 
 exceeding the legal quantity by 280 letters, and being at direct 
 variance with the first part of the Scale, which directs " that 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 137 
 
 long primer and minion galleys are to be cast as nigh 5000 
 letters as possible." The first direction is that which is really 
 meant to be adopted, and which the remaining regulations of 
 the Scale alone sanction. 
 
 With regard to after-lines upon the first work on Morning 
 Papers, we find that the custom existed as far back as the year 
 1770; but no reason for the practice can be assigned, though it 
 is understood to have been adopted to lighten or to leave 
 nothing to compose for the finish, and thus enable the com- 
 positors to go early to their beds ; an advantage which, from 
 the complete alteration in the nature of Morning Papers, it is 
 totally impossible they now can enjoy. 
 
 By a finish of five hours on Morning, and six hours on 
 Evening Papers, it was not meant that the compositors should 
 produce five or six quarters of a galley, as that would produce 
 considerably more than they were paid for ; but from the best 
 information that can now be obtained of the nature of News- 
 papers at the time this mode of work was introduced, it appears 
 that the first work and after-lines of the full hands and the 
 galley of the supernumeraries were sufficient to produce the 
 paper, and that the "finish" was merely waiting to see 
 whether any news of importance should arrive (during which 
 time they might put in letter for the next day), and assisting 
 to put the paper to press. 
 
 The time of beginning to be the same uniformly as 
 agreed upon by the printer and companionship, i. e. either 
 a two, three, or four o'clock paper and at whatever hour 
 the Journal goes to press one morning, regulates the hour 
 of commencing work for the next day's publication, pro- 
 vided it should be over the hour originally agreed upon 
 if under, the time is in the compositors' favour. The hour 
 of commencing work on Sunday is regulated by the time 
 of finishing on Saturday morning. 
 
 This article it is impossible to understand ; but the general 
 practice appears to be, when the paper goes to press two or 
 three hours after the specified time, to take off one, and some- 
 
138 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 times two, quarters from the first work of the next day ; but 
 generally commencing at the time originally agreed upon on a 
 Sunday, making each week's work complete in itself. 
 
 Ten hours composition is the specified time for Evening 
 Papers all composition to cease when the day's publi- 
 cation goes to press : any work required afterwards to be 
 paid for extra, or deducted from the first work of the next 
 publication. This does not apply to second editions ; they 
 being connected solely with the antecedent paper, must 
 be paid for extra. 
 
 Matter set up for a morning paper is invariably paid morning 
 paper price, although such matter is set up in London, and the 
 paper is published in the provinces. 
 
 Newspapers in a foreign language take, of course, the 
 same advance as is allowed on book-work. 
 
 A system termed finishing having been formerly intro- 
 duced, it is necessary to state that no mode of working 
 can be considered fair (except as before stated) otherwise 
 than by the galley or hour. 
 
 No apprentices to be employed on daily papers. 
 
 Apprentices are not permitted to work on daily papers, 
 whether stamped or unstamped. 
 
 Compositors on weekly papers, when employed on time, 
 charge one hour for every portion of an hour. 
 
 Compositors called in to assist on weekly papers are entitled 
 to charge not less than two hours if employed on time, or less 
 than half a galley if paid by lines ; and persons regularly em- 
 ployed in a house where a weekly paper is done, if required 
 to leave their ordinary work to assist on the paper, are entitled 
 to not less than a quarter of a galley, or an hour, for each time 
 of being called on. 
 
 The method of charging column work upon Newspapers 
 is as follows : half measure is charged one-third more, third 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 139 
 
 measure is charged one-half, and four- column measure is 
 charged double. 
 
 One-fourth is allowed for distribution on weekly papers, 
 when more than one galley has been composed ; but if less 
 than a galley, no deduction is made. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY WORK. 
 
 1. That all work for either House of Parliament, such 
 as Reports, Minutes of Evidence, &c., as well as Reports 
 of Royal Commissions of Inquiry, whether manuscript or 
 reprint, leaded or solid, to be charged as 6\d. per 1000, 
 including English and Brevier ; and always to be cast up 
 according to the type in which it is composed. Tables to 
 be charged Is. Id. per thousand. 
 
 2. That all works not intended for either House of 
 Parliament, but executed for the Public Departments, to 
 be paid according to the Scale for Book-work, with all 
 the extras. 
 
 3. That Private Parliamentary Bills be charged 7d. 
 per thousand, and table-matter in them at Is. 2d. per 
 thousand. 
 
 This article does not interfere with those bills in Par- 
 liament which are of the regular size, and for which a stated 
 price is paid. 
 
 4. That pica or any other type as a standard is in 
 opposition to the practice of the business, and in no case 
 to be admitted ; but all Reports, Minutes of Evidence, 
 
 Accounts, Appendices, &c., are to be cast up according to 
 
 the type in which they are composed. 
 
 5. That pages consisting of two or three columns 
 with one or more headings, or three or four columns without 
 
140 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 headings, to be charged as tabular, or one and one-half 
 common matter. 
 
 6. That pages consisting of four or more columns, with 
 one or more headings, or five or more columns without 
 headings, to be charged as table, or double the price of 
 common matter. 
 
 7. That when short pages occur in a series of tables, 
 to be charged as full pages, but where a table or piece of 
 table occurs in a Report, &c., to be charged only the depth 
 of the table, measuring from the head to the conclusion 
 of the table. The same rule to apply to tabular. 
 
 In a series of tables, all pieces of pages left blank are charged 
 as table ; in jobs or works consisting of plain matter, where 
 tables or tabular matter are introduced, whatever blank occurs 
 is considered as common matter ; unless the table or tabular 
 matter forms more than three-fourths of a page ; in which 
 latter case, the page is charged as a full page table or tabular, 
 as the case may be. 
 
 8. That all headings to table or tabular matter, when 
 in smaller type than the body of the table, to be charged 
 extra. 
 
 9. Pages consisting of four or five blank columns to be 
 charged tabular ; but when the columns are six or more, 
 to be charged table, cast up to the size of the type used 
 in the Reports or Bills in which they occur. 
 
 10. When blank forms are used by themselves, de- 
 tached from any Bill, &c., to be charged as pica table or 
 tabular, according to the number of the columns, as 
 specified in Resolution IX. 
 
 11. Plain matter divided into two columns to be 
 charged not less than Is. per sheet. 
 
 12. All read-over pages (as in Dr. and Cr. accounts 
 of two pages) where one page only is tabular or table, the 
 same charge to be made for both pages, and in no case 
 shall read-over pages be charged less than tabular. 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 141 
 
 13. Side notes of *' broad quotations," and not exceed- 
 ing five lines per page, in quartos and folios to be charged 
 Is. 6d. per sheet; in " double narrows," not exceeding 
 five lines per page, 2s. per sheet, throughout such Eeport, 
 Appendix, &c., excepting when pages comprising the 
 whole width of the page (including the space for side 
 notes) shall occur : all above that proportion to be paid 
 ad valorem. Where double side notes occur in a page, to 
 be charged double the above sum. 
 
 Reports, Minutes of Evidence, and Appendices, are all 
 cast up separately, and take only the extras which strictly 
 belong to them. Thus, if a Report, &c. have side notes, and 
 the Appendix is without side notes, no charge is made on the 
 Appendix for side notes. 
 
 14. Where two bottom notes, or one note of twenty 
 lines, occur in a Eeport, Bill, Appendix, &c., a charge of 
 Is. per sheet to be made throughout such Eeport, Bill, 
 Appendix, &c. ; all above to be charged according to their 
 value. 
 
 N.B. The foregoing Regulations are applicable solely to 
 Parliamentary Work. 
 
 PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 1. Publications, and parts of publications, when pulled 
 in galleys or slips, to be made up at the expense of the 
 employer. 
 
 This regulation is to guard the compositor from having 
 two makings -up and two impositions ; if he be ordered to 
 make up his matter in slips, or have it pulled in galleys, he 
 is not to make it up into pages, without being paid for the 
 time it takes to make up and impose. 
 
142 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 It is contrary to the spirit of this regulation for any com- 
 positor to accept a price for pulling his galleys, and then make 
 his matter up at his own expense. 
 
 2. Publications containing two bodies (not being notes) 
 to be cast up to the respective founts, and charged the 
 2s. 6d. allowed by the 7th article of the compositors' scale. 
 
 This article applies solely to periodicals. The regulations 
 respecting mixed bodies are, that one body shall be taken 
 for the width, and the other for the depth. 
 
 3. All publications which appear weekly, or at shorter 
 periods, whether stamped or unstamped, which contain 
 general news, such as parliamentary reports, reports of 
 police or law courts, foreign or provincial intelligence, 
 reports of daily occurrences, or notices of bankrupts, to be 
 paid according to the existing scale for newspapers ; but 
 all those which contain only reviews of books, notices of 
 dramatic or musical performances, articles on the fine arts, 
 accounts of the meetings and proceedings of religious, 
 literary, or scientific societies, and advertisements, to be 
 paid the same as monthly or quarterly publications. 
 
 This article is intended to define what constitutes a news- 
 paper. If the matter is such as is described in the first part 
 of this article, it is to be paid according to the scale regulating 
 the charge for newspapers, and subject to the same rules ; 
 but the publications described in the latter part of the article 
 are charged according to the Book Scale, taking the usual 
 extras, and the companions are entitled to any standing mat- 
 ter in such publications, the wrapper, &c. &c. Should the 
 mode, however, of getting up these publications materially 
 differ from the common mode of doing book- work, and the 
 compositors have frequently to make even lines, with takings 
 of a few lines each, and other disadvantages connected with 
 a newspaper, then they take the newspaper charge. 
 
 4. No companionship to allow its work to be made up 
 
SCALE OP PRICES. 143 
 
 by an individual on the establishment, or in any other way 
 effect a compromise with the employer, contrary to the 
 usage of the trade. 
 
 T his stipulation was to remedy the practice of establish- 
 ment-men making up the matter of compositors on the piece ; 
 thus securing the principal advantage to the employers, who 
 paid for the matter, occasionally, only a halfpenny or a penny 
 extra per 1000. It does not prevent, however, a companion- 
 ship appointing one of their number to make up their 
 matter, upon such terms as they may agree to among them- 
 selves. 
 
 When a publication is pulled in galleys, and afterwards 
 made up at the expense of the employer, the compositors in 
 casting up their matter, reckon the head and white lines be- 
 longing to the pages. * 
 
 COUNTRY PRICES. 
 
 The following will be found to be the main features 
 of the charges for composing in some of the principal 
 towns in the kingdom. 
 
 Leeds. All works in the English language, common 
 matter, including English and minion, are charged 5d. 
 per 1000, nonpareil-minion, 5$d. (for the news, 6d.) ; 
 nonpareil and ruby, 6d., and pearl Id. Works in great 
 primer to be cast up as English ; and all works in larger 
 type than great primer, as half English and half great 
 primer. Foreign languages are charged ^d. extra ; and 
 English dictionaries, from English to brevier, 5ld. Greek, 
 without accents, 7|cZ. ; with accents, 91$.,, with \d. per 1000 
 
 * For the preceding observations relating to Parliamentary 
 Work and Periodical Publications, I am indebted to the Green 
 Book, issued under the superintendence of the Trade Council of 
 the London Union of Compositors. 
 
144 SCALE OF PRICES. 
 
 additional for dictionaries. Hebrew, Arabic, Syriae, &c., 
 are paid double ; with points, as half body and half points 
 doubled. Night work commences at ten o'clock, and is 
 paid Is. ; corrections, 6d. per hour. The establishment 
 wages are generally 26s. per week. 
 
 York. Most of the hands employed here, are engaged 
 on the establishment, the usual rate being about 25s. per 
 week. 
 
 Sheffield, Manchester, Liverpool. In these towns also, 
 weekly wages are the general rule, varying from 27s. to 
 80s. Piece-work prevails on some newspapers, the rate 
 varying from 5d. to Id. per 1000, according to the size of 
 the type. 
 
 Edinburgh. Common matter, English language, is 
 charged at 4hd. per 1000 ; but sessions work and jobs are 
 cast up at 5^d. Dictionaries are charged 5d., and pam- 
 phlets of five sheets and under are paid Is. per sheet above 
 what they come to by letters. Grammars and school- 
 books are generally paid at 5^., where much Roman find 
 Italic occur, with braces, different justifications, &c. 
 Foreign languages, common type, are cast up at 5d., as is 
 also nonpareil ; and pearl is charged 5hd. per 1000. 
 
 Dublin. "Works in the English language, common 
 matter (from brevier to English), are cast up at 5d. per 
 1000 ; minion, 5d. ; nonpareil, G\d. ; and pearl, l\d. 
 Works in foreign languages take an advance of one half- 
 penny. Greek without accents is paid Sd. ; with accents, 
 9d. Hebrew, Arabic, Saxon, Syriac, &c., are charged 
 double. Arithmetics, and similar works, are charged 2d. 
 per 1000 more than the ordinary price. Algebraic works 
 are cast up at lOd. ; if Algebra be mixed with other 
 matter, it is charged from Sd. to 6d., according to quantity. 
 English dictionaries are cast up at 5^d. ; dictionaries of 
 
SCALE OF PRICES. 145 
 
 two or more languages, common type, at 6d. ; English 
 grammars, spelling-books, and similar works, are paid 5%d. ; 
 of two languages, or foreign, 5%d. Time is reckoned at 6d. 
 per hour. 
 
 Belfast. In this town it is customary to charge 
 nonpareil at 5jd. per 1000 ; minion, 5d. ; brevier and up to 
 English, 4|dL Jobs are paid at the rate of 5f d. ; and 
 pamphlets of five sheets and under, 5d. Grammars and 
 school-books where there is much extra labor, take an 
 advance of Id. per 1000 ; and bottom notes are charged a 
 halfpenny more than the text. Corrections are done at 
 6d. per hour. Establishment wages are from 21 s. to 22*. 
 per week. 
 
 It is unnecessary to give the practice of towns of less 
 importance ; for in most places weekly wages prevail. I 
 will only add, that the rate of payment is generally highest 
 in the neighbourhood of London, and in the North, and 
 lowest in the West of England and the country districts of 
 Scotland and Ireland, 
 
 It is owing to this circumstance, undoubtedly, that the 
 London trade is principally recruited from those ill-paid 
 districts ; for in them, it is Nothing uncommon for almost 
 all the work to be executed by apprentices, who are, as a 
 matter of course, sent adrift as soon as their term of 
 servitude has expired. 
 
 For the convenience of the compositor, the following- 
 table, showing the price of any number of letters from 
 10,000 to 50,000, at all prices, from 5d. to 9d., is here given. 
 Higher numbers are easily ascertained by adding together 
 two or more of their component parts. 
 
146 TABLE showing the price of any number of letters from 
 
 TH. 
 
 5d. 
 
 5|A 
 
 %J. 
 
 5Jd. 
 
 6d. 
 
 6K 
 
 6J<*. 
 
 6fd. 
 
 
 8. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 *. d. 
 
 s. d 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 10 
 
 4 2 
 
 4 44 
 
 4 7 
 
 4 9| 
 
 5 
 
 5 21 
 
 55 5 74 
 
 11 
 
 4 7 
 
 4 9| 
 
 5 0| 
 
 5 3J 
 
 5 6 
 
 5 8| 
 
 5 114 6 21 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 5 3 
 
 5 6 
 
 5 9 
 
 6 
 
 6 3 
 
 66 69 
 
 13 
 
 5 5 
 
 5 8i 
 
 5 114 
 
 6 2| 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 9 
 
 7 01 
 
 7 3f 
 
 14 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 li 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 81 
 
 7 
 
 7 31 
 
 7 7 
 
 7 104 
 
 15 
 
 6 3 
 
 6 6| 
 
 6 101 
 
 7 2| 
 
 7 6 
 
 7 9} 
 
 8 14 
 
 8 54 
 
 16 
 
 6 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 4 
 
 7 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 4 
 
 8 8 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 7 1 
 7 6 
 
 7 ^ 
 7 104 
 
 7 91 
 8 3 
 
 8 If 
 8 7J 
 
 8 6 
 9 
 
 8 101 
 9 44 
 
 9 24 
 9 9 
 
 9 6f 
 
 10 14 
 
 19 
 
 7 11 
 
 8 3| 
 
 8 8| 
 
 9 1* 
 
 9 6 
 
 9 10J 
 
 10 34 
 
 10 84 
 
 20 
 
 8 4 
 
 8 9 
 
 9 2 
 
 9 7 
 
 10 
 
 10 5 
 
 10 10 
 
 11 3 
 
 21 
 
 8 9 
 
 9 2i 
 
 9 71 
 
 10 Of 
 
 10 6 
 
 10 111 
 
 11 4 
 
 11 9f 
 
 22 
 
 9 2 
 
 9 74 
 
 10 1 
 
 10 64 
 
 11 
 
 11 51 
 
 11 11 
 
 12 4| 
 
 23 
 
 9 7 
 
 10 Of 
 
 10 6J 
 
 11 04 
 
 11 6 
 
 11 11| 
 
 12 54 
 
 12 11J 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 10 6 
 
 11 
 
 11 6 
 
 12 
 
 12 6 
 
 13 
 
 13 6 
 
 25 
 
 10 5 
 
 10 Hi 
 
 11 5| 
 
 11 llf 
 
 12 6 
 
 13 01 
 
 13 64 
 
 14 0| 
 
 26 
 
 10 10 
 
 11 44 
 
 11 11 
 
 12 5| 
 
 13 
 
 13 6J 
 
 14 1 
 
 14 74 
 
 27 
 
 11 3 
 
 11 9| 
 
 12 41 
 
 12 Hi 
 
 13 6 
 
 14 0} 
 
 14 74 
 
 15 21 
 
 28 
 
 11 8 
 
 12 3 
 
 12 10 
 
 13 5 
 
 14 
 
 14 7 
 
 15 2 
 
 15 9 
 
 29 
 
 12 1 
 
 12 81 
 
 13 34 
 
 13 lOf 
 
 14 6 
 
 15 li 
 
 15 84 
 
 16 3| 
 
 80 
 
 12 6 
 
 13 14 
 
 13 9 
 
 14 44 
 
 15 
 
 15 74 
 
 16 3 
 
 16 104 
 
 31 
 
 12 11 
 
 13 6| 
 
 14 2| 
 
 14 104 
 
 15 6 
 
 16 If 
 
 16 94 
 
 17 51 
 
 32 
 
 13 4 
 
 14 
 
 14 8 
 
 15 4 
 
 16 
 
 16 8 
 
 17 4 
 
 18 
 
 33 
 
 13 9 
 
 14 51 
 
 15 1| 
 
 15 9| 
 
 16 6 
 
 17 2| 
 
 17 104 
 
 18 6J 
 
 34 
 
 14 2 
 
 14 101 
 
 15 7 
 
 16 3| 
 
 17 
 
 17 84 
 
 18 5 
 
 19 14 
 
 85 
 
 14 7 
 
 15 3| 
 
 16 Oi 
 
 16 91 
 
 17 6 
 
 18 2J 
 
 18 114 
 
 19 8i 
 
 36 
 
 15 
 
 15 9 
 
 16 6 
 
 17 3 
 
 18 
 
 18 9 
 
 19 6 
 
 20 3 
 
 37 
 
 15 5 
 
 16 2J 
 
 16 11| 
 
 17 8| 
 
 18 6 
 
 19 3i 
 
 20 04 
 
 20 9| 
 
 38 
 
 15 10 
 
 16 7k 
 
 17 5 
 
 18 24 
 
 19 
 
 19 9| 
 
 20 7 
 
 21 41 
 
 39 
 
 16 3 
 
 17 Of 
 
 17 101 
 
 18 8* 
 
 19 6 
 
 20 3| 
 
 21 14 
 
 21 ll| 
 
 40 
 
 16 8 
 
 17 6 
 
 18 4 
 
 19 2 
 
 20 
 
 20 10 
 
 21 8 
 
 22 6 
 
 41 
 
 17 1 
 
 17 H| 
 
 18 9J 
 
 19 7| 
 
 20 6 
 
 21 4J 
 
 22 24 
 
 23 Of 
 
 42 
 
 17 6 
 
 18 44 
 
 19 3 
 
 20 14 
 
 21 
 
 21 104 
 
 22 9 
 
 23 74 
 
 43 
 
 17 11 
 
 18 9| 
 
 19 84 
 
 20 11 
 
 21 6 
 
 22 4| 
 
 23 34 
 
 24 2i 
 
 44 
 
 18 4 
 
 19 3 
 
 20 2 
 
 21 1 
 
 22 
 
 22 11 
 
 23 10 
 
 24 9 
 
 45 
 
 18 9 
 
 19 81 
 
 20 74 
 
 21 6} 
 
 22 6 
 
 23 5k 
 
 24 44 
 
 25 3| 
 
 46 
 
 19 2 
 
 20 li 
 
 21 1 
 
 22 04 
 
 23 
 
 23 114 
 
 24 11 
 
 25 104 
 
 47 
 
 19 7 
 
 20 6| 
 
 21 4 
 
 22 61 
 
 23 6 
 
 24 5| 
 
 25 51 
 
 26 54 
 
 48 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 [ 
 
 49 
 
 20 5 
 
 21 64 
 
 22 5| 
 
 23 5| 
 
 24 6 
 
 25 6J 
 
 26 64 
 
 27 6} 
 
 50 
 
 20 10 
 
 21 104 
 
 22 11 
 
 28 111 
 
 25 
 
 26 04 
 
 27 1 
 
 28 14 
 
 ' 
 
t 10,000 to 50,000, at from 5d. to 9d per thousand. 
 
 Id. 
 
 i\d. 
 
 7K 
 
 7|d. 
 
 Sd. 
 
 8K 
 
 6tf 
 
 8|dL 
 
 9.. 
 
 s d 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 A-, d. 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 04 
 
 6 3 
 
 6 54 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 104 
 
 7 1 
 
 7 34 
 
 7 6 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 7| 
 
 6 104 
 
 7 1J 
 
 7 4 
 
 7 6J 
 
 7 94 
 
 8 OJ 
 
 8 3 
 
 7 
 
 7 3 
 
 7 6 
 
 7 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 3 
 
 8 6 
 
 8 9 
 
 9 
 
 7 7 
 
 7 10i 
 
 8 14 
 
 8 4| 
 
 8 8 
 
 8 Hi 
 
 9 24 
 
 9 5| 
 
 9 9 
 
 8 2 
 
 8 54 
 
 8 9" 
 
 9 04 
 
 9 4 
 
 9 74 
 
 9 11 
 
 10 24 
 
 10 6 
 
 8 9 
 
 9 0| 
 
 9 44 
 
 9 8J 
 
 10 
 
 10 3J 
 
 10 74 
 
 10 Hi 
 
 11 3 
 
 9 4 
 
 9 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 4 
 
 10 8 
 
 11 
 
 11 4 
 
 11 8 
 
 12 
 
 9 11 
 
 10 3 1 
 
 10 74 
 
 10 11| 
 
 11 4 
 
 11 8? 
 
 12 04 
 
 12 4| 
 
 12 9 
 
 10 6 
 
 10 104 
 
 11 3 
 
 11 74 
 
 12 
 
 12 44 
 
 12 9 
 
 13 IJ 
 
 13 6 
 
 11 1 
 
 11 5f 
 
 11 104 
 
 12 31 
 
 12 8 
 
 13 Of 
 
 13 54 
 
 13 10i 
 
 14 3 
 
 11 8 
 
 12 1 
 
 12 6" 
 
 12 11 
 
 13 4 
 
 13 9 
 
 14 2 
 
 14 7 
 
 15 
 
 12 3 
 
 12 8J 
 
 13 li 
 
 13 61 
 
 14 
 
 14 5J 
 
 14 10J 
 
 15 3| 
 
 15 9 
 
 12 10 
 
 13 34 
 
 13 9 
 
 14 24 
 
 14 8 
 
 15 14 
 
 15 7 
 
 16 04 
 
 16 6 
 
 13 5 
 
 13 10| 
 
 14 44 
 
 14 10i 
 
 15 4 
 
 15 9| 
 
 16 34 
 
 16 9| 
 
 17 3 
 
 14 
 
 14 6 
 
 15 0" 
 
 15 6 
 
 16 
 
 16 6 
 
 17 
 
 17 6 
 
 18 
 
 14 7 
 
 15 li 
 
 15 7i 
 
 16 If 
 
 16 8 
 
 17 2i 
 
 17 84 
 
 18 2| 
 
 18 9 
 
 15 2 
 
 15 84 
 
 16 3 
 
 16 94 
 
 17 4 
 
 17 104 
 
 18 5 
 
 18 114 
 
 19 6 
 
 15 9 
 
 16 3} 
 
 16 10J 
 
 17 5j 
 
 18 
 
 18 6| 
 
 19 14 
 
 19 8J 
 
 20 3 
 
 16 4 
 
 16 11 
 
 17 6 
 
 18 1 
 
 18 8 
 
 19 3 
 
 19 10 
 
 20 5 
 
 21 
 
 16 11 
 
 17 6J 
 
 18 14 
 
 18 8| 
 
 19 4 
 
 19 llj 
 
 20 64 
 
 21 If 
 
 21 9 
 
 17 6 
 
 18 14 
 
 18 9" 
 
 19 44 
 
 20 
 
 20 7j 
 
 21 3" 
 
 21 104 
 
 22 6 
 
 18 1 
 
 18 8} 
 
 19 44 
 
 20 OJ 
 
 20 8 
 
 21 3f 
 
 21 H4 
 
 22 7J 
 
 23 3 
 
 18 8 
 
 19 4 
 
 20 0~ 
 
 20 8 
 
 21 4 
 
 22 
 
 22 8 
 
 23 4 
 
 24 
 
 19 3 
 
 19 Hi 
 
 20 74 
 
 21 33 
 
 22 
 
 22 8J 
 
 23 4J 
 
 24 Of 
 
 24 9 
 
 19 10 
 
 20 64 
 
 21 3 
 
 21 114 
 
 22 8 
 
 23 44 
 
 24 1" 
 
 24 9J 
 
 25 6 
 
 20 5 
 
 21 If 
 
 21 104 
 
 22 7i 
 
 23 4 
 
 24 Of 
 
 24 94 
 
 25 6 
 
 26 3 
 
 21 
 
 21 9 
 
 22 6 
 
 23 3 
 
 24 
 
 24 9 
 
 25 6 
 
 26 3 
 
 27 
 
 21 7 
 
 22 4J 
 
 23 1| 
 
 23 lOj 
 
 24 8 
 
 25 5i 
 
 26 24 
 
 26 llf 
 
 27 9 
 
 22 2 
 
 22 114 
 
 23 9 
 
 24 64 
 
 25 4 
 
 26 14 
 
 26 11 
 
 27 84 
 
 28 6 
 
 22 9 
 
 23 6| 
 
 24 44 
 
 25 2i 
 
 26 
 
 26 91 
 
 27 74 
 
 28 5J 
 
 29 3 
 
 23 4 
 
 24 2 
 
 25 0" 
 
 25 10 
 
 26 8 
 
 27 6 
 
 28 4 
 
 29 2 
 
 30 
 
 23 11 
 
 24 9J 
 
 25 74 
 
 26 5| 
 
 27 4 
 
 28 2J 
 
 29 04 
 
 29 10J 
 
 30 9 
 
 24 6 
 
 25 44 
 
 26 3 
 
 27 li 
 
 28 
 
 28 104 
 
 29 9 
 
 30 74 
 
 31 6 
 
 25 1 
 
 25 llj 
 
 26 104 
 
 27 9J 
 
 28 8 
 
 29 6| 
 
 30 54 
 
 31 4i 
 
 32 3 
 
 25 8 
 
 26 7 
 
 27 6 
 
 28 5 
 
 29 4 
 
 30 3 
 
 31 2 
 
 32 1 
 
 33 0. 
 
 26 3 
 
 27 2J 
 
 28 14 
 
 29 Of 
 
 30 
 
 30 Hi 
 
 31 104 
 
 32 9f 
 
 33 9, 
 
 26 10 
 
 27 9| 
 
 28 9 
 
 29 84 
 
 30 8 
 
 31 74 
 
 32 7 
 
 33 64 
 
 34 6 
 
 27 5 
 
 28 4J 
 
 29 44 
 
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 32 3| 
 
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 35 3 
 
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 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 6 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
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 34 84 
 
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 31 3" 
 
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 33 4 
 
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151 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 PLANS OF CASES IN VARIOUS ALPHABETS, WITH 
 REMARKS THEREOK 
 
 IN page 41 of this book is given a plan of a pair of the 
 cases in ordinary use in England, and allusion is made to 
 another, of which no scheme is given, but of which one 
 appeared in the first number of the ' Journal of the Typo- 
 graphic Arts/ for the month of January of the present 
 year. I shall not, therefore, reintroduce either of them in 
 this place ; but as a much improved case and frame has 
 been invented and patented by Mr. Poulter, of Messrs. 
 Cox and Wyman's, Great Queen- street, London, with his 
 permission, I here append a diagram, showing the ar- 
 rangement of the case, and will afterwards add a few 
 observations explaining the advantages it possesses over 
 all other cases hitherto submitted to the notice of the 
 trade : and this I do with the greater pleasure, both as 
 a recognition of the skill and ingenuity of the contriver of 
 the case, with its accompanying frame and really useful 
 bulk (in striking contrast with the cumbersome and in- 
 convenient one of the old frame), and because I am fully 
 convinced it will effect a great saving of time to the com- 
 positor, and also of expense to the employer : 
 
152 
 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 153 
 
 On comparison, this case, as I before remarked, will 
 be found to possess many important advantages over all 
 those hitherto produced. By dispensing with the accented 
 vowels, Mr. Poulter has been enabled to combine all the 
 sorts in one case. This, at first sight, may be thought a 
 bold innovation ; but, as he very truly says, in a circular 
 submitted to the trade, " It must be allowed that seldom 
 are these in use in newspapers, publications, novels, or 
 even ordinary book- work ; and yet we find places assigned 
 to them in about the best position in every upper case, even 
 when they may never be used. They, no doubt, were, origi- 
 nally, only put? there to fill up the spare boxes gained by 
 making both cases the same size. Accented letters in 
 English works, generally, are most frequently used when 
 French or other foreign phrases are introduced, and which 
 are invariably put in italics." 
 
 He further observes : " It must also be remembered, 
 that there are still accented letters, and other sorts, which 
 have to be placed elsewhere, although equally, if not more 
 in demand, than the others." 
 
 For the accented vowels he proposes a separate case, easy 
 of access to every one, and which should also include large 
 metal-rules, braces, and other peculiar sorts, which are 
 now, with the cases in ordinary use, scattered about in 
 several cases, and never to be found when wanted, to the 
 great loss of time to the compositor, and the loss of money 
 to his employer; for it not unfrequently happens, when a 
 work comes into a house, in which accented letters are 
 required, none are to be found, although there may be 
 no lack of them, in fact, could time be spared to hunt 
 them up in all the cases and out-of-the-way corners of the 
 office. 
 
 When foreign work requiring accents is to be com- 
 posed, a simple form of movable box, made of suitable 
 material, can be placed in the small- capital boxes, and 
 
154 PLANS Or CASES, ETC. 
 
 removed in a few minutes, when done with, and placed 
 in the custody of the storekeeper. 
 
 By a reference to the diagram, it will be seen that the e. 
 box is wider, instead of longer than in the ordinary case ; so 
 that the space under is very advantageously appropri- 
 ated to the era-quadrat and thin-space boxes. This is, 
 beyond all doubt, of the greatest importance to the ope- 
 rator ; the points are also much better placed, being 
 grouped together in immediate connection with the hair- 
 space. The position of the figures, also, it will be observed, 
 obviates not only the inconvenience experienced with the 
 old cases, of being obliged to remove the copy continually 
 in composing figure-matter, but, by bringing them close to 
 the em and ew-quadrat boxes, secures a great advantage 
 in composing tables and tabular matter. Indeed, the ad- 
 vantage secured by a slight yet judicious alteration of the 
 position of a few boxes is surprising, as must be evident 
 to every one practically acquainted with the business. 
 It will be observed further, the position of no letter has 
 been altered wantonly or without attaining some material 
 advantage ; so that the introduction of the new case will 
 not clash with those already in use, nor occasion much 
 trouble to the compositor in becoming familiar with it. 
 
 These new cases may be used with the present frames ; 
 but not so advantageously as with the frames which Mr. 
 Poulter has adapted for their express accommodation. 
 By the use of these, a great saving of space is effected, to 
 the extent of one fifth ; a better light is also secured ; 
 better rack-room, and far greater accommodation on the 
 bulk for large forms. The saving of gas and the economy 
 of space hereby secured, are objects of considerable im- 
 portance to employers, especially on newspapers, where 
 much gas is consumed, and space is generally of limited 
 character ; for, with the new frame, one burner will light 
 well the cases of four compositors. 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 155 
 
 There is, moreover, another feature connected with 
 the case which should not be passed over unnoticed ; and 
 that is, the introduction of a false bottom of India-rubber 
 or other elastic material, for the smaller-sized types only, 
 to be used in the principal boxes, so as to insure the types 
 always being in the centre of the box, and at a good 
 elevation, by the bottom continuing to rise as the box 
 becomes relieved of its weight. This will, undoubtedly, 
 be very advantageous to the compositor, but it will be 
 quite optional whether any pair of cases shall be furnished 
 with them or not. 
 
 With these few remarks, I leave the matter in the 
 hands of the trade, feeling convinced that this new ar- 
 rangement only waits the test of experience to secure ita 
 universal adoption. 
 
 FOKEIGN ALPHABETS AND CASES. 
 
 As this is a handbook, I have no intention to swell 
 its pages with an account of all the alphabets of all the 
 barbarous languages to which a separate one has been 
 assigned, even had I the means and the ability to accom- 
 plish the task : nevertheless, I do not intend to pass over 
 any which differ materially from the English, and which 
 are likely to fall in the way of even one in ten of the com- 
 paratively small number of compositors or readers who are 
 ever employed upon works in other than the ordinary 
 Eoman type. An acquaintance with very unusual cha- 
 racters must be acquired by those who may chance to have 
 occasion to use them, from more voluminous, or more 
 special works than the present ; but to occupy the pages of 
 
156 
 
 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 a handbook with such rarely- wanted information, would 
 but materially add to its cost, without much enhancing its 
 utility. I shall therefore confine myself to more moderate 
 limits. 
 
 1. THE SAXON ALPHABET. 
 
 This language forms the main groundwork of the 
 English ; but whether its alphabet was derived from the 
 Eoman, which it very much resembles, or from the Gothic^ 
 is a point on which the learned are not agreed. It com- 
 prises twentyfour letters, which have the same name as 
 the corresponding Eoman character ; but about the ninth 
 century, the small letters/, g> r, t, lost their Saxon forms, 
 and were written after the Roman shape. I subjoin the 
 alphabet ; but it will not be necessary to give a plan of 
 cases, as the letters so much resemble the common Eoman 
 type. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON 
 J-ORM. 
 
 MODERN 
 
 FORM. 
 
 SOUND. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON 
 FORM. 
 
 MODERN 
 FORM. 
 
 SOUND. 
 
 S A a 
 
 A a 
 
 Bar. 
 
 N n 
 
 N n 
 
 JVone. 
 
 B b 
 
 B b 
 
 .Brand. 
 
 O o 
 
 O o 
 
 
 
 C C c 
 
 C c 
 
 Child. 
 
 P p 
 
 P p 
 
 Power. 
 
 D b 
 
 D d 
 
 Down. 
 
 R ji 
 
 R r 
 
 .fiend. 
 
 E 6 e 
 
 E e 
 
 Hair. 
 
 8 S r 
 
 S s 
 
 Shoot. 
 
 F f 
 
 F f 
 
 .Find. 
 
 T t 
 
 T t 
 
 Turn. 
 
 D G 3 
 
 G g 
 
 Gem. 
 
 B$]> 
 
 Thth 
 
 TAou. 
 
 H ft h 
 
 H h 
 
 Ueavy. 
 
 U u 
 
 U u 
 
 C/nder. 
 
 L i 
 
 I i 
 
 /onian. 
 
 UU P p 
 
 Ww 
 
 
 K k 
 
 K k 
 
 .Kent. 
 
 X x 
 
 X x 
 
 X. 
 
 L 1 
 
 L 1 
 
 Land. 
 
 Y y 
 
 Yy 
 
 Wye. 
 
 M CD m 
 
 M m 
 
 More. 
 
 Z z 
 
 Z z 
 
 Zeal. 
 
 IE 
 
 38 EG 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 157 
 
 Besides these letters, many abbreviations were formerly 
 employed, which it is not necessary to specify in this 
 place ; it will be sufficient to remark, that those at pre- 
 sent in use are, j , et, ' and ;' and *p, thaet, ' that.* 
 
 In the ' Saxon Chronicle,' a small g with a dash above 
 it, stands for gear or year ; k with a comma, is kynning, or 
 kyng ; I scored through, is put for vel, ' or ;' b with a similar 
 mark, is biscop, or bishop ; and cw, with a dash over the 
 latter letter, is put for cwceth, or quoth. 
 
 2. THE GREEK ALPHABET. 
 
 Books in the Greek language are continually issued 
 from the press in this country, and even in English works 
 of a certain character, quotations from authors who have 
 written in this tongue, are of common occurrence. More- 
 over, as this is regarded as the learned language of Europe 
 par excellence, a want of acquaintance with its alphabet is 
 not only a frequent cause of loss and annoyance to the 
 compositor ; but as typographical errors in it are generally 
 attributed to the printer, when these are numerous in any 
 work, the office in which it was executed gets a bad repu- 
 tation ; and thus no small damage is indirectly inflicted 
 on the employer. For the assistance of those who may be 
 wholely unacquainted with this language, therefore, I 
 propose to enter more largely into an explanation of its 
 alphabet than will be necessary with that of any other, 
 in order that the unlearned reader or compositor may 
 be enabled to avoid the glaring errors which so much 
 offend the eye of the scholar in ill-printed works.* 
 
 * The most prominent instance in illustration of this remark 
 which I remember, occurred about the time of the creation of the 
 Roman Catholic bishops in this country, in the controversies which 
 then appeared in a morning newspaper. The typographical 
 errors in the Greek extracts were disgraceful. 
 
158 
 
 PLANS OF CHSES, ETC. 
 
 The Greek letters are twentyfour in number, and are 
 thus formed and designated : 
 
 FORM. 
 
 POWER. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 POWER. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 Alpha. 
 
 N v 
 
 n 
 
 Nu. 
 
 B )8 or 
 
 b 
 
 Beta. 
 
 H 
 
 x 
 
 Xi. 
 
 r r 
 
 g (hard) 
 
 Gamma. 
 
 O o . 
 
 o (short) 
 
 O micron 
 
 A 
 
 d 
 
 Delta. 
 
 n TT 
 
 P 
 
 Pi. 
 
 E e 
 
 e (short) 
 
 Epsilon. 
 
 p p 
 
 r 
 
 Rho. 
 
 z r 
 
 z 
 
 Zeta. j 
 
 2 <r or f * 
 
 s 
 
 Sigma. 
 
 H v\ 
 
 e (long) 
 
 Eta. 
 
 T r 
 
 t 
 
 Tau. 
 
 & or 6 
 
 th 
 
 Theta. 
 
 T v 
 
 u or y 
 
 Upsilon. 
 
 I i 
 
 i 
 
 Iota. 
 
 * <p 
 
 P h 
 
 Phi. 
 
 K K 
 
 k 
 
 Cappa. 
 
 x x 
 
 ch (hard) 
 
 Chi. 
 
 A \ 
 
 1 
 
 Lambda. 
 
 y 4, 
 
 ps 
 
 Psi. 
 
 ivi ^t 
 
 m 
 
 Mu. 
 
 n w 
 
 o (long) 
 
 Omega. 
 
 Of these letters, seven are vowels, and the remainder 
 consonants. 
 
 The vowels are divided into short, long, and doubtful. 
 
 The short vowels are e and o ; the long, rj and w ; and 
 the doubtful, a, t, v. 
 
 Vowels are also denominated mutable, immutable, pre- 
 positive, and subjunctive. 
 
 There are six proper diphthongs (at, au, , cu, 01, ov), and 
 six improper (^, 9, ^, j^u, w, wv). The first vowel of a 
 diphthong is called the prepositive, and the second, the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 The consonants are divided into simples, mutes, and 
 semivowels. 
 
 The mutes are nine in number, and are further sub- 
 divided into corresponding classes. 
 
 The weak TT K r 
 
 The middle (3 y d 
 
 The aspirate <!> \ Q 
 
 * This form is used at the end of a word, and in some editions 
 of Greek authors, at the end of a syllable in a compound word ; 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 159 
 
 Thus, you will observe, each weak mute has its cor- 
 responding middle and asper. But they are, moreover, 
 classified according to the organs by which they are 
 articulated. Thus there are 
 
 Labials ir ft 0,and^ 
 
 Gutturals or Palatals K y %, and sometimes v 
 Dentals r 8 
 
 Those consonants which are capable of prolongation at 
 the end of a word, are called semivowels, and are five in 
 number ; four liquids, X, /*, a/, p, and the sibilant o-, with 
 its compounds. 
 
 The consonants , , if/ are called double letters, because 
 they are formed of a mute consonant and <r. Thus, \jt is 
 formed of TT and o ; of /c<r ; and of SQ. 
 
 y before another y, or a mute of its own order, that 
 is, a palatal, is pronounced with a kind of middle sound 
 between v and y, somewhat resembling our sound of the 
 terminations ing, ang, ung. 
 
 The accents are three : the acute ('), the grave (*), and 
 the circumflex (~). 
 
 The acute may either fall on the last syllable, the 
 penultimate, or the antepenultimate ; but no word iu 
 Greek is accented beyond two syllables from the last : the 
 grave can only have place on the last syllable ; and the 
 circumflex, on either of the two last. 
 
 The breathings are two : the rough, or asper ('), and 
 the smooth, or lenis ('). 
 
 The rough breathing is equivalent to our aspirated h ; 
 but the weak has no power, or rather, is the representa- 
 tive of that faint breathing which must, according to the 
 Oriental grammarians, precede every initial vowel, what- 
 % ever its character ; it is the alif of the Hebrew, Arabic, 
 and Persian, &c. 
 
 A vowel or a diphthong may be accompanied both by 
 a breathing and an accent ; as in the following instances : 
 
160 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 *A^yoi>, w, olo-rpoQ, otrtyc^. These combinations have the 
 following names : 
 
 Lenis acute * Asper grave 
 
 Lenis grave * Circumflex lenis 
 
 " Asper acute r Circumflex asper 
 
 The following combinations also occur : 
 * Diaeresis acute ** Diaeresis grave 
 
 The asper may accompany any vowel at the beginning 
 of a word, and is always used with v in that position. The 
 letter p has also the rough breathing-mark, and that very 
 judiciously, when at the commencement of a word ; but 
 when two meet in the body of a word, the first is marked 
 with a lenis, and the latter with an asper : thus, eppu- 
 
 JJLtVOQ. 
 
 In diphthongs, the breathing is placed on the latter 
 vowel, as in avroQ, l he ;' but if a word begin with two 
 vowels which do not form a diphthong, then the breathing 
 must be over the first letter ; as in rjiuv, ' a shore.* 
 
 Diastole (,) is put betwixt two particles that would 
 have a different sense without it: thus. o,r, O,TI, mean 
 ' whatever f but ore signifies l as/ and on, ' that.' To, 
 with diastole, implies ' and this,' but without it, * then.' 
 
 Diceresis (") is placed over the latter of two vowels, to 
 show that they must be pronounced separately, and not 
 as a diphthong : thus, CLVTYJ is a word of three syllables ; 
 but aiiTTj is a word of two syllables. 
 
 The final letter is frequently (not necessarily) cut off 
 from words ending in a, e, i, when the following word be- 
 gins with a vowel ; as, Trdvr' t'Xgyov, for Tcavra ctayov, ' they 
 said all things.' So, KO.I tKelvoQ, ' and he,' becomes fca/cctvof, 
 and TO ovofia, ' the name, 3 rovvopa, &c. Sometimes whole 
 diphthongs are elided by the poets ; as, /3ouXo/i' (for fiov- 
 \ofjiai) tyuj, ' I wish.' 
 
 Words ending in <7i, and verbs in and t, take v after 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 161 
 
 them, when the following word begins with a vowel ; as, 
 elicoffiv (for ciicotri) avdpsQ, ' twenty men.' 
 
 v is changed into y, in compounds, before y, K, , x> and 
 into p. before /3, /-t, TT, 0, ^ ; as of >- is made sy-xiotw, ' I 
 anoint ;' and ow- becomes (rvju-0\yo>, * I consume.' Before 
 \, p, <r, the final v, in composition, is changed into those 
 letters ; as, aw- into o-vX-Xsyw, ' I collect.' 
 
 When the following word begins with an aspirated 
 vowel, the preceding final smooth consonant is changed 
 into its corresponding aspirate : thus, Kara rjfjiaQ becomes 
 KaO' j?jua, * according to our opinion ;' Kai vvb, X^TTO, ' and 
 under.' 
 
 Besides the lettersabove enumerated, there was another 
 character in use in the most ancient times ; namely F, 
 called digamma ; i. e. double gamma. Thus, while the 
 single r denoted a soft guttural aspiration, the digamma, 
 or F, represented the roughest breathing, approaching 
 nearer to the sound of modern/ or v. 
 
 The sign of interrogation in Greek corresponds in 
 figure with the English semicolon ; as, Tt Xsyct? ; * What do 
 you say ? ' 
 
 The colon, in Greek, is denoted by an inverted full- 
 stop (). 
 
 Old-printed books contain numerous ligatures, or 
 abbreviations of letters ; but as they are not used now- 
 adays, there is no occasion for me to give a list of them 
 here. Most of them will be found in any Greek grammar, 
 and the student may there acquire a knowledge of them. 
 
 In order that the letters, with their accents, may be 
 shown at one view, and also for the guidance of the tyro 
 in learning the boxes in which they are assorted in a pair 
 of Greek cases, I will submit to his notice a diagram, with 
 the letters in their proper places, according to their gene- 
 ral arrangement. 
 
162 
 
 w 
 
 5 
 
 O 
 
 I 
 
 & 
 & 
 
 M 
 w 
 w 
 
 p^ 
 
 O 
 
163 
 
 r. 
 
164 
 
 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 3. THE HEBREW ALPHABET. 
 
 Next in importance to the Greek, to the compositor 
 and press corrector, is the Hebrew, the language in which 
 the Old Testament was written, and which has largely 
 contributed to the common stock of many more modern 
 tongues ; but whether the character we at present em- 
 ploy, or that called the Samaritan, be the most ancient, 
 is a question not agreed upon by the critics. 
 
 The letters of the ordinary Hebrew alphabet are 
 twentytwo in number, all consonants : their names, forms, 
 and power, are exhibited in the following table : 
 
 i'ORM. 
 
 POWER. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 POWEB. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 K 
 
 Greek ' 
 
 Aleph 
 
 b 
 
 L 
 
 Lamed 
 
 3 
 
 Bh,B,V 
 
 Beth 
 
 *D D 
 
 M 
 
 Mem 
 
 4 
 
 GhorG 
 
 Gimel 
 
 ji 
 
 N 
 
 Nun 
 
 n 
 
 Dhor D 
 
 Daleth 
 
 D 
 
 S 
 
 Samech 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 He 
 
 V 
 
 Gn or ng 
 
 Gnain 
 
 i 
 
 V 
 
 Van 
 
 **) D 
 
 PhorP 
 
 Pe 
 
 r 
 
 Z 
 
 Zain 
 
 *f 
 
 Tz 
 
 Tzade 
 
 n 
 
 Ch or H 
 
 Cheth 
 
 P 
 
 K 
 
 Koph 
 
 D 
 
 T 
 
 Teth 
 
 "1 
 
 R 
 
 Resch 
 
 > 
 
 Y 
 
 Yod 
 
 w w 
 
 ShorS 
 
 Shin, Sin 
 
 *T 3 
 
 Khor C 
 
 Caph 
 
 n 
 
 Thor T 
 
 Tau 
 
 The following five letters are cast broad, and are used 
 at the end of words ; viz. : 
 
 Aleph. He. Lamed. Mem. Tau. 
 
 5^ n H -a n 
 
 but they are not counted among the final letters, being 
 
 * The five letters 
 
 are called final letters. 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 165 
 
 contrived for justifying; because Hebrew words, as well 
 as other Oriental languages, are never divided. 
 
 The letters given in the table are all that are abso- 
 lutely necessary in printing Hebrew ; nevertheless, as va- 
 rious marks, called Masoretic points, have been invented, 
 for the purpose of denoting the vowel-sounds, and thus to 
 facilitate the reading of the language, a knowledge of them 
 is indispensable to every compositor employed on Hebrew 
 works with points. They are ten in number : five per- 
 fect, which, with their preceding consonant, form a sylla- 
 ble ; and five imperfect, which have a consonant preceding 
 and following them. Their names, figure, and power, are 
 shown in the following table : 
 
 NAME. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 SOUND. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 SOUND. 
 
 Kametz 
 
 K 
 
 a in father. 
 
 Pathach 
 
 8 
 
 a in bad. 
 
 Tzeri 
 
 K 
 
 a in fated. 
 
 Segol 
 
 s* 
 
 e in bed. 
 
 Long Chirek 
 
 \ 
 
 i in machine 
 
 Short Chirek 
 
 $ 
 
 i in bid. 
 
 Cholem 
 Shurek 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o in go. 
 u in duty. 
 
 Kamete Cha- 
 tuph 
 
 Kibbutz 
 
 3 
 
 o in bot. 
 u in but. 
 
 Besides the above vowels, there is another, called 
 Sheva (:), which has been introduced to facilitate the ut- 
 terance of words where two or more consonants would 
 otherwise come together. When it is sounded, it has the 
 power of a very short e ; as in the word below. 
 
 Instead of sheva, a compound vowel, consisting of sheva 
 and an imperfect vowel, is used under a guttural. These 
 substitutes of sheva are three in number : their names, 
 forms, and sound, are as follows : 
 
 Chateph Pathach \? a very short, as in suitable. 
 
 Chateph Segol 
 Chateph Kametz 
 
 e very short, as in furtherance. 
 o very short, as in consonant. 
 
366 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 In addition to the letters above given, the Hebrews 
 make use of sundry other characters or symbols, which I 
 will proceed briefly to explain. 
 
 Dagesh and Mappik () are points placed in the body of 
 certain letters. 
 
 The dagesh is either forte or lene. 
 
 Dagesh forte may have place in all the letters except 
 K H n y~\ '> an d its effect is to cause the consonant to be 
 sounded double. 
 
 Dagesh lene has its place in ft D 3 *7 J D> an< ^ removes 
 from them the aspiration. 
 
 Mappik is used with the letters Tie and yod, to show 
 that they are not quiescent, but to be pronounced with 
 their proper sound. 
 
 Raphe is a short dash that formerly was put over the 
 letters that are capable of, receiving a dagesh lene, when 
 they had no dagesh, to show that they should be pro- 
 nounced soft. 
 
 Maccaph (-) is used to connect words together, which 
 is common in Hebrew. 
 
 Soph-Parak is the name of two great points (*), which 
 stand at the end of each verse in the Hebrew Bible. 
 
 Besides the vowels, the Hebrew has several accents, of 
 which some have their place over, and some under the 
 letter. They are not used in all Hebrew writings, but 
 only in some books of the Bible, where they stand for 
 notes to sing by, and are therefore called accentus tonici. 
 Others, again, are named accentus distinctivi, because they 
 distinguish the sense, as pointing does in English ; and 
 others have the appellation of ministry or servi non dis- 
 tinctivi, and show the construction and connection of 
 words. These tonic accents, to call them by their general 
 name, are placed on the ultimate or penultimate syllable 
 of a word : in the former case the word is called acute ; in 
 the latter, penacute. 
 
 The tonic accents are twentyfive in number : of these, 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 167 
 
 fourteen are placed above, and the remaining eleven below 
 the consonant, in the following manner : 
 
 
 ABOVE THE LETTER. 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Figure 
 
 Name. 
 
 Figure. 
 
 Pashta 
 
 ^ 
 
 Rebhiang 
 
 X 
 
 Kadma 
 
 K 
 
 Zakeph Gadol 
 
 K 
 
 Geresh 
 
 f 
 
 Zakeph Katoa 
 
 SS 
 
 Gerashayim 
 
 Cf 
 
 Segolta 
 
 & 
 
 Telisha Ketanna 
 
 Q 
 
 K 
 
 Pazer 
 
 H 
 
 Telisha Gedola 
 Karne Para 
 
 P 
 Q P 
 
 Zarka 
 Shalsheleth 
 
 & 
 
 BELOW THE LETTER. 
 
 Merca 
 
 Merca Chephula 
 
 Tiphcha 
 
 Munach 
 
 Mahpach 
 
 
 Tebhir 
 Darga 
 Athnach 
 Yerach-ben-yomo 
 
 Silluk 
 
 Yethib V 
 
 Those in italics are called Ministers ; the others, Kings. 
 
 The Hebrew has no capitals ; and therefore letters of 
 the same shape, but of a larger body, are used at the be- 
 ginning of chapters, and other parts of Hebrew works. 
 Occasionally, also, certain words begin with a letter much 
 larger than the body of the text ; and a small letter is 
 sometimes found in the middle of a word, as is also a final : 
 for such notes show that the words contain some parti- 
 cular and mystical meaning- 
 
168 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 Like most Eastern languages, the Hebrew is read from 
 the right to the left : therefore, in composing them, the 
 compositor must cast off how much will make a line, and 
 begin from that point, going backwards, and justifying the 
 vowels and accents over and under the letters, after the 
 line of matter is properly adjusted. Those vowel-marks 
 and accents are not necessarily used ; but only for the sake 
 of learners, who are, of course, unable, of themselves, to 
 supply them : hence, as before observed, they are dispensed 
 with in many books. 
 
 It will be necessary for the compositor to bestow par- 
 ticular attention on the formation of several of the Hebrew 
 letters, as some of them are very much alike ; and unless 
 he make himself familiar with the peculiarities .which 
 distinguish them, he will find his proof very foul, and 
 thereby cause himself much annoyance and extra labor. 
 We will proceed to exhibit some of these peculiarities, and 
 by placing one letter over another which resembles it, show 
 him, at a glance, wherein the difference consists. 
 
 Beth. Gimel. Daleth, Resch. He, Cheth. Vau. Zain. 
 
 n j T n n n IT 
 D 2 in ] 
 
 Caph. Nun. Caph final. Tau. Nun final. 
 
 Teth. Mem final. Gnain. 
 
 CD D y 
 
 D D y 
 
 Mem. Samech. Tzade. 
 
 The letters of the Hebrew alphabet are generally ar- 
 ranged in the compositor's cases according to the following 
 schemes. 
 
169 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 fj 
 
170 
 
 .10 
 
 .n 
 
 53 
 
 .n 
 
 n 
 
 -n 
 
 .1 
 
 n 
 
 r\ 
 
 JO 
 
 D 
 
171 
 
 Q 
 
 O* 
 
 Q 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 IZ 
 
 ma-g 
 
 spenft 
 
172 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 4. THE SAMARITAN ALPHABET. 
 
 This character is somewhat different from the Hebrew ', 
 but as it is very little used, I refrain from encumbering 
 the pages of this manual with a detailed account thereof. 
 
 5. THE SYRIAC ALPHABET. 
 
 This language is a descendant from the ancient He- 
 brew, and has been denominated, in accordance with dia- 
 lectic distinctions, the Chaldean, Babylonian, Aramean, 
 Mesopotamian, and Assyrian. It was also one of the com- 
 mon languages spoken by the Jews in the Babylonish cap- 
 tivity ; and in the New Testament, many words of this 
 tongue occur. Like the Hebrew, it is read from right to 
 left, and, like the Arabic and Persian, the letters undergo 
 various changes in their formation, according to their 
 position in a word. They are twentytwo in number, and 
 are named Olaph, Beth, Gomal, Dolath, He, Yaw, Zain, 
 Cheth, Theth, Jud, Coph, Lomad, Mim, Nun, Shemcath, 
 Ee, Phe, Tsode, Koph, Eish, Sin, Tau. These letters are 
 also used for numerals in the ordinary way, as far as 
 Tsode , and then are extended in the following manner. 
 Jud, with a, point above it, signifies 100 ; while Coph, 
 Lomad, Mim, Nun, Shemcath, Ee, Phe, and Tsode, similarly 
 marked, express 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900* 
 Olaph, with an inclined line below it, like a grave accent, 
 stands for 1,000, and Beth, with the same mark, for 2,000. 
 Olaph, with an horizontal line beneath it, is equal to 
 10,000; Jud, underlined, 100,000; and Coph, thus distin- 
 guished, one million. 
 
 The following table exibits the letters of this alphabet, 
 in their various forms, according to the position they oc- 
 cupy in a word. 
 
173 
 
 Name. 
 
 Initial. 
 
 Medial 
 
 Final 
 
 Connect 
 
 Final 
 N on con 
 
 Po- 
 wei 
 
 NOP. 
 
 Olaph 
 
 ] 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 ] 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 Beth 
 
 I 
 53 
 
 \ 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 . "i 
 
 I 
 
 . ^ 
 
 h 
 
 2 
 
 Gomal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Dolatli 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 g 
 d 
 
 4 
 
 He 
 
 cn 
 
 t 
 
 m. 
 
 t 
 
 f*n 
 
 m 
 
 e 
 
 5 
 
 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 Zain 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 7 
 
 Chetli 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 i 
 8 
 
 Theth 
 
 ; 
 
 A 
 
 ^A 
 
 cJ 
 
 th 
 
 9 
 
 Jud 
 
 D 
 
 A 
 
 6 L 
 
 *"6 U 
 
 H 
 
 i 
 
 10 
 
 Coph 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 20 
 
 Lomad 
 
 V, 
 
 N 
 
 y 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^s 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 Mim 
 
 *> 
 
 La 
 
 VQ 
 
 so 
 
 m 
 
 40 
 
 Nun 
 
 j 
 
 i 
 
 r* 
 
 7^ 
 
 u 
 
 50 
 
 Shemcath 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 "5 
 
 v.Cd 
 
 ^ 
 
 wfiD 
 
 Qll 
 
 60 
 
 Ee 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^, 
 
 ^ 
 
 n 
 
 70 
 
 Phe .. 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 wl 
 
 -3 
 
 ph 
 
 80 
 
 Tsode 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 ^>ii 
 ts 
 
 90 
 
 Koph 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 vj 
 
 ^1 
 
 vj 
 
 w2i 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 kh 
 
 
 Rish 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 j 
 
 
 Sin 
 
 A. 
 
 Ai 
 
 f 
 cA 
 
 *, 
 
 g 
 
 
 Tau 
 
 L 
 
 21 
 
 Z^ 
 
 4 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
174 PLANS OP CASES, ETC. 
 
 In common with the Arabic and Persian, as before re- 
 marked, it will be observed, on inspecting the preceding 
 table, that the letters of the Syriac language assume 
 different shapes, according to their position. This is for 
 the purpose of more clearly combining the letters of the 
 same word ; so that there may be no gap between them, 
 as though they were separate words. Some are connected 
 both to the foregoing and the following letter, and some 
 only to the preceding. Of the former class there are 
 fourteen ; namely, beth, gomal, cheth, theth, jud, coph, 
 lomad, mim, nun, shemcath, ee, phe, Jcoph, and sin; but 
 if these letters have others, before or after them, which do 
 not allow of this connection, they remain as in the first 
 column. The remaining eight letters, which admit of 
 junction only on the right, are, of course, olaph, dolath, he, 
 vaWj zain, tsode, risk, and tau. 
 
 The letters of the following form, 5 ^ ) cannot be 
 connected at all ; hence, L 9 and j are always written at 
 the beginning of a word, and in the middle and end (where, 
 also, the above form of nun is written), when the foregoing 
 letter cannot be connected with the following. 
 
 A double lomad, for al, is used at the beginning and 
 in the middle of words. 
 
 The final form of lomad, with a mark across it, is used 
 in the middle of words, for la. 
 
 And the same form of the letter, with an additional 
 descending line, but none across, is used for double II at 
 the end of words. 
 
 P is used for la in all places. 
 
 The stops are denoted by one or more dots, arranged 
 in different order : thus, the comma is signified by the 
 ordinary full-stop ; the semicolon, by the English colon, 
 leaning to the left ; the colon, by the same symbol inclining 
 to the right ; the full-point, by four dots diamond-shape; 
 and the interrogation, by the ordinary colon. 
 1 As in Hebrew, and indeed in many other alphabets, 
 it may be remarked that several letters very nearly re- 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 175 
 
 semble others ; it will, therefore, perhaps be advisable to 
 exhibit them here at one view. 
 
 a z b c p I e d r d r 
 
 1 1 San ^ i> t V ? > 
 
 v k is I e 
 
 Q Q -A ^i^> 
 
 The vowels are expressed by points, placed either over 
 or under the letters, in accordance with the following 
 table : 
 
 Petock (a) } or ] 
 Rebotz (e) 1 
 
 Chebotz(t) 1 1 
 
 Zekoph (o) | or j 
 Eztotz(w) 
 
 The ribbui (" } placed over a letter, thus, 3 denotes 
 that such word is in the plural number. 
 
 Every consonant without a vowel is supposed to have 
 under it a sheva, which is not written, but only pro- 
 nounced. 
 
 DagesJi is a point set over the letters begadkepkat, 
 and takes away their aspiration ; and is therefore called 
 kiishoi, l hardness/ 
 
 Raphe is a point set under the same letters, to denote 
 their aspiration ; and hence is called ruchoch, denoting 
 ' softness.' 
 
 When a line is drawn over a word, it denotes 1. con- 
 traction ; 2. number ; 3. the vocative particle ; or, 4. i^ 
 signifies that the letter under it is quiescent. 
 
 A line drawn under a letter shows 1. that that letter 
 is not pronounced ; 2. in certain cases, the absence of a 
 vowel ; and 3. it sometimes has the force of some of the 
 vowels. 
 
176 PLANS OP CASES, ETC. 
 
 6. THE ETHIOPIAN OR ABYSSINIAN ALPHABET. 
 Some writers have considered the Ethiopian language 
 equal, in point of antiquity, to that of the Egyptians. The 
 people are supposed to have been descended from Chus, 
 the grandson of Noah ; and are, therefore, in the Bible, 
 generally called Chusites. The ancient tongue has been, 
 in great part, superseded by that of the Abyssinians, who 
 added seven letters to the alphabet. This alphabet con- 
 sists of twentysix letters, and is read from right to left : 
 the letters also undergo various changes, according to their 
 position in a word, as do the Syriac, Arabic, Persian, 
 &c. : hence, the number of characters is, in all. upwards 
 of two hundred and twenty. 
 
 7. THE CHINESE ALPHABET. 
 
 The Chinese are, undoubtedly, the most ancient people 
 in the world. According to their own account, their ge- 
 nealogy transcends all our notions of the earth's present 
 condition ; but, even when divested of exaggeration, may 
 not unreasonably be fixed at a time nearly coeval with 
 the Deluge. Their language is monosyllabic, and has very 
 little relation with any other. They have different kinds 
 of writing, invented at various periods of their history; 
 and as each word has its appropriate character, the 
 number of letters may easily be imagined to be very large : 
 they amount in all to about 120,000 ; but these may be 
 reduced to a small number of key or radical letters, 
 which the Chinese call Poo, and amount to no more thau 
 214j But as it would very little interest the generality 
 of printers to give examples of them, even were the means 
 at my disposal, I will proceed to alphabets of more com- 
 mon occurrence, and with which it is probable that some, 
 at least, of my readers may desire to become acquainted. 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 177 
 
 8. THE PERSI-AJRABIC ALPHABET, AS APPLICABLE 
 TO THE HINDUSTANI. 
 
 In consequence of our intimate connectibn with the 
 East, and the open competition lately established for 
 candidates for employment in the Indian service, works 
 in the Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani languages are 
 now in greater demand than at any former period of our 
 history ; more of them are consequently printed, and that 
 not by one or two houses only, but by several printers, 
 and in various towns of the United Kingdom. Hence, a 
 knowledge of their alphabets has become a matter of 
 interest to many, while, heretofore, this was a subject 
 which practically concerned very few compositors in this 
 country : a notice of them, therefore, is more urgently 
 required in a book of this nature, which principally aims 
 at practical utility. 
 
 All the followers of Mahomet use the Arabic character, 
 more or less modified ; so that this alphabet is of common 
 occurrence in a great part of Asia and Africa, and even in 
 portions of Europe, although the languages in which it is 
 used are different. Neither are all the letters common 
 to all the nations who use it : the Persi- Arabic comprises 
 thirtytwo; to which three more are added to express 
 sounds peculiar to the Hindustani. These letters, in 
 common with the Hebrew and those of most other Ori- 
 ental nations, are read from right to left : consequently, 
 their printed books and manuscripts begin at what we 
 should call the end. Several of the letters, as in Syriac, 
 &c., moreover, assume different shapes, according to their 
 position in a word, as shown in the following table, where 
 they are exhibited in their detached form, and also as 
 initials, medials, %&& finals. 
 
178 
 
 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 
 
 ig 
 jjs 
 
 POWER. 
 
 OMBINED FORM. 
 
 
 ONS. 
 
 
 * 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 ** 
 
 Medial. 
 
 Initial. 
 
 alif 
 
 1 
 
 0, #e. 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 \ 
 
 b" 
 
 j* 
 
 be 
 pe 
 te 
 
 v 
 
 5 
 
 JP 
 
 * 
 
 "-r* 
 
 f 
 
 { 
 
 ^i 
 
 s* 
 
 I 
 
 iL 
 
 i 
 
 jf 
 
 i^Jus 
 
 r" 
 
 ta 
 
 CL; 
 
 * 
 
 cU 
 
 2 
 
 J 
 
 (JU.J 
 
 12-i 
 
 V 
 
 se 
 
 e^ 
 
 5 
 
 i^ 
 
 A 
 
 i. 
 J 
 
 cE-i 
 
 ^ 
 
 & 
 
 jim 
 
 c 
 
 ./ 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^' i 
 
 ^r 
 
 che 
 
 5 
 
 ch 
 
 
 
 ^S 
 
 *- 
 
 tj? 
 
 ^ 
 
 V * 
 
 he 
 
 C 
 
 h 
 
 tf 
 
 4 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 y< 
 
 J*- 
 
 Me 
 
 C 
 
 ML 
 
 ^ 
 
 * 
 
 =^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 > 
 
 ddl 
 
 j 
 
 d 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 j 
 
 .W 
 
 ijj 
 
 jj 
 
 da 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 n 
 
 ji 
 
 Ji5 
 
 zdl 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2k 
 
 * 
 
 j 
 
 iii^ 
 
 j^ 
 
 r j 
 
 re 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 j 
 
 > 
 
 j 
 
 > 
 
 vi 
 
 (V 
 
 ra 
 
 J 
 
 r 
 
 j 
 
 n 
 
 j 
 
 J- 
 
 fe 
 
 UjJ 
 
 ze 
 
 j 
 
 z 
 
 j 
 
 j 
 
 j 
 
 / 
 
 r^ 5 
 
 jj 
 
 zhe 
 
 A 
 
 zh 
 
 A 
 J 
 
 * 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 ji b 
 
 Mje 
 
 ^jj 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 179 
 
 NAME 
 
 FORM 
 
 POWER. 
 
 COMBINED. 
 
 EXEMPLIFICATIONS. 
 
 sin 
 
 V 
 
 , 
 
 Lr 
 
 ~ 
 
 -, 
 
 U~? 
 
 cM 
 
 > 
 
 shin 
 
 A 
 U~ 
 
 sh 
 
 A 
 
 ^. 
 
 -1 
 
 L^ 
 
 AiJ 
 
 ^ 
 
 sad 
 
 u 
 
 s 
 
 v* 
 
 ^ 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 
 
 J^i- 
 
 Af 
 
 zad 
 
 J> 
 
 ? 
 
 u* 
 
 J 
 
 * 
 
 u^. 
 
 j-ii. 
 
 ^ 
 
 toe 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 t 
 
 &. 
 
 C^ 
 
 J 3 
 
 zoe 
 
 k 
 
 s 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 k^ 
 
 > ; 
 
 yk 
 
 'am 
 
 L 
 
 'a, 8fC. 
 
 t 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 
 
 0^ 
 
 j^ 
 
 ghain 
 
 t 
 
 cfh 
 
 t 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 fes? 
 
 y 
 
 cu 
 
 fe 
 
 <- 
 
 f 
 
 <_a 
 
 A 
 
 j 
 
 LJt 
 
 O^j 
 
 ^ 
 
 W 
 
 J 
 
 * 
 
 J 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 J^ 
 
 A^O 
 
 Jo 
 
 kaf 
 
 (^ 
 
 k 
 
 tl^ 
 
 (. 
 
 ^ 
 
 L^^vJ 
 
 u 
 
 0^ 
 
 yqf 
 
 ef 
 
 9 
 
 <^ 
 
 t 
 
 r 
 
 iiftj 
 
 A 
 
 / 
 
 lam 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 \. 
 
 s 
 
 jf 
 
 ^ 
 
 vj 
 
 mim 
 
 r 
 
 m 
 
 r 
 
 ** 
 
 - 
 
 ,*-> 
 
 cr*T 
 
 ^ 
 
 nun 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 j 
 
 c^ 
 
 ^T 
 
 H 
 
 wdw 
 
 J 
 
 w, 8fC. 
 
 j 
 
 } 
 
 j 
 
 Jj 
 
 J^v 
 
 J^rj 
 
 he 
 
 n 
 
 h 
 
 * 
 
 H 
 
 j> 
 
 <0 
 
 ^ 
 
 yj 
 
 ye 
 
 s? 
 
 y> $c. 
 
 LS 
 
 - 
 
 i 
 
 L5? 
 
 >*- 
 
 JJ 
 
 * 
 
180 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 Of the letters mentioned in this alphabet, LJ \j> \Jz> 
 ^ ]* 9 (J are peculiar to the Arabic ; j. J J c are found 
 in Persian or Arabic words, but not in those of Indian 
 origin ; and the few words which contain the letter J are 
 purely Persian. Words containing any of the letters 
 C-J ~ or may be Persian or Indian, but not Arabic. 
 
 Lastly, words containing any of the four-dotted letters, 
 
 a 
 CL> JJ are purely Indian. 
 
 These letters, it will be observed, are all consonants, 
 although three of them (\ * and ^j sometimes become 
 vowels. The ordinary vowels are placed some above, and 
 some below the consonants to which they belong; but, 
 as in Hebrew, they are often dispensed with altogether. 
 The following list exhibits those vowels, together with 
 other orthographical marks : 
 
 THE SHOET VOWELS, AND OTHER USUAL OETHO- 
 GEAPHICAL MAEKS. 
 
 Zabar (fatha, Arab.) (") is pronounced as a in * above :' 
 mostly understood. 
 
 Zer (kasra, Arab.) (^); as i in 'it:' the only mark 
 below the line. 
 
 Pesh (zamma, Arab.) (') $ as u in ' pull.' 
 
 Madda ( 1 ) ; as a in ' all.' 
 
 Hamza (*) is a soft breathing, used to enounce a vowel 
 initial in a syllable ; when medial, it is well represented 
 by a hyphen ; as, $ lco-l : so in ' pre-eminent.' 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 181 
 
 AlifJiamza (\). Hamza takes the form of alif when 
 initial in a word, and this alif represents only the 
 breathing out of the vowel it conveys j as, <^j\ ab, (j*\ is, 
 
 9 ' 
 
 (jJi us, Ll&t eJc. 
 Jazm (<-) deprives its letter of a following vowel ; as, 
 
 c 
 
 & JCJ banda, ' a slave.' 
 
 TasJidld (~) doubles its letter, dividing the syllable 
 
 distinctly ; as, C-?iX< shid-dat. 
 
 -^ 
 
 Taskdid doubling ye (j) makes the first ye a vowel, and 
 
 the second *y;' as,Lj tai-yar. 
 
 TasJidid doubling waw ( jj) makes the first wdw a vowel, 
 
 ..# 
 and the second a * w ; ' as, dJy ku-wat. 
 
 + # 
 
 Tanwm (1) gives a nasal n; as, \JfUj1 ittifakan, f by 
 
 * s 
 
 chance : ' the alif bearing tanwm is short. 
 
 *o 
 
 Wasla (1) cancels #&/*, and the final vowel of the pre- 
 
 O C-O 9 
 
 ceding word takes the place of the lost alif; as, JjtS \ ^^ It 
 
 talil-ul-ilm. Here the a^jf is struck out by wasia, and 
 the pesh immediately preceding it, takes its place. 
 
 The following is found by experience to be a judicious 
 plan of arranging the letters of this alphabet : 
 
182 
 
 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 to 
 
 I 
 
 I- 
 
 
 oJ 
 
 V 
 
 *> 
 
 *> 
 
 -JL) 
 
 s 
 
 "*> 
 
 -t) 
 
 Remark. These cases are of the size and shape of the ordinary 
 Roman cases ; but we have been obliged, from the necessity of 
 the case, to represent them of a more square form than they are 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 183 
 
 -tJ 
 
 VJ 
 
 1 
 
 aJ 
 
 ill 
 
 -3= 
 
 in fact. The empty boxes are reserved for any extraordinary 
 sorts which may be required by any particular work on which the 
 compositor may be engaged. 
 
184 
 
 PLANS OF CASES, ETC, 
 
 9. THE DEVANAGAEI ALPHABET. 
 
 The alphabet of most common occurrence in Oriental 
 works, next to the Persi-Arabic, is the Devanagari. It is 
 the character generally used by the Hindoos, and is read 
 and written from left to right, as in English. This 
 alphabet, as used for the Hindus-tarn, consists of eleven 
 vowels and thirtyfive consonants. Their correspondence 
 with the E-oman and Persian characters will be clearly 
 shown by the following tables : 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 Detached. 
 
 \ a ^ 
 
 \ u 
 
 \ a 
 
 jl o 
 
 ? 
 j\ u 
 
 + 
 j] au 
 
 $\ e 
 ^\ ai 
 
 Initial, 
 
 Aab 
 
 <j~ 
 
 ud 
 
 aur 
 
 Non-Initial. 
 
 A] bad 
 ^ din 
 
 9 
 
 but 
 bat 
 so 
 
 IT 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 185 
 
 Note. It will be observed, on examining this table, that some 
 of the vowels assume quite a different shape, according as they 
 precede or follow a consonant ; and that the secondary form of i t 
 
 viz. [, precedes its consonant, though sounded after it. These vowels 
 and diphthongs are sounded uniformly as follows : a unmarked is 
 very short, as in the word ' America,' or like our u in the word 
 * sun ;' i f short, as in ' fit ;' u, short, as in ' put/ or our oo in e foot ;' 
 a, long, as in ' war ;' o, long, as in ' pole ;' u, long, as in ' rule ;' 
 au, like our ou in ' sound/ or the German au in ' haus/ a house ; 
 e, like our ea in ' bear ; ' I, long, as in the word ' police,' or our ee 
 in ' bee;" and ai, like our i in 'fire/ The anomalous Sanskrit 
 
 vowel *^2 n is expressed in the Persian character merely by 
 (re with a &asra) t and in the Koman character by ri, sounded as 
 ri in 'rill.' The Arabic termination J^ is represented in the 
 Roman character by a or a, according as its sound is short 
 or long. 
 
 Consonants. 
 
 b "3 
 
 th ~Z 
 
 bh V 
 
 *> 1 * 
 
 P V 
 
 *.J * 
 
 P k Uf 
 
 >~ Jk W 
 
 t 7T 
 
 c ch * 
 
 th "3 
 
 .>- chh ^ 
 
 t V 
 
 7" $ ^ 
 
186 
 
 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 ** 
 
 zh 
 
 $ 
 
 sh 
 
 9 
 
 J * 
 
 cJ k 
 
 Gt 9 H 
 
 ^ gh ^ 
 
 J / *T 
 
 /* m 1 
 
 w 
 
 x h 
 
 Note. The consonants, with few exceptions, are to be pronounced 
 as in English. It may be remarked, however, that ph, th, and th do 
 not form single sounds, as with us ; but the former has the sound 
 ofph in ' up-hill/ and the latter of th in 'hot-house/ The letters 
 t and d are softer and more dental than with us ; ck is uniformly 
 sounded as in ' church ;' Jch and^ are best learned by the ear ; the 
 former is forcibly uttered, like ch in the Scottish word ' loch ; y gh is 
 less forcibly uttered, like the German g in 'sagen;' Teh and gh, 
 without the dash beneath, are to be sounded as they are in the 
 compounds ' ink-horn ' and ' dog-house ; ' g is uniformly sounded 
 hard, as in ' go/ never like ourg in ' gem ;' zAis of rare occurrence, 
 and is sounded like the j in the French word 'jour.' A final n 
 preceded by a long vowel has generally a nasal sound_, as in the 
 French word 'bon.' All the consonants not mentioned above are 
 understood to be sounded as in English. 
 
 To the above letters may be added the symbol (*) 
 anuswara, which represents nasal n, and the visarga 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 187 
 
 (}), which corresponds with the final weak if of the 
 Persian character. I would also draw attention to two 
 compound characters, of which the elements are so dis- 
 guised, as to have the resemblance of single letters ; viz., 
 
 ^f ksh, compounded of <5" and *T sounded like our x in 
 fluxion, or ct in fraction; and '"Sf jn, sounded like our gn 
 
 in bagnio, or the French gn in ligne. The mark I is 
 used in poetry to indicate the first member of a slolca 
 or couplet; and at the end of a slolca it is generally 
 
 doubled (II). In prose, the same marks serve to denote 
 stops ; but, in many books lately published in India, in 
 the Devanagari character, the English stops are intro- 
 duced. 
 
 Whenever a consonant in the middle of a word is not 
 to be uttered with the short a, the consonant is marked 
 
 underneath with the symbol (^, called virdma, or ' rest ' 
 
 (equivalent to thejazm of the Persi- Arabic) ; as, ^T*Jf*IT 
 bolnd, ' to speak.' 
 
 The vowels^ and , in combination with -the letter T 
 (r) t are written ^ (ru), and ^ or ^(ru) ; and the vowel 
 
 ^ joined to 1[ (k), is written^ (kri). 
 
 In forming compound letters, the strict rule is, that 
 when two or more consonants come together, without the 
 intervention of a vowel, such consonants unite into one 
 group, so as to form, as it were, but one character. "No 
 general rule can be given for the formation of compound 
 
188 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 letters, except that the last of the group remains entire, 
 and the rest are more or less contracted, by omitting the 
 perpendicular stroke, and sometimes by changing their 
 primitive form. Hence it will easily be imagined that 
 the letters of this alphabet, with their combinations, are 
 very numerous, and must therefore occupy a great many 
 boxes and several cases. In some founts there are several 
 hundred separate characters ; but it will be sufficient for 
 our present purpose to subjoin a few of them, by way of 
 illustration. For instance : 
 
 Ick let Icy gn gb chchh jj tt tth tn tm 
 
 sr^^^-^^^'rr^-^^r^ 
 
 ty tw dd ddh dm dy dw nt nth nd ndh nn 
 
 ^r^i^^Tr^ ^ *? ** * s 
 
 nm ny nh pt pn py ps bd bhy II sht 
 
 ^ *w w ^ ^ ^ ^r ^j IT u 
 
 sJith shn st sth sn sm sy ss hm liy 
 
 The letter ^C, being of frequent occurrence in com- 
 pounds, is written over the group, in the form of a 
 crescent (*), when it is to be sounded first, as in the 
 
 word fT^f tarlca, t reasoning ; ' and when the ^ follows 
 another consonant, or rather, when it forms, with another 
 consonant, a compound articulation, it is represented by 
 
 an oblique stroke underneath ; as in ^T^ sutra, ' rule.' 
 
 In some books recently printed at Calcutta in the De- 
 vanagari character, but few compound letters are used. 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 189 
 
 Compounds of three letters are very rare, and when they 
 do occur, it will be found that they generally consist of a 
 semivowel combined with a compound of two letters ; as, 
 Ictw, ntr, pty, sty, &c. 
 
 As the Persi- Arabic alphabet has fourteen letters which 
 have no exact counterpart in the Devanagari, the plan 
 adopted in this case is, to represent the letters in question 
 with such Nagari letters as approximate them in sound, 
 which, in some printed books, are distinguished with a 
 dot underneath ; thus : 
 
 ! >u^uj'j^i c ^j'- 
 
 * * 
 
 i. L b 
 
 In a few printed books an attempt has been made to 
 invent distinct letters for the various forms of the Persian 
 and Arabic z, which, it will be observed, are all repre- 
 sented by one character ; but the plan has not been gene- 
 rally followed ; because, firstly, the Hindoos, who alone 
 use the Devanagari character, are sparing in the use of 
 Persian or Arabic words, to one or other of which the 
 various forms of the letter z belong ; and, secondly, such 
 words as they have in the course of time adopted, have 
 become naturalized, so as to suit the elements of the 
 ZSTagarl. In a new edition of the * Adventures of Hatim 
 Ta,i,' almost all dots and double letters are discarded as 
 a useless encumbrance.* 
 
 * For the use of the Arabic and Devanagari types, the author 
 is indebted to the kindness of Messrs. Cox & Wyman, of Great 
 Queen-street. 
 
190 
 
 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 10. THE GERMAN ALPHABET. 
 
 As this alphabet differs considerably from the English, 
 and some of its letters are very similar to others, I think 
 it advisable to give them at length, accompanied by a few 
 remarks explanatory of the difference in the formation of 
 such letters as are liable to be mistaken for others. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 POWER. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 21 a 
 
 A a 
 
 An 
 
 S3 b 
 
 B b 
 
 Bey* 
 
 ( c 
 
 C c 
 
 Tsey 
 
 > b 
 
 D d 
 
 Dey 
 
 ( e 
 
 E e 
 
 Ey 
 
 S f ff 
 
 F f ff 
 
 Ef, ef-ef 
 
 
 G g 
 
 Gey or Gay 
 
 * * b 
 
 H h ch 
 
 Hau, Tsey-hau 
 
 3 i 
 
 I i 
 
 E 
 
 3 I 
 
 J j 
 
 Yot 
 
 & I cf 
 
 K k ck 
 
 Kau, Tsey-kau 
 
 S I 
 
 L 1 
 
 El 
 
 m m 
 
 M m 
 
 Em 
 
 91 n 
 
 N n 
 
 En 
 
 > o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 ty $ 
 
 P P 
 
 Pey 
 
 t Cf 
 
 Q q 
 
 Koo 
 
 01 t 
 
 K r 
 
 Err 
 
 f ff 
 
 S 8 S SS 
 
 Ess, Ess-ess 
 
 
 sz st 
 
 Ess-tset Ess-tey 
 
 t 
 
 T t 
 
 Tey 
 
 U u 
 
 U u 
 
 Oo 
 
 55 & 
 
 Y v 
 
 Fou 
 
 28 to 
 
 W w 
 
 Yey 
 
 
 
 X x 
 
 Iks 
 
 a 9 
 
 Y y 
 
 Ypsilon 
 
 3 1 
 
 Z z tz 
 
 Tset, Tey-tset 
 
 a o ft 
 
 ae oe ue 
 
 
 * ey, in this and the following instances, is sounded like a in hay. 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 191 
 
 In the printed alphabet, as before remarked, some 
 letters are apt to be mistaken, and to be confounded one 
 with another. To facilitate the discrimination, we will 
 place them here together, and point out the difference. 
 
 33 (B) and $ (V). 
 
 The latter is open in the middle, the former joined 
 across. 
 
 < (C) and <g (E). 
 
 ( (E) has a little horizontal stroke in the middle, pro- 
 jecting to the right, which ( (C) has not. 
 
 @ (G) and @ (S). 
 
 These letters, being both of rather a round form, are 
 sometimes taken one for another, particularly the @ for 
 the @. But @ (S) has an opening above, @ (G) is closed, 
 and has besides a perpendicular stroke within. 
 
 & (K), (N), (E). 
 
 $ (K) is rounded at the top, -ft (N) is open in the mid- 
 dle, R (K) is united about the middle. 
 
 ffl (M) and B (W), 
 
 SW (M) is open at the bottom, 28 (W) is closed, 
 b (b) and $ (h). 
 
 b (b) is perfectly closed below, ty (h) is somewhat open, 
 and ends at the bottom, on one side, with a hair-stroke. 
 
 f(f)andf(s). 
 
 f (f) has an horizontal line through it, f (s) on the left- 
 side only. 
 
192 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 m (m) and tt> (w). 
 
 ttt (m) is entirely open at the bottom, ft (w) is partly 
 closed. 
 
 t (r) and X (x). 
 
 X (x) has a little hair-stroke below, on the left. 
 
 & (v) and p (y). 
 
 & (v) is closed, 9 (y) is somewhat open below, and ends 
 with a hair-stroke. 
 
 11. THE IRISH, WELSH, AND GAELIC. 
 
 These three languages also possess an alphabet dif- 
 ferent from the Roman character in common use in 
 Europe ; but as works in any of them are limited in 
 number, and come in the way of very few printers, it will 
 not be necessary to give their alphabets at length. I will 
 just remark, that the alphabet common to them all is the 
 Celtic, which was probably derived from the Phenician 
 traders, who used, in remote times, to visit the British 
 islands for the purposes of traffic ; for its resemblance to 
 the Greek and Roman shows pretty clearly that they all 
 had one origin, which is generally agreed to have had its 
 seat on the coasts of the Levant. 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 193 
 
 12. MUSICAL CHARACTERS. 
 
 As it sometimes falls to the lot of the compositor to 
 be engaged on musical works, a knowledge of the symbols 
 used in the science will be found of some advantage to 
 him, although he may have no practical acquaintance 
 with the art. We will therefore append an explanation 
 and examples of such as are of constant occurrence. 
 
 Q_ . This symbol is called the treble or G clef, because 
 
 yr- the line passing through the middle of the curve 
 fffi- is called G, and the other letters are calculated 
 / therefrom. 
 
 The tenor or G clef The line passing through 
 the body is called C : it is generally placed either 
 I G] upon the middle line or the fourth from the bottom : 
 when placed on the middle line, it is known as the 
 alto clef ; on the fourth, as the tenor. 
 
 The bass or F clef The line passing between 
 the points is called F : it is commonly set upon the 
 fourth line, but sometimes it occurs upon the middle 
 one, when it is known as the barytone clef. 
 
 The common-time symbol ; each bar containing 
 four crotchets, or their equivalent. 
 
 Moderate quick time, or the second mood, is 
 reckoned either by four quavers, or two crotchets, 
 in a bar. There are also other symbols showing the 
 time of a piece of music ; viz. | -^g 2 , &c. 
 
 This note is called a semibreve: it is the longest 
 note in modern music, and is equal, in point of time, 
 to 2 minims, 4 crotchets, 8 quavers, &c. 
 
 A minim, as just remarked, is equal to half a semi- 
 breve ; and it is also equal to two crotchets. 
 
 A crotchet is, in point of time, equal to two qua- 
 vers ; and, in the generality of music, is the standard 
 beat. 
 
 o 
 
194 PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 
 
 The quaver is equivalent, in point of time, to two 
 semiquavers, or, as before intimated, is equal to half 
 a crotchet. 
 
 ^ A semiquaver, as its name implies, is half a 
 ^- quaver; but it denotes a period of time equal to two 
 ^ demisemi quavers. 
 
 fL The demisemiquaver is the shortest note in modern 
 K music : it is, as just stated, equal to half a semiquaver, 
 
 and is the thirty -second part of a semibreve. 
 ...^_ Each kind of note has its corresponding rest, a 
 mark which signifies that silence is to be kept so 
 _ long as the note which it represents would require 
 ^ to be sung or played. The different kinds of these 
 symbols are shown in the margin, beginning with 
 3 ij the semibreve rest, and ending with the demisemi- 
 quaver. 
 W 1 denotes a direction. : C: signifies repeat. 
 
 '^"""^ A curve drawn above or below any number of 
 notes, is called a slur. 
 
 Notes, again, are either natural, signified by the 
 mark ft ; flat, ; or sharp, jt 
 
 If a sharp is placed at the beginning of a line, it 
 denotes that all the notes on that line are to be taken a 
 semitone higher than in the natural series ; and this affects 
 all the octaves above or below, though not marked; but 
 when this sign is prefixed to any particular note, it 
 signifies that that note only is to be taken a semitone 
 higher than it would otherwise be. 
 
 A fiat is the contrary of the sharp ; that is, it signifies 
 that the notes it precedes are to be taken a semitone 
 lower. 
 
 When a note, already sharpened by the key signa- 
 ture, is to be raised a semitone more, it is shown by this 
 character x (a double sharp). 
 
 A single bar is a perpendicular line drawn across the 
 
PLANS OF CASES, ETC. 195 
 
 staff, to divide the time into the given quantities indicated 
 at the beginning of the piece. A double bar consists of 
 two such lines, somewhat thicker : it is used to divide a 
 tune or piece of music into different parts, and is always 
 placed at the end. 
 
 When the double bar is dotted, it signifies repeat. 
 
 On the other side, the reader will find a plan of a pair 
 of Music Cases, as now in use at the office of Messrs. 
 Mams & Gee, of Middle Street, West Smithfield, the 
 printers of this book. The arrangement differs in several 
 respects from that generally given by the type-founders ; 
 but as experience is the test of efficiency in this as in all 
 other things, I have preferred to give that which is de- 
 monstrated by actual use to be the most convenient, rather 
 than be guided by the authority of those whose knowledge 
 must necessarily be more theoretic than practical ; and I 
 have no doubt that it will be found of great service to the 
 uninitiated, whenever it shall fall to their lot to execute 
 work of this character. 
 

 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 M 
 
 /I 
 
 ss\ 
 
 /// 
 
 
 I 
 
 s 
 
 j 
 
 iff 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^\ 
 
 & ^7 
 
 J\ 
 
 / 
 
 or 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 M 
 
 A 
 
 & 
 
 O (5 
 
 3\ 
 
 /!/ 
 
 01 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 QL 01 
 
 UL 
 
 fT 
 
 il 
 
 
 
 I/ 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 01 
 
 5 
 
 fe 
 
 Jl 
 
 JIT 
 
 I 
 
 HI 
 
 ii ! 
 
 Jfc. *nr 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 IK 
 
 111 
 
 ji 
 
 t tl 
 
 j 
 
 f 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 111 
 
 ju 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 S f 
 
 s /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 K 
 
 K 
 
 
 r 
 
 n 
 
 c 
 
 ( 
 
 ^ 
 
 K 
 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 / 
 
 ( 
 
 < 
 
 ' 
 
 !( 
 
 !( 
 
 r 
 
 ji 
 
 a 
 
 ff 
 
 ( 
 
 
 !(f 
 
 Iff 
 
 V 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 5. 
 
 ( 
 
 
 St 
 
 H 
 
 III 
 
 ji 
 
 /f 
 
 ( 
 
 ( 
 
 
 H 
 
 !( 
 
 II 
 
 + 
 
 YY 
 
 /r 
 
 \ 
 
 t 
 
 r 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 /r 
 
 XI 
 
 TO 
 
 .-s* 
 
 c 
 
 L^ 
 
 00 
 
 - 
 
 m 
 
 X 
 
 jfcl 
 
 oa 
 
 < 
 
 ^ 
 
 t' 
 
 ^J; 
 
 If! A 
 
 4T" 
 
 ifh 
 
 oa 
 
 1 
 
 <- 
 
 CO 
 
 *5 
 
 -< 
 
 !_ 
 
 -**' 
 
 QQ 
 
 e 
 
 ^ 
 
 KO 
 
 (J 
 
 A 
 
 ' 
 
 4*W 
 
 ^H 
 
 i 
 
 N 
 
 rJH 
 
 M^ 
 
 gu 
 
 1 
 
 HF 
 
 ca 
 
 
 4: 
 
 03 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 IJUT 
 
 CM 
 
 
 i 
 
 (M 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 IJTI 
 
 rH 
 
 
 I 
 
 rH 
 
 CJ 
 
 s 
 
 + 
 
 I1LJ 
 
I 
 
 Jf 
 
 A 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 s 
 
 (f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jl 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 SfflBMffl-B"* 
 
 J 
 
 / 
 
 i 
 
 % 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 b^ 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 _ 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 \ 
 
 !J 
 
 I 
 
 cnzzzidi 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 iJ/ 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 7 
 
 J 
 
 !/ 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 ft 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 y 
 
 a . 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 1! 
 
 s ' 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 511 
 
 8 ! 
 
 I! 
 
 iS- 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 d 
 
 4 
 
 Q 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 k 
 
 0- 
 
 J 
 
 < 
 
 i 
 
 
 j 
 
 Ji 
 
 _L_ 
 
 J_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 i i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~w 
 
 j 
 
 I 
 
 - 
 
 
 _ 
 
 j 
 
 -i- 
 
 
 j. 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 j 
 
 JL 
 
 1 
 
 _L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fcfc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 WL 
 
 I_LJ 
 
 LU 
 
 
 
 
 
 tL 
 
 HH 
 
 -H 
 
 j 
 
 j 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 SL 
 
 1 
 
 j 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 "H 
 
 M 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 2) 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 It 
 
 a i 
 
198 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 JOBBING OR DISPLAYED WORK. 
 
 ALTHOUGH many of the observations contained in the 
 previous chapters of this Part, apply equally to the 
 duties of the compositor, whether considered as a news, 
 book, or job-hand ; nevertheless, in the last-mentioned 
 branch of the business there are so many peculiarities, and 
 the requirements demanded are so different from those of 
 an ordinary compositor, that I have deemed it advisable 
 to devote a short chapter to the illustration of this part of 
 our subject. 
 
 To constitute a good job-hand, quickness of composition 
 and literary ability are not so much the essential requisites 
 as taste, knowledge of effect, and mechanical skill and in- 
 genuity ; and although it is impossible to impart these 
 qualificatious by any verbal means, when they are not, in 
 some measure, given by nature, still, hints may be thrown 
 out on various subjects, which the attentive junior work- 
 man may turn to a profitable account in practice. 
 
 It may be preliminarily remarked, moreover, that if 
 the old adage, " a place for everything, and everything in 
 its place," is applicable anywhere, it is nowhere more so 
 than in a jobbing printing-office, where the great variety 
 of type in use, and frequently the small quantity of 
 some of it, render it utterly impossible to find any letter 
 that may be required, at the moment, unless order and 
 
JOBBING OR DISPLAYED WORK. 199 
 
 system be rigidly adhered to. Neither should sorts or 
 material be suffered to be locked up in chase, or to ac- 
 cumulate on boards or galleys, or out-of-the-way corners 
 of the office, on any pretence ; but every job should be 
 cleared away at the first practicable moment : otherwise, 
 confusion and disorder will prevail throughout ; nothing 
 will be found when wanted, time will be unprofitably con- 
 sumed, and money expended in purchasing materials which 
 would not at all be required, were they but duly assigned 
 to their proper place, on every occasion, as soon as they 
 could be liberated. 
 
 The work executed in jobbing printing-offices princi- 
 pally consists of Broadsides, Particulars of Estates, Cata- 
 logues, Circulars, Hand-bills, Cards, and Rule-work of all 
 sorts ; a few words on each of which may here be not in- 
 opportunely adduced. 
 
 Broadsides. Under this head are comprised posting- 
 bills of all kinds ; such as sales by auction, notices of public 
 events, or whatever is intended prominently to strike the 
 eye of the passer-by, on the dead-walls and hoardings of 
 our public streets, or other places of general resort. In 
 their composition, the main thing which will require the 
 compositor's attention will be the prominent and judicious 
 setting-forth of that which constitutes the groundwork 
 of the announcement : other subsidiary matters must be 
 placed in proper subordination thereto, according to their 
 importance, but each helping to set off the other, by variety 
 of type, different length of lines, and other means, which 
 practice will suggest to every compositor of ordinary skill 
 and judgement, but which it would be impossible to de- 
 fine beforehand, as each job will depend entirely upon its 
 own circumstances and the necessities of the case. I will 
 merely remark, in addition, that, as I think, too little 
 margin is generally left in posters executed in London and 
 other large towns, which appear as one black mass of 
 letters, without any relief from the paper of the margin. 
 
200 JOBBING OR DISPLAYED WORK. 
 
 Particulars of Estates. These are generally printed 
 on one or more folio sheets ; the first page being occupied 
 by tlie general summary of the estate to be sold, after the 
 manner of a poster, the name of the auctioneer, the day 
 and place of sale, and the offices where catalogues are to 
 ' be had. The Conditions of Sale mostly occupy the second 
 page, the size of the type being regulated by the quantity 
 of matter to be got into it ; and the Particulars commence 
 on the third page; either ending there, or being carried 
 forward, according to the number of lots and the length 
 of the description. The last page contains the indorse, the 
 width of which is regulated by the size of the paper when 
 folded into long octavo, and occupies one of the quarter 
 sections of this outer page, generally the second;* being 
 sometimes preceded by the Agreement to Purchase, or a 
 Memorandum of Deposit, &c. Circumstances may some- 
 times render it necessary to place the indorse on the third 
 or even the fourth section, and the compositor must act 
 accordingly. 
 
 Auctioneers 9 Catalogues are generally regarded as coming 
 under the head of job-work, being, for the most part, 
 printed in the form of a pamphlet, in type seldom less than 
 small pica or long primer ; and being always wanted in 
 haste, and requiring a good deal of material, and frequently 
 running much on peculiar sorts, no time should be lost in 
 clearing them away when done with, in order that you 
 may be prepared for an' other similar job at a minute's 
 notice. 
 
 Circulars are mostly printed in quarto or octavo, on 
 post paper, with or without a fly-leaf, according to the 
 wish of the party for whom they are executed. The prin- 
 cipal lines in the head should be in some neat plain or 
 ornamental letter, according to the nature of the subject, 
 
 * Quarto prospectuses, with an indorse, are only divided into 
 three portions; the indorse in them is consequently on the central 
 division ; as it also is when a folio is folded up as a quarto. 
 
JOBBING OR DISPLAYED WORK. 
 
 201 
 
 duly proportioned, in accordance with the importance of the 
 several lines ; and the body in a neat Roman letter, leaded 
 if practicable, and not too closely spaced ; so that it may be 
 read with facility, and may seem to invite perusal. The 
 paragraphs should also be well indented (two or three 
 ems, according to the size of the paper), for the purpose of 
 distinctly marking the beginning of a new feature in the 
 circular, or any other purpose. 
 
 Sometimes Circulars consist of four pages, two of 
 which are occupied in setting forth the nature of the sub- 
 ject which is thereby brought under notice, and the third 
 contains some form for the recipient to fill up and return 
 to the party sending it. In this case, there is generally 
 an address printed on the last page, in the place where an 
 ordinary address would be written, as under 
 
 But if the leaf to be returned is to be folded as a letter, the 
 address must be printed in the center of the page. 
 
 Handbills are of so many and varied descriptions, that 
 it would be impossible to give any directions which would 
 answer for all purposes : taste and judgement, according 
 to each particular requirement, must be brought into 
 requisition, as the best guide. 
 
 The above observation applies equally to Cards ; but 
 the reader may refer to what was said under the head 
 of Broadsides ; for the remarks there given are equally 
 applicable in this place ; and in addition, neatness and a 
 
202 JOBBING OR DISPLAYED WORK. 
 
 nice proportion of the various types used, are essential 
 requisites. 
 
 We may add, however, with some advantage to the 
 young compositor, the various sizes of cards, with their 
 names, as generally known to the trade : 
 
 Quadruple Large... 
 Quadruple Small... 
 Double Large 
 Double Spaall 
 Larere 
 
 ... 9 I 
 ... 7 
 ... 6 
 ... 5 
 
 >y 6 inches. 
 > 5 
 , 4J- 
 3^ 
 , 3 
 > "j 
 
 ) ^4 J> 
 
 j 2j ,, 
 , 2 
 
 , If 
 
 > * 
 
 I 3 
 > 1-4, > 
 
 Small 
 
 ... * 2 
 
 Reduced Small ... 
 Half Large 
 Town, or Outsize... 
 Extra Thirds 
 Thirds 
 
 ... iJ ,y 
 
 ... 3 
 ... 3 
 ... 3 
 ... 3 
 
 Half Small 
 
 ... 2* 
 
 Furniture is also a subject which will demand the 
 attention of every one having the superintendence of a 
 jobbing office. This should be cut to pica ems of various 
 lengths, and kept so assorted, in order that any length 
 that may be required may be had at once, without hunting 
 among a huge drawerful of various lengths, like seeking 
 a needle in a bottle of hay. When this plan is adopted, 
 if there is not sufficient of one length, on any particular 
 job, pieces of various lengths can be joined together, and 
 will make up the exact size. These remarks will apply 
 to reglets also, with equal force ; and even as regards scale- 
 board, they will not be found much out of place, or alto- 
 gether unworthy of attention, where economy of time is an 
 object. 
 
 We before pointed out the necessity of having a place 
 for everything, and the importance of requiring every- 
 thing to be returned to its place as soon as done with. 
 
JOBBING OR DISPLAYED WORK. 
 
 203 
 
 To facilitate that object, it is imperative that the cases 
 should be labelled, and also denoted by a number cor- 
 responding with the one assigned to them in the rack. 
 When this is done, even a straDger can replace any case 
 he may have had occasion to use, in a moment, where it 
 will, with equal ease, be found by the next person who 
 may require it. 
 
 Before closing this chapter, it will perhaps be not in- 
 opportune to add, for the sake of ready reference, the 
 dimensions of the various-sized papers, both writing and 
 printing, as given by the wholesale stationers. 
 
 Writing and Drawing Paper. 
 
 Inc 
 Emperor 66 I 
 
 hes. 
 >y47 
 , 31 
 , 26| 
 , 26 
 , 23| 
 , 23 
 , 22 
 , 19 
 
 Antiquarian ... 53 
 Double Elephant 40 
 Atlas 34 
 
 Columbier 34| 
 Elephant 28 
 
 Imperial 30 
 
 Super Royal ... 27 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Royal 24 by 19 
 
 Medium 22 17 
 
 Derny 20 15 
 
 Large Post 21 16" 
 
 Post 19 15 
 
 Foolscap 17 13| 
 
 Pott 15 12| 
 
 Copy 20 16 
 
 Printing Paper. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Double Demy ... 35 by 22 
 Double Crown... 30 20 
 
 Imperial 30 22 
 
 Double Foolscap 27 17 
 Super Royal ... 28 20 
 Boyal 24J,, 19J 
 
 Inches. 
 Sheet-and-half 
 
 Demy 27 by 22J 
 
 Sheet-and-half 
 
 Post 24 18J 
 
 Medium ^3 18 
 
 Demy 22 17| 
 
 Note. It will be remarked, that writing-papers are generally 
 smaller than printing-papers of the same denomination. 
 
204 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LAW WORK AND LAW BOOKS. 
 
 IF the young printer has carefully considered what has 
 been said in the preceding pages of this book, he will be at 
 no great loss to execute, with credit to himself and to the 
 satisfaction of those who may employ him, any work of 
 the nature of that now under consideration. Nevertheless, 
 as there are some things which require to be noted for 
 their peculiarity, and the books and authorities cited are 
 generally contracted in a uniform manner in all law 
 works, we may not unprofitable bestow a few pages in 
 explaining those peculiarities, and in giving, in alphabet- 
 ical detail, a list of the most common law authorities, as 
 generally contracted in practice, and as I find them in the 
 preliminary portion of Butterworth's Law Catalogue. 
 
 We may remark in the first place, then, that the names 
 of the parties to a suit are generally in Italic (except in 
 newspapers), and the authorities where the case is re- 
 ported, in Eoman, contracted in the manner given in the 
 appended list. If the name of the case is adduced in the 
 argument, the authority follows in parentheses ; but if the 
 case is added parenthetically, of course the whole is in- 
 closed within the appropriate symbols. Examples of both 
 will clearly explain the plan to be adopted in each case 
 by the compositor. 
 
 In Thomas v. Waller (4 Corb. & D. 61) and Jones v. Peterson 
 (Adol. & El. 703), the matter is fully and satisfactorily reported. 
 
LAW WORK, ETC. 205 
 
 An action of this nature must be brought within the time 
 specified (Reg. v. Kesterton, 13 Co. Litt. 76), otherwise it will fail. 
 
 Where, the reader will observe, the short and (&) is 
 always employed, and there is no comma after the full 
 stop, between the authority and the page. 
 
 The short and is also uniformly employed in reciting 
 the years of the reign of any monarch in which an act of 
 parliament was passed, thus : 15 & 16 Geo. 3, c. 21, with 
 Arabic numerals after the name, and not Roman capital 
 letters, which would be too cumbersome, and not half so 
 clear. 
 
 In all instances of this sort, ike figures should never be 
 separated, at the end of a line, from that to which they 
 belong ; nor should the constituent parts of what forms 
 but one portion of the reference. Thus, in the instance 
 given above, 15 should not end a line, and the next begin 
 with & ; neither should Geo. be separated from the ac- 
 companying 3 ; nor c. from 21. Nor, in like manner, the 
 letters denoting any office, such as Colburn, C. J. ; where 
 the C. and J. should always be in the same line. And so 
 in all other cases. To do otherwise would be extremely 
 unsightly. 
 
 When a number of authorities are given, with the 
 reports where found, each case is separated from the fol- 
 lowing one by a semicolon, in the following manner, if 
 they depend or read on with what has been previously 
 said. Thus : " The authorities on which I rely (12 & 13 
 Car. 2, c. 14, s. 6 ; Bell v. Bradfoot, 6 T. E. 721 ; Cooke v. 
 Jonas, 2 B. & A. 423) are conclusive on this point." But if 
 they do not so depend, or do not form an interposed paren- 
 thetical sentence, a full-stop may well be employed. 
 
 To say more here would be but a reiteration of some- 
 thing that has been previously adduced in some portion or 
 other of this book ; I prefer, therefore, that the tyro 
 should exercise his memory, rather than that I should 
 consume time and space in going over a twice-told tale. 
 
206 
 
 LAW WORK. ETC. 
 
 We will therefore proceed at once to give the list of con- 
 tracted law authorities, with their explanation, to which I 
 alluded above. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS USED IN REFERENCES TO LAW 
 BOOKS, &c. 
 
 Ab. Sh. 
 Abr. Ca. Eq. 
 A. An. Anon. 
 A. B. 
 
 Act. 
 
 Act. Reg. 
 
 Ad. & E. 
 
 Add. 
 
 Ad. E. 
 
 Al. 
 
 Amb. 
 
 Annaly. 
 
 And. 
 
 Andr. 
 
 Anst. 
 
 Arch. P. by Ch. 
 
 Arch. B. L. 
 
 Arch. Cr. L. 
 
 Arch. J. P. 
 
 Arch. Sum. 
 
 Ass. 
 
 Ast. Ent. 
 
 Atk. 
 
 Ayl. 
 
 Bac. Abr. 
 
 B. & A. or Barn. & Aid. 
 
 B. & Ad. or Barn. & Adol. 
 
 B. & C. or Barn. & Cress 
 
 Ball & B. 
 
 Bane. Sup. 
 
 Abbot's Shipping 
 
 Abridgement of Cases in Equity 
 
 Anonymous 
 
 Anonymous, at the end of Bendloe, Rep. 
 
 1661 
 
 Acton's Reports 
 Acta Regia 
 Adolphus and Ellis 
 Addams's Ecclesiastical Reports 
 Adams on Ejectment 
 Aleyn's Reports 
 Ambler's Reports 
 Reports time Hardwicke 
 Anderson's Reports 
 Andrew's Reports 
 Anstruther's Reports 
 Archbold's Practice, by Chitty 
 Archbold's Bankrupt Law 
 Archbold's Criminal Law 
 Archbold's Justice of the Peace 
 Archbold's Summary of the Laws of 
 
 England 
 Assise (Book of) 
 Aston's Entries 
 Atkyn's Reports 
 Ayliffe 
 
 Bacon's Abridgement 
 Barnewall and Alderson's Reports 
 Barnewall and Adolphus 
 Barnewall and Cresswell 
 Ball and Beatty 
 Upper Bench 
 
LA.W WORK, ETC. 
 
 207 
 
 Bar. & Arn. 
 
 Bar. & Aust. 
 
 Barn. K. B. 
 
 Barn. C. 
 
 Barnes 
 
 Batt. 
 
 Bayl. B. 
 
 Beav. 
 
 Benl. or Bendl. 
 
 Bing. 
 
 Bing. N. C. 
 
 B. Tr. 
 
 BL 
 
 W. Black. 
 
 H. Black. 
 
 Bla. Com. 
 
 Bli. 
 
 Bli. N. S. 
 
 B. N. C. 
 
 B. N. P. 
 
 Bo. R. Act. 
 
 B. & P. or Bos. & Pul. 
 
 Bos. & P. N. R. 
 
 Bott 
 
 Bra. 
 
 Bridg. 
 
 Bridg. 0. 
 
 Br. Bro. 
 
 Bro. Ab. 
 
 Br. Brev. Jud. & Ent. 
 
 Bro. Brow. Ent. 
 
 Bro. V. M. 
 
 Brown, P. C. 
 
 Brown, C. C. 
 
 Brownl. Redv. or Ent. 
 
 Brownl. 
 
 B. or C. B. 
 B. R. 
 
 Barron and Arnold 
 Barron and Austin 
 Barnardiston's Reports, K. B. 
 Barnardiston's Reports, Chancery 
 Barnes's Notes, C. P. 
 Batty 
 
 Bayley on Bills 
 Beavan 
 
 Benloe or Bendloe's Reports 
 Bingham 
 
 Bingham's New Cases 
 Bishop's Trial 
 Blount 
 
 Sir Wm. Blackstone's Reports 
 Henry Blackstone's Reports 
 Blackstone's Commentaries 
 Bligh 
 
 Bligh's Reports, New Series 
 Brooke's New Cases 
 Buller's Nisi Prius 
 Booth's Real Actions 
 Bosanquet and Puller s Reports 
 Bosanquet and Puller's New Reports 
 Bott's Poor Laws 
 Brady or Bracton 
 Bridgman's Rep. or Conv. 
 Orlando Bridgman 
 Brooke, Browne, Brownlow 
 Brooke's Abridgement 
 Brownlow Brevia Judicialia, &c. 
 Brown's Entries 
 Brown's Vade-Mecum 
 Brown's Parliament Cases 
 Brown's Chancery Reports 
 Brownlow's Redivivus 
 Brownlow and Gouldesborough s Re- 
 ports 
 
 Common Bench 
 King's Bench 
 
208 
 
 LAW WORK. ETC. 
 
 Buck 
 
 Bulst. 
 
 Bunb. 
 
 B. Just. 
 
 B. Eccl. Law 
 
 Burr. 
 
 Burr. S. C. 
 
 B. & B. or Brod. Bing. 
 C. 
 
 C. C. 
 Cald. 
 
 Ca. temp. H. 
 
 Ca. 
 
 Ca. t. K. 
 
 Cal. 
 
 Camp. N. P. 
 
 C. & K. or Car. & Kir. 
 
 Car. & M. 
 
 C. M. & R. 
 
 C. & P. or Car. & P. 
 
 Cart. 
 
 Cary 
 
 Carth. 
 
 Cas. t. Talb. 
 
 Cas. Pra. C. P. 
 
 Cas. B. R. 
 
 Cas. L. Eq. 
 
 C. B. or C. P. 
 
 Ca. P. or Parl. 
 
 Cawl. 
 
 Ch. Cas. 
 
 Ch. Pre. 
 
 Ch. R. 
 
 Chris. B. L. 
 
 Ch. Burn's J. 
 
 Ch. PL 
 
 Ch. Grim. L. 
 
 Ch. Bills 
 
 Chit. Rep. 
 
 Buck's Reports in Bankruptcy 
 
 Bulstrode's Reports 
 
 Bunbury's Reports 
 
 Burn's Justice 
 
 Burn's Ecclesiastical Law 
 
 Burrow's Reports 
 
 Burrow's Settlement Cases 
 
 Broderip and Bingham 
 
 Codex (Juris Civilis) 
 
 Cases in Chancery 
 
 Caldecott's Reports 
 
 Cases time Hardwicke 
 
 Case, or Placita 
 
 Cases time King 
 
 Callis, Calthorpe 
 
 Campbell's Reports Nisi Priua 
 
 Carrington and Kirwan 
 
 Carrington and Marshman 
 
 Crompton, Meeson, and Roscoe 
 
 Carrington and Payne 
 
 Carter's Reports 
 
 Gary's Reports 
 
 Carthew's Reports 
 
 Cases time Talbot 
 
 Cases of Practice Common Pleas 
 
 Cases temp. Will. 3 (12 Mod.) 
 
 Cases in Law and Equity (10 Mod.) 
 
 Common Pleas 
 
 Cases in Parliament 
 
 Cawley 
 
 Cases in Chancery 
 
 Precedents in Chancery 
 
 Reports in Chancery 
 
 Christian's Bankrupt Law 
 
 Chitty's Burn's Justice 
 
 Chitty on Pleading 
 
 Chitty's Criminal Law 
 
 Chitty on Bills 
 
 Chitty's Reports 
 
Chit. G. P. 
 Chit. Jun. B. 
 Cl. & Fin. 
 Cl. Ass. 
 Clay. 
 Clift 
 
 Cod. or Cod. Jur. 
 Co. Cop. 
 Co. Ent. 
 Co. Lit. 
 Co. M. C. 
 Co. P. C. 
 Co. on Courts 
 Comb. 
 C. P. 
 Com. 
 
 Com. Dig. 
 Cooper 
 Co. 
 
 Cooke B. L. 
 Coop. t. Brough. 
 Coop. 
 Corb. & D. 
 Cot. 
 Cow. 
 ,Cox 
 Cr.&Ph, 
 Cro. (1, 2, 3) 
 Cro. sometimes refers 
 
 Serj. Croke. 
 Cromp. 
 Cromp. & J. 
 Cromp. & M. 
 Cromp. M. & R. 
 Cunn. 
 Curt. 
 D. 
 Dal. 
 
 LAW WORK, ETC. 209 
 
 Chitty's General Practice 
 Chitty, jun., on Bills 
 Clark and Finnelly 
 Clerk's Assistant 
 Clayton's Reports 
 Cliffs Entries 
 Codex by Gibson 
 Coke's Copyholder 
 Coke's Entries 
 Coke on Littleton (1 Inst.) 
 Coke's Magna Charta (2 Inst,) 
 Coke's Pleas of the Crown (3 Inst.) 
 Coke's 4 Inst. 
 Cornberbach's Reports 
 Common Pleas 
 Comyn's Reports 
 Comyn's Digest 
 Cooper's Reports- 
 Coke's Reports 
 Cooke's Bankrupt Laws 
 Cooper's Cases temp. Brougham 
 Cooper (G.) 
 Corbett and Daniell 
 Cotton 
 
 Cowper's Reports 
 Cox's Reports 
 Craig and Phillips 
 Croke (Elizabeth, James, Charles) 
 to Keilway's Reports, published % 
 
 Crompton on Courts 
 Crompton and Jervis 
 Crompton and Meeson 
 Crompton, Meeson, and Roscoe 
 Cunningham's Reports 
 Curteis 
 
 Dictum, Digest (Juris Civilis), 
 Dalison's Report 
 P 
 
210 
 
 Dalr. F. L. 
 
 Dalt. 
 
 D'An. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Dan. & LI. 
 
 Dav. 
 
 Deac. 
 
 Dick. 
 
 Dick. Just. 
 
 Dig. 
 
 D. &S. 
 
 Dod. 
 
 Dom. Proc. 
 
 D. & C. or Deac. & Ch. 
 
 D. & L. or Dow. & L. 
 
 D. R. or Dow. & Ky. 
 Doug. 
 
 Dow 
 
 Dow. & R. M. C. 
 
 Dow. & Ry. N. P. 
 
 Dow & C. 
 
 Dowl. P. C. 
 
 Dugd. Orig. 
 
 Dug. S. 
 
 Duke 
 
 Duraf. 
 
 Dub. 
 
 Dy- 
 
 E. 
 
 Eag. & Yo. 
 East 
 
 East P. C. 
 Eden 
 
 Edw. A. R. 
 Eq. Ca. 
 
 E. of Cov. 
 Esp. 
 Exch. Rep. 
 
 LAW WORK, ETC. 
 
 Dalrym pie's Feudal Law 
 Dalton's Justice or Sheriff 
 D'Anvers' Abridgement 
 Daniel's Reports 
 Dansoii and Lloyd 
 Davy's Reports 
 Deacon's Bankruptcy Cases 
 Dickins's Reports 
 Dickinson's Justice 
 Digest of Writs 
 Doctor and Student 
 Dodson's Reports in Admiralty 
 Domini Proctor ; Cases House of Lords 
 Deacon and Chitty 
 Dowling and Lowndes 
 Dowling and Ryland's K. B. Reports 
 Douglas's Reports 
 Dow's Reports in Parliament 
 Dowling and Ryland's Magistrates' Casts 
 Dowliug and Ryland's Nisi Prius 
 Dow and Clark 
 Dowling's Practice Cases 
 Dugdale's Origines 
 Dugdale's Summons 
 Duke's Charitable Uses 
 Durnford & East, or Term Reports 
 Dubitatur 
 Dyer's Reports 
 Easter Term 
 
 Eagle and Younge's Tithe Cases 
 East's Reports 
 East's Pleas of the Crown 
 Eden's Rep. of Northington's Case 
 Edward's Admiralty Reports 
 Equity Cases Abridged 
 Earl of Coventry's Case 
 Espinasse's Rep. or Digest N. P. 
 WeLby, Huiistone, and Gordon 
 
LAW WORK. ETC. 
 
 211 
 
 Far. 
 
 Fearne 
 
 Ff.* 
 
 Fin. 
 
 F. or Fitz.f 
 
 F. N. B. 
 Fitz-G. 
 Fl. 
 Fol. 
 Fonbl. 
 For. 
 
 For. Pla. 
 Forrester 
 Forts. 
 Fost. 
 Fra. M. 
 Freem. 
 Gal. & Dav. 
 Gilb. C. P. 
 
 Dist. 
 
 Ex. 
 Ev. 
 
 Exch. 
 
 -K. B. 
 
 Eem. 
 
 Us. 
 
 Gilb. 
 Glauv. 
 
 G. J. 
 Godb. 
 
 Farresley (7 Mod. Rep.) 
 Fearne on Remainders 
 Pandectse (Jims Civilis) 
 Finch's Reports 
 Fitzherbert 
 Fitz Nat. Brevium 
 Fitz-Gibbon's Reports 
 Fleta 
 
 Foley's Poor Laws 
 Fonblanque on Equity 
 Forrest's Reports 
 Brown's Formulae 
 Cases time of Talbot 
 Fortesque's Reports 
 Foster's Reports 
 Francis's Maxims 
 Freeman's Reports 
 Gale and Davison 
 Gilbert's Common Pleas 
 
 Distresses 
 
 Executions 
 
 Evidence 
 
 Exchequer 
 
 King's Bench 
 
 Remainders 
 
 Uses 
 
 Cases in Law and in Equity 
 
 Glanville de Legibus 
 Glyn and Jameson 
 Godbolt's Reports 
 
 * This reference, which frequently occurs iu Blackstone and 
 other writers, applied to the Pandects or Digests of the civil law, 
 is a corruption of the Greek letter TT. Vide Calvini Lexicon Jurid. 
 voc. Digestorum. 
 
 t Fitzherbert's Abridgement is commonly referred to by the 
 older law writers by the title and number of the placita only ; e.g. 
 coron. 30. 
 
212 LAW WORK, ETC. 
 
 Godol. Godolphin 
 
 Golds. Goldesborough's Reports 
 
 Gro. de J. B. Grotius de Jure Belli 
 
 Hag. EC. Haggard's Ecclesiastical Law 
 
 Hag. Con. Consistory Reports 
 
 Hag. Adm. Admiralty Reports 
 
 Hans. Hansard's Entries 
 
 Hale C. L. Hale's Common Law 
 
 H. H. P. C. Hale's Hist. Plac. Cor. 
 
 H. P. C. Hale's Pleas of the Crown 
 
 Ha. & Tw. Hall and TweUs 
 
 Hanm. Hanmer's Lord Kenyon's Notes 
 
 Hard. Hardre's Reports 
 
 Hawk. P. C. Hawkins's Pleas of the Crown 
 
 Her. Herne 
 
 Het. Hetley's Reports 
 
 H. or Hil. Hilary Term 
 
 Hob. Hobart's Reports 
 
 Holt Holt's Reports 
 
 Holt N. P. Holt's Nisi Prius Reports 
 
 Hugh. Hughes's Entries 
 
 Hut. Button's Reports 
 
 Imp. K. B. Impey's Practice K. B. 
 
 C. P. Practice C. P. 
 
 - Sh. _ Sheriff 
 
 - PI. - Pleader 
 
 J. & W. or Jac. & W. Jacob and Walker 
 
 Jac. or Jacob Jacob's Reports 
 
 Jan. Angl. Jani Anglorum 
 
 Jenk. Jenkins's Reports 
 
 1, 2, Inst. (1, 2) Coke's Inst. 
 
 Inst. 1, 2, 3 Justinian's Inst. lib. 1, tit. 2, sec. 3 
 
 Jon. 1, 2 Jones's, W. & T., Reports 
 
 Jud. Judgements 
 
 Jur. The Jurist 
 
 Keb. Keble's Reports 
 
 Keen Keen's Reports 
 
 Kel. Sir John Kelynge's Reports 
 
 Kel. 1, 2 Win. Kelynge's Reports, 2 parts 
 
LAW WORK, ETC. 
 
 213 
 
 K. B. 
 K. C. R. 
 
 Keilw. 
 
 Ken. 
 
 Keny. 
 
 Kit. 
 
 Kn. 
 
 Kn. &0. 
 
 Lamb. 
 
 La. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 L. Mag. 
 
 Leg. 0. 
 
 L. Rev. 
 
 L. T. 
 
 Leach 
 
 Leon. 
 
 Lev. 
 
 Lew. C. C. 
 
 Lex Merc. Reel. 
 
 Ley 
 
 Lib. Ass. 
 
 Lib. Reg. 
 
 Lib. Feud. 
 
 Lib. Intr. 
 
 Lib. PI. 
 
 Lil. 
 
 Lil. Abr. 
 
 Lind. 
 
 Lit. 
 
 Lit. with S. 
 
 Llo. & Goo. 
 
 L. & G. temp. Plunk. 
 
 Lofft 
 
 Long Quinto 
 
 Lut. 
 
 Lud. E. C. 
 
 M. & S. or Man. & Sel. 
 
 King's Bench 
 
 Rep. temp. King, C. 
 
 Keilway's Reports 
 
 Kennet 
 
 Kenyon's Notes, by Hanmer 
 
 Kitchen 
 
 Knapp's Reports 
 
 Knapp and Ombler 
 
 Lambard 
 
 Lane's Reports 
 
 Latch's Reports 
 
 The Law Magazine 
 
 The Legal Observer 
 
 The Law Review 
 
 The Law Times 
 
 Leach's Crown Law 
 
 Leonard's Reports 
 
 Levinz's Reports 
 
 Lewin's Crown Cases 
 
 Lex Mercatoria, by Beawes 
 
 Ley's Reports 
 
 Liber Assisarum, Year Book, pt. 5 
 
 Register Book 
 
 Liber Feudorum, usually printed at the 
 
 end of the Corpus Juris Civilis 
 Old Book of Entries 
 Liber Placitandi 
 Lilly's Reports or Entries 
 Lilly's Practical Register 
 Lindewood 
 Littleton's Reports 
 Littleton, S. for section 
 Lloyd and Goold, temp. Sugden 
 
 , temp. Plunket 
 
 Lofft's Reports 
 Year Book, pt. 10 
 Lutwyche's Reports 
 Luder's Election Cases 
 Maule and .Sel win's Reports 
 
214 
 
 M'Cle. 
 
 M'Cle. & Yo. 
 
 M. D. & D. 
 
 Mad. 
 
 Madd. 
 
 Madd. Ch. 
 
 Mai. 
 
 Man. & G. 
 
 Man. & R. 
 
 Manw. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Marsh. 
 
 Marsh. In. 
 
 Mer. or Meriv. 
 
 M. or Mich. 
 
 Mitf. 
 
 Mod. Ca. 
 
 Mod. c. 1, & eq. 1, 2 
 
 Mod. Int. 1, 2 
 Mod. Rep. 
 Mol. 
 Mo. 
 
 Mont. B. C. 
 Mont. & B. 
 M. & M'A. 
 M. & Ayr. R. 
 M. & Ayr. B. L. 
 Moo. C. C. 
 Moo. & M. 
 Moo. & R. 
 Moo. J. B. 
 Moo. & P. 
 Moo. & S. 
 Mos. 
 
 Myl. & Cr. 
 Myl. & K. 
 N. R. 
 N. Benl. 
 
 LAW WORK, ETC. 
 
 M'Cleland 
 
 M'Cleland and Younge 
 Montagu, Deacon, and De Gex 
 Madox's Exchequer and Formulare 
 Maddock's Reports 
 Maddock's Chancery Practice 
 Malyne's Lex Mercatoria 
 Manning and Granger 
 Manning and Ryland 
 Manwood's Forest Laws 
 March's Reports 
 Marshall's Reports 
 Marshall on Insurance 
 Meri vale's Reports 
 Michaelmas Term 
 Mitford's Pleadings 
 Modern Cases 
 Modern Cases in Law and Equity 
 
 (8 & 9 Mod. Rep.) 
 Modus Intrandi, 1, 2 
 Modern Reports 
 Molloy's de Jure Maritime 
 Moore's Reports 
 Montagu's Reports 
 Montagu and Bligh 
 Montagu and M 'Arthur 
 Montagu & Ayrton's Reports 
 Montagu & Ayrton's Bankrupt Law 
 Moody 's Crown Cases 
 Moody and Malkin 
 Moody and Robinson 
 J. B. Moore's Reports 
 Moorj3 and Payne 
 Moore and Scott 
 Moseley's Reports 
 Mylne and Craig 
 Mylne and Keen 
 
 New Reports, by Bosanquet and Puller 
 New Benloe 
 
LAW WORK, ETC. 
 
 215 
 
 N. L. 
 
 Nev. & M. 
 
 Nev. & P. 
 
 Nic. Ha. Ca. 
 
 Nol. Sett. 
 
 North. 
 
 No. Ca. Eec. & M. Cts. 
 
 N. or Nov. 
 
 No. N. 
 
 O. BenL 
 
 Off. Br. 
 
 Off. Ex. 
 
 Ord. Cla. 
 
 Ord. Ch. 
 
 Ow. 
 
 Orl. Bridgman 
 
 Pal. 
 
 Par. 
 
 Park Ins. 
 
 Pea. 
 
 Peak. Ad. Gas. 
 
 Perk. 
 
 P. Pas. 
 
 PI. Pla. P. or p. 
 
 P. C. 
 
 P.W. 
 
 Per. & K. 
 
 P. & D. or Per. & Dav. 
 
 Ph.Ev. 
 
 Phillim. 
 
 1%. 
 
 PL Com. 
 Pol. 
 Poph. 
 2 Poph. 
 P. R. C. P. 
 Pr. Reg. Ch. 
 Pr. Ch. 
 
 Nelson's Lutwyche 
 
 Nevile and Manning 
 
 Nevile and Perry 
 
 Nicholl, Hare, and Carrow 
 
 Nolan's Settlement Cases 
 
 Northington's Reports 
 
 Notes of Cases in the Ecclesiastical and 
 
 Maritime Courts 
 Novelise (Juris Civilis) 
 Novse ISTarrationes 
 Old Benloe 
 Officina Brevium 
 Office of Executors 
 Orders, Lord Clarendon's 
 Orders in Chancery 
 Owen's Reports 
 Orlando Bridgman 
 Palmer's Reports 
 Parker's Reports 
 Park on Insurance 
 Peake's Reports N. P. 
 Peake's Additional Cases 
 Perkins's Conveyances 
 Easter Term 
 Placita 
 
 Pleas of the Crown 
 Peere Williams's Reports 
 Perry and Knapp 
 Perry and Davison 
 Phillips's Evidence 
 Phillimore's Reports 
 Pigott's Recoveries 
 Plowden's Com. or Reports 
 Pollexfen's Reports 
 Popham's Reports 
 Cases at the end of Popham's Rep. 
 Practical Register in Com. Pleas 
 Practical Register in Chancery 
 Precedents in Chancery 
 
216 
 
 LAW WORK, ETC. 
 
 Pres. Conv. Preston's Conveyancing 
 
 Pres. Abs. Preston on Abstracts 
 
 Pres. Es. Preston on Estates 
 
 Price or Pr. Price's Reports 
 
 Priv. Loud. Privilegia Londini 
 
 Pr. St. Private Statute 
 
 Q. B. Adolphus and Ellis, New Series 
 
 Quinti Qiiinto Year-Book, 5 Hen. V. 
 
 East. Rastell's Entries and Statutes 
 
 Ld. Raym. Lord Raymond's Reports 
 
 Raym. T. Sir Thomas Raymond's Reports. 
 
 Raym. Raymond 
 
 Reev. E. L, Reeves's English Law 
 
 Reg. Brev. Register of Writs 
 
 Reg. PI. Regula Placitandi 
 
 Reg, Jud. Registrum Judiciale 
 
 Rep. (1, 2, &c.) 1, 2, Coke's Reports, &c. 
 
 Rep. Eq. Gilbert's Reports in Equity 
 
 Rep. Q. A. Reports temp. Queen Anne 
 
 Rep. temp. Finch Finch's Reports 
 
 Rob. Robinson's Entries 
 
 Rob. A. Robinson's Reports Admiralty, New 
 
 Admiralty, or Robertson's- Reports of 
 
 Appeals 
 
 R. S. L. Reading Statute Law 
 
 Roll. & Roll. Abr. Rolle, Rep. and Abridgement 
 
 Roll Roll of the Term 
 
 Rose Rose's Reports 
 
 Rush. Rush worth's Collections 
 
 Russ. Russell's Reports 
 
 Russ. M. Russell and Mylne 
 
 Russ. & R. Russell and Ryan 
 
 Ry. F. Rymer's Fcedera 
 
 Ry. & M. Ryan and Moody 
 
 Salk. Salkeld's Reports 
 
 Sav. Savile's Reports 
 
 Saund. Saunders's Reports 
 
 S. B. Upper Bench 
 
 S. C. Same case 
 
LAW WORKj ETC. 
 
 217 
 
 Sch. & Lef. 
 Sco. or Scott 
 Sco. N. R. 
 Scriv. Cop. 
 Selw. N. P. 
 Seld. 
 Sel. Ca. 
 Sem. 
 Sess. Ca. 
 Show. 
 
 Shower's P. C. 
 Sid. 
 Sim. 
 
 S. & S. or Sim. & St. 
 Skin. 
 Smith 
 Som. 
 Spel. 
 S. P. 
 S. C. C. 
 Stark. N. P. 
 Stark. C. L. 
 Stark. Ev. 
 Stat. W. 
 
 Staunf. St. P. C. & Pr. 
 Steph. Com. 
 Stra. 
 Sty. 
 St. Tri. 
 Sug. V. &P. 
 Sug. P. 
 Swans. 
 Swin. 
 Taml. 
 Taun. 
 Th. Dig. 
 Th. Br. 
 Toth. 
 T. R. 
 
 Schoales and Lefroy's Reports 
 
 Scott's Reports 
 
 Scott's New Reports 
 
 Scriven on the Law of Copyholds 
 
 Selwyn's Nisi Prius 
 
 Selden 
 
 Select Cases 
 
 Semble, seems 
 
 Sessions Cases 
 
 Shower's Reports 
 
 Shower's Parliament Cases 
 
 Siderfin's Reports 
 
 Simons 
 
 Simons and Stuart 
 
 Skinner's Reports 
 
 Smith's Reports 
 
 Somner, Somers 
 
 Spelman 
 
 Same point 
 
 Select Chancery Cases 
 
 Starkie's Reports 
 
 Starkie's Criminal Law 
 
 Starkie's Evidence 
 
 Statute of Westminster 
 
 Staunforde Pleas and Prerogative 
 
 Stephen's Commentaries 
 
 Strange' s Reports 
 
 Style's Reports 
 
 State Trials 
 
 Sugden's Vendors and Purchasers 
 
 Sugden's Powers 
 
 Swanston's Reports 
 
 Swinburn on Wills 
 
 Tamlyn 
 
 Tauntoii's Reports 
 
 Thelwall's Digest 
 
 Thesaurus Brevium 
 
 TothilVs Reports 
 
 Teste Rege 
 
218 
 
 LAW WORK, ETC. 
 
 T. R. 
 
 T. R. E. or T. E. R. 
 
 Tidd P. 
 
 Tr. Eq. 
 
 Trem. 
 
 Trin. 
 
 Turn. 
 
 Turn. & R. 
 
 Tyrw. 
 
 Tyrw. & G. 
 
 Vaugh. 
 
 VeDt. 
 
 Vet. Entr. 
 
 Vet. N. Br. 
 
 Vern. 
 
 Ves. 
 
 V. & B. or Ves. & Bea. 
 
 Vid, 
 
 Vin. Abr. 
 
 Vin. Supp. 
 
 Wats. 
 
 Wat. Cop. 
 
 Went. E. 
 
 W. 1, W. 2. 
 
 West 
 
 Wils. Ch. 
 
 Win. 
 
 Wight. 
 
 Wils. 
 
 Wm. Rob. 
 
 Wms. 
 
 Wms. Just. 
 
 Y. B. 
 
 Yelv. 
 
 You. 
 
 Y. & J. or You. & Jer. 
 
 Y. & C. or You. & Coll. 
 
 Y. C. C. C. 
 
 Term Reports 
 
 Tempore Hegis Edwardi 
 
 Tidd's Practice 
 
 Treatise of Equity 
 
 Trernaine, Pleas of Crown 
 
 Trinity Term 
 
 Turner 
 
 Turner and Russell 
 
 Tyrwhitt 
 
 Tyrwhitt and Granger 
 
 Vaughan's Reports 
 
 Ventris's Reports 
 
 Old B. Entries 
 
 Old Nat. Brev. 
 
 Vernon's Reports 
 
 Vesey's, sen. or jun., Reports 
 
 Vesey and Beames's Reports 
 
 Vidian's Entries 
 
 Viner's Abridgement 
 
 Viner's Supplement 
 
 Watson 
 
 Watkins's Copyholds 
 
 Wentworth's Executor 
 
 Statutes of Westminster, 1, 2 
 
 West's Reports 
 
 Wilson's Chancery Reports 
 
 Winch's Reports 
 
 Wightwicke's Reports 
 
 Wilson's Reports 
 
 Wm. Robinson's New Admiralty Reports 
 
 Williams's Reports, or Peere Williams 
 
 Williams' s Justice 
 
 Year-Book 
 
 Yelverton's Reports 
 
 Younge 
 
 Younge and Jervis 
 
 Youuge and Collyer's Eq. Exch. 
 
 Younge and Collyer's Chancery Cases 
 
219 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 IN the methodical treatment of our subject in the pre- 
 ceding pages, there are necessarily some things omitted 
 which it may be interesting to the young compositor to find 
 noticed in this place. We will proceed, therefore, to ad- 
 duce a few remarks on such topics as may seem deserving 
 of them, and will arrange them in alphabetical order, so 
 that they may be easily found, whenever a thought should 
 occur to the compositor on which he may require informa- 
 tion. The subjects treated, as remarked in the head of 
 the chapter, are of a practical nature ; and the observa- 
 tions advanced, are partly the result of the author's own 
 experience, and partly gleaned from other sources : for I 
 confess, that, in this part of my book, I have followed the 
 example of my predecessors, and have freely availed my- 
 self of the labors of others, whenever I found them adapted 
 to my purpose. 
 
 1. Bastard Founts. 
 
 Under article 1 of the Scale, it is laid down, that " bastard 
 founts of one remove" are "to be cast up to the depth and 
 width of the two founts to which they belong ;'' but nothing 
 is said of founts of two or more removes. The following 
 remarks, extracted from Mr. Day's " Tables," may there- 
 fore not be uninteresting to the reader. 
 
220 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 " Bastard Founts two or more removes from the re- 
 gular standard, are cast up as leaded matter ; that is, by 
 deducting id. per 1000. Thus, a Small Pica on an English 
 body is considered as Small Pica leaded, and paid 5fd. 
 per 1000. The depth of the face of the letter is the criterion 
 only in those cases where the type is smaller than the body; 
 but in such cases as a Minion face on a Nonpareil body, 
 &c., it is the body that decides to which fount any such 
 description of type belongs. 
 
 " If a lead or leads are introduced between the lines of 
 Bastard Founts of two or more removes, a further reduc- 
 tion is not made for such lead or leads. 
 
 " In founts below Minion, when the type comes under 
 the regular founders' standard, an advance of price is 
 granted, if it is equal to or exceeds the half of the difference 
 betwixt the larger fount and the next smaller one ; but, 
 under that proportion, no extra charge is made. Thus, 
 when a Bastard Nonpareil contains half as many more 
 ems to the foot as the difference betwixt Nonpareil and 
 Kuby, id. per 1000 extra is charged ; but under that pro- 
 portion no charge is made. Or, as the difference between 
 a Brevier and a Minion is 16| lines in a foot, if the fount 
 in use admit of 8 lines in the foot more than a standard 
 Brevier allows, no charge is made ; but if it admits S~ lines 
 or more, then it is charged as Minion. In every instance, 
 of course, the founts are cast up to their own ems [m]. 
 
 u In casting up a work set up in Minion-Nonpareil, 
 the compositor is not entitled to cast it up as Minion first 
 and then Nonpareil, and arrive at the quantity of letters 
 by taking the half of each ; but he is to cast up the work 
 as a Minion in length and a Nonpareil in width, and 
 charge for 2000 letters the price of 1000 Minion and 1000 
 Nonpareil." 
 
BILL OF LETTERS. 
 
 221 
 
 2. Bill of Letters. 
 
 Letter-founders call 3,000 lower-case m's a bill, to 
 which they proportion all other sorts. Thus a whole bill 
 of pica weighs 500 lb., and a half^bill 250 lb., and the 
 letters are generally apportioned according to the follow- 
 ing scale. 
 
 A BILL OF PICA, ROMAN. 
 
 a 
 
 8,500 
 
 ff 
 
 400 
 
 j 
 
 4,500 
 
 A 
 
 600 
 
 A 
 
 300 
 
 b 
 
 1,600 
 
 fi 
 
 500 
 
 
 800 
 
 B 
 
 400 
 
 B 
 
 200 
 
 c 
 
 3,000 
 
 fl 
 
 200 
 
 
 600 
 
 C 
 
 500 
 
 C 
 
 250 
 
 d 
 
 4,400 
 
 ffi 
 
 150 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 D 
 
 500 
 
 D 
 
 250 
 
 e 
 
 12,000 
 
 ffl 
 
 100 
 
 - 
 
 1,000 
 
 E 
 
 600 
 
 E 
 
 300 
 
 f 
 
 2,500 
 
 86 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 200 
 
 F 
 
 400 
 
 P 
 
 200 
 
 g 
 
 1,700 
 
 03 
 
 60 
 
 t 
 
 150 
 
 G 
 
 400 
 
 G 
 
 200 
 
 h 
 
 6,400 
 
 1510 
 
 
 ' 
 
 700 
 
 H 
 
 400 
 
 H 
 
 200 
 
 
 i 
 
 8,000 
 
 a 
 
 200 
 
 ( 
 
 300 
 
 I 
 
 800 
 
 I 
 
 400 
 
 j 
 
 400 
 
 e 
 
 100 
 
 [ 
 
 150 
 
 J 
 
 300 
 
 J 
 
 150 
 
 k 
 
 800 
 
 i 
 
 100 
 
 * 
 
 100 
 
 K 
 
 300 
 
 K 
 
 150 
 
 1 
 
 4,000 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 t 
 
 100 
 
 L 
 
 500 
 
 L 
 
 250 
 
 m 
 
 3,000 
 
 u 
 
 100 
 
 t 
 
 100 
 
 M 
 
 400 
 
 M 
 
 200 
 
 n 
 
 8,000 
 
 a 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 N 
 
 400 
 
 N 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 11 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 O 
 
 200 
 
 P 
 
 1,700 
 
 i 
 
 100 
 
 f 
 
 60 
 
 P 
 
 400 
 
 P 
 
 200 
 
 q 
 
 500 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 180 
 
 Q 
 
 90 
 
 
 r 
 
 6,200 
 
 ii 
 
 100 
 
 
 10,960 
 
 R 
 
 400 
 
 R 
 
 200 
 
 s 
 
 8,000 
 
 a 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 500 
 
 S 
 
 250 
 
 t 
 
 9,000 
 
 e 
 
 200 
 
 1 
 
 1,300 
 
 T 
 
 650 
 
 T 
 
 326 
 
 u 
 
 3,400 
 
 i 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 1,200 
 
 U 
 
 300 
 
 U 
 
 150 
 
 V 
 
 1,200 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 3 
 
 1,100 
 
 V 
 
 300 
 
 V 
 
 150 
 
 w 
 
 2,000 
 
 u 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 1,000 
 
 W 
 
 400 
 
 W 
 
 200 
 
 X 
 
 400 
 
 a 
 
 100 
 
 5 
 
 1,000 
 
 X 
 
 180 
 
 X 
 
 90 
 
 y 
 
 2,000 
 
 e 
 
 100 
 
 6 
 
 1,000 
 
 Y 
 
 300 
 
 Y 
 
 150 
 
 z 
 
 200 
 
 i 
 
 100 
 
 7 
 
 1,000 
 
 Z 
 
 80 
 
 Z 
 
 40 
 
 & 
 
 200 
 
 o 
 
 100 
 
 8 
 
 1,000 
 
 M 
 
 40 
 
 M 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 i on 
 
 
 i nno 
 
 n? 
 
 QO 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 107,100 
 
 u 
 Q 
 
 JLUU 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 JL,U UU 
 
 1,300 
 
 v iu 
 
 O\J 
 
 
 .it/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10,660 
 
 
 5,331 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,550 
 
 
 10,900 
 
 
 
 
 
222 
 
 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 A HALF-BILL OF PJCA, ITALIC. 
 
 a 
 
 1,700 
 
 ff 80 
 
 d 
 
 20 
 
 A 
 
 120 
 
 When 
 
 b 
 
 320 
 
 fi 100 
 
 e 
 
 50 
 
 B 
 
 80 
 
 small cap- 
 
 c 
 
 600 
 
 ft 40 
 
 i 
 
 20 
 
 C 
 
 100 
 
 itals are 
 
 d 
 
 880 
 
 ffi 30 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 D 
 
 100 
 
 supplied, 
 
 e 
 
 2,400 
 
 ffl 20 
 
 u 
 
 20 
 
 E 
 
 120 
 
 which is 
 
 f 
 
 500 
 
 (B 20 
 
 a 
 
 20 
 
 F 
 
 80 
 
 not usual, 
 
 9 
 
 340 
 
 at 12 
 
 e 
 
 20 
 
 G 
 
 80 
 
 they may 
 
 h 
 
 1,280 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 20 
 
 H 
 
 80 
 
 be taken 
 
 i 
 
 1,600 
 
 302 
 
 b 
 
 20 
 
 I 
 
 160 
 
 at half the 
 
 j 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 20 
 
 J 
 
 60 
 
 capitals. 
 
 k 
 
 160 
 
 ; 160 
 
 d 
 
 40 
 
 K 
 
 60 
 
 
 I 
 
 800 
 
 120 
 
 e 
 
 40 
 
 L 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 600 
 
 ? 40 
 
 i 
 
 20 
 
 M 
 
 80 
 
 
 n 
 
 1,600 
 
 / 30 
 
 o 
 
 20 
 
 N 
 
 80 
 
 SPACES. 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 q 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 t 
 
 1,600 
 340 
 100 
 1,240 
 1,600 
 1,800 
 
 ( * 60 
 
 410 
 
 u 
 d 
 \] 
 'i 
 o 
 u 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 () 
 P 
 Q 
 
 R 
 S 
 T 
 
 80 
 80 
 36 
 80 
 100 
 130 
 
 Th.18,000 
 Mi. 12,000 
 Tn. 8,000 
 Hr. 3,000 
 m.q. 2,500 
 
 u 
 
 680 
 
 * Very sel- 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 U 
 
 60 
 
 n.q. 5,000 
 
 V 
 
 240 
 
 dom used, 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 60 
 
 
 w 
 
 400 
 
 Roman 
 
 
 490 
 
 W 
 
 80 
 
 48,500 
 
 X 
 
 80 
 
 ones being 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 36 
 
 
 y 
 
 400 
 
 generally 
 
 
 
 Y 
 
 60 
 
 Large 
 
 z 
 
 40 
 
 substitu- 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 16 
 
 quadrats, 
 
 Sf 
 
 40 
 
 ted for 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 8 
 
 about 80 
 
 
 
 
 them. 
 
 
 
 (E 
 
 6 
 
 Ib. 
 
 
 21,420 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,132 
 
 
 3. Breaks. 
 
 It is a general rule with English printers, that the 
 last line of a paragraph roust never begin a page ; although 
 emergencies occasionally arise when the rigidity of this 
 rule may be relaxed, if the line is nearly a full one, 
 as is mostly allowed by continental printers. But the 
 first line of a paragraph can well enough end a page in 
 solid matter ; but when there is a white line before it, 
 
CANCELS. CASTING OFF COPY. 223 
 
 it does not look well : two lines should be got in if pos- 
 sible (vide pp. 23, 73, 142), or the single line taken 
 over to the next page, by driving out in the previous 
 matter, or by some other means. Not fewer than two 
 lines (more if practicable) should follow a heading at the 
 bottom of a page ; for one line in such a situation is 
 awfully ugly. 
 
 4. Cancels. 
 
 When cancelled pages are set up before the work to 
 which they belong is cleared away, and the letter of the 
 work is used to compose such cancels, they are charged 
 the same price as the work ; but when the work has been 
 cleared away, if the pages exceed a sheet, they are paid 
 according to the scale for pamphlets ; when they make 
 only a sheet, or less than a sheet, they are paid Id. per 
 thousand : in both the latter cases, the extras are charged 
 according to their value. 
 
 5. Casting off Copy. 
 
 Most writers and publishers, when they resolve to 
 submit a work to the press, are desirous of knowing, 
 within a trifle, the quantity it will make when printed. 
 Supposing the size of the letter and the page given, and 
 the manuscript evenly written, upon leaves of paper of the 
 same size, as all works ought to be, the operation is attended 
 with little difficulty. All that will be necessary, will be 
 to ascertain the proportion which a page of manuscript 
 bears to a page of print, and by stating the proportions as 
 a simple Rule of Three sum, thereby ascertain the result; 
 afterwards making allowance for chapter-heads and other 
 divisions, if such there be. But when the copy is written 
 upon paper of different sizes, with many interlineations or 
 erasures, the matter assumes a more complicated aspect, 
 and is much more difficult of accomplishment. Still, the 
 
224 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 same general rule will hold. An average page of copy 
 must be taken as the guide, and the rest compared 
 therewith, and carefully examined, in order to ascertain 
 whether they exceed or fall short of the standard ; these 
 excesses or deficiencies being noted down, and added to, 
 or deducted from, the average total. The method of pro- 
 ceeding will then be as before. 
 
 But it not unfrequently happens that the size of the 
 page and the total number of pages are the quantities fur- 
 nished to the printer, and it is left for him to decide as to 
 the size of the letter which will fulfil the required conditions. 
 This is a more difficult operation than the one above re- 
 ferred to, and can only be arrived at, with precision, by 
 composing a page in type of various sizes, and thereby 
 determining which comes nearest to the mark (of course 
 having previously ascertained the total number of pages 
 of manuscript or other copy). But as this is an operation 
 which would consume considerable time, and would some- 
 times be accompanied with no little expense, an approxi- 
 mation can be arrived at by examining the number of 
 words contained in an average page of copy, and multi- 
 plying that number by the number of pages, which will, of 
 course, give the total of words which the entire work com- 
 prises. Then, if the printer knew the average number of 
 words contained in a page of any given size, and in any 
 given letter, all he would have to do would be to divide 
 the amount of the words in the whole volume by the 
 number of pages, and by comparing the result with his 
 standard average, the size of the letter would be ascer- 
 tained at once, near enough for a rough calculation. Thus, 
 suppose the page determined on were 20 ems wide and 40 
 deep (without leads, head-lines, or foot-lines), or, in other 
 words, it contained 800 pica ems of solid matter ; if the 
 printer knew the average number of words that page 
 would contain, in letter of any size, and had previously 
 ascertained the number of words in the book and the 
 
CASTING OFF COPT. 225 
 
 amount of pages, the difficulty of determining the proper 
 letter in which to compose it would be considerably dimi- 
 nished, if not altogether avoided. 
 
 But as some writers affect the Latin style and some the 
 Saxon, or, in other words, some are partial to sonorous 
 rotundity, and others to abrupt curtness, there is neces- 
 sarily some difference in the number of words which two 
 writers of this description would place upon the same 
 amount of square inches of paper. Moreover, all printers 
 know that letters of the same nominal size vary consider- 
 ably in their thickness, and, consequently, some, as com- 
 pared with a given standard, will get in, and others drive 
 out, and thus upset all accuracy of calculation. Never- 
 theless, it will be found, on examination, that English 
 writers in general do not so very much vary in the length 
 of their words, when an average is taken ; and as to the 
 letter being fat or lean, these are matters which can easily 
 be taken into consideration, and duly allowed for. 
 
 To assist the reader in arriving at the average, I have 
 compared the works of several authors, printed in type of 
 different sizes and in various measures, and have found the 
 result to be, that 500 ems solid pica ( length and width 
 multiplied) gave the number of words assigned to the 
 respective sizes of letter used, as below : 
 
 Pica 240 245 244 225* 
 
 Small Pica 277 283 299 283 
 
 Long Primer... 307 310 308 312 319 334 f 
 
 Bourgeois 420 384 % 
 
 Brevier .456 459 466 468 424 454 
 
 Minion .' 510 564 
 
 Nonpareil 640 1| 706 725 
 
 * This was a thick letter. f Words remarkably short. 
 
 J- The blanks can be filled up in accordance with the experience 
 of the reader. 
 
 A very thick brevier. |j A thick letter and a short measure. 
 
226 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 With these data for his guidance, knowing the width 
 and length of his page in pica ems, the printer will only 
 have to multiply them together, and compare this quantity 
 with 500, according to the number in the table which he 
 may consider the nearest approach to the work in hand, 
 both as regards length of words and thickness of type, and 
 he will have the average number of words in a page, 
 which will serve him as a criterion as to the letter to be 
 employed. 
 
 But, in order that the reader may have the benefit of 
 the observations of previous writers on this subject, I will 
 here append the directions given by more than one of my 
 predecessors. They say : 
 
 " After having made the measure for the work, we set a 
 line of the letter that is designed for it, and take notice how 
 much copy will come into the line in the stick, whether less 
 or more than a line of manuscript. And as it is seldom that 
 neither one nor the other happens, we make a mark in the 
 copy where the line in the stick ends, and number the words 
 that it contains. But as this is not the safest way for casting 
 off close, we count not only the syllables but even the letters 
 that are in a line in the stick, of which we make a memoran- 
 dum, and proceed to set off a second, third, or fourth line, till 
 a line of copy falls even with a line in the stick. And as we 
 did to the first line in the stick, so we do to the other, mark- 
 ing on the manuscript the end of each line in the stick, and 
 telling the letters in each, to see how they balance against each 
 other. This being carefully done, we begin counting off, each 
 time, as many lines of the copy as we know will make even 
 lines in the stick : For example, if two lines of copy make 
 three lines in print, then four make six, six make nine, eight 
 make twelve, and so on, calling every two lines of copy three 
 lines in print. 
 
 1 ' In like manner we say, if four lines make five, then eight 
 make ten ; and so on ; comparing every four lines of copy to 
 five lines of print. 
 
HEAD-LINES TO CHAPTERS, ETC. 227 
 
 " And in this manner we carry our calculation on as far as 
 we have occasion, either for pages, forms, or sheets. 
 
 " The foregoing calculations are intended to serve where a 
 line of print takes in less than a line of copy ; and therefore, 
 where a line of print takes in more than a line of copy, the 
 problem is reversed, and instead of saying, if two lines make 
 three, we say, in this case, if three lines of copy make two 
 lines in print, then six lines make four, nine make six, twelve 
 make eight, and so on, counting three lines of copy to make 
 two lines in print. In this manner we may carry our calcu- 
 lation to what number of pages, forms, or sheets we will, 
 remembering always to count off as many lines of copy at once, 
 as we have found they will make even lines in the stick. 
 Thus, for example, if five lines make seven, the progression of 
 five is ten, fifteen, twenty, &c., and the progression of seven 
 will be fourteen, twenty-one, twenty-eight, &c.* 
 
 " In counting off copy after this manner, we take notice of 
 the breaks ; and where we judge that one will drive out, we 
 intimate it by a mark of this / or this [ shape ; and again, 
 where we find that a break will get in, we invert the mark 7 
 or thus ]. And to render these marks conspicuous to the 
 compositor, we write them in the margin, that he may take 
 timely notice of, and keep his matter accordingly. 
 
 " We also take care to make proper allowance for heads to 
 chapters, sections, paragraphs, &c., and mention in the margin 
 what depth of lines is left for each, in case their matter varies 
 in quantity. 
 
 " In examining the state of the copy, we must observe 
 whether it has abbreviations, that we may guard against them 
 in casting off, and allow for them according to the extent of 
 the respective words, when writifen out at length.'* 
 
 6. Head-lines to Chapters, $c. 
 These may be in any kind of type, as may be determined 
 
 * All this rigmarole merely amounts to this, that it is necessary 
 to ascertain the proportion that a line of the manuscript bears to a 
 line of print. 
 
 q2 
 
228 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 by the author, the publisher, or the closet ; but in what- 
 ever type composed, all headings of the same character 
 should be in the same letter uniformly throughout a volume, 
 with the same space .before and after them, as nearly as 
 possible. They should always be somewhat wide-spaced, 
 according to the nature of the letter, in order to be distinct, 
 as also should the head-lines or running titles to pages. 
 These latter are mostly set in small capitals of the body of 
 the work, generally with the intention of avoiding the 
 charge of a shilling per sheet for small type. But they 
 look ugly and clumsy ; and hence a neat capital or Italic 
 letter is not unfrequently adopted. 
 
 7. Indexes. 
 
 Indexes always commence on a right-hand page, and are 
 usually composed in small type, two or more removes from 
 that of the body of the work, when practicable. They are 
 uniformly placed at the end of a volume, with or without 
 folios, but always with the word Index as a head-line. As 
 their style is necessarily governed by the peculiarities which 
 attend them, of course it would be impossible to lay down 
 general rules which would meet all cases ; we may remark, 
 however, that they are mostly in two or more columns, 
 according to the width of the page ; but more specific in- 
 structions must always be sought from those whose business 
 it is to settle matters of this sort, as they arise. Of course, 
 they are set in the style which is commonly known as run- 
 out-and-indented. 
 
 8. Making Measure. 
 
 
 This is generally done by means of leads ; but care must 
 be exercised that they are of a proper length ; for, if only 
 one be too long, the measure will be too wide, and, conse- 
 quently, the matter which follows or precedes, and has 
 
MARGIN. NOTES. 229 
 
 been composed in a stick of the right measure, will not lock 
 up tightly, and will, therefore, be liable to fall out, or to 
 be pulled out by the roller* The thin letters, and points, 
 moreover, will be apt to ride and slip, and thus occasion 
 much inconvenience. If quadrats or pica ems are used, it 
 should be ascertained that they are of the correct fount, 
 or the same inconveniences may arise. 
 
 9. Margin. 
 
 In addition to what has been said on this subject at 
 p. 113, we may further remark, that margin may always 
 be verified by spreading the sheet full out, afteV having 
 been properly folded to the requisite size, over the type in 
 chase, with the center crease directly over the center of 
 the long or short cross, according to circumstances ; and 
 if the crease in the paper falls immediately in the center 
 of the furniture between the pages, the margin is correct ; 
 otherwise it must be altered. 
 
 " When two or more pages of any description are im- 
 posed in one chase for the purpose of being worked 
 together, and afterwards cut up separately, the margin is 
 made by laying the paper in its folded state on the face of 
 the type and even with the ends of the lines, the opposite 
 edge being placed up to, but not over the type of the ad- 
 joining page, as is done in book work. This method throws 
 each page exactly in the centre of the paper when printed." 
 
 10. Notes. 
 
 Notes are of several kinds, and are designated from the 
 position they occupy in a page. 
 
 Foot-notes, or, as they are sometimes called, Bottom-notes, 
 are placed, as their name denotes, at the bottom of the 
 page, and are generally set in type two sizes less than 
 that of the text ; but, of course, if the text-type be very 
 
230 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 small, that is not practicable. Under ordinary circum- 
 stances, there is no occasion to place any rule before the 
 note ; for the difference in size of the two types is a 
 sufficient distinction. But if the text and the note letter 
 be nearly of the same size, or if small type be introduced 
 into the text, and a note immediately follows that, a rule 
 is necessary, in order that the eye may readily distinguish 
 where the note commences. This is the plan I have gene- 
 rally followed in this book ; but if the reader will turn to 
 pp. 143, 158, and 164, he will there see that I have, for the 
 sake of illustration, deviated from this plan. 
 
 If part of a note, closing with a paragraph, end a page, 
 a catch-word should be placed at the end of the line, to 
 show that the note is not finished, or else the break should 
 be avoided in that position. 
 
 The whites before the notes should always be as uniform 
 as circumstances will allow. 
 
 Shoulder-notes are placed at the top of the page, and 
 generally denote the current book or chapter, which, in 
 some works, such as law-books, is very useful in facilitating 
 ready reference. Dates, &c., are sometimes inserted in the 
 inner margin of the head-line, being preceded by a bracket 
 in the even page, and followed by one in the odd page. 
 
 Marginal or Side-notes contain a short summary of the 
 contents of the paragraph against which they are placed. 
 If the measure in which they are composed is very narrow, 
 they are better set in lines of various lengths, according to 
 circumstances ; otherwise, very wide and unsightly spacing 
 will frequently be necessitated ; but if the measure is 
 wide, the lines may then be very well of equal length. 
 This, of course, is a matter for the consideration of the 
 closet. In every case they require very nice adjustment, 
 so that the first line shall be exactly opposite the line of 
 text to which they refer : if it is even a little above or 
 below, the effect is disagreeable to the eye of a printer of 
 ordinary taste. Sometimes there are side-notes on both 
 
PAGES, THEIR PROPER LENGTH. 231 
 
 sides of the page. When this is the case, those in the 
 inner margin generally contain some remark or emenda- 
 tion of the opposite text. 
 
 Let-in or In-cut notes are notes let into the text, and 
 generally consist of dates, or such-like matter. They 
 should never come close to the text type, either above, 
 below, or at the side : otherwise, confusion is the conse- 
 quence. They are always placed in the outer margin, 
 whether an odd or even page, and are generally set in type 
 the same size as the notes. 
 
 Under -r miners are continuations of such side-notes as 
 are too long to be all placed opposite the paragraph to which 
 they refer, and are run under the text, in order that they 
 may not displace other notes, and put them in a position 
 to which they have no reference. When so done, they 
 should never be extended to the full length of the measure 
 of the text, as that would cause confusion, but end within 
 three or four ema of the line, according to its length. 
 
 11. Pages, their proper Length. 
 
 All the pages of a book should be of a uniform length, 
 wherever practicable, except, of course, the endings of 
 chapters or other divisions, when the next chapter, &c. 
 begins a page. But as it is sometimes inconvenient to 
 comply strictly with this rule, the usual plan is to make 
 the facing pages of equal length, although, in some houses, 
 the rule is, that the pages which back each other must 
 correspond. But whichever system is followed, the com- 
 positor should be careful not to have both short pages and 
 long pages in immediate neighbourhood, nor, indeed, in 
 the same volume at all, if they can be avoided ; but, if he 
 must deviate from the standard, let it be in one direction 
 only, as the paper will best bear it. In tables, it is some- 
 times almost impossible but that the pages will run of 
 different lengths. When this is the case, the text, either 
 
232 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 facing or backing the table, need not be elongated or short- 
 ened to correspond, because the reason for the deviation 
 will be obvious ; but if the table page is much too long, the 
 furniture in the head should be somewhat diminished ; so 
 that the bottom of the table will not be in danger of being 
 cut into when the book is bound. From want of attention 
 to this rule, if the reader will turn to pp. 148 150, he will 
 see that the pages will require careful adjustment by the 
 binder, in order that this danger may be avoided ; which, 
 if the compositor had exercised sound judgement in adjust- 
 ing the furniture, and taken into consideration the great 
 length of the page, would not have happened. 
 
 12. Preliminary Matter. 
 
 This generally comprises the Title, Preface or Introduc- 
 tion, and Contents, arranged in the order named. Some- 
 times a Half-title precedes the title, and a Dedication 
 follows it. For the most part, they comprise the first 
 sheet or half -sheet of a work, which is considered as 
 signature A, although not inserted either in the half-title, 
 title, or dedication. But if the preliminary matter makes 
 more than one sheet or half-sheet, it is considered as 
 signature a, and the following are marked 6, c, &c. 
 
 It would be idle to give any directions as to the setting 
 of Titles, which would apply to every case, as so much 
 depends upon taste ; yet the tyro may read with 
 advantage what has been already said under Broadsides, 
 &c. ; for the general principles apply equally here as 
 there. But for his more particular guidance, let him 
 examine carefully all the good-looking titles that fall in 
 his way, and see in what their excellence consists, and 
 endeavour to imitate them, until he acquires a correct 
 taste and judgement of his own. 
 
 Dedications, if consisting of one page only, as they 
 
PROOFS. 233 
 
 mostly do, are displayed by fancy, capital, or small-capital 
 letters, somewhat in the nature of a title ; but no very 
 large letter is used, neatness being more the matter to be 
 aimed at than prominence of type. If the dedication 
 exceeds a page, it is set in type a size or two larger than 
 the text, the concluding part only being smaller, with the 
 name of the author in capital letters. 
 
 Prefaces or Introductions may be in type a size larger 
 than the text, which is the plan generally adopted ; or 
 they may be in the same letter, leaded, or extra leaded, 
 according to circumstances. The word Preface or Intro- 
 duction constitutes the head-line, always of the same size 
 as the general head-lines, and the folio in lower-case 
 Roman numerals, reckoning the first page, whether halt- 
 title or title, as i, although not inserting it. 
 
 Contents, on the other hand, are always one or more 
 sizes smaller than the bo<ly of the work ; but this is 
 governed by the peculiar requirements of each case. They 
 may be the full measure, or in two or more columns, as 
 may be thought most convenient. When the summary 
 clause exceeds one line, the following are indented an em 
 or more, as agreed upon previously, and the figures 
 brought to the end of the line, by leaders, close or apart, 
 according to fancy ; but the first line must not be brought 
 within two ems of the end, as that would obscure the 
 figures and cause confusion. 
 
 If a work should be accompanied by a list of Errata 
 (as such lapsus will occur, notwithstanding the utmost 
 vigilance), they are best placed immediately before the 
 body of the work, although some prefer to hide them at 
 the end, where they answer no purpose. 
 
 13. Proofs. 
 
 Proofs are of several classes, and have different names 
 assigned to them. 
 
234 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 A First Proof is the impression taken immediately 
 after composition, with all the errors of the compositor 
 therein. After that is read and corrected, a Revise is 
 pulled, and when the oversights therein have been recti- 
 fied, or without, if the errors remaining are but few, 
 another impression is taken (or, more accurately speaking, 
 generally two), which is called a Clean Proof, on which are 
 marked the remaining oversights (if any), and any query 
 to which the reader may wish to call the attention of the 
 author. When this proof is returned to the printing-office, 
 it acquires the name of Author's Prorf. The alterations 
 made therein by the author having undergone due cor- 
 rection, a second author's proof is pulled, if required ; if 
 not, the next impression is called the Press Proof, which 
 is again carefully read by the press-corrector, and his 
 amended proof becomes the Press Revise, or final proof, 
 previous to the actual printing of the sheet. If the 
 pages are stereotyped before they are worked, this revise 
 is called a Foundry Proof. Galley Proofs, on newspapers 
 and periodicals, are pulled by the compositor ; but, on 
 book- work, generally by the pressman. 
 
 14. Quoted Matter. 
 
 Although at pp. 43-44 I have fully entered into this 
 subject, and explained the proper space to be inserted on 
 almost all occasions between the matter and the quotation- 
 marks, and given illustrations of what I consider the 
 best system, nevertheless I deem it advisable to recur to 
 the subject in this place, and to offer, by way of contrast, 
 a specimen of the prevailing usage, as I find it exemplified 
 in the " leading Journal of Europe " of Feb. 1, 1861 ; and 
 to invite the reader to compare the examples here given 
 with those I adduced in the pages above adverted to, and 
 to judge for himself which is the more sightly and the 
 more worthy of adoption. If he refers to the Times of the 
 
RULE-WORK. 230 
 
 above date, in its foreign intelligence, he will find the 
 following quotations, spaced as I here give them, in one 
 paragraph. 
 
 " Monsieur le Conseiller d'Etat" " principles 
 
 of the Government" " outraged" " without 
 
 the authority of the State." 
 
 Could anything be more unsightly ? 
 
 15. Rule-work. 
 
 Rule-work is a department of the compositor's business 
 which often requires much skill, contrivance, and calcula- 
 tion, in order to apportion the proper width to each 
 column of the table he may be composing, and to adjust 
 the several parts harmoniously and with proper effect ; 
 nor is it without considerable practice that any man can 
 hope to acquire any notable efficiency in this particular, 
 however well he may be adapted thereto, or however good 
 a workman he may be in other respects. Hence, we can- 
 not pretend to be of much assistance to him by anything 
 that can be advanced in this place; but may, nevertheless, 
 furnish a few observations worthy the attention of the 
 inexperienced in these matters. 
 
 Let him bear in mind, then, that all his rules must be 
 cut of the exact length required, and no m ore, other wise they 
 will bind, and will look ugly, from their want of uniform 
 length. They must also be nicely dressed, so that the 
 ends do not look crooked) but the whole length of the 
 rule straight and even. And here we may observe, if 
 brass rule were cut to all sizes, and kept in distinct lengths, 
 there would -be hardly any use for the shears at all ; but 
 this, to be effectual, would require great nicety ; yet, never- 
 theless, could be done. 
 
 The compositor must also exercise great care in exactly 
 casting off the width of his columns ; for, if this is not cor- 
 rectly done, he will find that his table will not correspond 
 
236 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 with the width of the rest of the pages of the work, nor 
 perhaps with the paper upon which it is intended to be 
 worked. The columns are calculated according to the ems 
 of the body in which the table is composed, so that the 
 cross-rules can be set in metal-rules of its own body, if not 
 over long ; the comma being accounted an en, the differ- 
 ence being made up by a thin space ; more or less white 
 (or none at all in some cases) being allowed between the 
 rules and the matter, according to the necessities of each 
 case. And as the compositor knows the width and length 
 required, he can easily ascertain, when he has added up 
 all his columns and the intervening rules, whether they 
 correspond with the given number of pica ems, by com- 
 paring the number with the table of proportions given at 
 p. 34 of this book. 
 
 Except in pure figure-matter, where all is even ens, 
 every line should be composed in the stick ; as it is almost 
 impossible, otherwise, to justify correctly : for no plan of 
 setting in one full measure, and justifying to a lead, can 
 produce good work. The column-rules should also run 
 through the heading ; because the plan of separating the 
 heading from the body of the table by a cross-rule 
 scarcely ever looks well. The headings themselves should 
 generally be in a letter two or three removes from the 
 body of the table, if that body is large ; but this, of course, 
 will be regulated a good deal by the quantity th3 headings 
 contain, and the size of the general type. Each column- 
 heading should be placed in the center with respect to 
 others, the deepest of all having an em, en, or more or less 
 space, betwixt it and the cross-rules, as circumstances may 
 dictate and good taste direct, and run up the column or 
 across it, or both (see p. 134), as may be deemed most 
 judicious. In tandem pages, they should begin at the 
 outer margin of the even page, and at the inner margin 
 of the odd one, as uniformly done in this book. 
 
 In further illustration of what is here remarked, I 
 
RULES TO BE OBSERVED BY COMPOSITORS. 237 
 
 will direct the attention of the reader to some pages 
 of this manual. Let him turn to p. 34 ; he will there see 
 the headings of the columns of the table running up wards; 
 because, the columns being so very narrow, they would 
 have looked badly otherwise. There is a space betwixt 
 the columns and all the rules, except the bottom, which 
 causes it to be somewhat unsightly ; but the plan of cases 
 at p. 41, barring some slight defects in the rules, is a 
 pattern of neatness. This observation will also apply to 
 pp. 146, 147, 152, and the plans of cases, pp. 162 197 ; 
 while some others, being executed by inferior workmen, 
 will not bear the test of critical examination. 
 
 16. Rules to be observed by Compositors. 
 
 The best of all rules in a printing-office is, undoubtedly, 
 a vigilant overseer or employer. Nevertheless, as it is 
 thought by some people to be expedient, for the orderly 
 working of an office, to compile rules for general guidance, 
 in order that the workman may know what is expected of 
 him in the daily routine of his labor, and the penalty he 
 will incur by non-compliance with established regulations, 
 I here append a list of them (with a few slight alterations) 
 as I find them in Cowie and Johnson : not that I deem 
 them all necessary or judicious ; but it will be easy for 
 any overseer to select such as he may think advisable, 
 reject others, and add any of his own, where he may find 
 them defective. 
 
 1. Compositors to receive their cases from the overseer, 
 or other person appointed by him, free from all pie, or other 
 heterogeneous matter, with clean quadrat and space boxes to 
 both Roman and Italic, which they are to return to him in the 
 same state, or forfeit 6d. for each pair of cases. 
 
 2. When a compositor receives letter, furniture, &c., from 
 the overseer, he is to return what he does not use, in the same 
 state he received it, the same day, under the forfeiture of 3rf. 
 
238 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 3. Compositors to impose their matter when desired by the 
 employer or overseer, or forfeit 2d. for every hour's delay. 
 The same for proofs that are desired to be corrected, unless in 
 either case it shall appear that all the stones were engaged. 
 
 4. When the compositor imposes from furniture in chase, 
 he is directly to tie up the pages of loose matter, or forfeit Id. 
 for every neglected page, besides being obliged to clear away the 
 pie thereby occasioned. 
 
 5. Forms, immediately after they are imposed, to be carried 
 to the proof-press, and the proofs when pulled to be given to 
 the reader, or other person appointed to receive them, together 
 with, if a first proof, the copy, and if a second, the foul proof, 
 tinder the forfeiture of Id. for every quarter of an hour's 
 delay. 
 
 6. Every compositor who shall leave a foul stone, either of 
 letter, furniture, &c., shall forfeit Id. for every such offence. 
 
 7. Should a compositor detain an imposing-stone longer 
 than the nature of the business may require, he is to be fined 
 %d. for every hour's unnecessary delay. 
 
 8. When any cases are taken out of the racks, the com- 
 positor is to return them into their proper place immediately 
 after he has done with them, under the forfeiture of Id. for 
 each case. 
 
 9. No cases to be placed over others, or under the frames, 
 under the penalty of Id. for each case. 
 
 10. Galleys with head-lines, or other useful materials, 
 during the progress of any work, to be cleared the day after 
 the work is completely at press, or the compositor to forfeit 
 3d. for each day's neglect. 
 
 11. When a work is finished, the compositor or compositors 
 who have been employed thereon, shall, before commencing 
 another work, unless directed to the contrary, clear away the 
 forms, taking from them the head-lines, white-lines, leads, and 
 reglets ; which, with the furniture of each sheet, and the 
 matter properly tied up for papering, are to be given to the 
 overseer, or such person as he may appoint. 
 
 12. Sweepings of frames to be cleared away before 10 
 o'clock every morning, under the forfeiture of 2d. for each 
 
RULES TO BE OBSERVED BY COMPOSITORS. 239 
 
 neglect. Matter broken by accident, to be cleared away the 
 same day, under the like penalty. 
 
 13. A compositor mixing any two separate founts, without 
 the order of the overseer, to be fined Is. 
 
 14. When a compositor carries his form to press, he is not 
 to put two forms together, without a partition between, on 
 forfeiture of 2d. ; and in case (through neglect of such par- 
 tition) a form should he battered, the compositor guilty of 
 such neglect shall forfeit 6d. 
 
 15. The saw, saw-block, bowl, letter-brush, bellows, &c., 
 to be returned to their respective places as soon as done with, 
 under the forfeiture of Id. 
 
 16. Any person taking a bodkin, composing-stick, or other 
 implement not his own, without the permission of the owner, 
 shall be fined 3d. 
 
 17. Any compositor misplacing cases in the rack, or taking 
 an upper without the lower-case (or vice versa), shall be 
 fined 2d. 
 
 18. Pie of any sort, on boards, windows, frames, &c., shall 
 be cleared after five minutes' notice, under the penalty of 6d. 
 
 19. Any person guilty of taking sorts from the frames or 
 cases of another, without leave, shall be fined Is. ; and any 
 person hoarding useful sorts, which he does not require, or is 
 likely soon to require, shall be fined 6d. 
 
 20. Any person in the house, other than the employer or 
 overseer, or his deputy, who shall call off the errand-boy 
 while he is sweeping his rooms, shall be fined 3d. 
 
 21. The master or overseer shall forfeit Is., and the com- 
 positor 6d., for every light left without proper charge ( exit 
 beyond the boundaries of the office being deemed the test of 
 such leaving). 
 
 22. Jobs to be cleared away immediately after notice given 
 by the overseer, under the penalty of 2d. for every hour's delay. 
 
 23. All fines to be paid on Monday, before 12 o'clock, under 
 the penalty of 6d. The father or clerk to make application 
 for the fines before that time, or to forfeit 6d. 
 
 24. These regulations, in cases of extreme hurry of busi- 
 ness, may be suspended, by permission of the employer or 
 
240 PRACTICAL MISCELLANIES. 
 
 overseer ; but when that has ceased, they shall forthwith have 
 full effect. 
 
 17. Signatures. 
 
 Signatures are letters or figures placed at the bottom 
 of the first page of a sheet, to denote its number and order 
 to the binder. Other subsidiary signatures are used in 
 other places, as we shall point out directly. They first 
 came into use about the year 1480, being probably invented 
 at Venice, where the art of printing was much improved 
 in the infancy of its practice. In England they are mostly 
 denoted by small-capital letters, the body of the work 
 beginning with B ; signature A being reserved for the title, 
 preface, &c., as explained under those heads. The second 
 alphabet is denoted by 2 A, &c. No letter J, v, or w is 
 used, because, when signatures were invented, these letters 
 were respectively represented by 3E, 2E, and W&. On the 
 Continent, and in America, figures are not unfrequently 
 employed for this purpose. 
 
 In Octavo, it is customary to place a second signature 
 on the third page of every sheet (but not in a half-sheet). 
 This is marked s2, c 2, &c. ; and shows the pressman at a 
 glance the situation of that page ; so that he is thereby 
 enabled to place his form properly on the press at once. 
 More than two signatures in an octavo sheet are useless, 
 and are only calculated to produce confusion. 
 
 In Twelves an additional signature is required, to de- 
 note the first page of the offcut, which in sheets is the 9th 
 page, but in half-sheets the 5th. This is marked B 3, &c., 
 in each case. 
 
 EigTiteem are generally imposed in three half-sheet 
 12mo divisions, and consequently take the signatures and 
 subsidiary signatures incidental to sizes of that description, 
 as above indicated ; viz. in one sheet B, c, D, &c. For 
 other modes of imposing eighteens, refer to the chapter on 
 that subject. 
 
WHITE LINES. POETRY. 241 
 
 18. White Lines. 
 
 Wherever these are used, whether after head-lines or 
 in the body of a page, they are better in quadrats than in 
 leads. They should be uniform throughout a book, in 
 similar places, and those after the running title are gene- 
 rally of the same size as the body of the work, although 
 not always. When introduced into the body of a page, 
 they should exactly equal one or more lines of text ; so 
 that the line after them will back another on the other 
 side of the paper. This is to be particularly observed in 
 poetry. 
 
 19. Poetry. 
 
 Although it is the general practice to set each verse 
 (Anglice line) of poetry in a distinct line, nevertheless, in 
 notes in classical and other works, it is not uncommon to 
 meet with lines of poetry run on in one paragraph ; and 
 then the first word of each verse or line must begin with a 
 capital letter. Thus I find in the notes to Griffiths's ' Pro- 
 metheus Vinctus/ p. 22, the following passage : 
 
 " This reading is strongly confirmed by a passage from 
 the Prometheus Solutus which Cicero has translated in 
 Tusc. Qusest. II, 10 : Hos ille cuneos fabrica crudeli inserens 
 Perrupit artus ; qua miser solertia Transverleratus castrum 
 hoc furiarum incolo. Compare Milton, Par. Reg. IY, 50 : 
 And there mount Palatine, The imperial palace, compass 
 huge, and high The structure, skill of noblest architects.'' 
 
 The Italics are merely used for the purpose of denoting 
 the first word of each line in the original. 
 
242 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER TO PART I. 
 
 DURING the passage of this Second Part through the 
 press, some things have occurred to the author's mind, 
 which he thinks will be found acceptable to the compositor 
 and the press-corrector ; and although they belong more 
 properly to the First Part than the present, yet he is un- 
 willing to omit them altogether, and therefore deems it 
 advisable to give them here. Of course, in future editions, 
 they will be incorporated in their proper place. 
 
 1. Latin, Greek, and other Nouns in common use, with 
 their Plurals. 
 
 There are many words of this kind of frequent occur- 
 rence in works of a certain character ; and as the proper 
 formation of the plural is, necessarily, often a matter of 
 uncertainty to the unlearned compositor or reader, a list 
 of them, in alphabetical order, will no doubt be found 
 useful. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Addendum (L), something to be added ... addenda 
 
 Amanuensis (L), a private secretary ... amanuenses 
 
 Animalcule (F), a minute insect ... animalcules 
 
 Animalculum (L), animalcula 
 
 Analysis (G), a separation of parts ... analyses 
 
 Antithesis (G), opposition or contrast ... antitheses 
 
 Apex (L), a top or point ... ... ... apices 
 
 Aphis (G), a minute insect on plants . . . aphides 
 
LATIN AND OTHER NOUNS, WITH THEIR PLURALS. 243 
 
 Apparatus (L), furniture, tools, &c. ... 
 Appendix* (L), something added 
 
 Apsis (G), a point in a planet's orbit 
 
 Arcanum (L), a secret... 
 
 As (L), a Roman weight and coin 
 
 Aurora borealis (L), the northern lights 
 Automaton (G), a self -moving machine 
 Axis (L), that on which anythii|g revolves ... 
 Bandit (Ital. bandito, banditi), a robber 
 
 Basis (G), a foundation, a base 
 
 Beau (F), a dressy man, a sweetheart 
 Calx (L), a cinder 
 
 Calyx (G), the cup of a flower 
 
 Census (L), a numbering of the people 
 Cherub (Heb.) , a celestial spirit 
 Chrysalis (G), the second state of an insect ... 
 Crisis (G), the decisive point 
 
 Criterion (G) , a mark to j udge by 
 
 Congeries (L), a mass of small bodies 
 Datum (L), a thing given or admitted 
 Desideratum (L), a thing much wanted 
 Diaeresis (G), the disjunction of words 
 Dictum (L), a saying 
 Dilettante (I), a lover of the fine arts 
 Diploma (G), a deed confirming a privilege... 
 Dogma (G), a doctrinal notion 
 
 Echinus (L), a hedgehog 
 
 Effluvium (L), a vapor, a smell 
 
 Ellipsis (G), an omission ; an oval 
 
 Emphasis (G), a particular stress on a word 
 Encomium (L), praise, commendation 
 
 ( an almanac with the 
 Ephemeris (G), j daily places of the 
 
 ( planets ... 
 
 apparatus 
 appendices 
 
 arcana 
 
 aurorse borealee 
 
 automata 
 
 axes 
 
 banditti 
 
 bases 
 
 beaux 
 
 calces 
 
 calyces 
 
 census 
 
 cherubim 
 
 chrysalides 
 
 crises 
 
 criteria 
 
 congeries 
 
 data 
 
 desiderata 
 
 diaereses 
 
 dicta 
 
 dilettanti 
 
 diplomata 
 
 dogmata 
 
 echini 
 
 effluvia 
 
 ellipses 
 
 emphases 
 
 encomia 
 
 ephemeride* 
 ephemera 
 
 * Appendixes and indexes are generally used when the words are 
 not applied to matters of science. 
 
 r 2 
 
244 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER TO PART I. 
 
 Erratum (L), a mistake or error 
 Fasciculus (L), a little bundle 
 Flocculus (L), a little lock of wool, &c. 
 Focus (L), the point where rays meet 
 
 F.tusor Fetus (L), j ^ J^ . f . 
 Formula (L), a prescribed form 
 Fossa (L), a dike, ditch, or trench ... 
 Fungus (L), a mushroom or toadstool 
 Ganglion (G), a tumor or a tendon ... 
 Genius (L), an aerial spirit 
 Genus (L), a kind or sort ...... 
 
 Gymnasium (G), \ a soh o1 for athletic 
 
 v '* ( exercises 
 
 Helix (G), a spiral line 
 Hiatus (L) , an opening or gap 
 Hypostasis (G), substance, personality 
 Hypothesis (G,), a supposition or theory 
 Ignis fatuus (L), Will-o'-the-wisp 
 Impetus (L), a tendency to motion ... 
 
 lri 
 
 a rainbow; the circle round 
 
 the pupil of the eye ... 
 Lamina (L), a thin plate or coat 
 Larva (L), the first state of an insect 
 Lemma (G), a proposition previously assumed 
 Macula (L), a spot 
 Magus (L), a wise man 
 
 Mantissa (L), the decimal part of a logarithm 
 Matrix (L), the womb; a mould 
 
 ( the tomb of Mausolus ; ) 
 any tomb ... j 
 
 Maxilla (L), the cheek- or jaw-bone ... 
 
 Medium (L), 
 Memorandum 
 
 errata 
 fasciculi 
 flocculi 
 foci 
 
 foetus or fetus 
 formulae 
 
 fungi 
 ganglia 
 genii 
 genera 
 
 gymnasia 
 
 helices 
 hiatus 
 
 hypotheses 
 ignes fatui 
 impetus 
 
 Index (L), j a sig p n oi c er; an a 'S etraical j indices 
 Indusium (L), 
 (G), j' 
 
 Mausoleum (L), 
 
 indusia 
 
 irides 
 
 laminae 
 
 larvae 
 
 lemmata 
 
 maculae 
 
 magi 
 
 mantissae 
 
 matrices 
 
 mausolea 
 
 maxillae 
 
 media 
 
 memoranda 
 
LATIN AND OTHER NOUNS, WITH THEIR PLURALS. 245 
 
 ( a transformation or 
 
 T. r , , . ,~v 
 
 Metamorphosis (G), c 
 
 Miasma (G), j ^oms arising from putrefying 
 
 bodies ... 
 Minutia (L), a minute particular 
 Momentum (L), the force of a moving body 
 Nebula (L), a cloudy appearance 
 Necrosis (G), mortification, decay, &c. 
 Nucleus (L), a kernel, &c. 
 Oasis (G), a fertile spot in a desert ... 
 Parenthesis (G), an interruptive clause 
 Phalanx* (G), a compact body of troops 
 
 DV, /n\ S tne appearance or face of the 
 Fnasis(U), j moon &c ....... 
 
 Phenomenon (G), an appearance 
 
 i a Bather ; feathery part of 
 a plant ......... 
 
 Polypus (G) , a sea animal ...... 
 
 Postulatum (L), an assumed position 
 Pupa (L), the second state of an insect 
 
 EacMs (G), j th b e r hes * ^ ^ ** 
 Radius (L), half the diameter of a circle 
 Radix (L), a root 
 Sarcophagus (G, L), a stone coffin 
 Scholium or -on (L), an explanation or note . 
 Seraph (H) , a celestial spirit ...... 
 
 Series (L), orderly succession... 
 
 Sinus (L), 
 
 Species (L) , a sort or kind 
 Speculum (L), a mirror or looking-glass 
 Sphinx* (G), a fabulous monster 
 Stadium (L), an ancient lineal measure 
 Stamen (L), a fine thread in a flower, &e. 
 Status (L) , state or condition ... 
 
 metamorphoses 
 
 miasmata 
 
 minutise 
 
 momenta 
 
 nebulse 
 
 necroses 
 
 nuclei 
 
 oases 
 
 parentheses 
 
 phalanges 
 
 phases 
 
 phenomena 
 
 pinnse 
 
 polypi 
 
 postulata 
 
 pupae 
 
 rachides 
 
 radii 
 
 radices 
 
 sarcophagi 
 
 scholia 
 
 seraohim 
 
 sinus or sinuses 
 
 species 
 
 specula 
 
 sphinges 
 
 stadia 
 
 stamina 
 
 status 
 
 * Phalanxes and Sphinxes are met with in the best authors, as 
 Anglicised words. 
 
246 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER TO PART I. 
 
 Stigma (G), a puncture, &c.; apart of a flower . . . stigmata 
 
 Stimulus (L), a goad or incitement ... ... stimuli 
 
 Stipes (L), the stalk of a plant ... ... stipites 
 
 Stratum (L), a layer or bed ... strata 
 
 Syllabus (L), the heads of a discourse ... syllabus 
 
 Synopsis (G), a general view ... synopses 
 
 Superficies (L), a surface ... ... ... superficies 
 
 Terminus (L), the end of a thing ... ... termini 
 
 Theca (L), a sheath or case ... thecse 
 
 Thesis (G), a proposition or theme ... ... theses 
 
 Tumulus (L), a mound of earth ... ... tumuli 
 
 Vertex (L), the top of anything ... ... vertices 
 
 Virtuoso (I), one skilled in the fine arts ... virtuosi 
 
 Viscus (L), an intestine or entrail ... ... 'viscera 
 
 Vortex (L), a whirlpool ... ... ... vortices 
 
 2. On the Changes which some fetters undergo in English 
 words derived from the Greek and Latin. 
 
 In words derived from the learned languages, there are 
 several letters "which undergo certain changes in the com- 
 position of English words, which it is necessary for the 
 scholar to bear constantly in mind ; otherwise, when he 
 thinks he is displaying his knowledge of those tongues, it 
 may happen that he is only exhibiting his ignorance of 
 the laws which govern the orthography of his own. Thus : 
 
 1. The diphthongs at and ot in Greek, and a and 02 in 
 Latin, are rendered by e only in English ; but av and tv 
 remain unchanged. Examples : 
 
 Gangrene, from yayypcuva (Lat. gangrcena] 
 Sphere fffaipa ( sphara) 
 
 Ethereal cuQcpios ( atherius or athereus) 
 Hemorrhage alfjiopfiayia ( h&morrhagia) 
 Economy OMovofua, ( cecotwmia) 
 Cemetery KoifJLrjr-npiov ( ccemeterium) 
 
 So, estimation from astimatio, era from cera, federal from fcedwt, 
 and Jfetid from foetidus ; but autograph from avroypaQy, auto- 
 
CHANGES WHICH SOME LETTERS UNDERGO. 247 
 
 maton from avrofiaroj', eulogy from evXoyia, and euphony from 
 
 Remark. This rule holds good in all cases, with the excep- 
 tion of proper names, and a few other words, which we have 
 adopted unchanged in any respect ; such as Ccesar, Bceotia, Eubcea, 
 fcetus y oesophagus, &c. But when any change whatever is made 
 in a word (in other terms, when it is Anglicised), it ought always 
 to follow the general rule. Hence we have Egypt from JEgyptus, 
 Esop from ^Esopus, archeology from apxaioXoyia, anapest from 
 anapcestus ; with numerous other words. But neither the 
 French, Italians, nor Spaniards, allow any such exceptions, but 
 systematically, logically, and correctly according to their respec- 
 tive systems of orthography, discard the diphthongs in every case. 
 Hence they spell Cesar and Cesar, fetus and/<tfo, &c. &c., inva- 
 riably without them. 
 
 2. The Greek v is rendered by y, ov by , and by i (but 
 sometimes by e). Examples : 
 
 Gymnasium, from yv^vaffiov (Lat. gymnasium) 
 
 Lycurgus AvKovpyos ( Lycurgus) 
 
 Thucydides ovKv8t$rjs ( Thucydides) 
 
 Uranus Ovpavos ( Uranus) 
 
 Iphigenia IQiycvtta ( Iphigenia) 
 
 Darius Aapetos ( Darius) 
 
 Idolatry i^ta\o\arpfia( idololatria) 
 
 Medea MijScia ( Medea) 
 
 Nile NeiAos ( Nilus) 
 
 3. The Greek terminations oc and ov are mostly ren- 
 dered by us and um (sometimes by os and on) both in 
 Latin and English. Examples : 
 
 \WTOS, lotus eyKWfuov, encomium 
 
 KoXovffos, colossus Au/catov, Lyceum 
 
 4. The letter y before another y, or before K; K, or x> is 
 changed into n both in Latin and English ; because these 
 letters nearly represent the sound given to the Greek. 
 Hence we have angdus and angel from ayytXos, lynx from 
 
248 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER TO PART I. 
 
 \vy%, incline and inclino from eyfeXivw, and enchiridion from 
 cyxci/otdcoi', &c. &C. 
 
 5. The Greek K becomes c in English, and is pronounced 
 as 5 before the vowels e, i, and y ; but as k before a, o, 
 and u. Examples : 
 
 Cathedral, from KaOefya (Lat. cathedra) 
 
 Ceramic Kepa.fj.iKos 
 
 Cimmerian Ki^epios ( Cimmerianus) 
 
 Cycle KVK\OS ( cyclus] 
 
 Cacophony KaKoQuvia 
 
 Custody KovarcoSia ( custodia) 
 
 6. The Greek x rendered in English by ch, which 
 has the sound of k before a vowel, as seen in the words 
 architect, archive, archangel, architrave, &c. ; although, be- 
 fore a consonant, ch is pronounced as tsh ; as in the words 
 archbishop, archdeacon, &c. 
 
 Remark. Want of attention to these rules, or rather, per- 
 haps, I should say, ignorance of them, is a constant source of 
 error and irregularity in the spelling of some writers, ambi- 
 tious of displaying their acquaintance with that of the learned 
 tongues. Hence we constantly meet with such anomalies as 
 archeology, foetid, cera, palaeography t kaleidoscope , &c. &c. ; and 
 there is a society in London calling itself the Orthopedic Society : 
 but how they form the word I am quite at a loss to divine. It 
 is neither from the Greek nor the Latin, nor yet formed by a 
 mingling of the two languages. For, supposing the latter part 
 of the word to be taken from the Latin, it ought to be pedic 
 (from pes, pedis), and if from the Greek, podic (from TTOVS, iroSos) ; 
 for words of this sort are derived from the genitive case, and not 
 from the nominative (which, however, would not here cure the 
 error); as we have generic from generis (not from genus), multi- 
 tudinous from multitudinis (not from multitudo); steatic from 
 flrrcaros (not from orcap), and steatine (Gr. ffrcanvos) ; not stearic 
 and stearine, as sometimes ignorantly written. So we write ten- 
 donous or tendinous, because tendo takes either i or o in its geni- 
 tive case. 
 
* SHALL AND WILL.' 249 
 
 3. Shall and Will: 
 
 As the proper use of these words is sometimes mistaken, 
 especially by the natives of Ireland, I subjoin the following 
 apt remarks, copied from Lindley Murray's English 
 Grammar, p. 98. 
 
 Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates reso- 
 lution and promising ; in the second and third persons, only fore- 
 tells : as, ' I will reward the good, and will punish the wicked ;' 
 * We will remember benefits, and be grateful ;' ' Thou wilt, or 
 he will, repent of that folly ;' * You or they will have a pleasant 
 walk.' 
 
 " Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; 
 in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threat- 
 ens : as, * I shall go abroad ;' ' We shall dine at home ;' * Thou 
 shalt, or you shall, inherit the land ;' * Ye shall do justice, and 
 love mercy ;' * They shall account for their misconduct.' 
 
 " These observations respecting the import of the verbs will 
 and shall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for when 
 the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, for the most part, 
 takes place : thus, * I shall go ; you will go ;' express event only; 
 but, ' Will you go?' imports intention ; and, 'Shall I go ?' refers 
 to the will of another. But, ' He shall go,' and l Shall he go ?' 
 both imply will, expressing or referring to a command. 
 
 " When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the mean- 
 ing of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes some alteration; as 
 the learners will readily perceive by a few examples : ' He shall 
 proceed,' ' If he shall proceed ;' ' You shall consent ;' * If you 
 shall consent.' These auxiliaries are sometimes interchanged, in 
 the indicative and subjunctive moods, to convey the same mean- 
 ing of the auxiliary : as, ' He will not return,' ' If he shatt not 
 return ;' * He shall not return/ * If he will not return.' " 
 
 4. Words ending in ' in ' or ' ine.' 
 
 This is a termination of words which is far from being 
 settled in the English language j for, although we con- 
 
250 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER TO PART I. 
 
 stantly find canine, divine, feline, marine, alkaline, strychnine, 
 &c., we as often meet with fibrin a&fibrine, and Augustin, 
 Augustine; creatin, creatine; cholesterin, cJiolesterine ; pro- 
 tein, proteine, &c. 
 
 This anomaly arises from the fact that words of this 
 sort are generally derived from Greek words in IVOQ or 
 Latin words in inus, where the i is sometimes long and 
 sometimes short ; the former case necessarily requiring 
 the elongating e at the end of English derivatives, and the 
 latter discarding it. 
 
 I will give the rules on this subject, as laid down by 
 competent authority, for the guidance of the press-corrector 
 and compositor, although, in my own opinion, the ending 
 ine seems preferable in all cases. 
 
 As regards Greek words, Passow says, in his ' Doctrine 
 of Greek Prosody,' p. 73 : 
 
 " Iota is long in names of people, and masculine proper names ; 
 viz. AOTW/OS, Apxwos, &c., with their derivatives; likewise in 
 appellatives which have the accent on the penultima ; viz., 
 Tuptvos, tpvBwos, x<Vos, &c. ; and in some which have the accent 
 on the ultima ; viz. epzvbs and xaA?tfs, with their derivatives. 
 
 " Those substantives in ivos and ivov which have the accent on 
 the antepenultima, generally shorten the t ; but exceptions are 
 frequent ; viz., tcdptvos, Kv^lvov, KVK.Kdp.lvos, &c. 
 
 "Iota is short in most adjectives in ivos] viz. frvaawos, 
 Hatyvwos, eAcmvos, vaKivQwos, SeieAm)*, eiapwos, a\r)6ivos, Safwroj, 
 &c. ;" but some are common. 
 
 And in Dr. Adam's Latin Grammar, p. 263, the fol- 
 lowing remarks will be found respecting the Latin termi- 
 nation inus: 
 
 " Adjectives in inus derived from inanimate things, as plants, 
 stones, &c. ; also from adverbs of time, commonly shorten the 
 penultimate ; as, amaracinus, crocinus, cedrinus, faginus, olea- 
 ginus, adamantinus, crystalltnus, crast%nus } pristwus, perendtnus, 
 carinus, annotitms, &c." 
 
ABBREVIATIONS IN CHEMICAL WORKS. 
 
 251 
 
 Nevertheless, in English, we spell adamantine, crystal- 
 line, pristine^ &c. 
 
 " Other adjectives in inus are long ; zsagnlnus, cariinus, lepo- 
 rinus, binus, trinus, quinus, austrmus, clandestmus, Latmus, 
 marinus, supinus, vespertinus, &c." 
 
 In accordance with which, we spell marine, canine^clan- 
 destine, supine, &c. ; but, against analogy, Latin. 
 
 5. Abbreviations used in Chemical Works. 
 
 The following abbreviations are used in books of this 
 character, for simple bodies. The list should have ap- 
 peared in the chapter devoted to Abbreviations, in the 
 First Part ; but, owing to an oversight, was omitted. 
 
 SIMPLE BODIES. 
 
 Ag. Silver (argentum) Gl. Glucinum 
 
 Pt. Platinum 
 
 Al. Aluminum 
 
 H. Hydrogen 
 
 Rh. Rhodium 
 
 Ar. Arsenic 
 
 Hg. Mercury 
 
 Ru. Ruthenium 
 
 Au. Gold (aurum) 
 
 I. Iodine 
 
 S. Sulphur 
 
 Az. Azote (nitrogen) 
 
 Ir. Iridium 
 
 Sb. Antimony 
 
 B. Bromine 
 
 K. Potassium 
 
 Se. Selenon 
 
 Ba. Barium 
 
 La. Lanthanium 
 
 Si. Silicon 
 
 Bi. Bismuth 
 
 Li. Lithium 
 
 Sn. Tin (stannum) 
 
 Bo. Boron 
 
 Mg. Magnesium 
 
 St. Strontium 
 
 C. Carbon 
 
 Mn. Manganese 
 
 Ta. Tantalum 
 
 Ca. Calcium 
 
 Mo. Molybdenum 
 
 Te. Tellurium 
 
 Cd. Cadmium 
 
 Na. Sodium 
 
 Th. Thorium 
 
 Ce. Cerium 
 
 Ni. Nickel 
 
 Ti. Titanium 
 
 Cl. Chlorine 
 
 No. Niobium 
 
 Tr. Terbium 
 
 Co. Cobalt 
 
 Nr. Norium 
 
 U. Uranium 
 
 Cr. Chromium 
 
 0. Oxygen 
 
 Va. Vanadium 
 
 Cu. Copper (cuprum} 
 
 Os. Osmium 
 
 W. Tungsten 
 
 Di. Didymium 
 
 Pb. Lead (plumbum) 
 
 Y. Yttrium 
 
 Er. Erbium 
 
 Pd. Palladium 
 
 Zn. Zink 
 
 Fe. Iron (ferrum) 
 
 Pe. Pelopium 
 
 Zr. Zirconium 
 
 Fl. Fluorine 
 
 Ph. Phosphorus 
 
 
 Compound bodies are denoted by a combination of those let- 
 ters and superior or drop figures : thus, AgO signifies protoxide 
 of silver ; ArO 5 , arsenic acid ; Cr 2 3 , sesquioxide of chromium ; 
 CuO*, peroxide of copper, &c. &c. 
 
252 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER TO PART I. 
 
 6. Collective Nouns. 
 
 Collective nouns are of two kinds, distinguished by 
 some as general and partitive, and by others, as definite and 
 indefinite. The former denote a union of persons or things 
 forming a definite body, and acting or taken as a whole, 
 such as ' army,' ' regiment,' ' parliament,' and require a 
 verb in the singular ; but the latter denote a collection of 
 persons or things not constituting a united and definite 
 body, acting as a whole, but taken separately or individ- 
 ually, such as 'folk,' ' people,' and require a verb in the 
 plural. Examples : 
 
 The parliament was assembled. 
 The regiment is disbanded. 
 The army was victorious. 
 
 The townsfolk had met together for the purpose of consulta- 
 tion, and were much divided in opinion. 
 
 The common people easily discern the real qualities of their 
 rulers, and express their opinions without much reservation, 
 unless awed by fear. 
 
 It is to be observed, however, that the same word may 
 be at one time a collective general, and at another, a collec- 
 tive partitive, according to the sense in which the word is 
 applied. Examples : 
 
 The committee was composed of ten members. 
 
 The jury was forthwith empanelled. 
 
 This family has been long settled in the country. 
 
 That is, as definite bodies, taken as a whole. But we say, 
 with equal propriety, 
 
 The committee were of different opinions, 
 
 The jury were far from being unanimous in their verdict. 
 
 Thefamily were formerly hereditary sheriffs of the county. 
 
 That is, regarded in their separate members; which word, 
 or some such-like, is understood in each case : for 
 
COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 253 
 
 neither the committee, nor the jury, nor the family, could, 
 as united bodies, act in the mode here assigned to them. 
 Hence, a verb in the plural is correct : for it is the sense 
 which must determine the proper application of the rule 
 in all cases. 
 
 This rule, of the sense, applies in other cases besides 
 those of nouns of multitude, as they are called by some ; 
 for it is that which sometimes renders correct a verb in the 
 singular after two nouns united by the conjunction and. 
 For this reason it is correct to say, ' The rise and fall of 
 the tide is six feet ;' for the sense is, that the distance mea- 
 sured by the sea's flux and reflux reaches to that number 
 of feet, and not each of them six feet of different space. 
 
 In French, a collective partitive, followed by a genitive 
 plural, governs the verb in the singular when itself is pre- 
 ceded by a definite article or demonstrative pronoun ; as, 
 
 La multitude des Strangers rend le pain cher. 
 Ce pen de plantes merite votre attention. 
 
 Otherwise, that is, if the noun substantive be not pre- 
 ceded by a definite article or demonstrative pronoun, the 
 verb must be in the plural. Example : 
 
 Une multitude de Chretiens segarent tous les jours. 
 
 So, in Spanish, if a collective noun is followed by a 
 word in the singular, the verb must be singular ; but if 
 the collective noun is followed by a word in the plural, the 
 verb is also plural. Examples : 
 
 Una gran multitud de gente acudia de cada parte. 
 Una tropa de Cosacos lijeros como el viento, fatigaban al 
 ejercito Frances en su retirada. 
 
254 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ABSTRACTS OF ACTS OF PARLIAMENT RELATIVE TO 
 PRINTERS. 
 
 VARIOU s enactments have, from time to time, been pro- 
 mulgated by the legislature of this country for the regula- 
 tion of the printing business, under the plea of restraining 
 its license, or checking the dissemination of seditious, 
 libellous, irreligious, blasphemous, or immoral publica- 
 tions. Some restriction undoubtedly may be required on 
 those grounds ; but it has more frequently happened, that 
 the real reason for wishing to restrain the liberty of the 
 press, has been a consciousness on the part of the govern- 
 ing powers, that their actions would not bear the test of 
 this searching investigator ; and they have therefore pre- 
 ferred to endeavour to prevent all inquiry into their 
 conduct, rather than run the risk of having their actions 
 exposed to the light of day, and the consequent condemna- 
 tion of those whom they have plundered and oppressed 
 under the guise of governing. 
 
 Hence it becomes necessary that the printer should be 
 acquainted with the laws which affect him in his daily 
 occupation, in order that he may avoid exposing himself 
 to the pains and penalties to which he is still liable. I 
 have therefore thought it advisable to append a short 
 chapter, containing brief notices of those Acts of Parlia- 
 ment which have been passed from time to time, as 
 occasion arose, or the interest of the government or of 
 society was thought to require. 
 
ABSTRACTS OF ACTS RELATIVE TO PRINTERS. 255 
 
 By the Act 13 Geo. II. cap. 19 (to restrain aud prevent 
 the excessive increase of horse-races, &c.), it is enacted, 
 " That every person or persons who shall make, print, 
 publish, advertise, or proclaim any advertisement or 
 notice of any plate, prize, sum of money, or other thing 
 of less value than fifty pounds to be rim for by any horse, 
 mare, or gelding, shall forfeit and lose the sum of one 
 hundred pounds." 
 
 By the Act 25 Geo. II. cap. 36 (for the better prevent- 
 ing thefts and robberies), it is enacted, " That any person 
 publicly advertising a reward with * No questions asked/ 
 for the return of things which have been stolen or lost, or 
 making use of any such words in such public advertisement, 
 &c., shall for every such offence forfeit fifty pounds." 
 
 The Act 39 Geo. III. cap. 79 (for the more effectual 
 suppression of societies established for seditious and trea- 
 sonable purposes), contains several provisions and penalties 
 respecting printers, letter-founders, and printing-press 
 makers. 
 
 Sect. 23 enacts, '' That from and after the expiration 
 of forty days from the day of passing this Act, every person 
 Laving any printing-press, or types for printing, shall 
 cause a notice thereof, signed in the presence of and at- 
 tested by one witness, to be delivered to the clerk of the 
 peace acting for the county, stewartry, riding, division, city, 
 borough, town, or place where the same shall be intended 
 to be used, or his deputy, according to the form prescribed 
 in the schedule hereunto annexed ; and such clerk of the 
 peace, or deputy respectively, shall, and he is hereby au- 
 thorized and required to grant a certificate in the form 
 prescribed in the schedule hereunto annexed, for which 
 such clerk of the peace, or deputy, shall receive the fee of 
 one shilling, and no more ; and such clerk of the peace, or 
 his deputy, shall file such notice, and transmit an attested 
 copy thereof to one of his Majesty's principal secretaries 
 
256 ABSTRACTS OF ACTS RELATIVE TO PRINTERS. 
 
 of state ; and every person who, not having delivered such 
 notice, and obtained such certificate as aforesaid, shall, 
 from and after the expiration of forty days next after the 
 passing of this Act, keep or use any printing-press or 
 types for printing, or, having delivered such notice and 
 obtained such certificate as aforesaid, shall use any printing- 
 press or types for printing in any other place than the place 
 expressed in such notice, shall forfeit and lose the sum of 
 twenty pounds."* 
 
 Sect. 24 exempts his Majesty's printers, and the public 
 presses belonging to the universities. 
 
 Sees. 25 and 26 relate to type-founders and press- 
 makers. 
 
 Sect. 27 enacts, " That from and after the expiration of 
 forty days after the passing of this Act, every person who 
 shall print any paper or book whatsoever, which shall be 
 meant or intended to be published or dispersed, whether 
 the same shall be sold or given away, shall print upon the 
 front of every paper, if the same shall be printed on one 
 side only, and upon the first and last leaves of every paper 
 or book which shall consist of more than one leaf, in legi- 
 ble characters, his or her name, and the name of the city, 
 town, parish, or place, and also the name (if any) of the 
 square, street, lane, court, or place, in which his or her 
 dwelling-house, or usual place of abode shall be; and 
 every person who shall omit so to print his name and place 
 of abode on every such paper or book printed by him, and 
 also every person who shall publish or disperse, or assist 
 in publishing or dispersing, either gratis or for money, any 
 printed paper or book which shall have been printed after 
 the expiration of forty days from the passing of this Act, 
 and on which the name and place of abode of the person 
 
 * It is but the other day that a printer of Carey Street, Lin- 
 colns-Inn Fields, very nearly failed in a suit for upwards of 200, 
 by not complying with this requisition. 
 
ABSTRACTS OF ACTS RELATIVE TO PRINTERS. 257 
 
 printing the same shall not be printed as aforesaid, shall, 
 for every copy of such paper so published or dispersed by 
 him, forfeit and pay the sum of twenty pounds." 
 
 Sect 28 exempts papers printed by authority of either 
 House of Parliament. 
 
 Sect. 29 enacts, " That every person who, from and 
 after the expiration of forty days after the passing of this 
 Act, shall print any paper for hire, reward, gain, or profit, 
 shall carefully preserve and keep one copy (at least) of 
 every paper so printed by him or her, on which he or she 
 shall write, or causa to be written or printed, in fair and 
 legible characters, the name and place of abode of the 
 person or persons by whom he or she shall be employed to 
 print the same : and every person printing any paper for 
 hire, reward, gaia, or profit, who shall omit or neglect to 
 write, or cause to be written or printed as aforesaid, the 
 name and place of his or her employer, on one of such 
 printed papers, or to keep or preserve the same for the 
 space of six calendar months next after the printing thereof, 
 or to produce and show the same to any justice of the peace, 
 who, within the said space of six calendar months, shall 
 require to see the same, shall, for every such omission, 
 neglect, or refusal, forfeit and lose the sum of twenty 
 pounds " 
 
 FORM OF NOTICE to be given to the Clerk of the Peace, 
 
 that any Person keeps any Printing-Press or Types for 
 
 Printing. 
 To the Clerk of the Peace for [here insert the 
 
 county, stewartry, riding, division, city, borough, town, 
 
 or place^\ or his deputy. 
 
 7, A. B. of do hereby declare that I have a 
 
 printing-press and types for printing, which I propose to 
 
 use for printing within , and which I require to 
 
 be entered for th'it purpose, in pursuance of an Act passed 
 in the thirty-ninth year of his Majesty King George the 
 
258 ABSTRACTS OF ACTS RELATIVE TO PRINTERS. 
 
 Third, entitled, " An Act /or the more effectual suppression 
 of societies established for seditious and treasonable pur- 
 poses, and for better preventing treasonable and seditious 
 practices." 
 
 Witness my hand this day cf . 
 
 Signed in the presence of . 
 
 An Act was passed on the 10th of June, 1811, to amend 
 and explain the above Act, by which it is enacted, " That 
 nothing in the 27th section of the said Act contained shall 
 extend to make any person or persons oifending against 
 the same liable to more than twenty five forfeitures or 
 penalties for printing, or publishing, or dispersing, or 
 assisting in publishing or dispersing, any number of copies 
 of one and the same paper or book, contrary to the said 
 section of the said Act " 
 
 By the 2nd section of this Act, power is given to 
 magistrates to mitigate the same to any sum not less than 
 5, with all reasonable costs incurred in the prosecution ; 
 and by the 4th section, persons convicted under this 
 amended Act may, if they think themselves aggrieved, 
 appeal to the Quarter Sessions ; where the justices, if they 
 see cause, may mitigate any penalty or penalties, and may 
 order any money to be returned which shall have been 
 paid or levied under any conviction as aforesaid, and may 
 also order and award snch costs to be paid by eithep party 
 to the other as they shall think and judge reasonable. 
 
 The Act 60 Geo. III. cap. 9, to subject certain publi- 
 cations to the duties of stamps upon newspapers,* and to 
 make other regulations for restraining the abuses arising 
 from the publication of blasphemous and seditious libels. 
 December 30, 1819. 
 
 * Newspapers, not exceeding 2,295 square inches superficies, 
 exclusive of outer margin, can be sent through the post-office for 
 a penny stamp; beyond those dimensions an additional halfpenny 
 stamp is required, up to 3,443 inches, and another halfpenny up to 
 4,691 inches, whether supplements or not. 
 
. ABSTRACTS OF ACTS RELATIVE TO PRINTERS. 259 
 
 Sect. 1. All pamphlets and papers containing any 
 public news, intelligence or occurrences, or any remarks 
 or observations thereon, or upon any matter in church or 
 state, printed in any part of the United Kingdom for sale, 
 and published periodically, or in parts or numbers, at 
 intervals not exceeding twenty-six days between the pub- 
 lication of any two such pamphlets or papers, parts or 
 numbers, where any of the said pamphlets, &c., shall not 
 exceed two sheets, or shall be published for sale for a less 
 sum than sixpence, exclusive of the duty, shall be deemed 
 and taken to be newspapers, agreeably to the Act of the 
 38th Geo. III., and subject to all the rules, &c., of all 
 former Acts regarding newspapers, &c. 
 
 Sect. 2. No quantity of paper less than 21 inches in 
 length, and 17 in breadth, to be deemed a sheet. 
 
 Sect. 3. No cover or blank leaf upon which any adver- 
 tisement or other notice shall be printed shall be deemed 
 part of a pamphlet. 
 
 Sect. 4. Publications of the above nature, at intervals 
 exceeding twenty-six days, to be published on the first day 
 of every calendar month, or within two days before or 
 after. Penalty 20. 
 
 Sect. 5. The price and day of publication to be printed 
 on all periodicals ;* penalty for omission 20. Persons 
 liable to the above penalty for selling, or exposing for sale, 
 any of the said publications for a less price than sixpence. 
 
 Sect. 6. Price not to extend to the allowance made to 
 distributors, who buy to sell again. 
 
 Sect. 7. Pamphlets liable to the stamp duties freed 
 from all regulations respecting pamphlets. 
 
 Sect. 8. Persons not to print or publish newspapers, 
 &c., or pamphlets of two sheets or under, of the above 
 description, without entering into recognizance, or giving 
 
 * It is now necessary that the day of publication of periodicals 
 shall be printed on the corner of the headline of every page, and iu 
 the heading of the first. 
 
 * 2 
 
260 ABSTRACTS OF ACTS RELATIVE TO PRINTERS. . 
 
 bond for securing fines upon conviction for libels. Penalty 
 20. 
 
 Sect. 9. If sureties pay any part of the money for which 
 they are bound, or become bankrupts, new recognizance 
 with sureties must be given. Penalty 20. 
 
 Sect. 10. Sureties may withdraw from their recogni- 
 zance, upon giving twenty days' previous notice, in writing, 
 to the commissioners or distributors of stamps in the dis- 
 trict, and also to the printer or publisher ; sureties not to 
 be liable after the expiration of such notice. Bond or new 
 sureties to be given before any more numbers are published; 
 for every such offence, penalty 20. 
 
 Sect. 11. Bonds not subject to stamp duties. 
 Sect. 12. Lists of recognizances to be sent to the Com- 
 missioners of Stamps four times a year ; bonds, within ten 
 days after the execution. 
 
 Sect. 13. Extending the provisions of former Acts rela- 
 tive to the delivery of newspapers, &c. to the Commissioners 
 of Stamps. Penalty for neglect of delivery of such pam- 
 phlets or papers, ,100. 
 
 Sect. 14. Commissioners refusing to take any pamphlet 
 or paper, to give, if required, a certificate of such refusal. 
 Sect. 15. Persons selling papers, &c. not duly stamped, 
 to be fined 20. [Obsolete.] 
 
 Sect. 16. Recognizance, in case of libel, to be of good 
 behaviour, as well as to appear to answer. 
 
 Sect. 17. Fines, penalties, &c. to be recovered by action 
 of debt, bill, plaint, or information, &c. ; not more than 
 100 to be recovered before justices of the peace, for any 
 penalty incurred in one day. 
 
 Sect. 18. Two or more justices to hear and determine 
 oifences committed against this Act, within the limitation 
 of three months ; magistrates have power to mitigate 
 penalties to one-fourth ; reasonable costs, &c. must always 
 be paid. 
 
 Sect. 19. Persons refusing to appear and give evidence, 
 
ABSTRACTS OF ACTS RELATIVE TO PRINTERS. 261 
 
 when summoned as witnesses, without satisfactory excuse 
 to the magistrates, shall forfeit for each offence the sum 
 of 20. 
 
 Sect. 21. Order or conviction of justices not to be re- 
 moved into any court whatever, nor can the execution be 
 superseded. 
 
 Sect. 22. No action for penalties shall be commenced 
 but in the name of the Attorney-General, in England and 
 Ireland, and Advocate for Scotland, or some officer of the 
 stamp duties. 
 
 Sect. 23. Duties to be under the management of the 
 Commissioners of Stamps. 
 
 Sect. 24. Duties and discounts to be paid and allowed 
 according to the provisions of former Acts. 
 
 Sect. 26 contains the following exceptions : Acts, &c., 
 printed for Government, School Books, subjects on Devo- 
 tion, &c., Daily Accounts, Bills of Goods imported and 
 exported, Warrants and Certificates for the delivery of 
 goods, Weekly Bills of Mortality, Lists of Prices Current, 
 State of the Markets, Accounts of the Arrival and Sailing 
 of Merchant Ships, &c. &c., provided they contain nothing 
 more than the usual matter. 
 
 Sect. 27. Eeprinted works published in numbers not 
 chargeable with the stamp duty, provided that it had been 
 printed two years, and not first published in parts or num- 
 bers. [Obsolete.] 
 
 In addition to what is above stated, the following 
 remarks will be found of importance to the printer : 
 
 By 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 76, it is enacted that every 
 newspaper shall have at the end of the last column, or 
 across the bottom of the last page, the name and residence 
 of the printer and publisher, the place of publication, the 
 date, and the price, under a penalty of '20. 
 
 Declarations made by proprietors of newspapers are to 
 
262 ABSTRACTS OF ACTS RELATIVE TO PRINTERS. 
 
 be renewed whenever any printer, publisher, or proprietor 
 named therein, shall be changed, or whenever the title, or 
 the office of printing or publication, shall be changed, or 
 whenever the Stamp Office shall require a renewal thereof, 
 under a penalty of ,50. 
 
 No proprietor of a paper can recover damages, before 
 being registered, for the non-performance of a contract for 
 the printing of his paper ; nor can a printer making a 
 false declaration sue the proprietors for anything con- 
 nected with the business of the paper. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A or an before a vowel or silent A, i, 
 24; reasons for it, 24, 25 
 
 Abbreviations, list of, 199213; of 
 books of Scripture, 199 ; of names 
 of months, 200 ; of titles of honor, 
 office, &c., 200205 ; miscellaneous, 
 205; French, 209; German, 210; 
 of Greek and Latin authors, 211; 
 chemical, ii, 251 
 
 Able and ible, as terminations, i, 38 
 
 Abridgement, acknowledgement, &c., 
 correct in orthography, i, 55 
 
 Ac or ack, and oc or ock, Dr. Webster's 
 rule respecting words ending in, i, 
 20 
 
 Accent, its power in the formation of 
 derivative words, i, 58, &c. 
 
 Accents, i, 169; the grave, its use in 
 poetry, 170 ; never occurs in Spanish, 
 ib. ; peculiar property of the cir- 
 cumflex in French, ib. \ Greek, ii, 159, 
 160 ; where placed in diphthongs, 
 160 ; Hebrew, 167 
 
 Accentual marks, i, 169 
 
 Acts of Parliament relating to printers, 
 ii, 254262. 
 
 Addresses, direct, how pointed, i, 126 
 
 Adjectives, at the end of a compound 
 word, how changed in the plural, i, 
 28; two or more in succession, how 
 pointed, 121; derived from proper 
 names, are begun with a capital, 
 180. 
 
 Adverbs, conjunctions, &c., rules for 
 their proper punctuation, i, 122 
 
 Advertising, restrictions respecting, ii, 
 255 
 
 Advertisements, standing, method of 
 charging, ii, 131 
 
 Affirmations, their nature, i, 95; their 
 connection, 114; incidental, how 
 punctuated, 117 
 
 Affixes, or terminations, how divided, i 
 
 85 
 
 Albion, specimen of the letter, ii, 35 
 Aldus of Venice invents Italic type, ii, 
 
 Algebraical work, how charged for, ii, 
 132 
 
 Allso, more correct than also, i, 15 
 
 Alphabets, Saxon, ii, 156; Greek, 158; 
 Hebrew, 164; Syriac, 173 ; Ethiopian, 
 176 ; Chinese, ib. ; Persi- Arabic, 
 178-9; Devanagari, 184:; German, 
 190 
 
 An unicorn, inharmonious and incor- 
 rect, i, 24 
 
 Ance or ence, the terminations, i, 38a 
 
 Ancle, preferable to ankle, i, 39 
 
 Antique, letter so named, ii, 35 
 
 Antre, an anomalous word, i, 39 
 
 Apostrophe, rules for its proper appli- 
 cation, i, 156 
 
 Appeal cases, how charged, ii, 128 
 
 Apprentice, what ought to be his quali- 
 fications, ii, 39, 40 
 
 Apprentices, none allowed on daily 
 papers, ii, 129 
 
 Article, the definite, its power in con- 
 stituting a proper name, i, 178 n. 
 
 As follows, or as fo llow, observations 
 thereon, i, 45 
 
 Assistants on newspapers, how paid, ii, 
 129 
 
 Astronomical signs, i, 184 
 
 Attorney-General, no action to be com- 
 menced against printers without hie 
 sanction, ii, 262 
 
 Auctioneers' catalogues, method of 
 charging, ii, 125 ; remarks on their 
 style, &c., 200. 
 
 Augustine, Black, Elizabethan, Al- 
 hambra, &c., specimens of those let- 
 ters, ii, 36 
 
264 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Authors, adrice to, as to preparing 
 copy, i, 242; should return thei 
 proofs without delay, 245 
 
 B. 
 
 Backs and gutters, misnomers, ii, 111 
 
 Baskerville an eminent English prin- 
 ter, ii, 25 ; met with little encourage- 
 ment, ib. 
 
 Bastard founts, how charged, ii, 118 
 Mr. Day's remarks on, 220 
 
 Beeswax, a correct mode of spelling 
 the word, i, 69 
 
 Befal, be/el, tniscal, downfal, &c. 
 absurd anomalies, i, 15 
 
 Bills in Parliament, scale of prices for. 
 i, 133 
 
 Blank pages, may be filled up, ii, 133 
 
 Booth, Mr., his remarks on the forma- 
 tion of the plural of nouns ending 
 in y, i, 29 
 
 Borders, how charged, ii, 131 
 
 Bottom-no; es, best mode of arranging, 
 i, 168; how charged, ii, 121 ; proper 
 size of type for, 230 
 
 Bracket, when employed, i, 165 
 
 Breaks, remarks on, ii, 222 
 
 Breathings, Greek, explained, ii, 159 
 
 British Museum, specimens of early 
 inscriptions in, ii, 3 
 
 Broadsides, method of charging, ii, 126 ; 
 remarks on setting out, 199 
 
 C. 
 
 C, as a final letter, very uncommon, i, 
 19 ; soft, always followed by a final 
 e, 22 ; some peculiarities respecting, 
 39 
 
 Calendar, alteration of by Pope Gregory 
 XIII, i, 188 
 
 Can, remarks on the word, i, 33 
 
 Cancels, how charged, ii, 223 
 
 Cannot and canst not, observations on 
 the words, i, 33 
 
 Canvas, different ways of spelling the 
 word, i, 13 n. 
 
 Capital letters, rules for their proper 
 employment, i, 174 183; none in 
 Hebrew, &c., 174 ; nothing else 
 formerly used by the Greeks and 
 Romans, #>.; their use entirely arbi- 
 trary, ib.] all nouns substantive for- 
 merly honored with, ib. 
 
 Cards, their various sizes and names, 
 ii, 202 
 
 Case, absolute, rules for its punctuation, 
 
 i, 128 
 Cases, plan of a pair of ordinary ones, 
 
 ii, 41 ; Poulter's combined, 152; pair 
 
 of Greek, 162-3; Hebrew, 169171; 
 
 Persi-Arabic, 182- 3 ; Music, 196-7 
 Caslon, William, the first typefounder 
 
 of eminence in England, ii, 25 
 Casting off copy, method of effecting, 
 
 ii, 223227 
 Caxton, the first English printer, ii, 11 ; 
 
 examination imo the claims of his 
 
 rivals, 12; his claim established, 20; 
 
 died in 1491, 24 
 Cedilla, its use explained, i, 171 
 Center, more analogous than centre, 
 
 i, 7 
 
 Chancery Bills, how charged, ii, 128 n. 
 Chapel, origin of the term, ii, 20 
 Check-book, plan of, ii, 54 
 Chinese, the earliest printers, ii, 4 
 Circulars, remarks on composing, ii, 
 
 200 
 Ck, as a termination, Dr. Webster's 
 
 dictum on the subject, i, 20; Dr. 
 
 Johnson's practice defended, 21-22 
 Clarendon, a kind of ornamental letter, 
 
 ii, 36 
 Clauses introduced by a conjunction, 
 
 how pointed, i, 123 
 Clef, an irregular spelling, i, 12 
 Clicker, his duties, ii, 48 tt seqq. 
 Clickership, what it is, ii, 45 
 Collective nouns, remarks on, ii, 252 ; 
 
 in French, 252 ; in Spanish, ib. 
 Colon, the rules for its application, i, 
 
 135138 ; its use in the Psalms, 138 
 Column matter, definition of and charge 
 
 for, ii, 128 
 Comma, the, rules for its use, i, 115 
 
 132 ; not required after contractions 
 
 in notes, 168 
 Commas, inverted, double, i, 152; 
 
 single, 153, 172; practice of Scotch 
 
 printers with regard to, 153; double, 
 
 not inverted, 172 
 
 Commissioners of Stamps, lists of recog- 
 nizances to be sent to periodically, 
 
 ii, 261 
 Companionships, method of working in, 
 
 ii, 45 et seqq. 
 
 Complement or attribute of a proposi- 
 tion, its explanation, i, 93 
 Composing, method to be adopted in, 
 
 ii, 42 et seqq. 
 
 Compound words, rules for their proper 
 formation, i,67 80 ; what constitutes 
 a compound word, 68; rules for as- 
 certaining what are, 74, &c. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 265 
 
 Consonant between two vowels, how 
 divided, i, 81 
 
 Consonants, mute, rarely doubled at 
 the end of a word, i, 18 ; sometimes 
 doubled before affixes of words, 
 sometimes not, 58 ; reasons for these 
 anomalies, 58 62 ; double, how di- 
 vided, 83 
 
 Contents, letter proper for, ii,223 
 
 Conversation matter, remarks thereon, 
 i, 154156 
 
 Copula of a proposition, what it is, i, 
 93 
 
 Copy, proper method of preparing, i, 
 241 
 
 Copy of everything printed, to be pre- 
 served, ii, 257 
 
 Correcting, symbols used in, i, 238; 
 mode of proceed ing in, ii, 55 
 
 Correctors of the press, ought to be 
 printers, i, 243 ; iheir qualifications, 
 ib. 
 
 Corsellis, supposed to have first practised 
 the art of prin ing in England, ii, 13 
 
 Coster, considered by some the tirst 
 printer, ii, 7 ; examination of his 
 claims, 710 
 
 Crystalize, better than crystallize, i, 
 56 
 
 Cycles, what they are, i, 192 
 
 D. 
 
 Dagesh, its use in Hebrew, ii, 166 ; in 
 Syriac, 175 
 
 Dash, or rule, sometimes used very 
 capriciously, i, 147 ; rules for its pro- 
 per employment, 147 151 ; some- 
 times used instead of the parenthesis, 
 149 ; does not dispense with the or- 
 dinary points, 148, 150 ; is commonly 
 used where there is an ellipsis of 
 the word namely, 150; a semicolon 
 may sometimes be substituted for 
 it, ib. ; is used after a side-head, &c., 
 
 Dates, in early-printed books, frequent- 
 ly erroneous, ii, 17 
 
 Day, accounted to begin at various 
 points by different nations, i, 187 
 
 Decimal point, observations thereon, 
 . i, 194 n. 
 
 Dedications, mode of composing, ii, 
 233 
 
 Defense, pretense, &c., remarks on, i, 
 40 
 
 Derivative and inflected words, how 
 formed, i, 5566 
 
 Diaeresis, its use explained, i, 170 
 
 Diaeresis letters, mostly unnecessary in 
 English, i, 31 ; in Greek words, ii, 160 
 
 Diamond, how charged, ii, 118 
 
 Diastole, explanation of the term, ii, 
 160 
 
 Dictionary matter, how charged, ii, 
 119 
 
 Digamma, explanation of the term, ii, 
 161 
 
 Diphthongs in the English language, 
 i, 30; in Greek words, ii, 160; ai 
 and oi become e in English deriva- 
 tive words, ii, 246; ou becomes w, 
 247 ; ei is rendered by i (sometimes 
 by r), >b. ; au and eu remain un- 
 changed, ib. 
 
 Dispatch or despatch, i, 40 
 
 Distributing, advice respecting, ii, 41 
 
 Divisions, bad, i, 85 
 
 Double letters, what they are, i, 17 
 
 Dullness, why preferable to dulness, 
 i, 63 
 
 l>ye, the word au anomaly, i, 8 
 
 E. 
 
 E as a vowel, the changes which it 
 undergoes as a final letter, i, 6 ; is 
 never omitted before a termination 
 beginning with a consonant, 55 ; but 
 is dropped before vowel terminations, 
 ib. ; except in two cases, 57; the only 
 letter with the acute accent in 
 French, 169 . 
 
 Echo, the, of elocutionists, punctua- 
 tion to be observed with regard to, i. 
 149 
 f, words ending in, i, 6 
 
 Egyptian, specimen of letter so called, 
 ii, 35 
 
 Eighteens, method of imposing, ii, 83 
 89 ; how charged, 120 
 
 Elisions of final vowels, varying prac- 
 tice of different languages with re- 
 gard to, i, 156158 ; English prac- 
 tice, 159 ; of i in the verb is, 160 ; of 
 e in the termination ed, rules re- 
 specting, 160162 
 
 Ellipsis of words and letters, various 
 ways of denoting, i, 166 
 
 En becomes cm before b and p, i, 26 
 
 English language, works in, how 
 charged, ii, 117 
 
 English words, their most usual deri- 
 vation, i, 46 
 
 Epochs, begun with a capital letter, i, 
 182; dates of various, 192 
 
 Er, as a termination, preferable to 
 re, i, 7 ; verbal nouns ending in, 37 
 
266 
 
 Errata, where to he placed, ii, 233 
 Excellence and ex- elltncy, i, 46 
 Exclamation, rules as to i's application, 
 i, 142 144; used in ironical sen- 
 tences, 142; wrong practice re- 
 specting, 143 
 
 Explanatory words, frequently put in 
 Italic, or single or double quotation- 
 marks, i, 153 
 
 F. 
 
 JF, the letter, its character, i, 11 ; why 
 it is generally doubled at the end of 
 words, 11, 62; why it is sometimes 
 not, 12 
 
 Farther and further, i, 53 
 
 Faust, John, a partner of Guttemberg, 
 ii, 7; prints ihe first Bible, 8; dies, 
 probably at Paris, 9 
 
 Ff., meaning of this contraction ex- 
 plained, ii, 211 
 
 Fines, &c., to be recovered by action of 
 debt, ii, 261 
 
 Finish, explanation of the term, ii, 
 137 
 
 Folio, meaning of the word, ii, 65; 
 method of imposing, 66 
 
 Foong-taon, the inventor of Chinese 
 printing, ii, 4 
 
 Foreign languages, works in, how 
 charged, ii, 118, 125 
 
 Foreign words and phrases, list of those 
 in common use, i, -213 229 
 
 Forms in the rack must be looked to 
 by the compositor, ii, 56 
 
 Forties, method of imposing, ii, 1 04 
 
 Fortyeights, method of imposing, ii, 104 
 108; mode of charging, 120 
 
 French, English words derived from 
 the, i, 48 
 
 French canon and 4-line pica, distinc- 
 tion between, ii, 33 
 
 Furniture, making up, ii, 52; further 
 remarks thereon, 110; table of, for 
 ordinary bookwork, 112; should be 
 cut to pica ems, 202 
 
 G. 
 
 G, its character as a final letter, i, 17 ; 
 never ends a word having its soft 
 sound, ib. ; but is invariably followed 
 by, 23; -so/',./, and x, never dou- 
 bled, 61 ; to what syllable attached in 
 affixes, 86 
 
 Galley, the, of what it consists, ii, 136 ; 
 how charged, 143 
 
 Gamma, is often rendered by n in 
 
 English derivative words, ii, 247 
 Gas, ought to be spelt gass, i, 13 n. 
 German principles of orthography, not 
 
 always applicable in English, i, 13 n. 
 Globe Tavern, Fleet Street, first seals 
 
 of prices adopted at, ii, 115 
 Grammars, spelling-books, &c., how 
 
 charged, ii, 119 
 
 Great primer, how charged, ii, 118 
 Greek, English words from the, i, 47 ; 
 
 how words derived from are divided, 
 
 89 ; how charged, ii, 124 
 Greek and Latin nouns in common 
 
 use, list of, with their plurals, ii, 242 
 
 246 
 Greek and other foreign alphabets (see 
 
 Alphabets) 
 Greek and other cases (see Cases, 
 
 Plans of) 
 Guttemberg, accused of purloining 
 
 Coster's type and presses, ii, 7 ; two 
 
 brothers, both called John, but the 
 
 elder distinguished by the surname 
 
 of Geinsfleisch, ib. ; monument on his 
 
 tomb at Mentz, 9-10 n. 
 
 H. 
 
 H, words commencing with silent, i, 25 
 Haerlem, its claims to be considered 
 the place where printing was in- 
 vented, ii, 7 
 
 Half-hour, half an hour, &c., obser- 
 vations thereon, i, 44 
 Hamza, what it is, ii, 180 
 Handbills, remarks on, ii, 201 
 Hands; newspaper, the various grades, 
 
 ii, 59 ct seq. 
 
 Headings, how charged, ii, 129 
 Head-lines, observations thereon, ii, 
 
 228 
 Horse-races, restriction on advertising 
 
 in certain cases, ii, 255 
 Hyphen, the, not absolutely necessary 
 in writing numbers, i, 77; remarks 
 on its general application, 163; 
 meaning of the word, ib. ; German 
 practice with regard to, ib. ; used in 
 place of the diuresis, 171 
 
 /, as a final vowel, i, 8 ; never ends a 
 pure English word, ib. ; its place oft 
 supplied by jy, ib. 
 
 Ic and iac, the terminations, i, 20 
 
INDEX. 
 
 267 
 
 Ible, termination, list of words ending 
 in, i, 37a 
 
 Im or in, as prefixes, i, 25; list of 
 words beginning with, 26 
 
 Impersonal verbs, passive, rules as to 
 their punctuation, i, 124 
 
 Imposing, general principles thereof, 
 with scheme', ii, 65 - 109 ; miscella- 
 neous observations thereon, 110 ; me- 
 thod of proceeding in, ib. 
 
 Imposition, compositor's scale of, ii, 53 
 
 Imprints to be placed on the first and 
 last page of every book, &c., ii, 256 
 
 In or im, as terminations, cause of the 
 various modes of spelling words in, ii, 
 249 
 
 In and im, as prefixes, i, 27 
 
 Indentions of second line in poetry, i, 
 166 
 
 Indexes, where placed, and letter 
 proper for, ii, 228 
 
 Indexes or indices, remarks on spelling 
 the word, ii, 243 n. 
 
 Inos, as a termination, rule for deter- 
 mining the quantity of, ii, 250 
 
 Insertions in author's proof, how 
 charged, ii, 132 
 
 Intercalary days explained, i, 188 
 
 Interlinear matter, method of charging 
 for, ii, 132 
 
 Interrogation, rules for its proper ap- 
 plication, i, 140 142; used but once 
 in a cumulative question, 140 ; not 
 employed where a question is only 
 stated to have been asked, 141 ; al- 
 ways used when the intention is to 
 evoke an answer > 6. ; Spanish prac- 
 tice respecting, 144, 158 
 
 Interrogative sentences, do not always 
 commence with a capital, i, 175 
 
 Intransitive verbs, their action cannot 
 fall on a direct object, unless of cog- 
 nate meaning, i, 108; may have in- 
 direct complements, 124 
 
 Inus, Dr. Adam's rule on the quantity 
 of, ii, 250 
 
 Ise and ize, as terminations, i, 31 ; list 
 of words ending in, 32 
 
 Ism and ist< as affixes, i, 65 
 
 Ize, remarks on words of this termina- 
 tion, i, 65 
 
 J. 
 
 ,7, its character as a final letter, i, 17 
 Jasm, its power explained, ii, 181 
 Jenson of Venice, invents Roman type, 
 
 ii, 11 
 Job-hand, requisites for, ii, 198 
 
 Jobbing, chapter on, ii, 198203 
 
 Jobs, how charged, ii, 125 
 
 Johnson, Dr., his presumed motives for 
 
 retaining the final ck, i, 21-22 
 Judgement, &c., more correct than 
 
 judgment, &c., i, 55 
 Justification, importance of good, ii, 
 
 44 
 
 K. 
 
 JT, unadvisedly displaced at the end of 
 many words, by modern printers, i, 
 19-20; not necessary before some 
 terminations, 22 ; but indispensable 
 in others, ib. 
 
 Kappa, becomes c in English, and is 
 sounded sometimes soft, sometime* 
 hard, ii, 248 
 
 as a final letter, i, 14 ; sometime* 
 repeated before affixes, and some- 
 times single, 63 ; the reasons for this, 
 64-66 
 
 Language, what it is, i, 92 
 
 Language, and similar words, remark 
 on, i, 17 n. 
 
 Latin, English words derived from the, 
 i, 47 ; rules for the division of words 
 from, 87 
 
 Law-books, list of contractions for, ii, 
 206218 
 
 Law- work, remarks on its peculiarities, 
 ii, 204-5 
 
 Ib. should never have an s after it, i, 
 197 n. 
 
 Leaded matter, how charged, ii, 117 
 
 Leaders, their use explained, i, 172 
 
 Leads, the proportions which they bear 
 to the various sizes of type, ii, 29 
 
 Let-in notes remarks on, ii, 231 
 
 Letter, making up, ii, 51 ; dividing, 64 
 
 Letters, sound-sustaining, in Greek and 
 French, i, 61 n. ; of various alpha- 
 bets, ii, 156192; some in Hebrew 
 cast broad, 164; table of similar, in 
 Hebrew, 168; in Syriac, 175; com- 
 pound in Devanagari, 188; similar 
 ones in German, how distinguished, 
 191; bill of, 221-2; changes which 
 some undergo in words derived from 
 the Greek, 246248 
 
 Lines per hour, number of, ii, 148-9 ; 
 per thousand, 150 
 
 Liquids, as final letters, i, 16 
 
 Literary men, seldom make good 
 readers, i, 243 
 
M. 
 
 M, the letter, i, 17 
 
 Maccaph, its use in Hebrew, ii, 166 
 
 Madda, how pronounced, ii, 180 
 
 Magazines, reviews, &c., take an extra 
 charge, ii, 120 
 
 Magistrates may mitigate penalties in 
 certain cases, ii, 258; two or more 
 may hear and determine offences, 
 261 ; their order not to be removed, ib. 
 
 Making up letter, remarks on, ii, 51 ; 
 furniture, 52 
 
 Mappik, explanation of its use, ii, 166 
 
 Margin, instructions for making, ii, 
 113, 229 : alterations of, how charged, 
 121 
 
 Martin, Mr., his reasons for rejecting 
 the letter k at the end of words, i, 20 
 
 Measure, method of making, ii, 228 
 
 Members of sentences, require some 
 point to part them from each other, 
 i, 130 
 
 Mentz, the place where printing was 
 first practised, ii, 9 
 
 Middleton, Dr., his opinion as to the 
 first English printer, ii, 12 
 
 Miscellanies, literary, i, 24 54; prac- 
 tical, ii, 219241 
 
 Modifying words and phrases, how 
 punctuated, i, 130 
 
 Money, stamped with some effigy in 
 very early ages, ii, 4 
 
 Monies, att(trnies,vaUies^ incorrect in 
 spelling, i, 29 
 
 Months, of different lengths and num- 
 ber, at different periods, i, 189 ; ex- 
 planation of names of, 190 ; table of 
 the months of various nations, 191 ; 
 names of. of the French republic, 
 192 
 
 Movable, debatable, &c., more correct 
 than moveable, &c., i, 56 
 
 Musical characters, their form and use, 
 ii, 193 etseq. 
 
 Mute consonant, its characteristics, i, 
 18; never properly doubled at the 
 end of a word, ib. 
 
 N. 
 
 ft, character of the letter, i, 16 
 Namely, that is, &c., rules for their 
 
 proper punctuation, i, 131 
 Names of places and persons, how they 
 ought to be written, i, 70 72 ; mis- 
 takes frequently made in, by trans- 
 lators, 251 ; list of, in various lan- 
 guages, 252269 
 
 News-hand, his qualifications, ii, 57 
 et seq. , 62 
 
 Newspapers,roui ine of practice thereon, 
 ii,61 et seq. ; definidon of the term, 
 259; their dimensions limited, 260 n ; 
 printers thereof to enter into a bond, 
 261 
 
 News-work, scale of prices for, ii, 135 
 
 Night-work, when to commence, and 
 how charged for, ii, 125 
 
 Notaiion, literal, i, 230 237 ; Roman, 
 230; Greek, 234; Hebrew, 236; 
 Arabic and Indian, 237 ; Syriac, ii, 
 172 
 
 Notes, best way of arranging short 
 ones, i, 167 ; French mode of arrang- 
 ing, objectionable, ib.', arranged 
 tombstone fashion, 168; charge for, 
 121 et seqq.\ struck out, ii, 132; 
 different kinds of, explained, 229 
 231 
 
 Nothing, anything, none, some one, 
 &c., i, 51 
 
 Notice, form of that to be given to the 
 clerk of the peace, ii, 257 
 
 Notice of leaving to be given by the 
 compositor, ii, 133 
 
 Nouns of weight, dimension, &c., i, 43 ; 
 substantive, sometimes become ad- 
 jectives, 72, 74; in apposition, how 
 pointed, 127 
 
 Numbers, however large, might all be 
 written as one word, i, 77 ; Latin and 
 Greek mode of writing, ib.; fractional, 
 should be written in separate words, 
 78 
 
 Numbers, weights, measures, &c., i, 52 
 
 0, as a final vowel, i, 9; formation of 
 
 the plural of nouns ending in, ib. 
 O or oe, words ending in, i, 9 
 O and oh, as interjections, i, 143 
 Octavo, method of imposing, ii, 71 75 
 O/, as connected with proper names, i t 
 
 180 
 Or or our, as terminations, i, 34 ; verbal 
 
 nouns in or, 36 
 Ordinals, two or more preceding a 
 
 n^un, i, 41 
 
 Orthography, English, its principles ex- 
 plained, i, 323, &c. ; a subject pe- 
 culiarly within the province of the 
 printer, 3; anomalous and bar- 
 barous, 4; radical changes therein 
 impracticable, ib. ; cannot, in prac- 
 tice, be reduced to phonetic princi- 
 ples, ib. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 269 
 
 Our, the termination, list of words 
 
 ending in, i, 35 
 
 Outline letter, example thereof, ii, 35 
 Overseer, value of a vigilant one, ii, 237 
 Oxford, p; inting in England supposed 
 
 by some to have been first practised 
 
 there, ii, 12 
 
 Pages, must be of equal length, ii, 55 ; 
 transpositions of, by whom to be 
 rectified, 57 ; facing and backing, 
 231 
 
 Paid, irregularity of the word, i, 10 n. 
 Pamphlets, meihod of charging, ii, 120 
 Paper, writing and priming, names and 
 
 sizes thereof, ii, 203 
 Parenthesis, why so called, and rules 
 for its proper application, i,144 146 ; 
 too many unadvisable, 145 ; practice 
 regarding, not uniform in all respects, 
 ib. 
 Parliamentary work, how charged, ii, 
 
 139 
 Participles and participial adjectives, 
 
 i, 76 
 Particulars of estates, how printed, ii, 
 
 200 
 
 Pease and peas, remarks on, i, 54 
 Pedigrees, how paid for, ii, 132 
 Period, or full-stop, when applied, i, 
 138; as a mark of comracvion, 139 
 Periodical publications, how charged, 
 
 ii, 141 
 
 Periodicals, to have the date of publi- 
 cation printed on every page, ii, 260 
 Personal pronouns referring to the 
 Deity, commence with a capital, i 
 176 
 Personifications, generally commence 
 
 with a capi al, i, 175 
 Pesh, or zamma, how pronounced, ii, 
 
 180 
 Phalanxes and sphinxes, met with in 
 
 good authors, ii, 245 n. 
 Phonetic spelling, iis advantages and 
 disadvaniages, i, 4; impossible in 
 English, ib. 
 
 Phrases, inverted, how pointed, i, 125 
 Pica, the standard size of type, ii, 29 
 Picking up type, hints on, ii, 42 
 Plural of words composed of a substan- 
 tive and an adjective, how formed, 
 i, 27-28; of nouns ending in y, 28- 
 29 ; of many Latin and Greek words 
 how formed, ii, 242 et scq. 
 Poetry, Latin and Greek, remarks on 
 i, 157; indention proper for, 166 
 
 first word in each line in, not always 
 begun with a capital, 183 ; in notes, 
 ii, 241 
 
 Points, foreigners generally insert a 
 space before all, except the full-point, 
 i, 158 ; two sometimes occur together, 
 in German and o;her languages, 
 159 n.; Greek, ii, 161 (see Punc- 
 tuation) 
 
 D ope, the, a proper name, i, 177 
 Position, standing, best for composing, 
 
 ii, 42 
 
 Possessives, double, i, 42 
 Pound, observations on the word, i, 
 43 n. ; German practice respecting 
 it, 44 
 Powers of quantities, how denoted, i, 
 
 195 
 Prefaces and introductions, proper 
 
 type for, ii, 233 
 Prefixes, words beginning with, how 
 
 divided, i, 84 
 Preliminary matter, how charged, ii, 
 
 131 ; how arranged, 232 
 Prepositions, before and after verbs, i, 49 
 Presses, various, ii, 27 
 Pressmen, answerable for their own 
 
 laches, ii, 57 
 
 Prices, regulated by scale of 1785, ii, 
 115; alterations made in, in 1793 and 
 1800, ib. ; advance to 5id. per 1,000 
 in 1805, ib. ; alterations made in, 
 in 1810, 116; country, 143 
 Printer, the ultimate arbiter of ortho- 
 graphy, i, 3 ; Guttemberg, the first, 
 ii,6 ; Caxton the first English, 11 et 
 seq.\ of a morning paper, his duties. 
 58 
 
 Printers, modern, have taken several 
 irrational and unwarrantable liber- 
 ties with orthography, i, 15; the 
 early, concealed their art as much 
 as possible, ii, 6, &c. 
 Printing from movable types, invented 
 in Germany, ii, 6 ; spreads with won- 
 derful rapidity, 1 1 ; somewhat re- 
 trogrades with its extension, 24; 
 revives after the war of the French 
 revolution, 24-25 
 
 Printing,block, invented by the Chinese, 
 ii, 4 ; description of the process, 5 ; 
 brought to Europe by Marco Polo, 
 ib. ; early practised in Italy, ib. 
 Printing-press and types, to be regis- 
 tered, ii, 255 
 
 Proof-sheet, marks used in correcting, 
 i, 238240 ; advice as to their em- 
 ployment, 241 ; mode of procedure 
 in reading, 244 ; various kinds of, 
 ii, 234 
 
270 
 
 Proper names, how compounded, 
 i, 70 ; the essential constituents 
 thereof, 177 ; sometimes made by 
 prefixing the article, 178 n.; French 
 mode of hyphening, 179 
 
 Propositions, what they are, i, 93; se- 
 veral may be condensed into one 
 affirmation, 100 ; their adjuncts, 104, 
 &c. ; inseparable subordinate, 109; 
 incidental, 111 n. ; two may some- 
 times be compared together without 
 the intervention of any point, 113 
 
 Punctuation, i, 90 151 ; often a great 
 stumbling-block, 90; cannot be ju- 
 diciously applied to incorrect writing, 
 ib. ; definidons of the term, 9092 ; 
 no infallible guide in, 92; symbols 
 used in, 97 ; authors need not trouble 
 themselves much about, 242 (see the 
 rarious point-marks) 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quantity, marks of, i, 169 
 
 Quarter Sessions, appeal may be made 
 to, ii, 258 
 
 Quarto, method of imposing, ii, 68 71 
 
 Questions, do not always require a note 
 of interrogation, i, 140; cumulative, 
 ib. 
 
 Quotation-marks, sometimes precede 
 the interrogation and the exclama- 
 tion, i, 141 ; remarks on their proper 
 application, 152 156 ; sometimes 
 used at the beginning of every line, 
 152 ; what space to be inserted before 
 and after, ii, 44, 235 
 
 Quotations, by what point preceded, i, 
 137 ; not always begun with a capital 
 letter, 183 
 
 R. 
 
 Raphe, what it is, ii, 166 
 
 Ratable, preferable to rateable, i, 56 
 
 Re, as a termination, often anomalous 
 
 and incorrect, i, 9, 39 
 Readers (see Correctors of the 
 
 Press) 
 Reading-boys, ought to read distinctly 
 
 and audibly, i, 244 
 Reference-marks, observations thereon, 
 
 i, 166 168 
 Reprints, reduced three farthings per 
 
 1,000 in 1816, ii, 116, 127; what are, 
 
 127 
 Ruby and smaller type, how charged, 
 
 ii, 118 
 
 Rules to be observed by compositors, ii' 
 
 237240 
 
 Rule-work, advice respecting, ii, 235 
 Ruse, Mr., his remarks on making 
 
 margin, ii, 113 
 
 S. 
 
 5, as a final letter, i, 12 ; its occasional 
 omission in the possessive case, 50; 
 sometimes retained in th _> formation 
 of compound words, euphonice gratid, 
 69 
 
 Sans-serif, specimen of letter so named, 
 ii, 35 
 
 Scale of prices for compositors' work, 
 ii, 114 145; the first adopted in 1785, 
 1 14 ; altered at various periods after- 
 wards, 115; fixed in 1810, ib.; finally 
 settled in 1847, 116; abstract thereof, 
 134 
 
 Schoeffer first succeeds in casting metal 
 type, ii, 8 
 
 Seals, impressions taken from in very 
 remote antiquity, ii, 4 
 
 Secondary accent, its effect, i, 58 
 
 Semicolon, rules for its proper applica- 
 tion, i, 132135 
 
 Semivowels, as final letters, i, 11 
 
 Seniences, their nature, i, 93 97, 98 
 114; compound, 95, Ii4; how punc- 
 tuated, 129 
 
 Seventytwos, method of imposing, ii, 
 109 
 
 ' Shall* and ' will,' rules for the proper 
 employment of, ii, 249 
 
 Sheet, definition of the term, ii, 120 
 
 Shj/ne#t 9 tlyne8S, why so spelt, i, 10 
 
 Side-notes, how char- ed, ii, 123 ; double, 
 mode of charging, ii).; best method of 
 composing, 230 
 
 Signatures, by whom invented, ii, 18 ; 
 where placed, 240 
 
 Signatures and folios, table of, i, 247 ; 
 help to the memory respecting, 249 
 
 Signs, mathematical, i, 193; botanical 
 and medical, 196 
 
 Singe and tinge, remarks on forming 
 the present participle of these words, 
 i, 57 n. 
 
 Sion or tion, as terminations of nouns 
 substantive, i, 38 
 
 Sixpence, ninepence, &c., i, 52 
 
 Sixteens, meihod of imposing, ii, 8183; 
 and smaller sizes, additional charge 
 for, 120 
 
 Sixtyfours, method of imposing, ii, 
 107-8 : how charged, 120 
 
 Skill, manipulatory, only to be ao- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 271 
 
 quired by practice and perseverance, 
 
 ii, 28 
 Slips, works sent out in, how charged, 
 
 ii, 132 
 Slyly, an incorrect mode of spelling 
 
 the word, i, 10 
 Small-sized folios, &c.,how charged, ii, 
 
 119 
 
 Soph-parak, its use explained, ii, 166 
 Spaces, between words, not anciently 
 
 used, i, 174 
 Spacing, instructions respecting, ii, 
 
 43 
 
 Spoonful, directions for forming the 
 plural of this and similar words, i, 28 
 Ss, ought to displace single s at the end 
 of many words, i, 13; remains be- 
 fore affixes of every kind, 66 11. 
 Stereotype, invented by W.Ged, a gold- 
 smith of Edinburgh, ii, 26; unsuc- 
 cessful in his endeavors to establish 
 it, ib. ; rediscovered by Mr. Tilloch, 
 ib. 
 Stereotyped matter, how charged, ii, 
 
 118 
 Style, old and new, what they are, i, 
 
 188 
 
 Subject of a proposition, explanation 
 of the term, i, 93 ; when three or 
 more follow in succession, how 
 pointed, 120 
 
 Substantives, sometimes become adjec- 
 tives, i, 72 c.t seqq. ; &c., in pairs, 
 not parted by a comma, 126 
 Succeed, precede, &c., i, 32 
 Sunday papers, wages on, ii, 135 
 Superior letters and figures, sometimes 
 
 used as reference-marks, i, 167 
 Supernumeraries on newspapers, ii, 59 
 Sureties, to be given by newspaper 
 printers, ii, 260 ; may withdraw from 
 their recognizances, 261 
 Syllabication, i, 81 89 ; practice of 
 
 English printers respecting, 81 
 Symbols, miscellaneous, used in print- 
 ing, i, 172; astronomical, algebraical 
 mathematical, botanical, medical 
 &c., 184-198 
 
 Syriac, observations on the alphabet 
 ii, 174 et seq. 
 
 T. 
 
 y, the letter, frequently interposed be 
 tween words in French, i, 61 n. 
 
 Table of prices of letters, from 10,00 
 to 50,000, ii, 146-7 
 
 Tables, the various columns of, shoul 
 be set in a distinct measure, ii, 236 
 
 'abular and Table-work, definition of 
 
 and charge for, ii, 129 
 Baking copy, observations thereon, ii, 
 50 
 
 "ale and talk, remark on, i, 19 n. 
 
 'an win, its effect when over a letter, 
 ii, 181 
 
 'ashdid, its properties explained, ii, 
 181 
 
 ^erminations of words, the changes 
 which they undergo, i, 55, &c. 
 
 Tit and the, words ending in, i, 8 
 
 1'heater, more consistent with analogy 
 than theatre, i, 7, 39 
 
 ?hirtytwos, method of imposing, ii ? 
 97100 ; how charged, 120 
 
 rhirtysixes, method of imposing, ii, 101 
 103 
 
 Thought, what constitutes one, i, 92 
 94 
 
 Three pence entitles to six pence charge. 
 
 ii, 117 
 
 Tilde, the, its meaning explained, i, 
 172 
 
 Time, and its divisions, i, 187 
 
 Cities, honorary, rules for capitalling, 
 i, 176 
 
 Titles of books, all important words in 
 are begun with a capital, i, 181 ; 
 how best set put, 182; double com- 
 mas ugly in, ib. 
 
 Title-pages, require taste and judge- 
 ment in their display, ii, 232 
 
 Trafficking, phu fticking, &c., reasons 
 for retention of the letter k, i, 21 
 
 Tranquilize, preferable to tranquillize, 
 i,65 
 
 Twelves, method of imposing, ii, 75 
 81 
 
 Twenties, method of imposing, ii, 90 
 
 Twentyfours, method of imposing, ii, 
 9196 
 
 Two-line letters, specimens and descrip- 
 tions of various, ii, 33 
 
 Type, at first wooden, then of pewter, 
 c., ii, 7 ; metal, first cast by Peter 
 Schoeffer, 8; Roman, first cut by 
 Jenson of Venice, 1 1 ; Italic, invented, 
 by Aldus, ib. ; Greek and Hebrew, at 
 Mentz, ib.', various sizes thereof ex- 
 plained, 29 33; table of relative 
 sizes thereof, 34; ornamental, speci- 
 mens of various, 35 38 ; on the mod* 
 of picking up, 42 
 
 Type-casting machines, of Nicholson, 
 Church, and Pouchee, ii, 26 
 
 Typefounders, the Dutch for a long 
 while the principal, ii, 25 
 
 Typography, definition of the term, ii, 
 3; practised, in some form, in the 
 
272 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 most remote antiquity, ib. (see 
 Printing) 
 
 Tyro, the, what ought to be his ac- 
 quirements, ii, 39 ; advice to, on 
 various subjects, 41 et seq. 
 
 U. 
 
 Under-runners, explanation of the 
 
 term, ii, 231 
 Upsilon, in Greek, is rendered by y in 
 
 English words, ii, 247 
 
 V. 
 
 Verb, the essential word in a sentence, 
 i, 94; no affirmation can be made 
 without, ib. ; none in French has 
 two direct complements, 109 n. 
 
 Verbs, their action conveyed to a re- 
 mote objec; by means of prepositions, 
 i, 106 ; seldom followed by two pre- 
 positions with their cases, without 
 the intervention of a comma, 107 ; 
 no two can enter in to one affirmation, 
 if independent, 125, &c. 
 
 Vowel-sound, no pure can begin a 
 syllable, i, 82 
 
 Vowels, their number and nature, i, 5 ; 
 Hebrew, ii, 165; Syriac, 175; Persi- 
 Arabic,180 
 
 Vying, more correct than vyeing, i, 8 
 
 W. 
 
 Wages, weekly, the earliest mode of 
 payment, ii, 114; establishment, 133 
 
 Wasla, cancels alif, ii, 181 
 
 Webster, Dr., his rule respecting final 
 fc, i, 20 
 
 Westminster Abbey, printing first prac- 
 tised in, in England, ii, 12, 20 
 
 Wherever, incorrect in spelling, i, 56 n. 
 
 White lines, should be uniform, and 
 set in quadrats, ii, 24 
 
 Wholely, observations on the word, i. 
 53 
 
 Willis, Dr., his opinion regarding the 
 first printer, ii, 6 
 
 Woodcuts, how paid for under certain 
 circumstances, ii, 133 
 
 Words, connecting, effect of their omis- 
 sion, in punctuation, i, 115; of the 
 same part of speech, how pointed, 
 127; in opposition to each other, how 
 pointed, 129; English, proportion 
 which they bear to the various sizes 
 of type, ii, 225 
 
 TFbr<s'/iipm<7,preferable to worshipping, 
 i, 58 
 
 Wrappers, how charged, ii, 130 
 
 Wynkyn de Worde, succeeds Caxton, ii, 
 24 
 
 Y. 
 
 r, the letter, its various character, i, 
 9 ; changed into i before all vowel 
 additions except i, 10 ; as also before 
 most consonants, ib. ; preceded by a 
 vowel, remains unchanged before all 
 terminations, ib. 
 
 Year, the, of different nations, i, 187; 
 Roman, &c., 188; of the Church of 
 Rome, 189 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zabar, or fatha, how pronounced, ii, 
 
 180 
 
 Zanssen, the proper name of Coster, ii, 7 
 Zer, or kasra, explanation of the term, 
 
 ii, 180 
 Zink, better orthography than zinc, i, 
 
 19 n. 
 
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