THE HISTORY or NATIONS COLONIES 5 ^ iS S ^ f, 2 ^ O Id h. S ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ c^ ^ ^ ^ ^ -H ^^ fct] oo < ^ ^ fcq Q tq *} s ^ &q ^ r fe] S; o ^ ^ s- O CO b g S ^ r^ S ^ r^ 5 ^ ^ 2 s <^ 05 1^ O o Co o CO -5 o -r ^ c^ :<;:;- THE HISTORY OF NATIONS HEMIY CABOT LODGE .Phn.LL.D.,EDITOR-lN-CHIEF COLONICS or THE WOPLD by EDWARD JAMES PAYNE MA Revised and Edited by PHILIP PATTERSON WELLSPh D Lecturer in History and Librarian of the Law School Yale University THE PHILIPPINES Under American Government JEREMIAH WHIPPLE JENK5 , Ph DUD Professor of Political Economy and Politics Cornell University Volume XX Illustrated The H .W. Snow and Son Company C h i c a 9' o Copyright, 1907, by JOHN D. MORRIS & COMPANY Copyright, 19] THE H. W. SNOW & SON COMPANY THE HISTORY OF NATIONS EDITOR-IN-CHIEF HENRY CABOT LODGE, PkD., LX.D. Associate Editors and Authors ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LL.D., Professor of Assyriology, Oxford Uni- versity SIR ROBERT K. DOUGLAS, Professor of Chinese, King's College, Lon- don CHRISTOPHER JOHNSTON, M.D.. Ph.D., Associate Professor of Oriental History and Archaeology, Johns Hopkins University C. W. C. OMAN, LL.D., Professor of History, Oxford University JEREMIAH WHIPPLE JENKS, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Political Economy and Pol- itics, Cornell University KANICHI ASAKAWA, Ph.D., Instructor in the History of Japanese CiviUzation, Yale University THEODOR MOMMSEN, Late Professor of Ancient History. Uni- versity of Berlin ARTHUR C. HOWLAND, Ph.D.. Etepartment of History, University of Penn- sylvania WILFRED HAROLD MUNRO, Ph.D., Professor of European History, Brown University G. MERCER ADAM, Historian and Editor FRED MORROW FLING, Ph.D., Professor of European History, Uni\ersity of Nebraska CHARLES MERIVALE, LL.D., Late Dean of Ely. formerly Lecturer in FRANCOIS AUGUSTE MARIE MIGNET. History, Cambridge University Late Member of the French Academy J. HIGGINSON CABOT, Ph.D., Department of History, Wellesley College JAMES WESTFALL THOMPSON, Ph.D., Department of History, University of Chicago SIR WILLIAM W. HUNTER, F.R.S., Late Director-General of Statistics in India SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., Professor of Modern History, King's Col- lege, London GEORGE M. DUTCHER, Ph.D., Professor of History, Wesleyan University R. W. JOYCE, LL.D.. Commissioner for the Publication of the Ancient Laws of Ireland ASSOCIATE EDITORS AND AUTHORS-Continued JUSTIN McCarthy, ll.d.. Author and Historian PAUL LOUIS LEGER, Professor of the Slav Languages, Ci two thousand years. Activity and en- terprise increase as wealth is accumulated; a sense of worth and a pride of race are developed which contribute greatly to social cohesion and political independence. We shall see later on how the English colonial type has distanced all the others, because it is the only case in which th.c ainiosphere of the New \W:)rUl wrought its natural results. In the ca-e of the Latin colonists adverse cir- 24 COLONIES OF THE WORLD cumstances for the most part prevented the growth of the true colonial character. Wherever the Spaniards went they found wealth already made for them: they had only to put out their hands and take it. The Spaniards rarely went beyond the limits of the civilization they supplanted, and never attempted, like the Teutonic colonists, to penetrate the wilderness. The Creole hidalgo, the great landowner of a Mexican or Peruvian town, lived a life even more stupid and monotonous than his countrymen of the same rank at home. He had no connection with the home country, and nothing to do with the government of that of his adoption; this was always kept in the hands of the native Spaniards, who came and went like birds of passage, as the English and Dutch still do in India. The West Indian planter and the American farmer had a constant commercial connection with England ; in Spanish Amer- ica there was no trade except what was carried on by a few Biscayan peddlers, who rambled up and down the country buying up what they could for the half-yearly fairs that were held at the ports. The idle hidalgo lived quite self-contained in the midst of his huge estate, his house surrounded by the huts of his Indian and half-breed serfs or peons. Some of these tended his great herds of wild oxen and horses; others dug in the hillsides for silver, or sullenly cultivated patches of maize or potatoes, while their wives spun coarse cotton and woolen stuffs, and plaited the prairie grass into broad hats to keep oil the burning sun. Some- times he rode in the cool time of the day, and even indulged in the delights of the chase; more often he was borne out in a palanquin by his negroes. Spanish colonial life was organized idleness; that of the English and Dutch had a real object. Farther east from the abode of the Mexican hidalgo, in the English colony of Vir- ginia, as early as the time of Charles I., a very different life might have been seen. Here the eye, v\-andering about Jamestown and up and down the valley of the James River, would have rested every- wliere upon large or small plantations, dotting the wilderness on every side. Traders' stores and warehouses lined the quay, to receive the tobacco and corn which poured into the capital ; tlie port was crowded with ships from New England, from London. and Amsterdam. All was organized activity ; the very Indians and negroes had caught tlic spirit. There would have been signs of a strong political life, lliougli at this time most of the people would have been Royalists. Jamestown would have been a copy OLD EUROPE AND NEW EUROPE 25 of Bristol or Southampton, just as the ^lexican estancia was a copy of a CastiHan country seat. If we bear in mind all through this history these two types of the Mexican hidalgo and the Vir- ginian tobacco-planter we shall find it very much easier to under- stand. These are the leading types in colonial history, and the others group themselves naturally around and between them. The Canadian seigneur, with his faithful peasantry, settling down in the pine woods of Quebec, comes nearer the former type; so does the Portuguese nobleman, selling his paternal estate to some ad- venturer from the East, and buying of his sovereign a vast fief on the Brazilian coast, chiefly tropical forest, with perhaps a few sugar patches dotting the swamps below. The Teutonic colonial type is more varied. There may seem to be little in common be- tween the sugar-maker of Barbados, the indigo-planter of Ja- maica, the mahogany-lumberer of Honduras, the smuggler of Cura(^ao, the Boer of the Cape, the sheep-farming squatter of Australia, and the gold-seeker of British Columbia ; but in all of these we shall find the same determined activity and independence, the same rough but effectual power of combination, and the same instinctive repulsion from the lower human types which surround them. The native weakness of the Latin type and the native strength of the Teutonic have had another remarkable result which became of great importance as soon as the epoch of political inde- pendence was reached. Priests and soldiers play a considerable part in European medireval history. Xow we shall find as we go on that the clerical and military elements have been transplanted to nearly all the Latin communities in the New World, where they have grown and flourished like baneful parasites, while in the Teutonic communities they were at first entirely wanting, and could only be created with difticulty when the need came. Li oNIexico, to add another touch to our contrast of types, there were bishops, priests, and monks all over the country, endowed not only with tithes, but with vast landed properties, and by far the most power- ful people in the community. In Virginia clergymen were so scarce that a bounty was ofl'ercd for their importation. Yet there is no reason to think that Teutonic colonists have, as a body, been less Christian-like and God-fearing than the Latin. On the contrary, wherever they go they have striven to carry their church with them, whereas the Latin colonists have of late years been in many places shaking off their church as an oppressive and intolerable S6 COLONIES OF THE WORLD burden. Few things in modern history are more remarkable than the way in which the Protestant Church of England has spread all over the English colonial world. It has not indeed done such great things in civilizing the native races as the Roman Catholic Church has done through its devoted religious orders; but, on the other hand, it has not furnished an element of disturbance and reaction, like the selfish secular clergy of Spanish America. The history of the church in North America, and in all the British colonies and possessions, is one of great interest and importance, though we shall be able to say but little about it. It must always be borne in mind that the Church of England has done much to raise the character of new colonial communities, especially in the case of the Australian convict settlements. In one respect the nations of the new Europe beyond seas differed very greatly from those of the old. During the Middle Ages nearly all the European nations freely communicated and interchanged ideas with each other; and five hundred years ago no European would have found himself altogether a stranger in neighboring lands, wherever he might go. But about the time of the first growth of new Europe, this condition of things was passing away, and, except in the case of one or two commercial nations, the bonds of the old European life were becoming relaxed. This isolation was transferred by commercial policy to the new Europe; all the colonial nations of the Old World sought, as we have seen, to keep their colonies to themselves. The effect of this was to check even the communication between each mother country and its own colonies, and nothing is more surprising to a reader of the present day when he comes to the epoch of independence, a hundred years ago, than to see how utterly ignorant the people of the old Europe in general were of the social conditions and forces which prevailed in the new. It is impossible to suppose that either English statesmen or the Spanisli would have adopted the policy which they did adopt toward America, if they had possessed any real knowledge of the subject. As much can be said for tlie Frencli intervention in Mexico under Napoleon III. Of late years there has been a great change. Communication be- tween the chief parts of the old and the new Europe is now rapid and frequent; the people of both are always going to and fro among each other, and their knowledge of each other is greatly increased. It is easier for an l^nglishman of the present day to OLD EUROPE AND NEW EUROPE 27 g-o all round the world than a hundred years ago it was for him to go to Italy; and a journey from America to London is now a less formidable undertaking than one from Scotland to Lon- don was a hundred years ago. Nc^wadays travelers may go wherever they please; but it is not long since the famous man of science, Humboldt, was forbidden to enter Brazil upon pain of death, and less than forty years ago things were almost as bad in Paraguay. In the present state of constant communication be- tween the new Europe and the old, it is difficult for us to realize the great isolation of the old colonies from each other and from the mother countries. This isolation wrought different effects in the two great colonial families. In the Latin colonies, it contributed to their degradation ; for it left them more and more at the mercy of officials and ecclesiastics, and thus enhanced the effect of that combination of tyranny, bigotry, and monopol3\ by which they were governed. In the English colonies this isolation was less complete ; the colonies were already possessed of a stock of ideas which they never quitted, and these ideas flourished and spread, tending to keep alive the same ideas in the Old W^orld ; and in the case of Pennsylvania the most liberal principles of which the Old World was then capable were at once transferred to and put in force in the New. The difference which we have just noticed has completely disappeared with the establishment of free communication be- tween the new and the old Euroi)e since the epoch of independence. I^he old barriers have been all broken down, and all over the Xew W^orld European ideas grow faster, if they do not flourish better, than they have done in the old soil. In this the English Ameri- can colonies led the way. In the Xew World it takes much less time to mature an idea and put it into execution than in the Old, and consequently America has grown more in a hun- dred years than ]un"ope in a thousand. r)Oth in the Latin and the Teutonic colonies there are of course facilities for carrying out refonus which do not exist in the old Europe. Habits of life are not so stereotyped ; the scene is not ovcrshadcnved by a gigantic past which it is impossible to get rid of; there is everywhere a youthfulness, a singleness, and a force which is missed in the old Europe. The Old World is ever being repaired out of the forces of the Xew. Even in l^igland some famous legal and po- litical reforms have only been adopted since they have been tried 28 COLONIES OF THE WORLD in Australia; two famous laws of the greatest importance to the poor man, that which gives him a vote, and that which enables him to buy a piece of land without expense or formality, have come to England from the New World. In Australia public executions, which had so long been a scandal at home, were first abolished, and the example was at once followed in England ; and there are very many other matters which prove how much quicker of growth all ideas of improvement, whether on a great or a small scale, are in the new Europe than in the old. In the chapters which follow we shall mainly trace the fall of one form of colonization and the rise of another. This change, as we shall see, has several phases. We shall see that the chief Latin type, that of an idle landowning settler, emigrating only for the purpose of subsisting uselessly on the produce of the New World, fails altogether. The wisest policy in the world could not have made a colonial empire flourish wherever this type abounded. A community made up of people of this kind without energy and enterprise cannot l^ut fall out of the race. The successful colonist must in some way or other contribute to the general stock of the world's riches ; he must send home sugar, cotton, wool, hides, timber, or some other product of labor, making himself and the community to which he belongs to flourish by the return of some- thing in exchange. We shall see that the Spanish and Portuguese in the New World are beginning to shake off their old character. Again, we shall trace the failure of schemes for putting the profits of the New World on a large scale into the hands of a few people sitting quietly at home in the Old. We shall see that shortly after the settlement of the New World many joint-stock companies be- gan to be formed, by which it was expected that the capitalists of old Europe would engross the profits made in the new. This did very well, at least for a time, in the East; but it would not do where nearly everything depended on the laborer, and very little indeed on the capitalist. The filiation of clever ideas of this kind may be traced from the subtle merchants of Holland, through Law, the l^^ranco-Scotchman, down to AA^akefield and others in our own time. In enterprise, then, we shall see that the laborer in the colonies has, on tlie whole, prevailed over the capitalist at home. The great bulk of the riches gained through the Nevv* World has been gained by honest individual enterprise; and the failure of the system of commercial colony companies has been as OLD EUROPE AND NEW EUROPE 29 complete as that of Latin colonization in its old mediaeval form. Lastly, we shall see that all the colonies in the end adapt themselves to the model of those which are most a copy of the old country, and are least interfered with by the old countiy, namely the Eng-- lish. The rapid growth of the English colonial communities, while nearly all the rest of the world were standing still, proved that the English had hit upon the true form of colonization. Thus for three centuries the new Europe had been finding out: (i) that a colony was essentially a working place, not an idling place; (2) that its prosperity was an affair of busy individual thought and labor, not capable of being worked out like a machine by some distant force; (3) that it could not go on without having a cer- tain liberty of action and freedom from meddling interference. The pursuit of these principles in t'ne English colonies had greatly helped to raise England above all her continental rivals ; and in the middle of the eighteentii century, just as the whole world was beginning to see how great her colonial empire was, and what unbounded prospects lay open to her through it, a great war-min- ister wielded her powers of offense so dexterously that slie ruined France, her chief rival, both in the East and West, and tlius won a fresh vantage-ground for the colonial type she had produced. We shall see how for a short time ( 17^>3-I775) it seemed as if the destinies of tlie whole nevv* Europe (for Spain and Portugal could not long have resisted the united force of England and her colonies) would be linked forever with England alone. But this prospect, the most brilliant perhaps that ever dazzled any nation of the earth, was blasted by the folly of her statesmen, and ihe great colonial power fell asunder into two parts, one having its seat in the Old World, and tlie otiier in the Xew. Notwithstanding tliis, the work was done. Tiie jviighsh type, tliough its eff'ective power was impaired by division, eclipsed all others; iuid perh.aps it will be found in tl;e en the Navigator, though he took no part in them himself; but lie had deeply studied the science of astronomv, and he labored hard to extend and apply it. It is to him, in fact, that the world owes both PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH 35 1450-1580 Vasco and Columbus. Under his directions larger and stouter ships were built and equipped ; an observatory was built at Sagres, on the coast, the astrolabe was perfected, and the compass, which had been discovered many years before, first became useful in steering. At the time of his death, in 1460, the ships of the King of Portugal had doubled Cape Bojador and Cape Verde ; they had explored the coast as far as Sierra Leone ; and Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands had been discovered, and partly settled. For Prince Pl-enry was not a mere man of science. He at once saw in these newfound lands in the south a field for European enterprise. Under his directions the great forests of Madeira were set on fire, and the soil was made ready for the vines of Burgundy and the sugar-canes of Sicily. The island was di- vided, after the system of the times, into two great fiefs. A tenth of its produce was set apart for the king, another tenth for the clergy, and the rest, according to a primitive contract common in the yUd- dle Ages, was divided equally between the landowner and the culti- vator. Vv^e see that the ideas which the Portuguese carried with them were strictly those of medieval Europe. So it was in regard to the trade for gold and slaves begun unrler this prince's auspices with Guinea. The traffic with Africa, like that of the ]\Ioors themselves, and like the traffic subsequently with India, was half piracy, half commerce. It was from the first a royal monopoly, and was carried on exclusively in the king's ships. But both ships and commerce were often farmed out to adventurers; and the Portuguese trade was thus saved from the officialism which strangled that of Spain. It was not until twenty-six years after the death of Prince Henry tliat tlie Portuguese sailors reached the great southern cape, w]iich tliey called at iirst the Cape of Storms, but which was afterward known as the Cape of Good Hope. The progress of navigation was slow, but it was seconded by a wise policy at hcimc. I'he kings of Portrigal encouraged science and trade ; Portugal became a commercial nation ; Coimbra. the old capital city, was soon forsaken for the rising seaport of Lisbon ; and John II. allowed all nations to come there and buy the prod- uce of the African trade. Castile, which had come lately into possession nf the ports of Seville and Cadiz, was nut likel\' to remain inactive in the midst of her neiglihor's succcssc:^. Though the Caslilians were inferior navigators, the science and practical skill of Italians were always 36 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1450-1580 at their command, and their vessels closely followed those of Por- tugal, and disputed whenever they could the right to their dis- coveries. Castilian ships, perhaps, were the first to touch at the Canaries, though the priority was questioned, and, in 1479, the rival claims of the two nations were settled by treaty : Portugal kept Guinea and most of the islands, and the Castilians were con- tent with the Canaries. They carried thither the Rhenish grape, which had been already tried and approved at Cadiz, and the Canary wine soon became famous. When the crowns of Castile and Aragon were ' united under Ferdinand and Isabella, and the conquest of the ]\Ioors had been completed by the conquest of mRTMMIAM*S l^IAPOFT -*^ 14-92. Granada, Spain at once took rank as a formidable European power. Ferdinand was a politic prince, and his jealousy was moved by the continual advances of the Portuguese. These latter were now on the point of reaching the Indian Ocean. Every year saw their ships belter built and equipped, and their captains more adven- turous, and the counselors of Ferdinand and Isabella resolved to try a cliance of cutting short the rivalry. Columbus, a clever and learned Genoese, who had been long in the Portuguese service, had convinced himself that this long, perilous, and as yet uncertain circumnavigation of Africa miglit be avoided, and the voyage to India quickly accomplished, by sailing due west, and thus com- ing upon the shores of the East from the other side. If we look at a niap of the world of his times, v;e shall see, indeed, two hemispheres, but only one continent, divided equally PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH 37 1450-1580 between the two. The Indies occupied a vast space in the eyes of mankind; and the great question was, how to get at them. The recent voyages of the Portuguese had greatly changed the map of the world. It had been always supposed that Africa ended at the equator; but these voyages had shown that this was a mis- take, and that the way to India was much longer and more dan- gerous than had been expected. Hence the bold idea of Columbus. Common sense, we should tiow say, would have suggested what he did. But maps were in those day among the mysteries of the learned ; and it is hard at all times to lift human progress out of the beaten track. The way by the coast was thought to be sure, though slow, and all experienced men looked upon Columbus as a visionary. But Columbus pondered on his map, and resolved to execute the idea which filled his mind. He visited several European courts to beg their sovereigns to equip a sufficient expedition. The sover- eigns of France and England would have nothing to do with him ; and it was not without long hesitation that Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain closed with his offer. They furnished him with three ships, and on August 3, 1492, the first expedition of Euro- peans sailed westward from the little port of Palos in Andalucia, knowing nothing of tlieir destination save the vague names of India and Cathay. Three generations of Europeans had been toiling their way to the Cape of Good Hope; Columbus aimed at outstripping tliem by a single bold venture. He knew that he was nowhere likel}^ to suffer worse dangers than on the African coast, and that he was sure to reach ]ndia sooner or later if he could sail westward without mishap or obstacle. On October i his dar- ing and perseverance were rewarded by reaching land. It was only one of the Bahama Islands, but he jnished his inquiries fur- ther, and visited the Island of llayti, which he named Espahola, or Little Spain. ^ Its fertility, if not its wealth, confirmed him in. the supposition that he had readied one of the finest islands of tlie wealthy Indies. Here he procured gold, and planted a colmy; and before he returned to Spain he had visi<:ed the Windward group, and gained a general idea of the \\'cst India Islands. But he as yet never suspected tliat a vast continent lay between him and the Indies of which he was in '-earcli. He returned to the port of Seville; and was recei\-c(l wiili grca.t joy by tlie court at Barce- lona. The Pope confirmed tlie S])ani-h UKMiarcIis in their new possessions; and Colrirnldas \'.;is sent on a scco;ul vovage with '' riu' Tiic:ini'.\i^ (if F.vn.-'.rinki i-> " Spanish, "" /. ,. tlic Spanish Island. 38 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1450-1580 seventeen vessels and 1 500 men. This time he arrived at the island of Dominica. He completed the conquest of Hayti, and built a fort to command the mines of Cibao; but he returned to Spain without having added very much to the discoveries of his first voyage. On his third voyage he determined to try to reach the real India by standing to the south. In this way he came upon Trinidad and the mouth of the Orinoco; and this vast river convinced him that he had at length reached the mainland. He proceeded thence once more to Espafiola ; but by this time the intrigues of the enemies whom his successes had raised up had done their work. A com- missioner was sent out to inquire into the charges aginst him, and he sent the great Columbus back to Spain in irons. He was never restored to the government of his colony, but he was allowed to make another voyage to seek the way to the real India, in which he of course failed. Meanwhile, the mines of Espafiola were being worked by the forced labor of the natives, and the Spaniards were confirmed in their notion that the destiny of the New World was merely to furnish plenty of the precious metals to Europe. While the Portuguese sailors were pushing their way league by league round the coast, sagacious eyes watched their progress at home, and when the Cape of Good Hope was reached it was time to prepare for the great day when they would reach the shores of India. John II. dispatched thither two adventurous young men, named Covilhao and Paiva, in order that the Portu- guese captains might know what to look for when they got there. \\'e can scarcely realize the hazard and romance that attached to this journey less than four centuries ago. The land to be traversed was in the hands of fanatical Alohammedans. Few Jews, and fewer Christians, had ever returned from seeing the Eastern Ocean, and the monarclis who reigned on its shores were the heroes of strange legends, which came to European ears only through the ^^loors of Egypt and Tunis. The two pioneers took ship for Alexandria, and sailed up the Nile to Cairo, where they joined a caravan for Aden, Here they parted, Paiva to explore westward, Covilliao eastward. The fate of Paiva was never known ; he prol)a]jly i:icrished in an attempt to penetrate the interior of Africa. Covilliao sailed for India. He visited Cochin, Cananor, Calicut, and Goa, returned to Aden, and sent dispatches thence which readied Lisbon in time to serve as a guide to the great navi- gator who first brought a European vessel to an Indian port. He PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH 39 1450-1580 then went to Abyssinia, and visited the court of the Negus, a Chris- tian potentate formerly well known to the Western world by the name of Prester John, wlience he never returned; but long before he died he must have learned that his countrymen had not only reached India, but won there a great dominion, and possessed themselves of the most flourishing commerce in the w-orld. Vasco da Gama sailed July icS, 1497, soon after receiving the report of Covilhao. He doubled the Cape of Good Hope, fulfilling at last the presage of its name, and after enduring many dangers in those unknown seas, arrived at length at Calicut, after a voyage of thir- teen months. This feat was incomparably more difficult and haz- ardous than that of Columbus, who reached the West Indies in about two months : and Columbus \vith his mutinous crew and slight resources would probably have turned back before he had accomplished a tenth part of the voyage. Nor did the discoveries of Columbus produce to Spain results at all to be compared with those which Portugal attained through that of Vasco. The West Indies had been reached by the Span- iards, but their inhabitants were savages, and nothing was as yet known of the two great aboriginal nations of ^Mexico and Peru. But the Portuguese had touched the rich civilization of the great East, with which Europe and Western Asia had traded from time immemorial. The joy and expectation which Vasco's return excited at Lisbon were unlimited. New expeditions were sent out, and now commenced that military subjection of the East to the West, established not for territorial dominion, but for the pur- pose of trade, wliich continues undiminished in our own times. Clad in armor, armed with firelocks, and already well practiced in the arts of conquest by a hundred years' experience of Africa, the Portuguese settled witliout much resistance wherever they pleased on the Indian coasts. At this time, and for long afterward, we must remember that, excepting luu'ope, whenever we speak of a country, we speak principally of its seaboard. The peninsula of India, so lately as a century ago, was sc;ircely known except by the names of the Malab;tr or \\'cstcrn Coast, and the Coromandel, or Eastern. The petty sovereigns of these coasts, oppressed by their lords in the interior, allied themselves with the newcomers, and acknowledged themselves vassals of Emmanuel the Great. The maritime Alohammcdan,^ of the l^ast, whom the newcomer-^ al>o called -Moors, were neither so rich, nor so united as those of tljc 40 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1450-1580 West, and the nevrcomers knew how to deal with them. Many entered the Portuguese service as pilots and sailors, and those who opposed them could make no effectual resistance. The Portuguese were soon lords of the chief ports of India. In the king's name they bought the merchandise of India, and shipped it to Lisbon, whither the barks of other nations now found their way, and where the stuffs, spices, and precious stones and woods of India were sold much cheaper than they could be sold in Venice, after they had borne the cost of land-carriage and trans-shipment, and the ar- bitrary customs duties of Egypt and Asia Minor. This splendid commercial conquest was of course in its very nature but a tem- porary thing. A small nation like Portugal could scarcely expect to keep so vast an acquisition. But it is clear that the Portuguese might have kept it longer, if they had had a succession of able and honest officers on the spot, and a sound and fixed policy at home. We have said that the colonization of the Spainards and Portuguese belongs to the Middle Ages. The Portuguese in their new pursuits followed closely a famous European model. The Republic of Venice, whose trade they were supplanting, had pur- sued commerce as its chief object, and the attention of the Por- tuguese was turned in the same direction. Colonization, in our modern sense, was not thought of. The coast of South Africa did not stay tliem on their course, and the shores of Asia were already well peopled. Even had they been empty and under a more temperate sky, the mailed vassals of Emmanuel would have been little disposed to settle and drive the plow there, as Englishmen have done in America and Australia. Nor were there rich mines, as in Spanish America, which only awaited the enforced toil of natives or African negroes to yield an inexhaustible supply of treasure. What offered was an existing trade, and it v/as the ricli- est trade in the work!. The Portuguese took the trade and were content. The nation which had taken three generations to toil round the coast of Africa was not a people of new ideas. They knew of but one commercial system to be followed as a model, but that was the greatest and the most successful in Europe, and it was in the zenitli of its glory. Venice carried on much of its vast trade through its foreign possessions or colonics tln-ough Cyprus, Crete, luibcjca, and the Alorca, and the numerous settlements which fringed the yEgcan Sea. 1'h.c colonial s}stcm of Venice was near PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH 41 1450-1580 Upon five hundred years old, and it had been successful, though the hard government of the Republic is proved by the many revolts against it. Each of its colonies had its governor or vice-doge, who was not allowed to hold his office more than two years. He was assisted by a council of noble Venetians, and by some other officials; but the people of the place were allowed no share in the government. The same system was applied by the Portuguese to India, and a viceroy was appointed, for a term of three years, to exercise the authority of the crown over its new vassals, and to direct and extend the trade which was carried on in its name with Lisbon. The first viceroy, Almeida, a nobleman of Emmanuel's court, w^as sent out in 1505. He was an able administrator; but it is to the talents of his successor, Albuquerque, that the establish- ment of the Portuguese dominion is chiefly due. Under Almeida the Portuguese settled in Ceylon, but it was not until 15 18 that they were strong enough there to obtain the monopoly of its fine cinnamon, the finest spice which the earth produces. The harbor of Calicut, the commercial capital of the Malabar coast, was scarcely accessible to the great vessels of the Portu- guese; and the first thoughts of the new viceroy were given to the selection of a new" port, to be a center for the commerce of the Indies. A happy chance made him master of Goa, a strong mili- tary position, and one of the best harbors in the world. For nearly a century the commerce of the East with Europe went forth from this port to Lisbon. A great loss fell upon the Italian re- publics, and upon Egypt and Turkey. /Vlexandria, with Aleppo and Trebizond in the ILast, Venice, with Augsburg and Nuremberg in the West, were almost forsaken. Lisl.on received the treasures of the East, and dispensed them to Enrojie throiigh the port of Antwerp, which became so [lironged \vit!i goods and merchants that it was necessary in 15 ^''> to pull dcwa its walls and enlarge it. It was not likely that c Ulier V^cnice or Egypt would tamely submit to this grand rcvolnlicn in, commerce. The Sultan of Egypt. wh(j levied a cnst( ni of five por cent, upon all merchandise that entered liis dominions, vaio. of ten ])er cent, more upon all that quitted tiicm, soon I'dt a frilling oft' in his revenues. He rep- resented to Venice tlic necessity of dis])nting the Indian Sea with the newcomers. Tlic 1\C(1 Sea lias no wood for shipbuilding, but the Venetians iiroui^lit- \voo,(l to Cairc\ which was carried by camels to Suez, and Suez in 1508 had ready a small fleet to resist the new- 4^ COLONIES OF THE W O R E D 1450-1580 comers. The wise Portuguese had foreseen this, and had ah-eady taken measures to secure the mastery of the Red Sea. But the Egyptian vessels made their way into the Indian Ocean, and, joined with those of the Moors of India, gave the Portuguese so much trouble that Albuquerque thought of putting an end to the matter by destroying the port of Suez. His vessels, however, retreated, unable to encounter the difficult navigation of the Red Sea, and Albuquerque bethought him of another plan, which was nothing less than that the African vassals and allies of Portugal should turn the Nile into the Red Sea, so as to lay Egypt desert. The conquest of Egypt by the Turks under Selim I. in 1516 re- moved all danger for the present on the side of Egypt, and in the meantime Albuquerque greatly strengthened the Portuguese po- sition by making himself master of the Persian Gulf. Ormuz, a town occupied by a mixed race of Mohammedan traders, and tributary to Persia, was the mart for the trade of Persia and India. Albuquerque reduced it, and when the Shah of Persia sent to demand tribute of him, he sent him cannon-balls and grenades. Flushed with his successes, he now turned his attention to the Eastern Seas, and cast longing eyes on the great port of Alalacca. Outrages committed upon his spies by the Malays, already forewarned of the coming danger through the Moors, afforded him a ready pretext. Malacca was taken by storm in 151 1, and the kings of Siam and Pegu at once submitted and offered him their commerce. Nor did Albuquerque rest until he liad established the Portuguese empire in the utmost limits of the Old World, and a power which half a century before had been scarcely heard of in Europe had become supreme on all the coasts of iVfrica and Asia. The most profitable of all the Eastern trades was that in the spices of the Moluccas, especially in nutmegs and mace, the taste for vvhich had rapidly spread in the Middle Ages from India and Persia throughout Europe. Following every- where the footsteps of tlie Arab traders, the Portuguese, under the viceroy's directions, established themselves at Ternat and Tidore. 'J'hese unexampled successes earned him the jealousy of Emmanuel, and he died at Goa, poor and in disgrace, 1515. Al- buquerque was not merely a great conqueror. He was a just and humane governor ; and long after his death the poor Hindoos of- fered prayers at liis tomb against the injustice of his successors. While the Portuguese, enkindled with the hope of gain and the PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH 43 1450-1580 old hatred of Mohammedanism, were everywhere thrusting the Arabs from the commerce of the East, the Spaniards were but beginning to discover the extent and character of their new pos- sessions. As soon as tlie nature of their explorations was known, the Pope, assuming to exercise the same feudal authority which he claimed in Europe, limited his grant to Portugal to the meridian of lOO degrees west of the Azores, all west of this line being conceded to Spain (1493). But in 1494 the two powers revised the boun- dary by the treaty of Tordesillas, fixing the demarcation line at 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. As Cabral, a Portu- guese, on the Indian voyage, was making his way round Africa, he stood out to sea more than usual to avoid the calms which were encountered on the coast, and he thus fell on the shore of Brazil, of which he took possession, in 1500, claiming it under the treaty. Portugal claimed the new-found coast, for though a Span- iard named Pinzon had previously touched there, it clearly had no connection with the Spanish Indies. Thus America was as it were a second time discovered, and this time by an accident. A treaty was made, by which the possessions of Portugal were limited to the coast south of the Amazon River, and the Spaniards confined themselves to their old possessions, which they now began to explore more narrowly. Espanola was already taken, and be- tween the years 1508 and 15 10 they occupied the other Great Antilles, Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica. In the meantime the continent northward of the bay was gradually explored, and in- telligence gained of the ^Mexicans, a nation which had made some advances in wealth and civilization. The prosperity of ]\Iexico was chiefly due to the cultivation of maize or Indian corn; but the eyes of the Spaniards saw nothing in it but a display of gold and silver. They cared nothing for peaceful commerce, and they at once set about making a complete conquest. The population was collected in towns and villages, and easily overpowered by one or two desperate efi^orts. W'itli the aid of the neighboring nation of the Tlascalans, Ferdinand Cortez made himself master of ^Mex- ico. 1519-1521. ^klncli has been written of the cruelty and perfidy with which this conquest was carried out; but cruelty and perfidy were then very common in EtuMpe, and the conquests of Cortez certainly relieved the Mexicans from an antiquated and oppressive government, and ivom a cruel and senseless religion. Htc con- quest of Mexico was followed by many settlements on the coast, 44i COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1450-1580 where there were convenient harbors, and in this way were founded the towns of Cumana, Porto Bello, Carthagena, Vera Cruz, and many others. In the meantime Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa had made a great discovery. He sailed round Cuba, conquered it, and left it, finding it poor in gold and silver. He then followed SPANISH AMERICA-^ the track of Columbns to Darien. He crossed the Lsthmns and discovered tb.e ocean beyond, which from its contrast with the stormy Atlantic was called the I'acific.^ Cruising about on its coasts, ever incjuiring for gold and silver, the Spaniards learned that far south there was a land where they might have as much of either as they pleased. This land was Peru, like Alexico, a state 2 This Pacific Ocean was first so called by Magellan, who entered it through the straits bearing his name in 1520. The Spaniards, approaching it over the isthmus, called it the South Sea. PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH 45 1450-1580 which had grown from utter barbarism into such a kind of half- civihzation as might be expected. The prosperity of Peru, sucli as it was, seems to have been founded on some rude discoveries in engineering, particularly in the art of irrigation. A ruling caste, called the Incas, who taught the worship of the sun, held the people in subjection; and tlie Peruvians had a national religion and his- tory, and the sense of these never forsook them during their long subjection to the Spaniards. Peru was never so completely re- duced to subjection as IMexico. Balboa reached this distant land and took possession of it in tlie Spanish name ; but the conquest of Peru was first undertaken by Francis Pizarro in 1525. In ten years it was accomplished, though in a manner far more dis- graceful to humanity than tliat of ]\Iexico. There is a bright side to the character of Cortez, but that of Pizarro is utterly detestable. He was, however, an able governor. He built the new capital of Lima instead of Cuzco, the ancient seat of the Incas, and here he was at last assassinated by his own creatures. These proceed- ings were scarcely heard of in Europe, and no attempts were for a long time made to control the rapacity of the conquerors. The colonial history of Spain does not properly begin until some years later, when the great iMiiperor Charles V. in 1542 introduced what were called the Xew Laws. At this time the whole country was regarded in theory as a feudal possession of the King of Spain, and a council was established for its administration (1511). This council, which sat at Madrid, was called the Royal Council of the Indie? ; but no real control at home was established until the ap- pointment of viceroys, as Portugal had already done in the East. Perhaps the most important element in the settlement of Spanish America was the early introduction of the Roman Catholic re- ligion. Churches and convents were h-iiilt in large numbers, and the rite of baptism was forced u[)'n tlie natives, partly as a token of submission. Atid the Hulls wliicli I'erdinand prociuxd from two successive Poj^es gave him full power over tlie church in his new possessions. By that of 1501. the P()j)c relinquished all con- trol over its rex'cnues ; and by that of 1508 all claims upon its pat- ronage. Xo Bull w;is ;iilo\ved to go to America unless it had been passed by the Council of the Indies; and the church thus became a great instrument of government. The priests, moreover, made great efforts to sliield the natives from cruelty and oppression, and it was chiefly owing to tlie hunianc Las Casus. Bishop of Chiapa 46 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1450-1580 in Mexico, that stringent laws were made for their protection. No government has ever made so many laws for the protection of the natives in its colonies as the Spanish ; but it lacked the power to execute them. Las Casas, moreover, introduced one cruel system in the hope of putting an end to another. He suggested the em- ployment of African negroes in the mines instead of the native Americans, and though the Spanish never engaged in the African slave trade themselves, they now began to buy slaves of the Portu- guese. Wherever a petty prince reigned on the African coast, the Portuguese landed to trade with him. One of the earliest of the Portuguese factories was placed at Sofala, which was believed to be the Ophir of the Bible, the port of the rich land of Mozambique, and this they have kept ever since. The coast of Zanzibar, with its ports, made famous by Milton, " Mombaza, and Quiloa, and Melind," was at once secured by them: and their superior vessels enabled them to compete successfully with the ]\Ioors in every branch of the local trade. But they never even heard of the vast Victoria Nyanza which lay in the lofty mountains over their heads, or of the rich tablelands lying in mild air around it; they did not even see the capacity of South Africa for receiving European colo- nies ; they scarcely anywhere ventured to explore inland, and their energy was spent on the extension of their commerce further and further eastward. Albuquerque was the greatest of the Por- tuguese viceroys. None of his successors equaled him in wisdom and in courage, but they executed his project of establishing com- merce with China. Though the high-handed proceedings of the Portuguese at first caused distrust, and for several years they were excluded from the Cliinese ports, tliev were at length readmitted, and the l^"ni|3eror of China, finding tlicm useful in putting down jjiracy gave tlicni Macao, at the moutli of tlie Canton River, wliich ])ri_)\ed adxantageous for the commerce which they afterward car- ried on with Japan. In the meantime the wealthiest of all the trades, that uf tlie Aioluccas, was strengthened and extended. But this great commercial empire contained the seeds of its own decay, llic Portuguese made llic most of t1ie coasting trade, whicli they carried on for tlieir own advantage, to the neglect of the great P O R T U C; U E S E AND SPANISH 47 1450-1580 trade with Europe; they intermarried with the Asiatics, and grad- ually corrupted their race, and their grasping policy kept alive the jealousy and distrust of the native princes. But while the heart of their domination was being weakened, it extended to all ap- pearance more wonderfully than ever. The Viceroy John dc Castro defeated the Alohamniedan King of Cambay, who pos- sessed himself for a time of Diu, and his successes were celebrated by a grand triumph in the manner of the ancients. The Portu- guese flocked to the East in such numbers that the little kingdom at home was half depopulated. The trade of China led naturally to the acquisition of that of Japan (1542). Thus the whole trade of the new-found coasts of tlie Old World was in their hands, and they were in possession of the largest and finest of the settlements in the Xew. For Brazil, on wliich the Portuguese sliips had been cast by accident, liad been i(^nn(l to unite in itself tlie capa- bilities of every part of the world in which Europeans have settled, though hap])ily gold and siK'cr had not yet been discovered, and the colonists betook themselves from the first to agriculture. The first permanent settlements on this coast were made by Jews, exiled by the persecution of the Inquisition, and the govern- ment supplemented these by sending out criminals of all kinds. But gradually the C(Miscf]ncnce of Brazil became recognized, and as afterward happened in Xew England, the nobility at home asked to share the land amonu- themselves. Emmanuel would 48 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1450-1580 not countenance snch a claim, but this great prince died in 1521, and his successor, John IIL, extended to Brazil the same sys- tem which had been adopted in Madeira and the Azores. The whole seacoast of Brazil was parceled out by feudal grants. It was divided into captaincies, each fifty leagues in length, with no limits in the interior; and these were granted out as male fiefs, with absolute power over the natives, such as at that time existed over the serfs who tilled the soil in Europe. But the native Brazilians were neither so easy a conquest as the Pe- ruvians, nor so easily induced to labor; and the Portuguese now began to bring negroes from the Guinea coast. This traffic in human flesh had long been vigorously pursued in various parts of Europe; the Portuguese now introduced it to America. The settlers of Brazil were, properly speaking, the first European colonists. For they sold their possessions at home, and brought their households with them to the new country. Thus they gradually formed the heart of a new nation, whereas the chief Spaniards always returned home after a certain tenure of their offices, and those who remained in the colony descended to the rank of the conquered natives. Many of those who came to Brazil had already served in the expeditions to the East ; and they naturally perceived that the coast of America might raise the pro- ductions of India. Hence Brazil early became a plantation colony, and its prosperity is very much due to the culture of the sugar cane. The Portuguese were greatly assisted, both in the East and the West, by the efforts of the newly-founded order of the Jesuits. The Portuguese of the East had almost forgotten justice and mercy, and the arrival of the devoted Xavier in Goa in 1542 pro- duced a moral revolution. Enmities were quenched, and frauds repaired, after his wonderful street-preaching, and when he died in 1552, on the eve of preaching Christianity in China, he was said to have drawn a million of infidels into the fold of the Church. From his mispion to Japan (1549) the Portuguese date the real establishm.ent of the lucrative commerce of which they had ob- tained the monopoly; and. satisfied with the success of his mis- sionaries, John TIT. in the same year sent out six of the order with the first governor of Brazil, ^lie Jesuits v/ere of great use both to the Spaniards and l-'ortuguese, in inducing tlie Indians to sub- mit to their rule. The Tuiglis-li were tlie first people who followed the Spaniards PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH 49 1450-1580 to the New World. John Cabot sailed from England in command of two of Henry VII. 's ships, in 1496, and discovered the islands of St. John and Newfoundland, and all the coast from Labrador to Virginia. The French followed in 1506: and a voyage to the New World was made, in 1523, by Verazzano, another Italian, in the service of the King of France. On the strength of these voy- ages the English and French claimed a share in the New World. The Spaniards, however, took care . to occupy every part which was thought to produce gold, and nothing else was considered worth the expense and hazard of a settlement. The French after- ward made war with Spain, which was the beginning of the piratic warfare they long maintained in the American seas ; and their own civil wars, which followed, fully occupied their attention. Never- theless, Cartier in 1534 sailed up the St. Lawrence, and gave the fertile plain which is now the province of Quebec the name of New France ; and some Protestant emigrants, sent out by Coligny to the tolerant colony of Brazil, which did not as yet exclude strangers, gave that country the name of Antarctic France. The St. Lawrence district was permanently settled b}- the French in 1608, chiefly because of the fisheries and rich fur trade carried on with the North American Indians, but partly because it was sup- posed that this great river would sooner or later form part of a highway to India : but Coligny's plans in Brazil were ruined by the treachery of his agents. Englisli merchants, moreover, began early to venture into the Northern seas, and in 1536 Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island were settled, and the great cod fisb.ery. which has ever since been a mine of wealth, was begun. About the same time luiglish traders first ventured to the Guinea coast. But the growth of that mighty system of trade, which has since trans- formed the face of the world, was slow; and it met with little encouragement at home. Henry VIII. was full of his moclc tournaments and his despotic policy, and tliough tlie English were waxing rich they lacked sucii a field for employing their riclics n- was found cnit by tlie I'ortiiguc^c. Meanwhile, tiie Turks four-d the revenues of their new posscs.-ion of Egypt almost destroved bv this diversion of tb.c India trade. I'he Turks were at this time a first-rate naval power, for in 1521. to the great alarm of the whole western world, the tlcct nf Solyninn tiie ]\f'i':;nificent liad provca(h'ones, was explored; Manila was 52 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1450-1580 built, and a regular trade established. The great galleon took five months to make the voyage between the Philippines and America. It arrived at Acapulco in December, bearing drugs, spices, China and Japan wares, cotton and silk stuffs, gold dust and precious stones from India, At the same time the great yearly treasure ship came in from Peru, accompanied by several others from Peru and Chile, and the great fair of Acapulco lasted for thirty days. But though the vast ships which plied to and fro were freighted with the most precious products of the two w'orlds, hardly any benefit was derived to either under a system so absurd. The Chinese, who were chiefly interested in the trade, secured most of the profit; and while the Portuguese, and still more, in after years, the Dutch, drew untold profits from the spices of the Moluccas, the Philip- pines would probably have been abandoned had it not been for the fact that the Church had taken a firm hold there. Far greater than that of New Spain and the East Indies was the trade of New Spain and Europe, the w'hole of which passed tlirough Vera Cruz, the seaport of ]^Iexico. Hither came regularly the annual fleet from Cadiz, consisting of several large vessels, with three or four men-of-war as a convoy, loaded with all the exports of Europe. It may be said that every nation in Europe, except the mother-country, was largely interested in the Mexican trade. For the manufactures of Spain, once so great and flourish- ing, had come to an end with her influx of riches, and all that she contributed to this vast trade was a little wine and fruit. As to everything else, she was merely the factor of other nations, so that the only advantage that came to Spain from her colonial pos- sessions was the profit of a few merchants and the customs duties. They did not, as in Ensrland and France, nourish agriculture and home manufactures, spread wealth and plenty through all ranks of society, and offer a field for capital and labor. ]\Iexico and Peru remained distinct nations; the Indians, and all who were born in America, were treated as foreigners; so that the Spanish col- onies remained in a state of subjection to the mother-country which wanted but little to turn it into one of hostility. The Span- ish Government was jealous and cruel; those who administered it always returned to Sjiain. and their chief object was to make money for themselves during the term of their office. The kings of Spain were resolved that the treasure of Mexico should find its way to them and to thcin alone. But if the exports of a country PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH 53 1450-1580 are to be limited in their direction, the same limitation must be ex- tended to the imports. As no American silver was to go to any other country than Old Spain, it followed that New Spain must supply all its foreign wants from Old Spain, and the consequence of course was a great increase in the price paid for the commodities of Europe. The free traders of otlier nations could supply New Spain much more cheaply, and there naturally grew up a great smuggling trade with the English, Dutch, and French. Cloth, for instance, purchased in Flanders could not be sold in Mexico under three times its original price. The Spaniards approved of this, because it brought more silver into S])ain ; but the real advantage was reaped by the Dutch, who soon carried on a large smuggling trade. This limitation of trade to the vessels of the mother coun- try seemed so profitable that it was speedily copied by the Portu- guese, and in after times, in a modified form, by the English. But both of these nations began by leaving the trade of their colonies quite free. The trade of Peru with the Old World was carried on by way of Panama and Portobello, as well as by way of Aca- pulco. Peru supplied scarcely anything l)ut the precious metals, and these did not greatly contribute to its permanent prosperity. New mines were frequently opened, and the population generally shifted about with the mines. At first the southern inrt of Peru produced abundance of wine and oil, but the Spaniards, believ- ing that this injured their own trade, rooted up both vines and olives. We have thus traced in their order three distinct sets of events, which about complete tlic first century of colonial history: I, the acquisition of the India trade by the Poriuguese, and the settlement of the same people in I^razil : 2. the Spanish conquest of America; 3, the attem])ts of other nations to establish them- selves where the Spaniards were not strong enough to keep them out. We have seen the trade of iun-opc witli the East diverted from its ancient cliannels, and llie foresliadowing of the greatest event in tlie whole course of liistory. the transfer of the center of commerce and power from tlie Mediterranean to the Atlantic shores of Iiurojie. Hie \va\e ot chiming change already touclies the shores of England anil iM-ariCC. destined at no distant dav to a great struggle tor tlie coiiimcrce of the world: ri vast current of specie has been brought f n un tlie Xew World and rapidly diffused into the remote shures of Asia, stimulating the trade of all conn- 54: ^COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1450-1580 tries but the one which imported it; at least one new nation has been founded, of unhmited capacity for extension ; colonization and colonial policy have taken a distinct form, though the wants and resources of the new countries are as yet not fully estimated ; and the social and political forms of the old country have been transplanted to the new with scarcely any modification. The next step in progress is due to a people too obscure to have been hitherto men- tioned. In the following chapter we shall see feudalism eveiy- where yielding to the inroads of a commercial nation, and the way prepared for changes greater still. Chapter III THE DUTCH AND ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 1 5 80- 1 702 THE commerce of Portugal was almost entirely ruined, and the great colony of Brazil almost lost, by the results of one of those trifling incidents which sometimes change the whole course of human affairs. Sebastian, the son of John HL, fell in an expedition against the Moors in 1578. Philip H. of Spain declared the succession at an end, and in 1580 reentered on Portugal as a fief of Spain. For sixty years Portugal, with its colonies and possessions, remained a dependency of Spain; and as the aggres- sive and intolerant policy of Philip had made him an enemy throughout western Europe, the Portuguese dominions were sud- denly exposed to plunder and ruin. Philip preyed upon Portugal, and his enemies fell upon her ships and colonies. Philip engaged in a war against the liberty and religion of the Netherland provinces, which, from enjoying a high degree of wealth and liberty under the House of Burgundy, had unhappily fallen under his tyranny. Seven of these provinces succeeded, after a long and bloody struggle, in throwing off the yoke. The United Netherlands, as they were called, gave promise of becoming the most flourishing community in Europe; but Philip, following the maxims of the time, forbade all commerce with the revolted states. Now the Dutch, as the United Netherlanders, by the appropriation of a name of much wider meaning, came to be called, had for nearly a century enjoyed a great share of the most profitable trade in Europe. They carried the produce of the East from Lisl)on to their own country, which lalior and skill, working npim tlic disach-antages of nature, had con\-erted into one vast ])nri ; and hence they distributed it over all Europe. The merchants of Antwerp, ruined in Philip's wars, migrated in Holland: ami the Dutch finind themselves enriclied by all their misfortunes. It was easy to foresee the consequences of Philip's revenge. Unable to maintain their commerce without the produce of the East, the Dutch were forced into the East to seek it for tliemselves. The weakness of Sixain on the se;i had been proved by the fate of the Invincible Armada; and the Dutch 56 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 15S0-1702 surmised that the Portuguese, cut off from Europe, would make a feeble resistance. In September, 1595, news arrived at Goa that four Dutch ships bound for the Sunda Islands had touched at an Indian port. The history of this expedition is curious. Cornelius Houtman, a Dutch captain in the Portuguese service, had been taken prisoner by the ]\ioors. The Portuguese Government refused to ransom him, and he thereupon applied to some merchants of Amsterdam, saying that if they would pay his ransom he would show them the way to the East. These four ships were freighted with the goods of Houtman's friends, and the venture was so suc- cessful that it was repeated. There was soon a permanent Dutch settlement on the rich island of Java. Shortly afterward another was made on that of Sumatra, and the Dutch quickly made the best part of the Eastern trade their own. The arrogance and greed of the Portuguese had made them enemies everywhere: their colonial government was full of corruption in itself, and weakened by its isolation, as well as by its threefold division, and the discipline of their soldiers was gone. The Dutch, on the other hand, were a young nation, flushed with success at home, and eager for solid acquisitions abroad. They had acquired great comparative wealth from small beginnings. The same system of association which still subsists in their home fisheries had been the foundation of their enterprise. Companies for mercantile adventure were com- mon in other lands, but the Dutch exceeded all other people in the success with which they managed them, and many such were already formed for absorbing the traffic of the East at its source. The States-General, in 1602, consolidated these companies, and the famous East India Company was formed. It was the turning-point in the commerce of Europe, for it was the first great joint-stock company whose shares were bought and sold from hand to hand. It prospered exceedingly, for it soon paid a dividend of sixty per cent.; in after times it aided the state at important conjunctures, and supported the failing manufactures of Haarlem and Leyden. Throughr)nt the East the Dutch, spurred by the necessity of supply- ing their trade, and by the hope of confirming their political inde- pendence, souglit to drive the Portuguese from their positions, and the Asiatics were not slow to help them. Pliilip, as had been sur- mised, cared notln'ng for the trade of the Portuguese, and he enlisted them at home to s(m-vc in his own wars in Italy and Flanders. And tlie implacable hostility of Philip stimulated the progress of Dutch DUTCH AND ENGLISH 57 1580-1702 navigation, and drove the Dutch more and more into the Eastern trade. He seized the Dutch ships, and flung" their crews into the dungeons of the Inquisition. Hence their ships became daily faster and better manned, and tl.eir adventure took a wider scope. The Dutch soon esta1)Hshed a connection, though subject to great restrictions, both with China and Japan, but their main object was to engross the trade of the Moluccas. These they completely conquered in 1607. The inhabitants allied themselves with the newcomers against the Spaniards and Portuguese, and the Dutch established themselves wherever they pleased. One by one the forts of the Portuguese fell into their hands, and they took measures to get the largest possible profit out of their new possession. And now we see for the first time the policy of a mercantile company having a monopoly. Unable to occupy all the soil of the islands, they fixed themselves where the best soil for spices was thought to be found, and destroyed the spice-trees elsewhere as far as they could, so as to keep their rivals from Europe out of the field. When they had taken a certain quantity of spices, they burned the rest, in order, as they su])pose(], to keep up the price. They cultivated the clove in the Island of Amboyna, and the nutmeg in the Banda Islands, and through the old Portuguese settlements of Timor and Celebes they opened a trade with the Chinese. Hie growth, how- ever, of the Dutch colonies in the East was slow, because they did not at once strike a blow wherever they found trade going on, as the Portuguese did, but looked narrowly for actual commercial returns. It was not finally secured until the peace of 1609, in which Spain acknowled:.>e(l their independence. A commercial center was now wanting, such as the Portuguese had in Goa, and in 1 618 they seized the ca])ital of the rich island of Java, upon the ruins of which they founded tlie tov.n of Batavia as the future capital of the Dutch Indies. Tlie site of Batavia resembled Holland, and the city may still be called an Oriental Amsterdam. Batavia became the seat of the goxcrnnient. which was administered by a governor general, holding oftlce for tivc years, and assisted by a Council of the Indies, nominated by the company at home. The success of the Dutch Compan\- was due in a great measure to its democratic constitution. Its pr(;fits were shared by the merchants of all the principal Dutch towns, who took care to secure for its produce a sale at the best prices. 3.1ucli of it- success must also be ascribed to its abstinence front all cornjucsts wliicli were not 58 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1580-1702 commercially profitable, to its tolerance of Asiatic customs, and freedom from religions fervor which marked the Portuguese. Its decline in after times is due to the competition of the French and English, who brought to the task more enterprise and sagacity, and were less governed by merely mercantile principles. The English were not slow to follow in the steps of the Dutch. The defeat of the Armada showed them their power at sea, and they made great prizes out of the vessels in the Eastern trade. In 1592 the Portuguese Indiaman, Mother of God, of 1600 tons burden, and a cargo worth 150,000/.^ was towed into Dartmouth. She was the largest vessel ever seen in England. The papers of these prizes were carefully scrutinized: and the English now competed with the Dutch in beginning an Eastern trade of their own. They had always been considerable traders, though England formerly pro- duced but little to trade In, save raw materials. The produce of England, however, steadily increased after the Wars of the Roses ; the woolen manufacture sprang into being, and the English learned from the Italian merchants, who had long been settled in London, to improve their vessels and to carry their own commodities to the ports of Europe. In the olden times England had been supplied with Indian produce by an annual ship from Venice. They traded to Turkey for it as early as the time of Henry VIIL, and Frobisher tried to discover a northwest passage to India. Sir Francis Drake was the first Englishman to sail to the Indian Archipelago (1577- 1580), and the success of his voyage turned the attention of the English strongly to the East. The Western continent, however, was not neglected. Possession was taken, in the name of the whole, of part of the coast of North America ; companies were formed on the Dutch m.odel, for planting them with English settlers, and, encouraged by the weakness of Spain on the ocean, Sir Walter Raleigh made an attempt to seize on what he believed to be the rich empire of Guiana. But Raleigh's two expeditions to Guiana ended in failure. He left two persons with a friendly tribe of Indians in 1595 to serve as interpreters upon his return, but made no permanent settlement. The Russian Company had long carried on a trade with Persia, and the Turkish Company had ventured to send their cloths by way of Bagdad to Ormuz and Goa. Even before the rout of the Invincible Armada confirmed to Eng- land the freedom of the sea. Englishmen had visited the courts of Cambay and China in the name of Queen Elizabeth. When DUTCH AND ENGLISH 69 1580-1702 Spain was shown to be too weak to drive them off, the mer- chants of London were not slow to compete with those of Amster- dam for the commerce which was shpping from the grasp of the Portuguese, and on the last day of the sixteenth century the first East India Company received its charter. The English adventurers were well received in the Indian Archipelago by all except their European rivals. The Portuguese or Dutch were in possession of the most advantageous positions, and the Eng- lish were prepared and disposed for nothing but a peaceful interposition. But the growing renown and riches of England, and the perseverance of the English Company, excited the appre- hensions of the Dutch. Open violence succeeded to rivalry, but in 1 619 a temporary treaty was concluded, by which it was hoped that the avarice of the Dutch and the aspirations of the English might be equally satisfied. The Molucca and Banda Islands were to belong equally to the two companies, and the produce was to be divided betv/een them in the proportion of one-third for the English, and two-thirds for the Dutch. A handful of English, therefore, settled in Amboyna; but the presence of these rivals became insupportable to the Dutch planters. They suborned some Japanese who were in their service to accuse the English of a con- spiracy to seize the fort. vSeveral of these unfortunate adventurers were imprisoned and killed, and the rest were driven from the island in 1623. The English gave up the spice trade, though they kept up their intercourse with the Asiatic continent ; and the " massa- cre of Amboyna," as it was called, long served to keep up a strong animosity between the two nations. The rich and rising colony of Brazil had already attracted the cupidity of the Erench, and the sugar plantations had flourished greatly since the importation of negro labor from the Portuguese settlements in Africa. TIic Dutch, made bold by their great suc- cesses in the East, novv- stnight to win the trade of Brazil by force of arms, and the success of the T.ast India Company encouraged the adventurers who subscribed the funds for that of the West Indies, incorporated in 1621. The Dutch admiral Jacob Willekens successfully assaulted San Salvador in 1624, and though the capital was afterward retaken l)y tlie intrepid Archbishop Texeira, one-half of the coast of Brazil submitted to the Dutch. Here, as in the East, ihe profit of the company was the whole aim of the Dutch, and the spirit in which they executed their design was a main cause of its 60 COLONIES OF THE \Y O R L D 1580-1702 failure. The company, for instance, kept the trade in provisions in its own hands; and, in consequence, no native of Pernambuco was allowed to kill a sheep either for sale or for his own consump- tion; he was obliged to sell it to the Dutch butchers, and buy the meat of them at a price fixed by the company. This was not the way to win the Brazilians, but it increased the profits of the com- pany, which rose at one time to cent, per cent. The visions of the speculators of Amsterdam became greater, and they resolved to become masters of all Brazil. This accomplished, Peru and Mexico might perhaps in time have submitted to them, and the Dutch republic would have given laws to the New World. The man whom they dispatched to execute this design was Prince John Maurice of Nassau. He belonged to a family which has been famous for its statesmen, and it is likely that he might really have accomplished this design, ambitious as it v/as, for in a short time he had greatly extended the Dutch possessions. But, the stad- houder was subject, not to the wise and learned men who sat in the States-General, but to the merchants who composed the courts of the company. They thought of nothing but their dividends; they considered that Maurice kept up more troops and built more fortresses than were necessary for a mercantile community, and that he lived in too princely a fashion for one in their service. Perhaps they suspected him of an intention of slipping into that royal dignity which the feudal frame of Brazilian society seemed to offer him. At any rate, in 1643, they forced him to resign. A recent revolution had terminated the subjection of Portugal to Spain, and the new King of Portugal concluded a truce for ten years with Holland. W^'ar was therefore supposed to be out of the question, and the company had some pretext for withdrawing the expenses of IVIaurice's government. The troops were reduced, there was no stad-houder's court, no new fortifications; the trade of the colony flourished as well, and the profits of the company were greater than ever. But the recall of Maurice was the signal for an independent revolt in Brazil. Though the mother countries were at peace, war broke out between tlie Dutch and the Portuguese of Brazil, in 1645. The Jesuits had long preached a crusade against the heretic Dutch. The House of Braganza was once more on tlie throne at Lisbon, and, in spite of the truce with Holland, the Brazilians were determined to regain their independence, like the mother-country. Since the conclnsion of the truce, the Dutch DUTCH AND ENGLISH 61 1580-1702 had possessed themselves of several Portuguese settlements in Africa and Asia, which they refused to surrender, and the King of Portu- gal was not disposed to check the impulse to independence in Brazil. John Ferdinand de Vieyra, a wealthy merchant of Pernambuco, led a general uprising of the Brazilians, and although the Dutch made a stubborn resistance, they received no assistance from home; they were driven from one post after another, until in 1654, the last of the company's servants quitted Brazil. The Dutch declared war against Portugal; but in 1661 peace was made, and the Dutch sold their claims for 8,000,000 florins, the right of trading being secured to them. But after the expulsion of the Dutch, the trade of Brazil came more and more into the hands of the English. It was carried on in the same way as the trade of Old and New Spain, by armed fleets dispatched to each of the principal ports, Pernambuco, San Salvador, and Rio Janeiro, and the produce of Brazil was shipped back to Lisbon; but the woolen goods, metals, and provisions of England formed the bulk of the exports, and the Lisbon merchants chiefly traded upon credit from the English merchants whose goods they exported. Hence Portugal was rightly looked upon in Europe as only a factor or agent of England. The steady progress of the Dutch in the East answers exactly to the advance of Holland among the countries of Europe ; and this is perhaps the most important political fact of the century. Rest- ing always on the solid basis of the spice trade, the East India Company planted its settlements on all the shores between Europe and Batavia. They drove tlie Portuguese from their factory at "Malacca in 1640; they allied themselves with the native princes of Ceylon, and drove the Portuguese from Colombo in 1658, and they vastly extended tlieir liold c>n India. Since 161 5 they had ac- {juired settlements at P:ili()l:at:i and otlier places on the Coro- mandcl coast. l)ut Xegapatam became their chief mart from 165S. On the .Mahiljar coast, tlie a.iicicnt nL'iris of Calicut, Cochin, and C^ananor were taken froni tlic Purtuguose in succession. By this it- was hoped that tlie wliok^ >)\ llic {leppcr trade would fall into tlieir liands; but it was n'lt v;'..>y to exclude the rest of Europe from the comnicrce of a coast now so easily reached. Accustomed to the enormous profits of tlicir spice monopoly, the Dutch cared but little U-^r their MaJahar sotilcmcnts. They coukl not, however, atYord t') al)andon llie trade i^f In;! large lliat tlicir dockvard at Dei)! ford was unequal tn them: 1hcy u^erefore ])c>uglit some ground in a marsli called BUTCH AND ENGLISH 63 1580-1702 Blackwall, on the other side of the river, and made a new dock- yard there. The company built their own ships, and made their own masts, yards, sails, and cordage; they did everything nec- essary for victiiahng and appointing them, down to making their own casks, and baking their own bread, and grinding their own gunpowder; so that they enjoyed profits which have since been divided among several trades. They now^. however, had so much business that besides the great sliips of looo tons and upward which they built, tliey were obliged to hire others upon freight. They grew so rich tliat William III., following the Dutch method, laid a duty of five per cent, upon their stock. In 1698 a second company, called the " English " Company, was chartered ; but this produced so great a commotion that the two were consoli- dated in 1702 by the name of the United Company of Alerchants Trading to the East Indies. The English Company brought into the concern five times the amount of the original stock of the London Company. The London Company had already begun to feel the effect of the more liberal constitution of the Dutch Com])any, and some such enlargement of its basis was necessary to enable it to go on competing with the latter. The rivalry of the Dutch and English was not yet confined to the East. We have seen how John Cabot discovered Newfound- land within a few years of the discovery of the new continent, and how the great fishery of Newfoundland was established. The English made continual \"oyagcs to these coasts, and gave out at home that there was gold to be had for the seeking: but the few attempts which were made proved failures. The Dutch, on the other hand, confined themselves chiefly to the East. It was thought that an luigHsli colony in North America might serve as a naval outpost against Spain, as a stimulus to the trade of Eng- land, and in the end as a source of the much-coveted gold ; and this was finallv effected in 1 Tio/. b}' means of two joint-stock com- panies formed on tlie Dutch model. Through the London and Plymouth Connpanics tlicre began a great influx of colonists to a\-oid tlie religious jjcrseculions of Ciiarles I. The history of this great series of coK)n!CS is the preliminary history of the Lnited States. England did not remain peaceably in possession of vM the northern part of the continent. The Erench took possession of the St. La\\-rence in i^'hi^. and founded tlie town of Quebec, and in iTioj Hudson, the iuiu'li.-li na\-iu"aitn-, when in the service 61 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1580-1702 of the Dutch, had explored the banks of the river which now bears his name. The country really formed part of the great English territory which was called Virginia; but James L, who cared nothing for colonies, made only a show of opposition to the claims of the Netherlands, and it was instantly granted out by the Dutch Government to the West India Company. The company built the fort of Orange, about 150 miles up the river, as a market for the fur trade, and the traffic with the Indians on the river was the richest in all North America. But the New Netherlands as it was called was destined to be something more than an emporium for the trade of the Five Nations ; and the cor- poration of Amsterdam bought up the rights of the company, and settled the town of New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson, tlie best harbor on the whole coast. The Dutch settlement became so flourishing that Charles II. resolved to conquer it, which he did in 1664. The country was granted to his brother, the Duke of York and Albany, afterward James II., and the namics of York and Albany were substituted for those of New Amsterdam and New Orange. In the subsequent war (1672-1674) between England and Holland tlie Dutch retook New York ; but it was restored to England by tlie Peace of Nym- wegen, and the Dutch had to content tliemselves with a part of British Guiana, which was ceded to them in exchange. In the meantime the English colonies to which New York was necessary as a commercial center had grown up one by one, until the whole coast from the Floridas northward was occupied by settlers, as the Brazil coast had been occupied by the Portuguese a century before. We see from all this that a new element of great importance to Europe was steadily growing up in the colonies. It was from the colonies that Holland and England drew the wealth and tlie influence that enabled tliem over and over to defeat the designs of Spain and France. These states first made colonial commerce profitable, like that which they carried on at home, by making- it comparatively free, and by admittin.g the principle of peaceful competition, and they found out how to nourisli it witli plenty of capital by the system of companies. The French, or rather the people of Normandy and Brittany, followed their ex- ample; and tlie system of .Spain and Portugal, though its main lines were allowed to stand untouched, soon showed a disadvan- tageous contrast with, that of the free commercial nations. Dur- DUTCH AND ENGLISH 65 1580-1702 ing the period we have described, the Dutch became the first nation in Europe. In the space of half a century, from having no ocean- going ships at all, they came to have more than all the rest of Europe put together. In 1672 they were strong enough to defy the united force of England and France. They surpassed all the rest in art, learning, and manufactures; and both there and in Eng- land the whole national life was animated by the impulse of com- mercial enterprise. It was a movement which proceeded from the merchants of the large towns, and to which the government of neither country contributed in the first instance anything more than bare countenance. It led, however, in both cases, to the predominance of commercial principles in the national policy, and through this to a substantial national greatness unknown to the feudal monarchies of Spain and Portugal. The Dutch led the way, as they did in the changes in government at home. Their best statesmen, such as the great John de Witt, steadily advocated colonial enterprise. The Dutch seldom failed in their undertak- ings; but the English everywhere followed and outstripped them. The Dutch first made the general interest of the community the ground of their policy, and tlie community permanently profited by the results. The Dutch did nnt, like the English in after times, form agricultural colonies by sending out large numbers of poor or persecuted colonists from liome, because in Holland there was neither poverty nor persecution ; their religious toleration com- bined with economical principles to prevent them from setting up exclusive religious establishments, sucli as consumed much of the wealth of the Portuguese and Spanisli colonies, and in this respect their example was in general wisely followed by the English. Capital was expected to furnish ;i due return ; and as the policy of the companies who shared liic trade of the F.ast did not admit of iis unlimited application. :i new f. >nn uf its employment was found out. Neither mining, agricultural, nor trading settlements, such as we have hitherto had in question, were to form the main body of what Europe for many years regarded as its most valuable possessions. It wis fcmnd tli;it many of the productions of the East, and some wliich tlie East did not afford, could be cultivated to advantage nearer home; and for nearly two centuries much of the enterprise of Eiu/opc streamed to the West Indies, utterly neglected or niisni;!:i:i!;;od b_\' Spain, wlicre each nation sci>:ed upon possc-.-ions of it-^ i<\\-.\. 'IT.ns wo ^."Uie lo tlie " PIan;;itions." Chapter IV THE PLANTATIONS. 1600-1775 TOGETHER with the mainland of America the Span- iards claimed all the West India Islands. These, indeed, had been the first discovery of their navigators, and upon them they had made their earliest settlements. But the gold and silver which they afforded was now exhausted, and the Spaniards cared for little else. They did, indeed, draw from them a supply of hides, tallow, and provisions, and in the course of time they raised from them small quantities of cocoa and indigo; but the Spanish planters had neither the genius to see the wonderful ca- pacities of the soil, nor the industry and the enterprise necessary to bring them into effect. In their hands, these beautiful and fertile islands, which afterward became the very garden of the world, were utterly neglected, and it was not wonderful that other nations should seek to dispossess them, as soon as the proved weakness of Spain at sea showed that this could be attempted with safety. The way for this was paved by the situation of the islands on the route to Mexico and Peru. To their countless coves and thick covers smugglers and pirates of all nations resorted to lie in wait for the Spanish galleons, and to carry on a contraband trade; and the English, Dutch, and French soon became better acquainted with their geography than the Spaniards themselves. From the map we see that they lie in distinct groups. There are the four Great Antilles. Cuba, Santo Domingo, Jamaica, and Porto Rico ; the Lesser Antilles, comprising the Leeward Islands, a continuation of the Greater Antilles, including the Virgin Islands, St. Christo- pher and Xevis. and all the islands as far as Martinique, and the Windward Islands, so called from their facing the east, from Santa Lucia southward, and all now belonging to England ; and Curacao, Bonaire, and Aruba, sometimes known as tlie Little Antilles, form- erly called tlie Leeward Islands, belonging to Holland, and lying off the coa-t of Venezuela. The Bahamas, north of Cuba, have but little to do with the West Indie-. Dt these islands only tlic THE PLANTATIONS 67 1600-1775 Greater Antilles were thought by the Spaniards worth occupying: but they were resolved to keep the adventurers of other nations from settling in the others. This was impossible; the English and Dutch were better seamen, and as fast as the Spanish cap- tains dislodged them from one place, they fixed themselves in another; and many small colonies were formed before any en- croachments on the rights of Spain were sanctioned by any Euro- pean power. Most of tiie small islands were inhabited by a fierce race of cannibals, who were the terror of the gentler Indians of the Greater Antilles. If the Spaniards had thought the natives worth B S A N 5 5. .^sja-*'- ^^^ conquering, it ^voul(l ha\"c been a liard lasl-c, and the smugglers and pirates themsel\cs generally sought out a deserted island for their retreat. In this wav the island of I Barbados, which lay in the way of ships bound for (iuiana and I'razil, was occupied by tlie Eng- lish shortly after the tleath of I^lizabcth. It was a desolate and unpeopled spot. 1'he Englisli discerned tlic advantages of the soil and climate: and its defcnsibility (being fortified bv nature on two out of its three sides) and its reuK^teness from the route of the Spanish gnarda-coslas cnconraged their first attempts at plant- ing it with cotton, tobacco, and indigo. Sugrir, the great staiile of the plantati(*ns. was not a< A'ct introduced: but the itidustrv 68 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-1775 of the planters prepared the way for its success. An accidental circumstance gave rise to a double occupation of St. Christopher, one of the Leeward Islands. In 1625 D'Esnambuc, a French privateer of Dieppe, had been worsted in an encounter with a Span- ish galleon, and putting into the island to refit, found there a con- siderable number of his countrymen. He was so struck with its capabilities, that on his return he obtained from Cardinal Riche- lieu a charter incorporating a French West India Company. Re- turning to the islands, he made other settlements on Martinique and Guadaloupe, in the Windward Islands. About the same time Thomas Warner, an Englishman, formed a settlement in similar circumstances on the south side of St. Christopher. The Span- iards drove out the settlers of both nations in 1630; but they soon returned, though many of the French settlers migrated to the more promising colonies of the Windward Islands. Thus were formed the first English and French settlements in the West Indies, which afterward contributed so much to the wealth of the mother coun- tries, and to the formation of their general colonial policy. All the Greater Antilles were still in the possession of Spain. The name buccaneers was usually given during the seventeenth centur}' to the French, English, and Dutch adventurers who flocked to the West Indies to prey upon the Spanish fleets and colonies. The Dutch were chiefly smugglers; the English and French chiefly pirates. Many of them began as planters, but they found piracy a more congenial and gainful pursuit. Thousands of ad- venturous men, with swift and well-found ships, swept the seas in search of pkmder, landing now and then to burn a Spanish town, or to hunt wild cattle, whose flesh tliey smoked over their boucanes or wood fires: hence the}- were called buccaneers. Their swift shijis were called in Dutcli vUchootcn, or flying-boats: and hence llic name of frcei)()()ters or filibusters. The recorded exploits of these marauders fill large volumes. They greatly increased in strength and numbers as the permanent settlements of the Eng- lish and I'rcnch increased in the latter half of the centuiy ; and it is calculated that if they had acted upon a uniform plan, with a better discipline, and under a leader of genius, they might without difficulty have conquered all tb.e Americas. They liarassed all the shores df .Vcw .Spr'in; ilsev passed the Sira.its of :\lap:cl]an, and si)read tlie terror of llicir n;nne as far as California. \'an 1 Forn, ;tt the lii'ad of 1500 Ouicii and J-"rench. torazil, and the Maroons of St. \'incent were ultimately taken under tliC ])rotection of the Freixii and made a regular co]imi\-. The sugar canc liad been successfully cultivated for two cen- turies by the Portuguese, who learned its use from the \'enetian>. Brazil became the chief sotu'ce of the sui)nly. and the demand in Europe was so great tliat tlie sugar trade s[)eedily became the most 70 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-1775 profitable one in which capital could be engaged. The Dutch, who had long carried this precious article from Lisbon to all the ports of Europe, made their famous and daring invasion of Brazil en- tirely for the sake of sugar; and they greatly extended the cultiva- tion of the cane after tlie Brazilian coast came into their possession. The cane flourished in Barbados, but the English planters knew no other use for it tlian to brew a refreshing drink for that hot climate until 1640, when a Dutchman from Brazil landed in the island, and taught them the secret of ripening the cane, which was by letting it grow fifteen months instead of twelve, and of boiling the juice. In a few years Barbados became prodigiously pros- perous by the introduction of the sugar trade. The whole of the leeward coasts of this island were soon covered with plantations and in twenty years 50,000 English settled there. The civil wars in England increased the number of the planters, who, like those of Brazil, were chiefly men of wealth. The growth of Barbados went on fast from 1640 to 1650. It had a free trade with the Dutch and Portuguese ; an independent constitution, though nom- inally the fief of a proprietary grantee; and as most of the planters were cavaliers, they resisted what they thought to be the usurpa- tion of the Parliament. They called the island " Little England,*' and in the planters of Barbados we certainly find the earliest type of the true English colonist. They were, however, reduced to submission by Cromwell, and his Act of Navigation forced them to give up all trade except with the mother country. Cromwell did a great deal for the \\^est Indies by sending many of his Irish and Scotch prisoners out thither as slaves. Seven thousand Scotch, for example, were sold to the West Indian planters after tlie battle of Worcester. The same thing was done in 1716 after the rebellion of the Pretender. Before the combined effect of the Act of Navi- gation, tlie growth, of tl:e I'Vench plantations, and the rivalry of Jamaica, Barbados was the most populous, rich, and industrious .spot on the cartli. In 1657, 14.000/. was reckoned the smallest capital with which a planter could settle upon an estate of 500 acres; but tliis sum easilv viekled more than fifty per cent, every year. The continual liostih'ty of the Spaniards to all other Euro- peans in tlie West Indie?, and the relentless cruelty which accom- panied it, together with the enormous advantage which England might obviously reap fnini extending her possessions, made Crom- well resolve upon a bold stroke, which vras v.'orthy of his states- THE P L A N T A T I O N S 71 1600-1775 manship. This was the conquest of the magnificent island of Santo Domingo, the most valuable of the Greater Antilles; and he sent out for this purpose in 1655 an expedition of 10,000 men, under Admiral Penn and General Venables. ]\Iost of it was in the posses- sion of the Spaniards, though the French buccaneers had settlements in the west of the island. The English were repulsed by the Span- iards; but, unwilling to return to England without some glory, they attacked the neighboring island of Jamaica before its in- habitants had heard the news of their defeat. J^nnaica was at this time in a poor condition. The Spaniards had lost all their labor by their cruel treatment of the natives ; they had taken those of the Bahama Islands, but these were also exhausted ; they were too idle and proud to work themselves, and too poor to buy negroes. The English took it; and in a hundred years it became one of the richest places in the world. Cromwell settled in the island some of the troops who had won it ; they were joined by many settlers from home, and planters soon came from Barbados, especially many Quakers, whom the Royalists of that island would not tol- erate. Cromwell ordered the Scotch Government to gather to- gether all the idle and disaffected people they could lay hands on, and shipped them off hither as laborers, and he procured many more, of both sexes, from Ireland. At first there was great dis- tress among these poor creatures, but it ceased as soon as the work of planting began. The sugar cane, with its three valuable prod- ucts sugar, rum, and molasses pimento, cotton, alcjcs. ginger, and logwood, soon took the place of cocoa; and the trade of Jamaica with England and the English, colonies in Xorth America grew rapidly in importance. The manufactures and navigation of the mother counti-y \\cre greatly stimulated; and th.e culture of the cane was extended to the smaller islands of Antigua, which had been deemed by the Spaniards uninhabitable. Xevis, and }kIontscrrat. '^I'he Knights of Malta h;id ohtaincil of Richelieu a grant of St. Christopher and three other West Indian Islatids; and tlie\' sent out thither as governnr the wise :mi(1 ]iolitic l)e Roincv, under whom their pr(^gress was slow, though in the en.d it outstrijiped even that of the I'jiglisli islan.ls. l)e Poincy, bv personal studv. greatly improved ui)on the nu^thod o\ sugar maldng in use in I'razil and Maleir;!. lie rnVu! ai r.;t--e Terre. in St. CluaVtopher. t\vent\--onc \'e;irs : and once a week' he adminJ^tered iuslice t(j the 72 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-1775 people under a great fig-tree. There were three other groups in French hands, in each of which the principal islands were Guada- loupe, Martinique, and Grenada ; these groups belonged to three different proprietors. All the French islands carried on a flourish- ing trade with the Dutch. Colbert, in the next generation, per- ceived that the plantations might be made much more thriving under one government, and accordingly in 1664 he purchased them of their owners and handed them over to a company; but as this did not flourish, it was dissolved in 1674, and the islands were placed under a department of the government. The settlement on Santo Domingo soon became the most important, and just as the encroachments of the English settlers had been confirmed bv treaty, the French Government acquired a legal right to the west- ern part of this island in 1697. By the introduction of negro labor a few years afterward, the activity of French enterprise made it the most important settlement in all America. Sugar, cotton, cocoa, and ginger, and afterward coffee, were exported hence in great quantities to France. Besides this the French had settled on the coast of Guiana, and they took under their protection the Maroons, or runav/ay negroes, who had formed a colony for themselves on the Island of St. Vincent. The progress of the French plantations vras at first slower than tliat of the English, but through the wise fostering care of the government it gradually overtook them. The great minister, Colbert, placed them under a Council of Com- merce; they v>ere relieved of taxes, even for the payment of the salary of their governors ; the smallest duties were levied on their produce ; whereas Charles II. had laid on the English plantations a yearly tax of four and one-half per cent, upon their gross value. The French Government were the first to grant lands gratis to poor and industrious emigrants ; and they often lent money to the plant- ers when the plantations were destroyed by hurricanes. They allowed the shi])s of tlieir merchants strong convoys, and built forti.6catir)ns to i)rotect the isu'irids from pirates. The imj)rovement of trade and na\i;';atif.)n was stearlily pursued as an object of state ])olicy to a higiicr degree than elsewhere. Besides the mother- country the French plantations had lawful markets for their pnjdnce in Canada, Cape Breton, and Louisiana, as well as the contrabanrl Spanisl: trade. W'lini liu- l'()riiiL;iio-e drr-ve the I^ntch fr(jm Rra/.il, and the Treaty '-^1 N'vmwcLi'cii (Ii-iJos>c^>c(l ilicni of Xew York. llic\' had Tin: P L A \ T A1' ION S 73 1600-1775 nothin_^ left on the continent but Surinam, the scene of the faihn^e of Raleigh, which the Zealanders hrd conquered in the war with England, and which was ceded to them by the treaty. They had, however, taken possession of Curagao and St. Eustatius about 1634, and here they cultivated sugar and tobacco. All these settlements, together with one on Cape Verde and another "on the Guinea coast, were in the hands of the Dutcli West India Com- pany. But the rich commerce of the l^ast engrossed most of the Dutch capital; and the Dutch had more genius for commerce than planting. Curaqao had a fine harbor, and it soon became a great depot for East Indian goods, for the Dutch smugglers were able to supply the Spaniards of the continent with them much more cheaply than through the lawful channel of trade. Here also the Spaniards purchased their negro slaves from the Dutch slavers. CuraQao was for a long time to the West Indies what Amster- dam was to Europe: all the colonists came thither to buy the com- modities of Europe and the East. 7'he Danes took possession in 1 67 1 of the Island of St. Thomas, wlien they allowed the free citi- zens of Hamburg also to maintain a factory, and to lliis tlie Danes afterward added that of Santa Cruz, jnirchased from 1^^ ranee; l)ut they did not extend their cultivation beyond the demands of their own market. The commodious harbor of St. TlKimas was a fre- quent resort of the buccaneers, and its neutrality has made it from early times the center of communication for all the West India islands. It naturally became another center of the smuggling- trade with the Spanish colonies. The Dutch and the Danes were chiefly traders, and their ]:)lantations were quite unim])ortant by comparison with those of the English and Drench. Eor a century and a half the Spaniards, though they possessed the finest of the islands, had no plantations. Private enterprise is necessary to the success of plantations; and the Spanish colonial s}-stem did not favor private enterprise, (/nba produced nothing of importance; nor was it until the vast trade o\ vSanto Domingo was destroyed in its terril)le struggle for in(lc])en(lence tliat the jikmtations of Cuba rose t(^ supplv its place. I'Acn llien, it was long before a hundredth part of its surface was in a state of cultivation. Havana indeed, the capital of that island, was ilic emporium of the trade of Xew and Old Spain; and it \\as iniportaiu as a naval station against pirates and smugglers. The large and fertile island of Porto Rico long remained a mere desert, and Trinidad, did not prosper until it 74 C: O L O N I E S OF THE WORLD 1600-1775 ceased to be Spanish. To keep the best West India Islands in this unproductive state was perhaps good pohcy on the part of the Spaniards. If they had settled there, they would have tempted the attacks of the French and English, and under the Spanish sys- tem of trading the}?^ would have produced no profit to the mother- country. This is equally true of the lower or maritime parts of Mexico. The Spaniards were afraid to drain and cultivate them, and they looked on this deserted and unwholesome coast as a frontier against the enemy. The towns on the seacoast were often deserted, and rebuilt in the interior, because of the ravages of the buccaneers. America in every way depended on xA-frica for labor. The Spaniards and Portuguese wanted negroes for their mines of gold, silver, and diamonds; the English and French for their plantations of sugar, tobacco, rice, and indigo. It is true that a large number of white laborers freely resorted both to the French and the Eng- lish plantations as lately as the middle of the eighteenth century, and that convicts were transported thither, who were forced to labor for a certain number of years, after which they became small planters themselves, or emigrated afresh to the colonies on the con- tinent. But the supply of white labor was small and precarious ; the planters, especially the French, treated the engages, as they were called, with great cruelty; the system could not be applied on a very large scale, and the planters generally found it necessary, and always found it best, to invest a certain proportion of their capital in tlie purchase of negroes. The Dutch in Java and Ceylon could compel the natives to labor; but in the other continent, the Portuguese and Spaniards found the natives as incapable of labor- ing as themselves. But the hardy negroes of Africa soon supplied their place. I-'rom time immemorial the Moors had sold them in tlie markets of Plurope and the East, and the Portuguese, following the steps of the ]\Ioors, introduced them in the West. Every Por- tuguese settlement on the coast of Africa was an inexhaustible source of negro labor, and the Portuguese settlers in Brazil were the first to take advantage of it. The Dutch and English soon fol- lowed in the wake of the Portuguese, and as the latter in the end possessed themselves of all the Portuguese carrying-trade, the slave trade fell mainly into their hands. The English had acquired as early as the time of Queen Elizabeth some factories on the African coast, and these now became most valuable on account of the slave T HEP T. A N T A T I O N S 75 1600-1775 trade. But the Portuguese always kept to themselves the trade of the east coast of Africa, where the slave traffic was carried ou to the best advantage. So great were the toils of the plantations that the negro population of Barbados wasted away at the rate of sixteen per cent, per annum, and the keener the competition be- tween the French and English planters the harder became the stress on the unfortunate blacks. The negroes, besides, were used by Spain to work the mines of Mexico and Peru, and they were imported in large numbers into New Grenada. The French Guinea Company had enjoyed the privilege of supplying them, which was called the Assiento; but in 1713, the English took away this profitable trade from the French, and compelled Spain to a treaty by which she could purchase no slaves, except from English vessels. The English thus finally monopolized a trade which they had shared for 150 years, ever since Hawkins first carried negroes for sale from Guinea to Espanola. In the colonies of Virginia and Carolina, where the slaves were employed in the cultivation of cot- ton, tobacco, and rice, they rather multiplied than dwindled. The slaves were far worse off in the English colonies than in any other country in the ancient or modern world. In the French planta- tions, the Code Xoir was established by Louis XIV. in 1685, to shield them from cruelty ; it gave slaves some important civil and social rights, and forbade the separation of families; but every- where else they have always been entirely at the mercy of the planter. From the beginning there have been revolts and disturb- ances on the part of the negroes, and these were repressed and punished in the most cruel and inhuman manner. Even a century ago rebel negroes were in Jamaica burned alive by inches at a slow fire, and the gentlest punishment was to hang them alive in chains and leave them to die of hunger. Tlie Dutch treated their slaves more cruelly still; but the Spaniards were more humane, and iliey had nothing to do with the slave trade itself that is, with the business of buying the slaves in the ports of Africa, and shipping them to those of America. It was necessary to continue this trade, for the number of the slaves continually diminished ; and its aboli- tion, in different parts of the world, has always been the Itegiiuiing of the abolition of slaverv itself. Hie Danes were the first to abolish the slave tratfic. England. France, and the United States of North America follinved. The abolition of slavery in Brazil. Cuba, and Porto Rico put an end to the trade in the western 76 C L O N I E S OF T H E W R L D 1600-1775 hemisphere. It is certain that the West Indies, and every part of the earth that is worth cultivating, may be cultivated without slave labor, though not on so large a scale as is possible with it. Econo- mists have shown that nothing is so dear as slave labor, and that only the most remunerative crops will sustain the loss which it entails ; and wherever free labor has been successfully introduced in sufficient quantity, production has in the end been stimulated by the change. In i66o, or thirty-five years after their first permanent set- tlements were made, England and France agreed to divide the West India Islands, and to adopt a common policy toward the natives, who never ceased to harass them, England was confirmed in the possession of Barbados, Nevis, Antigua, and Montserrat, and several smaller islands; France in that of Guadaloupe, Mar- tinique, Grenada, and some smaller islands; while St. Christopher remained common to both. The remains of the aborigines, about 6ooo in number, were driven to the islands of Dominica, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent. But both England and France claimed these islands. Such settlements as were made on them were French, and the two latter islands were occupied under Marshal D'Estrees in [719. In 1748 these islands were declared neutral; but in 1763 they were all given up to England, except St. Lucia, and the wretched remnant of the natives were driven to the continent. Until the anti-slavery movement grew irresistible, the West Indies never ceased to be an object of jealousy to the two governments. With the growth of these valuable possessions the struggles of Europe first reached the shores of the New World, and in the course of the European wars many of the West India Islands have changed hands several times. Thus, Antigua and Montserrat were taken by the French, but restored at the Peace of Breda. One of the first incidents in the war waged by the Grand Alliance of Western Europe against Louis XIV. was tlie expulsion of the English from St. Christopher; but Captain Wren recovered the lionor of the Eiiglisli flag, and the Peace of Ryswick restored things as they were. In the War of the Spanish Succession, Nevis and other English islands were attacked by the French, but with- out permanent success; in the Seven Years' War (1756) the Eng- lish marine proved superior to that of Spain and France united; and by the Peace of Paris in 1763 the English possessions were increased by tlie iskmds of Grenada. Dominica, and Tobago. In THE PLANTATIONS 77 1600-1775 the war which followed the independence of America and the French Revokition, changes took place by which on the whole England benefited, and the ]30wer of England in the West Indies lias steadily increased, at the expense firstly of Spain, and secondly of her rival France. The French islands, however, have always surpassed the English islands in prosperity and good management. This is partly because most of the h^rench planters lived perma- nently un their island, whereas the English ahvays went home when they had made their fortunes, and became absentees, whose only interest was to get as much money as jjossible out of their estates. They committed the whole care of their estates to some shipping agent living in London or Bristol, whose business it was to furnish the j^lantation with all that was necessary, and to receive and dispose of the produce when sent home. Hence there never arose in the British plantations a class of wealthy and independent merchants like those of the French islands. Xot onl}^ did the wealth of tlie West Indies stimulate the manufactures of the mother countries, but it gave the agricultural colonies on the continent of Xorth America their first impulse to produce more than they consumed. The great populations of the West India Islands had to be fed. and land was too valuable there to be used for producing corn and beef. Each group of islands included indeed some one which was specially destined to raising fresh provisions for the rest, such as the English island of Bar- buda, and the Dutch island of Aruba. But the continent alone could supply subsistence to so large a multitude of laborers; and the exports of beef, pork, and cheese from Canada to the French islands, and from New Jvagland to tlie English islands, scnm became immense. h^acli district seemed formed to supply the wants of the other, licsidcs, a great m:irket v/as opened here ff^r the refuse of tlie great Xcwfounillaiid iisherv, U)r the ad- vantages of which the l'"renc!i now !)egan to contend, thoi'.gh without success. In return lor ilic-e imports i!ie islands supplied the continent with the i)rodi;cls of tlie cane. ?dany of the islands, liowever, were still supplied with provisions from the mother couw- tries; and in the middle of the eighteenth century, when the Eng- lisli colonies of Xorth America had already begun to scn-d coiai to feed the increased pojnilaiion of England, tlie vast Colony of Ih'azil was de])cn(lenl upon l-Airojie for iis daily br.-u!. WiiJ! \]]'.- increased tr;iftlc c;inic a \a>l L;"ro\\t;i ci the C' uiiraband ir;iii\'. 78 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-1775 The French islands were fast outstripping the Enghsh in weahh and population, and were able to produce so much more cheaply than the latter that the growth of a smuggling trade be- tween them and New England was inevitable. Trade will always find the channel which is natural to it, and smuggling in all its branches was soon practiced in the West Indies with great skill and success. The Dutch, Danish, and French islands were mar- kets for all European manufactures; the Spaniards came to buy there because it was the cheapest market ; and the Spanish Govern- ment was forced to connive at the practice. The success of their plantations led the French to conceive the grand idea of colonizing the vast and fertile island of ^Madagascar. Colbert had already encouraged the Oriental trade by the establishment, in 1664, of a French East India Company with a charter of fifty years' dura- tion, and great privileges of every kind, and he intended to make IMadagascar the bulwark of the future French empire in India. Few projects have been more promising. The island was fertile in all the products of the tropics; the people were numerous, in- telligent, and docile; and nothing was wanting but skill, honesty, and perseverance on the part of the company's agents. But these were wanting. Many of the colonists quitted the island in despair, and in 1672 those who remained were massacred by the natives. A century elapsed before the attempt was renewed ; but it was not completely successful until 1895. The chief result of these at- tempts was the introduction of rice, the principal staple of Mad- agascar, into the Carolinas. A lasting impulse was given to Eng- lish shipbuilding and navigation by the vast trade of the plantations. The Spanish and Portuguese colonies traded with Europe only by means of the government register ships, and the Dutch and French had established a monopoly, though a far less pernicious one, in committing the trade of both Indies to exclusive companies. The Act of Navigation deprived the Dutch of the trade of the West Indies, of which they had hitherto been in possession: and the trade to the whole Atlantic coast of America, including the islands, was opened to English vessels and closed to all others. Barbados alone employed about four hundred: and the effect of the great traffic to and fro was to raise the power of the English at sea in the space of fifty years to a position which rivaled that of the Dutch themselves. The preponderance, however, of the Eastern trade maintained the Dutcli in the front rank down to the end of tlic T H E 1 L A N T x\ T 1 O N S 79 1600-1775 seventeenth century. After that time, the successive growth of the West Indies, of the North American colonies, and of the Eng- hsh East Indian trade, placed the English greatly in advance of all other nations. The establishment of the plantations may be taken as a favor- able opportunity for reviewing the progress of colonization during the five or six generations after that of Gama and Columbus. The largest space in the eye of the world was still at this time occupied by the gold- and silver-producing countries of South America. The silver of Mexico and Peru had greatly contributed to the extension of commerce in the eastern hemisphere; and each of the nations which were competing for the trade of the East anticipated the day when its grasp should be laid on the riches of the West. This, at any rate, was the belief of Spain; and hence the severe strug- gles of Spain to prevent the settlements of other nations in the West Indies and on the American coast. These settlements grew entirely out of the expeditions of the buccaneers, who harassed the Spaniards by sea and land ; the islands were gradually taken up by the planters of several nations, encouraged and assisted by the governments, all hostile to the pretensions of Spain. The capture of Jamaica, in 1655, marks the period when the lawless rule of the buccaneers began to be exchanged for the control of European governments. England and France were spreading in different directions in the northern hemisphere; the trade of the Dutch with the East w'as at its zenith ; neither the English nor French could pretend to be their rivals, for the Dutch trade supplied most of continental Europe, while neither the trade of England nor France as yet extended beyond their own needs. The most important object, next to the possession of lands rich in gold and silver, was that of a soil rich in productions which were readily exchanged for gold and silver in the markets of Europe. The plantations soon began to eclipse the Eastern trade, and it is to their rise that we may attribute the slow growth of the Frencli and English East India companies. How great the importance of the plantations was may be judged from the fact that at the time of the h>ench Revolution I'^\ance drew as much wealth from the single island of Santo Domingo as England drew from India, or Spain from Alexico and Peru. Xor did the European wars retard the general growth of the plantations, for the capture of an island always stimulated its productions by the influx of new planters. .so COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-177S It was calculated that every European employed in the plantations, including the sailors employed in the trade thither, furnished em- ployment for four pairs of hands at home. Thus, as in 1670 it was calculated that 250,000 English were engaged in planting or in the plantation trade, 1,000,000 of people, or one-seventh of the entire population, must have been dependent upon it at home. On the whole, we may say that the ^^''est India plantations were to England in the time of Charles II. very much what the cotton and iron manufactures are in our own times, and that their importance was so much the greater, as there had been nothing to disturb the balance of the landed and mercantile interests, greatly in favor of the former, which had existed since the time of Henry VIII. This balance was now reversed, and the growth of the mercantile inter- est was accom^panied by the growth of a new political doctrine known as Whiggism, based, like the former, on an adoption of Dutch ideas. Political troubles had contributed to the growth of the English plantations; and when these were over, it seemed as if the impulse to West Indian enterprise was checked. At any rate, the eighteenth century has but little enterprise to show. Land was selling for 100/. an acre in Barbados; but no one attempted to colonize the Bahamas, and not one-tenth part of Jamaica was under cultivation. An energetic and sagacious government might have changed the face of affairs; but in. the meantime a different field of enterprise was being opened. The plantations had helped tlie growth of agricultural colonies, and the latter soon rose to an unexpected degree of importance. Chapter V NEW FRANCE AND NEW ENGLAND. 1500- 1777 THE discoverers of America were speedily followed by the hardy sailors of Normandy and Brittany. One of these, in 1506, reached the mouth of the great River St. Law- rence, and called the countr}'^ on its west side Cape Breton. The French, hearing the natives talk of their Canada, or huts, sup- posed this to be the name of the country; but it went at first by the name of i\cadia. The French were not disposed to forego their claims to America, and Francis L was as anxious as anyone else to share in the gold and silver of the New World. He would certainly have fitted out ships for the East Indies had not his wars with Charles V. prevented it. In 1523 he sent out an expedition of discovery to the American coast under Verazzano, of Flor- ence; but his plans were cut short by misfortunes at home. Francis was taken prisoner at Pavia. and Verazzano never returned to France. Ten years passed before the attempt was renewed. At last Francis sent out a second expedition, commanded by Jacques Cartier, of St. Malo, which had more important consequences. In 1534 Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence, and saw the capacity of its banks for receiving a great agricultural colony; he called the ])lacc Xcw France, and in 1540 lie conducted thither 200 colonist.-"., under Francois de Rubcrval as lieutenant general, who formed the germ of the future " Canadian nation," as tlie iMTnch settlers afterward learned to call themselves. But the wars of Spain and France hindered the progress of this colony, and Cartier himself. foiled in the attempt to reach the East Indies by a northwest pas- sage, lost all heart for further discoveries. The first permanent settlement in Canada was founded by Champlain in 1608. Everywhere we may trace the effect of the Reformation on the direction and character of C(^lonial enterprise. Hic colonv on the St. Lawrence was Catln^lic : and the great Protestant statesman Coligny formed nl;ins for cohinics win'cli should be a retreat {< 'V SI 82 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1500-1775 the Huguenots, whose final defeat he foresaw, and thither he hoped himself to retire and end his days in peace. But every one of his projects failed. The first attempt was made in Brazil in 1556. Coligny entrusted this expedition to a Knight of Malta, called Ville- gaignon ; but this man, seeing the Huguenot cause failing at home, tried to make the colony Catholic. Many French Protestants and Flemings who w'ere ready to emigrate to Rio Janeiro stayed at home, and the Portuguese expelled all the French in 1560. In 1562 an attempt was made to found a Huguenot colony in Florida. Many of the nobility went out, and they were accompanied by a strong guard of troops. For a time all went on well, but in 1564 the Spaniards took possession of the colony, and massacred the settlers. They put up an inscription stating that this was done not because the murdered men were Frenchmen, but because they were Protestants. Three years afterward a Huguenot called De Gourgues sailed to Florida, took the forts, and hung up all the Spaniards with an inscription over their heads, " Not as Spaniards, but as robbers and murderers." Thus far the French were every- w'here unfortunate. The English successfully contested with them the possession of the great Newfoundland fishery. Several parties of fishermen from Normandy, Brittany, and Biscay tried to estab- lish themselves there about 1598, but all attempts at a permanent colony failed. With the return of peace in the seventeenth century, French attempts to colonize took a successful turn. In 1603 Champlain made the first permanent settlement on the St. Lawrence; a fort was built on the cliff of Quebec, and a few years afterward a few wooden cabins arose on the island of Montreal. The new settle- ment was formed exactly on the model of Old France. Great tracts of lands were granted out as fiefs to any who seemed likely to carry settlers out with them. The lord selected a strong position for his own domain, and around this were spread the holdings of the peasantry, granted out freely at small quit-rents. The peas- ants were buund to military service, which was often in requisi- tion against the Indians. The lord had the sole right of grinding corn, of trading in furs, and of fishing: so that Canada w^as from the first an agricultural colony on the feudal model. The wooded peninsula at the moutli of the St. Lawrence had not escaped the nc^tice of the h^xnch voyagers, and in 1602 Henry IV. granted it by the native name of La Cadie, afterward Latinized as Acadia, to rHAMIT.AlX SIKKKMiKK- iHKIlKi Id AUMIKAI. KIKKK. JILV JO, ] 6 JQ NEW FRANCE AND NEW ENGLAND 83 1500-1775 Pierre de Monts, a Protestant nobleman, who founded a small colony in the great harbor, which he called Portroyal, and another on one of the islands at the mouth of the River La Croix. Though De Monts was a Huguenot, the colony was accompanied by Catho- lic fathers to convert the Indians. But the English, who were far stronger on these coasts than the French, viewed these beginnings with jealousy; the wliolc coast was claimed by them as part of Virginia, and the governor of Jamestown, in 1613, destroyed all the French settlements in Acadia, which the Catholic government at home took small pains to protect. The country remained uncolonized until 1621, and the two nations continued to share the fishery. James I. made a fresh settlement of Acadia in i6ji. granting it to Sir William Alexander, afterward Earl of Stir- ling, by the name of Xova Scotia or Xew Scotland. Alexander sold it out in large pin-litms to intending emigrants, who were dignified by the king with the title of Baronets of Xova Scotia; and he then sold the whole colony to Louis XIII. of France. Charles I. confirmed the sale on his marriage with the sister of Louis XIII., and the French reappeared ofif Portroyal. In 1627 war broke out between l-'rancc and Fngland, and Alexander, assisted b}- .'mniher Sculchnian, Sir l)a\i(l Kirk, concjuered the whole of 84 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1500-1775 the French settlements, which they divided between them, Kirk taking the parts about Quebec as his share, and Alexander Acadia. But when peace was made, in 163 1, Richelieu recovered both places for France, paying-, of course, a proper compensation to Kirk and Alexander; and he secured the French a participation in the fish- eries. The title of Baronet of Nova Scotia, however, still survived as an honorary distinction, and many Scotch gentlemen were glad to pay a good sum for having it conferred upon them. In his expedition of 1596 Cabot had discovered Newfoundland and taken possession of the whole coast, but for a long time the English made no attempts at colonization. The fisheries were sought by English vessels as early as the reign of Edward VI., and although the vessels of Spain and other nations were more numerous than the English, the right of England to the coast came gradually to be acknowledged. The reign of Elizabeth saw the beginning of English colonial enterprise. By this time France had occupied the St. Lawrence, although there was no permanent settlement on the St. Lawrence until 1608, and Spain had taken Florida, so that the English were obliged to content themselves with the intermediate coasts. Jealousy and hatred of Spain, com- bined with a bold spirit of adventure, drove the English to settle in the new world. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a Devonshire mariner, sailed for America in 1580; and though he failed to reach it, he started again in 1582. His best ship was only of 200 tons burden, and the Squirrel, in w^hich he sailed himself, was only of ten tons. His expedition was lost at sea, only one of his ships, the Gulden Hind, returning safe to England. The English gained ex- perience in their great naval wars with Spain, but all individual attem])ts at colonies v^-ere unsuccessful. Sir Walter Raleigh headed seven expeditions to -America; in 1584 and 1587 he tried to settle a colony called Virginia, in honor of the virgin Queen Eliza- beth ; but it was not until the reign of James I. and the establishment of the London and Plymouth companies that this was effected. After 1606 the English North American colonies steadily grew along the shore. ^ In the interior, they were stopped by the range of mountains called the Appalachians, or Alleghanies, which sep- arate the coast country from the great basin of the Mississippi and its tributaries, the country beyond being at first quite unknown. 1 TIic first permanent F.ii.tiH-li pclllenicnt \va- at Janu-stown. Va., in 1607; the second at Plynmutli, Mass., in \t)20. S^EW FRANCE AND NEW ENGLAND 85 1500-1775 and afterward claimed by France. Agriculture made far more progress in the English colonies than in New France, where the trade with the Indians for skins, and the fisheries, chiefly occupied the attention of the settlers ; and in the English colonies the moun- tain frontier afforded a protection against the hostility of the natives, which was wanting in Canada. Beyond this barrier the vast regions of the IVIississippi and the Ohio remained in possession of the Indians, and the French were the first to conceive the idea of displacing them. As with the Spaniards and Portuguese, Christianity was employed by the French as an engine of conquest, and the Jesuit missionaries be- gan to spread all over the Indian country from the north. In 1680 La Salle reached the mouth of the Mississippi, and was entrusted by Louis XIV. with the conduct of the first attempt at the settle- ment of the country about there. The attempt failed; but it was renewed about 1700 by Iberville, a Canadian. The French claimed the whole country from the mouth of the Mississippi to the Lakes and the St. Lawrence, and the name of New France was given to it on the maps. This claim violated the principle that whatever nation possessed the seacoast was entitled to the interior as far as colonization was possible. Davenant, in 1698, pointed out that the consequence of allowing the ambition of France to work its way unchecked would be to cramp the growing colonies of Eng- land, and in the years which followed the necessity of planting a new set of colonies in the west on the Mississippi and on its tribu- taries, was urged by the English. The few settlers of either nation who found their way into these remote parts were exposed to the hostilities of each other, and of the savage Indian tribes, although the boundaries were settled by the Treat}- of Aix-la-Cliapelle in 1748, and in 1756 a great war was fought for the decision of the question. In the meantime, just as in the West Indian plantations, England had been slowly strcngtliening her position. In 171 3, by the Peace of L'trecht, she once more gained Acadia, or Xova Scotia, though this rich land long remained little better than a wilderness; and the colony of Georgia was founded in 1732 as a barrier at once against France and against Spain in the south. Xo English colony advanced so fast as Pennsylvania. Besides reli- gious toleration, this was due in a great measure to the liberal dealing of Penn with his settlers, and to its security from the attacks of the Indians, who had been kindly treated by him. Forty 86 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1500-1775 years after its establishment, Pennsylvania had more inhabitants than CaroHna, Virginia, and Maryland together.^ Wherever the French have gained a footing", the English have sooner or later supplanted them. The route by land to Hudson's Bay, discovered by the English navigator of that name in 1610, was first explored by the French, and a trade in peltry with the Indians was commenced; but English traders soon followed, and a company for the acquisition of the trade was formed in 1670, The French in 1682 undertook to dislodge them, and in 1685 De Troyes drove them from all their possessions except Port Nelson. The Hudson Bay Company, however, continued to flourish, and by the Treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, the French were obliged to renounce all their pretensions to these set- tlements, though they continued to carry on a great trade in furs through Canada. No trade was so profitable as this to those who engaged in it. The furs of the Arctic zone, formerly bought at a vast price from the merchants of Italy, who procured them by a circuitous route from Siberia, have always maintained great prices in Europe, and they were now obtained of the simple Indians in endless quantities for articles of the most trifling value. The re- turn to the capital invested in the trade was no less than six to one. The French maintained themselves longer in the icy penin- sula of Labrador, which bounds the mouth of the St. Lawrence at its north side. Labrador is habitable to none but the native Esqui- maux ; but with them the French carried on profitable trade in ironware and woolen clothing. Labrador passed with the rest of New France to the English by the peace of 1763. Newfoundland had come into their possession at the same time with Nova Scotia, in 1 7 13. The French fishing station at Plaisance had always been an eyesore to the occupants of the English forts, and its cession left the English masters of the whole island. The French fisher- men, however, were still allowed to ply their trade north of Cape Bonavista, and to occupy the shore for the purpose of curing their fish. The French now concentrated themselves on Cape Breton Island, the first of their possessions in the Gulf of the St. Law- -The best estimate of the population of these colonies about this time (1720) is as follows: Pennsylvania (1730), 69,000; Maryland (1721), 60,000; Virginia (1720), 100,000; North Carolina (1717), 10,000; South Carolina (1720), 20,000. Virginia held the first place until 1820, when it was taken by New York. F. B. Dexter in American Antiquity Society Proceedings (N. S.), Vol. V, pp. 3-47. NEW FRANCE AND NEW ENGLAND 87 1500-1775 rence. Their industry so greatly extended their fishing trade, that at the time of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle it was far greater than that of the English, and employed 27,000 men. The produce of this vast industry found its way to the ports of Brittany and Bis- cay. By the peace of 1763 the English obtained Cape Breton Island and the exclusion of the French from the Bay of St. Law- rence and the coasts of Newfoundland. For twenty years the French were only allowed to touch at the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, on the south of Newfoundland, but in 1783 they recovered their right to fish in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. Between the mouths of the Orinoco and the Amazon rivers, that is, on the debatable ground between Brazil and the Central American settlements of the Spaniards, lay a large alluvial tract of country which was neglected by both. The French, Dutch, and English who passed it on every voyage to Brazil, heard man'elous stories of the gold that it contained. The story went that besides Mexico and Peru there was a third native empire with a capital called Eldorado which far exceeded them both in wealth and splen- dor; and it was believed that it would be found in the mountains beyond this coast, which was called Guayana by the Portuguese and the Wild Coast by the English. It was hither that Raleigh led an expedition, memorable only for its failure and the death of his son, in search of the precious metals. One of the first attempts of Dutch enterprise, in 1590, was to occupy a soil which reminded them strongly of their own ; this was on the Demerara River, and now belongs to England. They afterward settled on the Essequibo and Berbice rivers ; and though the French settled here as early as 1604, yet the colony of Cayenne could never be said to flourish. The English had settled at Surinam in 1634, but it was not until the impulse given to \\'est Indian enterprise by the cessation of the Cix'il War and the wise policy of Cromwell, that the settlement really began to tlourisli. The Dutch conquered the Britisli settlements in ]f)C)y. and held them till the Peace of Breda, wlien tlicy retained them in exchange for Xew York. People in luTgland were alwavs prr)]K)sing new settlements in Guiana ; but the better informed always looked upon the plan as hopeless. The soil of Guiana resembles in its situation that of Holland. The sur- face is on a level witli the sea at high water, and when the land is drained and em1)an]. 88 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1500-1775 and other works necessary to improve such a soil. These works have to be kept carefully in repair ; but once constructed, the labor of cultivation is light, and the expense is but a fraction of that necessary in the West Indies. The Guianas have never flourished as plantations until they have been cultivated on the Dutch system ; but when this has been done, they have proved more productive than even the West India Islands. They soon produced sugar, cotton, indigo, coffee, tobacco, spices, drugs, and valuable woods. The Dutch planters have always been in advance of the French. The latter committed the error of occupying the less fertile slopes of the highlands, instead of imitating the Dutch in the profitable labor of drainage and embankment. France was at this time far ahead of England in the skill and foresight with which her foreign and domestic affairs were man- aged. Except Cromwell, England had no statesman, like Colbert, able to comprehend the situation of the country with respect to its colonies, and to see the advantages derivable from their careful regulation. The West India plantations of France had been founded by private enterprise, and remained the property of in- dividuals. They passed through the hands of various owners, and the greater part of them were at one time in the possession of the Knights of Malta; but in 1664 Colbert had purchased all of them from their owners, and handed them over to a West India Com- pany. This was, however, abolished ten years afterward, and the French plantations again became private property. All the pos- sessions of France in America were on the same footing. The trade of the colonies was, of course, restricted to French ships ; but, unlike the Spanish and Portuguese system, strangers were not obstructed from visiting the colonies and settling there. There was no special bocird for their administration. Tliey were governed by tlie Minister of the Marine, and their internal administration was divided between a go\XM-nor and an intendant. The earlier half of the eighteendi century \vas the flourishing period of the French colonies. 'Phe French had by this time almost gained all the West African trade, except that in slaves, and they had greatly encroached upon the English in this; they were encroaching upon the Dutch and Spaniards in Guiana; in North America they were pursuing the plan of Louis XIV. for hemming in the English by a chain of settlements extending from tlie mouth of the Mississippi to Canada; the}- had slrongly fortihcd Cape Breton Isknid ; tlie NEW FRANCE AND NEW ENGLAND 89 1500-1776 growth of Louisiana had begun to encroach upon Mexico and Florida. Neither England nor Spain took much notice of this extension of the French colonies, which was the result of the steady policy of the French Government. Until the time of Charles IL, the Government took no official notice of the colonies. Cromwell had passed the famous law which limited their trade, but until 1666 they were free from Gov- ernment control. In that year a Committee of Privy Council, called the Committee of Trade and Plantations, was appointed to regulate them; in i68t the duties of this body had become so important that they were discharged by the whole Council sitting as a committee, and in 1696 they were transferred to a permanent body called the Board of Trade and Plantations, constituted under the direction of the Whig politicians, Somers and Locke. Until this time jobbers and capitalists had not despaired of gaining the trade of the colonies for a privileged company. The Stuarts hated the colonies and their inhabitants, and they would have been very glad to raise money by selling the commerce of the colonies to the highest bidder. Charles IL laid heavy duties on their produce, and James IL, under French influence, permanently crippled the English sugar trade by loading it with a heavy duty. William III. was not able to abolish this, but he secured the colonies that mea- sure of liberty and prosperity which they continued to enjoy until the time of George III. With some intervals, the British Empire was governed by the Whigs for three-quarters of a century after the Revolution, and during these years the colonies grew and pros- pered, though in different degrees. \\'hig principles were diffused throughout most of them, especially in New England; but else- where the relics of the old Cavalier settlers, together with the natural opposition which is always generated in free states, and the influence of the permanent government officials, most of whom were sent out from England, formed a contrary element of a Tory or Royalist character. The colonies were closely connected by means of their trade with great seaports such as London and Bris- tol ; in these cities the \^ hig party was always in the ascendant, so that trade and the colonies were always mixed up in the English mind, and constituted an interest hostile to that of the Tory or country party, who wished to see England a nation balanced on its own foundations, and independent of all connections beyond the seas. The Tories and landed gentry were jealous of the wealth 90 COLONIES OP THE WORLD 1500-1775 which the merchants and planters drew from this new source ; and they foresaw the time when this weaUh, together with that derived from the home industries which the colonial demand stimulated and fostered, would rival their own, and when legislation would have as its first object the promotion of industrial wealth and prosperity. This connection of the colonies with the Whig party began to fail after the great war of 1756, and after the Independ- ence of America it disappeared altogether. During these three- quarters of a century we see the old colony system at its height; but its success was so great that it had far outgrown the ideas even of Cromwell and William of Orange. When the produce of a single settlement equaled the revenue of a kingdom, and the greater part of this produce went to the account of profit, it became impossible to regulate the colonies through official channels, and a slight hitch in the administration would obviously lead to a breach of the old connection. This is what actually happened under the unfortunate administrations of the early years of King George IIL Chapter VI THE MISSIONS. 1500-1775 THE story of the general dealings of the Europeans with the natives whom they found estabh'shed in America is one which cannot be read without shame. 'During fifty years the Spaniards uniformly conquered and enslaved them; put them to forced labor to which they were physically unequal; and mercilessly repressed all resistance ; ^ but the chief cause of the decline in native population was doubtless the same that has pro- duced like results whenever and wherever primitive and civilized men have met in close contact. Thus in Hayti the number of natives sank from 200,000 or 300,000 at the time of the discovery to 200 fifty years later. To supply this waste, the Spanish colo- nists kidnaped the inhabitants of the neighboring islands, espe- cially of the Bahamas. Jamaica, which tlie Spanish historians declare to have been conquered without any shedding of blood, contained not a single native when the English captured it. Tlie conquest of jMexico by Cortez, according to Las Casas, cost 4,000,000 of lives. The same process went on everywhere, and at the hands of every European nation. In Xorth America attempts were made, from time to time, to convert and civilize the Indians, but they had only a temporary success. The Erench and English found them sometimes useful as irregular troops, and even en- couraged them in their condition of savagery. They took their lands, as they were wanted, witliout scruple, and nation after nation of the poor natives dwindled away and perished. It has been the same all over the world: in Soutli Africa and Australia, as in America, it has been found easier to exterminate the natives than to civilize them. The natives of Brazil were spared the cruelties which attended the conquest of Spanisli America. The few felons who were first ^ The estimate of La? Casas. that in tliese years 40.000.000 native Americans perished hy violence, i> a f^^ross exaggeration. The liery zeal of this humani- tarian reformer was not accDrthng to knowledge and his statistics are not trustworthy. 91 92 COL (3 N I E S OF T H E WORLD 1500-1775 cast upon the shores of the new colony were too weak to harm them; and the Jews, who established the first sugar plantations, were glad to treat them well, so as to induce them to labor for them. Together with the first governor of Brazil there arrived in 1549 Emmanuel de Nobrega, a Jesuit of high repute, at the head of a number of the order, who at once made great progress in con- verting the natives. Their task resembled that of the present mis- sionaries in the Pacific Islands; they baptized them, stopped their feuds and cannibalism, induced them to come to church, taught them to sing in Portuguese, and to be content with one wife. Da Costa, the second governor, built a large college for the Jesuits, and they rapidly extended their missions along the banks of the great Brazilian rivers. But here, as in Europe, and in Spanish America, these successes excited the jealousy of the clergy in the towns. The Italian explorer, Sebastian Cabot, finding the English little inclined for settling in America, entered the Spanish service. In 1526 he sailed round the coast of Brazil as far as the mouth of the great Plata or Silver River, where he built a fort, which was soon destroyed by the natives. The colony of Buenos Ayres, planted in 1535, fared little better. The object of the Spaniards here, as elsewhere, was to secure a supply of the precious metals, with which the country was supposed to abound. In this, of course, they were deceived ; their supplies failed them from home ; Buenos Ayres was abandoned, and they sailed up the river to a more productive country, where they built the town of Assump- tion. Here they flourished better; they were strengthened by new arrivals from Europe, and they established friendly relations with the Indians. In 1580 they were able to reoccupy Buenos Ayres, which had been deserted forty years. This country, rich in metals and in all animal and vegetable products, and approached by the finest navigable river in the world, was already thickly peopled. It was in the possession of many wild tribes of Indians, of whom the most intractable were the Chiquitos and Guaranis, on the upper part of the river. The Jesuits had made great progress in civiliz- ing the savages of Brazil, and when Spain took possession, in 1580, of the colonies of Portugal, the fathers undertook to spread Chris- tianity and civilization on tlie Plata River. The Spanish Govern- ment, to do it justice, was llioroughly ashamed of the cruelties by which the conquest of America had been attended ; and it readily THEIMISSIONS 93 1500-1775 granted what the fathers proposed. The chief scene of their labors was what is now the Repubhc of Paraguay, where they founded and maintained, during 150 years, a government quite unique in the history of tlie world ; but their missions extended to every part of the American continent. The Jesuit missions were imitated by the Franciscans and Dominicans, but neither of these orders rivaled them either in the extent or success of the work they undertook. The Jesuits early obtained the privilege of trading with the natives whom they visited for the support of their missions, and they had many warehcjuscs of their own in Europe. Wherever they went, they possessed the secret of acquiring wealth, influence, and respect for their order. The early Jesuits vvcre certainly the cleverest men of their time. They were at once ecclesiastics and men of the world; they partook of the advantages of all the cor- porate bodies of the age military, ecclesiastical, and commercial ; they were unencumbered by antiquated notions, and their missions had already had great success, not only in Brazil, but on the coasts of Africa and iVsia. About the time of the restoration of the colony of Buenos Ayres tliey began to visit the Plata River. In 1608, ^^hen New England and Xew France were settled, and tlie West Indies were becoming known to the future planters, they undertook to reduce the sa\age and warlike inhabitants of the Plata River to civilization. The vices and cruelties of the Euro- peans had retarded their efforts elsewhere; and their first care was to isolate the scene of their labors. As soon as their efforts had begun, they obtained a concession from the King of Spain to the effect that, in return for the yearly payment of a dollar a head for each Indian tmdcr their gi'vernment. no intruders should be per- mitted. I'his ])olicv was "ere held to be not nations, but proprietary domains, or farms, vrorked for the benefit of the mother-country. A similar maxim was in use among tlie politicians of the old Roman Empire. Just as a great landlord might have several estates in different couiities. or even countries, so a nation was unclerstood to people its >e\"era] C'.-lonies in dift'erent parts of tlie \vi,'rkl. Tliey mii^lit be L'.ri^e. or .-ni;i]] : a c(3ntinent. or an island: inlialjite.l ]j\- n:ai\-es. uv settlers, cr 1v.- a mixed race: one and all \'v"ere c^Iate^ ui the motiier-cuuiit:'}". iar:ned fur its beu.eiit. Th.e mother-cotmtry laid tliein all down on its charts, and it concerted schemes for their defense and extension. Of some it made strong- holds x<, pr.jtect tlie re.-t, and wi"iene\-er war was declared, the colonial ships became privateers, and harassed the trade of the enemy. In thi- way France used tlie island of ^Mauritius and Bourbon as outpo.-t> ro:huctive col'^-nie- of .Santo DomincT" an! (juahd'uoe. A:yi.'::-- :hc Lncrh;h i-hui-l- Aniii^iia 'J' UK MIDDLE PKllTOl) 101 1600-1750 and Barbados fulfilled the same function. The mother-country, taking post upon these military centers, sought to extend its bor- ders. It conquered where it could, and bought, sold, or exchanged elsewhere, as was deemed most for its profit. Colonies were valued mainly according to the profit derived from each. To im- port their produce cheaply, and to encourage them to a large consumption of home manufactures, were among tlie first cares of European politicians; and tliey secured to the mother-country the full benefit of this profitable rclati()n by excluding all other coun- tries from participating in it. Urns. I'!ngland prevented the Xew Englanders at once from manufacturing cotton for themselves and from importing the manufactured cotton of France. Those nations which had possessions of their own beyond sea, or a trade with those of other nations, quickly advanced in wealth and in influence at home. Sir Walter Ivaleigh showed the English that the wealth and power of Spain rested entirely on her colonial possessions, and that of ITolland on her commercial activity; and during the years that followed all the seagoing nations aimed, as we have seen, at having possessions abroad, and at keeping the trade with these in their own hands. First Holland, and then Eng- land, became greatly enriched, the former mainly through the trade of the East India Islands, the latter through that of the West Indies, and a social progress began which soon left the old states of Continental Europe far behind. We may trace this even in the outward aspect of the European towns. ]\Iost of the old towns of Germany and Italy, for instance, seem to ha\"e changed very little between the fifteer.th or sixteenth century and tiie beginning of the present one; but in Holland an.d ICngland, and in the commercial towns of France and S})ain. wc can sec tliat wealth was continually pouring into the count r\'. The leaser maritinie nations were also drawn into the stream of conitnerce. A Danish h'ast India Com- pany was formed in 1618. and tiie settlement of Tranquebar was obtained. The Company failed ; hut anotlier was formed, which lasted until 1729. The Sweilish ICast Jndia Company, though it had no settlement of its own. was more successful than the Danish. Its chief trade was with Cliina. In iv'^i^B a Swedish settlement was formed on the banks oi tlie Delawa.re in North America, but the Dutch conquered it in 1^)56. Denmark and Sweden took Init little share in colonizatit^i. but they did not remain so entirelv out of the lield as the feudal powers of (lerni;niy and Russia. It was the rise 102 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-1750 of England and Holland which induced Peter the Great to try to raise his country to the level of the times; and thus we see that the colonies and their trade are connected with the growth of the great power which overshadows Asia from the north. Russia soon traded to China hy means of a mercantile company, and later on she acquired a large tract in North America for carrying on the fur trade. The system of commercial companies grew naturally out of the establishment of commercial relations between the hostile and jealous governments of mediaeval Europe. War and commerce are only two means of gaining the same end, and a state of com- merce generally succeeds a state of war. When one government had gained from another advantageous terms of trade, it was always tempted to anticipate the benefit by bargaining away its right to a body of adventurers, who were always far readier than private individuals to pay a good sum for commercial privileges, as well as better able to pay the expenses and stand the risk which attended them. These were held to be so great that nothing short of a total monopoly was sufficient to recompense them. A great change was coming about in the social aspect of commerce. Sir Walter Raleigh, who first projected the colonization of America, had a monopoly of wine in England ; and such men had much to do with the getting up of companies. However beneficial these companies may have been in the beginnings of colonies, there can be no doubt that they stunted their growth by depriving the European con- sumer of the advantages of competition. Nor was the system itself calculated to last very long. Out of fifty-eight exclusive com- panies, forty-six failed completely, and eight were suppressed or surrendered their charters. Tb.e English East India Company was in the middle of the eighteenth century the only example of brilliant success; the Dutch Company was in its decline; the Span- ish Philippine Company was in a condition of doubtful prosperity, and tlie numerous companies with which France had embarrassed the rise of Canada, of Louisiana, and of Santo Domingo had all been signal failures. Tlie companies of Denmark, and those of the ports of Emden and Ostend, had the same fate. And Portugal, which nc\'er allov.ed any society of traders to interfere between its gov- ernment and its colonies, until 1756, when Pombal, seduced by French examples, cst.'iblished one for Brazil, was an example of a nation vastlv enriched bv its colonies without the aid of exclu- THE MIDDLE PERIOD 103 1600-1750 sive companies. The abolition of the companies of St. Domingo, in 1722, was for France the beginning- of a blaze of colonial pros- perity which astonished Europe. By the time when the system of completely subjecting each set of colonies, commercially and politically, to the mother-country was at its height, the system of exclusive companies was far advanced in its decline. The most conspicuous example of the failure of a great com- mercial company was one formed in England in the time of Queen Anne to carry on a trade with the South Sea countries, that is, with Spanish America in general and the Pacific Islands. The great expectations formed of this company were artfully fostered by its promoters, and its shares at one time rose to eight times their original value. But it proved tlie ruin of everyone who trusted in it, for it never had any trade worth mentioning. The best of the trades with New Spain was thought to be the slave trade; and the English deprived the French company of the contract under which this was carried on, called the " Assiento," and put it in the hands of the South Sea Company ; but this trade produced no great returns. For some years this company sent an annual ship for general trade to New Spain, and they engaged largely in the whale-fishery: but they lost by everything, and in the end they ceased to trade altogether, and the capital of the company was converted into annuity stock. Of all colonial systems tlie Spani^li was the most grotesque and antiquated. It limited the trade of America not only to its own subjects, but to a single place in its territory. Seville was at first the only port of enibarcation for the Indies; but the incon- veniences of its situation CcUiscd the privilege to be extended to Cadiz, v'^pain only saw too late tliat by opening all her ports to the American trade s!ie miglit ctTcctr.ally profit by her colonial posses- si(^ns. Her origin:il s\stcm was (iljslinatcl}' adhered to for two liun- (h"cd years, the corisc!|nencc !)ciiig th;it slic was in the end weal^cncd rather than strenglh^'netl by licr American po-sessions, that her colony trade was roir.narati\-c]y tlie smallest and least remunerative in Juux.'po. arid ihat sac chicilx' fnltilled the funciioiu of bringing silver to i'an'ope lor ilic use of the traders of other nations. Tlie monopoly of Ca'liz :iiid Seville wa.s abolished in 1778, and by ten years afterward her iinportaitions ivom America v^'cre ir.creased more than k'lifold. Ihi! ui th.o UK.intimr. a. conipari!i\-cl}' free sys- tem in the ICtiglish taiji'iiics had raised up a \'ast nati^.n by liei" side; 104 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-1750 Florida was added to English America in 1763; and it was not difficult to foresee the annexation of New Mexico, New Navarre, and California. Spanish America presented a group of nations widely scattered and greatly differing in their composition. In Mexico, and still more in Peru, the natives were far more numer- ous than the Europeans, and the traditions of the cruel conquest which subjected them to their European masters subsisted still unsoftened. The Peruvians had never been thoroughly subdued; and strangely enough they were allowed to keep an annual festival which revived the memory of their independence. The Spanish grandees seldom lived far away from the town, as in Central Amer- ica they seldom lived far from the seashore or the banks of the gold-bearing rivers, and the natives lived alone and unmolested, provided that they paid their tax regularly. In Central America, Chile, and the Plata River settlements, they were mixed with a larger proportion of Europeans ; but everywhere an odious dis- tinction was maintained betv/een the Creoles, or Americans born, whether of pure or mixed race, and the officials sent out by the Spanish Government. In this way the elements of a future struggle for independence had long been preparing. The only political change in two hundred years consisted in an increase in the number of viceroyalties. Spanish America had been originally divided into those of Mexico and Peru; but in 1739 Terra Firma, as the southern continent north of Guiana was called by the navigators who first discovered it, together with the north Peruvian province of Quito, were erected into a separate vicero3'alty by the name of New Grenada. After the abolition of the Jesuit government in Paraguay and California, these parts were provided for by the establishment of a fourth viceroyalty of the Plata River in 1176, and by sending a separate governor, but without the rank and state of a viceroy, to New ^Mexico. Tlie maxims of the colony system were rigorously carried out. The Peruvians were not allowed to cultivate tlie o]i\c and llie vine, that the oil and wine of Spain might have a wider riiarket; pepper was prohibited in Porto Rico, and hemp and llax were exterminated in Chile. Tlie expulsion of the ]\Ioriscocs or Christianized ]\Ioors from Spain in 161 1 began the ruin of the real j^rosperity of Spain. A million of the most industrious of the inhabitants were driven into exile; and Spain, so far as regarded her colr^ny trade, became merely the factor of f/ther nations. As S])aiii declined in hAirope, her insular [josjcsiions fell T II E M I 1) D T. 1% V E R 1 O I) 105 1600-1750 into the hands of her rivals, and her inabih'ty to defend even those on the mainland against other powers became clear. Anson had, during the War of the Austrian Succession, proved the feasibility of an English conciuest of I'eru. Portugal, with all that belonged to it, was by this time regarded as a mere dependency of England; and there was a general belief that 1 England would in the end absorb all America. Tlic luiglish were thoroughly exasperated with the Spaniards; many of the mercantile party wished to see the attempt made, and the jealousies and threats of France some- times drove England in tlie direction uf making it. But a better alternative has been found ; tliough if we substitute for England the English political system, we shall see in the end that the com- mon forecast was not very wide of the mark. Brazil and the English colonies alike profited by the neglect of the mother countries. Brazil, though the richest, most exten- sive, and most promising of all the European settlements, had ad- vanced but slow'ly, in comparis(jn with the English colonics, since the Dutch evacuated it in 1654. The abundant supply of pro- visions yielded by the missions stimulated the plantations ; and by the end of the seventeenth century the exports of sugar and tobacco were greater than ever. The discovery of gold in the south gave a great impulse to the prosperity of Brazil, and raised into importance the port of Rio Janeiro, wliich became the resi- dence of the viceroy, and the place where the gold was collected and coined. The governor, appointed for five years, was usually a soldier of some repute. 1 1 is chief business was to keep the Europeans and natives in order, and to protect the coast against invasion, and his post was often a stepping-stone to that of Vice- roy of India. About 1685 tlie Portuguese Government first began to think of vSystematically improving their rich colony. One of the most remarkable of the governors of Brazil was John of Lan- caster (1694-1702). lie v\-as said to be of nn-al luiglish descent; he improved the revenues, built several nev\' towns, and reduced the ?^Iaroon state of Palmares, which must have numbered 20.000 inhabitants. It was in his time that the g(^ld of the south was discovered, and it was by In'm that the province of !Minas Geraes was organized. The Portuguese allowed the mestizos, or half- breeds, to hold lands in their new townships. In 17 10 the colony of Recif was founded. The municipal rights which it obtained were thought to be an encroachment on the privileges of Per- 106 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-1750 nambuco. The inhabitants of that town rose in arms and besieged Recif; and the insurrection was only quelled with the aid of a fleet from Europe. The Methuen treaty (1703) placed Portugal completel}' on the side of England, and in the War of the Spanish Succession two expeditions (1710, 171 1) were dispatched by Louis XIV. to attack Brazil. The first was unsuccessful, but in the next Rio Janeiro was taken, and the French carried off a rich booty. In 1728 diamonds were discovered, and as all these treasures were imported into Portugal under the protection of England and her allies, the mother-country, unlike Spain, reaped the full benefit of them. The years which followed were marked by a great extension of mines, missions, and settlements, and in 1750 the boundaries of the Spanish and Portuguese possessions were settled by a treaty. The numerous insurrections of the blacks and Indians prove the cruelty which accompanied the rise of Brazilian pros- perity. The success of the struggle for independence in English America probably encouraged the insurrection of ]Minas Geraes which broke out in 1789. It was secretly favored by the mer- chants of Rio; but the government suppressed it without much difficulty, and the leader, a cavalry officer named Xavier, was exe- cuted at Villa Rica. But it was impossible to control the desire for independence, and fortunately opportunities were successively afforded for gaining it in a more peaceful way than happened in Spanish America. On the occasion of the terrible earthquake of Lisbon in 1755, Pombal nearly executed the project of bodily trans- ferring the court and government of Portugal to its great depen- dency. He anticipated actual events by only sixty years. French America was quickly eclipsed in importance by New England. Fur many years neither Acadia nor Quebec were more than a few temporary settlements made by fishermen and traders, with some ions for their protection, and backed, in the case of Canada, by liaif-cultivated tracts of land in the hands of poor seigneurs and tlieir peasants, living in ignorance and isolation from llie rost oi tiic world. The Jesuits were hard at work among the Indians; but under Richelieu's company the colony made no per- ce])iiblc advance. In 1662 the company resigned its charter; the colony was thenceforth placed under a governor and council nominated by the king; and it began to increase and prosper. Al)out i'^)85 die iM-encli settlers began to encroach on New Eng- land; and befcjre the end of the centurv the Canadians had made THE MIDDLE PERIOD 107 1600-1750 a settlement at the mouth of the ^Mississippi. IJy tlic Peace of Utrecht, Acadia, with its 16,000 French inliabitants, was ceded to England ; but the efforts of the French to occupy the Ohio and Mississippi seemed to be only the more determined. The War of the Austrian Succession was marked in America by the capture of Louisburg (1745); but it was restored at the Peace of Aix-la- Chapelle. During these years tlie English colonies were greatly increasing; and the French, foreseeing the struggle which was im- pending, took measures for defending the frontier of the Great Lakes. They strengthened the fortifications of Niagara, they built large vessels on Lake Ontario, and they organized the Canadian militia. This national rivalry between the north and south sides of the great American lakes has subsisted unchanged until our own times. During this period the inhabitants of New France became a nation, as they fondly termed themselves. La Nation Canadicnne. A native of Canada was called a Jiabitanf, and nowhere in the New World has so intense a national feeling been developed. It has extended to the English settlements in Upper Canada, though here, of course, it has a different foundation. The growth of the Englisli colonies between the Revolution of 1688, which secured them a degree of liberty enjoyed by those of no other nation, and the disputes which led to independence (1767-1775) has no parallel in history. These colonies dift"ered much in their forms of government. The charter governments, such as the New England States, in which the governor was chosen annually by popular election,^ and the proprietary governments ot Pennsylvania and Maryland, had no dependence on the executive government of England, and they transacted their business with it through agents of their own, resident in England. The Crown colonies were St. John's, Newfoundland, including^ the island of that name, and the continent between the River St. John and Hud- son Straits; Nova Scotia; New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, \^irginia. North and South Carolina, Georgia and the Bahamas, important only througli the little settlement of New Providence, h'lorida fell to Ivngland in the peace of 1763, but was restored to Spain by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The influence of the growth (^f the colonies on the trade and manufactures of England had been enormous, 'i'lie exports to the colonies 1 In Massachusett>, after ^Gqj. the srovernor was appointed l)y the Crown. In Rhode island and Connecticut he was elected bv the legislature. 108 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-1750 in 1775 were equal to the whole export trade of England, in- cluding the colonies, in the first year of the century ; while the growth of individual settlements may be estimated by that of Pennsylvania, which . in 1772 took in nearly fifty times the amount of British imports v.hich it consumed in 1704. It was impossible that this immense increase should not greatly strain the Act of Navigation, originally only intended to gain for Eng- lish ships the carrying-trade of the West Indies. This Act was, in fact, greatly relieved in some points, and not observed at all in others. We have seen how the contraband trade carried on be- tween the English colonies and the French and Dutcli sugar islands contributed to depress the sugar trade of the English West Indies. The existence of this trade was well known to the British Gov- ernment, but it was not easy to decide how to deal with it. The armaments which had been sent out from England, Flolland, and France against the buccaneers had proved the impossibility of suppressing by force any trade which was tolerated by the colo- nists themselves. The North .American colonies produced far more for export than Great Britain or her islands could possibly consume, nor was Great Britain able to supply all the commercial demands of British America. Common sense would have said that the colonists should be allowed to trade with their neighbors for themselves; but this would have been to destroy the Naviga- tion Act. which was regarded as the safeguard of English trade and navigation. Tlie difficulty was solved by the invention of a new system of taxation. A high duty was laid on all foreign sugar, rum, and molasses imported into British colonies; while the English sugar islands were allowed to send those commodities direct to other parts of Europe. Other privileges were granted to the colonies from time to time, in exchange for other duties ; and in this way tlie competence of the British Parliament to lay taxes upon the colonies was first recognized. We liave seen how Penn encouraged persons of all nations and religious persuasions to settle in America. In this he followed the example of tlic Dutcli; and he established for North America a principle whicli ha.-< n(jw been extended to the whole of it, and indeed to most of the civilized world. English America had become celebrated tln'oughout Europe as a refuge from persecu- tion. The advantages of the colonial life soon became apparent. Svvarms (jf Germans and Swiss settled there, attracted by the pros- THE MIDDLE PERIOD 109 1600-1750 perity of their kinsmen. Tlie overflow of the peasant population of Ireland and Scotland soon regularly poured thither. In 1729 over 6000 immigrants came to Pennsylvania alone, four-fifths of whom were Irish. Two thousand Irish sailed every year from Belfast, and by 1740 this port as well as Derry had a large and regular passenger trade. New York was the favorite destination of the Irisli, while the Germans of tlie Palatinate, Wurtemburg, and Switzerland found their way in great numbers to Philadelphia. Above twenty ships sailed for this port laden with German emi- grants every year, long before the War of Independence; and thus English America drained Europe of some of its most adventurous and its hardiest elements. Labor was eagerly demanded in the new lands, and kidnapers in the pay of English and Dutch merchants spread all over Europe, persuading the poor peasantry, groaning under the last years of continental feudalism, to quit tlie soil to which they were bound for tlic land of wealth and liberty. On their arrival they were compelled to bargain themselves away for a certain number of years, usually four. Pennsylvania, where land was to be had cheapest, v/as the great inlet of foreigners, and as time went on the German immigrants outnumbered the English and Irish in the proportion (^f four to one. The latter did not, in general, thrive so well as the more frugal and industrious Ger- mans, and sought their fortunes further south in Garolina and Georgia. The latter colony, settled on a waste part of Carolina in 1732. as an outpost against the attacks of Erancc and Spain aided by the hostile tribes of Indians, was settled on conditions which, however laudable in themselves, threw it back in the race of progress. No negroes were permitted; the importation of rum from the West Indies was forbidden; no immigrant received more tlian twcnty-tive acres of land; and it v\-as attempted to keep it in the familv l)v mai-cing it inlierilaiyic only by the .settler's male issue. None of these en;icuncnls \v(M"keil well ; the}' were abolislied, and tlie colony was ])lacecl on a similar footing to South Carolina. No (jther country, except ihe Dutch colony at tlie Gape, affords during the eighteenth ceiituv}- the spectacle of thousands of agri- cultural laborers leaxing luirope, taking possession ni lands beyond sea, and cultivating tlicm for tlieniselvcs. The bi>rrs, or peasants, emigrated in great lllrnlbcr.^ to the C;ipe, where the Dutch East India Gom])::n\' readilx" graniol i!u-!ii a certain (|nanlit\- oi laiKl, lliiiugli ii allow '.-d tlicni no ji iiitic! pri\:k'gcs \vhalc\er. 110 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1600-1750 Though the planters mainly relied on negro labor, the spirit of adventure, poverty and failure at home, and the system of trans- porting debtors and criminals, replenished the West Indies with a class of laborers who often raised themselves to be small planters and proprietors. Here too English policy permitted the establish- ment of such forms of government as might be suitable to each island, without any care for uniformity, or for any stricter con- nection with the mother-country than was already secured by the Navigation Acts. At the breaking out of the War of Independ- ence the English West Indies were divided into four governments : I, The Barbados; 2. The Windward Islands, which included Grenada, the Grenadines, and Tobago; 3, The Leeward Islands, including Antigua, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Christopher, Anguilla, Tortola, together with several of the adjoining Virgin group; 4. Jamaica. Each of these governments enjoyed the same de- gree of liberty as the ro3'al or provincial governments of the American continent. The governor had his lieutenant governor and his council, and the people had their own assemblies, their own law-courts. They made their own statute laws, taking that of England as a basis ; and this liberty of legislation often led to great confusion. In the Leeward Islands, for instance, the assem- bly, sitting sometimes at Nevis and sometimes at x\ntigua, would pass a law which affected all the islands ; but it often made special laws for some one or more of them, just as the British Parlia- ment now often makes special laws for England and for Ireland. Again, in some colonies the powers vested in the governor were very limited, and nothing of importance could be done without a certain number of his council ; but the administration in these, as in other cases where personal responsibility is lessened, was not ahvays the best. The Church of England was established in many of tliese islands by Acts of Assembly, as in the southern colonies of the continent ; but there were no bishops. The governor presented to vacant benefices, and exercised the functions of ecclesiastical judges at liome. The clergy were sometimes paid by a certain quantity of sugar, as in Virginia they received their stipends in tobc'icco. l^ach :issenibly guvernment regulated the trade of its own shipping, amounting sometimes to 400 or 500 sail. It will be seen that the functions of the legislative assemblies were likely to bcC'>]ne vcr}- extensive and complicated. In the Leeward Islands the business of the assembly became so heavy that a separate assem- THE MIDDLE TERIOD 111 1600-1750 bly was established for each of the islands of St. Christopher, Xevis. Montserrat and Antigua. The details of the government enjoyed by these small but wealthy colonies arc important, because they illustrate the contrast between those of I'2ngland and of other na- tions, and because they were afterward repeated on a greater scale in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The West India governments were chiefly occupied with the problem of keeping the negroes, who everywhere far outnumbered the whites, in proper order and subjection. They made countless lav/s for tliis purpose, but the negroes often broke out in rebellion, which was always cruelly suppressed. The most flourishing period of the British West Indies, though not their greatest extent and popu- lation, had been reached in the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury. With the decline of white labor, and the exclusive use of that of negroes, their comparative produce declined. The pretense that the Antilles cannot be cultivated without negroes or coolies is refuted by plain facts. The white Creoles of Anguilla and Tor- tola, and the Ten x'Ycre men of Barbados, v\'ere instances of suc- cessful cultivation by hardy and temperate persons, while numbers of white people in Carolina and Georgia have always raised both grain and rice without negro labor. A white man, with a light plow and two horses, will cultivate as much land as seven negroes with hoes. But the great planters were always jealous of their poorer neighbors, and as they were able to sell their sugar cheaper, and to speculate on a larger scale, they bought them up as fast as they could. Hence the white population daily decreased: but it is to the policy of the great planters and to the great masses of capital in their hands, rather than to the necessity for negro labor, which grew in the end to an abuse too great to be tolerated, that the decline of the islands is truly attril^utable. Had negroes never been introduced into these islands, probably they would have been far more prosperous, and a source of far greater wealth to the mother-country than has been the case. The French planta- tions first rivaled and then exceeded the prosperity of the English. Idle Spanish islands were in a backward condition; and the Dutch islands were chiefly trading statit)ns. While the settlements of iuigland and France were fast rising into importance, the fcM"mer through constant immigration, and the latter through a wise ap])licati(M-i of capital and industry, those of Holland, except Surinam, did not increase either in wealth or 11^ COLONIES OF THE WORLD m extent. From 1700 to 1740 the Dutch Compan}^ were the first commercial power in the East ; but though they continued to make conquests, they were not really increasing in prosperity. Some remarkable ideas were conceived by a Swiss in their employ, named John Purry. He thought that the commercial countries of Europe should not confine themselves to trading with the old nations, but that they should send out people to form permanent and self- supporting settlements. He had observed that latitudes of about thirty and forty degrees from the equator, such as those of South- ern Europe, Carolina, Chile, and Rio Janeiro, were most favorable for Europeans. In 17 18 he presented a memorial to the Dutch India Company, urging them to plant new colonies on the Kafiir coast beyond the Cape of Good Hope, and on that part of the coast of New Holland which is now called South Australia. Here he wished to see European settlements producing corn, fruit, wine, and oil, and carrying on a trade with India. But the Dutch were afraid for their spice trade, and Purry was expelled from the service of the company. He then carried his proposals to France, where tliey were referred to the Academy of Sciences. This learned body wisely refused to judge of countries which they had never seen ; and Purry went to England. The English were more interested in America than in the coasts of the Indian Ocean. They sent him home to collect a number of Swiss Protestants, with whom he sailed for Carolina ; and there, around Purrysburg, on the savannah which divides Carolina and Georgia, their descend- ants dwell to this day. Purry, lil:e many other men whose names have perished, v.'as a hundred years in advance of his age. The Dutch East India Company \vas a hundred years behind it. Though the Portuguese remained undisturbed in the posses- sicMi ot their East ^Vfrican settlements, the recovery of their freedom came too late to admit of their keeping more than a remnant of their once vast commercial empire in the East. And after the alliance of the nevr Portuguese dynasty with the English, the Dutch pursued them wiui Flill greater vigor. Tliey drove tliem from Cochin in 1662, and frcjni Pegu in 17 19. Goa, Daman, and Diu were their chief pr.ssessioriS in India; in the Spice Islands they retained (jnly a ])art of the Island of Timor, and nothing in China but the port of Macao. While the vast trade of the Dutch main- tained itself firmly, in spite of the v\"eakness inherent in the system of an exclusive company, and England and France were rapidly THE MIDDLE PERIOD 113 1600-1750 extendinj^ tlieir commerce, the trade of the Portuguese settlements became less and less, and declined more than ever after Pombal had established an exclusive company at Goa. The Dutch in the East had acquired Malacca, the ancient emporium of the Moorish merchants; and this, together with Batavia. made them masters of the only two known channels of navigation between Europe and the Spice Islands. They had great factories in Sumatra ; Ceylon, from which they had driven the Portuguese in 1658, yielded them cinnamon, pepper, precious stones, areca nuts, ivory, and pearls; they had numerous settlements on the Coromandel coast of India, but on the jNIalabar coast the Portuguese, French and English had the best of the trade. Java was the center of their commer- cial empire. Unlike the Portuguese, they tolerated the Eastern religions; the Mohammedan sultans of this fertile island acknowl- edged their protection one by one. and in T768 the prince who ruled in its eastern extremity submitted to the Dutch arms. On these native princes the Dutch Company contented themselves with levying an annual tribute of produce marketable in luu'ope ; but they lield the neighborliood of Batavia as an absolute possession. Like many conquered countries, it was descried by its okl inhabi- tants, and labor was scarce tnitil a hu'ge number of Chinese and German emigrants were induced to settle there by selling them land at a low price. The Chinese li.'ul long been immigrating in vast numbers into the town of Batavia. Tliey had ])rospcred exceedingly by their industry and friigaliiy, and in 1740, inider pretense of a conspiracy, many of them were plundered ;ind massa- cred. But they jjroved indispensable, both in agricuhure and in manufactures: and fort}" \'c<'n"s atier this ihere were Joo.ooo Chinese in B:ita\'ia and its \'!Cinity. riic company exacted from them iiea\-y caj)iLaiioii and othicr taxes; and it is said to ha\'e received no less tliau i5,lHlio)i and the Adventurer left Deptford Docks on a voyage ol" discovery which lasted more than three years. Cook elid not discover any Terra Australis, but he 124 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1750-1775 showed that even if it existed it could not be habitable, and that the coasts of the vast island of New Holland had been mistaken for it. The name was transferred to this great island, which Cook accurately surveyed and made known to the English; and he pointed out how advantageously it might be colonized. Cook's skill and enterprise led the way to the foundation of another im- portant colony. We have already mentioned that dream of the European navigators, the discovery of a northwest passage to India and China. Parliament had offered a reward of 20,000/. for its discovery, and Cook's third voyage, which he undertook with this view, was the most memorable of all. He did not indeed discover a northwest passage any more than a Terra Australis ; but he made it highly probable that no such passage existed. Previous ex- plorers had vainly tried to find it from the east; Cook, by a bold effort of judgment, laid his plan for its discovery by the west. On this famous voyage he discovered the Sandwich Islands, and ex- plored the hitherto unknown western coast of America, north of California, to a length of 3500 miles. He laid down accurately on his chart the approximating coast lines of Asia and America, passed the straits which divide them, and saw enough of the Arctic Sea to dispel all hopes of ever reaching the Atlantic from the Pa- cific, or the Pacific from the Atlantic, by the northern extremity of America. Cook was murdered by the savages of Hawaii on his return from this voyage, which opened to British enterprise the Pacific shore of Canada, Vancouver Island, and British Colum- bia. As America owes its fortunes to the genius and daring of Columbus, so Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, and British Columbia, owe their future to the science and adventurous spirit of Cook. Cook destroyed two great geographical illusions : he fixed forever on the map of the world the outlines of land and ocean ; he at once stimulated and regulated the enterprise of those who followed in his steps. The results of his discoveries belong to future parts of colonial history, but his fame was deservedly great in his lifetime. The French never molested his vessels when at war with England, but this generous feeling was not shared by Spain and the American Colonies.^ The Colonial Empire of England now extended from the ^ " All captains and commanders of" American "armed ships" were in- structed, March lo. 177Q. by Benjamin Franklin. American Minister to France, to treat " t!iat nio-t celebrated navigator, Captain r(i(.k;' not as an enemy, but "with all civility and kindness, affording" hiin "all the assistance in your E N G r. I S H SUPREMACY 125 1750-1775 Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Arctic Ocean to the Caribbean Sea. Her ships and her armies were victorious in every part of the globe. When peace was made with France and Spain, in 1763, many of the British conquests were judiciously restored. The British Empire, in truth, was larger than British statesmen could at this time conveniently manage ; and the French and Spaniards, generously as most people thought that England had treated them in 1763, were scheming to retrieve their losses. New France liad been conquered and added to the possessions of England, and Spain believed that her hour would come next. Choiseul, a bold and active minister, directed the policy of France, and he was intriguing with all the European powers for a grand attack on England. He encouraged Spain to refuse to pay the Manila ran- som, and to set up a claim to the Falkland Islands, and England was obliged to form defensive plans on a large scale. The expense of the civil and military establishments abroad was now greatly increased. England was at this time by no means a wealthy coun- try in proportion to the extent of her vast dominions. Her wars had involved her in a heavy public debt ; her people were impatient of further taxation ; but it was necessary to raise more taxes in order to defray the increased and still increasing expenditure. The government got year by year deeper in debt, and it was at last resolved that the colonies, for whose benefit these great expenses were being incurred, should contribute to it themselves. W'e have seen how great was the dcx'clopment they had reached, and it v/as generally understood tliat tlic comfortable circumstances of the colonists quite justified the measure. To lay heavier duties on the imports from the colonies would have been to tax England, not America ; and such were the relations between the colonies and foreign nations that it was impossible to meddle with the produce either of the fisheries or of the sugar plantations. It was necessary to leave alone also tlie carrying trade. Direct taxation, or cus- toms duties on imports, were the only alternatix'c, and we shall see, shortly, the results of attempts to introduce both the one and the other. In tlie meantime j-jiglish statesmen formed ]:)lans for such an extension of the colonics as should turn out most to tlie advantage of England. Not Canad.a, but tlie south, was thought to be the most promising; and a great colony, called Xew Wales, power. . . . Tn so Joini; . . . tluTc i> no doubt of your obtaining the approbation of tlic CcMigro- -."- -Franklin's Work.-;, ed. by J. Bigelow, Vol VI.. p. 3^1- 126 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1750-1775 was projected on the Ohio. The colonial system was now at the height of its glory. The manufacturers of England looked for- ward intently to the time when it would not be worth the while of the colonists even to make a shoe or knit a stocking. " Then, indeed," as one of them said, " will they thrive indeed, and Britain be happy." The duty of a colony was to work diligently at its mines, its fisheries, and its plantations. The destiny of America was to be to supply Great Britain with raw materials; and Great Britain was to be made in this respect independent of all the rest of Europe. The St. Lawrence was to send the flax, hemp, potash, and naval stores she imported from the Baltic ; the Mississippi to supply her with the wine, oil, silk, drugs, and fruits for which her treasure was yearly exported to the Mediterranean. All this trade would enrich English shipowners and increase Eng- land's naval strength. The immensely increased population of the colonies, and the spirit with which they took up the war with France in America, gave hopes that they would one day greatly contribute to her military strength at home. So rooted were these ideas that long after the Americans had begun to resist taxation from home, it was believed that even if they achieved their inde- pendence they would soon perceive their mistake, and voluntarily throw themselves at the feet of Great Britain. The truth, however, was, that while the colonies were attain- ing the height of their prosperity, and reflecting this prosperity upon their mother-countries, the colonial system itself was totter- ing to its fall. The home governments stubbornly shut their eyes to the fact that many of the settlements which they looked upon as merely contributory to their own wealth and greatness were growing into new nations, which upon the happening of a fit op- portunity would surely seek their independence. The Definitive Treaty of 1763 may be looked upon as the beginning of a wonder- ful half-century of transition, during which this change was really everywhere effected, here in one way, and there in another. This is the first occasion in history when a great political convul- sion has traveled (juickly from one end of a great continent to the other, and accomplished a revolution which can never be re- versed. The fall of the power of Europe in Xorth and South America is perhaps tlie grandest catastrophe in all history, though we stand at present too near to it to realize its full signilicance. Chapter IX THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 1776 THE American colonists had already proved their strength in the Seven Years' War; they were strongly attached to England, but more strongly to the English liberties which they had inherited. England had allowed them to form themselves into several little independent republics, most of which would long ago have shaken off the commercial yoke of the mother-country if they had not had before their eyes the fear of the French knocking at their gates. When Canada was concjuered this fear was gone; and when England proposed to tax them for the avowed purpose of keeping up a military force, they believed that this was only the beginning of a plan for reducing them to the model of the Royal Governments of Georgia and Canada. There is no doubt that English statesmen, if they had pleased, might easily have avoided the supposed necessity of taxing America. They might have put off until better times any increase in the army, and have, in the meantime, greatly increased the land revenue. The colonists re- sisted Grenville's Stamp Act so unanimously that it was with- drawn by the government wliich succeeded; but Townshend in 1767 revived the attempt, and laid duties upon tea, paper, glass, and painters' colors, some of the most important articles exported to them by England. The colonists unanimously resolved not to buy of England any of the taxed articles ; and as the taxes there- fore only ruined the English trade, they were repealed in 1770, except a trifling duty on tea, which was purposely left as an asser- tion of the right of taxation. In 1773 a cargo of tea, which had just arrived in the port of Boston, was thrown into the sea by the people, and the British Parliament retaliated by completely aboHsh- ing the charter of the colony and closing the port. From this period, hostilities became inevitable. A congress of the colonists was opened at Philadelphia in the next year, and in 1775 the first blood was shed at the battle of Lexington. In 1776 the thirteen 127 128 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1776-1800 colonies declared themselves independent. Canada and Nova Scotia remained loyal. In the next year General Burgoyne, the British commander in chief in Canada, invaded the revolted col- onies from the north, but v^as defeated and capitulated at Saratoga. France, of course, tried to take advantage of this disaster. She acknowledged the independence of the colonies and entered into treaties of alliance and of commerce v^ith them. War between France and England ensued in which the French temporarily cap- tured the islands of Dominica, St. Vincent, and Grenada, though they lost St. Lucie. Lord Cornwallis, the British commander in the southern colonies, surrendered at Yorktown in 1781; but the splendid victory of Rodney off Guadeloupe retrieved British honor, and proved the superiority of England at sea to the combined power of France, Spain, and the thirteen colonies. But the Peace of Versailles, in 1783, left England in a far less dominant position than she held at that of Paris, twenty years before. The inde- pendence of the colonies, thence called the United States, was formally acknowledged; Tobago, gained from the French in 1763, was restored, and they were allowed a greater share than before in the Newfoundland fisheries, and to take possession of the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. Florida was restored to Spain. From the Dutch, against whom England had declared war in con- sequence of their joining the armed neutrality formed by Russia, the English not only took several places in India, but exacted the free navigation of all the Eastern seas. The independence of America was important on many accounts ; but its immediate effect was felt in its destroying the Navigation Act, and opening the commerce of the United States to the world. The shipping of the United States increased fivefold in twenty years; the trade with England increased in the same proportion ; and these facts in the end showed the people of England that it was well to release their colonies from tutelage as speedily as possible. France and Spain began to cast about for new colonies; Spain explored the western coast northward of Mexico, and France made strenuous efforts to gain a footing in South America. People began to think more and more of agricultural colonies, and less of planta- tions and colonial possessions ; but to form these on a great scale fell to the \()t of Eiighmd alone. Since the independence of Amer- ica, English ca])ilal and labor have been dispersed all over the world, and made the beginnings of a new United States on each AMERICAN REVOLUTION 129 1776-1800 shore of British America, in South Africa, and in the great group of islands called Australasia. The relations between England and the English colonies are now so different that it is not easy to estimate the difference which the independence of the American colonies produced in the mother country at the time. Canada and Australia, for instance, are bound to England by a tie which is known to be so slight that its rupture would be not at all dreaded; and such a rupture would hardly be felt commercially whenever it happened. But the rup- ture of the ties between America and England amounted to the total destruction of a great artificial system of trade, in which most of the home merchants and manufacturers were interested. The anticipations of these were of course gloomy enough ; but the real result, as had been foreseen by a few far-sighted men, was much to their advantage. As soon as the old narrow system of com- merce collapsed, a new one naturally arose, of much vaster propor- tions, and offering an unlimited scope for extension. The col- lapse of the colonial system, therefore, laid solid beginnings for free trade in England ; and in almost every way it proved to be a great benefit. The great English minister into whose hands the affairs of England fell, was prepared to advance free trade far more quickly than people thought. But Pitt's hands were stayed by the French Revolution; a catastrophe whose effect was more imme- diately felt than even the fall of the Act of Navigation. The French Revolution delayed his plans on the one hand, but on the other, as we shall see by the following chapter, it finished the work of American independence by destroying the old system in the case of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. Cook stimulated discovery almost as much as Columbus him- self. The journals of his voyages were soon in circulation all over the world. A crowd of navigators of all nations followed in his track on the northwest coast of America, of whom the most famous were Vancouver and La Perouse. The abundance of fine furs on the north part of this coast attracted tlie merchants of Siberia and Kamchatka; and in the year after 1783 many settlements for the skin trade were made by the Russians. The vast territories inland were traversed by Mackcn/:ie. iMTizcr, and otiier travelers; but for many years no settlements except stations for the fur trade existed on the I'acific shore of tlie British territory. Great efforts were made to do for maps of the soil what Cook had done for the 130 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1776-1807 chart of the ocean. Of Africa Httle was known beyond the coasts, but these revealed the existence of a great savage population. Many philanthropic people now began to think of civilizing them. In 1787 a party of colonists, led by a Swede called Wadstrom, landed on the west coast of Africa, but they were driven off by the opposition of the French Senegal Company. The English peo- ple, however, took up Wadstrom and his cause. The plan was, that the slaves of America should be emancipated and sent back to Africa, and that with their experience of civilized life, they might begin the task of civilizing their fellow countrymen. In the south of Africa, Patterson and Vaillant began their explorations in Caff- raria, in 1788. These were the beginning of great settlements. The African Association shortly afterward sent out several ex- plorers, the most distinguished of whom was Mungo Park. The cession of Louisiana by Spain to France, and by France to the United States, laid open a vast region west of the Mississippi to American enterprise, and Pursley, in 1805, traversed its pathless forests until he reached the Spanish territory of New Mexico. In the next year Lewis and Clark first crossed the Rocky Mountains, and reached the northwest coast. The Pacific Islands were visited by whaling vessels, and European settlers began to fix themselves in their tracks. Alissionaries soon followed, and in many places of the South Seas Christianity and civilization made a beginning together. From the independence of America dates the great agitation against the slave trade, which ended with its abolition in 1807. More than a century before, George Fox had loudly denounced the slavery of Barbados; and the Quakers of Pennsylvania had all emancipated their slaves. The famous Declaration of Independ- ence commenced with declaring " all men are born free and equal," and all tlie States, except the Carolinas and Georgia, followed up their victory over England by prohibiting the importation of any more negro slaves; and from 1808 a federal statute prohibited their importation into any part of the Union. Sympathy frjr the negroes spread at once to ICngland. Many black slaves, whose masters had been ruined l)y tlic war, were found naked and starving in the streets of London, as well as in Nova Scotia, and it was resolved to f(jund a free colony at Sierra Leone on the African coast for their reception. Hiis was done, through the efforts of Granville Sharp and Jonas Ilanway, in 1787; the colonists were joined by AMERICAN REVOLUTION 131 1776-1800 free negroes from the West Indies ; and though the natives dis- persed them, the settlement was restored in 1791, and long served as an asylum for the rescued victims of the slave trafific. But the hopes that were entertained of its forming a center from which civilization might gradually cover equatorial Africa have hitherto been fruitless. The loss of the thirteen colonies gave a new importance to the remaining members of the British Colonial Empire. It was foreseen that a religious concession must be made if Canada was to be retained; and the Act of 1774, for regulating its government, practically gave a legal establishment to the Catholic religion, sub- ject to the king's supremacy. This liberal measure, which marks the commencement of Catholic emancipation in the British domin- ions, was necessary to secure the allegiance of the Canadians. It was strenuously opposed in England and was one of the griev- ances complained of in the American Declaration of Independence; but its results were most beneficial. The Canadians joined heartily with the British in repelling the invasion of Montgomery in 1775. After the peace of 1783 many loyalists flocked thither from the United States ; the settlements rapidly extended westward ; and so important did the new dominion become that in 1791 Pitt divided it into two distinct governments, by the names of Upper and Lower Canada, framed upon the model of the republican states of North America. In each he established a legislative council, nominated by the Crown, and a house of assembly, elected by the i)eople. The privileges of the Habeas Corpus Act and the right of self-taxation v.'crc granted to the Canadians. The British Parliament retained tlie right of imposing commercial duties; but the produce of even these was placed at tlic disposal of the Cana- dian legislature. This great measure w;is made necessary by the success of the Erench Revolution, for a similar agitation to that which had destroyed the government of Erance might easily have spread to the Erench population of Canada. Nor was it possil)le for Canada, with the United States by her side, to continue a roval government on the old model. The commerce of the States had increased tenfold since their emancipation; the States threatened annexation, and the only way to retain the allegiance of the Cana- dians was to prove to them that they would be better off in con- nection with the British Government tl:an with the United States. 133 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1776-1800 The independence of America shook to the ground the old colonial system in the British West Indies. Trade with the Amer- ican colonies was necessary to their existence; the planters had everywhere joined heartily with the mother country in resistance to the attacks of France and Spain, their hereditary enemies, though the allies of their commercial connections in the United States; and England granted them a restricted commerce with the United States, with Ireland, and with foreign colonies, in their own vessels. The West India Islands were now at the height of their prosperity, and henceforth they would probably have declined in the natural course of things through the cultivation of their produce on the American continent and in the East Indies, even if it had not become apparent that the slave system had grown into a public scandal too vast to be tolerated. They furnished a million and a half a year to the imperial treasury, and they pos- sessed at the same time free and independent representative govern- ments of their own. The maintenance of the African slave trade was the reward with which England requited the fidelity of the planters, and bitter were the reproaches with which they perceived the progress made by the anti-slavery movement at home. The condition of the slaves varied in the different islands. Antigua had given to the blacks the privilege of trial by jury, and had en- couraged the efforts of the Moravian brethren to convert them to Christianitv. But in most of the islands the negroes were treated as mere laboring machines. The general condition of the negroes in the West Indies was perhaps better than in their native country ; but the national conscience, once awakened, never rested until the slave trade was abolished, and the way thus prepared for the total extinction of this hateful institution on British soil. The foundation of the great settlements in Australia is not due to private adventure, like that of Virginia, nor to the desire of liberty, like those of New England. It arose from the necessity of finding a penal settlement for the convicts, who could no longer be sent to the American colonies. At first they were sent to the coast of Guinea, but this was only a roundabout way of putting them to death. Captain Cook had pointed out the fitness of Botany Bay for a European settlement; and in 1788 Pitt sent out Governor Philip, who commenced the convict settlements of Sydney and Norfolk Island. The first twenty years of tlie colony were years of hard struggles. In 1805 a third settlement was formed on Van AMERICAN REVOLUTION 133 1776-1800 Diemen's Land. The French made a show of taking possession of the Australian coast, which they named " Terre Napoleon," or Na- poleon's land. It was many years before Australia was anything more than a penal settlement, or was thought to be in any way an important appendage of the British Empire. The immense wealth drawn by France and England from their colonies had led to some modification of the Spanish colonial system even before the epoch of inxlependence. The fleet of galleons, sailing only once a year, accompanied by a strong guard, had been abandoned at the peace of 1748, and the trade was carried on by register ships, which sailed as often as occasion required. In 1765 a vast change took place. A general duty of six per cent, was levied, and the commerce of the Spanish islands was thrown open to all Spaniards trading from the principal ports of Spain. In 1774 the trade between the continental colonies themselves was thrown open; and in 1779 they were allowed to trade on their own account to the Spanish islands. The success of these liberal measures was such that the customs' duties were again reduced in 1778 and 1784, a measure which stimulated trade more than ever. A regular service of mailships was established with the mother country. A new political division into four viceroyalties had been some time ago introduced. These were ^lexico or New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and Buenos Ayres. New Mexico, Gautemala, Chile, Caracas, Cuba, Porto Rico, Louisiana, Florida, and Santo Domingo were still governed by captains general. Manila was made a free port, and a Philippine Company was established for trading with it. These changes were not made too soon, for a desire for political reform was by this time widely spread among the South Americans. Their domestic government was still as narrow and tyrannical as ever; and the first indication of the coming political storms which swept over them was given during the war witli England, coincident with the American War of Independence, by a re\-olt in I'^eru in 1780, headed l)y a de- scendant of the ancient Incas who called himself Tupac Amaru, or Child of the Sun. In tliis country tlie old nobility was still recognized; the rememljrance of their ancient nationality was still cherished; and this bold adventurer nearly succeeded in overthrow- ing the Spanish Government, a;i(l setting liimself on the throne of his forefathers. But the arms of the Spaniards prevailed; Tupac Amaru was defeated, captured, and sentenced to be torn limb from 134 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1776-1800 limb by wild horses in the square of Lima, and his innocent wife and children were burned alive. The independence of America had not taken all the world by surprise. The merchants and politicians of England were not so well informed as some in France. Indications of a great reaction against the colonial system had been long given in the writings of the French political economists. Ouesnay and others, followed in England by the great Adam Smith, endeavored to show that the true prosperity of a state consisted not in its overflowing with gold and busying itself with foreign trade, but in producing as much as possible of the gifts of nature from its own soil. In this they w^ere but partly right ; but they were on safer ground when they pointed out the absurdity of the system which kept the colonies in the condition of farms of the mother country, and to be worked for its benefit. They thought that the colonies should be regarded as integral parts or provinces of the mother country ; and they fore- saw that if the colonies should claim to be considered such, it would be wise for the mother country to yield to them. The French did not go beyond this; but when the English got hold of the same notion, they soon saw that the colonies would not stop at the stage of provinces, but would seek independence. Inquiries into colonial policy were stimulated by the publication of the great French Encyclopedia ; and a striking commentary upon them was soon found in the independence of the English colonies. Since then it has become clear that every successful colony tends to gain a strength of its own which leads it to assert equal rights with the mother country, and if these are not granted, to demand its in- dependence. Since the loss of the North American states it has been the true policy of England to grant and even to encourage these claims, and to lead all colonies to depend upon them.selves as soon as possible, rather than to wish to keep them in perpetual sub- jection. The French philosophers also early called attention to the cruelty, injustice, and false economy of the slave trade, and suggested plans for the gradual emancipation of the negroes. From this time dates the rise of a colonial and an anti-colonial party, the former upholding the old system, with slavery as a necessary accompaniment, the latter abandoning both. For France the march oi events in vSanto Domingo soon settled the question in favor of liberty; but it continued to divide the politicians of Eng- land for thirty years longer. After the abolition of slavery A M E 11 1 C: A N REVOLUTION 135 1776-1800 (1835), t^"^^ West Indies became so insignificant, and the great agricultural colonies of America, Africa, and Australia so impor- tant, that the word colony seemed almost to change its meaning. It was, perhaps, in France that the moral effect of the Amer- ican Revolution was most fully felt. New forces were steadily fer- menting in that country, and the hostility of England had brought the new nation of America from the first into a close alliance with France. But all western Europe was deeply moved by the results of the American war, and in America itself a new and lofty na- tional feeling had been produced. Men had long believed in the prophecy contained in some fine lines written many years before by Bishop Berkeley, in a fit of disgust at the decay and stagnation which prevailed in Europe: "Westward tlie course of empire takes its way: The four first acts already past, A fifth shall close the drama with the day: Time's noblest offspring is the last." This prophecy now began to be fulfilled ; and Europe began from this time to awaken from a state of apathy or delusion and to feel that if the lead of the world was not to pass from her hands she must keep up with the moral and political progress of i\merica ; to do this great changes were necessary; and tlic history of Europe ever since has been the history of these changes. Thus we see that the independence of America introduced a new political force into the world; public spirit was revived in Europe; and a great series of events soon afterward happened, which all tended to destroy what was left of the old colonial system. We have arrived, in fact, at the events of the French Revolution and the cjuarter-century which followed it. Chapter X THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1789 THOUGH the bad government of France, and the obstinacy of the privileged classes, were the main causes of the mighty convulsion called the French Revolution, great importance must be ascribed to the prevalence of the doctrines of the philosophers, and the power of the moneyed interest. The New World contributed in many ways to the instruction of the Old. The philosophers pointed out the contrasts of the old system of government and that which had been realized in the United States; the condition of the West Indian slaves helped to illustrate the doctrines of the " Rights of Man " ; while, on the other hand, those who had grown rich in the plantations and the colony trade swelled the number who clamored against the clergy and nobility, and wished to see the old country itself opened to their enterprise. All the century there had been great talk of new colonies, and they began to see that there was room for colonization in France itself. The eyes of men were opened by the New World ; the old feudal laws were swept away: those which fettered the land were abol- ished; land became divisible on a man's death among all his chil- dren alike ; the lands of the church and crown, and of the emigrant nobility, were sold ; the old Mississippi scheme of law was applied to raise money for the needs of the country. The chief manage- ment of public affairs fell into the hands of men who had been trained in the conduct of mercantile companies; and though the change at first reduced llie country to the verge of bankruptcy, its good effects were seen before very long. But the visions of the Colberts and Choiseuls vanished forever. In the colonies the change was everywhere to the disadvantage of France. Santo Do- mingo became independent, Louisiana was sold to the United States for ready money, and all the rest of the colonies were swal- lowed up by llic l^n,cHish. Tlie iM-ench, following the maxims of their political ])]iili i.^ophers, procured substitutes at home for colonial produce ; they made coffee from the root of the dandelion, and sugar from that of the beet. 13K FRENCH REVOLUTION 137 1789 Long before the French Revolution a small party in England had been earnestly striving for political and financial reform. The government of the people had long been the gain of a few ; and now it came to be seen not only how little substantial good colonies really did, under the old system, to the nation which possessed them, but that, in an indirect way, they strengthened the government against the people. The colonies carried with them an important official influence. The governorships, judgeships, generalships, and num- berless other offices which they made necessary, as well as the army and navy contracts, which they largely swelled, were great pieces of patronage. The maintenance of the exclusive commercial system kept the moneyed classes attached to the government. Besides, the colonies, as we have seen, were a fertile source of wars : and a weak government could greatly strengthen itself by a successful war. All this, coming after the independence of America, strengthened a rising anti-colonial party; tlie efforts of this party were early directed to the abolition of protective duties in favor of British West Indian produce. It took more than half a century, however, to accomplish this, for the differential sugar duties lasted until 1854. From the French Revolution dates a growing convic- tion that the old Greek system of independent colonies was, after all, the only true one, or at any rate the only one practicable on a large scale, and that the commercial colony system must, so(5ner or later, be totally abandoned. Before the I'rench Revolution broke out, in 1789, the western part of Santo Domingo was perhaps the nio>t remarkable spectacle of successful industry in the world. The plantaticnis, which were numl)ered by tliousands, reached to the very tops of the mountains, and the town of Cap l-'ranc^ois almost rivaled the capitals of lui- rope. The planters themselves were wealthy and intelligent. The spirit of industry and enterprise had extended to the free blacks and mulattoes. many of whom were not only well educated, but had visited Europe, and had imbibed the newest European ideas. They were more numerous thrui the ])lantcrs, and the planters were justly alarmed at the prospect of their taking a share in the govern- ment. The philosophers' doctrine that Santo Domingo was a part of the mother coitntry was generally acccjjted. and the plantei'S pro- ceeded to return deputies from among tl;cmscl\cs to represent the island in the National Asscinhl}-. The mulattoes and free blacks demanded in \ain a \oice in the elections; for it was known that 138 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1789-1800 in tliat case tlie government would fall into their hands, the slaves Avould be emancipated, and the European planters as good as ruined. But the national assembly at Paris remained firm to the principles of equality on which the great Revolution was itself based. It was argued in vain that the ruin of the colonies would follow ; and a famous saying rang through the assembly, " Perish the colonies rather than a single principle ! " The equality of rights was decreed ; and the news of this decision was received in the island with despair, wliich soon turned to hatred of the new French Government, and a leaning toward England. The provincial as- sembly of Santo Do^ningo had still some months to run before a new election ; but it became known that the whites intended to resist the new law by force of arms, and perhaps by foreign intervention. The mulattoes took the offensive, and on August 23, 1791, a gen- eral rising took place around Cap Frangois. Before two months were over, 1000 plantations had been destroyed, and 10,000 negroes and 2000 whites had perished in the struggle. The rebellion ex- tended to the south and west of the colony; here, however, tlie planters arrested it by solemnly engaging to execute the decree. But the alarm had spread to France; in the next year the decree was repealed, the belief in the double-dealing of the planters was con- firmed, and the insurrection became general. Everywhere num- bers and intelligence made the blacks successful, and it became clear that the revolt could never be put down without foreign aid. Ihough the difficulty of reducing the Maroons of Jamaica might have shown the futility of such an enterprise, the English Government quickly responded to the appeal of the Haytian planters. England had already undertaken the task of repressing tlie Revolution and all that belonged to it in Europe, but to repress it in the West Indies proved a harder task. With the aid of the I'"n,L;]is!i, Port-au-Prince was retaken, but the English force, small enough at first, was wasted by yellow^ fever, and general after general was obliged to rerire. The negroes were by this time under the command of a negro called Toussaint, named also from his ])lantation L'Ouverturc. Born in 1745. and originally a slave, he had become free and ricli. He had visited France, and he was a man of wisdom, refinement, and prudence. He proved an able general, and under him the negroes gained every da}' in confidence and e:cpericncc. 1^hey gradually drove tlie luiglish from their posi- tions, and in 1798 General Tslaitland evacuated the island, and FRENCH R 1<: \ O L U T I O N 139 1789-1800 England afterward recognized Ilayti as a neutral power. Tons- saint lost no time in organizing the infant state. He procured assistance from l">ance. and framed a simple constitution. The people hailed him as their deliverer, and declared him president of the republic. Thus the last year of the eighteenth century saw a strange sight a free negro state erected amid the ruins of the most flourisliing colony in the West Indies, The example of the blacks of Ilayti caused a terrible outbreak of the Maroons of Jamaica in 1795. But their hopes of exciting a general uprising among the slaves were defeated ; the island was placed under martial law, and their attacks were successfully re- pelled. Having possessed themselves, however, of an inaccessible place called the Cockpits, whence they sallied forth to kill and burn, it was found impossible to dislodge them, and the English commander sent to Cuba for a hundred o-f the bloodhounds in use in that island for the purpose of tracking runaway slaves, When it was known that these had actually arrived, they made proposals for peace on the footing of free black subjects, which General Walpole accepted. Had the English been as liberal as the Erench in the treatment of the free blacks and mulattoes, and had the general advancement of the English islands been equal to that of the Erench, perhaps there would at once have arisen free black English states in the West Indies, The negroes of the English A\'est Indies have greatly jM'ogressed since their emancipation, and in several islands they have formed a class of small landowners. Elsewhere they have become a free peasantry, llic r^rench, under Pichcgru, conquered Telgium and Hol- land in 1795, and this led to most important additions to the British Colonies. The Dutch almost ])referred that their rich colonies should fall into the hands of 1-jigland than into those of Erance, and in all parts of the world great ])ossessions Ceylon, [Malacca, Cochin, the Cape Colony, and Ciuiana, surrendered to the British arms. The Cape Colony, Ceylon, with its fine harbor of Trin- comalee, and the Dutch settlements on the Indian coast, completed the chain of the P.ritish h^astern I'Jiii)ire, and answered, on a large scale, to the principle of arri'iulissrinoil nr rounding off of boundaries, which was sliamelessly executed by the iM'ench Re- public. The successes in the West Indies and an advantageous commercial treaty with the United States contributed to ciMisoli- date these conquests. Banda and Amboyna, the ancient English 140 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1789-1800 settlements in the Spice Islands, were also taken ; but all these con- quests, except Ceylon, were restored at the Peace of 1802. In the next year (1797) Godoy, the infamous minister of Charles IV. of Spain, concluded that peace with the Directory from which he received the name of the Prince of Peace; it was marked by the cession to France of the Spanish part of Santo Domingo, and by the immediate conquest of Trinidad by the English, to whom that rich island has ever since belonged, and the principal conquests from the Dutch were only restored to be permanently occupied at a future time. The immense naval power of England was never more conspicuous than when Bonaparte was threatening an inva- sion of her shores, and kindling the flames of rebellion in Ireland. But this happy condition of things lasted only a short time. The French republicans had not bargained for the loss of their estates; dissatisfaction became general; Bonaparte wanted work for his soldiers, and he resolved on the foolish and shameful at- tempt to reduce these brave blacks of Hayti by force of arms. In 1 80 1 an expedition consisting of the finest soldiery of France was dispatched to conquer them. The negroes defended Cap Frangois as long as they could, and when the French entered it they found it a heap of ashes. Port-au-Prince was gained by treachery, and the same means were employed to deprive the negroes of their wise and able general. Leclerc, the brother-in-law of Bonaparte, was in command of the expedition. He persuaded the negroes that Bonaparte was anxious for their freedom, and proved to Toussaint that a connection with liberal and regenerated France would be for their benefit; he induced the negroes to lay down their arms and Toussaint to retire to his country seat. No sooner was this done, however, than the treacherous Frenchman had him arrested and sent to France, with his wife and children, as a traitor; and this great and brave man, to the eternal infamy of Bonaparte and France, perished in a noisome dungeon at Besangon in 1803. But 'i^uussaint's colleagues, Dessalines and Christophe, still carried on the war, and tlie rage and cruelty of the French knew no bounds. The bloodhounds were fetched from Cuba, and actually employed in hunting down the negroes. But justice and liberty triumphed. Leclerc was dead, and his successor, Rochambeau, beaten at St. ]Marc, Vw'is driven to the sea in 1803; and the soldiers who had de- feated all the chivalry of the Old World, finally retreated before the dcspiacd negroes of the plantations and the deadly climate of F II F. N C n REVOLUTION 141 1789-1800 the tropics. In 1804, Dessalines, a negro, like Toussaint, was pro- claimed emperor. Like Toussaint, whose lieutenant he had been, he had begun life as a slave. The assumption of the imperial title by this negro adventurer has a sad and strange air of comedy. Dessalines reigned less than three years, for he was assassinated in 1806. The Dutch East India Company had been long on the decline, and it subsisted only through its connection with the Dutch Gov- ernment. When this perished, and Holland was united to France, it was formally abolished, and its debts and possessions became those of the nation (1795). The trade with continental India was thrown open, but that of Batavia and the islands continued to be a national monopoly. The dividend of the English Company was limited by Act of Parliament to ten per cent., and its affairs had ever since its first territorial conquests been lof:)ked on as those of the nation; but the English are always unwilling to part with an old institution. As the company was a convenient instrument of government, it was allowed to subsist for many years longer. The example, however, of the Dutch in throwing open the trade of India was followed much earlier ; for when the charter was re- newed in 1814 the monopcjly of the company in India was abol- ished, though that in China was renewed. Napoleon Bonaparte, now tlic chief general of the French Republic, conceived one of the grandest designs tlint had ever oc- cupied the mind of man. It was not indeed new. lijr Macedonian and Turkish conquerors had actually executed the first part of the same project, and Choiscul, forty years before, had fixed liis eyes on Egypt as the foundation of a iM-ench empire in India. Xow, if ever, the time was ripe for its execution. Under B()nap:irte France had not only resisted with success the coalition of European powers f(M"mc(l for her ruin by England, but had vastly increased her territory and her inlluence on the luu'opcan Continent. J Ic now proposed to roll back the whole tide of tlie events which make up the present history, to take possession of Egypt and the 1'urkish Empire, and by restoring tlie Indian trade to its ancient clian-.icls to ruin the trade and influence of England in the East. He \\as \'ictorious on land in l'^g}'pt and S}ri;i. but the k'.nglish destroyed his ficet in the IxiUlcs of Al)oukir and the Nile, and he was obliged to return to I'rance. The I'rencli t()ok possession of the strong fortress of ]\lalta, which was to ha\e liccn the foundation-stone 142 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1814 of the French Indian Empire ; but the EngHsh drove them out, and refused to evacuate the island after the Peace of Amiens in 1802. Bonaparte's successes in Egypt had been too brilHant to be for- gotten. The French were still dazzled by the vision of a French Eastern Empire, resting on Constantinople and Alexandria, and the English refusal to leave the way again open, by the evacuation of Malta, led to the renewal of the war in 1803. Bonaparte's successes on the Continent continued unchecked for ten years longer, but he made no further efforts in the East. He endeav- ored, however, by the famous Berlin and Milan decrees, to ruin the trade and the colonial system of England by rigorously exclud- ing her manufactures and her colonial produce from the markets of Europe, and in this way he at once diminished British resources, and stimulated the trade and manufactures of France and Ger- many. Besides, the orders in council, which the English Govern- ment was obliged to make in self-defense, helped to drive the United States into a war with England. Had Bonaparte suc- ceeded in his grand designs we should, perhaps, have seen the great English trade with America almost destroyed and the prog- ress of the United States seriously checked. We might have seen the commerce of the East once more poured into the ports of the ^Mediterranean, Italy regain her ancient wealth and splendor as a province of France, the Suez Canal would have been made a half- century earlier and France might by this time have become the mis- tress of the world. A similar dream had entered the head of Alexander the Great, and the attempt had been made by Solyman the Magnificent, nearly three hundred years before; but we are sure that so vast a superstructure could not have been built on a few brilliant military exploits, and sooner or later the balance of power must have fallen to the nation which commanded the greatest mass of individual industry and enterprise. The most extensive changes, however, which proceeded from the French Revolution happened upon Bonaparte's invasion of the Spanish Peninsula in 1808. Disappointed by the English in his attempts upon the Emi)ire of the East, he resolved to strike a blow for the less valuable but still magnificent Empire of the \\'est. He drove King Charles from Aladrid, and made his own brother Jd^cpli King of Spain and the Indies. P>nt the S]):miar(ls of Amer- ica refused tliis new sovereign, and by the time the old king was brought back to Madrid in 1814 they had tasted the sweets of lib- FRENCH R E ^' L U T I N 143 1800-1814 erty, and were determined to have no kinc^ at all. Immediately after the deposilic.m of (Jiarles. one American viceroyalty after an- other declared itself free. The movement in favor of liherty, however, dates from an earlier time. The independence of North America, the increased traffic with Europe consequent upon the opening- of trade, and the increased wealth which this brought, produced a general wish for independence, and a strong- leaning to England. When Spain declared war against England in 1796. England had encouraged these pretensions, and in the following year, just before Abercroml)y took Trinidad, Miranda was doing his best to get the English to help in establishing the inde])endence of the Sj)anish colonics. The h'rench believed that tlie English would try to recover in South America wliat they had lost in the North. Portugal was a mere dependency of theirs, Brazil was a good position for maintaining a standing army. The insults of France and the tic (~>f commercial interest rendered the United States in the north friendly to England, and the two powers might have divided the \\^est Indies between them, America taking Cuba, equal in worth to all the rest put together, as her own share. An official of the Government of Cuzco, in l^eru, had tried to set up a free government in 1806. He failed, and died on the scaffold in the srmie year, declaring with his last breath that only an official like himself knew the depth and atrocity of the tyranny which crushed the South American people, and that God had de- creed its speedy end. In the same year tlie English, under Popham, occn])ied Buenos Ay res, and became masters of the Plata Ri\er ami of ?\Iontevideo. An ineffectual revolution was attempted in Mex- ic(_) as soon as the news arrived of Charles's de])osition : but it was not until 1800, when pe;ice was made between England and the old Si)anish Government, and the Spruiish ports were opened to Eng- lish ships, that the way was ]ire])are(l for the real struggle. In th.e course of the Second luiropean War the T<]nglish car- ried tlieir maritime supremacy to its greatest height. In 1804 they took Demerara once m.)re from the Dutch, together v/ith Berbice and I^sscfjuibo ; in i<'''(^r) they finally occupied the Cape Colony: in 1809 tliev took- Ca\'enne, becoming thereby masters of the whole of Guiana and }>iartini(|uc ; in 1810 they took Guadeloupe, and the two islands of iMuirbon and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, the I"h-ench nation being thu-^ k'"t witlmnt ;i sinseml)ly. .Alter the acknowledgment of American independence great numbers of loyalists witlulrew from the I'nited States and settled in Canada, espcciallv on the shores of Lake Ontario. They were mostlv active and wc;ilih\- pco])le r;nd they wore by no means sub- -er\-icnt to the hfiiu' lv iwniiiicnt. It must ha\e been a deep and strong feeling which led these men to prefer exile in the wilds ot Upper Canada to the sunny banks of the Merrimac and the Sus- 152 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1774-1800 quehanna. They were a thoroughly EngHsh race, and strongly attached to the monarchy for which they had fought; it was im- possible for them to remain content with the settlement of 1774, and they joined with the other Anglo-Canadians in demanding the repeal of the Quebec Act. Pitt now divided Canada into two parts, the Ottawa River being the boundary. Eastward of this was the old French colony, now called Lower Canada, including the cities of Quebec and Montreal, and commanding the naviga- tion of the St. Lawrence; westward was the English colony of Upper Canada, which stretched around the shores of Lake Ontario. Pitt granted to the Canadians the same measure of liberty to which some of the constitutional states of Europe are still limited. Each province had a governor and an executive council appointed by the Crown, and also a law-making body consisting of a legislative council, appointed by the crown, like the British House of Lords, and a representative assembly, like the British House of Com- mons. The government, however, in both, was responsible only to the Colonial office in London, and was independent of the as- sembly. This delusive show of freedom was endured for half a century, and was only replaced by something more real after a serious rebellion. Each province managed its legislative affairs independently, and Upper Canada began a course of peaceful and uninterrupted progress. Here English law was at once reestab- lished : but there were constant difficulties in Lower Canada, which was far the more important of the two provinces. Fresh batches of English settlers were continually arriving, and there was an in- creasing minority who strove against the bad laws and narrow commercial policy which the colony had inherited from France. The history of the Parliament of Lower Canada is the history of the struggle of this English minority against the conservative IVcncli majority. In 1795 Lord Dorchester in vain tried to get the latter to consent to a modification of the feudal land laws ; but tlie minority succeeded in passing some good laws for trade and revenue. The French, however, increased in numbers faster than the Englisli immigrants, and the Parliament of Lower Canada became gradually more deuKxratic and more determined in its resistance to all innovation, so that the executive were often driven, in the inter- ests of good government, to intrigue and arbitrary measures. The hope that the mere forms of the English constitution would speed- ily Anglicize Canada proved vain: it was the commercial connec- CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 153 1800-1810 tion with England and the United States which gradually effected the change. Great Britain, when at war, drew largely on the commercial resources of Canada, and the Napoleonic wars greatly benefited the colony during the early years of its freedom. Ship- building, a trade which can be carried on during the long Canadian winter, soon flourished greatly at Quebec, and it extended thence to Montreal. But the ignorant majority of the assembly of Lower Canada continued to discourage the mercantile connection with England. The English minority, however, supported by the people of Upper Canada, succeeded in improving the water and land com- munication with that province. The people of Upper Canada in- curred a heavy debt in public improvements which were really for the benefit of both provinces, and this debt, on the union of Canada, was charged upon the entire nation. In after years Napoleon's Berlin and Milan decrees gave a great impulse to the timber trade, by causing the removal of the English duties on Canadian timber, and the increase on foreign European timber. The strong spirit of opposition displayed by the Lower Cana- dians led the executive more than once to oppressive measures. The distrust of the Canadians which prevailed in England and the growing hostility of the United States led in 1807 to the appoint- ment of a purely military governor in the person of Sir James Craig. The Erench still remember Craig as a despotic and un- popular ruler. He dissolved the assembly in 1810; he removed all the French militia officers, suppressed the newspapers, imprisoned the leaders of the popular party, and talked of disestablishing the Catholic priesthood. All these things retarded the progress of the province. The English emigrant found himself as much in a for- eign country as if he had gone to Chile or Brazil, and would have been far more at home in the United States. But the worst feature of all was the injustice of the financial policy maintained by the French majority. As in France, before the revolution, the clergy and landowners refused to bear their proper share of taxation ; but the peasantry were in alliance with their seigneurs, and the public expenses were thrown almost entirely on the shoulders of the Eng- lish merchants. The landowners refused to bear even the common expenses of local government, such as building jails and court- houses. Upper Canada had now quite outstripped the province of Quebec ; most of the flour and timber exported was furnished by the new province, and it became clear that a legislative union of 154 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1810-1815 the two provinces was the only possible path of improvement. The assembly o})enly pursued a retrogade course, and the legisla- tive council withheld its consent to many of their bills. The de- termined policy of Governor Craig w^as perhaps justified by these facts ; but it of course failed to ensure Canada against the dangers of an American invasion. Perhaps the best result of his rule was his report of his administration, which conveyed many important truths in plain language to the British Parliament. Before the American war broke out, he was replaced by a governor who w^as instructed to adopt a very conciliatory policy, and under him, as we shall see, the French and English cordially united a second time in repelling the invaders. All the circumstances which induced the French Canadians to resist being Anglicized concurred with great force to induce them to resist annexation to the United States, where English principles were carried to their greatest extent, and the French Canadians, so long as they were secure from what they thought actual oppression, were quite in accord with the government. When the war broke out, in 1812, Sir George Prevost was gover- nor of Canada, and General Brock lieutenant governor of Upper Canada. The Americans, who knew the strong Protestant feeling of Upper Canada, and relied on the dissatisfaction of the English with the forced alliance of the French Catholics of Quebec, crossed into Up])er Canada from Detroit under General Hall ; but Brock forced them back, and besieged Hall in Detroit itself, where he capitulated. Brock fell at Queenston in a successful repulse of another attempt made by the Americans upon jMontreal. The at- tempts of stronger forces against Lower Canada w^ere equally unfortunate, but in the subsequent years the attempts of the Amer- icans upon Upper Canada were renewed with more success. They took the town of York, and the neighboring garrison of Fort George at Niagara. The Americans were generally stronger than the Britisli on the lakes, but they lost by an invasion of Lower Canada, and the British recovered many of their positions. The line of hostilities stretched from the west end of Lake Erie to the neighborliond of Montreal. Gradually the English transferred the war to American soil, and took from them Niagara, their strong- est fcjrtress. l^lack Rock, and Buffalo. The British now planned an invasion of New York Slate by way of Lake Cham])lain, but they lost their vessels, and were repulsed from the fort of Platts- CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 155 1S15-1837 burg. Peace was made by England and America in 1815. In this war Canada, with only a handful of British troops, organized its militia in such a way as not only to defy all the resources of the United States, but to carry the war into the enemy's country. We must, however, be cautious in making deductions from this fact. Canada has a frontier 1500 miles long, which is nowhere completely defensible, and a military force such as the United States could now raise without difficulty would have a much better chance of success. The War of 181 2 was undertaken by the States with the view of conquering a wealthy and rising province of England, but it had the effect of uniting the French and English Canadians, and of checking the desire of independence w'hich had begun to possess the former, and it showed that a cor- dial union between the two Canadas w'as necessary to check American aggression. After the peace of 1815 the stream of emigration poured more strongly than ever into both tlie Canadas. In Lower Canada this sensed to increase the hostility of the old Jiabifauts, for the oppo- sition in tlie assembly grew more and more bitter. The French Canadians saw themselves being gradually swamped by the tide of English, and they disputed unceasingly with the executive, and complained to the home government. Their discontents were far from being groundless. Tlie executive and the legislative council (or upper house) were comjiosed entirely of Crown nominees, and the majority of them were aliens in every respect from the majority of the people, just as in the American provinces of Spain, the colony was really governed from home by pec^ple who were ignorant of its circumstances and refprircmcnts. The local go\'ernmc!it was old-fasliioncd, corrupt, and e\])cnsive; it was not resp(jnsil)lc to tlic asscml)Iy for its acts; the ])co])le had no control whatever over the nation;il pro])erty, and tlic h^rench Canadians, fired by the exam])Ie of (heir American neighbors, resolved either to improve it or to sh;ike it off. The national party was led with great ability b_\' I\apineau, wliose zeal and abilities had raised him to the spcakersliii) of tlie assembly at tlie age of twenty-six. They embodied their grievances in a manifesto addressed to the Englisli Govenimeut, wliich was known as the '' X'inety-two Resolutions." but the goN-ernriient refused to make concessions. Discontent spread more and more widely, and at last the asseml)]y stopped the supplies. Vuv four years no taxes were raised; the government 156 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1837-1840 officials received no pa}', and the g-overnment itself came to a dead- lock. Arrests were made for sedition, and at length, in 1837, the rescue by some peasants of two persons who had been arrested be- came the signal for open rebellion. The outbreak spread to Upper Canada, where the population had increased fivefold since the peace of 1815, and the latest generation of settlers found themselves prac- tically excluded from the government by those who were in pos- session. The spirit of revolt was actively fomented by American " sympathizers," but the rebellion in both provinces was easily sup- pressed. The insurgents gained a temporary success at St. Denis, but tliey were defeated at St. Charles, St. Eustache, and Napier- ville. Some of the rebels were executed, and 141 were transported to Australia. The English people, who had hitherto known but little about the condition of the colony, were shocked at the fate of these unhappy Canadians. Besides this, it became known that hundreds of Canadian families, disgusted with British rule, were now cross- ing the frontier and settling in the United States. Public opinion w^as now thoroughly awakened, and the government interfered between the colonists and the Colonial Office. The country was put under martial law% and the old constitution, which had com- pletely broken down, was suspended. The Earl of Durham was sent to Canada in 1838. to report on the best means of organizing a new government; and he pronounced in favor of totally reversing the policy of North and Pitt, and treating Canada as New England had been treated that is, letting it govern itself. Even before the Canadian rebellion, it was apparent to many enlightened men that the only remedy for the ills of the colony was the union of the two Canadas under a single local supreme government, which should be responsible to the local assemblies, and therefore practically independent of England. An outcry was raised at home, when Air. Roebuck put this forth at the time of the rebellion; but it was immediately recommended by Lord Durham, and presently accomplished. The two Canadas were united in 1840 an epoch which, in Canadian history, corresponds to 1776, tlie epoch of independence, in that of the United States. Hence- forth tliere was to be a single government, and a single parliament, composed of a legislative council of at least tv^^enty life members, and a lower house of eighty-four deputies, elected by the people every four years. fr)rty-two being elected in each province. This equal division of the representation was apparently unfair to the CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 157 1840-1848 French Canadians, who far outnumbered the Engh'sh of the Upper Province: but it was the secret of the success which attended tlie scheme, for the Frencli would be hencefortli permanently outnum- bered in the assembly. The less intelligent among the French pro- tested strongly against the Union, but the voice of the old assembly was now silenced. The French Canadians did not see how vast a concession was made to them by the grant of responsible govern- ment, and how necessary it was to temper it by giving some moder- ate party a preponderance. The boundaries of the electoral dis- tricts were revised; the Crown lands, which in Lower Canada were very valuable, were taken by the nation, and a civil list was granted instead of them. Both these measures weakened the French party : their populous districts now counted for no more than the thinly- peopled ones of Upper Canada, and the Upper Province con- tributed nothing but its debt to the new financial arrangements. On the other hand, the French party now had a real voice in con- trolling the government, and the justice of the compromise is proved by the fact that thereafter the Canadas were almost uiu'n- terruptedly tranquil and prosperous. Great Britain guaranteed them loans for developing their resources; the population has in- creased until it has become much greater than that of the thirteen colonies of America at the time of their revolt; and local self-gov- ernment on the English model has been substituted for the sei- gneurial tenure. Tlie P>ench population in Lower Canada has submitted to the loss of its domination, and entered peacefully into equal rights with the English. It has not, howe^-er, disappeared in the midst of the English element, for the French Canadians are still as fondly attached as ever to their own laws and manners, and form a C(Mnpact mass of more than a million souls. The Act of Union had attempted to Anglicize ]'>ench Canada by requiring the use of the T'Jiglish language alone in all legislative records. This policy was abandoned and the concurrent use of the French lan- guage ]KM-niillcd in 184!^. In each of the Canadas there existcfl a Conservative or Torv, and a Liberal or Reforming party. Tn I'pper Canada the Conserva- tives were mainly the ofilcials and their friends, who had hitherto C(^ntroIlcd the government by a league called the " Family Com- pact." The chief nirm of llie parly was .^ir Allan M'Xab. Their chief principle was at first attachmciU to the Colonial otiice in London, and a determination to nullify tlie Union by resisting the 158 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1848-1849 attainment of really responsible government; they named them- selves " Loyalists," and their opponents " Rebels." In Lower Canada the parties v^^ere divided in much the same way; but here the Liberals had a strong nucleus in the compact body of French inhabitants. The difficulty of uniting the Liberals of both prov- inces at first gave the power to the Conservatives. But Lord Syden- ham, the first governor under the Union, found it impossible to carry on the government with a Conservative cabinet ; and the Lib- erals of both provinces now saw the necessity of uniting. Under Lord Sydenham's successors. Sir Charles Bagot and Lord Met- calfe, the Liberals were in power, and they began a great series of internal reforms. They abolished much of the old penal code, re- formed the judicature, organized municipal government, made laws for education, and began important public works. They com- pelled Governor ]Metcalfe, after a long struggle, to yield to the ministry the patronage of public appointments. The seat of gov- ernment had been fixed by the Union at Kingston, then a mere vil- lage in Upper Canada; the majority of the Liberals removed it to ^Montreal, the commercial center of the country. This question of the capital was one of several which still divided the two provinces, without regard to party principles, and which now and then pro- duced a Conservative majority from Upper Canada, while in Lower Canada the Liberals always held their ground. As time went on, the Conservatives gradually reconciled themselves to the princi- ples of the Union, and contented themselves, like the Conservatives at home, with becoming a mere counterbalance to the more ad- A'anced party. In ]\Ietcalfe's time the Conservatives came again into power, though supported in only a slight majority, and by questionable means; and the governor and his advisers were en- gaged in a long and bitter struggle with the people. It was not until the time of Lord Elgin that the Liberals obtained a second time a decided preponderance, and Canadian history took a fresh turn with the return to power of their leaders, Baldwin and La- fontaine, in 1848. Tlie difticulties which arose witli the United States on the question of the Oreg(jn boundary again led to tlie appointment of a mihtary governor, in the person of Lord Cathcart (1845-1847). P.ut tlic question was peaceably compromised and nothing of imjjDrlanre occurred until tlie governorship of Lord l^lgin ( 1847- 1854J. '1 his great practical statesniaji may be said to have organ- CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 159 1848-1849 ized Canada into a modern nation. lie reformed and increased the representation, improved tlie administration of the law, com- pleted the abolition of the seigneurial tenure, and secularized the lands of the clergy. The French population increased very fast, and thousands were at this time obliged to emigrate every year to the United States, while there were still numerous tracts of un- cultivated land in the eastern townships which had been wastefully granted away to private owners. Alany of the poor Canadians had " squatted " on their lands. Lord Elgin tried in vain to give these squatters a right of ownership ; but he threw open the Crown and Church lands all over the country to the peasantry at very moderate prices. He greatly improved the navigation of the St. Lawrence, so that ocean steamers might reach the quays of Mont- real. Li his time railways, telegraphs, and large ship canals were made in the interior; and, greatest of all, the British Parliament, in 1849, threw the trade of Canada open to all the world, by which means the revenue from the customs was quadrupled. One of the last acts of his government was the Commercial Treaty with the United States, which did more than anything else to advance the commerce of Canada. From his time dates the establishment of a regular steam communication with Europe. He also organized an excellent system of immigration. When he quitted Canada he left its population double what it was at the time of the Union. Industry had risen to high importance, and Canadian manufac- turers already looked forward to competing in their own market with those of Bradford and Leeds. Lord Elgin's administration was not free from serious party struggles. Though a Conservative by education and sentiment, he deemed it his duty to throw the whole weight of his influence into the scale of Canadian Liberalism. He sometimes publicly addressed the l^'rencli rc[)rescntalivcs in their own language, and in many other wa}'S he succeeded in winning their confidence in a greater degree tlian any of his predecessors. It was now ten years since the Rebellion: ami Lord l^lgiiTs ministry pa.^sed an act for a general aninot}- in iS4<), and fur an indemnity to those who had suffered b}' tlic violence with wliich the Rebellion was suppressed, '^Hie Conser\-ali\-es saw in llie latter measure an o]:)porlunity of recovering the ground wliich they had lost. They revived the old cry of "Loyalists" and " Rebels"; ruid wlien tlie governor's con- sent had been given, they excited the mob of .Montreal to serious 160 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1849-1856 riots. The mob entered the parliament house and drove out with showers of stones the members who were sitting. They broke up the benches, and seized the mace; and one of the ringleaders entered the chair, and dissolved the parliament in the name of the people. They finished by setting fire to the building, which was burned down, together with the colonial archives and a valua- ble librar}'. But the Liberals of the colony, w^ho numbered three- fourths of the population, rallied round the government ; and even the Conservatives of Toronto and Kingston repudiated the acts of the Opposition. The Indemnity Law is remarkable for having been the occasion on which the right of the Canadians to manage their own affairs was finally established. The Opposition appealed to the Home Parliament, but in spite of the strong support of Glad- stone and Disraeli, the majority, led by Russell, Roebuck, and Peel, affirmed the decision of Lord Elgin, and thereby convinced the Canadians that the independence which they had received was no empty show. Montreal now ceased to be the seat of govern- ment, and the parliaments for some time met alternately at Toronto and at Quebec. The discontented Conservatives now joined with the extreme Democrats, or " Clear-grits," to form a party in favor of annexation to the United States. The legislative council, or upper house, was made elective in 1856, the old members retaining their seats for life, and forty- eight additional ones being elected by electoral colleges, chosen by the people, for a term of eight years. This change had been long demanded by public opinion, but it cannot be said to have answered the- hopes of its promoters. The position of political parties was now greatly changed. The Conservatives had accepted the prin- ciples of moderate reform and of truly responsible government; but the Liberals drew nearer and nearer to the principles of the " Clear-grits." They were opposed to the Catholics, and were in favor of adjusting representation to population, without regard to the line which separated the two provinces, of secularizing educa- tion, of ceasing to pay for the redemption of the seigneurial rights, diminishing the grants for the colleges and higher schools, and increasing tliose for the lower schools. Canada was now thor- oughly demcjcratized ; and though the change had been on the whole most beneficial, it had introduced a low state of political morality. The arts of briljery and corruption and the fabrication of votes were well understood, nor could any electoral law repress CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 161 1857-1867 them. The two chambers found it impossible to agree on a per- manent site for the capital; and in 1857 this question was referred to the Queen, who chose Ottawa, a village situated on the boun- dary of the two provinces. This choice excited general surprise, for nine-tenths of the Canadians would certainly have voted against it; the Canadian ministry were defeated on the motion for accept- ing it, and had to retire. But after a long period of debate it was felt that the Colony could not gracefully reverse the Queen's deci- sion, and it was affirtned by a small majority. These questions belong to the viceroyalty of Sir Edmund Head, who quitted Can- ada in 1 86 1. In his time was first mooted the question of com- bining all the British possessions in America into one dominion. He was succeeded by Viscount Monck (1861-1867). Canada is so important that it makes the history of the rest of the British Colonies in America seem insignificant ; and it has ended by absorbing all of them. Besides Canada, the Definitive Treaty of 1763 had put Great Britain in possession of New Bruns- wick, and of Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island. Xova Scotia had been ceded at the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713; New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island were at first annexed to Nova Scotia, but they were afterward constituted separated col- onies, and Cape Breton Island was added to Nova Scotia instead. These colonies are known as the maritime provinces. None of them were thought of much importance, until the growth of Can- ada drew attention to them. In 1755 the English drove out all the Erench from Nova Scotia. Some of them settled in New Bruns- wick and Cape Breton ; and their descendants remain there to this day in distinct villages by the name of Acadians. At the time of the Definitive Treaty the colonists of Nova Scotia were mostly the ovcrtlow of the Northern States, together with some Scotch and Irish immigrants. The Nova Scotians submitted to be taxed by England, and took no part in tlic struggle for independence, and in 1776 they were joined by ten thousand loyalists from Boston. By the end of the war in 17H3 the number of these emigrants was doubled. It is mainly to these Americans that the prosperity of New Brtmswick and Nova Scotia, like tluit of Upper Canada, is due. The history of tlic otlicr maritime provinces verv much re- sembles that of Xova Scotia. They all had their councils and legislative assemblies granted to them l)y (ieorge III.; but these had little control over the destinv of the colonies. The whole of 162 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1840-1867 the land in Prince Edward Island, for instance, was given away by the king in one day. The same thing happened in the others; and in order to compete with other fields of emigration the govern- ments have since been obliged to buy the land back from the grantees, wdio, in many cases, made no use of it, and sell it at a comparatively high price to the immigrants. In the period between the legislative union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1840 and the establishment of the federal Do- minion of Canada in 1867, important constitutional developments occurred in all the British North American provinces. In all of them parliamentary government on the English model was estab- lished after much controversy. The royal governors w^ere slow to yield their power into the hands of the legislatures, but in the end the representatives of the people were everywhere successful and it became an established principle that the government must be carried on by responsible ministers representing the majority of the lower legislative chamber, and if the ministers ceased to so represent the majority they must give place to others who fulfilled that requirement. In the Canadas all went smoothly for two years, after their union in 1840, under the governorship of Lord Syden- ham and Sir Charles Bagot. Lord ]\Ietcalfe, the third governor of the united provinces, was soon in difficulties with the assembly on a question of patronage. His previous service had been in India, a poor school for the study of Anglo-Saxon free institutions. He held that a governor's business was to govern, that he was al- ways responsible to the Crown for his official acts, and therefore could not be in an equal sense responsible to the assembly, since no man can serve two masters. Such also was the view of the British Colonial Office for many years after Lord Durham's re- port. Lord Metcalf declined to seek the advice of the ministers concerning appointments to office. The ministers, all save one, im- mediately resigned and a new ministry was formed, after great delay and dilficully, to sustain the governor. Its appeal to the people was sujjportcd by all the royal infiuence and resulted in a slender majority in the assembly, won at the cost of renewed bitterness against llie governor and the British Government. Alter Lord Metcalfe's death and the brief governorship of Lord Cath- cart, the Whig ministry in England, headed by Lord Russell, sent out Lord h^lgin as governor of the Canadas. The policy of free trade had recently won its decisive victory in England, the commer- CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 163 1836-1851 cial restrictions of the old colonial system were evidently doomed, and it was time for its political restriction to be abandoned like- wise. Lord Elgin found a conservative ministry in office, but a new election in 1848 gave a large majority to the Liberal party, and the governor established a precedent, which was thereafter followed, by inviting Lafontaine, the Liberal leader, to form a ministry instead of choosing the ministers himself. He thus, in behalf of Great Britain, stood aloof from party and party govern- ment in the colony, as the Crown is accustomed to do in the United Kingdom itself, and thereby conceded tlie right of the colony to self-government in the executive as well as in the legislative department. Similar contests between governor and assembly occurred in the maritime provinces. In New Brunswick the legislature got control of the colonial revenues in 1836, and in 1839 the lieutenant governor, Sir John Harvey, officially conceded that the heads of departments held their offices subject to the approval of the legis- lature. His successor, Sir William Colebrook, attempted to ap- point a provincial secretary without consulting the ministers, sev- eral of whom immediately resigned. Their protest was sustained by the Colonial Office in England and complete self-government was thereby secured. In Xova Scotia the struggle was more bitter. In 1838 the mother country recognized the right of the colonial assembly to control the provincial revenues and granted other liberal reforms. The assembly next asserted its right to full execu- tive control through ministers responsible to it alone. This was resisted by the governor, Sir Colin Campbell, and his successor. Lord Ealkland, in combination with inllucntial Conservatives in the province. Here as in Upper Canada the chief opponents of popular government were the descendants of the American loyalists and members of the Anglican Church. After a bitter controversy the reform ministry in England appointed Sir John Harvey to succeed Lord I'^alkland, and cabinet government by ministers re- sponsible to the as>enibly was securely established. In Trincc Edward Island the same step was taken in 185 i. In this manner all tlie powers of the colonial governments were transferred to representatives of the people, and these powers were soon enlarged. In 1846 the colonics were given control of duties on imports, and in 1849 tlie imperial Navigation Act was repealed, thus throwing open the colonial ports to the vessels of 164 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1851-1864 all nations. Control of the post office had been conceded to Canada shortly after the Act of Union. The colonies could now freely adopt such a commercial policy as was best suited to their interests without regard to those of the mother country, and they soon exercised this power. Having attained complete popular self-government, the Brit- ish North American provinces again followed the example of the United States by combining in a federal union. This had been sug- gested soon after the adoption of the Constitution of the United States. Lord Durham had contemplated it in 1839, but at the eleventh hour he was obliged to confine himself to a union of the two Canadas, and for some years no further efforts were made in the direction of a general union. Finally two distinct movements in the maritime provinces and in the Canadas united to bring it about. In 1861 a resolution looking toward the union of the maritime provinces was adopted by the legislature of Nova Scotia under the leadership of Howe, a Liberal, and in 1864, under his Consen^ative successor; Dr. Tupper (afterward Sir Charles), a conference of delegates from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island was called to meet at Charlottetown for this purpose. In the meantime the racial antagonism between the French and English had made the constitution of the Canadas unworkable. It will be remembered that the Act of Union, passed in 1840, had given the French province of Lower Canada equal representation in the assembly with the English province of Upper Canada, though the population of the latter was much smaller. Now, however, the rapid growth of population in Upper Canada had given it the numerical superiority, and this English majority began to agitate for the apportionment of representation according to population, exhibiting a spirit of intense hostility to the lan- guage, religion, and institutions of the French province. This attack on their nationality was bitterly resented by the French, and as the controversy waxed hotter parties were so evenly bal- anced in the legislature that stable government became impossible. One sliort-lived ministry followed another in rapid succession, and general elections were frequently resorted to without permanent result. At last a compromise was effected and a ministry was formed containing representatives of both parties pledged to bring in a measure at the next session for introducing the federal princi- ple into Canada, with provisions permitting the maritime prov- CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 165 1864-1866 inces and the Northwest Territories to enter the contemplated union. This coahtion ministry, hearing- of the Charlottetown con- ference of the maritime provinces, immediately sent delegates to it. The conference, thus enlarged, decided that the question of the union of all the provinces should be referred to a convention to be held at Quebec in October, 1864. The convention met at the appointed time and place. There were in attendance twelve delegates from the two Canadas, five from Nova Scotia, seven from New Brunswick, seven from Prince Edward Island and two from Newfoundland. They represented the highest level of political ability and experience in their re- spective provinces and included many men of distinction, among them the Conservatives John A. Macdonald of Upper Canada and Charles Tupper of Nova Scotia ; the Liberals George Brown of Upper Canada, Adams G. Archibald of Nova Scotia, Samuel Leonard Tilley of New Brunswick, and George Coles of Prince Edward Island. The hVench population of Lower Canada found able representatives in fltienne Paschal Tache, chairman of the convention, and George litienne Cartier. The convention sat for eighteen days in the parliament house of Quebec, behind closed doors. The results of the deliberations were embodied in seventy- two resolutions recommending the adoption of a federal govern- ment charged with matters of common interest for the whole coun- try, with separate local governments in Upper and Lower Canada, and in each of the other provinces, charged with the control of local matters. Hie model of the British Constitution was to be followed so far as practicable, the executive power vested in the sovereign of tlie United Kingdom, and to be exercised according to the well-understood principles of the British Constitution (that is through a ministry responsible to the legislature) by the sov- ereign personally or by the rei)resentative of the sovereign duly authorized. The resjjectivc powers of the federal and provincial governments were detlned and the residuum of power was given to the federation. This departure from American precedent was probably due to tlic terrible Civil War then raging in the United States in behalf of State riglits. It is small matter for wonder that the Canadians should want that ([uestion rightly settled from the first. ^Moreover, the ])roviiiccs had all been accustomed to the supremacy of the cciUral imperial pcnver, whereas the States in 1787 had recently ilirown oil that power by successful revolution, 166 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1864-1866 and jealously guarded the local independence thus gained. On this point there seems to have been general agreement. As to other matters there were differences. George Brown, the leader of the extreme Liberal and English party in Upper Canada, whose de- mands for representation according to population had brought on the crisis in the Canadas and led to the movement for federation, now advocated an executive for the provinces on the model of the State governors in the United States, with an effective veto over legislation and the power to dismiss any of the chief executive officers of the province when the assembly was not sitting. These governors, however, he would have appointed by the federal gov- ernment. He also wished to have the legislatures elected at fixed intervals, and not subject to dissolution in the meantime. In these matters he was overruled. American precedent was further disregarded in regulating the financial relation of the several provinces with the general gov- ernment. In the United States the revenue of the States is inde- pendent of that of the nation, the former coming chiefly from indirect taxes and the latter from direct. But direct taxes were unknown in the maritime provinces, where municipal self-govern- ment did not exist and local needs were met by grants from the legislature. Upper Canada enjoyed municipal self-government supported by direct taxation, and would have preferred to have the provincial governments so supported; but to secure the adhe- sion of the maritime provinces, it was necessary for the general government to grant annual subsidies to the provincial govern- ments out of the proceeds of the taxation of imports and other federal revenues. As in the federal convention at Philadelphia in 1787 tlie small States showed much jealousy of the larger ones, so now the delegates from Prince Edward Island feared to enter the proposed Union for similar reasons. Indeed the reasons were sirrjnger by as much as the new^ government was to be more cen- tralized tlian that of the United States. The residuum of power was not only conferred on the federal government, but the judges of the liighcr ])n)vincial courts were to be appointed by it and their salaries lixcd by tlie federal parliament. ]\Toreover. provincial legislation w'ls to be subject to federal control in certain cases for the protccti(;n ff the rights of a Protestant or Roman Catholic minority in matters of education. I he resolutions of the Quebec convention were now referred CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 167 1866-1867 back to the provincial legislatures for action. Special conventions were not chosen for this purpose as had been done in the United States, nor was the question in any manner submitted to a popular vote except in New Brunswick, where the first election was ad- verse to the Union and compelled tlie resignation of the ministry who favored it. In the same year, however, the lieutenant gover- nor found means to dismiss their successors and appeal again to the people, who now elected a legislature with a safe majority for the Union. In all the maritime provinces there was strong oppo- sition to the Quebec resolutions, due partly to dissatisfaction with the financial terms, partly to the fact that the delegates of these prov- inces had been elected to consider a confederation restricted to those provinces and had not been authorized to take up the question of a wider union. In Nova Scotia the federal party dared not appeal to the people, and were compelled to wait until 1866 before pressing the question in the legislature, which at length, under the strong influence of the English Colonial Office, approved the plan. In Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland the advocates of the Union were too weak to seriously urge the matter at all. The parliament of the two Canadas approved the Union by large ma- jorities of the representatives of the English and also of the Erench province. This action was taken early in 1865, and a delegation went to England to forward the project and take steps for the acquisition of the vast territories of the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1866 the Canadian parliament framed separate constitutions for the provinces of Upjicr and Lower Canada, to be submitted to the home government as a part of the federation scheme. Dele- gates from the provinces which had accepted the plan went to England, met in London in Deceml)er of that year, and adopted amendments of its financial provisions tending to conciliate the opposition in the maritime provinces. Thus amended the measure was passed without ()i)position by the imperial parliament on ]\larch 29. 1867. as '' The British North America Act. \SC)y." A royal proclamation set the first day of July for putting the new government in force. Tlie federal state took the name Dominion of Canada, and the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada were henceforward called Ontp.rio and Onchcc. Hie first elections for tlic Dominion parliament resulted in a victory for the Conser\ atiN'O part_\- under tlie leader.-^hip of Sir John Alacdonald. who had been one of the leading advocates of 168 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1878 union. In Nova Scotia, however, the opponents of union were suc- cessful, and the provincial assembly addressed the British parlia- ment, demanding the repeal of the British North America Act. This could not be obtained, and further financial concessions to that province, made by the Dominion parliament in 1869, induced Mr. Howe, the leader of the opposition there, to abandon a hopeless cause and join the Macdonald ministry. The party of repeal was decisively defeated in the general election for the Dominion parlia- ment in 1872, and shortly thereafter disappeared from the politics of the province. In the meantime disunion sentiment appeared in the west. British Columbia had been admitted to the Union in 1 87 1 upon the promise of the Dominion Government to speedily build a railway to the Pacific. This promise was not fulfilled. There were many physical obstacles to be overcome, business de- pression had checked enterprise, and a strong faction of the Liberal party was opposed to the undertaking. The people of the western province were angered by the delay, and the legislature demanded the immediate completion of the road or the separation of the prov- ince from the Dominion. With the return of the Conservatives to power in 1878 the work was vigorously pushed to a conclusion and the separatist sentiment in British Columbia disappeared. The admission of British Columbia was a step in a general expansion movement for the absorption of all the British posses- sions north of the United States. The adhesion of Prince Ed- ward Island was secured in 1873 by liberal financial concessions for the support of the provincial government and the extinguishment of the title of those proprietors to whom the British Government had wastefully granted the greater part of the public lands in the island. Of the maritime provinces, Newfoundland alone re- mained aloof. It was in the west, however, that the great field for expansion was to be sought, and its success was assured there before the separatism of Prince Edward Island was overcome. The early history of the Hudson Bay Company has already been narrated. After tlie conquest of Canada in 1763, the Northwest Company, with hcad(juartcrs at ^Montreal, entered into competition for the fur trade, establisliing posts and sending its agents to explore the great region between Hudson Bay and tlie Pacific and Arctic Oceans. As an incident of this rivalry Lord Selkirk received a grant from the Hudson Bay Company in the Red River country, and estab- CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 169 1816-1849 lished a colony of Scotcli people there. In spite of a massacre perpetrated in i8r6 by the half-breeds in the service of the North- west Company, the colony lived on. In 1821 the Hudson Bay Company boug-ht in the rights of their rivals and secured an act of parliament granting a monopoly of the trade of the region for twenty-one years, afterward renewed for a like period. The gen- eral policy of the company was to discourage settlement in order to preserve its exclusive rights and maintain the value of the trade in furs. It bought from Lord Selkirk's heirs their interest in the Red River country and established a simple form of government over the Scotch settlers and French half-breeds. Meanwhile agi- tation arose in Canada for the opening up of the country, and no further extension of the company's monopoly could be secured. In 1868 the company agreed to sell to Canada all its territorial claims for 300,000/., reserving certain lands for its own use. The Dominion in 1869 prepared to take possession and sent agents to the Red River country to sun^ey lands and prepare to take over the government. Thereupon the French half-breeds rebelled un- der the leadership of Louis Riel. The Dominit)n Government suppressed the revolt by military force, but quieted the discontent of the Red River settlers by creating the new province of Mani- toba in 1870, and admitting it to the Union. The government of the rest of the Hudson l>ay territory was for a time carried on by the lieutenant govern(n- of Manitoba and a small council created for that ])urpose. A few years later the Northwest Territories were separately organized under their own lieutenant governor and council appointed by the central government, but the country on the western and southern shores of Hudson Bay remained under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant governor of Manitoba and was named Keewatin. Still later the Northwest was given repre- sentatives in parliament and a system of local government was cstal)lishcd there, so that the region occupies a constitutional posi- tion analogous to that of the organized territories of the United States. The process of expansion was completed by a British order in council annexing to tlie Dominion all British North American territories except Newfoundland. Doubtless that island will at some time follow the cxani])le of Prince Fdward Island and complete the ("auiulian territory in the cast. The annexation of British Columljia has already been described. Originallv within the domain of the Hudson Bay Company, it had been known as 170 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1849-1905 New Caledonia. Vancouver Island was first separately organized as a Crown colony in 1849 and was granted a representative as- sembly in 1856. The discovery of gold in New Caledonia in 1858 brought in many settlers and the country was made a Crown col- ony under the name of British Columbia. In 1866 Vancouver Island was absorbed by the new colony. Until its admission as a province of the Dominion, British Columbia was governed by a lieutenant governor appointed by the Crown and a legislature partly appointed and partly elected by the people. It was thereafter or- ganized like the other provinces with a responsible ministry and an assembly elected by the people. The Dominion undertook to pay subsidies for provincial expenses and to build a railway from the Lakes to the Pacific coast within ten years. Thus Canada had added three provinces, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, and Brit- ish Columbia, to the four original members of the union, and had acquired a vast and rich region from w'hich new provinces would in time be formed. Two new provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan, were constituted out of the Northwest Territories, and admitted to the Union in 1905. The recent discovery of gold in the portion of the Northwest bordering on Alaska led to the govern- mental organization of that region under the name of Yukon. Throughout the Northwest law is enforced and order maintained by the admirably managed mounted police. The Indian natives have been treated with humanity by the Dominion Government, shielded from bad influences, and taught the simpler arts of civilized life. Circumstances have protected them from the rush of white settlers which has borne so heavily on their kinsmen in the United States from the beginning. The constitutional history of the Dominion is interesting to Americans chiefly because of the contrasts it presents to federal government as we understand and practice it. In the United States it is an axiom of constitutional practice that the federal and State governments are entirely separate and distinct. In Canada the provinces depend on the Dominion treasury for revenue, as has been stated. r"V)r a time it was not uncommon for the same man to sit in tlic provincial and federal legislatures at the same time, a ])rachcc at length forbidden by provincial legislation. In- stead 01 a (Uial system of courts, the provincial judges are ap- pointed by the Dominion Government, and several years elapsed before a sui)remc court was established to hear appeals from the CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 171 1840-1878 provincial courts. Appeals may still be made to the privy council in England, and are in practice heard by the highest English judges sitting as the judicial committee of tlic privy council. An- other sharp contrast to American methods is seen in the constitu- tion and powers of the Senate. Senators are appointed by the Crown for life, and must possess a property qualification. But the influence of the Senate is very small. y\s in England, the power resides in the House of Commons. This is almost inevitable in a system of government by a ministry responsible to the legislature. Ministers could not well be responsible to two houses, which might often be controlled by opposing parties. The working of the parliamentary system as applied to the relation of the Dominion with the imperial government on the one hand, and with the provincial governments on the other, are most interesting. The governor general is the important link between colony and empire. i\ppointed by the English ministry, he stands outside of the struggles of colonial party politics as the king stands outside of English party politics. He wields the royal powers through ministers responsible to the Dominion parliament. In practice the chief executive is the premier representing the major- ity party in the parliament. The lieutenant governors of the provinces are appointed in form by the governor general, but in practice by the IJominion ministry, and their position with respect to the ])rovincial legislatures is anak)gous to that of the governor general. 'J'hus. in fact, each province is go\erned by an executive rej)resenting the majority party in the provincial assembly. This system is very elastic. In this ikkl we must seek the sources of consliluticjnal law of the Dominion in the instructions of the Brit- ish Colonial UiVice to the governor general, and in the practice that has grown up in the actual working of the system. Thus the pardoning power was exerci>ctl by the governor general in fa\"or of Kiel and others of the Northwest rebels without the action or recommendation of the mim'stry then in power. This act was se\-erely criticised in Canada, and led in 1875 to a modi- fication of the c^Jnlnli^sion and instructions of the governor general to prevent its rc[)ctition. In tlie relatiijns of the federal and pro- vincial executi\-es some interesting cjuestions have arisen. In 1878 the Liberal lieutenant go\ enn^r oi (Jnebec dismissed the Conserva- tive ministry of the province and ap[)ointed Liberals in their stead. who appealed to the country. The result of the election was a tie. 172 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1891-1896 The Conservative Dominion ministry now advised the dismissal of the Heutenant governor of Quebec. The governor general refused until he had referred the matter for instructions to the colonial secretary in England, who directed him to comply with the advice of the Dominion ministry. In 1891 the lieutenant governor of Quebec dismissed his ministers for corruption, and on an appeal to the country the new provincial ministry was sustained. There was no appeal to or action by the Dominion Government. Recently the lieutenant governor of British Columbia was removed from ofiftce by the Dominion Government for the arbitrary dismissal of the provincial ministers. The reality of the powers of the governor general in prevent- ing abuses of power for party purposes was illustrated by the re- fusal of the Earl of Aberdeen to make certain senatorial and judicial appointments, advised by the Conservative ministry of Sir Charles Tupper after it had been defeated in the general elec- tions of 1896. This refusal was sustained by the Dominion par- liament and the British Colonial Office. In its spirit the Canadian constitution is democratic. The property qualification for members of the House of Commons was abolished by the Liberals after their victory in the election of 1873. Members of the lower house are elected by ballot on the same day throughout the Dominion. The right of suffrage is controlled by the laws of each province. The Conservatives enacted a general franchise law in 1885 requiring a small property qualification for voters, but it was repealed and the old system reestablished soon after the Liberal victory in 1896. The most serious problems of the Dominion are caused by the religious and racial antagonism of the English and French population. We have seen how this led to the separation of LTpper and Lower Canada in 1791 to free the small English population in the western province from French domination; how it brought on the rebellion under Papineau in the French province; how the two provinces were combined in a legislative union in 1840, and the Englisli province, though inferior in population, was given equal re])resentation with the French in the hope of Anglicizing the latter; Ivav, when tlie growth of tapper Canada outstripped tliat of the French province, representation according to population was demanded by Upper Canada, the constitution established in 1840 broke clown in conscfjuence ; and finally how federation was CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 173 1840-1896 adopted as a remedy, leaving tlie French of Quebec to manage the affairs of their own province in their own way. The French have not been Anghcizcd, but chng tenaciously to their own language, laws, and religion, and in their political action have been to a great degree subject to the inlluence of their priests. The Dominion Government was given some measure of control over the provincial governments to protect the rights of religious minorities. In this and other ways it was inevitable that the racial and religious antagonism should affect Dominion politics. Thus in 1888 an attempt was unsuccessfully made in the Dominion parliament to disallow the action of the Quebec Government in referring to the Pope the distribution of certain funds among the ecclesiastical institutions of the province, in compensation for ecclesiastical estates confiscated by the government. The attempt w\as considered an unwise interference with the self-government of the province, and was defeated. In 1885 ^ second rebellion of the French half-breeds of the Northwest under Riel was suppressed by military force. Riel was tried and condemned to death. There was much sympathy for him among the French of Quebec, who made strenuous efforts to secure his pardon. His sentence was executed nevertheless, but the agitation caused an overturn of parties in Quebec. In 187 1 the Roman Catholics of New Brunswick unsuccessfully invoked the powers of the Dominion Government and the courts to annul cer- tain school legislation unfavorable to them. Again in 1890 and the following years the school question in Manitoba was the cliief political issue througliout the Dominion. Manitoba established a non-sectarian school system in 1890. The Roman Catholic minor- ity appealed in vain to the courts and then to the governor in council. The Conservative ministry introduced in the Dominion parliament a bill to afford them relief, which was bitterly opposed on racial rather than party lines, and had to be abandoned before the close of the scssii^n. The general election of 1896 followed, resulting in a victory for the Liberals under Sir Wilfrid Laurier, who carried (jucbcc by a large majority against the inlluence of the priests, lie compromised the (picstion by permitting religious instruction after school hours and rccjuiring the teaching of h'rciKh in any school whore ten pupils speak the I'rench language. On the whole the fedora! ^y^telu seems to have met the racial and religious dit'ticiiit}- fairly v.cll. In the relations of Canada with the rest of the empire the 174 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1878-1896 question of the tariff has been prominent. The United States, after the Civil War. had terminated the reciprocity treaty with Canada. In 1878, after a period of economic depression, the Conservative party took up the poHcy of protectionism and carried the general election on it. A protective tariff was enacted by the Conservatives shortly after their return to power. The Liberal party opposed this policy, and desired reciprocity with the United States. On their return to power, however, in 1896, they abandoned these issues and took up the policy of preferential trade in favor of Eng-- land. That is, that English goods be admitted under less duties than are charged upon goods of like kind from other countries. This was the essential feature of the programme set forth by a colonial conference representing the American, South African, and Australian self-governing colonies. No concession has yet been granted by England to the colonies, and the question is a burning one in England now. The attachment of Canadians to the empire is attested by the service of Canadian volunteers in South Africa during the recent Boer W^ar. Parliamentary government in Canada, as in England, is car- ried on by the keen rivalry of two great parties. The Conserva- tives are in spirit not unlike the English party of the same name. They organized the government under the British North America Act. 1867. and carried it on until 1873, and again after a short interval from 1878 until 1896. Until 1891 their leader was Sir John ^lacdonald. They have emphasized the advantages of the English connection and adopted a critical attitude toward democ- racy. Their policy has been to extend the boundaries of the Do- minion over all British North America, and to bind all its parts together by railways and canals constructed wholly or in part at government expense. Tlieir adoption of protectionism falls in naturally with this national policv. The Liberal party has favored democracy. (jppo=cd t'h.e establishment of the protective policy, ad- vocated reciprocity and cordial friendship with the United States, and criticised the heavy governmental expenditures on such enter- prises as the Canadian I'acific Railway. The intern;d development of the Dominion has been rapid and peaceful save fi.r llic two rebellions of the Erench half-breeds of the Xnrtluvcsl and some aborlive raids of Irish " Ecnians "' frr)m thf L'nitcd States in the years following the American Civil AVar. The wonderful natural svstem of water communication bv CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 175 1867-1910 the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes has been vastly improved by canals, and all parts of the country have been connected by rail- ways. Not content with the completion of the Canadian Pacific line, the Canadians are projecting two more transcontinental rail- ways farther north. The Dominion is rich in natural resources, and is vigorously developing them. The recent discovery of gold in the Yukon country was a great stimulus to that Arctic region, as it had before been in Ih-itish Columbia. In the eastern prov- inces coal and iron mining are important industries in addition to the fisheries and lumbering. Xo pcjrtion of the country has a more solid basis of future prosperity and greatness than the vast and fertile wheat country (^f the Northwest. A true national spirit is rising in Canada and sometimes shows itself in an exaggerated sensitiveness to foreign criticism, such as was exhibited in the United States at a similar stage of development. Canadians have recently suffered a keen disappointment in the decision affirming the right of the United States to the exclusive possession of the Pacific coast in the northwest, thus cutting off northern British Columbia and the A^ikon country from access to the sea except through foreign territory. An importarit item in the internal policy of the Dominion has been the treatment of the public lands. In the latter part of the eighteenth and first quarter of the nineteenth century vast grants were recklessly made for little or no consideration to absentee pro- ])rietors, in whose hands the ];nul remained unimproved and in- accessible to settlement. Pa' the acquisiticjn oi the North west, the opening of the clergy reserves, and piu'chase frt)m the great pro- prietors in the olTier i)rovinces these errors were amended and a policy an.-iiogous to tliat of tlic I'nited States adopteil, under which settlement has gt-nc rapidly forward. Tlie [)rimc export of Canada has always been its fine yellow pine timber oi- hini!)cr and the m.'innfactnrcd ])roducts of lumber, h'ormerl}' the whole country v^as co\xM\'d with it. The yellow pine nnis ijo feet wilhoul knot or branch. ;md has a btitt seven feet in diameter, h'.ach of these trees is worth, in X'ew York. ScSoo, and in Lnsdand, joo/, Tiie hnnherers begin tiieir work in autumn, and fell as man.}' trees as they can. during the winter, haul tlown to the rivers, whence the\- arc c;irried by the spring tloods (.lown to the kd-:es. llerc the}' lioii(ire(l bills 10 a large amount wliich he had drawn on them fur ilie expenses of go\-ern- 194 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 ment. The sale of public lands and assisted immigration stopped in August of that year. The colony was bankrupt and the home government was forced to render financial aid, thus discard- ing the " self-supporting principle." The depression of South Australia, however, was but temporary. It contains the best grain land in the whole island ; and hence it of course soon became, the chief source of the food supply of the neighboring colonies, besides exporting large quantities of grain to England. It contains rich mines of copper, and produces large quantities of wool ; and in the course of time, as we shall see, the colony quite retrieved its position. Port Phillip, founded at about the same time as South Austra- lia, was from the first far more prosperous, although not so much show was made by the founders. The immigrants at once sought the downs and began breeding sheep, or settled on the rivers and devoted themselves to farming, instead of settling on the site of the capital and gambling for land. Besides, it was under the gov- ernment of Bourke, who steadily resisted the whole tendency of the Wakefield system, though he carried out the plan of selling land at a moderate price, and laying quit-rents upon the rich squat- ters, so as to form a fund for promoting the immigration of laborers. The year 185 1 is memorable in Victoria for two things, its political independence, and the discovery of gold. Gold was first found near Bathurst in New South Wales; but shortly afterward the richest gold-field the world had ever seen was discovered at Ballarat in Victoria. A vast influx of population followed, first from the adjacent settlements, and then from Europe and China. The city of Melbourne rose as if by magic; in four years the population of Victoria had increased five-fold, and its imports and exports as much as twelve-fold. By this time the Australian Colonies Act had been passed, and the colonies had to settle the shape which they wished their permanent constitutions to take. Victoria was ahead in this respect of the older colony of Sydney. It had in four years quite outgrown its legislative council, and the demands of the com- munity boldly embraced an elective upper house, and a lower house, sitting only for three years, and constituted on the principles of the ballot, the abolition of the property qualification, equal electoral districts, and manhood suffrage. The new constitution on this basis was proclaimed in 1855. The beginnings 01 South Australia, as we have seen, were un- THESOUTHSEA 195 160O191O promising; but the whole face of affairs was changed in a few years by the discovery of a new source of wealth. South Australia owes her prosperity to her mines of copper, as Victoria owes hers to her mines of gold. The Kapunda mines were discovered in 1843, ^^^^ those of Burra-Burra in 1845; and in the meantime the government of the colony had passed into the hands of Sir George Grey, the successor of Colonel Gawler, under whom it gradually began to retrieve its fortunes. He cut down the rate of wages for government employees, and refused to begin any new public works that were not absolutely necessary. Government expenditure was sharply reduced, the laborers heretofore concentrated in Adelaide were forced to seek employment in agriculture; the area of culti- vated land increased eight-fold in two years, with but a slight increase in population. These measures, though for the time un- popular, secured the permanent and increasing prosperity of the colony. Copper mining steadily progressed, in spite of the check caused by the discovery of gold in other colonies, and many more rich mines were found, the best being those of Wallaroo and Moonta. The production of wool, grain, and wine steadily in- creased, and wheat was sent from Adelaide not only to the neigh- boring colonies, but to the Cape, India, and China. Grey was transferred to New Zealand in 1845, having won the respect and esteem of the colonists in the meanwhile. His successor. Major Robe, introduced discord by granting state aid to the chief re- ligious bodies, an unfortunate and short-lived experiment. He also attempted without success to exact a royalty on minerals produced in the colony. The movement in favor of representative govern- ment in South Australia has closely followed the same movement in Victoria. From 1842 to 1850 the colony was governed by a legislative council of eight persons, nominated by the Crown ; but in the latter year the numl)er was increased from eight to twenty-four, and two-thirds were to he elected by the colonists, as in West- ern AustraHa. The Australian Colonies Act empowered the coun- cil to choose such new institutions as might be suitable to the colony; and in 1853, while similar discussions were pending in Victoria and in New South Wales, the council passed a bill establish- ing an upper and a lower house, the former being' nominated by the Crown and the latter elected by the people. The colonists peti- tioned the home government against this constitution of the upper house; like the people of Victoria, they wished their upper house 196 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 to be elective, and they gained their point. The new constitution on this basis was proclaimed in 1856. Li 1842 the imperial gov- ernment consolidated the colonial debts at the rate of three and one-half per cent., charged off the sum of 155,000/. originally ad- vanced to the colony, gave the governor power to borrow for future needs on the credit of the colonial revenues, abolished the office and powers of the commission under which the colony had been founded, and made the system of land distribution uniform with that of the other colonies, i. e., the modified Wakefield system of sales at a comparatively high price and use of the proceeds to promote immigration. When we consider that the east coast of Australia is about two thousand miles long, and that Sydney is near the south end, it becomes clear that if settlements were to be made along all its length, it would be necessary to divide the colony for purposes of government. After the settlement of the Darling Downs, the town of Brisbane, near the old penal colony of ]\Ioreton Bay, about half- way up the settled coast, rapidly grew up into an important place. Sheep owners and farmers went on settling far away northward, and Brisbane soon tended to become the capital of a northern por- tion of New South Wales. Accordingly in 1859 this portion was erected into a separate colony, with a representative government framed on the model of that of New South Wales, by the name of Queensland. The more northern shores of the great East Austra- lian coast differ in one great matter from those about Sydney. They arc much hotter, because near the Equator, and much of them is actually within the tropics. Here, then, we naturally look for something like what we have already met with in the West Indies, and we accordingly find that Queensland within the tropics is well adapted for the production of sugar, tobacco, and cotton. The south of Queensland is at present the most thickly settled, like New S()Uth Wales, and wool is therefore, on the whole, its staple prod- uct. But the immense length of tropical coast to the north is not suited lor growing wool or grain: Rockhampton is the center of a large plaiit^ition district and still farther north is a mining district of great pr(j(Uu-ii\encss whose yield of gold, tin, copper, and silver riw'ils the agricultural products of the south. The laborers of tlie (jncensland plantations are chiefly South Sea Islanders, who are imported under government inspection, and bound to work for a term (,f tln-ee }ears, after which they return home with their sav- THESOUTHSEA 197 1800 1910 ings, and, what is far more important, with new ideas of life. Many of those who have thus returned come back to Queensland for a second term of labor, and we may thus conclude, in spite of the objections of philanthropists, that this system worked benefit to both the parties. Its un((uestioned abuses gave rise to much agi- tation in the colony for the prohibition on humanitarian grounds. A combination of the farmers of the south and the miners and stockmen of the north effected this in 1883, but after a brief ex- periment the prohibition was replaced by stringent regulations. As a result of this contest plans for dividing Queensland into three colonics came to be urged, especially in the north. The im- migration of Pacific Island laborers into any part of Australia has been prohibited by an act of the Australian Commonwealth Parliament passed December 17. 1901. New South Wales had greatly increased in im])()itancc through its own growtli and that of its dependencies, and to satisfy a strong and growing feeling, an elective element was introduced into the government in 1842 by the Earl of Derby, then colonial secretary. New Zealand had been already severed from the parent colony, and the same thing ought perhaps to have been at once done with Port Philip. New South Wales was, until 1823, under tlie despotic power of tlie governor, who combined in his own per- son the highest executive, legislative, and judicial authority. Gov- ernor Macquarie had resisted the attempt to hamper him by any sort of legislative council, but in Governor Brisbane's time the chief officials were combined int(3 something of tlie scjrt ; and in that of Governor Darling, seven colonists, nominated by the Crown, were added, so as to make up a council of fifteen. Civil courts had been introduced in 18 14, their powers enlarged and trial by jury in civil cases permitted in 1823, freedom of the press conceded in 1824, and English law established by an imperial statute in 1828. The colony became self-sustaining in 1827, and control of the finances began to pass into the hands of the council. An executive council or ministry, responsible to the governor, had existed in New Soutli Wales from al)out 1825. in South Australia and Western Australia from the llrst. and in \'ictoria, Queensland. and Tasmania from the time of tlieir separation from New South Wales. Political instincts are always strong in the English race; dur- ing the recent inllux of settlei's and capital the conduct of the 198 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 government often produced dissatisfaction*, and Lord Derby's Act was well-timed and, so far as it went, successful. He made a legislature of one house, consisting of the six chief officials, six crown nominees, and twenty-four elected representatives of the people, eighteen elected from the district of Sydney, and six from Port Phillip, It was empowered to pass laws not repugnant to the laws of England, with full control of the revenue, except a fixed sum for the civil list, and of the proceeds of land sales. Its acts were subject to the governor's veto. The qualification for the franchise was a 20/. rental, or a freehold worth 200/., and that for members was fixed high in proportion. In the first session of this council Lowe, then a barrister at Sydney, entered upon his political career. The council at once began the work of remodeling the laws in accordance with the wants of the colony. In 1842 munici- pal government on the English model was established in Sydney, and in 1843 i^i Melbourne and Geelong, in Port Phillip. The spirit of independence was greatly strengthened in Port Phillip by these free institutions. In 1850 the provisions of the act of 1842 were extended to Tasmania, South Australia, and Victoria. The next year saw the transfer to the colonies of the customs service a change rendered easy by the adoption of the free trade policy in England in 1846, In 1852 the colonies got control of the gold revenue. Meanwhile the transportation of convicts to the colonies, except Western Australia, had been finally stopped. But in none of the Australian colonies was there as yet established a really re- sponsible government. In fact the home government in 1845 expressly refused to permit the salaried officials of New South Wales to sit in the council, as the members of the cabinet sit in the British Parliament. The 'sudden importance to which the Australian colonies were raised by the discovery of gold came at the same time with some vigorous efforts which were made in the colonies themselves and by one or two enlightened men at home, for releasing them from the tutelage of the Colonial Office. The undoubted success of the free institutions which Canada, after a long struggle, had wrested from the mother country, lent a strong confirmation to the views of Roebuck and Lowe, and at length, by the same Act of Parliament which established Victoria as a separate colony, known as the Australian Government Act of 1850, Lord John Russell's government enabled the four colonies of New Sniith Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Van Die- THESOUTHSEA 199 18001910 men's Land to choose their own form of government, subject to the approval of the imperial government, by means of popular assemblies composed of all the inhabitants who were lol. house- holders or loo/, freeholders. The repeal of the imperial Land Sales Act removed the last check upon the colonial legislatures. The colonies then proceeded to make their own constitutions, which were in the end all framed on the British model, except that Vic- toria and Tasmania chose to make their upper house elective, as Canada did soon afterward, and as the other Australian colonies, except Queensland and New Zealand, have done. The constitu- tions were everywhere completed about the same time; the first real parliament of New South Wales met in June, 1856. Members of the upper house are appointed by the Crown for life. The general features of the new constitutions in all the col- onies were a broad franchise, extending in South Australia to manhood suffrage, some restrictive qualifications for members of the lower house, an upper house appointed by the Crown in New South Wales and New Zealand, and elected in the other colonies by a narrow franchise, holding office for life in New South Wales and subject to a gradual rotation in the other colonies on tlie model of the senate of the United States. In practice it has been found that only the elective upper houses have had much power or influ- ence. Parliaments were to be elected every five years and in South Australia every three years, unless sooner dissolved. A session was to be held at least once in every year. The executive power was to be exercised by ministers responsible to the colonial par- liaments on the English model, though this is not very clearly ex- pressed, being left rather to implication and tradition, as in truth it is in England mainly a matter of custom and not of positive law. The practice of " responsible government " in this fashion was, of course, wholly unknown in Australia, and the vagueness of the provisions upon this subject may be due to the fact that it was not clearly understood there. The New Zealand Constitution had no reference whatever to responsible government, though the prac- tice was introduced there as in other colonies. The provisions of the Constitution Act did not extend to West Australia, but representative institutions like those of the other colonies were promised to it when it should become entirely self- supporting. When the transportation of convicts to W^estern Aus- tralia ceased a movement to this end was begun, resulting in the 200 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 creation, in 1870, of a legislative council partly nominated by the Crown and partly elected by the people. The colony thereafter made steady progress and in 1890 an imperial statute granted to it a legislature of two houses with responsible government. Tlie colony of Queensland, from its erection in 1859 out of the terri- tory of New South Wales, was endowed with full responsible government on the model of the parent colony. The general political tendency since the introduction of responsible govern- ment in the colonies has been distinctively democratic, resulting in manhood suffrage, and in some colonies extending the franchise to women also, in voting by ballot, in shorter terms of parliament, and in the payment of members. The power of the upper chambers has been an obstacle to the smooth working of the system of respon- sible government, since a ministry is responsible to the lower house, but cannot carry its measures if they are blocked by the upper house. Various devices have been adopted to cure this evil ; among them may be noted that of South Australia, where if a measure has passed the lower house in two successive parliaments, a general election having intervened, the governor may dissolve both houses at once or issue new writs for one or two members of each con- stituency of the upper house. This device recalls the power of the ministry in England, acting in the name of the Crown to overcome an adverse majority in the House of Lords by the creation of new peers. Since the complete triumph of democracy in Australia po- litical issues have not been sharply defined. There are, of course, protectionists and free-traders; those who are anxious for the in- terests of the rich squatter, believing that the prosperity of the country depends entirely upon its wool growing; and those who are anxious to encourage the poor immigrant farmer or '' free selector." But the changes of ministry which so often happen in Australia have generally had but little to do with any recognizable body of principles, whether liberal or conservative, and generally depend on local and personal questions. In fact, the responsible government system evolved in England, and admirably suited there to the existing rivalry of two great parties with definite and con- flicting principles, has seemed somewhat ridiculous in its applica- tion in Australia. ?*Iinisters have been frequently turned out 01 oHice for trivial reasons, and the system of an independent execu- tive as practiced in the United States seems to offer far more stal)i]ilv. THESOUTHSEA 201 1800-1910 The Australian colonies have passed through three well- marked periods of development. From 1788 to 1830 they were sustained by the transportation of convicts thither on a great scale, the number of free immigrants was small and the policy of free grants of land prevailed. From 1830 to 185 1 the Wakefield sys- tem of land sales was applied with more or less thoroughness, resulting in a rapid increase in free immigration and a high degree of agricultural prosperity. Meanwhile the stream of convicts slackened and at last ceased altogether. Up to the close of the second period there had been very little spontaneous immigration. The country had been peopled by convicts who had come under restraint, and free laborers whose expenses on the journey had been paid out of the proceeds of land sales. All this was about to be changed. On February 12, 1851, E. H. Ilargraves, who had recently returned from a fruitless search for gold in California, dis- covered alluvial gold deposits in New South Wales and reported the facts to the government. -\n official examination confirmed the news on May 19, and the rush to the diggings began. Similar discoveries were made in South Australia. Tasmania, and New Zealand, but the richest fields were in the newly organized colony of Victoria. Ad\-enturers ])oured in from the neighboring colonies, and then from all the world. In five years the population of Victoria rose from 70,000 to 300.000. ^Melbourne outstripped Sydney, speculation became rampant, land sold for extravagant prices, industry in the other colonies was for a time disorganized by the drain of population to the gold fields. From all parts of the world came throngs of men of every class, with a large proportion of doubtful or dangerous elements. This inrush at first imposed great exjjense on the colonial governments, and at once raised the question of what policy sliould be followed as to mining on the public lands. To attempt to prevent it would be futile, though the law uncjuestionably forbade it. The government asserted the old feudal doctrine that all gold found on either public or private lands belonged to the Crown, but offered to grant licenses to dig on public lands for a small fee, thus providing a revenue and pre- serving the title of the Crown. Digging on private lands without the consent of the owner was prohibited. The license fee for Crown lands was fixed at thirty shillings. Xo servant or laborer could get a license without producing a certificate of di-cliarge 202 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 from his last service. Commissioners for the gold fields were ap- pointed to administer the license system and maintain order. The new colony of Victoria felt the strain of the gold rush most severely. It reached its absolute maximum there, and its relative magnitude was greater still, so that the old population was in a few years fairly swamped by the newxomers. The squatters having the first right to purchase their runs, and fearing that the diggings would entice away their laborers, resented the intrusion of the miners, forgetting that their own rights had been acquired in a similar manner. Civil servants resigned and the police de- serted wholesale to share in the search for gold, and could not be restrained by the payment of higher salaries and wages. Military aid was asked from England. The land fund and digging license fees were transferred to the colony to help meet the deficit. The miners were not represented in the legislature, and resented the exaction of any license fee at all. Though the fee was reduced, they were not content. A murder and an attempt at lynching precipi- tated an outbreak at Eureka. The miners entrenched themselves in a stockade and defied the government. On November 30, 1854, the stockade was taken by assault. Thirty miners were killed and 120 captured, but such was the state of public sentiment in the colony that all were acquitted in spite of conclusive evidence of guilt. In 1885 the government was forced to abolish the license fee, replacing it with an export duty on gold. In lieu of the fee a miner was now required to pay il. for a " miner's right " or per- mission to occupy for mining purposes a specific piece of Crown land for one year. The new system was successful. It produced a sufficient revenue and restored order in the gold fields, where a new system of local government adapted to local needs was inaugurated. Among other evils the discovery of gold brought an alarming immigration of Chinese, thereby beginning a troublesome race problem in Australia. The drain of population from the lesser colonies, especially Tasmania, was at first alarming, but after a time the prosperity of Victoria was diffused among all the other colonies, which found there a ready market for their products. In the decade ending in 1861 the population of all the colonies, excluding New Zealand, rose from 479,199 to 1,167,481; of Vic- toria from 76,162 to 541.800; of New South Wales from 265,503 to 358,378. Victoria long remained the most populous, wealthy. THESOUTHSEA 203 1800-1910 and enterprising of all the colonies, but in 1899 New South Wales had regained her old superiority in population and trade. The union of the Australian colonies in a confederation fol- lowed the attainment of complete self-government by them after a delay of nearly half a century. The idea was suggested in Eng- land as early as 1850, and occasional colonial conferences upon the subject were held without result until 1880. In that year there was an important conference of all the colonies, including New Zealand, at Sydney, caused by the claims made by France to the island group known as the New Hebrides. The first step toward federation was now taken. A federal council was established with legislative power over a few subjects of general interest, such as fisheries, intercolonial legal process, and the influx of criminals. This scheme was enacted by the British Parliament August 14, 1885, and adopted by all the colonies except New South Wales and New Zealand. The first meeting of the council took place Feb- ruary 5, 1886. Meetings were held in 1888, 1889, and in every odd numbered year from 1891 to 1899. The colony of Fiji, which had been recently established in the island group of that name, was entitled to representation in the council, but was in fact unrepre- sented after the first meeting. The council passed laws, but had no power in enforcing tliem, and was thus a body not unlike the American Congress under the Articles of Confederation, but with much less legislative power. The next step was taken in 18S7, when a colonial conference was held in London, at which all the British possessions were represented and an agreement for de- fensive measures was adopted. The colonies were to contribute 126,000/. a year, apportioned among them according to population, for the support of an auxiliary fleet on the Australian station. This agreement was ratifictl by the five continental colonies, Tas- mania, and New Zealand, and on September 5, 189 1, the fleet arrived at Sydney. The Lnnd<.n conference had suggested the appointment of an imperial commissioner on the land defenses of Australia. His report was made on October 9, 18S9, and shortly thereafter Sir Henry Parkcs of New South Wales suggested to the colony of Victoria a convention to frame a federal constitution. This resulted in a conference at Melbourne February 6, 1S90, composed of the federal council with delegates from New South Wales and New Zealand, which resolved that a federal govern- ment having executive and legislative pov/ers should be estal>- 204^ COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 Hshed, embracing" the remoter Australasian colonies on terms to be agreed upon later. The colonial legislatures were to appoint delegates to a federal convention for this purpose. On Marcli 2, 189 1, this convention met at Sydney, the five continental colonies, Tasmania, and New Zealand being represented. Sir Henry Parkes introduced resolutions looking to the preservation of state rights, the establishment of interstate free trade, a federal customs tariff, and federal defense. These objects were to be attained by a government consisting of a senate and house of repre- sentatives, a supreme court, a governor general, and a ministry re- sponsible to the house of representatives. On March 31, 1891, the constitutional committee reported a draft constitution, which was afterward adopted by the convention with few changes and referred to the parliaments of the several colonies, to be submitted to the people of each for approval, and to be put in force by the home government when ratified by three colonies. The convention adjourned April 9, 1891. The chief obstacles to agreement in the convention had been the rivalry of the big and little states, the opposition of the high tariff and low tariff states, and the question of the proper methods for the distribution of the surplus revenue by the proposed commonwealth among the states. The populous colonies of New South Wales and Victoria were opposed to equal representation in the .senate, or, if that were conceded, they wished to diminish the power of the senate over bills appropriating money. The free trade colony of New South Wales was apprehensive that the new government would impose upon it the protective system of tlie colony of Victoria, and would collect from it a larger pro- p()rti(3n of federal revenue than would be returned under the dis- tribution plan. The proposed constitution was debated without exciting very much interest in the colonial parliaments, and finally put aside without action in Xew South Wales. Tlie apprehensions of the free-traders and the representatives of the labor party and the general jealousy of the smaller colonies vvere fatal to the scheme. In 1893 the cause of federation received new impetus in the formation of the ]'>(lcration League, with a systematic popular propaganda independent of the governments of the several col- onics. This resulted in a conference of r(jloni.'i1 premiers at Ilobart in Tasmania, January 29. 1895, where tlie plan proposed by the I'cdcration 1 .ca,L;uc was adopted. This was a federal convention THE SOUTH SEA 5^05 180O 1910 composed of delegates elected directly by the people of each colony, the constitution planned thereby to be submitted to the people of each colony for ratification. In accordance with the agreement of the premiers, legislation to this effect was enacted in each colony, save that in Western Australia the delegates were to be chosen by the parliament. The first session of the convention began March 2, 1897, at Adelaide in South Australia. Preliminary resolutions like those of the convention of 1891 were voted and committees duly appointed. The draft of the constitution followed very closely that of 189 1. The convention adjourned April 22 to meet again September 2, and in accordance with the plan the draft con- stitution was in the meantime submitted to the legislatures of the several colonies for suggestions. In all 286 amendments were thus suggested. For the most part they were concerned with the re- spective powers of the big and little states, the distribution of fed- eral revenue among the states, the control of the great rivers for navigation and irrigation, the control of the state railroads to prevent discrimination, the power of the senate over money bills, and schemes to prevent a deadlock between the senate and the house of representatives. The convention held its second session in Sydney, New South Wales, from September 2 to September 24, 1897, and adjourned to meet again at 'Melbourne. Tlie sug- gested amendments were considered, but comparatively few changes were made in the original draft. In the meantime the anti-federalists of New South Wales became alarmed at the prog- ress the movement was making, and passed an act requiring at least 80,000 affirmative votes lor the ratification of the constitution by that colony. The r\Ielbourne session of the convention extended from January jo to March 17. 1898. The matter exciting the greatest controversy was the control of the great river system. New South Wales had embarked in irrigation enterprises on the upper course of the rivers, while South Australia was interested in naAugation on the lower courses. Aiiother subject of contro- versy was that of railway rates. Mtich of the territory of New South W'ales was nearer to Melbourne, tlie port of Victoria, than to Sydney. The state railways of both colonies competed for the traffic of this region, and there v.as great jealousy between them on this accoiuit. Victoria wanted discriininatinn in rates prohibited so that the traflic would seek its u.atural outlet at Melbourne. To New South Wales tlu'^ scenied to be a sacrifice of the interests of 906 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 that colony to those of Victoria, but at last it was agreed that an interstate commission should have power to prevent undue dis- crimination in rates. There was now jealousy over the question of the federal capital. New South Wales wanted it fixed at Syd- ney, and Victoria preferred Melbourne. It was finally provided that the capital should be in federal territory. On account of the peculiar difficulties of Western Australia it was agreed that its (hities on goods from other colonies should be temporarily main- tained though gradually lessened and finally abolished at the end oi five years. The Constitution w^as now referred to the people of the several colonies. The only formidable opposition was in New South Wales. After a campaign of eleven weeks the vote was taken in ,'t1l the participating colonies except Western Australia, and showed a majority for ratification in each, but in New South Wales the affirmative vote fell 8405 short of the prescribed 80,000. The federation movement seemed to have met a second decisive defeat, but its advocates did not despair. The positive majority in New South Wales was encouraging and a general parliamentary elec- tion in that colony gave additional encouragement. The New- South Wales ministry now proposed certain amendments, and it was agreed at a meeting of the premiers of six colonies at Mel- bourne, where for the first time Queensland was represented, that the amendments should be submitted to the parliaments of each colony for reference to a popular vote. This plan was rejected by the upper house of New South Wales, whereupon the ministry appointed twelve new members in the House and thus passed the bill. After a campaign of eight weeks the vote was taken in New South Wales June 20, 1899, resulting as follows: for the Constitu- tion 107,420, against 82.741. South y\ustralia ratified April 29, 65,990 to 17,053; Victoria on July 27, 152.653 to 9805; Tas- mania on the same day by 13,437 to 791 ; Queensland on Septem- ber 2, 38.488 to 30.996. Western Australia took no action at this time. In tlie five colonies which had ratified the Constitution an address to the queen was prepared, petitioning for its enactment by the British Parliament. A conference of colonial delegates in London was the next step. Here Western Australia and even New Zealand were repre- sented, though they had not ratified the Constitution, nor had New Zealand had any share in the movement. The imperial govern- THESOUTHSEA 207 iaoo-i9io ment raised many objections to the Constitution as planned, and amendments were suggested by Western Australia and New Zea- land. The colonial secretary, Joseph Chamberlain, abandoned most of his objections, but suggested certain amendments by a telegram to a conference of colonial premiers at Melbourne, who replied that they had no authority to accept amendments. The imperial government then yielded all points except the question of appeal to the privy council in England. The Constitution as planned had forbidden appeals on purely Australian questions, and had empowered the federal parliament to regulate or prohibit ap- peals on all questions. It was now provided that as to Australian questions there could be no appeal without leave of the Australian High Court, and that legislation affecting the right of appeal in other cases should be reserved by the governor general for the sov- ereign's assent. Thus modified, the Constitution was enacted by the British Parliament in the Australian Constitution Act, 1900, which received the queen's assent on July 9 of that year. On July 31, Western Australia ratified the Constitution by a vote of 44,800 to 19,691. The queen's proclamation of September 17 fixed Janu- ary I, 1 901, for the inauguration of the new government, and on September 21 the Earl of Hopetoun was commissioned as the first governor general of the commonwealth. In its general features the Constitution resembles that of the United States except that the executive power is in the hands of ministers responsible to the lower house of parliament as in England. The title of the federation is the Commonwealth of Australia, and the several colonies are called states. Legislative power is vested in a federal parliament, consisting of the king, represented by the governor general, a senate, and a house of representatives. There are six senators from each of tlie six original states, elected by the people of the states for the term of six years, subject to dissolution by the governor general under certain circumstances. Ordinarily one-half of the senators are elected every three years. The members of the house of representatives are elected by the people in each state for a term not exceeding three years, but the house may be dissolved or the parliament prorogued at any time by the governor general. }klem- bers of the house of representatives are apportioned among the several states according to population, excluding all persons of any race disqualified by state law ivom \-oting. Senators and repre- 208 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 sentatives are paid by the commonwealth. The parliament has wide- reaching legislative powers, extending to many matters not expressly within the legislative power of the Congress of the United States. Among these are : bounties on production and ex- port of goods; banking, except state banking within the limits of the state ; the incorporation of banks and the issue of paper money ; insurance, except state insurance within the limits of the state, weights and measures ; bills of exchange and promissory notes , corporations ; telegraphs and telephones ; marriage and divorce ; in- valid and old age pensions; races for whom special laws may be made, except the aborigines ; relations w- ith the Pacific Islands ; ac- quisition of state railways w-ith the consent of the state; railway construction in any state on the same terms; industrial conciliation and arbitration ; matters specially referred to the federal parlia- ment by any state or states subject to the consent of all states af- fected. The senate cannot originate or amend money bills, but may suggest amendments therein : in other respects the two houses JTave equal power, but if the senate refuses to pass a liouse measure or amends it unacceptably to the house and repeats this action after three months, the governor general may dissolve both houses simultaneously; if the deadlock is repeated after the general elec- tion, the governor general may convene a joint session of both Iiouses, wherein a majority of the whole number of senators and representatives shall be necessary to pass any of the proposed amendments or the original measure. The governor general may return any measure passed by the parliament and suggest amend- ments therein. The executive power is vested in the king, and is exercised by the governor general with the advice of the executive council, which is composed of the heads of the executive depart- ments, who are the king's ministers of state for the comn^ionwealtli and must be members of parliament. The judicial power is vested in a High Court of Australia and in inferior federal or other courts, as the parliament shall determine. Judges of tlic federal courts hold their offices during good behavior, have fixed salaries and are appointed by the governor general in council. Appeals U) tlie F.nglisli privy council from the high court as to the consti- tutional powers of the commonwealth or of any state cannot be taken without leave of the high court. Appeals in other matters may be limited by parliament witli the king's assent. An interstate commission is to execute the laws of tlic cnmnv inwealih concern- THE SOUTH SEA 209 180O-191O Ing trade and commerce; such laws may extend to navigation, shipping, and state railways, but must not give a preference to one state over another nor abridge the right of any state or its people to the reasonable use of the waters of rivers for conservation or irriga- tion ; they may forbid undue discrimination by any state railways, having due regard to the financial responsibilities incurred in the construction and maintenance of such railways. For ten years the commonwealth shall not expend more than one-fourth of the net annual revenue from duties of customs and excise. The surplus is to be distributed among the states. For five years the distribution is to be in proportion to contribution to the fund, thereafter upon a fair basis. The commonwealth may grant financial aid to a state and may take over state debts. Powers not delegated by the Constitution to the commonwealth, nor pro- hibited to the state, are resen-ed to the states. States may sur- render territory to the exclusive jurisdiction of the commonwealth. Xew states may be admitted upon such terms, including representa- tion in parliament, as the parliament thinks fit. Parliament may make laws for territory surrendered to the commonwealth by any state, or otherwise acquired. The seat of government shall be on federal territory within the state of Xew South Wales, but distant at least one hundred miles from Sydney. The area of such terri- tory shall be not less than C)ne hundred square nn'les. Parliament is to sit at Melbourne until tlic seat of government is establislied. Amendments to the C'(in formed in 18^)1. only to l)e reunited to (Jtago in 1870. Its place \\a? taken by Westland, the portion of Canter- 214 COLONIES OF THE WORLD I800-I910 bury on the western coast cut off by a high range of mountains. The discovery of gold there in 1867 led to its organization as a county, and in 1873 it was erected into a province. In 1859 the province of New Plymouth took the name Taranaki. But the Con- stitution of 1852 turned out to be a great blunder. Difficulties arose in the administration of the provinces. The government of the provincial councils was notoriously costly and inefficient, and was becoming unnecessary, as the work of local administration was taken up by municipal corporations. Moreover, provincial jeal- ousies diminished as means of intercommunication were improved. For a long time there were conflicts of opinion between the Ultra- Provincialists, who wished each province to become a separate col- ony, the Separatists, who were for a separate colony in each island. Auckland being the capital of the North, and Christchurch or Dunedin, of the South Island, and the Centralists, who wished for the abolition of the provincial governments and the substitu- tion of counties, as in England and America, the seat of govern- ment remaining at Wellington, whither it had been removed from Auckland in 1865. The last party prevailed; in 1875 the provin- cial distinctions were abolished by the colonial legislature and the central government was established, exactly as had been recom- mended by Roebuck a quarter century before. The New Zealand Islands are now divided into counties, like the United Kingdom. The constitutional development of New Zealand has followed the same lines as that of the Australian colonies. Government by a ministry responsible to the legislature had not been provided for l)y the imperial statute of 1852. Yet this system was established rilmost immediately. Governor Grey left the islands before the new Constitution was fully in force, and his successor was con- fronted at the first session of the general assembly by a vote de- manding responsible government. In the following year (July, 1855) the home government yielded and the new system was put in force without any imperial legislation. It is a peculiarity of New Zealand constitutional practice that cabinet ministers after their appointment need not stand for reelection to the general as- sembly. The democratic drift has been as strong here as elsewhere in Australasia. The tenure of members of the legislative council has been reduced from life to seven years. The house of repre- sentatives are elected for six years. The governor may summon, prorogue, and dissolve the general assembly, and the executive THE SOUTH SEA 216 1800-1910 power is in the hands of eight responsible ministers. Property qualifications for voting and for membership in the house of repre- sentatives have been abohshed, and the suffrage has been extended to women. The Maoris are represented in the general assembly on a substantial equality with the whites. The control of native affairs was retained by the imperial government until 1863, though there was constant pressure by the general assembly against this restriction of its powers, accompanied by repeated attempts on the part of the whites to purchase land from individual Maoris, without the sanction of the tribe affected. This led to hostilities in i860, and Sir George Grey was again appointed governor. He arrived in 1861 and recommended that native affairs be handed over to the Colonial ministers, which was accordingly done. The assembly decreed military government in the disaffected districts and the confiscation of the lands of the hostile tribes. The war dragged on until 1866. It was renewed in 1868 under Grey's successor, but resistance was at an end the next year. In spite of the confiscation policy the Maoris in 1871 still held nearly three- quarters of the area in the North Island, In the great South Island their holdings had always been small. New Zealand is distant 1200 miles from the Australian con- tinent. It extends nearly a thousand miles from north to south and is 200 miles across at its broadest part, and the coast line is 3000 miles long, with many good harbors. The climate is tem- perate except in the semitropical north. The soil is fertile and well watered, the scenery beautiful and inspiring, the natural resources of the country rich and varied. The growth of the colony has been steady without the artificial stimulus of penal settlements or gold fever. The settlers have been for the most part middle-class people of moderate property, who brought their families w'Ji them to the new land and thus founded a stable society where wealth has been widely distributed from the first. The population in 1901 was 815,862, including 43.143 Maoris and 2857 Chinese. New Zealand, and the Australian colonies in a less degree, have become notable in late years for the application of state socialism to many phases of industry-. State ownership and opera' tion of railways and telegraphs, progressive taxes on incomes, property, and inheritances, restriction upon the area of land hold- ings, the fixing of a minimum wage by law, invalid and old-age pensions, courts of industrial conciliation and arbitration, arc ^216 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 some of the measures adopted. This movement has provoked tlie adverse criticism of conservative economists, who point to the heavy increase of government expenditure and debt, the small im- migration and the withdrawal of English capital as its direct effects. The financial crisis of 1893 was a severe check to industrial prog- ress in that part of the world, and it is not possible to form a final judgment upon this policy as yet. Its advocates attribute existing financial and economic evils to the crisis rather than to the meas- ures in question, and point to reviving prosperity in proof. That the experiment should have been tried by Anglo-Saxons, a race devoted to individual liberty, is itself an instructive fact. The success of the British colonization of Australasia is aston- ishing. As a piece of nation building, oversea history shows no parallel. It is a striking demonstration of the colonizing capacity of the race. The mistakes committed by the English in North America have been avoided here, and progress has been corre- spondingly steady and rapid, though circumstances were less fav- orable save in two respects the absence of a strong and warlike native population and of the competition of any European rival. The Australian nation begins its career wnth abundant nat- ural resources and accumulated wealth : with a population of more than four millions, singularly free from non-European and even non-British elements, confident in their strength, attached to the British Empire, and jealously regarding the colonial enterprises of other European races in the Pacific. Their kinsmen in New Zea- land, nearly a million strong, share their confidence and national sentiment and will probably enter the new union. Let us cast our eyes over the map of Australia, beginning with the eastern shore. Traveling south from the tropical clime of North Queensland we shall pass by a line of coast nearly three thousand miles long. As tlie climate becomes more temperate we gradually find the coast occupied right up to the distant mountain ranges, and for many hundreds of miles beyond them, by English colonists, living under a free k)cal government of their own, and divided into four state governments, having their seats at Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide. All these ports, and several others, are connected by railways with the uplands beyond the mountains. Opposite Victoria lies the Island of Tasmania, forming a fifth state. The sixth is Western Australia, on the far distant western coast. All are now united in a great federal commonwealth. The great south- THESOUTHSEA 217 1800-1910 eastern part of Australia is the best portion of the island, for most of the central and western parts consist of sandy and stony deserts and salt marshes. The further growth of the Australian settle- ments must clearly not be looked for in that direction, though it leads to the Cape of Good Hope and to Europe. The course of colonization, in fact, has now reached its tropic or turning-point. Australia really faces round from Europe to meet the kindred civilization of America on the one hand, and the trade of the In- dian Archipelago and China on the other. It is in the direction of America that the colony of New Zealand has been formed ; and it seems likely that from America on the one side and from Australia on the other, colonists will go on settling in many of the nuiuber- less islands of the Pacific Ocean. An important step in this direc- tion was taken in 1874 by the British Government. Acting on the representations of the Australians, they took possession in that year of the Fiji Islands, more than two hundred in number, where many sugar and cotton planters had already settled. The way for colonization had already been prepared by Christian missionaries, both from America and from Europe; and it is impossible to say how far the movement may have extended in another centur}-. when the wealth and population of America and Australia have become better developed and consolidated. Northward the com- munication with the Indian Ocean has been begun by the Adelaide telegrapli, and this will in time be followed by a railway. Settle- ments have been made on the northern shore, and the British Gov- ernment has taken possession of the adjoining parts of the vast island of New^ Guinea with an area nearly half as great as France and a population of 350,000. This dependency is administered by the commonwealth. Pacific colonization is apparently the next phase of colonial enterprise. The richness of the soil of the count- less Indian and Pacific islands, the facilities for government and for intercommunication afforded by their position, the native labor with which tliev abound, and more than all, the immense increase during the last few years of ocean navigation by large steamships, are now attracting to them the attention of the world. It seems likely that the great world of the Pacific, including the shores of China, Japan, Australia, and America, as well as the islands in its bosom, may one day vie with the world that is washed bv the Atlantic in prosperity and civilization. If this should ever come to pass, men will then sa\- that the circle of history is complete. Chapter XIII SOUTH AFRICA. 1800-1910 WE have seen how the Dutch East India Company formed their settlement at the Cape, in the middle of the seven- teenth century, as a convenient halting place for their vessels, such as the English Company had at the Island of St. Helena. The history of this Dutch settlement would be as unim- portant as that of Mombaza or Melinda, but for the fact that many poor Dutchmen settled there and cultivated the soil, as English- men had already done in North America. As is usual in a new country, the boers, or farmers, suffered great hardships. Some- times they lived on the flesh of penguins and monkeys, and for stealing a cabbage a man was sentenced to three years' penal serv- itude. But they throve better in course of time ; their cattle mul- tiplied, they brought negroes from Guinea and Malays from Java, and they made slaves of the native Hottentots, After the revoca- tion of the Edict of Nantes, many French Protestants came and settled near the town of Stellenbosch ; they brought with them the vine, and in a few years the vineyards of Constantia had be- come famous even in Europe. The traffic between Europe and India brought to the Cape many of the waifs and strays of both, and hence the place was early noted for its poor and mixed popula- tion. Otherwise the colony attracted little notice. It was tyran- nically governed by the officials of the East India Company, and tlie slaves and Hottentots were cruelly treated by tlie settlers. Cape Town grew in proportion to the extension of the farms, just as the towns of Australia have since done. The farmers, as they prospered, got tired of living up the country, and came down to the town, leaving the management of their farms to their slaves. Some settlers lived by fishing and petty trading, and others by let- ting out slaves to work for hire. But there was no getting rich on a large scale, for the Company limited the size of the farms, and kept most of the trade in its own hands. The method under which the holdings of the Boers in Soutli Africa were formed is both 218 SOUTH AFRICA 219 1800-1910 interesting- in itself as tiie earliest example of modern agricultural colonization as a regular system, and important for understanding subsequent South African history. The Boers at first never thought of anything like abso1:ne ownership of the soil. The Company allowed each Boer to ch(x)se his own place for settling, and to oc- cupy a large space of land, which from its being held on loan or sufferance was called his '' loan-place." A central point was fixed, and all llic land witiiin hall an lunn"'^ walk in any direction from it was iiich'.dcd in the lorm-place. The settler received no title- deeds willi his land, hut nn!y a v/rittcn j)crmis>ion to occupv ; and of course lie conil not be expected to make any permanent im- provements on a place from which he could be at any moment ejected by some morf favored person. To induce the Boers to build houses and cultivate the soil, about T2o acres of land, selected l)v thcmsclvc-^ nnvwlici'c within their 1o;iii-n]-ice-,, were c^rpnti^'l ;i< 220 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 freeholds to each. Here the Boer built his house, and planted his vines and his orange trees. His sons also built their houses around in the same way, so that each loan-place gradually became a family colony in itself, with from six to twenty thousand acres of pasture land around, on which the flocks and herds multiplied with little trouble. This system was afterward carried out in places where no official eye had penetrated ; and when the English Government afterward converted this tenure by sufferance into freehold prop- erty, there was much difficulty in settling conflicting claims where no accurate boundar}' had been fixed. The farming was of the poorest and most primitive kind ; and as all the work was done by slaves, it is not wonderful that the progress of the colony was slow. Janssens, the last of the Dutch governors, replied to a proposal for a new settlement in the place by saying that he did not see how any more people could subsist there, and that he contemplated the actual increase of population with alarm, not knowing where the children of the next generation would find bread to eat. At this time, after an existence of a century and a half, the colony contained about 20,ooo free people. Since coming into the possession of England the number increased. In 1904 there were in Cape Colony alone 575,102 whites and 1,829,776 blacks. In Governor Janssens's time some loads of wool, which had been brought down for export, found no buyer, and the wool was thrown to the winds upon the beach. The export of the same article from South Africa now amounts to fifteen million dollars.^ Such were the consequences of the narrow and tyrannical gov- ernment of the Company. The Dutch are a republican people, and it was not likely that the colonists would endure it longer than they could help. The revolt of the English colonists in America, and events in I-"rance, were enough to show them the way ; but the change was precipitated by the revolutionary disturbances which distracted Holland about the same time. The Company had long been in a decaying condition ; and when the French conquered Hol- land in 1795. it was abolished, its debts and possessions becoming those of the nation. The Cape Colony, exclusive of Cape Town, was divided into three provinces. Cape Town enjoyed a hateful official predominance; and the inhabitants of two of the other prov- inces now declared themselves independent, expelled the govern- ^ The value of -lui^p and proais' wool inifjortrd into Creat Britain from Cape Colony alone in K)o.i wa^ L;].n_^^o. ');/>. S O U T II AFRICA 221 J800-I910 meiit officials and proclaimed a republic at Swellendam. The Eng-- lish Government saw in this incident nothing but an effect of French revolutionary principles ; the Cape was now an important naval station, and they took possession of the whole colony on behalf of the Prince of Orange, who had been driven from Holland. This British protectorate over the colony lasted until the Peace of Amiens, when it was evacuated and restored to Holland. Upon the war breaking out again, the English again took possession of the Cape and since 1806 it has remained in their possession, having been formally ceded by the Treaty of Paris in 181 5. We shall see in the next chapter how public opinion was gradually stirred against the slave-trade and slavery, on which, however, the prosperity of many European colonies was supposed to depend. The Cape w^as one of these ; and the first consequence of the British occupation w^as the abolition of this trade for the last cargo of slaves came to Cape Town in 1807. The Dutch, who did not share the humane ideas of the English, were exasperated at this, and still more by the laws for the protection of tlie Hottentots, which the English made and rigorously executed. As we shall presently see, they were after- ward still more offended by the abolition of the institution of slav- ery itself. In 1815 some of the Boers attempted a rebellion, in consequence of some prosecutions for ill-using the Hottentots, and in this they were helped l)y some neighboring natives, who have from time to tiine proved very troublesome to the English. These were the Kaffirs, a tall and warlike race, in no way re- sembling the Hottentots. They have, indeed, some of the charac- teristics of an Asiatic people. The Dutch had fought with them many years before, and in 1780 had succeeded in driving them be- yond the Great Fish River. But they often came back, and there was no little difficulty in maintaining this river as the boundary. They dwelt UK^stly to the east of the colony, and as the colonists approached their borders, the Kaffirs stole tlieir cattle; and this went on so much tliat it was made lawful to shoot the Kaffirs when- ever they were taken in the act of cattle-stealing. The colonists also adopted a system of reprisals. h\- which they stole the cattle of the Kaffirs; and ever since iSi i there have been from time to time wars between theni and the Kaflirs. and sometimes wars on a con- siderable scale. In 18 18. for instance, luiglish troops to the num- ber of three or four thousand entered Kafiirland, and took posses- session of a larfre frontier tract : and there was another invasion 22^ COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 ten years afterward. The greatest Kaffir v^^ar broke out in 1835, when 10,000 fighting men invaded the colony, sweeping over the Eastern Province, and striking a panic into Cape Town itself. The Kaffirs are naturally cruel and superstitious; one of their chiefs, named Chaka, who lived at the beginning of this century, destroyed a million of human beings. But large numbers of them have now been civilized, and in course of time they will perhaps settle down peaceably by their white neighbors. The English have always en- deavored to treat them fairly and humanely, and to make the Dutch do the same. The Dutch Boer, however, cannot understand why this should be, and he hates the English for coercing him into it. The Boers all over South Africa have the same characteristics. They are ignorant and grasping; and as regards the Kaffirs they have a doctrine which completely satisfies themselves, though it does not satisfy any other of the parties concerned in the question. They are stern Calvinists, and hold the Bible as their only moral law. When the English remonstrate with them, they turn to the five books of Moses, and point to the passages where the people of Israel are commanded to go in and possess the land, and to drive out the Canaanites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. " Ye shall utterly drive out the inhabitants thereof. Ye shall make no cove- nant with them nor show any mercy unto them. The Lord hath given the land for an inheritance to you and to your children." In this blind stubbornness have the Dutch Boers gone on to this day, forgetting that they are in the midst of a land which is far from being conquered from the inhabitants, who are a numerous and war- like race, and gradually learning the use of firearms. Their treat- ment of the natives has often provoked hostility to all white people; and although in most parts of South Africa the natives by this time fully understand the difference between the English and the Dutch, it is probable that in the case of a general rising against the Dutch the English settlers would be seriously endangered. It is this, be- sides motives of common justice and humanity, which led Eng- land, however unwillingly, to keep her hand upon the Dutch wherever they went. No Colonizing expedition has been more successful than tliat which was sent out by the English Government in 1820. Eree set- tlers had already been emigrating to New South Wales; and after the war of 1818 it appeared to the government that a settlement might well be established in the conquered part of Kaffirland if SOUTHAFRICA 223 1800-1910 people could be sent out in sufficient numbers to protect themselves. They voted 50,000/. to send out 5000 colonists, and in 1820 this party landed at Port Elizabeth in Algoa Bay. The government transported them in wagons to their freehold allotments of 100 acres each, and supplied them with rations until they could manage to subsist by their farming. They suffered many hardships, but the new colony steadily prospered and extended; in 1835 it became a separate district by the name of the Eastern Province. There were already many Dutch settlers in the Eastern Province ; indeed, the old Dutch province of Graaf-Reynet was incorporated with it. But the Eastern Province has taken a character so different from the Western as to illustrate exactly the difference between the English and the Dutch settlers. It is less self-contained, and more enterprising. The Cape was included in that general enfranchisement of all British colonies willing to accept it, which took place in the middle of the nineteenth century. For nearly thirty years after the con- quest the colony remained under military rule; but this ceased in {835, when executive and legislative councils were appointed, l^ut the Dutch, a nation full of i)olitical instincts, had always been dis- contented at their exclusion from political rights, and the new F>ng- lish settlers were not slow to take up this feeling. As early as 1841. the ]^eople petitioned for representative government, nnd the g^-v- ernor, Sir George Xapier, warmly supported their request; but tlie Colonial Office found difficulties in the way, both as to the exact measure of tlie proposed grant, and in connection with the scattered character of the settlements, and the remoteness of the F.astern Pro\-ince ivoni the seat of government. An incident in tlic year 1849 forced on the measure. Australia had now closed her ports against English convict ships, and Lord Grey, tlicn Colonial Secre- tarv, dcterniined to send tlie convicts henceforth to the Cape. A shipload of Irisli political prisoners actually arrived off Cape Town: but the colonists rcvse in arms, and would not allow them to be landed. Tins successful resistance encouraged tlieni to repeat their demands. ;in(l at length in 1850 the go\-ernor was em[)owered to summon a constituent council, cis in Australia. The cijnstituent council settled the new form of government, on the basis of a legis- lative council or upiier house, anrl a house of assembly, both elected by persons possessing a propertx" (lualificaiion. As the governor was not rcsponsiI.)le to lii> parhament. tlii< was much tlie same constitu- 224 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 tion as Canada enjoyed up to the year 1840. The first Cape parHa- ment met in 1854; but for twenty years the government of the col- ony was carried on chiefly from home, and with indifferent success. There was constant poverty and commercial depression; the col- ony seemed incapable of progress, and had even to raise loans to pay its current expenses of government. The opening of the Suez canal in 1870 removed much of the traffic which formerly passed by the Cape, though the injury to the colony has been far less than was anticipated. But the Cape now became of far less im- portance as a station on the way to India ; and the defenses of this colony could not longer be allowed to cost the mother country 300,000/. a year. Gradually it came to be seen that the Cape peo- ple ought to be left entirely to the management of their own af- fairs, and in 1872 this half-and-half state of things ceased, and the colony passed into the hands of local ministers responsible to the assembly, as in Canada and the Australian colonies. This measure was forced on by the increasing difficulties with the natives in other states of South Africa, in the belief that it would be followed by these states in some way or other joining with the free Cape gov- ernment to make a general South African Confederation. The territory of the Cape Colony had been in the meantime increased by the addition of some territory beyond the Eastern Province. At the close of the war of 1835, British authority was extended over a considerable tract of Kaffirland, and at the end of the last Kaffir war in 1853 this was definitely annexed by the name of Brit- ish Kaffraria. In 1865 British Kaffraria was incorporated with the Eastern Province, and authorized to send representatives to the assembly at Cape Town. The continuance of the English policy in favor of the natives led to n great migration of the Dutch Boers from the Eastern Prov- ince in 1835 and the years following. Slavery had been finally abolished in 1834, and a general condemnation was soon after- ward passed by the British Government on the Kaffir wars. Thou- sands of Dutch settlers, smarting from the loss of their Hottentot and negro slaves, and V.iev'mg that the English were really en- couraging the Kaffiis to massacre them, now abandoned their farms, placed their goods and their families in their ox-wagons, and crossed the Orange River into the land which is now the Orange River Colony, driving their herds with them. Here they wandered about for some time, and at length found their way over SOUTHAFRICA 225 160O-1910 the Drakenberg Mountains into the district of Natal. On the Christmas Day of the memorable year 1498, when Vasco da Gama had rounded the Cape, and was coasting round the eastern shore on his way to India, he came upon a wide bay to whose picturesque shores he gave the name of Terra do Natal (Christmas-land). When the Boers entered this country there was already a small English settlement at Port Durban, on the bay. It had been founded by an English captain named Gardiner; and he named it the Republic of Victoria, supposing that the British Government would never help him in organizing it. The English at the coast were ready enough to welcome the Dutch immigrants. The natives were few and feeble : after being under the tyranny of a ferocious Kaffir chief, they had now passed into a state of vassalage to the Europeans at the port. But shortly after the arrival of the Boers, there happened an immigration of 100,000 warlike blacks from the interior, called Zulus, with whom the Dutch had to do battle for their new settlement. They beat the Zulus, but they could not prevent them from settling down in large numbers all round them. Fancying themselves now independent of England, they elected a Volksraad, or national council, and proclaimed the Republic of Natal; but the English forced them to submit, and in 1843 Natal was declared a British colony. The English protected the Zulus. and many of the Dutch went back over the Drakenberg ; but in a few years British settlers began to arrive, and tliere are now 60,000 Europeans in the colony. In 1849 the sugar cane was in- troduced in the lowlands near the coast: and many thousands of tons are now made here every year, yielding employment to a large number of the natives, as well as to Hindoo coolies. Natal has valuable mines of coal, ati important fact when we consider that great quantities of coal were formerly exported from England to the Cape, and that all South Africa is rich in valuable minerals. Besides this. Natal, like the Cape, exports large quantities of wool and hides. After being several years a dependency of the Caj")c government, it became a separate colony in 1856. and obtained responsible government in 1893. The first decided evidences of progress in this colony date from the years 1859 to 1863. As the land is extremely fertile, and has been sold very cheap, the increase of immigration has been steady; and although Natal has alwavs been beset with the same question which perplexes the South African coloni'^ts. it lia^ all the elements of great future ])rosperitv. 226 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 191() Many of the Boers, instead of crossing the Drakenberg, re- mained in the district of the Orange and Vaal Rivers, and made the beginnings of an entirely new community. This fertile district is part of the great tableland of South Africa. It lies 5000 feet above the sea, and has the driest and most healthful climate in the world. Here many of the Dutch settled down with their herds, and they were soon joined by English and German immigrants. They or- ganized their community as a Free-State or Republic, governed by a president, elected for four years, and a parliament or volksraad, elected by the inhabitants of the various districts. One of the Boers had settled near a spring of vvater surrounded with rich vegeta- tion. He called his farm Bloem-fontein, or Spring of Flowers, and here there grew up the little town which is now the capital of the Orange River Colony. For some years the English Government took no notice of these settlers; but in 1845 ^^^^Y iTiade war upon the Griquas, a race of half-breeds, who had emigrated to the same neigh- borhood early in the nineteenth century. The Griquas were under English protection ; and the government, surmising that the Boers would not very strictly respect the rights of the Griquas. sent troops from tlie Cape to defend them ; and, for the purpose of enforcing English law, proclaimed the sovereignty of England over all the rich territor}^ between the rivers Orange and Vaal. The Boers resisted by force of arms, but they were reduced to submission, and a number of them, led by one Pretorius, disgusted at finding themselves once more subject to English law, migrated to the other side of the Vaal, as they had migrated a few years before over the Orange River. ?'.:Iany more English settlers now came; but the constant troubles with the natives, and apprehension of a continual increase of tlie African territory of the Crown, led the English Government, in 1853, to cast the Orange province adrift. So little was then known in England of the matter, that only a single voice was raised in tlie Britisli Parliament against tliis measure. Sir Charles Adder- Icy, as evcrybod}- now admits, was right. The Orange Free State had now to enter alone on a long war with the Basutos, and to an- nex a large tract of Basutoland to their territory. The people afterward petitioned, but without success, to be re;idmitted to the riglits of Britis^i citizens. In 1S61 tliose of the Boers who dwelt to the north of the Vaal River formed themselves into a seimrate state, by tlie name of the South African I\cpul)lic. Tlie 'i'r;inr,va;il Jaml rc^crnljlcs tlie SOUTH AFRICA 227 1800 1910 Orange River Colony except that it is somewhat higher, more tropical, and more picturesque, richer in minerals, and much larger. The Boers of the Transvaal established a government like that of the Orange State, with a president and volksraad. Their constitution was semi-military, the governors of the districts, elected by the volksraad, being chiefly men who had become famous as leaders of periodical raids upon the natives. Such a man was Presi- dent Pretorius, who died in 1853, and after whom the seat of government was named Pretoria. After the death of Pretorius. the government fell into great disorder. The Dutch provoked the usual disturbances with the natives, and it became clear that there would be no peace for the Transvaal until it v/as taken in hand by Englishmen. Tlie Boers, however, hoped to avoid interference : and with the view of obtaining access to the sea for themselves, they made a treaty with the Portuguese for constructing a railway from the republic to the Portuguese settlement of Delagoa Bay. In 1867 a diamond was found in the roots of an old thorn tree in a district belonging to tlie Orange I^'^ree State, and it was soon found that this district contained more diamonds than all the rest of the world together. 1'his great discovery was at first kept secret, but in 1870 the number of the diamonds tliat found their W'ay to Europe from South Africa could no longer be concealed. A great influx of diggers now took place, most of whom were English : and as tlic government of the Orange Free State was tliought to be un;ible to keep order among them, the English took possession of tlie district, availing themselves of the ]:)retensions of a (iriqua chief n;nncd Water-boer, and made it a British colony bv the name of (".ri([ua-lan(l-west. l^he people of ihe Or.;uige Free State protested in \-;iin against this annexation ; Irat tlic fiict is that the states of South ^Xfrica lay under a (li'Vicnliy wnicli does not hap- pen in otlicr colonies, and vhicli iterliajis jn^iif-ed tlie TCnglisli Gov- ernment in w'nat ajipcared to be arl)itrar_\' ])< 'iicy. Tlie Dutch Boers. AViiate\'er may l;c tiie reason, cannnt '^ct oil with the nati\'es. and their poHc\' imperiled tlie position of the English colonists. It later became clear that l^.nglish aiitliority must in some sliape or otlier be reasserte'l o\ er all the han-(i]K>;in settlements c'lt ihe Cape, and the occU|)at:< :i i>i' (jrii:iia-]an;l-wost was tlie hrst stei) in this process. In iS~7 ( h-iqua-um.i-west was united with the Ca'ie Colony. To Sir George Grey, wIk) had rendered such great services h< 228 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 the empire as governor of South Australia and New Zealand, be- longs the credit of first urging the policy of a United South Africa. He was transferred from New Zealand to the governorship of the Cape in 1853. On his arrival he took up the troublesome question of the Kaffirs with characteristic energy and success, buying up the sovereign rights of the chiefs and colonizing their country with the soldiers of the German Legion which had been in the English service during the Crimean War. He recommended the union of Cape Colony, Natal, and British Kaffraria. The Orange Free State favored the project and took steps in 1858 to bring about annexation to Cape Colony. Grey's plan was a federal union of the English colonies and Boer states on the model of the newly established constitution of New Zealand, but his views found no acceptance with the home government and led to his recall in 1859. Fifteen years later English opinion had grown up to his conception of the necessity for a general government over all South Africa, with a uniform policy toward the natives and a strong- power for maintaining order. To understand this necessity we must bear in mind both the geographical conformation of this vast district, and the peculiar system under which it has been colonized. It is not like that of Canada and the United States, by which the land has been completely occupied piece by piece, and a dwindling race of natives has been gradually driven in the mass farther and farther away. Each farmer takes to himself a large stretch of land, varying from six to twenty thousand acres, only a small part of which he actually occupies, the rest being left as wild pasture. In this way a very thin European population soon spreads over a vast area, from which it is impossible to exclude the natives, who are a warlike race, multiplying faster than the Europeans, and con- tinually recruited from the populous interior of the continent. It is thus most difficult for the settlers either to combine for self- defense, or to calculate the extent of their danger. The natives had confidence in the rule of the English, but none in that of the Dutch. They were advancing in many ways, especially in the use of firearms; the Dutch were ever giving them provocations to break out, wb.ich they were only too ready to accept; and under the Boer governments no district was ever free from apprehensions of a general rising against the Europeans. The opening of the dia- mond fields had brought South African affairs into public notice and the success of the newly completed federation of British North SOUTHAFRICA 229 I800-19I0 America seemed to furnish a model government for the whole country. The Earl of Carnarv^on, as colonial secretary, had brought in the British North America bill. In 1874 he was again colonial secretary in Disraeli's second administration and took up with enthusiasm the project of South African confederation. At this time the scheme was not well received in Cape Colony or the Orange LVce State. Nevertheless a plan of union was formu- lated, and approved by Parliament in 1877, 'i'""^^ Sir Bartle Frere was in the same year sent out as governor of the Cape and the first high commissioner for South Africa. He found the Boers of the Transvaal embroiled with the Zulus, Matabeles, and Bech- uanas on their eastern, northern, and western frontiers respec- tively. The natives, supported by the missionaries, appealed for English protection, as did the English residents of the Transvaal. Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the successful secretary for native af- fairs in Natal, was sent out by Lord Carnarvon as a special com- missioner for South Africa, with power to investigate the affairs of the Transvaal and if necessary to take possession of the country. On April 12, 1877, he issued a proclamation of annexation and proceeded to administer the country as a British province. The vigorous protests of the Boers were disregarded, and Shepstone was sustained by the home government, whicli hoped for the volun- tary entrance of the Orange Free State into the proposed confederation. The English now took up the Boer quarrel with the warlike and formidable Zulus. The territorial demands of the Boers were ai)andoned, but Sir Bartle Frere took advantage of the opportunity to re([uire the reorganization of the Zulu military system, accept- ance of a British resident, protection for missionaries, and repara- tion for past misdeeds. To enforce these demands Zululand was invaded January 12, 1879. Ten days later two British battalions were utterly destroyed at L-^andlana, and the Xatal frontier could only be held against the victorious Zulus by hard fighting. Bv the end of March the forward movement was resumed, this time with success. The Zulus were everywhere defeated, their capital taken and burned, their king, Cetiwayo. captured, the people disarmed, and the country organizctl under a British resident. During this struggle the Boers stood sullenly aloof, and in the following year rebelled, declaring the independence of the Transvaal December 13, ]88o. A week later a small Pwiti^h force wa-^ defeated and cap- 230 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 tured by the insurgents near Bronkhorst Spruit. Other Boer successes at Laing's Neck and Ingago were followed by a disastrous defeat of the British with the loss of their commander, Sir George Colley, at Majuba Hill, on February 26, 1881. The liberal ministry of Gladstone was now in power in England, and soon made peace, recognizing the independence of the country under British suze- rainty, with a British resident and British control of foreign relations. The Boers of the Transvaal, or South African Republic, as their state was now called, were ambitious for expansion north- ward beyond the Limpopo River, and eastward to the sea, but were thwarted in both directions by the English. The claims of the Portuguese to this region were disregarded; on February 11, 1888, the British High Commissioner for South Africa negotiated a treaty with Lobengula, king of the powerful Matabele tribe, and the country was declared within the sphere of British influence. The British South African Company was organized by Cecil Rhodes, premier of Cape Colony, a millionaire of the diamond fields, to develop and administer the country north and west of the South African Republic and east of the Portuguese territory. It received a royal charter October 29, 1889, and promptly began the organization and settlement of its domain. In 1893 war broke out with the Matabeles, Lobengula was driven into exile and the English were soon masters of the whole country. The dream of Boer expansion northward was shattered. To the west the way had been already barred by the British protectorate over the Bech- uana tribes, undertaken at the request of the English missionaries. ]\Ieanwhile the South African Republic had secured a modifica- tion of the convention of 1881 by which its independence had been recognized. A new convention was signed in London February 27, 1884, wherein the express declaration of British suzerainty was omitted ; the republic undertook to conclude no treaty or engage- ment with any state or nation otiier than the Orange Free State. nor with any native tribe outside the boundaries of the republic without the approval of the British Crown; religious freedom was guaranteed ; the riglit of foreigners to travel, reside, and trade in the country on equal terms with the Boers was secured, and all persons, except natives, doniiciled there during the British occu- pation, were exempted from militarv service upon registration with Ihc British resident. The vc^lksraad of tlie repubh'c reluctantly S () U T H A F RICA 231 1800 19 lO ratified this convention, seeing- that complete independence could not be obtained. Up to this time the chief wealth of the South African Repub- lic, as of the rest of Sduth Africa, had been its sheep and cattle, though it also produced large quantities of grain. The people led a primitive pastoral life, secure in their remoteness from contact with energetic modern civilization. All this was changed by the discovery of gold deposits of wonderful richness in the Witwaters- rand, about half way between the capital at Pretoria and the Vaal River. Adventurers from ail the world poured into the gold fields, ])urchased land from the Boer farmers at enormous prices, and went energetically to work to develop the mineral resources of the country. These " Uitlanders," or foreigners, built the new city of Johannesburg, and v.ere estimated in 1890 at 100,000 souls. Millions of English and European capital were invested in the mines, and the new- industry paid four-fifths of the re\enues of the republic. The Boers regarded the newcomers with jealousy and distrust, forced them to perform military service, and refused to admit them to the privileges of citizenshi]). Agitation arose among the Uitlanders for tlie redress of their grievances and found sym- pathy among the British population of the other colonies and leadership in the person of Cecil Rhodes, premier of Cape Colony. .V rising of the Uitlann thena as the heirs oi the old Spanish 250 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 empire in these parts, but they could make nothing of the place, and in 1833 the English established an organized government. Since the growth of commercial intercourse between Europe and the ports of Chili, Peru, and Ecuador, the Falklands have greatly risen in importance as a coaling and victualing station for the Pa- cific, and in this respect they have begun to compete with the port of Rio Janeiro. The soil, though reduced by cold winds to what seems a barren heath, has been found well adapted for sheep farm- ing: and the port of Stanley now sends large quantities of wool, as well as other raw produce, to the English market. The Falk- lands have never been any other than a Crown government. The Seven Years' War made an end of the rivalry of France to the English power in Lidia. During the wars of the American and French revolutions France attempted without success to rees- tablish her dominion there, but the only result was that England was left without a European competitor in the peninsula. The native states were incapable of firm and just governm.ent, and the inevitable result has been that English authority has spread over the whole country and has come to be exercised directly by gov- ernment agents instead of through the East India Company. The wonderful story of the growth and organization of British rule extending from the borders of Persia to the Straits of Malacca, and including several outlying islands and military posts, is well worth detail consideration, but we here may only mention briefly a few of the British possessions in this region outside of India proper. Some important acquisitions which have been made in the East stand on the borderland between Indian and Colonial history, which it is not even now^ easy to separate by a rigid line. We have seen how the wars of the revolution put England in possession of the Dutch settlements on the Island of Ceylon and of the French colony of ^lauritius. England would perhaps not have taken them but for the growing importance of her empire in India; but they do not belong to Indian history, neither of them having ever per- manently passed into the hands of the East India Company, or ha\-- ing any connection with the Indian Government. Ceylon was indeed soon after its capture annexed to the presidency of Aladras. but in tSot it \vas erected into a separate colony. The Portuguese and Dutcli had only possessed the coasts, but the English ^'On de- stroyed the barbarous kingdom of Candy and made thcrr.sel'^es BRITISH DEPENDENCIES 251 1800 1910 masters of the whole of the island. Having- abundance of rich land lying- vacant, which the Crown has sold at a moderate price, and plenty of native labor, it has since attracted English capital to a great amount, and produces large quantities of sugar and coffee. It has always remained a Crown colony, though not of the strictest kind, having a legislative council of seventeen members, of whom nine are officials and eight are nominated by the Crown as repre- sentatives of the different races and classes in the community. The population in 1901 numbered 3078,333, and of these only 9509 were Europeans. The harbors of Trincomalee, on the east coast, and Colombo, on the west, are strongly fortified. The former is the headquarters of the British East Indian fleet. The colony ex- ports large quantities of tea and other tropical products. The Mal- dive Islands, lying 500 miles to the westward, are tributary to the Ceylon government, though ruled by a native sultan. They have a population of 30,000. The further extension of the British possessions in the East, including the occupation of t!ie Straits Settlements, properly be- longs to the history of British India. ^^lalacca, the chief port on the Straits which lead to the Indian archipelago, had been, as we have seen, an important possession of the Portuguese until they were driven from it by the Dutch. The English in 1795 took it from the Dutch, and after tlie war the Dutch formally ceded it to England. The English were afterward obliged to take possession of a large tract of this coast, by the name of British Burmah, and they fixed on the island of Singapore, at the south end of the IMalay peninsula, to be the comme';ciaI center of their new acquisition. Sir Stamford Raffles took possession of Singapore in 1819, and in half a century the settlement liad grown to be the most important in the eastern seas. Tlic ne:gl'il)oring island of Penang had long- been held by the East !r.>lia Ctinipany, and in 1824 the district of ]Vlalacca was ;icquirecl friun tiie Duicli in exchange Un- the English settlements in Sumatr-;. Tliese tlu'ee i)')ssessii'ns make tip the Straits Si'ttlenieiits. wit'i a iio|)iilation in 190 r oi 572,249, and a vast trade centered at Siri,';apore. In 1867 they were made inde- pendent (^f tlic Lillian government and organized as a Crown col- ony, under tlie adniini^ir.'iti' ai oi ;i gcn'ernor, an executive council and a legislative c.^-uncil ni-:de v.p of nine olVicial and seven unofh- cial members, iV\' n;:n;r^! !iy ilic v r. iwii am! two l>y the v! :unbers of commerce o'f S:i:ga[)ore and I'enang. In the last quarter (it tlir 252 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 nineteenth century the protection of Great Britain was gradually extended over the independent native states of the peninsula. These are united as the Federated Malay States under the gov- ernor of the Straits Settlements as high commissioner. Each state is governed by a state council made up of native authorities and British officials under the advice of a British resident. The population of these states in 1901 was 678,595, of whom 1422 were Europeans and Americans. The state of Sohor, at the south- em end of the peninsula, with an estimated population of 200,000, is under British control in respect to its foreign relations, but is governed by a native sultan. Other dependencies of the Straits Settlements are the Cocos or Keeling Islands, 1200 miles south- west of Singapore, population 698; and Christmas Island, 700 miles further east, population 558. The chief productions of the ]\Ialay peninsula are pepper, sugar, rice, tapioca, tea, coffee, gutta percha, timber, gold, and tin. Christmas Island exports large quantities of phosphate. The history of another Asiatic settlement takes us back to the days of Albuquerque. That great general had been repulsed by the Turks from the flourishing port of Aden ; and under their rule the place lost all its trade, owing to the discovery of the route to India round the Cape, and fell into decay. The Turks were expelled in the eighteenth contury, and the place fell into the hands of hostile Arabs. An English Indiaman was wrecked near the town in 1837, and the Arabs plundered the cargo and maltreated the crew and passengers. The East India Company had for some time cast envious eyes upon the spot, and they now took possession of it. Aden had been a very important place in ante-colonial times. It now recovered its prosperity, and since the opening of the Suez canal it has become one of the first commercial stations in the world. From a wretched Arab village Aden has become a city of 40,000 inhabitants, and it lias been made almost as impregnable as Gibraltar itself. Its cliief importance is as a military, naval, and coaling station on tlie route to India. It occupies a peninsula 100 miles east of the Straits of Bab-el-j\Ian(leb, with a small adjoining territory on the mainland. The Island of I'erim at tlie entrance to the Red Sea, and the Kuria ^^luria Islands off the coast of Arabia are dependent on it. Aden is under the goveri^niont of Bombay and is ruled by a political resi- dent. The Tslru^d. i;f SnkMirn. 'iTf t1ie African const, abotit ;oo miles jni 1 T 1 S It D E P E N D E N C I E S 25^i 180O 1910 east of Aden, with a population of about 12,000, came under Brit- ish protection by treaty with the Sultan in 1876. Other outposts of India are: the JJalircin Islands in the Persian Gulf, population 22,000 a British protectorate since 1867; the Laccadive Islands, 200 miles off the ^Malabar coast, population in 1891, 14.000; the Andaman Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, 340 miles north and west of Sumatra, and the Xicobar Islands, about midway between the An- damans and Sumatra. Hie Andamans are used as a penal settlement by the Indian Government. The two g-roups have a population of 25,000, and are governed by a chief commissioner from India. The British possessions in tlie ^Mediterranean deserve mention here, as they are chieily important as military and naval stations on the route to India. Gibraltar, a rocky promontory on the southern coast of Spain, commanding the entrance to the great midland sea, was seized August 4, 1704, by a detachment of Brit- ish sailors from tlie fleet under Admiral Rooke. A Spanish at- tempt to recapture it in 1704-1705 failed. By the Treaty of Utrecht in 1 7 13 England retained the fortress. The Spaniards, after an- other unsuccessful siege, erected strong fortihed lines across the neck of land in 1729, thus cutting it off from the mainland. Dur- ing the War of the American Revolution they made their last great attempt to regain it, but the grand attack of September 13, 1782, in which their three years' siege culminated, was beaten off by the English, r\lalta, an island fifty-eight miles south of Sicily, was seized by Xapoleon on his way to Egypt in ]\Iay, 179S, and garrisoned by 4000 troops, who were S(^on blockaded by an English ileet and compelled to surrender in September, 1800. At the Eeace of Amiens, in ]\ larch. 1S02, England promised to restore 3.1alta to its f(jrmcr ov/ner.-., tlie Knights of St. John, but refused to ful- fill this stipulation, v/hich was one of the grounds for the renewal of the war in Alay, 1803. At the I'eace of P;iris in 1S14 England re- tained the island. Cyprus was accpiircd from Turkey in 1878. At the end of the Russc;-Turkish \\';ir in that year tlie Treaty of San Stci)liano was superseded by that of r.erliti, signed July 13. On June 4 luigland. by a secret treaty with Turkey, secured the promise of certain reforms in Asia Minor and in return guaranteed the Turkish possessions in Asia, receiving Cyprus for a military and naval sta- tion as a means of enforcing the gu.-iranty and a pledge for the ex- ecution of tlic i)r(imi>cd reform-;. The i-land \\as to be regarded as an integral pa.rt i^i the Turki-li empire, aaul the surplus revenue was 2;4 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 to go to the Sultan, The consent of Russia and Germany to this arrangement was obtained when the treaty was signed. French opposition was bought off by an agreement giving France a free hand in Tunis. Gibraltar is under a governor and commander in chief who combines in himself all governmental and legislative powers. The area of the colony is less than two square miles and its population in 1901 was 25,110 in addition to the garrison. Its only importance is as a naval base, and for this purpose it is heavily fortified and elaborately equipped. Malta, however, is important as a colony aside from its strategic value. Its area, in- cluding the neighboring islands of Gozo and Camino, is 117 square miles, with a population in 1901 of 188. 141. The government is partially representative, the legislative council having six official and thirteen elected members, but in case of necessity legislation may be enacted by executive order, and this power has been re- cently used because of a legislative deadlock on the language ques- tion. Italian is the official language of the courts, and in the schools parents may elect for their children either Italian or Eng- lish. Agriculture is the main industry, especially the raising of small fruits and grain. The importance of ]\Ialta as a naval base has declined because of the small size of its harbor. The island of Cyprus, lying in the ?^Iediterranean Sea near its northeastern angle, and forty-one miles from the coast of Syria, has an area of 3584 square miles, and in 1901 its population was 232,022. Its chief products are grain, olives, and fruits. The administration is in the hands of a British high commissioner, who has the powers of a colonial governor. The legislative council contains six official and twelve elected members, of whom three are chosen by ]\Io- hammedan voters and nine by other voters. The English judges in the lower courts are associated v/ith native judges, both Chris- tian and Mohammendan. Under the terms nf the Treaty of 1878 92.800/. ($464,000) are paid annually to l\irkey. Of the English ]jossessions in tlie Pacilic the self-governing colonies of Australasia have already been dealt with. The Crown colonies remain to be considered. A settlement, tributary to the trade of Singapore, was made in 1846 by Sir James Brooke, on the Island of Labuan, oft" the coast of Borneo. Besides being governor of the Britisli colony of Labuan, Sir James also became Rajah of the neighboring district of Sarawak, on the main land of Borneo, and liis government here rescued the poor natives BRITISH DEPENDENCIES 286 1800 1910 from the wretched and defenseless condition into which they had fallen. Brooke's deeds in Borneo form one of the most en- couraging pages of history. Soon before he died he offered his rajahship to the English Government, who refused it, and he was succeeded in it by his nephew Charles in i868. The govern- ment was no doubt right in not accepting Brooke's offer. The United States have also refused a proposed concession to them by one of the sultans of Borneo, though American citizens, fired by the example of Brooke, have sometimes hoisted the Stars and Stripes on its shores. In 1877 certain English subjects obtained from native chiefs land cessions in Xorth Borneo. These were transferred to the British North Borneo Company, chartered in 1882. In 1888 a formal British protectorate was proclaimed, and two years later Labuan was placed under the government of the company. The governor of the territory is appointed by the com- pany subject to the approval of the colonial secretary. British North Borneo contains an area of about 30,000 scjuare miles and a population of 200.000. A nourishing trade in timljer and tropical products is carried on through Singapore. In 1888 England pro- claimed a protectorate over Sarawak, area 50,oo<^ square miles, population 600,000; and Brunei, area 15,000 s(|uare miles, popu- lation 45,000. Sarawak is under Rajah Sir Charles Brooke, and Brunei under a native sultan. These possessions together occupy the entire northern and northwestern portion of the great island. The southern and eastern part is held by the Dutch.. Another insular commercial colony was formed in 1841, at the close of the Opium War with China, on the island of iiong- Ivong, near the mouth of the Canton l\i\er. by tlie name of X'ictoria. Hong-Kong is Cireat l>ritain"s '" I-".astcrn Gibraltar," :\n important militar}' and iiaxal station, and tlie center of a large commerce with China and japan. The ei\il population in 19CI was 283,905. oi whom (1431 were iviiropeans and Amer- ie:ins. There is also an imperial garriMUi cf 3200 and Hong- Kong is the headquarters of the l>ritish China scpiadron. The go\- ernmcnt is carried on by a goxernur and executi\e council. There is also a legislative council composed of six oflicial and six nominated unotVicial members, whereof two are Chinese. In 1898 England leased fron.i China for ninet\--niiie _\ears a tract of 376 square miles on the niai-ilaad. with a Ldiine-e p^.'jndation of k^o.ocx^. In the ^a^le \ear. f. )!io\viir4- ilie lea.-e of ['ori Arthur to Russia, Paiijland 256 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 leased from China the port and bay of Wei-hai-wei, on the south- ern side of the Straits of Pe-chi-li, for so long a period as Russia remains in possession of Port Arthur. The colony is governed by a commissioner and has an area of 285 square miles and a popula- tion of 123,000. England has a few other possessions in the Pacific. The as- sumption of a protectorate over the southeastern portion of New Guinea in 1884 has already been narrated in the chapter on Austra- lia. It was made a Crown colony in 1888 and is administered by the Australian Commonwealth which provides the expenses of gov- ernment. British New Guinea has an area of 90,540 square miles, a population of 350,000, of whom 250 are Europeans. It has abundant natural resources for the production of tropical goods. British influence in the Fiji Islands dates from the coming of Wesleyan missionaries in 1835. A native request for British protection was denied in 1858, but Australian sentiment in favor of annexing the group to the empire became too strong to be re- sisted, and in 1874 tliis was accomplished by treaty with the natives. The colony is under a governor (who is also high com- missioner for the western Pacific) and a legislative council com- posed of six official and six unofficial members nominated by the Crown. The natives are controlled through their local chiefs. There are 200 islands in the group f8o inhabited), with an area of 8045 square miles and a population in 1901 of 117,870, whereof 2447 were Europeans, 17.105 Indians, and 94,397 Fijians. The islands export sugar and other tropical products. The Tonga or I'^riendly Islands were declared to be under British protection in 1899. They are governed by a king and an assembly of nobles and elected representatives of the people. The islands have an area of 390 square miles and a population of 18,959. nearly all natives. Numerous other islands in tlie possession or under tlie protection of England are under the jurisdiction of the liigh commissioner for the western I'acific. The Afric;m colonies of Great l^ritain arc numerous and im- portant. We liave already considered the great self-governing South African grou]) of mixed iMiglish and Dutch nationality, and have space here for only a l)rief enumeration and description of those not alrci-ly dealt v>ith. In Britisli colonial history we liave an odd exemplification of tlie saying that " the ^a^t shall be first, and tlic first shall be last." BRITISH DEPENDENCIES 1800-1910 257 The first place in importance is occupied, as we have seen, by col- onies of very late growth. The last is occupied by some petty settlements on the West African Coast, which date from the time of Queen Elizabeth. These settlements lie in four groups on the coast. Two of them, those on the Gambia River and the Gold Coast, belong to the history of the slave trade, having formerly been the marts where .-laves were purchased by ihe l-]nf|li>li slavers. The other two, lliose of Sierra Leone and L:i;_:'os. are connectcil with its abolition: the former, as we ha\e Jilready seen, havint;' been foundetl as a refuge for its reseiied \ietiriis. and the latter in i86j. as a station iov more C(>m|)iitely de-tro}i;i!^- it. The old West African Settlements were si 'on superseded by tiic Xew World as a source of the gold supply of Ivdro[)e. and they lost most of their importance with llie .abolition of the slave trade. The ;\frican C'omnaiiw to wliicli tl;e\' were alwax's subject. \\a- ruined 258 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-191O in consequence, and in 1807 the Crown took possession of them in order to make sure that the slave trade ceased. At first the three groups of settlements had separate governments. In 1821 they were united, but separated again in 1842. In 1866, following the same policy as in the West Indies, they were again placed under one government fixed at Sierra Leone. But this arrangement lasted only until 1874. At present they are separately administered. The British dominion on the Gold Coast w^as extended by purchase of the slave trading posts of the Dutch and the Danes and by wars against Ashanti, resulting in a protectorate over that country in 1896, and its annexation together with the so-called Northern Territories in 190 1. The governor of the Gold Coast administers Ashanti as a separate possession. The small colony of Gambia, at tlie mouth of the river of that name, has been in like manner extended by a protectorate over the neighboring country, with an area of 4500 square miles and a population of 90,000. The area of Lagos colony is 3460 square miles, of the Lagos Protectorate 25,450 square miles, with a total population of 1,500,000. Sierra Leone has an area of 4000 square miles and a population of 76,665. The area of the Sierra Leone protectorate is 30,000 square miles and its population 1,000,000. The Gold Coast, with Ashanti and the Northern Territories, has an area of about 110,000 square miles and a population of nearly 2,000,000. The government of each of tliese colonies is of the strict Crown colony type. In each the governor is assisted by executive and legislative councils ap- pointed by the Crown. Their chief products are tropical goods and gold, their soil is rich, their resources are being systematically developed by railroads, and the trade is in a satisfactory condition. The climate effectually precludes European settlement on any large scale. From Lagos English exploration, trade and political control spread to the delta of the Niger and upward along the course of that great river until the region of French inlluence on its upper waters was reached. The National African Company, created in 1882 to develop this vast region, was chartered in 1886 as the Royal Niger Company, and began to make treaties with the native tribes. Britisli protection over the whole country was proclaimed in 1884 and 1887. On January r, igoo. the company surrendered it> cliancr and its territories came under the direct control of the imperial gu'.ernnient. The total British posses;:.ions in this region B u I T T s II D i: ]' ]: X T) I : n ( ' i e s 250 180() I9H) amount to 400,000 square miles, with a population estimated at 25,000,000, composed of tribes speaking different languages and either Mohammedan or Pagan in religi(3n. There are two gov- ernments. Northern and St)uthern Nigeria, each under the control of a high commissioner. Justice is administered by English and native courts, and tlie administrative organization of the country \'arics with the development of the several tribes and their distance from the seat of government. Native military forces under i^lritish officers are maintained, and strong efforts are being made to sup- press cannibalism and slave raiding. The commercial possil>ilities of the country are large, but they await development by railways, and above all the establishment of settled order. Another British possession on the western coast is Walfish Bay, valuable as the only good national harbor in Southwest Africa, and much coveted by the Germans who have colonized that region. Its total area is but 430 square miles. It was made a British protectorate in 1878 and is now under the government of Cape Colony. British South Africa, including Ca])e Colony. Natal, and tlie recently conquered Boer states, now known as- the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal Colony, lias already been dealt witli. Other possessions in this region are Basutoland, the Bechuanaland protectorate, and Swaziland. The former lies to tlic north and east of Cape Colony, bounded west and northwest by the Orange River Colony, east and northeast by Natal. Tt has a line climate and is weH watered, but European settlement is ju^ohibitcd in the interest of tlie natives, who numl^er nl^out 265.000. Tlie area of tlie country is aliout 10,000 Sfjuare miles. Tt was annexed to tlic Cape Colony in 1877. but was given a separate government in 1884. It is now governed by a resident commissioner urider tlie high ccMiimissiiMier for South -Africa. The I'eclmanaland Protectorate sliould not be confused with kkclnianalnnd ]vri!]ier, which was a separate Crown colonv until annexed to Cape Colony in [8(75. forming tlie most northern portion of that go\-crnment and l)oun(led on the east bv the Transvaal colony rr.id on the north by the Malopo River. Hie protectorate comi)riscs the great arid region ni~)rth of the river and west of the Transvaal, stretcliing to the border of Gcrm;in .South- west .Africa. It is go\-erned tlr.""Ugh the native chiefs bv a resi- dent commissioner under the liigli coinr.iissioner for South Afric;i. Tlie population is estimated at 2(^o.ooo. Swaziland lies near the southeastern corner of the Trans\-aal colonv. bv which it is bounded 260 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 on the north and west. On the east it touches the territory of Portugal and Natal and on the south and west the districts for- merly the most southwesterly in the Transvaal, but which were transferred to Natal in 1902. The area of Swaziland is about 8300 square miles, and its population 70,000 natives and a small number of whites. It was formerly administered by the South African Republic. The beginnings of Rhodesia have been narrated. It embraces an immense area from the Transvaal Colony north to Lake Tan- ganyika, and from the British Central African Protectorate and the Portuguese and German possessions on the east to the Congo Free State and Portuguese West Africa on the west, including the upper course of the Zambesi River. The portion north of the river is divided into Northeastern and Northwestern Rhodesia. Both are administered by the British South Africa Company. The former contains an area of 120,000 square miles and a population of about 340,000. Northwestern Rhodesia is bounded on the north by the Congo Free State, west by Portuguese West Africa, south by the Zambesi and German Southwest Africa, and east by Northeastern Rhodesia. Both provinces are rich in natural re- sources, but their European population is insignificant in number. It is otherwise with Southern Rhodesia, which stretches southward from the Zambesi to the borders of the Transvaal colony. Here there is a European population of about 12,000 and 500,000 natives. The government is under the joint control of the com- pany and the imperial government. There is an administrator for the company and a resident commissioner appointed by the colonial secretary. The executive council is composed of the resident commissioner and four or more appointees of the company ap- proved by the colonial secretary. The legislative council, over which the administrator presides, consists of the resident commis- sioner, seven appointees of the company approved by the colonial secretary, and seven representatives elected by tlie registered voters. Its ordinances have the force of law wlien approved by the high commissioner for South Africa, but may be disallowed within a year by the colonial secretary. Judges of the high court are appointed by the colonial secretary on the nomination of the com- pany. The sale of arms and liquor to natives is severely restricted, and land is reserved for tribal settlements subject to the mineral rights of tlie company. The country is divided into the two prov- BRITISH DEPENDENCIES 261 1800-1910 iiices of Matabeleland and Mashonaland. Both are rich in gold and other minerals, including coal. There is through railway com- munication from Victoria Falls on the Zambesi to Cape Town and to Beira on the coast of Portuguese J^^ast Africa. A line is under construction north of the Zambesi and its extension to Lake Tan- ganyika is projected. Among the instruments of modern civili- zation at the command of this new colony are telegraphs, tele- phones, newspapers, hospitals, public libraries, schools, churches, banks, and hotels. The total area of all Rhodesia is about 750,000 square miles. The British Central African Pnjtectorate lies along the w-estern shore of Lake N^yassa and the valley of the Shire River, by which the waters of the lake discharge into the Zambesi. It lies east of northeastern Rhodesia and extends southward like a wedge into Portuguese East Africa. It has an area of 42,217 and a population of 900,000, of whom but 450 are Europeans. The government is administered by a commissioner under the British Foreign Office. Juiglish enterprise in this region began with the missionary labors of Livingstone. From tlie Cape of Good Hope northward to Lake Tanganyika the British dominion stretches fur 2000 miles without a break. Flere it is interrupted by the territories of German East Africa on the east of the lake and tlie Congo Free State on the western shore. It begins again in Uganda, 500 miles furtlier north, and extends 2300 miles to tlie mouth of the Nile. Tlie Uganda Pro- tectorate C( of the ])rotectoratc. numbering 4.000.000. are con- trolled through their cliiefs. ^("he lun-(>i)caii i^ipulation is about 300. A mihtary force of 40CX3 n;ui\e-, with Ih'itish officers, is maintained, also a n;i\-al ft)rcc oi steamers and s;iiling \'essels. I'^'om (ioiKh'k'oro in ilic rmrlh tlierc i-- coninninicatinn i)\- bieamers with Khartum. The protectorate is under tlie government of a Ihdtish commissioner. I'^ast of Cganda, stretching southeast to tlie seacoast and lj(.inndicd on the south by (Jcrman East Africa, is the British h'.ast Africa:: Pn >t',x^ior:ite. will; an area oi 350.- 000 sipaare miles and ;i p^'pulaiiitn >>i 4.(hh),ooo. Ii i- g'j\-crncd. 262 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 18001910 by a commissioner and is divided into provinces, each under a sub-commissioner. The European population is insignificant in numbers. A raihvay was completed in 1901 from Mombasa on the seacoast to Kisumu on Lake Victoria. The protectorate main- tains a military force of 1400 men and 1300 police. The Zanzibar Protectorate includes the Island of Zanzibar, off the coast of Ger- man East Africa (640 square miles), and the Island of Pemba (380 square miles). The population of these islands is about 200,000. During the minority of the sultan the government is ad- ministered by an Englishman as prime minister and regent. The sultan has nominal rights of sovereignty over the coast of the British East Africa Protectorate and certain ports on the coast of Italian Somaliland. North of Uganda is the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and north of the Sudan Egypt itself, nominally a dependency of Turkey, but actually under British control since 1882. A British financial adviser controls expenditure, the Egyptian army is organized under British officers, and a British army of occupation is supported out of the Egyptian treasury. This British control of Egypt has long excited the jealousy of other powers, especially France, but received the sanction of French approval by the Anglo-French treaty signed April 8, 1904. The English administration, in spite of great obstacles, has restored Egyptian credit, reorganized the anny, established justice, abolished forced labor, carried through grcM public works for irrigation and other purposes, and re- conquered the Sudan. The latter country had revolted under the ]\Iahdi in 1882, but was reconquered in 1898 by Lord Kitchener, tlie sirdar or commander in chief of the Egyptian army. The Sudan is under the joint control of England and Egypt. It extends from N. lat. 5^^ to N. lat. 22,^ about 1200 miles along the cour.-e of the Xile, and from the Red Sea and .\byssinia on the east inciefinitely westward. Kartum, tlic cajjital. is connected by railway, steambcjai, and telegraph wiih Cairo, and a railway is buildii"!!:;- frc/.n Suakin on the Red Sea to Berber on the Nile. The area oi the country is al)Out 950,000 square miles and the popula- tion 3,500,000. The Somali Coast Protectorate, proclaimed in 1884, embraces 68,000 square miles alorig the f.ance adopted the policy of preferential trade with llie crtlonies in 1884, when the colony of Reunion established import duties of certain foreign products in exchange for equality FRANCE 271 1800 1910 of colonial and French products, competing in the French market, and a differential of five per cent, in favor of colonial products which do not compete with French products, the revenue from the new customs duties to be applied in encouraging local industry by lemission of taxation and by the payment of bounties. The government of the French West Indies has reflected the political changes of the mother country. In the reign of Louis XVI., colonial assemblies were set up by Neckar and Turgot. The Restoration did not go so far, but made use of committees of con- sultation as organs of local opinion. The new establishment of colonial assemblies, with full fiscal powers, has been set forth. In addition, the colonies elect representatives to the French par- liament. L^nfortunately universal suffrage has given political con- trol into the hands of the negroes and has stimulated race hatred. The white element of the population is subjected to oppression and is in danger of disappearing altogether. Well-informed ob- servers fear that the history of Hayti will be repeated and that the French Antilles will relapse into barbarism. Their population in 1901 was 118,112 for Guadeloupe and dependencies, with an area of 688 square miles; and 203,781 for Martinique, with an area of 381 square miles. In ]May, 1902, St. Pierre, the chief city of ^Martinique, was destroyed, and substantially all of its inhabi- tants instantly killed by a volcanic eruption from ^loni Pelee. Besides the sugar islands, French Guiana remains a melan- choly relic of the old West Indian Empire. This colony has never thriven since its ilrst occupation, and suffered severely by the hasty emancipation of the slaves in 184S. A boundary disi)ute with Brazil was settled by arbitration in 1900. The chief industry is gold-mining. By the census of 1901 the population was 32.908 and the area of the colony 30,500 miles. France has maintained a penal settlement in Cjuiana since 1855. Until 1862 the only ]*^-ench pMS>essions in the East [ndies were the ancient trading settlements of Mahe on the Malabar coast, with Pondicherry, Karik;'.!. Vanaon, and Chandernagore, on ilie Coromandel coast, being all that h^ngland liad spared to the p iwer which had once been her competitor for the Indian empire. .\ few^ shiploads of Indian goods carried from these ancient settlements to Saint Xazaire are thus all that remains of the great visions that were more th:ni half rc;ih'::cd by Dn])leix. Tlie l-rericli porLs woi'e only preserved troin iil)':\io:i 1)\" (i;icning them to .-hip- ^.'i 272 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 all nations in 1816, after that long war in which French commerce was for the time destroyed and the French colonies, including these ancient Indian possessions, fell into English hands until peace was restored. Chandernagore, Pondicherry, and Yanaon once possessed a flourishing trade in cotton goods, designed for sale in the populous island of Bourbon, and in the West African set- tlement of Senegal. The protection granted by France to the textile fabrics of its Indian settlements having ceased in 1864, their trade has been since assimilating itself to that of the rest of India and the share of France in it has declined. The colony is under a governor, who resides at Pondicherry and is assisted by a general council of twelve members, of whom five are officials and seven are chosen by the local councils. All must be qualified by a knowledge of the French language. This general council was established by decrees dated 1872 and 1874. The former decree also established a local council in each of the five settlements, one-half of the members in each case elected by per- sons of European blood and one-half by the natives. These local councils have but little power. There are ten communes with municipal institutions. The colony is represented in the French Parliament by one senator and one deputy elected by the voters without distinction of race. It is one of the few French depend- encies which pays its own way and something more, sending to the French treasury 920,000 francs annually. The administration is somewhat faulty and tends to yield too little to native sentiment. With a total area of 196 square miles and a population of about 275,000 these settlements are of practical value to France chiefly as coaling stations. The French rule in Indo-China began under the second em- pire. In 1858 a war with the king of Annam was undertaken by JM-ance for the protection of French missionaries in that country. It resulted in the occupation of tlie port of Saigon, on the south- eastern coast of the peninsula of T'"arther India. By a treaty concluded in June, 1862, tlie king of Annam ceded to France the j)ort and tlie three neigl^boring provinces, opened certain of his ports to ]uu"opean trade, and guaranteed religious freedom throughout his dominions. Ill treatment of Christian mission- aries continued nevertheless, and resulted in the annexation of three more pro\iiu:es in 1867, the king fip])ealing in vain for aid to liis ^uzcr.'iiii, ilic cni[)cror of C'liina. The six provinces thus FRANCE 273 1800 1910 obtained make up Cochin-China. and include the delta of the Mekong River. The French had hoped to tap the trade of the southern provinces of China by way of this river, but a scientific expedition in 1 866-1 868 proved this to be impracticable. French enterprise was thus attracted to the Song-Koi or Red River, in the northern portion of the Annamite dominions called Tonkin. The delta of the Red River was infested by pirates, and French activity in that quarter resulted in a collision with the natives, w'herein a small French force under Lieutenant Garnier was ambushed and destroyed. Negotiation resulted in a treaty concluded in 1874, which opened Red River to French commerce and allowed the stationing of French consuls with armed escorts in certain towns. Under this treaty France claimed a protectorate over the country, but China, the suzerain of Annam, refused to acknowledge the validity of the treaty and sent Chinese troops into T(inkin. In 1882 a French expedition, sent out under Commander Riviere to enforce the treaty, captured the town of Hanoi and established the French power over the delta of the Red River, but was soon destroyed by the natives and its leader killed. Strong recnforce- ments were sent out. Admiral Courbet, in 1883, bombarded Hue. the Annamite capital, and extorted a treaty acknowledging the pro- tection of h^rancc over Annam and Tonkin, but it had to be made good by hard figliting against the " lilack Mags,'' or brigands, and against the Chinese troops in the country. In the ensuing war with Cliina the b'rcncli seized a part of iMtrmosa. and secured some successes on the Chinese frontier of Tonkin. Peace was con- cluded in 1885, I'^ancc agreeing to evacuate I'ormosa. and China conceding to b^rancc e\clusi\e control of the foreign relations o\ Annam and the substantial mastery of the whole ctnintry including Tonkin. In 18(^3 I'ronch protcclioii was eng Ri\er ihroiighout its wlu^le course ivn\n the Chinese frontier t^ tb.c inTtheni hiuiiidary (u' L"am])o(lia. This kingdom, lying north cf the lirst I-'rcnch colony of Cochin-China. on both sides of the Mekong, recognized the French protectorate in 1863, and in 1884 it> administration was undertaken by tlic governor of Saigon. By a treaty negotiated with Siam in 1S93 France secured the full contnd of the right bank of the Mekong and a strip of territory extending tweiUy-fn-e kilometers \vest- ward frdUt tlic river. All I'i'cnrli Indo-China contains ahont 3^)3.- ^74 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 ooo square miles and a population of about 20,000,000. Further expansion to the west and the absorption of a great part of Siam is probable. An agreement between France and England, signed January 15, 1896, extended the French sphere of influence over the eastern portion of that kingdom, while guaranteeing the au- tonomy of the valley of the Aleinam. The terms of this agreement were further defined by the treaty signed April 8, 1904. In the event of the partition of China France expects to get the island of Hainan, off the Gulf of Tonkin, and the southern provinces near the present French frontier. As a foothold in this region the Bay of Kwang-Chau on the coast of the Lien-Chau peninsula opposite Hainan was extorted from China in April, 1898, upon a lease for ninety-nine years. Eighteen months later France was given pos- session of two islands commanding the bay, and in 1900 all the territory was placed under the authority of the governor general of Indo-China. The capital of Indo-China was removed in 1902 from Saigon to Hanoi, the chief town of Tonkin. The governor general ex- ercises his powers in the several dependencies through " residents- superior " except in Cochin-China, which is under a lieutenant governor. There is a military force of 10,901 Europeans and 14,975 natives under French officers. Cochin-China is under full French sovereignty. Its colonial council contains representatives of the French citizens and Asiatics, with official members and members chosen by the chamber of commerce. Saigon and Cholen are municipalities on the French model. A college was established in 1874 at Saigon to train natives for the public service. The colony is represented in the French Parliament by one deputy. The other dependencies are governed by the native officials under the supervision of French residents. A permanent trained civil service and tlie rule of able governors general have established law and order and secured general prosperity. Ambitious plans of raiUvay building have been undertaken by the government to de- velop the resources of the country. The chief product is rice, but sugar, spices, and coffee are also grown, and valuable coal deposits exist in Tonkin. Tlie French were late comers in the Pacific and found the best regions occupied by their old rivals. A project for the colon- ization (,r \e\v Zealand was thwarted by the English settlement of those islands, as alreadv narrated, luiirland had also effectively F R A \ C E 275 1800 1910 occupied the coasts of Australia. At the time of the accessior. of Napoleon III. the sudden rise of Australia through the gold- fields of Victoria was the talk of the whole world. Kot a great distance from Australia w:is the island which the English had named Xew Calcdi^nia, but had never thought worth occupying, though it had been more than once in.cluded in a colonial commis- sion. The new cnipenjr saw in tliis island the germ of a future Australasian France, and as the I'rench were really in want of a healthful and remote site for a penal settlement, the English made no objection to its occupation by the Frencii Government. New Caledonia therefore became I'rench sc-)il in 1853. The new settle- ment was to be developed on a plan exactly similar to that of New South Wales. The con\'icls were to be partly employed on govern- ment farms, and partly distributed atuong the free settlers, who were expected to emigrate in large numbers. These expectations have not been altogether disappointed, for at the end of half a century New Caledonia contains 12.253 free Europeans besides 10.056 convict?. Tb.e transp(jrtation of convicts thither ceased in 1900. The native population is 29,106 and the land is granted out to applicants of all nationalities at a small redeemable quit-rent. The chief agricnUural products are coffee, maize, tobacco, grapes, manioc, and pineapples. Valuable mines of nickel, cobalt, and chrome are worked, and deposits of coal ha\-c been discovered. The area of the islanrl is 7650 square miles, not including its depend- encies, the isle of Pines, Walks Arcliipelago. Loyalty Islands, Idnon Islands, i'utuna, and .Mafi. Idic colony is administered by a governor general and an elective general council. Since 1887 the New Hebrides group of islands has l)een under the joint pro- tection of England rnid 1 -"ranee. Ever ready to seize new ideas, the l-d'ench have been foremost among the nations of l''nro]U' in taking up ground in the islands of the Pacilic. We have already seen how Cook first made the Pacific world known to Europe in the latter jiart of the eighteenth century. Since dia; lime fjiglish and American enterj^rise. without losing sight of ihc i^-lands, has been sntVicicntly occupied with the continental lands of Ansir;dia and Xorth America. The Erench ha\e, in the meantime, just as in Xorth America, been acting as the pioneers (4" tlie ro->[ of iv,irope. SidiC by side with the English and Americans, their whalers gradnall}- became accpiainted with the natives of the most import;int groups, and the whalers were illQ COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 soon followed by missionaries and petty traders. Wherever these estabHsh themselves a certain amount of political influence follows : and in this way the English, Americans, French, and Germans have made many isolated beginnings. In some cases the influence of a European nation has been already extended over a whole island group. Li this way, as we have already seen, the English have taken possession of the Fiji Islands. The Marquesas Islands were annexed by the French under Louis Philippe in 1842. The minis- ters of the monarchy of July assumed at the same time a protec- torate over the Society Islands and one or two other adjacent groups. In addition to the Society and Marquesas groups France now holds : The Tuamotu Islands, or Low Archipelago ; the Lee- ward Islands; the Tubuai, or Austral Islands with Ravaivai, Rurutu, and Rimatara ; and the Gambier Islands ; a total area of about 1520 square miles, with a population of about 30,000. The islands are administered by a governor, with a privy council and an elective general council. In former years Tahiti especially suf- fered from paternalism, with excessive formalities, passports, heavy harbor dues, and other vexatious exactions which repelled Euro- pean settlement and commerce. This system, abolished in 1861, left a bad name, which checked development for a long time. Of all these colonies Tahiti and Morea, among the Society Islands, alone contain any considerable number of European settlers, who produce, by the help of native labor, small quantities of sugar, vanilla, copra, fruits, and mother-of-pearl for export. Regular steam communication exists with San Francisco and New Zealand and among the more important islands. By far the greater part of the island trade is with the United States, England, and English colonies. These may be small beginnings, but there is no doubt that these groups of islands are destined to rise vastly in impor- tance with the growth of America and Australia. By whom the fruits of the seed which the French are tlius fostering will l)e reaped, is a different question. The English race seems destined sooner or later to enter into the labors of the French, and either Australian or American influence must in the end prevail in the Pacific settlements. French possessions in Africa and the neighboring seas are extensive and important. We have seen how in the great Euro- pean wars l)et\vcen 1793 and 1814 the English took from the French all their colonies and possessions tliat were worth taking FRANCE 277 1800-1910 at all. The poor figure which was made after the peace of 1815 by the French colonial empire greatly chagrined the French nation, who as we have seen had at one time in their history shown real genius for colonial enterprise. Under Louis XIV. France had been a great colonial power; under the Regency it had in this re- spect fast declined, and its ruin was completed by the wars of the Revolution and the Empire. But the French, always an elastic people. resoK'cd to rcciecin tlieir colonial reputation: antl in 1821 thev made a fresli bci^'iiiiiin!;- (m llic northeastern coast of Mada- gascar, bv takinj.^- p> )ssc.>-i< >ri of the island ot Sainte ]\larie. The warlike Hova'^ after a loiii;- sirug-^-le forced them to abandon for the time an attempted sctilenicnt on the mainland of Mada- gascar; but tlicy still ])erscvero(l in tlieir colonial ideas, and in 1840 ne,;'otiatC(I a troalv w itli 'IVimann of the /^aclr a^loiiial; the pco-)lc were so(^)n empowered ir> fix tlioir own custr^ns duties, on condition of ])rovidii\g for tlicir own defense, and the colony thus bccnne prac- ticallv incU'pcndent. It w;is ilio iirst to accept the new poHcy of preferential trade as described in tlie account gi\-en in tlii^ chapter of the West Indies. It li;is an area of about 963 sc[uare miles and a population of .about 173.000. In 1896 Mayotte and the Comoro Islands, b"ing halfway bet\vecn Madagascar and the .\frican coast. were placed u;i;vr tlie governor of Reunion. Together they have 280 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 an area of about 760 square miles and a population of about 58,000. Reunion is administered by a governor, privy council, and elective general council, and is represented in the French Parliament by a senator and two deputies. Other French islands in the Indian Ocean are St. Paul, Amsterdam, and Kerguelen. Algeria, on the southern shore of the Mediterranean opposite the coast of France and stretching indefinitely southward into the Sahara, became a French possession by a gradual and costly con- quest which began in 1830. The country is divided into three de- partments, having together an area of 184,474 square miles and a population of 4,739,331, of whom about 640,000 are Europeans. French and naturalized foreigners and Jews make up the greater portion of the non-native population, and there are large numbers of Spaniards and Italians also. The Algerian Sahara, with an area of about 123,500 square miles, with a population of about 50,000, is not included in these figures. Each of the three departments sends a senator and two deputies to the French Parliament. There is also a superior council for the colony, composed of delegates from each of the departments, who meet once a year for discussing and voting the colonial budget. The governor general is assisted in his administration of the country by a council with advisory powers. The wild tribes of the Sahara still hold themselves free and France maintains in the colony a military force of 57,000 men. Tunis, on the southern shore of the Mediterranean immediately east of Algeria, is nominally a vassal state of Turkey. The French invaded the country and established their protectorate in 1881. The government is carried on in the name of the native Bey, under the French foreign office. The French minister resident general, who is minister for foreign affairs for Tunis, governs the country with the aid of a ministry of seven Frenchmen and two Arabs. Native courts administer justice between native litigants, and French courts in cases where either party is a European. The French dominion is upheld by an army of 19,460 men. The area of the country is about 51,000 square miles, and the population about 1,900,000, including about 24,000 French, besides soldiers and sailors, and about 80,000 Italians and ^Maltese. French control in the Sahara west of the Nile valley, an area of about 1,500,000 square miles, including the Libyan desert and the half-civilized state of Wadai, has been recognized by England. The Anglo- French treaty signed April 8, 1904, gives France a free hand in 1800-1910 Morocco on condition that no fortifications are to be erected be- tween Melilla on the Mech'terranean and the mouth of the Sebu River on the Atlantic, a distance of about 150 miles on each coast from the Straits of Gibraltar, and that free trade is to be main- tained for thirty years. Notwithstanding- the vague Spanish claims to Morocco we may look to see the rights thus secured by France converted into effective control. French West Africa is now organized under one government, including Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, and the territories of Senegambia and the Niger. Senegal includes the coast between the Spanish territory on the north and the Gambia River on the south. It has an area of 80,000 square miles and a population estimated at 1,180,000, and is represented in the French parlement by one deputy. There are also three " military terri- tories " on the upper Niger, of which the most important is that centered at Timbuktu. By the treaty of April 8, 1904. with Fng- land, France has secured a rectification of frontier between the Niger and I^ake Chad, with access to the northwestern shores of the lake, through a fertile country. French Guinea f)ccui)ies about 95,000 square miles on the coast north of tlie ICngiisli cokmy of Sierra Leone and south of Portuguese Guinea. Its population is about 2,200,000. The Anglo-]'>ench treaty of April 8. 1904, transferred to France the Los Islands off tlie coast. The Ivory Coast, 116,000 square miles in area, with a population of 2.000.000, is east of Lil)eria and west of the English colony of the Gold Coast. Dahomey stretclies northward from a frontage of seventy miles on the coast between the German Togoland and the English Nigeria, widening toward the interior and covering an area of 60,000 square miles, with 1,000.000 populatiiMi. The territories of Senegambia and the Niger occu])y 210,000 S(|riare miles on the upper waters of the Senegal and Niger. Their population is esti- mated at 3,000,000. I'rom Dalioniev west and south for more than 600 nn'lcs the coast is occupied 1)}' l)riti>h Nigeria and tlie German colonv of Kamcrnn. South of ]\.ani(,M-un and between it and the Congo Vvqc State, a (li^-lancc of ^CX) miles by tlie coast, is all French territorv except for a small holding by the Spanish in the northern ])ort!on. and by Eortugal in the souihern. This region is called iM-ench Congo from the great river which separates it on the east from the Congo l-'rce State for a distance of 400 miles. whence its northern aftluent. the Ubangi. carries the boundarv 2S2 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 northward 400 miles more. The hne then turns eastward and runs over 500 miles farther to the borders of British East Af- rica, thence in a general northwesterly direction along the borders of the Anglo-Egyptian Soudan into the Sahara another 600 miles. The boundary toward the German Kamerun runs westward from the coast 400 miles, thence in a general northerly direction to Lake Chad, the southern shore of which is divided between the two na- tions. This vast region of 450,000 square miles, with a popula- tion estimated at 10,000,000, is administered by a commissioner general at Libreville, on the coast, assisted by a lieutenant governor at Brazzaville, on the lower Congo. Thus French Africa occu- pies the bulk of the northern and western part of the continent from the Mediterranean to the Congo and the Atlantic, hemming in the various territories of other nations scattered along the coast. Its government varies from full sovereignty in Algeria through rdl grades of protection and vague influence over the tribes of the in- terior. Railroads and telegraphs are building or projected in all the west coast colonies to connect the sea with the navigable upper waters of the Niger and the Congo, and it is proposed to unite Algeria and Central Africa by the railway across the Sahara. The attempt of the French to occupy the upper Nile valley proved abortive, as also did the expedition of jMarchand from the west coast to Fashoda. At Fashoda Marchand was about 600 miles west of the French Somali Coast Protectorate at the entrance of the Red Sea, and could he have maintained himself there friendly relations with Abyssinia might have permitted the establishment of communi- cations and French influence from west to east across the continent. The French Protectorate on the Somali coast is administered by a governor and general council, and has an area of 46,000 square miles and a population of 200,000. A railway has been built from Jibutil, on the coast, to Hara, in Abyssinia. The entire colonial empire of France, if we include Algeria and Tunis, embraces an area of about 4,000,000 square miles, and a population estimated at 51,000,000, but it is nowhere suited to the develo])ment of a new French nation, such as the English race has created in the Fruited States, Canada, and Australasia, and is creating in South Africa. Population is stationary in France and emigrants are few. Even if this were not so, the southern shores of the Mediterranean are preoccupied by a numerous and hardy people and elsewhere climate forbids extensive European settle- FRANCE 283 1800-1910 ments. French colonies must remain for the most part colonies of exploitation, wherein Frenchmen will act as civil rulers and as organizers and directors of commerce and industry. Much of the territory has been but recently acquired, and the charges paid by France for its administration are still very heavy, amounting to about $20,000,000 a year. Though this may be very materially reduced by better administration of colonial affairs and the de- crease of military expenses as peace and order are more firmly established throughout the newly acquired territories, it must for many years remain a considerable sum. Successful colonization demands heavy initial expense and a long period of persistent and unremunerative endeavor. The totrd trade of the colonies, in- cluding Algeria and 1\mis, is about $275,000,000 a year, whereof two-thirds is with France. The recrudescence in I'^rance of those ideas of exclusive economic policy which underlay the old pacta colonial has been noted. The extreme advocates of this policy would establisti a customs-union by extending around all the col- onies the higli protective tariff of France. 'I'his has already been substantially done with respect to some of them, notably Madagas- car. In others, sucli as Senegal, a system (^f preferential trade ex- ists whereby mod.erate advantages are mutually gi\en to Frencli and colonial products. In a third class the i)revai]ing system is sub>l;anlial free tr;i(lc, I'rench and fc^reign products competing on equal tcrnis in tltc colonial markets. Tliis lack of u.niformity is due in part to the international agreements and understandings under \vliich spheres of inrh.ience ha\'e been recognized and boun- daries defined, of which an example is t'lie agreement as to Morocco in tlic tre;ity of April 8, 1904. It is pv()b;ibi\- well for I-Tancc that her freedom oi action has been tlnis ro:-irainei|. An empire with territories scattered o\er ail parts of the w^rld cjiniidt with safety be subjected to the h'gical unifcn'inity >o dear to the l'"rencli mind, l)nt l1ie peculiar circnnil;e\' works hi.'ird- >;r:,is to th.e coloines it. aiid ein!)0(i;e~ the e>sentia] \ ici..' of thiC old funic Ctiiniia'. ilie regulation ^)i their econ. niic life for th.e benefit of th^e mother ciVLintry. Tlie h.< 'me administration at fh-ench colonial affairs in tlie earl}' period i^i coliini;d enteri)rise. after the restoraticjn of thiC rxinrlx -ns. wa-^ in th.e liands of the niini>try of nKU"in.e. It w;;-^ in iSSi transferred *,;> the departn'.er.; if c-'ni- meree, ;n iSSj i-eir.r'ied i^' the marine autl in i88() a,-signed i^ a,; 28J* COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 undersecretary in the ministr}^ of commerce and industry. A sep- arate ministry of the colonies was not organized until 1894. It has no control over Algeria and Tunis, the former being an integral part of the republic and the latter under the control of the foreign office. The right of representation in the French Parliament en- joyed by the older colonies does not work well in practice. Mem- bers chosen by universal suffrage, sometimes not without flagrant corruption, to represent the negroes of the West Indies or the natives of India, lack the numbers, character, and unity of purpose essen- tial to the exercise of a proper influence in the national legislature. Moreover, French legislation for the colonies is enacted by the executive in the form of decrees, the necessary power to this end having been delegated to the emperor in 1852 and retained by his republican successors. The power to legislate remains with the chambers and when exercised is supreme, but it is ordinarily un- used. Accordingly the " Conseil Supcrieur des Colonies " has been created, composed of the colonial senators and deputies with dele- gates from other colonies and official and private persons specially qualified by knowledge or experience to give advice upon colonial affairs. In local administration most of the colonies, through their elective councils, are self-governing to a certain extent. Such powers are most ample in the older colonies, but the unwise gift of universal suffrage has perverted them to the uses of race-hatred and corrupt political methods. The executive branch of the co- lonial government has not wholly escaped from the bad influences of French politics, which have led to frequent changes in the serv- ice and a useless multiplication of offices. The faults of the French colonial administration are the faults of the bureaucrat: devotion to routine, a passion for uniformity, arbitrary disregard of native institutions and prejudices, and paternalism. To these we may add certain national characteristics: impatience, timidity in under- taking great and necessary public enterprises, combined with the mabihty to adopt rough and ready expedients essential in a new country. 'I lie perfectionism of the trained French architect and engnieer will be satisfied with nothing less than is demanded by the standards of his craft in France. Therefore public works of all kinds are exceedingly costly in the I'^rench colonies. Chapter XVI THE DUTCH COLONIAL EMPIRE. 1800-1910 A MOXG the old rivals of England in the field of colonial LJL empire the Dutch alone have steadily maintained an im- X Jl portant place. The colonial greatness of Spain and Por- tugal has entirely passed away and the vast colonial empire now held by France is a new creation, but the Dutch have continued to hold their possessions in the West and East Indies save for a brief interval during the Napoleonic wars, when Holland was dominated by France and its colonies were occupied by the English. After the fall of Napoleon England restored to the Dutch all their col- onies except the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and a portion of Guiana, and to-day their colonial possessions are 783,000 square miles in area, with a population of about 36,000,000. These are all in the tropics and are necessarily oi the plantation rather than of the settlement type, but the colonial enterprise of the Dutch should be credited with the foundation of a new Dutch nation in the tem- perate regions of South Africa, which is now a part of the British empire and has already been described. The Dutch West Indies lie in three different groups, St. Eus- tace, Saba, and St. Alartin. among the Leeward Islands. Curacao, .\ruba, .and I'onaire, oft" the coast of X'cnezucla, all composing the colony of Curasao; and Surinam ur Dutcli Guiana, which is a col- ony by itself. As we have seen, down to the h'rench Revolution, the Dutch West Indies were in the hands ot' conimercial companies; since that time they ha\e been in the hands of tlie Dutch Govern- ment. .St. l'Aist:icc is fauKnis in his:niinL;'ents " and "forced deliveries," being supplies o\ ccrt;iin tropical prochicts ex:!ctcd annually from the native governments for a stipnIaLod low price or without anv com- pensation whatcxei". In exacting llie tril)ntc the Dutch ofiicials became in soinc degree the directors of the in^lustry of the native states, in effect rerpiiring then.i to plant certain crops in specilied quantities, snftlcieni to p;iy tl:e ami Mint (h;e. I'^rom this sprang t'le " cnUure sxsiem," tii whicii we -iiali -])ealN later. 288 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 The company, as we have already seen, had long been de- caying; and after the rupture with England, in 1780, its losses could no longer be disguised. The capture of the Dutch home- ward-bound Indiamen by the English cruisers not only made it impossible to pay its dividends, but even necessary to apply to the States General for a loan. The States General, as was to be ex- pected, granted the loan only on condition of a strict inquiry being instituted into the company's affairs; and as early as 1789 it was resolved to send out commissioners to Batavia to remedy the evils which had grown up during just a century of conservatism. Six years elapsed before the commissioners made their report ; and as in the meantime Holland had once more become a power hostile to England, the condition of affairs had become very much worse. The company now entirely ceased to control its own affairs, though it continued for some time to have a legal existence. Until 1808, after the loss of Ceylon and the Cape, the Dutch Indies were ad- ministered by a committee of the States General; and in that year the government was formally vested in the nation. Louis Bona- parte, now King of Holland, sent out to Java a military officer named Daendels. It had long been settled that coffee was the most promising staple for Java; and Daendels at once enforced its cul- ture to such an extent that he was able to boast of having had 40,000,000 coffee trees planted. This vigorous system lasted only until 181 1, when it was suddenly overthrown by the English inva- sion. Batavia was taken in that year by Auchmuty; Daendels ex- changed his coffee planting for a commission in Napoleon's expedi- tion to Russia ; and the Dutch Indies for five years remained in possession of the English. The change to the English rule, which was far less oppressive than that of the Dutch, especially in its last phase, when the power and resources of the government had been strained in order to recover past losses, seems to have been grateful enough to the inliabitants of tlie Dutch Indies : and there were many, both in the colony and at liome, who supposed that tlie conquest was to be permanent. This, however, was not to be the case. In 1816 the Dutch Indies were restored to Holland, and the epoch was signalized by revolts in several parts, finally culminating by that of Dipa Negara, in 1825, in the heart of Java itself, which lasted five years. Famine and pestilence had in the meantime swept over tlie colonv, and the necessity became clear for changes oL a swee[)nTg character, if the Dutch Indies were ever to be niridc 1) i; T c; U COLON! A L E M P 1 11 E ^89 1800 1910 worth keeping-. Besides, since the EngHsh merchants had ob- tained the free navigation of the Dutch seas, their rivalry with tlit- Dutch almost bade fair to renew the animosities of two hundred years before, l^nglish vessels often touched at the islands and made treaties with the natives, who were always readier to trade with them than with the Dutch. The English, however, saw that it would be more advantageous to them to have one or two large free ports, where the natives could come and bring their goods; and by the treaty of 1824 the Indian disputes of the English and Dutch were definitely settled, on the principle that the l^iglish should keep the mainland, and the Dutch the islands. All the Dutch possessions on the continent, including their numerous set- tlements on the Malabar and Corom;indel coasts, and the port of Malacca, were ceded to England, and the English gave up to the Dutch all their settlements in the islands, England, besides this, obtained the island of Singapore, which, as the center of Englisli commerce, has become one of the greatest marts of the Eastern seas. By this treaty the Dutch possessions were greatly concen- trated; and they were soon extended t)n tlicir new basis. The occupation of the vast island of Sumatra was begun in 1S38 and in 1873 was undertaken the subjugation of the last independent native state, the Sultanate of Atjeh or Achin, in tlic northern cor- ner of the island. The ca^.\ai and the C(>ast districts were soon subdued, but the chiefs of the interior kept up a fanatical resist- ance, rising- in arms again and again after they were tluaight to be subdued, and encouraged fnnn time to time by the temporizing policy of the Dutch, 'i'hcir onrageous but useless struggle is .>iill in progress. In other parts of the archijx'lago le.-s sericus natne resistance has been encountered. In addition to the usu.il cau.-cs of friction between civilized and barbarous people, tlic independent ^lalav states were nests of ])iracy, and tlicir subjecti(in to lun"i pcai control was inc\'it;ible and in(li>iKMisence the raising of crops of certain tr(q)ical goods by the forced labor of the natives, it was long believed that tlie Dutch had succc.-s- fully solved tlie lal)or (juestion for tropical colonies, tliat by direct- ing with European sagacity the labor of tl;e na:!\-es t]icv were able to pav the native sultan a larger revenue tlian he could get for hiniself. { < >ecure a iiiglier degree - i [>:-"~per;iy h.r tiic kib^rer 290 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 and to make a very large return to the mother country. For the period 1840 to 1874 the average surplus thus paid to the Nether- lands is calculated at about $13,000,000 a year, though its exact amount cannot be ascertained. This unearned tribute, for such it really was, induced extravagant expenditure in the Netherlands, with all its attendant economic ills, but in the Indies the evil effects of the culture system were more direct and far more serious. For the native laborer it was a system of corruption and oppression without check or limit. Its undeserved good repute is chiefly due to the book of an Englishman. J. W. B. Money, resident in Cal- cutta, who visited Java in 1858 on a trip for health and pleasure. In his association with European officials and planters and with the native nobility he picked up much rose-colored misinformation, which his ignorance of the Dutch and native languages, and conse- ciuent inability to make any thorough investigation of his subject, did not deter him from giving to the world in two volumes, pub- lished at London in 1861 under the title. "Java: or How to Man- age a Colony." At the time the culture system was undergoing attack in the Netherlands, and its defenders seized on IMoney's book as a party weapon. The wide vogue thus given it, and the comparative ignorance of the Dutch language prevailing in other countries, have perpetuated its historical errors. Not until 1904 was there available in English a thorough and comprehensive ac- count of the economic policy of the Dutch in the East Indies.^ Wc have seen how the Dutch East India Company exacted tribute from the native stales in tlie form of " contingents " or '^ forced deliveries." being payments of certain goods in specified cjuantilies either at a low price or without any compensation what- ever, and how governor Daendels enforced this system in extend- ing the culture of coffee. The energetic luiglish governor, Thomas Stamford Rallies, seeing the abuses inliercnt in the prevailing sys- tem, attempted a radical reform, the snljstitution of a land tax for the contingents and forced deliveries to the European rulers as well as for all other dues and services paid by the people to the native rulers. This reform was never fully carried out, ovv'ing ^Clive Day, "The Policy and Administration of tlie Dutch in Java.'* New York, 1904. The editor is chiefly indebted to Dr. Day's book for the account of the cdturc >y-,lc:ri iicre given. Th.e system is miklly criticiserl in V. Leroy-Beaulitu's ' f'Jr U; c<;;^(..- are frank'y --tatod in A. Zinimerm;uin"s ' Die Kuloiiial/'ulifik drr X icilcrHindcvy Berlin, 100,5. V- -^7- I) t; t c h c: o l o x i a l e m r i r e 291 1800-1910 partly to the temporary character of the Enghsh rule and still more to the fact that the small number of European officials was unable to deal directly or intelligently with the native laborers, but were forced to rely upon the existin.q- native political organization. The native governments represented Oriental despotism at its worst, and were at once weak, corru))t, and oppressive. 'I'he power of resistance had been crushed out of the ])eople; money was scarce, and could be had only of the usurer at ruinous rates of interest. The social organization in some respects resembled that of mediaeval Eu- rope. Taxes were ])aid in goods and services, and the power of the native rulers to exact these was unlimited. Every demand made upon the native organization was passed on to the laborers, with an added burden of corruption and extortion for every official through whose hands it passed. Under such circumstances it was difficult to realize at once the sound ideals of Ranies, while it was fatally easy to revert to the methods of the company. Even dur- ing the English rule the old abuses persisted, and though the Dutch, when the islands were restored to them in 1816, at first accepted the principles which underlay Rafiles' reforms, increased the number of European officials and tried to restrain the abuses inherent in the native organization, a period of reaction began in 1819. Before this it had been found impossible at first to deal with individual laborers in collecting the land tax. anrl as a tcm- p(~)rary device the tax was collected from each village as a whole, and the amount assessed upon each village was fixed by bargain- ing, rather llian upon an}' ])rinciples of justice or the ability to jiay. The settlement of luu'opean ])]anters and nicrcliants was now dis- couraged or prohil)itc(l, tlie liberal tariff policy of tlie I'^ngli.-^h rule w'as reversed, and new restrictions were imjto.ved to favor Dutch commerce, and finally in 18J4 liie Dutch '!"r;uling' Company w.:is chartered for the tr.'ide with the Indies, h w;is to ha\-e no n; >- nopoly rights, no governmental powers. ;ind was forbidden to eii- force cultures ui)on tlie natives. \e\-crtlK'lcss it was significant of reaction in coliMiial polic}'. The king was the chief stockholder, and became a licavy loser by the unsuccessful operations of th.e company in its early years. In the ihird dccule of the last century it seemed absolutely necessary that the 1 )ntc!i ln(li(.'s sIiouKI pay their own way. Tlie increase of coloni^il expen-es b.ad produced a deticit in the Indian budget for i8_'o and the following years, which was greatly in- 292 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 creased by the war with the native Sultan Dipa Negara, ah-eady mentioned, so that the Indian debt guaranteed by the mother- country increased rapidly. The Belgian provinces of the United Kingdom of Holland and Belgium were showing signs of tlie dis- content, which was to result in their revolt and independence in 1830, and objected strenuously to paying for the colonial ventures of Holland, and finally the king, whose power over the colonies was substantially absolute, wished to recoup himself for his heavy losses by the new company. Accordingly Lieutenant General Van den Bosch was sent out as governor general to change the deficit into a surplus, and entered upon his office in Java in 1830. He established the culture system, wdiich was a conscious reversion to the methods of the old East India Company. His plan was that instead of taxes the natives should give the government a certain proportion of their land and of their labor time. These were to be utilized by the growing of valuable export crops under government direction, instead of the comparatively valueless rice, which was the crop usually grown by the natives. The theory w^as that the wise supervision of the government would make more profitable use of the land and labor than could be made by the natives them- selves. It was estimated that the natives would give one-fifth of their time under the new arrangement instead of two-fifths of their crop under the old taxation system, and Van den Bosch put forth his scheme under the guise of a philanthropic plan for their wel- fare. It was pretended that the cultures were to be free, that but one-fifth of tlie land was to be taken for them, and that adequate wages were to be paid the laborers. As a matter of fact the cultures were forced from the first. Soon one-third of tlie land was demanded, and in some districts all the land \vas actually taken, the demands on the labor time of the n;'.tives were without limit, the wages were a miserable pittance paid in debased currencv, and in the event of failure the system of jiiece wages tlirew all the loss on the natives, though the failures were orten due to tlie blunders of the government clerks, who re- quired the cultures to be conducted in unsuitable places or at im- proper seasons. Food crops necessary to the subsistence of the people were often displaced by the forced cultures, and the laborer ^vas rjftcn required to transport his product long distances to the government warehouses. T-^scape from these burdens was re- strained by a passport system designed to chain the laborer to the DUTCH COLONIAL EMPIRE 293 1600-1910 soil. The culture system was not uniform, imposing heavy burdens in one locality and light ones in another, while a third might be en- tirely exempt. Further, it was accompanied by an increase in the forced services for public works and the gratification of the private wants of the officials. These, both European and native, were stim- ulated by premiums on the products to increase the output, and used their power for tyranny and extortion withoiU mercy. The abject laborers had no means of escape save death by famine and pesti- lence or flight from the land. The government returned to the policy of m(3no])oly, discouraging private planters who might com- pete wuth it. and granting to the lOutch Trading Company the exclusive right to export the products of the forced cultures. The system was extended to the nortliern part of the Celebes and the west coast of Sumatra, but it was most widely prevalent in Java, though even there it occupied but a small ])roportion of the cleared lands. 'J"he only cultures profitable to the government were coffee, sugar, and indigo; but tea. tobacco, cinnamon. cochinc;il. pepper, silk, and cotton were tried. The profit on coffee, amounting to four-fifths of the whole net revenue, was due to a change in the price of the article in Europe. That a system so oppressive could endure so long was due to the reactionary conservatism prevailing in tlie Xetlicrlands. and the absolutism of the government in the Indies. In tlic home countrv ministers of ttie Crowti were not rcs])ons:l)ic to the lc.'::i>- lature. and the king had exclusive control oi" tlie C'llonies. In ihc islands strict secrec}' was preserved : the ])ro>s \\ as unticr rigid government regulations, and most of the l''-i;ropc;in> were in tiic government service. Under these circumstances tlie public in the Netherlands remained in ignorance of colonial aflairs. Tlic gen- eral European revolution of 1S4S \\'a-^ rollccted in ])c:icci'nl constitutional reforms in Holland, whereby ministers were miido responsi!)le to the U-gi-latnre, iiie tranchi-e was broadened, lil;- erl\- of the i)re^s and I'f worsliij) \*erc guarantceil. and t'le go\-- ernmeiit of the colonic- N\as t" he regulated !}' law. Eihei'a.ls entered the secoiiil chanilu'r a;id w vTc nihghtL'ned as i. U'c e\"il C' 'U- ditions in the Intlies by one uf their iiuniher. r);ir>>n \an lloe\-eil. who had recentU' rciurned from a f 'Ug re>Klence in Ja\a. lii tS;4 the chambirs c'\erci>e(l their new powers b;/ ])assing. wiih the kinu"'-^ a->eni. the " Uegulatit iii- for the g. 'WTmnenr ^f Xethi"!- landb India,"' which, wiii; -mi" anieii'lMieni-. are >::ii in Uj\w. 294 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 They declare the objects of Dutch rule to be greater freedom of the press, abolition of slavery, education of the natives, encouragement of European planters, regulation of native services, etc., and pro- pose the reform of the abuses of the culture system and its ultimate abolition. Coincidently with the growth of liberalism at home, the worst abuses of the system began to be reformed in the Indies, and the reforms were accelerated by the colonial constitution of 1854, but in its main features the system was maintained and could be abolished only by the direct interference of the home government. The impulse to this was supplied by the novel " Max Havelaar ; or the Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company," published in i860 by Edouard Douwes Dekker, under the pseudonym of Mul- tatuli. Dekker, as an " assistant resident " in the Indian service, had seen the abuses of the forced culture, and his indignant exposure of them shocked the humanity of the Dutch people and forced the reform of the system to the front as an issue in Dutch politics. In 1870 the reformers won the victory, passing the '"' agrarian law '' to safeguard native rights and encourage European planters. Gov- ernment cultures were still permitted, but were gradually abolished until only that of coffee remains, v/hich now produces only one- third of the total coft'ee crop and seems destined to extinction. The European planters had great difficulty at first in securing laborers for their plantations, and had to apply to the native chiefs to in- duce their people to work a survival of forced services in another form. They have also relied upon contracts for long terms of service, whereby an advance is paid to the laborer and he becomes irrevocably bound for the full term of service, which is limited by law to five years. These contracts are minutely regulated by law, and must be publicly recorded. The government seeks to protect the native in his dealings with Europeans and Chinese l^y asserting its absolute ownership of all the soil, save such portions as it has granted to individuals, prohibiiing its sale and restricting all leases (jf clize of a Xeu' England county, :\nd in Java lias an :r.-err,:;-c i^opuJation of abcnit 1,000,000. Assistant resider.ts exercise vM the functioiis of the resident. excci)t that of legislation, in tlieir ,-everal districts. L'nder them are the controleuis. who are in clo.-o touch with the nati\e officials and arc, therefore, verv infiuential upon tlic policy of their superiors. The naii.xs are go\-erned through native officials, regents, district iicads or v."c(l(jnos, and r.iidcr-district heads. T!ie regents are apj)oinit.'i: by the guv-enicr '^cikmmI from the nat;\'e nobilitv. tt.-tially tipt.n t'ric principle 01 lierc/iitary succession, with, authoritv c)ver distriris usr.ally c irroporuiing in size with those of the assistant resident <. 'Idicir subordinate-, the district heads, are !^9G COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800 1910 appointed upon the advice of the regents, but are directly subject to the Dutch ofificials. The two nominally independent principali- ties of Soerakarta and Djokjokarta are controlled as protectorates, through trusted native officers, in whose hands, rather than witli the princes, the real power lies. The native officials are paid by the colonial government and treated with great consideration. Below them stand the headmen of the villages, chosen by the vil- lagers, subject to the approval of the colonial government. They are important officers of police, and administer the village com- munal system, and with them the colonial government deals in apportioning the land tax, but they are not paid by the government. The outposts or outlying possessions are administered by officials of various titles upon a system approximating to that of Java and Madura. All officers, European and native, look to the governor general for direction and control. Centralization is complete. There is no local government except the native village organization, and no provision for local representation of Europeans or natives by appointive councils, such as are usually found in British Crown colonies. In the administration of justice Europeans are under Dutch law and European judges, while natives are subject to their own customs as applied by courts in which their chiefs share the judicial power. The home government, through its minister of the colonies, controls the governor general, and since the estab- lishment of telegraphic communication allows him less and less freedom of action. The States General has the power to establish and amend the colonial constitution, to settle a few specific ques- tions, and to legislate for the colonies in case of necessity. This last power is little exercised. Most colonial legislation is enacted by the minister of the colonies alone, to whom has fallen the for- mer power of the Crown in this behalf, and in practice his re- sponsibility to the States General, which takes little interest in colonial questions, is ineffective as a check upon him. Thus cen- tralization, w^hich is the great f;iult of the Dutch colonial adminis- tration is carried one step further. The Stales General has retained ctjnu'ol of the colonial budget and passes upon it annually. Chapter XVII MINOR EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS. 1S00-T910 THE history of the Danish island of St. Thomas is quite nn- hke that of any other part of the West Indies. Dnrin- the troubled times which succeeded the French Revolution the loss of most of the American colonies was g-enerally the gain of St. Thomas. The island has one of the finest harbors in the West Indies, and the neutrality of Denmark made St. Thomas an important place in time of war. In 1755 the Danish Company was bought up by the government : and its trade had become so considerable that after the Definitive Treaty it was made a free port. During the wars of the French Revolution, St. Thomas continued to thrive faster and faster, but Denmark could now no longer maintain its neu- trality, and the Danish W^st Indies came twice into possession of the English (1801-1802 and i8o7-[8i5). St. Thomas tlourished more and more during the wars between Spain and her col(^nies; and it even paid a large yearly tribute to the mother country long after the other West Indian colonies had been hanging like a dead weight upon Europe. Denmark, first among all nations, abolished the slave trade in 170-'. and the abolition of slaxcry in 1848 was effected without disaster, but by the opening of all the other islands to general trade St. Thomas, of course, graduall}- lost much of its peculiar jiosition in the West Indies. It was not exempt from the calamities which often befall th(jse islands, and. after an usually heavy visitation of ])cstilence. carth([nake. and hin-ricane in 1867, the J3anish (l(\-crnment. unal)lo to obtain tlicir tribnle, and be- lieving the island to be utterly ruined. dtYered it. togotlier with the adjoining island of St. John, to the I'nitod .States f'lr 87.300,000. This bargain, howexer, \va< nc\-cr n ini])li."n.'d : a .-oo' aid treaty of sale to the I'nitcd States, signcil Januar}- J4. kjoj. failed (jf ratifica- tion in the Danish Landsthing, and the i>lands still remain Danish. Denmark also posses-es in tlie We^t Indies the little inland of St. Croix, near tlie X'irgin Islands in the Leeward groti]\ which was bought of the French in 1733 ' ''"d in the iiL'rth Atlantic tlie de- J>98 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 pendencies of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands, with a total population of about 100,000. The population of the Danish West Indies is about 30,000, mostly negroes engaged in the pro- duction of sugar. The tiny Swedish island of St. Bartholomew, bought of the French in 1784, and at once made into a free port, rose and fell in much the same way as St. Thomas. With the es- tablishment of free trade in the rest of the W^est Indies, St. Bart's ceased to be worth keeping. In 1868 the Swedish Parliament re- solved to sell it. It was ceded to France in 1878 and is now a dependency of the French island of Guadeloupe. Of the Portuguese possessions in Asia there remain only the ancient trading stations of Goa, Daman, and Diu, on the Malabar coast of continental India; the island and town of Macao at the mouth of the Canton River in China, and the eastern part of the island of Timor in the ]\Ialay Archipelago, with the neighboring island of Pulo Cambing. Their total population is about 900,000, whereof more than one-half is in Goa and one-third in the Alalay Archipelago. The Portuguese settlements in Africa are equally insignificant, and have undergone little change since they were first made in the fifteenth and sixteen centuries. They are : the Cape Verde Islands, off the northwest coast; Portuguese Guinea, on the coast of Senegambia, cut off from the interior by the sur- rounding French territory ; the islands of Principe and St. Thome, in the Gulf of Guinea; Angola, on the Atlantic south of the Congo Free State, and Portuguese East Africa, on the coast of the Indian Ocean, north of Zululand. Only the two last mentioned have extensive area and numerous population. After centuries of neg- lect Portugal made some feeble efforts in the last quarter of the nineteenth century to effectively occupy tlie interior and connect lliese two coast colonies by a broad dominion spanning the con- tinent from east to west, but the hour of her fate had passed, and iuiglish energy seized, and holds, the vast regions watered by tlie ujiper cotn-ses of the Zambesi and Shire. What is left to Portugal is still a vast domain, with an area of about 800,000 miles on both coasts, and a population of 7,000.000. Her other African I)osscssioiis aljove mentioned together have an area of about Cooo square mile.-, and a population of a little less than 1,000,000, most of which is in Guinea. In Brazil the Portuguese have founded a new natif/n of tlicir race and speech, but its independent (lc\-elop- MINOR POSSESSIONS 299 1800-1910 nient belongs to Soutli American history. Its independence was one result uf the wars of the French Revolution. Upon tlie in- vasion of Portugal by Napoleon the royal family fled acnjss the Atlantic and set up the court in Brazil. After their power was restored in Portugal the Brazilians refused to again bow t(j the colonial yoke, but chose a prince of the royal house as their em- peror. This independent American monarchy gave way to a republic in 1S89. The islands of the .Azores and Madeira are organized as integral parts of the Portuguese kingdom. Continental America was lost to Spain in consequence of the Napoleonic wars, as we have seen, and when Spain failed to re- conquer lier revolted colonies the warning of the L'nited States, expressed by President Monroe, su])]iortcd by the interests and sympathy of England. ]M-evented tlie Ib^ly .Mliance of Iuiro])caii ])ovv"ers from intervcni!':g to recstiiblish absolutism in the v/estern hemisphere. The rcv(3lt oi the Spanisli-American states inaugu- rated their subsequent independent career in Mexico antl South Airierica. The war ui the L'nited States with Spain in 189S. end- ing in tlie cession of Cuba, Porlo Rico, tlie riiilii)})ines. and Cir.am to the Americans, completed the ruin of tlie colonial empire of Spain, and created tliat of tlie L'nited Stales, under wliic'i liead we will give the history of the^e possessions in tlic niiictcen.th cen- tui'}-. Th.e treat}' with Ciermany of l-"cbru;iry .'^\ r^oo, ceded to that power all tlie remaining Spanish islands in the P;icihc, and left, oi the great col(~'tiial empire upon which tlie ii>ns in Africa: Rio de Oro and .Vrdar. stretching ^^o miles along tlie cotist of the Sahcirti from Alorocco to i-'rcncli Senegal: Rio Muni and C;q)e San Juan, ico miles on t!ic (inine;i coa^t. hcmiriv-cl in i.)y t'le < lerman Kamerun on the north and l)y Lrench Congo to t.'i'.- east ;ind soutli; with the nciglihoring islands < i l-ernando L'o. .\-:i;ai)iin. C(>r>ico. ldobc\\ a!id San Jti;:n: ail t< gCMH-i' lia\ing ;i pi'inilanon of \2z,x)oo. The C".'in:irv !^l:lnd^ tire tidmlnistered ;l^ :' part of Spain and not as ;i dependenc\\ The Congo Free Sinte is essenti;dly >m.-.--v'S a Wi-t region ((;'\),o:V) .-(jiiare mile- I. r'l i' in nattiral rc-'^nrcc-. \\;ili a iiatix'C population of 30,- 300 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-191Q 000,000. It owes its origin and powers to international agree- ments. Germany and Italy were late comers in the field of colonial empire. Each attained national unity only in the third quarter of the last century, and seriously entered upon a policy of expan- sion about twenty years ago, moved alike by their new sense of national self-consciousness and national pride, to which the Ger- mans added the substantial interests of missionary and commer- cial activity. In method they differed most widely. The rashness of the Italians on the Red Sea littoral brought them into conflict with Abyssinia, the strongest of all native African states, and their crushing defeat at Adowa on March i, 1896, put an end to Italian expansion. The Germans proceeded with scientific thoroughness and diplomatic skill, and have encountered no native organization capable of very serious resistance, though they have experienced the usual difficulties of native wars, like that in southwest Africa, which are, in fact, difficulties in finding the native enemy, rather than in defeating him when found. The Italian possessions on the Red Sea, organized as the colony of Eritrea, extend from the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb northwestward about 670 miles along the coast, embracing an area of 88,000 square miles, with a popu- lation of 450,000. From the straits southward and eastward the coast of the Gulf of Aden is occupied by French Somaliland and the British Somali Coast Protectorate. Thence eastward about 150 miles on the Gulf of Aden to Cape Guardafui, and southward for 1000 miles on the Indian Ocean to the boundary of British East Africa the coast region is occupied by Italian Somaliland, with an area of 100.000 square miles and a population of 400,000. This, like Eritrea, is bounded toward the interior by Abyssinia. German Africa consists of: Togoland. between the French colony of Dahomey and the British Gold Coast colony, narrowing to a frontage of 32 miles on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, witli an area of 33.000 square miles, and 900.000 inhabitants; Kamcrun. a wedge-shaped territory between British Nigeria and French Congo, broadening toward the interior from its coastal frontage of 199 miles on the Bight of Biafra, and including a narrow north- ern extension to Fake Chad, with a total area of 191,000 square miles rmd ;i ])Mj;nlaiir,n nf 350,000: German West Africa, occupy- ing 93(j miles uf the Ail;iiuic coast, exclusive of the British holding MINOR POSSESSIONS 'Mn 1800 1910 at Walfisli Bay, from the PortUf;iicsc colony of Angola southward to the boundary of Cape Colony, at the Orange River, with an area of 322,000 square miles and 200,000 inhabitants; German East Africa, with a coast line of 620 miles on the Indian Ocean between Portuguese East Africa and British East Africa, extend- ing inland westward to Lakes Xyassa and Tanganyika, and north- westward to Lake Victoria, having an area of 384,000 square miles GERMAN TERRITORY IN THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE and a population of 6,750,000. In addition tlie Germans have a foothold on the mainland of Asia and extensive po?sessii:)ns in the Pacific. The former was obtained by their seizure of the port and bay of Kiau-Chau on the east coast of the province of Shan-tung in November, 1897. upiMi tlie ]M-etext of avenging outrages upon German missionaries. Germany had joinctl Russia and France in coercing Japan to forego the fruits of her victory over Cliina in 1895, and this was doubtless her wages for that service, and the 302 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1800-1910 Chinese Government was easily forced to concede to Germany, in March, 1898, a lease of the district for ninety-nine years. Forth- with the territory was organized as a protectorate under a naval officer as governor. Its area is 200 square miles and its population 60,000, and it is surrounded on the landward side by a neutral zone of 2500 square miles with 1,250,000 inhabitants. The Ger- mans entered upon the development of their new possession with characteristic thoroughness, improving the harbor, securing con- cessions for railways and coal mines in the neighboring territories, and planning for the establishment of a self-governing European settlement ; but the unexpected military and naval strength of Japan, and her victory over Russia, make it certain that further German expansion in China is not to be hoped for, German activity in the Pacific goes back to the first year of colonial expansion. In 1884 the northeastern part of New Guinea (Kaiser Wilhelm's Land), with the neighboring Bismarck Archipelago, was annexed, and in 1885 the Marshall Islandsw Upon the destruction of the .Spanish empire in the Pacific by the cession cf the Philippines and Guam to the United States, its rem- nants, the Caroline Islands, Pelew Islands, and Marianne or Ladrone Islands were purchased by Germany. All these acquisi- tions, with the Solomon Islands, near the Bismarck Archipelago, gave the Germans extensive and fairly continuous possessions in the western Pacific. The two largest islands of the distant Samoan group, v\here German commercial interests had long been of im- portance, were added in 1899- 1900 by an agreement with the United States and Great Britian which terminated the tripartite control previously exercised in Samoa by thic three powers. The total ;irea of tliese possessions is about 96,000 square miles, with 427,000 inhabitants, of which Kaiser Wilhelm's Land and the Bismarck /.rchipelago together contribute 90.000 square miles and nearly 300.000 inhabitants. All lie within the tropics, and their govern- ment and develoj)ment is still a heavy charge upon the imperial treasury, with the promise of only moderate returns after many years of effort. In a very brief period Germany, from having no colonies at all, rose to the third place amcMig colonial powers, measured by the num- ber of subjects in her dependencies. The first machinery for their government was the cliartered commercial company, but this sev- enteenth century dc\-ice soon gave way to direct imperial control, MINOR POSSESSIONS 303 1800 1910 except in the Marshall Islands. 1'his step was finally taken in New Guinea in 1899. Togoland and Kamerun were under direct imperial control from the first. Authority in each colony is cen- tralized in the hands of the governor, who is commander in chief and chief judge of the court of last resort, and is rcsponsihle to the colonial department of the imperial foreign office and through it and the chancellor to the emperor. A colonial council of ex- perts summoned by the chancellor advises him in colfjnial affairs. Commercially the colonies enjoy the treatment accorded by the mother country to the most favoretl nation. Colonial tariffs are low and upon a revenue basis, and by international agreements some of the African possessions enjcn' full freedom of trade. Sub- sidized steamship lines keep u]) communication v.ith Germany, but the volume of colonial trade has disappointed the hopes of the expansionists, in res])ect to both production and consumpticm. The native is not eager to work or to buy German goods, and German opinion is leaning toward the policy of compelling him to the former. Tti colonial administration Cjcrmany is distinguished by reliance upon scientific training and tliorough knowledge, by main- tenance of rigid discipline, the ])crpctuatioii (n the social castes ol the home land, and by the usupJ fruilts of bureaucrac}-. The Ger- man emigrant leaves tlic fatherland to escajic this kind of govern- ment, and chooses the I'nited States or Soutli America for settle- ment, rather than the col'Miies. Tn the first case lie is absorljcd in Anglo-Sax'ondom, and in tlie last the power of tlic l.'nited Stptcs. ;i!id tiicir ])olioy of excluding luirojK\'in interference in the west- ern licmisjjliere, in accordance with tlie ?\lonroc Doctrine, forbids the csiabhslimcnt of German so\-ercignty o\'or German settlements. In cither caionists. I'lie coloni;'! ci\il ^ci'xice is fairiv free from f;i\oritisiii in aiiMojntmeiit and ]iromoai()n and is sni)jcct to rigi'I discii'ihne. Academic (]n:ili:'i- cations were at tir>L much en crxalia'il. bnt in iSog a ^pcci-il color,ial school was founded at Witzcnliansen. near (^'utingcn. i"V tl'c prac- tical training of cxijcns in coli mial gownmicnt an.! exploitation. The exjiansion of l\n^-ia ca^tw.ard o\ or nortiicrn Asia and tlic cfilonial acti\'ity o\' Japrni in l-'orniosa d'l m ! c 'Uic witliin tlie scope (->f tiiis \-olunic. To complete the story of ITirojican colonization we ninh Xnrtli America liad been nciitrali/cil by agreement. but the growing ])(3wor of Canada. wIm-o nirn'M \\:i< forming wln'le the Alaskan treat \' was nink;!- ncL;' ;i:>iii n. was a menace \<)\- tiic future and cession to the I'niled Siaie-^ an ea>y and j)r(jlitable way out of the threatened danger. Tlie linie aCo was pri.>pitious. the charter of the Russian America.n Ccnipany ha\ i:ig expired in 1861, as was tlie temper and pc)licy of tlie man to wlunn the foreign affairs of the United States were coininitteil. William 11. Seward, Sccre- tarv of Sta.te tmder kre-idenis LiiiC"!:! and j.'hn^L'n. wa> by teni- peranieni and e''n\icti''n an ardeni expaii.-i^ 'in.-i. and enilinsia.-Tii- S06 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 cally anticipated the time when all the North American continent and even more remote regions would belong to the United States. The purchase of Russian America had been discussed in 1859 and an offer of $5,000,000 made for the territory. The friendly rela- tions of the two nations during the Civil War and pending negotia- tions as to fishing rights and the fur trade led to a renewal of the project in 1867. Negotiations for the purchase were begun at Washington in March of that year, the treaty was signed on the 30th, and ratifications exchanged June 20. The price was $7,200,000 in gold, the area of the ceded territory 590,000 square miles, and the population probably about 30,000, for the most part Esquimaux and Indians. The Senate and the country were taken by surprise when the treaty was negotiated, and the new acquisi- tion was received witli not a little ridicule, which might have been fatal to the project, but for the general desire to please Russia. The third article of the treaty secured to the inhabitants, except the uncivilized native tribes, admission to the enjoyment of all the rights of citizens of the United States and the free enjoyment of their liberty, property, and religion, but nothing was said of incorporation in the Union. Seward's expansion policy does not seem to have included any well-considered scheme for the govern- ment of distant dependencies, but the usual territorial organiza- tion was ill-suited to this vast region, distant 500 miles by sea, with a white population of insignificant numbers. Congress, there- fore, in 1868, merely extended the revenue laws to Alaska, regu- lated the fur trade and the fisheries, and gave to the federal district courts of California and Oregon and the territorial district courts of Washington jurisdiction of cases arising there. The Act of May 17, 1S84, established the "civil and judicial district of Alaska," under a governor appointed by the President and exercising execu- tive p^uer, with a district court for judicial business. Congress retained the legislative power in its own hands and extended to the district the existing general laws of Oregon so far as they were locally apj.ilicable. This form of government was substantially preserved by the Act of June 6, 1900, which also provided a civil code and a code of civil procedure. A penal code was enacted by Congress March 3, 1899. For many years the only considerable industries of Alaska v/ere the fislicries and the fur trade. To prevent the threatened extinction of the fur seal the United Stares claimed exchtsivc juris- i; .\ 1 T El) S T A T K S :;07 18b7-1910 diction over the waters of Berinp^ Sea, and seized several British vessels engaged in sealing there. The resulting controversy was settled by arbitration, in 1893, adversely to the claims of the United States, and the methods of seal killing were regulated by agree- ment, in order to preserve the seals. At the time of its purchase the population of tb.c new tcrriiory was small, and the census of 1880 showed a total of 33.426, of wh<.m only 430 were whites. In 1890 the figures were 32,052 and 4,298. and in 1900, 63.592 and .30,493 respectively. The increase was due to the influ.x of miners to the gold fields. Gold was first discovered in quantity in 1880 upon a tributary of the Yukon (Forty Mile Creek) near the Can- adian border. In 1896 diggings of great richness were opened in Canadian territory on another tributary, the Klondike. A great inrush of gold-seekers followed. The only available approach to these Canadian gold fields was by sea to the licad of Lynn Canal: thence overland through Alaskan Territory. The Canadians now set up a claim that the international bmnii- .-i' 'ii was f-irmed to ;iilji'.~-*- ;dl differences l^etween Canada and tiie C-ii;cd State^^_. btii no com- promise of tlie ([iie>tion wa- crfecled. ; tl^e e. iiii;ni--iiin ;idi",".rning in 1S99. A nuxlus -riri'i^di. Ica\-ing tlie e-^-cinip.l ii'irtiem ,> tli- terri- tory in dis])tite in the hands of the Cnited St;i:es, was agre; il up m Octolu'r 20, 1891); a treaty being signed Jan;:ary 24, T003. jirovi.l- ing for tlie settlenaent I)>' a comniis--io!i <^f six jurisls. tliree 10 -be appointed bv each part-v'. This commi<>ion, 1 .n ( etober 20. J'W},. determi'ied in fa\or of the Cnited States. On lamiarv 18, loio. hili^ wre intr "l-ieod in the Senate, cmliody- ing tlie President's Ala-kan recommcnd^a.tiein-. The 'ieci~nd outl\-ing been more fanidiar tlian any (^ther to bairopean sailnr<. and 308 COLONIES OF THE WORLD ISb? 1910 French settlers were among the first to take up their abode in a climate which proved peculiarly inviting to Europeans, For three or more generations, Europeans and Americans have been set- tling in the Sandwich Islands; and by the operation of what seems an unfailing natural law the native race has been all this time quickly diminishing. Long since it was obvious that the Sand- wich Islands must at no very distant time become a purely Euro- pean colony, and French politicians lost no opportunity of attempt- ing to secure the upper hand. Their chief obstacle lay in the influence of the American Protestant missionaries, who began their labors in the islands in 1820. The leanings of the reigning family of the Kamehamehas were rather American than French ; and the first constitution, promulgated in 1840, w^as revised in 1852, on the most liberal scale, granting free suffrage and dividing the legislature into two houses. This gave a decided preponderance to American principles and interests. In 1842, Daniel Webster, then Secretary of State, officially recognized the independence of the Hawaiian kingdom and declared " as the sense of the Government of the United States that the Government of the Sandwich Islands ought to be respected ; that no power ought to take possession of the islands either as a conquest or for the purpose of colonization ; and that no power ought to seek for any undue control over the existing government, or any exclusive privileges or preferences in matters of commerce." - This declaration was needed to protect the islands from seizure by European powers. American commercial and missionary in- terests were preponderant there and would suffer if exclusive privi- leges were given to any other power. The policy thus declared was affirmed in President Tyler's message to Congress of Decem- ber 30, 1842. Nevertheless the provisional cession of the islands to Great Britain was forced in the following February, where- upon the American minister to England was instructed that the United States might feel justified in interfering by force to prevent their falling by conquest into the hands of a European power. On July 31 the British admiral withdrew his forces, and in the same year France and England recognized the native government and agreed never to take possession of the country directly or indi- rectly. To the colonial ambitions of France the islands remained -Wharton, "Digest of International Law of the United States/' 2 ed.. vol. i- 417- UNITED STATES 309 1867 1910 nevertheless a tempting prize. As early as 1839 a French naval force had by threats of war interfered in behalf of Roman Catholic missionaries, and in 1850 and the following years French intrigues in the islands called forth vigorous diplomatic remonstrance from the United States, Secretary of State Marcy going so far as to indicate, as the ultimate destiny of the country, annexation to the United States, which by the settlement of the Oregon boundary in 1846 and the cession of California in 1848, had acquired new com- mercial and military interests in the Pacific. Soon after the establishment of the second empire in France, the princes of the Sandwich Islands visited Europe. They felt highly complimented by the attentions of so important a monarch as Napoleon III,, and permitted him to dispatch some French poli- ticians to take the command of their affairs at home. These men were in constant communication with the subtle emperor ; and, incredible as it may seem, there is no doubt that he planned a coup d'etat in the Sandwich Islands with the same views as the more famous and disastrous one of Mexico. No sooner were the States of America involved in the Civil War than the French poli- ticians, taking advantage of the opportune death of King Kame- hameha IV., induced his successor to forcibly abolish the old liberal constitution in 1864 and promulgated a new one on a far narrower basis, disfranchising all the floating population and Chinese. Trivial though this stroke of policy may seem to Europeans, it was disastrous in its effects on the Sandwich Islands. The people soon l)egan to clamor for the constitution of 185J, and on the death in 1872 of the last of the Kamehamehas, a kinsman of that family was elected on the understanding that the constitution should be restored. One of the first measures of King Lunalik/s short reign was to establish friendly relations with the United States, and U) invite the Americans to construct a dockyard and fix here a ])crniancnt naval station, so that tlie "Latin protectorate'' was at an end as regards the Sandwich Islands. Lunalili) died l\'bruary 3, 1874. and Kalakaua was elected to the throne b\' the legislature. lie soon visited the United States, and in 1875 a treaty of reciprocity betucen the two coun- tries was framed, the chief feature of which was the free admission of Hawaiian sugar to tlie American market. The treaty was in fiH'thcrancc of Americ;in t laMiti' )n:'.l pijlic}' toward the islands. an(j, 111 Mw itli-tandiiiL!' liic Muni ^-itii .n of j)roieotcd i]Hcre~t> in th.e L'nitcd 310 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 States, was duly ratified and in 1887 was renewed and enlarged. In the last named year the progressive party secured from the king the grant of a new constitution, depriving the Crown of legislative power, making members of the house of nobles elective and the ministry responsible to the legislature. Kalakaua's sister Liliuoka- lani succeeded to the throne upon his death in 1891. She adopted a reactionary policy and in January, 1893, contemplated the promulgation of a new constitution, disfranchising foreigners and restoring the royal power. The American element thereupon de- throned the queen by a bloodless revolution, an American naval force having been landed in Honolulu, organized a provisional government, which was immediately recognized by the American minister, and applied for annexation to the United States, w'hose minister proclaimed a protectorate over the islands on February 9. A treaty of annexation was sent to the Senate by President Harrison, but was withdrav^-n by President Cleveland soon after his inauguration in ]\Iarch. A special commissioner was sent to the islands to investigate the circumstances of the revolution and the participation of the American forces therein, and upon his report that its success was wholly due to the landing of American troops the President refused to again submit the treaty, and opened negotiations witli l.iliuokalani for the restoration of the status existing before the revolution on condition of complete amnesty for those participating in it. To this neither the queen nor the provisional government would consent. Tlie American protectorate was withdrawn and the Hawaiian republic maintained itself for four years as an independent nation, but upon the re- turn of the Republican party to power in the United States a new treaty of annexatioi"! \\as negotiated and submitted to tlie Senate June ]f\ 1897. it met with determined opposition, and its ratification by tlie Senate could not be obtained. The outbreak of tlic Spani>h-.\meric;'n \A'ar in .\pril. 1898. c;nnc opjiortunely in the aid of ilic annexationists. Hawaii offered tlie use of the harbor of Honolulu to the American naval and military forces, and replied to tlie remonstr;ince oi" Spain h\- declaring tliaL the island republic had no intention of remaining neutral. The precedent set in the case of ^fcxas was now followed by the passage of a joint resolu- tion of Congress in July, aniicxing tlie isl'inds to the Cnitcd States. In T900 a gincrnaiv; nt wa- e^lab!i^^.ed r.f the regular 'l"er]"it()rial t">'oe. with a L''o\-ernor. who must ])c a riti/en of tlie i-lanfls. :\n'\ UNITED STATES 311 1867-1910 judges of the Territorial courts appointed by the president, a legis- lature of two houses elected by voters qualified by ability to speak, write, and read the English or Hawaiian language, and an Ha- waiian delegate in Congress. The customs laws of the United States were also extended to the islands. These institutions are adapted to the ultimate incorporation of Hawaii into the Union as a State, but the mixed character of the population makes the wis- dom of such a step questionable. By the census of 1900, out of a total of 154,001 the nativ^e Hawaiians were 29,834, part Hawaiians 7835, Chinese 25,742, Japanese 58,500, whites, of whom a ma- jority in 1890 were Portuguese, 28,533. There is an excellent system of schools and ninety-eight per cent, of the children are in- structed in the English language. The main industry is sugar- making for the American market. Since the appointment on June 25, 1907, of Chief Justice W. F. Frear as governor of Hawaii, the administration of affairs has been attended by nothing o impor- tance. On February i(), 1909, arrangements were cora])leted for the establishment of a large military station in Hawaii. This is second only to the one in the Philippines. Pearl Harbor was finally selected as the most desirable location for this station, on November ii^ 1909. W'ithin a year the United States accpiired direct sovereignty or temporary control over extensive tropical regions with a popula- tion of about 10,000,000. Though the war with Spain was caused by questions concerning Cuba, its most notable results were in the old Spanish East Indies, consisting of the Philippine Islands. We have seen how these islands were discovered by the Portu- guese Magalhaes, while in the Spanish service. They were con- quered by Legaspi for Spain in T565 nnd the years immediately following. W'ithin fort}- years tlie natives, except the Moham- medans of the southern islands and tlie ^vihl lril)es of the remote interior, were Christianized and civilized. This success was due in part to the lack of any strong social or religious bond among them and the cor!d)ination of daring and coiiciliition by wdiich the Spaniards tnrnod the natixe v/eakricss to their own purposes. These purposes were cliicnv religions, anrl the methods used were not unlike those employed in the missions of California and Paraguav. The na lives were gathered into villages (piicblos) under ihe guidance and control of tiie friars, who 312 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-J910 permitted no intrusion by Europeans or intercouse with them. Each family paid a tribute of eight reals, about one dollar, and in addition the natives were subject to a certain amount of forced labor on public works, but the clergy resolutely and effectively stood between them and the Spanish rulers, securing their general humane treatment, supervising agriculture and administering works of education and charity. Their rule in the pueblos was mild but despotic. For the most part they were " regular " clergy, /. e., friars belonging to some one of the great orders, and were bitterly jealous of the " seculars." The chief ecclesiastical author- ity in the islands was the archbishop, whose court had jurisdiction of cases arising under the canon law. A commissioner of the Holy Inquisition also resided in the islands for the maintenance of the true faith. Other high ecclesiastical officers were three bishops and the heads of the great orders of friars, Augustinians, Francis- cans, Jesuits, Dominicans, and Recollets. Their power and influ- ence over the civil organization was very great. The latter was modeled upon the Spanish colonial governments in America, having at its head the governor general, whose autocratic powers were but slightly limited by his obligation to seek the advice of the su- preme court {audiencia) in matters of great importance and by the fear of an official inquiry (residencia) into his conduct by his successor. Under him were the provincial governors (alcaldes may ores) and under them the petty governors {gobernadocillos) of the pueblos. These were natives chosen by their countrymen. Each pueblo was divided into groups of forty or fifty families called barangays. They were survivals of the native clans, and were each under a head man. The few Spanish towns were organ- ized as municipalities. ^^lanila in 1603 was a fortified town with churches and public buildings of stone, a college, hospitals, and other charitable institutions. Something has been said of the trade of the Philippines witli the Mexican port of Acapulco. i\t first commerce was unrestricted. but Spain feared the competition of Chinese silks in her American colonies and adopted protective measures, forbidding in 1587 the shipment (jf CInnese cloths from ^Mexico to Peru, and in 1591 all direct trade between South America and China or the Philip- pines. In 1593 trade wiili Mexico was limited to two ships of 300 tons annually, exports to be not over $250,000, and imports not over .$500,000 ( S500.000 and Si.ooo.ooo respectively after 1734), UNITED STATES 813 1867-1910 and the trade with China was restricted to Chinese merchants. Chinese goods imported into Mexico must be consumed there. Direct trade with Spain by a public vessel was begun in 1766. These restrictions effectually prevented the commercial develop- ment and fiscal independence of the islands. Up to 1784 the deficit in their accounts was made up out of the budget of Mexico. It was inevitable that this system of social and commercial isolation should cease. In the Seven Years' War the English took Manila, but restored it at the peace. In 1785 the monopoly of the trade with Spain was granted to the Royal Philippines Company, and after that time the islands gradually became known to the world. In 1809, during the alliance with England against Napo- leon, an English commercial house was even allowed to establish itself at Alanila; and in 1814 the same liberty was allowed to all foreigners, so that a new era for the islands may be said to have commenced with the present century. The year 1830, which wit- nessed the cessation of the company's charter, was an important epoch in their history. In 1855 four new ports were opened, and in 1869 a reduction in the tariff caused a considerable increase of trade. The change from the missionary to the mercantile spirit undermined the authority and influence of the friars and excited discontent among the natives. In 1780 the government established the system of enforcing the culture of tobacco, indigo, and silk, which it bought at an arbitrary and nominal price and sold in Europe at a profit, thus getting a considerable part of its revenue. Like the culture system of the Dutch in Java, this produced misery among the natives, corrupted the officials, discouraged pri- vate enterprise, and debased the quality of the product. The last of the forced cultures, tobacco, was abolished in 1882. To the discontent arising from economic causes there was added the desire for wider political privileges. The Spanish Con- stitution of 18 12 had granted to tlie Filipinos representation in the Spanish Cortes, and the restoration of absolutism in Spain in 1814 was the signal for a revolt in the islands. The opening of the Suez Canal brought with it closer commercial connections with Europe, and young men from the islands sought education at the European universities, chief among them being the distinguished author and ])liysician, Jose Rizal. Thus the reform movement found stimulus anil leadership, but it yet lacked organization. ALasonic lodii'cs, lir^l instituted in i8()0, became centers of anti- 314 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 clericalism and the Philippine League was created to seek political reforms by legitimate means. After the Revolution of 1868 the Spanish people seemed at length to be awakening to the necessity of doing something to pre- serve their colonies. The republican minister, Moret, in 1870 formed a scheme for teaching Philippine officials the native language, as well as something of the Indian and colonial policy pursued by England and Holland. But the abuses of which the natives complained were not reformed, and for discontent the obsolete Spanish system had no remedy save repression. In 1872 a conspiracy of the native troops was discovered, and on suspicion of implication therein many Filipinos of influential families were punished by execution or banishment. The malcontents then organized a secret society, the Katipunan or League, which plotted revolution and aimed to expel the friars from the islands and con- fiscate their lands. The Spaniards got news of the plot against them. In 1892 they banished Rizal and in 1895 and 1896 hun- dreds of other natives shared his exile. Nevertheless the natives rose on August 19, 1896, under the leadership of Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Aguinaldo, and committed fearful atrocities upon the friars who fell into their hands, for which the Spaniards retaliated with barbarous ferocity, one instance of which was the execution of Rizal, who had been under close surveillance in the island of Mindanao and had had no opportunity to communicate with the insurgents. The rebels had taken the Spaniards by surprise, but were in great need of arms, and in 1897 their organized resistance liad been broken, leaving to Spain the wearing task of hunting down their guerrilla bands. Governor general Primo de Rivera came to terms with their leaders by the so-called Treaty of Biacnabate, December 14, 1897, the exact terms of which are unknown. Aguinaldo and other leaders were to receive a large sum of money and to leave the country, while the natives asserted and the Spaniards denied that reforms were also promised. Aguinaldo and his associates went to Singapore and Hong Kong. Of the sum promised them they received only $400,000, which was after- ward used to carry on the insurrection. No reforms were carried out, and tlie persecution of the native leaders continued, as did the guerrilla warfare. Meanwhile Cuban affairs were approaching a crisis, and in 1897 a representative of the " Philippine Republic," believing war 1867-1910 UNITED STATES 315 between the United States and Spain to be imminent, approached Wildman, the American minister at Hong Kong, with the offer of an offensive and defensive alliance, and a request for arms and ammunition. The offer was declined, but on the actual outbreak of war on April 21, 1898, Aguinaldo had a conference at Singapore on April 24 with Pratt, United States consul at that port, and was by him sent to Hong Kong to arrange with Commodore Dewey, the American naval commander, for cooperation in the Philippines. On ]\Iay i. Dewey entered Manila Bay. destroyed the Spanish fleet without losing a man. and had the citv of ^lanila at the mercy of his guns. On the following day Aguinaldo reached Hong Kong, and on the T^th was sent to "Manila on the IL S. S. McCjiUocJi with Dewey's consent. On his arrival he took command of the insurgents, was permitted by Dewey to arm them from the captured Spanish arsenal at Cavite, got control of the 316 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 province of Cavite, and invested the city of Manila. Not until July was there a sufficient force of American troops to attempt offensive operations on land. On August 13 the city was cap- tured by the forces of the United States and the Filipino army was excluded from it. A peace protocol had already been signed (August 12), providing among other things that the United States should hold the city, bay, and harbor of Manila pending negotia- tions for a treaty of peace. For more than four months more the armies of the United States and of the insurgents maintained the same relative positions, each suspicious of the other. In June, Aguinaldo had organized a government and issued a provisional constitution claiming full independence. In the peace negotiations at Paris the United States demanded the cession of the Philippines, offering $20,000,000 in compensation, and a treaty to that effect was signed on December 10, but met with great opposition in Amer- ica by the so-called " anti-imperialists," many of whom were men of great influence in political life and in unofficial public leadership. They believed that the cession could be made effective only by con- quest, that the purchase of unwilling subjects violated the prin- ciples of the Declaration of Independence, that a democratic republic cannot govern distant dependencies with safety to itself or justice to its foreign subjects, and that all the practical difficulties of the situation would be met by a native government under American protection. The supporters of the administration in reply argued that American sovereignty was necessary to save the islands from anarchy or from seizure by some European power, and was justifiable to secure for the United States the commercial and strategic advantages which would result from their occupa- tion. On December 21, 1898, General Otis was instructed to pro- claim American sovereignty over the Philippines, and the exten- sion of the military government over the whole archipelago. He issued the proclamation January 4, 1899, modifying its terms to conciliate the natives. Aguinaldo replied by a counter-proclama- tion, asserting independence, and soon began preparations for hostilities. In tlie same month the President appointed five com- missioners, headed by Jacob G. Schurman, president of Cornell University, and including the commanders of the military and naval forces, to inquire into conditions in the islands and con- ciliate the natives. On tlie night of Feljruary 4 a collision of outposts led to a UNITED STATES 317 1867-1910 general attack by the natives on the American lines, which was repulsed with great slaughter, and on February 6 the treaty of cession was ratified by the United States Senate. For the war thus begun the United States was inadequately prepared, a large part of their troops being entitled to discharge, so that a new force must be enlisted and transported from America to take their places. In the meantime, Iloilo, Cebu, and other points in the Vis- ayan Islands, between Luzon and Mindanao, together with Jolo in the Sulu Archipelago southwest of Mindanao, had been occupied, and the American lines about Manila and Cavite extended. In October the new army began its forward movement against the natives, whose military strength and political organization was centered in the great plain of central Luzon, between Manila Bay on the south and the Gulf of Lingayen on the north. The Americans were every- where successful, and before the close of November the remnants of the Filipino army and government officers were driven into hiding in the mountains. In December and January their organized forces in Cavite and the adjacent provinces south of ]\Ianila met a like fate. By the end of Alarch garrisons were established in the great island of ]^Iindanao, and the organized native forces in the Visayan Islands scattered. All open resistance was at an end, but a harassing guerrilla warfare, accompanied by the torture and mur- der of friendly natives, dragged on for two years more, Aguinaldo was finally captured on IMarch 2^, 1901, by a native force under General Funston in the guise of a body of rebel troops. On April 2 he took the oath of allegiance to the United States, and on the 19th issued an address to his countrymen counseling submission. The last guerrilla leaders surrendered in April, 1902, and on July 4. 1902, President Roosevelt issued a proclamation granting amnesty to the insurgents, except the Moros of the southern islands, on condition of their taking an oath of allegiance. The United States had first and last sent 123.903 men to the Philip- pines. By October 15, 1903, the American troops had been reduced in number to i 5.5 10. besides a force of native scouts under American officers numbering 4S05, and peace and security were established throughout the archipelago except for local disturbances among the wild ]\loro tribes of the south. These ^Mohammedan tribes had been left a large degree of independence during the Spanish regime under their native sultan-, of whom the Sultan of Jolo or Sulu was the most important. The sultan's rule was nominally despotic, but 318 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 in lact the actual power was in the hands of the dattos, or local chiefs. The Spanish garrison at Jolo was replaced by American troops j\Iay 19, 1899, and General Bates negotiated a treaty with the sultan, who recognized American sovereignty and agreed to suppress piracy in return for a promise of protection, certain monthly payments in money, and a promise that the Sulu Archi- pelago sliould never be transferred to any other power without his consent. By a special clause the United States withheld its ap- proval from the existence of slavery in the islands. In 1902 and 1903 Moro attacks upon American troops engaged in exploration occasioned hostilities on a small scale in the interior of Mindanao, where the Spanish authority had never penetrated. In dealing with all these Mohammedan tribes and with the still more savage heathen tribes of the interior the United States attempted to super- vise and control tribal governments rather than individuals, after the precedent set by dealings with the Indians in America. Ex- perience proved that the Sultan of Jolo was unable to restrain the dattos, or to carry out his agreement, and a new method of govern- ment for the Sulu Moros was established by the Philippine Com- mission (June I, 1903), with the approval of the military com- mander, designed to control the dattos without the intervention of the sultan, and to deal directly with the practice of slavery. General Leonard Wood was selected for military commander and civil governor of Sulu under this statute, and his inauguration of the new government met with resistance from some of the dattos, which was sharply put down. The establishment of civil government in the Christian islands kept pace with the extension of the American military lines. The first Philippine Commission reported on January 31, 1900, in favor of a Territorial government, the largest possible employment of Filipinos in the civil service, and the rigid maintenance of the merit system of appointment and promotion. In March a system of municipal government was created by military order, resting upon tlie suffrage of former village and municipal officeholders, tax- payers, and persons who could speak, read, and write English or Spanish. On April 7 the President appointed a second Philippine commission of five civilians under the presidency of William II. Taft, with legislative power for the islands beginning September 1, 1900. They were to establish a judicial system, provincial and UNITED STATES S19 186r-1910 local governments, promote education, organize a civil service on the lines laid down by the first commission, and report when the central administration could safely be transferred from military to civil control. The provisions of the American Bill of Rights except as to carrying arms and jury trial, were to be enforced. On March I, 1901, the " Spooner Amendment" to the Army Appropriation Bill empowered the President to provide for the government of the Philippines at his discretion. On July 4, 1901, Commissioner Taft was inaugurated as civil governor of the Philippines with executive power over the pacified districts, and on September i, four executive departments, one under each of the other commissioners, were organized and three Filipinos added to the commission. On July 4, 1902, civil government displaced the military power through- out the archipelago except among the Moros. On July i, 1902, Congress passed the Philippines Civil Government Act, confirm- ing all that had been done by the President and the commission, providing for the taking of a census, and the creation, within two years thereafter, of an assembly elected by the people, except the Moros and other non-Christian tribes, to constitute with the commission a legislature for the islands, whose acts are subject to annulment by Congress. Voters are to be qualified as above stated for municipal elections. Two resident commissioners to the United States are to be chosen biennially by the legisla- ture, each house voting separately, and shall be entitled to official recognition as such by all departments. The established judicial or- ganization, consisting of a supreme court and courts of first instance, is confirmed, and the provisions of the Jjill of Rights, with the exceptions above noted, are guaranteed. The civil governor, vice- governor, members of the Philippine Commission, heads of execu- tive departments, and justices of the supreme court are to be appointed by the President by and with the consent of the Senate. The insular government is empowered to purchase the lands of the friars and hold them or lease or sell tliem to the occupants. This transaction has been eft'ected, and with the substitution of secular clergy in the place (^f the friars will remove the greatest source of discontent among the people. The census of ]\larch 2, 1903. showed a population of 7.635,- 426, of wliom 6.087.686 were civilized. There are about 25,000 Europeans and 100.000 Chinese in the islands. The uncivilized tribes include tlie Mohammedan Moros and the heathen peoples of 320 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 the mountains, who are in different stages of barbarism. Of the eight civihzed tribes the most numerous is the Visayan. The islands He wholly within the tropics, extending for locx) miles from Formosa southward to Borneo and the Moluccas, and are 1725 in number, the largest being Luzon (47,238 square miles) and Mindanao (36,237 square miles), which are about equal in size to the States of New York and Indiana respectively. The total land area is estimated at 115,026 square miles, which is only slightly less than New England, New York, and New Jersey taken together. Of the total of 76,616,640 acres, about 12,000,000 are private and 61,000,000 public property; 40,000,000 acres of the latter are forest lands and the remainder arable, though much of the forest lands, if cleared, could be cultivated. The homestead laws permit any citizen to acquire 39.54 acres by occupancy and im- provement for five years. The soil is rich in nearly all parts of the archipelago. The chief products are abaca, from which Manila hemp is made, sugar, coffee, tobacco, copra, cacao, and rice. Foreign com- merce had increased threefold since 1894, and eighty-two per cent, since 1898. The total amount of imports and exports in 1902 was about $62,000,000, of which about one-fourth represents the trade with the United States. The mineral resources are considerable; gold and iron are actually mined in Luzon, and coal and lead in Cebu. The natural wealth of the islands needs only labor for its development, and competent obsei*vers believe that with good man- agement it can be supplied in fair quantity and quality by the Filipinos. As a people they are intelligent and aspiring, and owing to the devotion of the friars they share to some extent the Christian and social ideals of Europe and America, a fact which raises them above any other tropical people. They are eager for education, and a comprehensive common school system has been established under American super^'ision. Under Governor Taft and his suc- cessor, Governor Wright, the government has been administered wholly in the interest of the natives and to a large extent by native officers, all the presidentes of the towns and thirty out of the thirty- nine provincial governors being Filipinos; useful public works have been undertaken, many railway routes located, telegraphic com- munication with the United States opened by the Pacific cable, the vexatious question of the friar lands settled, and the cost of admin- istration kept well within the revenue. Newcomers in the field of UNITED STATES 321 1867-1910 colonial administration have no reason to be ashamed of such a record.^ The other possessions of the United States in the Pacific may be dismissed with brief mention. The island of Guam or Guahan, the largest in the Marianne or Ladrone group, and lying about 1500 miles east of Luzon, was seized by Captain Glass of the U. S. S. Charleston on June 20, 1898, and ceded by the treaty of peace be- tween Spain and the United States. It is about 200 square miles in area, and has a population of 9000, chiefly Filipinos. It will be valuable as a coaling station and serves as a landing station for the cable from San Francisco and Honolulu to the Philippines, Certain outlying islands north and south of the Philippines which had been inadvertently omitted from the cession in the treaty of peace were ceded by a new treaty in 1900 for the sum of $100,000. The beginnings of American influence in the Samoan Islands, in the South Pacific, 2600 miles south and west from Honolulu and 1900 miles north and east from Auckland in New Zealand, were made in 1872, when the harbor of Pago Pago was ceded by the natives for a naval and coaling station. In 1878 this cession was confirmed and rights of extra-territorial jurisdiction acquired. Ger- man commercial interests existed in the islands and wars between rival kings led to joint intervention in 1879 by the United States, Germany, and Great Britain. In 1889 the three powers entered into a treaty guaranteeing the neutrality of the islands and equal rights therein, providing for the independence of the native government, creating a supreme court, etc. Renewed strife among the natives induced President Cleveland to advise in 1894 that the United States withdraw from the tripartite agreement. In 1899 the death of the king and a disputed election to the throne brought matters to a crisis, and in January, 1900, the United States entered into an agreement with Germany and Great Britain, whereby the latter ^ For an unfavfirablc criticism fif American admini-lration in the Philip- pines see two articles nnder this title in the Outhh^k (X. V.), Vol. LXXVIIL.pp. 1026 and 1082 (Dec. 24 and ,^i, 1004) , by Alleyne Ireland. Mr. Ireland thinks that there is no hope of the nriiives deveU)pini; jjolitical capacity snfficient to make good use of the self-government \shich is otYered to them; that native labor is untrustworthy, and the importation of Chinese labor essential to the prosperity of the islands; that the administration is too expensive, the effort spent on educa- tion for the most part misdirected and disproportionately large as compared with the development of profitable public works, and tlie standard of training in the colonial civil service too low. 322 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 withdrew and the archipelago was divided between Germany and the United States, the former taking the islands west of 171 west longitude, and the latter those east of it, including Tutuila, with the harbor of Pago Pago. Tutuila has an area of about 54 square miles and a population of 3800. The other islands belonging to the United States are about 25 square miles in area, with a population of 2000. On April 17, 1900, the chiefs of the islands signed an instrument of cession and the United States took possession of Pago Pago. A naval governor for Tutuila was appointed in February, 1900. The Philippines came into the possession of the United States by the chance of war. No influential body of opinion before the war with Spain expected or desired dependencies in those distant and unknown Asiatic seas. With the West Indies the case was different. The islands of the Carribbean are closely related to the North American continent by geographical nearness and com- mercial intercourse, a relationship upon which turned in large measure the international policy of the colonial powers of Europe until 1763, the position of the thirteen American colonies in the British empire, their revolt and independence. For the new nation West Indian affairs held from the beginning a prominent place in diplomacy, and the Antilles offered a field for American expansion from an early day, especially the great island o Cuba, lying so close to the American coast. With the rise of the slavery question in the United States the sentiment for the annexation of Cuba be- came identified in the minds of Northern men with the policy of slavery extension, and thus received a decisive check until slavery was abolished as a result of the Civil War. Notwithstanding the fierce domestic controversies excited by the grave problems of reconstruction, the programme of West Indian expansion was resumed, under the leadership of William H. Seward, Secretary of State, by his offer (July 17, 1866) of $5,000,000 in gold for the Danish West Indies. A treaty was concluded, October 25, 1867, for the purchase of the islands of St. Thomas and St. John for the sum of $7,500,000 subject to the consent of the inhabitants. Notwithstanding a prompt ratification by Denmark and a vote of acceptance by the islanders, the treaty was rejected by the United States Senate in 1868 under the leadership of Charles Sumner, who was hostile to President Johnson's administration on recon- struction issues. A like fate befell a treaty for the annexation of UNITED STATES 323 the republic of Santo Domingo, negotiated in the first year of President Grant's first administration. The Cuban insurrections of 1 868- 1 878 and 1895- 1898 kept the question of expansion in the West Indies before the pubhc until the intervention of the United States involved the country in war with Spain. The self-denying clause of the joint resolution of Congress for intervention, dis- claiming any intention to annex Cuba, was silent as to Porto Rico, and soon after the fall of Santiago an expedition under General Miles landed at Guanica, on July 25, 1898. It was enthusiastically welcomed by the people, overran the greater part of the island without serious resistance, and was prevented from achieving a complete conquest only by the signing at Washington of a peace protocol (August 12, 1898) by the terms of which the island was to be ceded to the United States. The history of Porto Rico in the nineteenth century is un- eventful. It beat off, in 1797, an attack by an English fleet, shared in the revolt against Napoleon's usurpation in Spain, in the privileges of the Spanish Constitution of 1812, in the suffer- ing under the restored absolutism of Ferdinand VII., and in the revolutionary movement which followed throughout Spanish America, but the declaration of independence issued by the repub- lican junta was ineffectual, and tlie royal authority was fully re- stored in 1823. Numbers of loyalists from the revolted conti- nental colonies found refuge in the island, strengthening the reactionary policy of the government. Tlie Spanish revolution of 1868 restored to Porto Rico the privilege of representation in the Cortes at ^Madrid, and decreed the freedom of all children thereafter born of slave mothers, but it was not until 1873 that slaver\' was entirely abolished. The Cuban revolt of 1S95 was accompanied by political unrest in Porto Rico, which led to many arrests and the formation of a revolutionary junta of exiles in New York. The autonomous constitution conceded by the royal decree of No- vember 25, 1897, never had a fair trial, and was suspended on the outbreak of war with the United States. The evils of the Spanish colonial government in Porto Rico were like those of which the Cubans complained, but the econcjmic conditions of the smaller island were more healthful. The sla\-cs were never numerous in proportion to the whole population; tlie island is much smaller than Cuba, and has a mucli ck'n>cr pi^pulation; the stigar estates are comparatively small, and cniplo\" but few laborers, and as there is 324 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 little or no waste land, everyone in the island, as in Barbados, must either work or starve. After the American conquest Porto Rico was under military government for nearly two years, during which time many re- forms were undertaken. Vaccination was introduced, the courts reorganized, the prisoners in the crowded jails tried or set free, the writ of habeas corpus introduced, a system of common schools begun, and popular municipal governments created. A system of internal taxation, devised by Prof. Hollander of Johns Hopkins University, was later adopted by the legislature. The transfer of the island from Spain to the United States put it outside the Spanish tariff system, closing the Spanish market to its products and not opening any compensating market in America. Upon the urgent recommendation of President McKinley the customs duties between Porto Rico and the United States were removed, but in order to provide revenue pending the adoption of a permanent system of taxation, the operation of the removal was, at the request of the military governor, suspended as to fifteen per cent, of those duties. The industrial depression caused by the temporary lack of an export market was heightened by a very destructive hurricane which swept over the island from end to end on August 8, 1889, which was followed by torrential rain and a tidal wave on the south coast. It killed 2700 people, reduced over 100,000 to absolute destitution, destroyed fully two-thirds of the coffee crop, and seven-tenths of all crops on the island. An appeal to the people of the United States for help was generously responded to, and supplies to the value of over $800,000 were distributed to the sufferers, and the expenditure of $950,000 on military roads was authorized by the war department to afford employment for those in need of reHef. On Alay i, 1900, the government was transferred to the civil au- thorities. The political constitution set up by the act of Congress approved April 12, 1900, confides the executive power to a governor and an executive council of eleven members, six of whom are high administrative officers, all appointed by the President for four years. The executive council, of whom at least five must be natives of Porto Rico, forms the upper house of the legislature. The house of delegates, or lower chamber, is chosen by voters, who must have paid taxes or be able to read and write. The voters also choose a resident commissioner to the United States. The area of the island is 36C8 square miles, less than four-fifths that of Connecticut. U N I T E D S T A T E S 325 186r-1910 The present governor of Porto Rico, Col. G. R. Colton, was inaugurated November 6, 1909. The President submitted to Con- gress an amended organic act for Porto Rico, on January, 29, 1910. believing that the time had arrived for making changes in its government. Congress passed the tariff bill governing Porto Rico, on July 9, 1909, and August 2, the Senate confirmed it. The chief product of the island is coffee. Other important products are sugar, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. The bulk of the island's trade is now with the United States. We may properly add here a brief account of Cuban affairs in the nineteentli century, ending in the armed intervention of the United States and the control of the island by the American military government, pending the creation of an independent Cuban republic. The history of Cuba since the beginning of the last century proves that the Spanish Government has not been altogether so blind and senseless as might be supposed from the history of Spanish America in general. It would indeed have been extraordinary, if the course of events in the neighboring island of Hayti, tlie landing of the French in 1807, the proclamation of Ferdinand VII. by the Span- iards in Cuba in 1808, the terrible rising of the slaves under Aponte in 1 81 2, and the successive revolutions which were convulsing Spanish America, had not taught even the Spanish Government an obvious lesson. Cuba had always been thought a valuable colony. Its value was at once increased manifold by the ruin of the trade of Hayti, and the Cadiz regency w^ould have been blind indeed not to see that it was worth preserving. In 181 3 Cuba was liberated from the bonds of the old colonial system. Her ports were thrown open, the Constitution of Cadiz was proclaimed, and Cuban representatives were summoned to tlie Cortes. The repre- sentation, which was of little use, was abolished, but the other concessions were afterward confirmed by the monarchy. A change of hardly less importance took ]:)lace in 1815. wlien the govern- ment monopoly of tobacco was abolished. This, as we have seen, had been one of the most keenly felt grievances in all the Spanish colonics. The tobacco trade soon de\-clo])ed amazingly, but its ])rogress was not so sur]irising as that of the sugar cultivation. While the rest (^f the fanious old West India sugar colonies were suffering misfortune and decay. Cuba was enjoying gnnvth and prospcritv. About the time of tlie l-^xnch Revolution Cuba pro- duced annually about a c[uarter of a million hundredweights of 326 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 sugar; by the year 1820, this produce had increased fourfold; and the produce fifty years later was twenty million hundredweights a year, or eighty times as much as at the time of the French Revolution. The effect of the abandonment of the old colonial system will be understood when we consider that seventy-five per cent, of this enormous sugar crop went to the United States, fifteen per cent, to England, and less than two per cent, to Spain itself. The reason of this extraordinary prosperity is obvious. In the first place some of the causes which, as we have seen, depressed the British West Indies, stimulated the growth of Cuba. Cuba long enjoyed the benefit of slave labor. Its vast plantations employed something like half a million slaves, whose value had gradually risen from $700 to $1000 each. Besides this, all the stream of Peninsular emigrants, who in former times spread all over Spanish America to trade on the privileges which the Spaniard enjoyed to the exclusion of the Creole, had been for fifty years directed to Cuba and Porto Rico. These islands, and especially Cuba, were thus placed with regard to Spain in an entirely new relation. While the distinction between the Spaniards and the Creoles was still kept up, as strongly as it ever was in Alexico or Peru, the Spaniards far exceeded the Creoles in wealth and political influence, though not in numbers. Cuba was really a republic of the resident Span- iards, holding the island by a volunteer force raised among them- selves, and owning allegiance to the mother-country not because the mother-country was able to keep them under control, but be- cause this nominal connection with the mother-country enabled them to keep the Creoles or " Cuban " party under control. The island, like French Hayti in the old times, was thus divided between the Spanish and " Cuban " parties. The " Cuban " party, as in Hayti, consisted largely of mulattoes and negroes, and was in favor of the abolition of slavery; and it seemed probable that if the " Cubans '' should ever gain the upper hand, establish the republic, and abolish slavery, the Spaniards would leave the island, as the French planters left Hayti after llie abolition of slavery by tlie French Assembly, leaving the Creoles of all shades of color to fight out tlie same battle which we find presented in Haytian history, witli inncli the same results. Unfortunately for humanity, the cause of slavery and of unequal civil rights thus became in Cuba the cause of law and order; and during the whole of the nineteenth century U N I T E D S T A T E S 327 1867 1910 the " Cubans '' were more or less in a state of revolt. When an insurrection broke out. there were always plenty of runaway slaves ready to enlist for the pleasure of shooting- their masters; and as the central and eastern departments afford an ample cover of forest and mountain, it was impossible for the Spaniards, with their limited army of volunteers, to put an effectual stop to it. The turbulence of the " Cubans " of course led to increased stringency of government ; and in consequence of the formidable risings of 1823 and 1829, the island had to be placed under what was almost a military despotism. Under Captain-General Tacon, in 1834- 1838, there was an unusual degree of peace and prosperity ; but the time of his successor, O'Donnell, was marked by the well-organized con- spiracy of 1844, for participation in which the famous Cuban poet Placido w^as executed. The European revolutions of 1848 were soon followed by risings in various parts of the island; and in the next year it was threatened by filibustering expeditions from the United States. In 1850, Xarcisso Lopez, at the head of one of these expeditions, landed and took the town of Cardenas. He was forced to retire ; and on returning in the next year, he was seized and executed. In the meantime the idea gained ground in Spain that it would be well to mitigate the despotism of Cuba, and to endeavor to get rid of slavery by encouraging emancipation and immigration. In 185 1 a governing council was established in Madrid; and in the time of Pezuela in 1853, tlie first attempts were made at the systematic introduction of free labor. The " Cubans " readily responded to these efforts, in the belief that their cause was gaining ground ; and tich'ngs of the revolution of 1868 had no sooner reached the colony, than the standard of indej^endence was again raised by Ces])e(les and Diaz, who tluis began the " ten years war." The Spanish jjarty. however, soon prosed to be unmistakably in the ascendant. The massacres of Havana in 1869 checked all partici- pation in the nio\-enient on the part of the inliabitants of the capital ; and the volunteers soon cleared llie whole western province of the insurgents, though several thousand men under arms, chiefly run- awav negroes, still continued to haunt the mountainous districts of the center. In 1870 tlie Cortes of Madrid, bent (~n liberal measures, passed the " Moret law." abolishing shucrv for all negroes born after 1868. and emar.cipating all who at that date were sixty years old and upward.'' There was nothing in common between the Spanish party in the colony and tlie leaders of the Spanish revo- * Slavery finally became extinct in 1887. 328 COLONIES OF THE WORLD 1867-1910 lution, and General Prim unsuccessfully endeavored to sell the island to the United States. Intervention by the latter country was narrowly averted in 1873, after the capture of the American " filibuster " Virginius and the summary execution of fifty-three of her officers and men. In the following year the Spanish republic was overthrown, and the Bourbon dynasty restored. The war in Cuba dragged on until February 10, 1878, when the " Peace of Zanjon " was agreed to and the insurgents laid down their arms in consideration of reforms promised by Spain, but never fully carried out. The discontent of the patriot party smoldered for seventeen years, and at last broke out into open revolt February 24, 1895. The uprising had been carefully prepared and the Spanish were unable to crush it by the ordinary methods of warfare.. In February, 1896, Don Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau, Marquis of Teneriffe, came out as governor and forthwith adopted the policy of forcing all the inhabitants of the island to concentrate in the cities and fortified places in the Spanish lines. In the course of the following year, perhaps half a million wretched non-combatants, largely women and children, were by the enforcement of this order driven from their homes after their property and means of subsistence had been destroyed, and \vere herded together without sufficient shelter, food, or medical care in the forts and towns, where 200,000 of them died of starva- tion and disease. This brutal measure excited great indignation in the United States. In October, 1897, Weyler was recalled, and on November 25 an autonomous constitution was proclaimed. The concession was made too late. The war prevented a fair trial of the new government, and the people of the United States were too much aroused and too distrustful of Spanish purposes to allow a sufficient time for the experiment. Their anger was increased by the destruction of the battleship Maine, in the harbor of Havana on February 15, 1898, with the loss of two of her officers and 264 of her crew, a disaster attributed by an American naval court of inquiry to the explosion of a submarine mine and by a similar Spanisli court to an internal explosion of the vessel's magazines. On April 18 the United States made a formal declaration of in- tervention, demanding that Spain relinquish her authority and withdraw her forces, and disclaiming any intention to exercise sovereignty or control in Cuba except for its ]-ac!fication, and promising when tliis should be accomplished to leave the control of UNITED STATES 329 1867 1910 the island to its people. In the war which followed the Spanish squadron under Admiral Ccrvera, in trying- to escape from the harbor of Santiago, was destroyed by the American blockading squadron on July 3, and shortly thereafter the town and the Spanish army holding it capitulated to the besieging American army. By the peace protocol of August 12, Spain formally relinquished all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. The American military occupation which followed the peace was charged with the duty of pacifying the island and carrying on its government until the Cuban people should be able to undertake the task. The new government was confronted with peculiar difficul- ties and a situation almost unprecedented. The very foundations of social order were broken up. The countiy w^as impoverished, indus- try paralyzed, and large numbers of people in danger of speedy starvation. The army of independence was unpaid, and might prove dangerous. The hatred engendered by the long war and by a century of oppression made necessary the protection of the large resident Spanish population from the vengeance of the Cubans. The people were wholly untrained in self-government. The per- centage of illiteracy was high, and schools were few in number and poor in quality. The filthy jails were crowded with prisoners, many of whom had been awaiting trial for years, and against some of whom no charge could ])e found. The sanitary conditions of the cities were extremely bad, and the island was notorious as a breeding place of yellow fc\cr. 11ic military government, under General John R. Brooke until December 13, 1899, and thereafter under General Leonard Wood, was brilliantly successful in over- coming these difficulties. Order was restored rmd maintained: a native rural guard and n;itivc niunici])al police organized and trained; the starving pe(>i)le icd and cUnhed until tliey could resume productive industry: the charitable institutions of tlie island re- organized : the Cul)an army paid and disl)an(lcd : the school en- rollments increased from 3r).ono to 180.000: tlie teaching reformed upon the best American models: the jails cleansed and many of the prisoners released: the cities jirotected by tlie best methods of scientific sanitation: Havana transt'ormed fr(Mn one of the least to one of tlie most healtliful of cities: and yellow fever entirelv stam[)ed out. Thi-; la-t brilh'ant aeliievcment was due to the im- portant scientiiic (liu;nmer tln-eshing-tloor. while the stone that ^mote the image became a great mountain, antl 340 COLONIES OF THE WORLD filled the whole earth. Those great monarchies of western Eu- rope, out of which the new Europe sprang, have been completely metamorphosed. It is true that this is not entirely attributable to the new Europe; but the new Europe unquestionably had a great share in the work. France is a republic, Spain has been a republic, and will be so again ; England and Portugal are notoriously republics in a monarchical guise. Oddly enough, the Dutch Republic, to which, as we have seen, the reorganization of the old Europe may be traced, has outwardly become a monarchy, but it is really a republic with an hereditary president. In deciding one of the most important issues in the history of our time, the fate of southeastern Europe and w-estern Asia, the reaction of the New World will probably be very apparent. These parts must be practically colonized over again ; and this can only be done under free political systems. Liberty and colonization have in fact already begun to do this great work in Servia, Rumania, Bulgaria, and Greece; and the next steps will perhaps be taken in Crete and Asia Minor. We have in one place of this volume briefly traced the connection of the growth of the colonics with the growth of the mechanical arts in Europe. The vastness and variety of nature in the New^ World has given an extraordinary stimulus to physical science. Men of science have interrogated nature in a more patient spirit; they have unlearned the narrow dogmas of a half-Asiatic philosophy. In the New World, where the imagination enjoys an ampler air than in the Old, there have been formed many strange and wide aspirations. Few of them, perhaps, have been realized ; but there is no doubt that here the great Christian dogma of the practical fraternity of mankind has taken for the first time its true meaning. In the New World all men are equal, and have equal rights; and as the New World is conterminous with the spread of Christianity, leaving ]\Iahommedanism, Hinduism, and Buddhism to Asia and Africa, so it is conterminous with the spread of political and social liberty, leaving to Asia the system of castes and dynasties. Turning to a more homely aspect of history, we shall still find the new and the old Europe on the same basis of progress. We have seen that this history is concerned not only with a larger area, but with a wider series of facts, than most histories. The growth of the colonial nations is inseparably con- nected witli the growtli of wealth, enterprise, science, pubHc spirit, and general enlightenment in the mother countries. This is why THEOUTLOOK 841 England and Holland have beaten the Latin nations in the colonial race, and colonial growth has reacted powerfully in all these respects upon the old Europe. The growth of inventions in machinery, one of the great distinguishing features of the last hun- dred years, has had much to do both with colonial progress and with the progress in the old Europe produced by the reaction of colonial progress. Without the steamboat and the railway, the new Europe would never have become what it has become ; and it is the power-loom, the cotton-gin, the wool-combing machine, and such like inventions, which have given to the most flourishing colonial trades their present magnitude and importance. The New World has had a most important effect on the well-being of the poorer people in the old Europe. It has produced materials for their work ; it has afforded them an opportunity of escaping from a narrow field into a land where labor has every advantage on its side, and it has also made food of all kinds much cheaper. The New World has more food than it wants ; from its abundance of productive land, it overflows everywhere with the necessaries of life, and the Old \Vorl(l of course feels the benefit. Not only coffee and sugar, but even bread and butter, flour, cheese, lard, salted meat of all kinds, and even fresh, meat and fruits, are brought to the old Europe from the New World. This illustrates perhaps better than anything else how close and real the ties between the Old and the New W^orld are becoming. With regard to the great mass of the new European nations, that is, to those of the American continent from the St. Lawrence to Patagonia, their relation to each other and to the nations of old Europe is precisely the same as that existing in the nations of the old continent. They are independent, and connected by no neces- sary ties whate\-er. The New World li;is thus increased the abso- lute number of the great European family of nations. Most of the new mem])crs of tliat family may not be at present worthy of comparison in j^ioint of strength or wisdom with the old, but, as we have seen, tliey liaxc been both strong enough and wise enough to est;il)lisli their indeiKMidence, and to organize themselves on a uniform ]):isis. st'tting tlieir faces steadt'astly toward prog- ress; their cajjacity for dcwl' ipmciit is unlimited, and succeed- ing generations will see the result. Asia and Africi themselves will perhaps be graduall}- lun'opeanized through the preponderance given to European ideas by the independent forces of the New 343 COLONIES OF THE WORLD World. The new Europe increases in population in a greater ratio than has ever been known, and it is impossible to guess what may be the exact effect of this upon the balance of national power on the globe. The new Europe embraces about twenty sovereign states, and may possibly break up further, so as to yield a greater number of political units standing toward each other in indepen- dent relations. These independent relations at present only exist in their perfect form in Europe itself, in the United States, and in Spanish and Portuguese America.^ The three great groups of English colonies were for a time in a state of semi-independence, which could not fail to hamper their progress without conferring either on themselves or on the mother-country any benefit in exchange. To-day the independence of Canada and Australia is practically complete and it is hard to see how their connection with the mother-country can hamper their progress, save by exposing them to the chances of a war undertaken by Great Britain against a great power. The risk of attack by any but a great naval power would be small for Australia and South Africa; and for Canada likewise, unless the war were with the United States. These three groups of colonies bring us back to a difficulty which was familiar to English statesmen more than a century ago. The Canadian and Australian Parliaments make their own laws, and raise their own taxes, just as the Parliament of the United King- dom does for Great Britain and Ireland. Their sole connection with the mother-country is through the Crown ; and though they have been mainly peopled from the United Kingdom, in no sense can they be considered as sharing in its nationality. They do not wish to stand alone in the world, and they feel that they are not strong enough to do so ; besides this, there is a natural and ir- resistible desire for peoples speaking the same tongue to unite in forming large and powerful combinations. Year by year the world is learning to unite its forces more and more closely. Every citizen of a great nation bears reflected upon himself some part of the reputation of that nation. The Englishman and the Frenchman, the citizen of tlie United States and of united Germany, are proud of their title; but no one at present could be very proud of being' an Australian or a South African, because these countries have not as yet ])ro(luce(l great men or done great deeds. The people of ^ Japan has been recently admitted to a standing of full diplomatic equality wilh other civilized powers. T H E O U T L O O K 343 these lands will sooner or later desire to attach themselves to some great nationality. Now the English-speaking world is divided into two rival nationalities, those of the old country and the new coun- try; of Britain and the United States. At present, Canada, Aus- tralia, and South Africa belong to neither. The first and second have been endowed with local organizations of their own, and we may expect to hear that the voice of these great groups of colonies will be raised for a substantial federative union with one or other of the great powers which divide the English-speaking world. Unless these loose groups are attached by some such firm tie to England, one of them is quite certain, and even the others are very likely, to attach themselves to the United States. In the political as well as the physical world, attraction is a mighty law. The statesmen of the latter nation have from the beginning regarded as a certainty the accession of Canada to the Union. The United States do not desire to conquer Canada by force, but no one can foresee the effects of a political rupture with England, and the same relation extends to other British colonies. Canada and Australia both belong to the great world of the Pacific on either shore of which America and Russia are rapidly extending their naval sta- tions. The United States already has possession of the Sandwich Islands, which are nearly half way to the Fiji group, and of the Philippines. On the other hand, many al)le politicians have thought the empire a mere figment, and, if it possessed reality, not worth maintaining. This, however, is not so clear. England is the only colonial nation whicli has a popuhition which is ever ex- ceeding its narrow geographical limits and at the same time pos- sesses colonies oversea which lie open to luu'opean immigration on a large scale. The overflow of England now peoples states which, though Englisli-si)cakiiig, are not part of Engiaiul. Most of it peoples the United States; and it will continue to do so as long as the ])rescnt anomalous condition of things continues. If an actual union with the colonies were accomplished, there is no doubt that they would grow much faster. The overllow of her popu- lation would tlicn cnricli licr own soil. .\ closer union with her colonies would certainly tend to secure ior h'ngiand that weight in the world which is imperiled by tlie scantiness of her geograj)li- ical limits, ever diminishing in comparative si/e and importance with the increase in si/e and importance of tlie nations vl the Xew World. Without her great Indian Empire, England would have 344. COLONIES OF THE WORLD far less weight in the world's balance of power. The weight which her colonies are capable of adding to her substantial power is of a different kind, and it is no doubt true that it is impossible for Eng- lish statesmen to wield the political force of her colonies as they wield that of India. But it is by no means clear that some real tie of union might not be adopted which, without increasing the complexity of the imperial government of England, might add to its forces the fast-growing forces of the great groups of English independent colonies, or at any rate to prevent them from drifting away and becoming rivals, if not enemies, as the United States of America have done. Such a united empire of Great Britain and her colonies would not be a colonial empire in the true sense at all. It would be a federation of independent states. Public opinion in favor of it in the colonies and in England steadily grows, and some attempt at its realization will in all likelihood be made. The current revival of protectionist doctrines in England draws much of its strength from this drift of public opinion. This history has been to a great extent a history of the decline and fall of colonial empires. We have seen the outlines of a great French empire in North America, of which the Canadian Domin- ion claims to be the natural representative, fade away almost before they were recognized by the world. We have seen the fall of the British empire in North America, and the break-up of the great Spanish empire in South America. In the course of the wars of the half-century of transition, we have seen the colonial empires of France and Holland utterly destroyed by the British arms. W'e have seen the South American Portuguese colony, through a singular combination of circumstances, reverse its natural relation to the mother- country, and finally cut itself adrift. We have seen the settlements of all Europe on the coasts of India overshadowed by the growth of the great Indian military empire of England. We have seen within our own time the new French colonial empire grow to vast size, and new nations, especially Germany and the United States, entering the colonial field. These colonics are of a new type, offering no field for the growth of new states of luu-(jpean race, but occupied by peoples of inferior civilization under the political control of tlie white race. The new^ colonialism means the parceling out of the whole world among the more advanced nations and llie subjection of the less advanced to their control and leadership. luu-fjpean influence thus becomes world-wide, for T H E O U T L O O K 345 though one Asiatic nation has recently become a great power, it has done so by the adoption of European ideas and methods. To what extent a similar transformation may be wrought in other Asiatic peojjlcs no man can foretell. The growth of the new Europe, as we have seen, has greatly, though by no means entirely, depended on the outflow of the super- fluous population of the old. Before the epoch of independence this outflow was considerable; but it took an entirely new start after the peace of 1815, and the nineteenth century was a great era of movement for European peoples. Many things have concurred to promote it. Steam navigation, the invention of machinery employing fewer hands, a reformed policy on the part of govern- ment in dealing with the poor, the diffusion of increased knowledge of the New World, have all tended in this direction. The main sources of this outflow of population from old Europe during the greater part of the nineteenth century were the United Kingdom and Germany; and the former took the lead.^ Religious persecu- tion at home and toleration in America greatly promoted English emigration in the seventeenth century: and as early as 1710 emigration became a direct policy. Tn that year Queen .Vnne's government ofl^crcd a free passage to America for distressed laborers and their families; and the supcrflumis agriculiur,-il jiopu- lation of ICngland has ever since [)Ourcd into America in a steady stream. Special causes for a time made Ireland its chief source.'' The destruction of the small holdings and villages of Ireland for the benefit of the landlords and large farmers, in the middle of the eighteenth century, was one: the unjust penal laws were an- other. These laws drove tlie Irish Catholics t(j the Xcw World in a larger proportion than the Protestants, ruid when this cause ceased to operate, it was succeeded by one even more cft'ectual. The introduction of ])otato culture caused a great sul)di\-ision of the land, and doubled the density of tlie poor country i)opulation; the failure of the potato crop in 1846 and 1847 -"Suddenly drtn-e between one and two millions of Irish to seek their subsistence in 'Of 17.3,^,^000 emigrants from F.nropc in the period 1820-1882, 8,570,000 were I_>ritisli suhject^. ami 4,(114.000 Genii.ans. MnlliJiU's " l^ictionary Statistics." ^ Tmmi,e;ration into the I'nited Shales from (ire.at Britain exeh.'.cHTiq' Trel.md was noticeahly K"-~ t!i;in tlia.l frmn Clerm.any thirnnoliont t!ie period 1821-10.00 0\ all iminiL^r.nil-; intn the I'nited St,ates Ireland fi;rni>hed 42 per cent, in the period iS_M-iS50, a firopiirtioit steadily rcdncpd nntil it fell to less than 1! per cent, in the decade ending- 1900. ' Twelfth Census of U. S./' Vol. I., p. 103. 346 COLONIES OF THE WORLD the New World. A spirit of adventure, rather than actual in- justice or necessity, has always promoted emigration from the island of Great Britain, especially from its northern portion. Wherever we go, whether in the New World or in the trading settlements of the East, we find the Scotch to be a leading people among emigrant Europeans. Notwithstanding that depopulation of the Highlands which was once mercilessly pursued by the land- owners, Scotland has never equaled England, with its large teem- ing cities, as a source of population for the New World. England is the center of news for the whole globe; and as soon as new chances offer in any part of it, a spontaneous emigration, not altogether of poor people, but of the large class of people of trad- ing and industrial pursuits who have saved a small capital, and of enterprising young men from the middle and upper classes, at once begins. Wherever these people go, the poorer emigrants, who have nothing to depend on but their labor, find the way made plain for them, and it is their pioneering that puts British emigration in a rank above that of the rest of Europe. Germany comes next to the British Isles as a source of population. Ever since the twelfth century the miners and artisans of Germany have been spreading into the bordering countries. From Spain to Lapland, from Lapland to the Black Sea, German settlements are every- where to be found. Germans accompanied the English to Virginia, the Dutch to New Amsterdam, and the Swedes to the Delaware, and they formed a large proportion of the people settled by Wil- liam Penn in Pennsylvania. Early in the eighteenth century Ger- man communities began to spring up in the state of New York and the Carol inas. Tempted by Law's famous scheme, they settled on the Mississippi; and as early as 1750 the German element in North America began to rival that of the British themselves. The great stimulus given to British emigration since 181 5 acted powerfully on Germany also. If we look at the tables of figures in which these facts arc registered, we see that at every sudden push which British cmigrati(jn makes, German emigration rises and falls with it, like its shadow, following if* not only to the United States, but to Canada, the Austral i;is. and South Africa. The Germans, as 'In the period i872-iS8r cmij^r;ints from Germany nnmbcred 2,411,000, as against x,/j[),ouo from llie L'nikil Kin;i,'loni ?\Iulliairs '"Dictionary of Sta- tistics." German and I'.ritisli immigration into the United States was substan- tially equal in the decade i88i-iitiLin of colonies of 348 COLONIES OF THE WORLD its own the German Government has tried in vain to cHvert thither the stream of German emigration which normally flows into the United States and the British colonies. The New World has been to modern Germany what the great free cities were in former times, a place where liberty and honest labor could find a refuge from political and social oppression. The French have never been a great emigrating people.^ The poor starved peasantry of France in the eighteenth century could not emigrate as the Irish and Germans have done, because they w'ere under a strong central- ized government, because there were no free towns to serve as outlets, because they knew less of the New World, because many French colonies had disastrously failed, and because they had a strong and famous nationality, w'hich they loved, in spite of every- thing, at home. French emigration of any extent dates from more recent times. Most of the new South American nations have been glad to take French immigrants; and some hundreds of thou- sands have gone to Algeria. Belgium, w'ith its very dense popu- lation, and perfect liberty of emigration, has contributed greatly ^ to peopling the United States, and in a less degree to that of South America. In Holland the main causes of emigration have been wanting, and adventure has taken a mercantile rather than an agri- cultural direction. Since the loss of its own colonies, Holland has contributed to swell the general European outflow; but the usual destination of the Dutch emigrant is still South Africa. The Swiss and Italians have helped to people the United States, Brazil, and the Plata River. The surplus poor population of one or two districts of Spain spreads chiefly over the neighboring parts of Europe and Africa. -Many thousands have gone to Algeria, and this has proved a great help to the French Government, for the Spaniards have been taught by the experience of centuries how to deal with the Africans.''' The Portuguese emigrate chiefly to Brazil. In eastern Europe, where the population is very thin, there was for a long time no impulse to emigration. On the con- ^ From this statement should be excepted the French Canadians, who nvnn- hered 395,427 in United States in 1900. " Twelfth Census U. S.," Vol. I., p. 732. C' In T900 there were only 29,848 persons of Belgian birth in the United States. The Dutch numbered 105,049, being one per cent, of the total foreign- born p'-jpnlation, a percentage slightly higher than at any previous time. "Twelllh Census of U. S.," Vol. I., pp. clxxi, 732. ~ More than 40,000 Spanish immigrants arrived in Cuba in one year tmder the American military occupation. "' Five Years in the War Department Fol- lowing the War with Spain," p. 116. T H E O U T L O O K 349 trary, it ought to be a field of immigration, and under wise govern- ments might seriously compete as such with the New World. Southern Russia, western and central Asia, and all the countries which have lately freed themselves, or are now freeing themselves, from the blight of Turkish domination, would, under favorable circumstances, irresistibly attract western labor and capital ; never- theless a large emigration of the peoples of eastern Europe be- gan in the last quarter of the nineteenth century and is still in progress, the large emigration of Italians being coincident in time. In the thirty years ending 1850, immigrants to the United States from the United Kingdom and its North American colonies, Germany, and Scandinavia numbered 2,075,000, as against less than 6000 from Italy, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Poland. In the decade ending 1880 the emigration from this group of southern and eastern European countries had swelled to 180,000, but was still only one-thirteenth of that from the north- western European group. In the next decade this ratio was as one to four, and in the last decade of the century approximately as six to five. Emigration from tlie northwestern European group fell off very greatly in this last decade and was actually less by 500.000 than in any other decade since 1850. This decrease was probably due to the coincidence of industrial prosperity in these countries and industrial depression in the United States. The good times pre- vailing in America since 1898 have again powerfully stimulated emigration. The great currents of European emigration set toward the United States and the British colonies. Of 17,000,000 emigrants in the period 1820-1882, of whom half were British subjects, 11,- 700,000 went to the United States, 3.800,000 to British Colonics, and 1,500,000 to South America. The great bulk of all emi- grants were destined to absorption in the Ani^'l^-Saxon race. The chief points in the history of the luiropean colonies, or. as it is better to call them, the new Europe, are as follows: This history is divided into two main periods, separated by a half-cen- tury of transiti(Mi (r775-r8j5). Previously to the said half-cen- tury, all the Eiu-o]ican colonies, except the solitary settlement at the Cape of Good Tlo])c, were in America. "The Colonies," in th(jse days onlv meant America, with the West Indian Islands: America was a colonial continent belonging in unequal proportions to several lun-o[)ean nations. Setting aside for the moment the 350 COLONIES OF THE WORLD Plantation colonies, up to 1674 there were five America-holding nations; from thence until 1763 there were four; and from thence until 1775 there were three of these nations. Between 1775 and 1825 the power of all three of these nations, after three more or less obstinate struggles, was completely extinguished, excepting only in the colonies conquered at different times by England from France: and instead of the colonies there were now independent nations in the whole length and breadth of the American conti- nent. The only parts of their colonial empires which the five European nations retained were the West Indian Plantations ; and Spain has recently lost all her possessions in that quarter while the other islands have been for the most part decreasing in importance ever since 1825, so that altogether we may say that Europe has no longer the same kind of interest in the Western Continent that she had a hundred years ago. Since the half-century of transi- tion, each of the independent states of America has a history of its own. The fall of the colonial empires in America made the European colonial nations turn their attention in other directions; and England has now attached to her three groups of colonies, most of which have already reached a stage quite corresponding to that of the United States at the epoch of independence. The Canadian and the Australian groups are already united by con- federations of their own, and perhaps the same thing will some day take place in the South African group. England has also built up a vast colonial empire over peoples of inferior civilization and has at the same time extended and solidified her empire in India. As for France, about the beginning of this century England took away every one of the rest of her colonies, just as she had already taken Acadia and Canada ; but most of them were restored, and since 181 5 the French have been as busy as possible in getting up a new empire, partly colonial, partly Oriental, which includes a popu- lation of more than fifty millions, mostly of native races. The Dutch have concentrated themselves in their rich Oriental archi- pelago, where they have been supreme ever since the massacre of Amjjoyna, excepting the short period, nearly one hundred years ago, when the English took away all their colonies because they were allies of the French. The Spaniards have lost all their colonies in America and the Pacific, retaining only insignificant holdings in Africa, and tlie Portuguese have remained in stagnation, while English enterprise has taken possession of much territory once T H E O U T L O O K 351 claimed by Portugal in Africa. Italy, Germany, and the United States in the last quarter of the nineteenth century have undertaken colonial enterprises, and the two latter nations have acquired tropical dependencies extensive in area and having a large native population. They are not suited to the development of new com- munities of European blood and civilization. No extensive un- peopled temperate region remains on the globe where the achievements of the English as nation builders in North America, Australasia, and South Africa, can be rivaled, unless it is South America, and the opposition of the United States forbids any such enterprise in that quarter, llie colonial empires of to-day are and will remain a field for European and American industrial enterprise and for European and American leadership in government and civilization, but the bulk of their population is and must remain non-European. Altogether, it is plain that the changes and growths which make up this history are on a larger scale than any others that have been known; and it is this circumstance, enhanced by the sense of a great and unknown future, which gives to colonial history its peculiarly impressive character. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS UNDER THE AMERICAN GOVERNMENT By Jeremiah W. Jenks, Ph. D., LL. D. Professor of Political P^conomy and Politics, Cornell University THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS UNDER THE AMERICAN GOVERNMENT' Chapter XX IN Chapter XVIII. there was a brief discussion of the history of the Phihppine Islands, including the Spanish regime, the revolt of the Filipinos against the domination of Spain before the American occupation, the capture of Manila by the Americans acting in conjunction with the Filipinos, and a brief sketch of the course of events since that time, including the action against the insurgents and some account of the industrial and political situa- tion. 0^ving, however, to the importance of the later history of the Philippine Islands in its connection with our government of dependencies, it has seemed best to give a somewhat more detailed account of the motives and methods of the American Government in the Philippine Islands, and of the results, up to the present time, of its policy, together with a brief summary of the present political and industrial situation. When the Americans took possession of the city of Manila they found there engaged in business, witli vested interests, a num- 1 111 the prcparati'Mi of this chai^tor \cry free use has been made of the Reports of the Philippine Conimis.^idn, of the Insular Reports of the War I^epartment, of the Acts of Congress and of the Philippine Conimission. and of one or two books, especially that by W. V. W'illouphliy on " Dependencies of the United States." in which lie summarize iiiaii}' of the acts of the Commis- sion. Otlier bo()k.-^ res^ardint,^ the Philii)]Miies, siicii as "The Philippine Island-," by Dr. F. W. Atkinson, the former Superintciidciit of Public Instruction in the Philippines, and "Our Philippine Problem." by Dr. J I. P. Willis, have been freely consulted. The judgments regarding the effects of various acts, the purposes of the Government, etc., have been determined not merely from these authorities, but al>o primarily from pern;il ob.-ervation in the islands and from many conferences with oliicials and iH>relves com- petent to exercise that power, h'urthermore, the inhal)itants of the Islands, without respect to their former social, political, or eco- nomic condition, would be gu;irantec(l. I)y the exercise of the full ])ower of the Unitetl States, if need be, the full rights which the citi- zens of the United States enjoy, so far as those rights were com- ]jatible with orderly gi)\-ernincnt in tlie Islands. It is worth while to recall here some of tlie most important of these promises made by the President, and then to see to what extent up to the present 358 COLONIES OF THE WORLD time these promises have been fulfilled. The Commission was charged, apart from giving to the inhabitants the benefit of a " wise and generous protection of life and property," in all their relations with the inhabitants of the Islands, to " exercise due respect for all the ideas, customs, and institutions of the tribes which compose the population, emphasizing upon all occasions the just and benevo- lent intentions of the Government of the United States." In the proclamation which the Commission issued to the people of the Islands, it said that " the aim and object of the American Government, apart from the fulfillment of the solemn obligations it has assumed toward the family of nations by the acceptance of sovereignty over the Philippine Islands, is the well-being, the pros- perity, and the happiness of the Philippine people and their elevation and advancement to a position among the most civilized peoples of the world." It further stated the most important principles which the United States would follow in the carrying out of its policy as follows : " The most ample liberty of self-government will be granted to the Philippine people which is reconcilable with the maintenance of a wise, just, stable, effective, and economical administration of public affairs and compatible with the sovereign and international rights and obligations of the United States. " The civil rights of the Philippine people wnll be guaranteed and protected to the fullest extent; religious freedom assured, and all persons shall have an equal standing before the law. " Honor, justice, and friendship forbid the use of the Philip- pine people or Islands as an object or means of exploitation. The purpose of the American Government is the welfare and advance- ment of the Philippine people. *' There shall be guaranteed an honest and effective civil service, in which, to the fullest extent practicable, natives shall be employed. " Such is the spirit in which the United States comes to the people of the Philippine Islands. His Excellency the President has instructed the Commission to make it publicly known." In his instructions to the permanent Commission, likewise, these general jjrinciples were reafilrmed and many of the most im- portant ones empliasizcd. A noteworthy example of the spirit of the present Commission is found in tlie fact that during tlic year 1905 the Governor-General appointed a committee to make a thorough and exhaustive examina- THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 359 tion of all the bureaus and ofilces of the Government, and to recom- mend needed reforms. The Government had, of course, been organized at first at a time of very considerable confusion and dis- turbance, shortly after the American occupation, and it was felt that the reorganization would probably result in many savings. In ac- cordance with the recommendations made, some bureaus have been abolished, others have been able to cut down their working force, and the result is that there will be made a saving of at least $i,ooo,- ooo; and this, although the general administration had been before, as a rule, earnest and efficient, the employees of good character, capable and willing to work. The saving made " consists mainly in the simplification of methods and reduction of personnel where not absolutely required." Beyond any doubt in the attempt to take up the administration of a dependency so far removed from the territory of the United States, the inhabitants of which are so different from the people of the United States in language, in habits of thought, and in type of civilization, mistakes have been made ; at times, even unfit agents have been employed, and frequently the best results have not been attained ; but, on the whole, it is questionable whether we shall find elsewhere in modern history an instance of an administration of alien territory carried on more unselfishly in the face of annoying opposition of the most exasperating character, or an example of more energetic, more efikient, or wiser constructive statesmanship than has been shown in the creation of this new government in the Philippine Islands. It has been already stated that the United States Government, in assuming the responsibility of the Philippine Islands, thought it necessary to take upon itself the sovereignty and to administer the government itself. -V most important ([ueslion arising at the begin- ning was that as to the relationship l)et\veen the government of the Islands when it should be established, and the federal Government in the United States. At tlic beginning tlie occupation was military in character. I'nder the authority (^f the Secretary of War and with the help of the army (^rder was first established ; then, to a con- siderable degree, a ci\il government, including tlie facilities for education (^f many of the children, the rcgul.ir administration of civil and criminal law, and the orderly administration of society as regards ])rotcction to business; and. somewhat later, under ofiicials not primarily military officers, there was established even a civil 360 COLONIES OF THE WORLD government in the full sense of that term. From the time of the occupation of the city of Manila, then, August 13, 1898, until the act of Congress, July i, 1902, was put into effect, the government is to be considered practically as an exercise in captured territory of the war powers of the President applied in civil matters. By the act of July I, 1902, Congress gave to the Philippine Islands substantially the status of a territory of the United States, subject entirely, under the general provisions of the constitution, to the will of Congress, which may either enact legislation itself directly, or may delegate its legislative authority to such agents as it may select to commis- sions under the appointment of the President, or, if it thinks it better, to the people of the Islands themselves under whatever restrictions it sees fit to impose. It is instructive to consider briefly the advantages to the Filipinos of this system of government by congressional will as compared with the advantages which they would have enjoyed if the Islands had been given the position of a State of the United States, as has been advocated by some of the most prominent Fili- pinos, who, while welcoming the sovereignty of the United States as a necessity of the situation, still believe that more power should be given to the native Filipinos. In the consideration, political as well as industrial, of the rela- tionship existing between the Philippines and the United States, one should never lose sight of the distance of the Islands, geograph- ically, from the home country, of the differences in climate, and of the differences in populations. If the Philippine Islands were to be admitted as a State of the Union, it would not be possible, under our constitution, for them to levy any export duties, nor to have any import tariff system separate from that of the United States. Whatever we may think of our present tariff system at home, there can be but one opinion regarding the effect upon the Philippine Islands of extending the system to them. The tariff which has now been provided for them under act of Congress is, on the whole and in spite of a few anomalies, suited to their needs, both as regards tlie revenue which it supplies, and its relations to the industries of tlie Islands. The United States tariff, framed for entirely different conditions, would be simply ruinous from either point of view. Of less importance than the question of tlie tariff, but still of grave significance fur the welfare of the Islands, is the monetary sys- THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 361 tern. It has been possible under the territorial form of government for Congress to provide a system far better adapted to the conditions of the Islands and to the customs of the people than would be the system of the United States itself; but, had the Islands taken the position of a State, no such special provision could have been made. The coastwise traffic of the United States, as is well known, must be carried on in American bottoms. It has been repeatedly proposed to extend this system to the inter-island traffic of the Philippine Islands, but Congress has from time to time postponed such extension under its special power over the territory in its charge, and has lately again extended the period for the applica- tion of the United States coastwise commerce laws until the year 1909; while under its authority the Government of the Philippine Islands has enacted laws suitable to local conditions providing for the inter-island traffic. Doubtless other instances might readily be found in which the Philippines now enjoy the possibility and actuality of legislation and administration adapted to their special needs, whereas if they were under State government they would be, of necessity, compelled to accept laws suitable to tlie other States of the Union, but markedly unsuitable to tlieir cduditions. Although, as we sliall sec. Congress has perhaps not in all instances been as liberal in its independent legislation as the Filipinos may very properly desire, it still has done more in many res]iects in the making of suitable laws than would be possible if the Philippines were admitted as a State of the Union, to say nothing of the vcr}- serious objections that would be raised to any such proposition on the part of many of the inhabitants of the United States. Attention is called to this situation ]M-imarily because statehood has been ad- vocated by some of the wisest and most influential of the Filipinos themselves. The fears of the Spaniards and also of many of the Filipinos in the earlier days that, inasmucli as tlic pe(>plc of the United States are in large niaJDrily I'mlcslant, tlicir goxernmcnt would inter- fere with the riglits or with tlic freedom of action of eitlier the Roman Catholic Church or of tlie rhilip])ine people, most of wlioni are Roman C.'itholics, has ])ro\-cd utterly unfounded. Full free- dom of religion has l)ccn enforced. Owing to the fcelir.g of hostil- ity against nianv o\ llic Spanisli friars, llicy were advised not to attempt to return to the parishes from which they had tied at the 362 COLONIES OF THE WORLD time of the Filipino insurrection, but when in individual instances they have thought it best to return, their personal safety has been cared for by the American Government. On account of the hostility displayed by the people against the friars, it was thought best for the Government of the Philippine Islands to purchase the lands owned by the friars and use it for public purposes for the benefit of the Filipinos themselves. The Holy See, recognizing that while the Filipinos were, generally speak- ing, Roman Catholics, they were also bitterly opposed to the Spanish friars, thought it wise to supply them priests who would be accept- able. In consequence, the archbishop and bishops appointed to the Philippine Islands since the American occupation have attempted to supply the religious needs of the people by sending to them priests who are acceptable to them. Then the Insular Government has purchased the lands of the friars at an expense, all told, of $6,934,427.36. The funds to make these purchases were obtained through the sale of the bonds of the Philippine Government. The administration of the lands thus purchased has been put under the control of the Bureau of Public Lands, which, as rapidly as possible, is leasing the lands with the intention of subdividing and selling them to the occupants on time, and at a price substantially that of the first cost to the Government. It seems probable that, generally speaking, the former tenants of the religious orders who are the present occupants will become the owners of these lands at very reasonable rates. Even though the Government itself should suffer some financial loss, the removal of this disturbing question from the possibility of political controversy is a matter for congratulation. Within the Church itself, there has been, as is well known, a bitter controversy involving the ownership and possession of many of the churches. Bishop Aglipay organized an independent Filipino Church, which, with the approval of the local authorities, in many cases occupied a larger number of the churches, convents, and ceme- teries. These properties, having been formerly under the control of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Church, at that time the sole orga- nized religious body in the Islands, naturally have been claimed by that organization. In some cases the Aglipayans have dispossessed tlie Roman Catholics; in others the Roman Catholics have been able to hold possession, and have even dispossessed their rivals. J\Iean- time the Government has held itself entirely free from taking sides except to protect life and property. It has determined that this dif- THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 363 fictilt question must be settled by the courts in due form, and in order to close as soon as possible these controversies, which are naturally carried on with much bitterness, it has, by special legisla- tion, given cases of this kind precedence in the courts. When, further, it is borne in mind that Roman Catholics among the Americans, so far as they have shown themselves fit, have been freely appointed to positions as teachers in the public schools ; that nearly all of the Filipino teachers are Roman Catholics; that no discrimination has been made against Roman Catholics in ap- pointment to public office; and that one of the American members of the Commission is himself a Roman Catholic, while another has had close affiliation with that church, it becomes clear that all fear of interference with freedom of worship is baseless. One of the most noteworthy facts in connection with American administration has been its care for the public health. In March, 1902, cholera broke out in the Islands, and becoming epidemic con- tinued throughout practically the entire year of 1903. The number of cases in all amounted to 150,000, and the number of deaths to more than 100,000. Generally speaking, the number of deaths and cases was much larger in the provinces which were scourge-afflicted than in Manila. The difficulties of control seemed at first almost insurmountable. The people had no knowledge of the nature of the disease or of its source. In consequence they were inclined to be suspicious of the sanitary measures proposed by the American physicians and officials; tlicy concealed, so far as possible among themselves, cases of the disease, often even throwing the bodies of the dead into the streams, wliich became thereby thoroughly in- fected with the germs, and in many cases they opposed actively the measures taken in their bclialf. Tlieir remetlics as a rule were con- fined to ])rayers. to the wearing of charms, and to similar supersti- tions, wliile thev continued to drink infected water and to conduct their lives regardless (jf the sanitary precautions recommended by the medical autliorilies. First, in the city of ^lanila, the Government was able, through its police force, strengthened greatly by special ap])ointments for the jnu'pose, to kec]) the city clean, and l(^ a considerable extent to enforce rigid ins[)Cciion of the markets and other places for obtain- ing food supplies. Tlie go\-crnrnont ice ])]ant supph'ed distilled water free for all the ])oorcr ])coplo who cared [o come to the plant to get it, a rigid {|uarauiiue of cholera cases was maintained, patients and S64i COLONIES OF THE WORLD those in infected houses were taken to detention quarters until dan- ger of further infection had been removed, and through these rigor- ous measures the disease was never allowed to become a serious menace to those who took any care of their health, and was com- paratively soon put down. Throughout the provinces sanitary boards, acting generally in concert with the American military and civil officers, were organized as rapidly as possible. There was, however, very great ignorance on the part of many of the natives, even among the officials, and in many cases it did not prove practicable to enforce the same rigid systems of administration that had been found effective in Manila. Nevertheless, very much was accomplished in the way of saving life and, particularly, perhaps, as the disease gradually spent its force or was brought under control, in the way of showing the natives that these extraordinary efforts on the part of the Gov- ernment were made in the interest of the people themselves. When later, in August, 1905, the disease appeared again at Manila and also at a few places in the interior not far removed from iManila, it was found much easier to keep it under control. A strict quarantine was imposed to prevent the spread of the disease by sea to other islands or provinces. A cholera hospital was established in Manila to take charge of all cases ex- cepting those in Bilibid Prison, which were managed inde- pendently. An educational campaign was undertaken throughout the Islands by proper instructions translated into Spanish and the more important dialects, and these were widely distributed. The efficiency of the school system in this direction was very marked, as these directions were assigned as regular lessons to the school chil- dren throughout the Islands, and they were told to give the informa- tion thus received to their parents. The provincial and municipal authorities were supplied also with the directions, which they were instructed to make known to the people, and if necessary to put them into force by the passage of the needed ordinances. The Chief of Constabulary distributed the information in the same way through the constabulary posts. In this last outbreak of cholera, in a spirit quite different from that manifested by many of the church authorities before, the American Archbishop Harty of the Catholic Church, and Bishop Aglipay of the independent Filipino Church, CDoperated witli the authorities in distributing this information through the priests in all parts of the islands, and in getting them to THE PHILIPriNE ISLANDS 365 tell the truth regarding the epidemic from their pulpits, and to en- join upon the people the necessity of taking proper precautions. On account of the improved relations existing between the people and the authorities, in every part of the Islands where cases appeared, it proved possible to give information promptly, and the disease was thus easily suppressed. Whereas, before, the epidemic cost more than 100,000 lives, in 1905 the disease was stamped out w^ith a loss of only a few hundreds and only some two to three hundred in the city of Manila. The authorities seem also to have been able to get and keep con- trol of the bubonic plague. Although in tw^o or three of the most important cities there have been a few cases a large part of the time, it has been possible to prevent the disease from becoming epidemic. A good hospital for the insane has been established. A leper colony which had been under consideration for some years has finally been put into effective condition during the last year, so that as rap- idly as possible lepers are being segregated. Some valuable medical discoveries seem also to have been made in connection with the treat- ment of leprosy, although as yet it is too early for the physicians to express more than some degree of hope of the general success of their experiments. It is known that in individual cases they have proved successful. Smallpox had been prevalent in some of the provinces of the Islands for many years, and many people show the evidence of the ravages of this disease under tlie earlier forms of government. In some of the worst provinces it has been possible practically to eradi- cate the disease. In one year in the city of Manila more than 200,000 persons were vaccinated by the Pioard of Health, besides those vaccinated by jirivatc physicians. The number of cases and deaths are now so few as to be almost negligible, jTractically all of the cases in Manila coming in from outside. In the provinces the campaign against the (h'scasc is being steadily carried on. ]\Iore than a million ])e(^plc, o\-cr onc-ciglith of the entire ])opulation, were vaccinated during the yerir if)(\;, and it seems probable that within a short time the disease will be as well under control in the Philip- pines as in the I'nitcd States. P)esidcs the vqvv effect i\-e measures taken by the Government in getting control of rk. loonl. Contents: Reji'^rt ot llie committee in colonics, pp. 17-20; French colonial fiscal system, by b'dwin K. ."^i. lii;nian, pn. _'0-30 : Cjennan colonial fiscal system, by Isidore Loeb, pp. 40-7J : Initch Co|orii;il fiscal system, by Clive Day, pp. y^- T04: Italy's experience wiili colonies, by .\llxTt CI. Keller, pp. 105-III; Spanish colonial policy, by I'rank W. Pilaekniar, pp. 11J-143; Danish colonial fiscal system in the \N"e-t Indies, by C. W. Tooke, pp. I44-I(')7; Finances in the P>riti-^h West Indies, by Charles W. Hull, pp. i(>(m88: Fiscal system of F.,!;vpt, liv ]]. W . KenmuTer, jin. 1S0-J17; Fiiiance< of British possessions in South .Xfrica, by Kolaiul P. F.alkner, pp. 217-202: English colonial liscal sys- tems in the J"ar I'ar^t, by Jereni':il; W. Jer.k-. pp. 2(13-303. 'AVI 398 BIBLIOGRAPHY Institut Colonial International. " Comptes vendues de la session 1895." Paris, 1S95. Biennial volumes. Proceedings of the Institut, with reports, addresses and papers read before it. " Bibliotlieque Coloniale Internationale." i^ ser. " La main d'ceuvre aux colo- nies," 3 vols.; 2^ ser. " Les functionnaires coloniaux" 2 vols.; j^ ser. " Le regime fonder aux colonics," 4 vols.; 4^ ser. " Le regitne des protectorats," 2 vols. Bruxelles, 1895-9. I3 vols. 3vo. This is a valuable collection of original documents, laws, treaties, and others of general interest, with translations of the same into French. The collec- tion deals with present conditions in the colonies of all European nations, not with the historj^ of the past. A 5th series is announced, "Les chemin de fcrs aux colonies et dans les pays ncufs." Ireland, Alleyne. " Tropical Colonization : An introduction to the study of the subject." London, 1899. An attempt " to lay down the general facts of colonization " and to discuss tropical problems in general in the light of all European experience in the tropics, treating methods of government, labor supply and effects upon the ruling state. The conclusions of this popular work are to be accepted with reserve. The account of the Dutch culture system in Java, for instance, is based upon Meney's discredited book, in apparent ignorance of the Dutch sources of information. The bibliography (pp. 227-259), classified by nations and their several dependencies, om.its many works of importance. Leroy-Beaulieu, Pierre Paul. " De la colonisation chcz les peuplcs viodernes. S^ edition. Complctcment renianice et considcrablcment aiigmentce." 2 vols. Paris, 1902. This well-known work by an eminent economist treats of the history and principles of colonization. The first part is historical, dealing in a prelimi- nary chapter with the period before the nineteenth century and then with the subsequent period, taking up each colonizing nation in detail. The second part discusses the general principles of colonization, the economic and social conditions necessary to its success, and the economic and other advantages resulting from it. There is no systematic bibliograpb.y and few exact refer- ences to authorities. Lowell, A. Lawrence. " Colonial Civil Service : The Selection and Training of Colonial Officials in Holland, England and France." With an account of the East India College at Haileybury (1806-1857), by H. ^lorse Stephens. New York, 1900. The best and most complete book in English on the subject. The author visited the countries named and personally investigated the methods of train- ing men for the colonial service. Under each country he reviews the history and describes present conditions. He includes illustrative documents, such as commissioners' reports, specimen examination papers and programmes, courses of study, etc. He believes European methods inapplicable in the United States, and suggests a national college specially devoted to the train- in'^' of colonial officials. Tlie description of Haileybury before its conversion into an ordinary lioy.^' scl:ool is by a former pupil, by training an.d tradition familiar with the British Indian service. IMerivalc, Herman. "Lectures on Colonization: Delivered Before the Univer- sity ()f Oxford in 18,^9, 1840 and 1S41." 2 vols. London, 1841-1842. 2d cd. London, J061. 'I hi-; v.- H-kTiown v. ' rk is cliicny concerned with the economic and social tli'ory of colonization. A brief fir^t part gives an historical accoimt of the J' ".^Te-:. Oi ihe cohv.'.ies of modern ICurope; Part il deals with the economic BIBLIOGRAPHY 399 effects of colonization in the parent state; and Part III with the progress of wealth and society in the colonies. Morris, Henry C. " History of Colonization from the Earliest Times to the Present Day." 2 vols. New York, 1900. This ambitious work is based upon secondary authorities which are used without critical discrimination. It includes much matter concerning the general history of commerce rather than colonization, and treats inade- quately the colonial undertakings of ancient and mediaeval times, but gives a good account of modern colonization. The bibliography of 30 pages is uncritical, omitting many works of importance and including many of little value. Rcinscli, Paul Samuel. "Colonial Government: An Introduction to the Study of Colonial Institutions." (Citizens' Library.) New York and London, 1902. A brief outline of the colonial policy of the several European powers. Part I, Motives and methods of colonization ; Part 11, General forms of colonial government; Part III, Institutions of colonial government. Economic and social problems as distinguished from institutional forms are not discussed. There are bibliographical references at the end of each chapter. Roscher, Wilhelm. " Koli)nii-)t. Kol()>ualpoliiik und Auswandcruug. j?'^ vcrbcs- scrtc, vcnnclirlc, uiid zum TJicil S. A scholarly work by a trained economist and statistician; especially valuable for immigration into the United States, its history, causes and effects. A brief bibliography is given at the end of tlic work (pp. 303-30S). "Statesman's Year fJook : Statistical and historical animal of the states of the world for tlic years 1864-1006." 43 vols. -f. London, 1864-1906. This trustworthy rnmnal of statistical and descriptive information devotes a brief space to the colonics and dependencies of each nation. The British empire is tir-\ iniportaiu >o;ircrs and secoiuk'.ry auiliorities and maps. - "Welt fi'i'itisclics: Bcilragc ui:d Stnd:--;i z'.ir )<.niri\'ii Koloiiialhrtcrguiif;." P.crlin. iooi. Collected e~--;.y^ wliicli nirn- lu^ n-cd to ,s;;pplrini-!it ihe aruhor'.- " Pir curi'!- /^disc!:L-)i /\'()/-'i:.'Vr." treating of: E.ngli-h ehanered companie^; Cecil Rhodes; 400 BIBLIOGRAPHY End of the Boer republics; Australian commonwealth; Famines in India; French shore in Newfoundland; (French) West Africa; Africa as a field for international trade ; End of the Spanish colonial empire ; Pan-Ameri- canism; Monroe doctrine; Abyssinia; Russia and India; Russia in China; German trade interests in China, etc. PORTUGUESE COLONIES Beazley, Charles Raymond. " Prince Henry the Navigator, the Hero of Por- tugal and Modern Discovery, 1394-1460 a.d." ("Heroes of the Nations.") New York, 1895. A good brief account of the progress of geographical knowledge during the Middle Ages and of the life and work of the inspirer and promoter of the Portuguese search for a water route to the East. Bourne, Edward Gaylord. "Essays in Historical Criticism." (Yale bicenten- nial publications.) New York, 1901. This volume, by an historical scholar eminent in this field, contains admir- able brief critical accounts of Prince Henry the Navigator, his purposes, methods and character (pp. 173-189), and of the Demarcation line of Pope Alexander VI (pp. 193-217), which divided the world, for colonial purposes, between Portugal and Spain, including treaties and other diplomatic acts confirming and amending the division. The footnotes contain valuable bib- liographical references. Major, Richard Henry. "Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, Surnamed the Navigator, and its Results, Comprising the Discovery, within One Century, of Half the World; from Authentic Contemporary Documents." Lon- don, 1868. A learned and critical but controversial account of the discoveries of the 15th and early i6th centuries. A second edition (1874) presents the ma- terial in more brief and popular form. Southey, Robert. " History of Brazil." 3 vols. London, 1810-1819. These bulky volumes contain a good narrative history of the colony to the date of the arrival of the royal family in 1808. Continued in Armitage, John. " History of Brazil from the Arrival of the Braganza Family in 1808 to the Abdication of Don Pedro I in 183 1, Compiled from State Documents and Other Original Sources ; Forming a Continuation of Southey's Plistory of that Country." 2 vols. London, 1836. The author was for many years a resident of Brazil. His painstaking nar- rative includes the end of the colonial period (1808-1822). He prints im- portant documents in the appendix of Vol. 2 (pp. 157-297). Watson, R. G. Spanish and Portuguese South America during the Colonial Period. 2 vols. London, 1884. (Noted below tmder Spanish colonies.) Zimmermann, Alfred.- ^' Die Kolonialpolitik Portugals unci Spajiiciis . . ." Berlin, 1896. (Volume i of his "Die curopaischcn Kolonieti," noted above under Colonization in General: Theory and History.) SPANISH COLONIES Bancroft. ITuluTt Howe. "History of Central America" (Works, vols. 6-8). San Francisco, 1882-1887. "History of ^Icxico, 1516-1887" (Works, vols. 0-14). San Francisco, 188]- BIBLIOGRAPHY 401 "California Pastoral, 1769-1848" (Works, vol. 34). San Francisco, 1888. There is a good general account of the Spanish colonial system in the " His- tory of Central America" (vol. i, chap, v), and a good description of Mexican life and institutions at the end of the colonial epoch in the conclu- sion of the third volume of the " History of Mexico." In " California Pas- toral " the missions in California are described. For his " History of the Pacific States," of which the foregoing volumes arc parts, Mr. Bancroft collected a vast mass of sources, which were indexed, classified and used by a corps of writers under his direction in the compilation of his extensive work. His bibliographies are very full and valuable, his statements verified by references to the authorities. The bulk of the work and the fact that it is in a field not worked before are sufficient answers to the critics who complain of improper emphasis and lack of proportion. Blair, Emma Helen, and James Alexander Robertson, editors. " The Philippine Islands, 1493- 1898." Translations from contemporaneous books and man- uscripts, with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne. Cleveland, 1903. To be completed in 55 vols. The most extensive publication of Philippine documents ever undertaken, beginning with the bull of Alexander VI establishing the demarcation line between the spheres of Portugal and Spain, and ending with the American occupation. It was originally projected to end with 1803. Prof. Bourne's introduction (vol. i) of 70 pages is the best sketch of Philippine history in English, and contains valuable bibliographical references in the footnotes. Bourne, Fdward Gaylord. " Spain in America, 1450-1580." With maps. (" The American Nation," edited by A. B. Hart, vol. 3.) New York and London, 1904- Narrative of the discovery of America, exploration of the coast line and of the interior of North America, Magellan's circumnavigation, the struggle between Spain and France for Florida, together with a critical account (pp. 202-319) of the Spanish colonial system and a critical essay upon the author- ities. The book is written from the sources by a scholar of high repute. It states the conclusion of modern scholarship as to the discoveries, and gives one of the best accounts in English of the Spanish colonial system. The author's conclusions are favorable to Spanish character and civilization, and he emphasizes Spanish achievement in civilizing the Indians. Dobrizhoffer, Martin. " Account of the Abipones, an Equestrian People of Paraguay." From the Latin. [Translation by Sara Coleridge.] 3 vols. London, 1822. This is the most important original account of the Jesuit missions in Para- guay. The author was a member of the mission and gives a full and interesting picture of the life of the Indians. Foreman, John. "'The Philippine Islands: A Political. Geographical, Ethno- graphical. Social and Connncrcial llistory of the Philippine Archipelago and its Political Dcpcnck-ncies, Embracing the Whole Poricid of Spanish Rule." _'(! cd. Revised and enlarged with maps and illuitrations. New York, 1S90. The author is well acquainted with the Philippines and gives a concise and trustworthy account of their history and conditions at the close of the Spanish dniniuiou. Graham, R. 15. Cunningham. " .V Vanished .Vrcadia: Being Some .Account of the Jesuits in Paraguay, 1607-1767." With a map. New York, 1901. The aiUhdr has traveled and lived in South .\merica and i-^ well acqu.iinted with the soiirees and literature of his subject. He writes with vig(jr as an advocate of the mission sv>tein. 402 BIBLIOGRAPHY Haebler, Konrad. "The Colonial Kingdom of Spain; The War of Independ- ence in the South." [In Vol. I of "The History of the World: A Survej-- of Man's Record," edited by Hans F. Helmolt, with an introduction by James Boyce. New York, 1902. German edition, Berlin, Vienna, 1899.] These are Chapters 5 and 8 of the author's " America," which is itself Part V of this volume, giving excellent accounts of the colonial system and wars of independence in Spanish America. The English translation is obscure and the German edition of the work is far cheaper and less bulky than the English version. Helps, Sir Arthur. " The Spanish Conquest in America." 4 vols. London and New York, 1855-1861. New ed. by Oppenhcim, 1900. This standard work was written from the point of view of a philanthropist, and treats fully the status of the Indians and the beginnings of slavery. The author's purpose was to make a contribution to the history of slavery. His book is not a narrative, but a study of causes and results. Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von. " Personal Narrative of Travels." Translated by Helen Maria Williams. 7 vols. London, 1818-1829. Same. Translated by Thomasina Ross. 3 vols. London, 1852-1853. " Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain." Translated by John Black. 2 vols. London and New York, 181 1. " The Island of Cuba." Translated by J. S. Thrasher. New York, 1856. Humboldt's travels, originally published in French (" Voyage aux Regions Equinoxiales du Nonvca^i Continent, 1/99-1804." 29 vols. Paris, 1807-1817), is the best source of our knowledge of actual conditions in the later colonial days of Mexico, Cuba, and the northeastern part of South America. The English translations ("Personal Narrative of Travels") include the "Po- litical Essay on the Island of Cuba," which has also been separately trans- lated by Thrasher from a Spanish translation of the original, with a prelim- inary essay and notes bringing the statistics down to 1856. The " Political Essay on New Spain" was included in the original "Voyage aux Regions Equinoxiales du Nouvcau Continent," but is not in the English " Personal Narrative of Travels." The separate translation by Black is incomplete. Juan y Santacilia, Jorge and Antonio de Ulloa. " Voyage to South America." Translated by John Adams. 2 vols. London, 1758. This report by two Spanish naval officers is of great value for its descrip- tion of conditions in New Grenada and Peru. It was first printed in Spanish in 1748. Their secret report (" Noticias secretas dc America." London. 1S26. not translated), exposes the corruption of political and social life. Lea, Henry C. "The Indian Policy of Spain." [In "Yale Review," Vol. 8, pp. 119-155, August, 18991 A critical study by the most eminent of living American liistorical scholars, dealing with the policy of Spain toward the American natives and the career of Las Casas. Lowcry, Woodbury. "The Spanish Sclllcments within the Present Limits of the United States, 1513-1561." With ]Maps. New York and London, 1901. A careful narrative of discovery, exploration and settlement in the Gulf region. New IMcxico, Arizona and California, containing a good account of the missions. Footnotes contain bibliographical references. IMoses, Bernard. " The Establishment of Spanish Rule in America." New York, 1898. -V brief and clear account of the governmental organization of the Spanish- American colonies. Pons, Frangois-Raimond Joseph de. " Voyage to the Eastern Part of Terra B I B L I O G R A P PI Y 403 Firma or the Spanish Main in South America, 1801-1804; Translated by an American Gentleman [Washington Irving]." 3 vols. New York, 1806. The author was the French government agent at Caracas, and gives one of the best descriptions of colonial life just before the war of independence. Especially valuable for the administrative, religious and commercial systems. Robertson, William. "History of America." 2 vols. London, 1777. Book VIII of this once famous work gives an account of the administrative and commercial systems in the Spanish colonies which is still valuable. Roschcr, Wilhelm. " The Spanish Colonial System . . ." Translation edited by Edward Gaylord Bourne. New York, 1904. This translation of one chapter of Roscher's " Kolonicn" (noted above under Colonization in General: Theory and History), makes available to the gen- eral reader one of the best accounts of the Spanish colonial system. The bibliographical footnotes of the original are enriched by the editor's addi- tions, especially by noting b'.nglish translations of the sources cited by Roscher. Walton, Clifford Stevens. " The Civil Law in Spain and Spanish America." Washington, 1900. Contains brief accounts of the development of the civil law in Spain and Spanish America, of the laws of the Indies and of Mexico, with translations of the Mexican constitution, of the Cuban autonomous constitution of 1897, of the principal Spanish laws in force in Cuba. Porto Rico and the Philip- pines, and of the Spanish civil code. The la>t is very fully annotated. Watson, Robert Grant. " Spanish and Portuguese .America Durir.g the Colonial Period." 2 vols. Loiidon. 1884. This is the best gcuL-ral narrative in luiglish of the history of colonial South America as a whole. Worcester, Dean Coiiant. "The Philippine Ishmcls and their People: A Record of Personal Observation and I'.xperience, with a Short Summary of the !More Important Facts in the llistorv of the Archipelago." New York, 1898. The author gets his history from Foreman (noted above), but his account of present conditions lias independent value. Ho was in tlie islands on scientiiic expeditions in 1887-1888 and 1890-1893, and his book is a record of his experiences. Zimmcrmann, Alfred. " Pic Koloiiialpolitiic Pnrtiif^ah unci Spaiiic;is." Berlin, 1896. (Volume I of liis " /);'c' ritropaisclu')! Kolonicn," noted above under Colonization in Gi,-nera' : 'I'liecrv and History.) P.RITIS! I COLOXIF.S GFXFRAL Beer, George Louis. " Tlu- C^ niin.ri-ial Pnlicy of I'ngland Toward the Ameri- can Colonic-. " ( L'dltunlii.i C^'Hecje Snidie- in Hi-tory . . . Vol. 3. No. 2.) New Vnvk. [Sw3. A scholarly acccrnu of llie ;iavii;;itii^n acts and other measures of the Briti.^h g(-iverrinio!;t ro-^iriclii!,^-. reLr.'I.'uin.L;' am! encoi'.ra^'.ng cnlonial commerce and indu-'lry, -howin,<_r tlial the !lriii-h i-..)liey, thouLjli mi- ;- l;:\-i 1; .: ;i,). 150-11". " I'.ritish l-.ninire Sit: -." | l..ci;;r;- at ;' Siint'i l'l;u-e Institute.] .; voI<. Lon- don, iSoo-lofw Popular lecture- given ni London to -pre;id triistworthy information as to 404 BIBLIOGRAPHY all parts of the empire. (Vol. I, India, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, British North Borneo and Hong-Kong; Vol. 2, British Africa; Vol. 3, British America; Vol. 4, Australasia.) The lecturers differed in ability, scope of treatment and points of view. Chalmers, George, Editor. " Opinions of Eminent Lawyers on Various Points of English Jurisprudence, Chiefly Concerning the Colonies, Fisheries and Commerce of Great Britain ..." 2 vols. London, 1814. Burlington, 1858. A valuable record of the current of legal opinion in England upon the rela- tions between Great Britain and her American colonies, chiefly in the eighteenth century. Cunningham, William. " Growth of English Industry and Commerce." 3 vols. Cambridge, 1896- 1903. A work of high value dealing with the progress of agriculture, manufac- tures, trade, colonies, shipping, economic opinion, and other topics of eco- nomic history. (Vol. i, Early and Middle Ages; Vols. 2-3, Modern Times.) For bibliography see Vol. i, pp. 651-673, and Vol. 3, pp. 943-998. The appendices contain illustrative documents, statistical tables, etc. Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth " Problems of Greater Britain." With maps. London and New York, 1890. " A treatise on the present position of Greater Britain, :n which special attention has been given to the relations of the English-speaking countries with one another, and to the comparative politics of the countries under British government." The several colonies are treated individually. Egerton, Hugh Edward. " A Short History of British Colonial Policy." Lon- don, 1897; New York, 1898. A scholarly work based on a thorough study of the printed and manuscript sources. The narrative is divided into five periods : i. Beginnings, 1497- 1650; 2, Trade ascendency, 1651-1830; 3, Granting responsible government, 1831-1860; 4, Laissez-aller; 5, Greater Britain. For bibliography, see pp. 481-489. " Origin and Growth of the English Colonies and of their System of Gov- ernment : An Introduction to C. P. Lucas's Historical Geography of the British Colonies." Oxford, 1903. An excellent brief sketch of English colonial development, with special reference to the local political systems of the colonies and their connection with the home government. There are also chapters on the mercantile sys- tem, the age of discovery and the other European colonizing powers, ancient and modern. Bibliographical references at the end of each chapter. Great Britain. Board of Trade. " Statistical Abstract for the Several Colonial and Other Possessions of the United Kingdom." London. This annual publication gives important official statistics of the several colonies and dependencies. Colonial Office. " Colonial Office List . . ." London, annual. An annual publication giving valuable historical and statistical information about the several colonies and dependencies. Compiled from official records. Jenk>ais, Sir Henry. " British Rule and Jurisdiction Beyond the Seas ; with a Preface by Sir Courtenay Ilbert." Oxford, 1902 An excellent account of the legal side of the British colonial system. The author's long experience as parliamentary counsel of the treasury especially qualified him for his work. Jenks, Jeremiah W. " Report on Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch Colonies of the Orient." Washington, 1902. BIBLIOGRAPHY 405 This report of a commissioner of the United States deals with forms of government, currency, Chinese immigration, taxation, etc., and covers Java, the Straits Settlements, Burma, Egypt, India and Ceylon. Lucas, Charles Prestwood. " A Historical Geography of the British Colonies." 5 vols. +. Oxford and New York, 1888-1901. The author aims to give a connected account of the colonies, of the geo- graphical and historical reasons for their belonging to England, and of the special place which each colony holds in the empire. His materials are carefully gathered and skillfully used. (Vol. i, European dependencies, minor Asiatic dependencies, British dependencies in the Malay seas; Vol. 2, West Indies, British Guiana, British Honduras, Falkland Islands, South Georgia; Vol. 3, British Africa; Vol, 4, South and East Africa (in two parts) ; Vol. 5, Canada, Part i.) Seeley, Sir John Robert. " The Expansion of England : Two Courses of Lec- tures." London and Boston, 1883. A suggestive and stimulating book treating separately the American colonies and India, characterized by breadth of view and simplicity of style. Tarring, Charles James. " Chapters on the Law Relating to the Colonies." London, 1882. Same. 2d ed. enlarged. London, 1893. A valuable legal treatise upon the legal side of the colonial system as shown in British statutes and in the decisions of the English courts. Todd, Alpheus. " Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies." Boston, 1880. 2d ed. London and New York, 1894. A convenient handbook of the parliamentary government in its practical operation in the self-governing colonies, with chapters on the relations of the sovereign to parliamentary government, the application of parliamentary government to colonial institutions, the history of its introduction into the colonies, and the position and functions of a colonial governor. Woodward, W. H. " A Short History of the Expansion of the British Empire, 1500-1870." Cambridge, 1899. A brief and clear narrative of British colonization, including India and other dependencies, from its l)eginnings. With maps. Zimmermann, Alfred. "Die KoloiiialpoUtik, Grosshritaiimcns" (Vols. 2-3 of his ''Die curopaischcn Koloiiicit." Noted above under Colonization in General; Theory and History). BRITISH COLONIES ASIA AND AFRICA For books on India and Africa, see the volumes of this series devoted to these regions respectively. James Brycc's "Impressions of South Africa" (3d ed., London, 1S99), gives a good account of the phy>ical features, climate, con- ditions, history and race problems of that country, with valuable maps. His "Two South African Constitutions" (Forion. .April. tSessions of tlie lir.-t parlirnnent." 2 vols. I 903- 1904. 'I hese volumes contain the federal constitution and all acts passed up to ()ctol)er. T(;i)3. inchiding tile important acts org.anizing the sever;il depart- ments of t!ie new federal '.ur, ernnient. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 407 BRITISH COLONIES AMERICA For Canada see also French colonies (noted below). This list does not include books dealing with the colonial era of the United States. Bourinot, Sir John George. " Canada under British Rule, 1760-1900." (" Cam- bridge Historical Series.") Cambridge and New York, 1900. "The Story of Canada" ("Story of the Nations"). New York and Lon- don, 1896. These are good popular histories in brief form by a competent scholar and government official. " The Story of Canada " covers all Canadian history from Cabot's voyage to 1891. (Bibliographical note pp. xix-xx.) The other work is largely concerned with the evolution of self-government and confederation. (Bibliography pp. 327-330.) Boyce, George. "A Short History of the Canadian People." London, 1887. A good sketch of Canadian history to 1886, crowded with facts. There are bibliographic references at the head of each chapter. " The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company, Including that of the French Traders of Northwestern Canada and of the Northwest, X. Y., and Astor Fur Companies." London and New York, 1900. This is the best history of this great trading and governing monopoly. The author is personally familiar with his field, and his account is especially full for the period since the amalgamation of all the British fur interests in North America. Much of his information was from the lips of survivors. A list of authorities and references is given on pp. 481-486. Eden, Charles Henry. " The West Indies." London, 1880. A brief summary of West Indian history, with special reference to the British possessions there, based upon secondary authorities. Edwards, Bryan. " History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies." 5 vols, sth ed. London, 1819. The best work on the subject, accurate in matter and attractive in style. The fifth is the best edition. Kingsford, William. " History of Canada." 10 vols. Toronto and London, I 887 -I 898. This is the most extended and comprehensive history of Canada to the year 1841. Prowse, D. W. " A History of Newfoundland, from the English, Colonial and Foreign Records." 2d ed. revised and corrected. London, 1896. This standard work gives the history of the island from the time of the earliest settlement. It is based on very thorough research. Walker, H. de R. "The West Indies and the Empire: Study and Travel in the Winter of 1900-IQ01." London, 1901. This is the amplification of a paper read before the Royal Colonial Institute dealing with present conditions, the sugar industry, the Negro and the East Indian, taxation and administration, and travel in the West Indies. Willson, Beckles. " Tlie Great Company, 1667-1871 ; Being a History of the Honorable Company of Merchant .'\dventurers Trading into Hudson's Bay. Compiled from the Company's Archives, from Diplomatic Documents and State Papers of hVaiice and England, from the Narratives of Factors and Traders, and from Many Accounts and Memoirs." 2 vols. London, igoo. Gives an account of the commercial and political activities of the company. Less full than Boyce's volume (noted above) for the last So years. The 408 BIBLIOGRAPHY author's materials are indicated in the title. He uses them without literary art, but his pages are filled with valuable information. FRENCH COLONIES Bateson, Mary. " The French in America, 1608-1744." [In " Cambridge Mod- ern History," Vol. 7, pp. 70-113.] Cambridge, 1903. A good brief account of French colonial enterprise in America before the final struggle with England. Bibliography at the end of the volume. Bourne, H. E. "A French Colonial Experiment in the Far East." [In Yale Review, Vol. 8, May, 1899.] A short account of French colonization and conquest in Indo-China. Bradley, Arthur Granville. " The Fight with France for North America." Westminster and New York, 1900. An excellent account of the Seven Years' War in America, leading to the conquest of Canada. " The Conquest of Canada, 1744-1761." [In " Cambridge Modern History," Vol. 7, PP- II4-I43-] A good brief account of the same subject. Bibliography at the end of the volume. Gaffarel, Paul Louis Jacques. " Les Colonies Frangaises. 6^ edition, revue et augnicntce." Paris, 1899. Devotes a brief preliminary chapter to Frl\iisclu-ii I\olo)iicn!' noted al)ove under Ct)lonization in General: Theory and Hi^,tory.) 410 BIBLIOGRAPHY GERMAN COLONIES "Deutsche Kolonialseitung. Organ der Deutschen Kolonialgesellschaft, Redac' tcur, Gustav Mcineckc." Berlin, 1883, and following. A weekly journal, devoted to German Colonial interests. Fitzner, Rudolf. " Dentsches Kolonial-liandbuch nach amtlichen Quellen bcar- beitet." Berlin, annual. This annual gives under each colony statistics of population, trade, finance, personnel, etc. The issue for 1901 (2 vols., 2 erweiterte Auflage), has more full information of the same sort. Keller, Albert G. " Essays in Colonization." Reprinted from the Yale Review. Excellent brief studies of the recent colonial expansion of Germany and Italy. The footnotes contain valuable bibliographical references. Meinecke, Gustav. "Die deutschen Kolonien in Wort nnd Bild: Geschichte, Lander- und Volkerkunde, Tier- und PHancenwelt, Handels- und Wirt- schafts verhdltnisse der Schutzgehiete des deutschen Reiches." Leipzig, 1899. A short popular account of German colonization, profusely illustrated. There is a short sketch of the early colonial enterprise of Brandenburg- Prussia and of the beginning of the new. era. Each colony is then described separately. Schmidt, Rochus " Deutschland's Kolonien, ihre Gestaltung. Entzvickelung wild Hilfsquellcn." 2 vols. Berlin, 1895. These small volumes by an officer in the colonial service in East Africa aim to diffuse information about the German colonies in popular form, and thus stimulate popular interest in the colonization movement. There is an historical and descriptive account of each colony, its trade, missions, means of defense, economic undertakings and government. Many maps and illus- trations accompany the text. ITALIAN COLONIES Keller, Albert G. "Italian Expansion and Colonies." [In Yale Review, August, 1900. Reprinted in his " Essays in Colonization." Noted above under German Colonies.] A good brief narrative of the Italian colony of Eritrea. The footnotes con- tain valuable bibliographical references. "Italy's Experience with Colonies." [In " P'ssays in Colonization," noted above under Colonization in General: Theory and History.] COLONIES OF THE UNITED STATES See also Spanish Colonics ante. Algue, Jose. "Atlas de Filipinos, Colcccion dc 30 Mapas Trahajados por dcline- antcs Pilipiiios Bajo la Direccion del P. Jose Algue, S. J., Director del Ohscrvaiorio de Manila." (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Special Publication No. 3.) Washington, 1900. The best atlas of the Philippines. The preliminary text of 24 pages is in English. See also " Jesuit Fathers," below. BIBLIOGRAPHY 411 American Academy of Political and Social Science. " The Foreign Policy of the United States, Political and Commercial; Addresses and Discussions at the Annual Meeting, April 7-8, 1899." Philadelphia, 1889. A strong presentation of the argument for and against imperialism in the following addresses : Theodore S. Woolscy and A. Lawrence Lowell, " The Government of Dependencies;" E. W. Huffcutt, "Constitutional Aspect of the Government of Dependencies ; " W. Alleyne Ireland, Talcott Williams and L. S. Rowe, " The Government of Tropical Colonies ; " Carl Schurz, "Militarism and Democracy;" Worthington C. Ford, Robert T. Hill, John Ford, W. P. Wilson and E. R. Johnson, " Commercial Relations of the United States with the Far East ; " John Bassett Moore, " Political Rela- tions of the United States with the Far East ; " Wu Ting Fang, " China's Relations with the West;" Lindley Miller Keasby, "Political Relations of the United States with the European Powers in the Far East;" Frederick Wells Williams, " The Real Menace of Russian Aggression." Jesuit Fathers. "El archipelago Filipino, Colcccion dc Datos Gcographicos, Estadisticos, Cronologicos, y Cicntificos, Rclativos al mismo, Entrcsacados dc Antcriorcs Obras u Obtcnidos con la Propria Obscrvacion y Estudio por Algunos Padres dc la Mision de la Companion dc Jesus en Estas Islas." 2 vols. Washington, 1900. A valuable compendium of facts at the close of the Spanish rule. Accom- panied by an atlas. Sec above, Algue, Jose. Blackman, William Tremont. " The Making of Hawaii : A Study in Evolu- tion." New York, 1899. A sociological study of Hawaiian dev'clopment, with especial reference to the aboriginal population. Not a narrative history. Hart, Albert Bushnell. " Foundations of American Foreign Policy." With a Working Bibliography. New York, 1901. An historical account of the foreign relations of the L'initcd States in bound- ary disputes, military expeditions into foreign parts, relations with Cuba, territorial acquisitions and government, the Monroe Doctrine, etc. The final chapter is a tentative bibliograpliy of American diplomacy. Ireland, Alleyne. "American Administration in the Philippine Islands." [In Outlook, N. Y., Vol. 78, pp. 1026. 1082. Dec. 24 and 31. 1904.] Unfavorable criticism of the American policy in the Philippines, which the author thinks too liberal politically, with too much emphasis on education as contrasted with economic development. IMowry, William Augtistus. " Territorial Growth of the United States." New York, 1902. A popular narrative of American territorial expansion based upon secondary autlioritics. In the main trustworthy, but not entirely free from errors. Sawyer, Frederick H. " The Inhabitants of the Philippines." New York and London, 1900. A descriptive account of the several islands, their races, customs and reli- gions, with a brief historical sketch and much statistical material. The author resided fourteen years in the islands and " feels that no English book docs justice to tlic natives." Snow, Alpheus H. " TIic .Administration of Dependencies." New York, 1902. An investigation of tlie issues of the American revolution from the incep- tion of the colonies, and of the r( institutional clause giving Congress power over the territory of the I'nited State-, also of .American, European and British theory and practice since T787. The authnr's conclusion is that the United States may exercise imperial power over dependencies. 412 BIBLIOGRAPHY U. S. Secretary of War. " Five Years in the War Department Following the War with Spain, 1899- 1903, as Shown in the Annual Reports of the Secretary of War." Washington, 1904. In this volume are reprinted the annual reports of the Secretary of War (Elihu Root), omitting many appendices. It includes, among other mat- ters, the official history of the military government of Porto Rico, the military and civil administration of Cuba and the establishment of the Cuban republic, and the military and civil administration of the Philippines. The appendices here reprinted contain important documents, among them the full documentary history of the inauguration of the Cuban republic, includ- ing the Cuban constitution and the " Piatt amendment." Welsh, Herbert. " The Other Man's Country : An Appeal to Conscience." Philadelphia, 1900. An historical sketch of the last insurrection of the Filipinos against Spain and of the American occupation of the islands, with a strong argument against the policy of the United States in acquiring the Philippines and in suppressing the native insurrection therein. INDEX INDEX 'A Aberdeen, Earl of: refuses to use his power for parly purposes, 172 Aboukir: battle of (1799). 141 Abraham, Heights of: battle of (1759), 118 Acadia: named, 81; granted to Be Monts, 82; ceded to England, 85, 107; see also Nova Scotia Acapulco: founded, 51 Adelaide, South Australia: named, 190; settled, 193 Aden : history of, 252 Adowa: battle of (1896), 300 Afrikander Bund : rise of, 232 Aguinaldo, Emilio : leads uprising (1896), 314; leads Filipinos (1898), 315 ; captured, 317 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of (1748), 85, 107 Alaska: history of, 305 Alaskan Boundary Dispute, 307 Albany, New York: founded, 64 Albany, Western Australia : founded, 187 Albemarle, George Keppcl, Earl of : his expedition against Havana, 118 Alberta, Province of : created and ad- mitted to the Canadian union, 170 Albuquerque, Alfonso de: his adminis- tration in India, 41; estimate of, 46 Alexander, Sir William: see Stirling, William Alexander, Ivirl of Algeria : under French rule, 280 Almeida, Francisco de : first Portuguese viceroy of India, 41 Amboyna : massacre of (1623), 59; taken by the English fi8io), T43 Amherst, Jeffrey, Baron : his expedition against Louisbnrg, 117 Amirante : taken by luigland, 263 Andaman Islands : sketch of, 253 Anglo-French Agreement (1904), 279, 2S0, 281 41. Angola : under Portuguese rule, 298 Annabon : under Spanish rule, 299 Anson, George, Lord Anson : his at- tempt to conquer Peru and Chili, 119 Antigua: English policy concerning, 100; made the seat of government for the Leeward Islands, 245 Archibald, Adams G. : at the Quebec convention, 165 Ardar: under Spanish rule, 299 Aryans: exodus of the, 5 Ascension Island : sketch of, 263 Assumption : founded, 92 Auckland, New Zealand : made capital, 212 Australia: settlement of, 132; surveyed and named, 124 Australian Agricultural Company: or- ganized, 186 Australian Colonies Act. 194 Australian Constitution Act C1900), 207 ^-tralian Government Act (1850), 198 Azores, The : under Portuguese rule, 299 B Bacon, Roger: his definition of planta- tion, 17 Bagot, Sir Charles: governor of Can- ada. 158 Ilahainas: govcrinnent of, 246 P.alircin I-Iand: sketch of, j^t, r.alli'ia, \'a'^co Nunez de : discovers the P:icilic, 44 r.auila: taken by the English (1810), T^;3 Barbadocs: (U'cupied by the English, 67; gnnvth of, 70; linglish policy con- cerning, lOi ; hurricane of (1831), -37 Barrington, Sanniel : captures the Island of Guadeloupe, 118 416 INDEX Bastitoland : sketch of, 259 Batavia, Java: founded, 57; massacre of the Chinese (1740), 113; taken by the English (1811), 144, 288 Bechuanaland Protectorate : sketch of, 259 Berbice: taken by the English, 143 Berlin Decree (1806), 142 Bermudas : history of, 249 Bcsner, Baron de : attempts to found colony in Guiana, 121 Biacnabate, Treaty of (1897), 314 Bismarck Archipelago : annexed to Ger- many, 302 Black Rock: taken by the British (i8i3),_ 154 Bloemfontein : founded, 226 ; occupied by the British (1900), 233 Boer War, First, 229 Boer War, Second, 232 Bond, Robert: ministry of, 178 Bonifacio, Andres: leads uprising (1896), 314 Boscawen, Edward : his expedition against Louisburg, 117 Bosch, Lieutenant General Van den : his administration as governor of Java, 292 Boston Tea Party, 127 Botany Bay: attempt to form a penal colony at, 182 Bourbon, Island of : see Reunion Bourke, Sir Richard: his administration as governor of New South Wales, 185, 189 Braddock, Edward : his expedition against Fort Duquesne, 117 Brazil : discovered, 43 ; war between the Dutch and Portuguese in, 60; con- dition of the natives under Spanish conquest, 91 ; Jesuits expelled from, 98; growth of, 105 Breda, Peace of (1667), 76, 87 Brisbane, Sir Thomas : governor of New South Wales, 186 Brisbane, Queensland: founded, 187; growth of. 196 Briti'^h Columbia: admitted to Canadian union, 168; sketch of, 170 British Honduras : sec Honduras, Brit- ish British Kaffraria : annexed to the Cape, 224 British North America Act, The (1867), 167 British North Borneo Company: char- tered, 255 British South Africa Company : organ- ized, 230 Brock, Sir Isaac: lieutenant governor of Upper Canada, 154 Bronkhorst Spruit: battle of (1880), 230 Brooke, Sir Charles: rajah of Sarawak, 255 Brooke, Sir James : sketch of, 254 Brooke, John R. : his administration in Cuba, 329 Brown, George: at the Quebec conven- tion, 165 Brunei : made a protectorate of Great Britain, 255 Buenos Ayres: founded, 92; occupied by the British (1806), 30, 143 Buffalo: taken by the British (1813), 154 Buller, Sir Redvers : relieves Lady- smith, 233 Burmah, British: annexation of, 251 Burgoyne, John : defeated at Saratoga, 128 Burra-Burra Mines: discovered, 195 Busby, James : appointed resident mag- istrate in New Zealand, 211 Cabot, John : voyages and discoveries of, 49 Cabot, Sebastian : enters the Spanish service, 92 Cabral, Pedro Alvarcs : discovers Bra- zil, 43 Calicut : taken by the Dutch, 61 Cambodia : under French protection, 273 Cameroons : see Kamerun Campbell, Sir Colin: his administration as governor of New Brunswick, 163 Canada: work of the Jesuits in, 97; ceded to England, 120; effect of the American Revolution on, 131; Eng- lish rule in, 149; trade thrown open to the world, 159; see also New France INDEX 417 Canadian Pacific Railways: built, 175 Cananor : taken by the Dutch, 61 Canary Islands: under Spanish rule, 209 Candy, Ceylon : taken by the English (1815), 144 Canterbury, New Zealand: founded, 213 Cap Francois : taken by the French (1801), 140 Cape Breton Island : founded, 49 ; named, 81 ; ceded to the English, 87 Cape Colony: founded, 62; surrenders to the British, 139; finally occupied by the English (1806), 143, 221; government of, 220, 223 Cape of Good Hope : circumnavigated by the Phoenicians, 9; Vasco da Gama doubles the, 39 Cape San Juan : under Spanish rule, 299 Cape Town: growth of, 218 Cape Verde Islands : under Portuguese rule, 298 Carolina : slavery conditions in, 75 Caroline Islands : purchased by Ger- many, 302 Carthage: account of, 15, 21 Cartier, George fitienne : at the Quebec convention, 165 Cartier, Jacques: voyages of, 49. 81 Castro, John de : defeats the King of Cambay, 47 Cathcart: made governor of Canada, 158 Cayenne : settled, 87 ; taken by the Eng- lish, 143 Ccbu : occupied by Americans (1899), 317 Cervera y Topetc, Pascual : defeat of, 329 Cespedes, Carlos Manuel de : leads Cu- ban insurrection, 327 Cetiwayo, King of the Zulus: captured by the English, 229 Ceylon: under Dutch rule, 113: surren- ders to the British. T30: conquest completed (1815), 144: history of, 250 Chamberlain, Joseph: opposes Australian Constitution, 207 Chaniplain. Samuel de : makes a settle- ment in America. 81 Cliarles V. Holy Roman T-'niperor : in- troduces the New Laws, 45 ; colo- nial policy of, 50 Charles II, King of England : taxes col- onics, 89 Charlottetown Conference (1861), 164 Chile: work of the Jesuits in, 97 Choiscul (Choiseul-Amboise), Jitiennc Frangois, Duke de : intrigues against England, 125 Christchurch, New Zealand : founded, 213 Christianity: in Europe, 9; among the natives of South America, 92 ; intro- duced into Japan, 96; introduced in the South Seas, 130; in Madagas- car, 279 Christophe : leads resistance to French, 140 Clark, William: explorations of, 130 Clarkson, Thomas : his crusade against slave-trade, 238 Clear-grits: policy of, 160 Cleveland, Grover, President of the United States : his relations with Hawaii, 310 Cochin : taken by the Dutch, 6r ; surren- ders to the British, 139 Cochin-China : formed, 273 Code Noir (1685), 75 Colbert, Jean Baptistc : progress of the French West Indies under, "^i; colo- nial policy of, /S Colcbrook, Sir William: his administra- tion as deputy governor of New lirunswick, 163 Coles, George : at the Quebec conven- tion, 165 Colignv, Gaspard de : colonial schemes of. Si Colley. Sir George: death of, 230 Colombo: Portuguese driven from, 61 Colonies of the Wf)rl(i, History of: old Europe and new luirope, 3; Portu- gucve and Spani'^h colonics, 33; the Dutch and English settlement-, 55; the p1ant;ition^. 66; Xew I'rance and Now luitrland, Rt : the mi'^^ions. 01; t!;e midilK' period in colonial his- tory. 00; the period of English su- premacy, \\~ : the American Revo- lution, 127: the ]-"reiu-h Revolution, T.^f^i; Canad.a ;ui(l Xewf'iundland, 140: T'riti>h coloiu'es in the South Seas, 180; Soiuh Africa, 218; Brit- is!i dependencies, 235 ; colonial em- 418 INDEX pire of France, 268; the Dutch colo- nial empire, 285; minor European possessions, 297; colonies and de- pendencies of the United States, 304; the outlook, 334 Columbus, Christopher: career of, 36 Comoro Island : placed under the gov- ernor of Madagascar, 279 Concepcion : founded, 50 Congo Free State: description of, 299 Constitution, Australian, 207 Constitution, Canadian, 165 Constitutions, New Zealand: (1852), 213; (1875), 214 Continental Congress, First: assembled, 127 Cook, James : career of, 123 Coote, Sir Eyre: defeats Lally, 119 Cornish, Sir Samuel : his expedition against Manila, 120 Cornwallis, Charles, Lord: surrenders at Yorktown, 128 Corsico: under Spanish rule, 299 Cortez, Ferdinand: makes himself mas- ter of Mexico, 43 ; cost of his con- quest of Mexico, 91 Costa, Edward da : aids Jesuits in Bra- zil, 92 Courbet, Admiral : bombards Hue, 273 Covilhao, Pedro da: his journey to In- dia and Abyssinia, 38 Craig, Sir James: appointed governor of Canada, 153 Cromwell, Oliver: aids West Indies, 70 Crown Land Sales Act (1842): passed, 192; repealed, 199 Crusades : influence of, 14 Cuba : growth of, 73 ; wins independ- ence, 323 ; history of, in the nine- teenth century. 325 Culture System of the Dutch East In- dies, 289 Curasao: imder Dutch rule, 73; govern- ment of, 286 Cyprus : history of, 253 ; government of, 254 D Daedcls, Herman Willcni : his work in Java, 288 Dahomey: description of, 281 Daman : under Portugtiese rule, 298 Darling, Sir Ralph : conditions in Aus- tralia under, 186 Davis, George Whitefield : made gov- ernor of canal zone, 333 Definitive Treaty (1763), 120 Dekker, Edouard Douwes: aids reform movement for Dutch East Indies, 294 Demerara: taken by the English, 143 Dessalines, Jean Jacques : leads war against French, 140; proclaimed em- peror of Hayti, 141 Detroit: taken by the English (1812), 154 Dewey, George : at battle of Manila, 315 Diaz : leads Cuban insurrection, 327 Diego Suarez : ceded to France, 278 Dipa Negara : revolt of, 288 Diu : under Portuguese rule, 298 Dominica: ceded to England, 120; seized by France (1778), 128 Drake, Sir Francis : his voyage to the East Indies, 58 Draper, Sir William: his expedition agaiiTSt Manila, 120 Dupleix, Joseph Frangois, iMarquis de: his career in India, 115; recalled from India, 119 Duquesne Fort: Braddock's expedition against, 117 Durham, John George Lambton, Earl of: his mission to Canada, 156 Dutch Trading Company: chartered, 291 East India Company, British : chartered, 59 ; growth of, 62 ; success of, 102 East India Company, Danish : founded, lOI East India Company, Dutch : founded, 56; decline of, 102; importance of, 121 ; dissolved, 141 ; career of, 286 East India Company, French : chartered, 78, T14 East India Company, .Swedish : founded, lOI East Indies, Dutch : description of, 286 Egypt : government of, 262 Electoral Reform Act in Jamaica, 244 INDEX 419 Elgin, James Bruce, Earl of: his admin- istration as governor of Canada, 158, 162 Elobey : under Spanish rule, 299 Emmanuel (1) the Great, King of Por- tugal : relation of Indian sovereigns to, 39 Eritrea : description of, 300 Esnambuc, d' : makes settlements in the West Indies, 68 Essequibo: taken by the English, 143 Estrees, Jean, Count d' : occupies St. Lucia and St. Vincent, 76 Euler, Leonhard : aids nautical science, 122 Eureka: insurrection in (1854), 202 Falkland, Lord : his administration as governor of New Brunswick, 163 Falkland Islands : history of, 249 Federated Alalay States : history of, 252 Ferdinand (V) the Catholic, King of Spain: patronizes Columbus. 36; his relations with the church in the col- onies, 4S Fernando Po : under Spanish rule, 299 Fiji Islands: British take possession of (1874), 217; government of, 256 Florida : Huguenots attempt to found a colony in, 82; ceded to England (1763), 104, 120; restored to Spain (1783), 107, 128; ceded to the United Slates (1819), 304 Formosa : part of, seized by I'raiicc, 273 l'"ox, Cicorp^e : denounces sla\cr_\', 130 rVancis I, King of b^rance : iatire-^tcd in disro\-(.Ties in Ann'rica, 81 Franklin. Ik'njamin: honors Conk. 124 note Frazer, Simon: explorations of, 129 Freemantle, Port of: founded, 1S7 French Congo: description of, jSi French West Africa: present comlition of, 281 Frere, Sir Bartlc : his requirements in Zululand, 229 Frobisher, ^Martin: attempt- to discover the northwest pa- sage. 58 Funston, Fred: capture- Agni-uiluo, 307 Gambia : government of, 258 Gambia Islands : under French rule, 276 Gama, Vasco da : voyage of, 39 Garnier, Lieutenant: his campaign in Tonkin, 273 Gawler, George : governor of South Aus- tralia, 193 George, Fort : taken by the French (1757), 118 Georgia, State of: founded, 85; growth of, log German East Africa: description of, 301 Cierman West Africa: description of, 300 Gibraltar: history of, 253; government of, 254 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey: his expedition to America, 84 Cipps, Sir George: governor of New South Wales, 210 Goa : under Portuguese rule, 298 Godoy, Manuel de : wins his sobriquet, 140 Gorgas, William C. : aids in stamping out yellow fever in Cuba, 329 Gourgues, Dominique de : his revenge on the Spaniards, 82 Grenada: ceded to England, 120; seized by France (1778), 128; becomes a crown colony, 246 Grenadines : ceded to England, 120 Grey, Lord: sends convicts to South Af- rica, 22^ Grey. Sir George: governor of South Australia, 105; made governor of Xew Zealand, 212; his second term of oftice in Xew Zealand, 215; urges a I'uited South Africa, 228 Grifina-Iand-west : annexed bv the Eng- li-Ii, 227 Guadelouiie : taken by the English (I75()), 118; taken by the F.nglish ( iSio), 143 Guam (Gnaliau) : history of, 321 Gui;uia (Guayana) : settlement of. Sj ; surrender- to the Briti-h. 139 Guiana, Brili-li : history of, 247 (Juirma, DiUch : history of, 285 Guiana, French: atte:npts to colonize, 121 Ciuianea. French: sketch of, 281 Guianea, Purtuguese : description of, 29S 420 INDEX Gunter, Edmund: applies logarithms to nautical calculations, 122 H Hall : his expedition against Canada, 154 Halley, Edmund: aids nautical science, 122 Hanoi : taken by the French, 273 ; made capital of Indo-China, 274 Hanseatic League : power of, 15 Hanway, Jonas : his efforts in behalf of slaves, 130 Hargraves, Edward Hammond : discov- ers gold in Australia, 201 Harrison, John: aids nautical science, 123 Harvey, Sir John : makes concessions to the legislature of New Brunswick, 163 Havana, Cuba: taken by the English (1762), 118; massacres of (1869), Hawaiian Islands : history of, 307 Hawke's Bay, New Zealand : formed, 213 Hay-Herran Treaty (1903), 332 Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901), 331 Hayti: becomes independent, 139; French expedition against, 140 Head, Sir Edmund: governor of Can- ada, 161 Hebrews : influence of, 8 Henry IV, King of France: grants Aca- dia to De Monts, 82 Iknry the Navigator, Duke of Viseo: career of, 36 nol)art Conference, The (1895), 204 Holjart, Van Diemcn's Land: founded, 188 ITobson, Captain: appointed lieutenant governor of New Zealand, 211 Hodge : his cruelty toward his slaves, 240 ITocvell, Baron von: tells Dutch gov- f-rnmcnt of affairs in Java, 293 Hollander. Jacol) IT.: devises system of taxation for Porto Rico, 324 Honduras, P.rllish: l)ecomcs a crown colony. T20: government of, 245 Hongi Hika: sketch of, 210 Hong-Kong: .-kelch of, 255 Hopetoun, Earl of: made governor gen- eral of Australia, 207 Horn, Van : leads pirates, 68 Houtman, Cornelius : sketch of, 56 Hudson, Henry: explorations of, 63 Hudson Bay Company: sketch of, 86, 168 Hue: bombardment of (1883), 273 Hugues, Victor : expels the English from Guadeloupe, 268 Humboldt, Baron Alexander Friedrich Heinrich von : forbidden to enter Brazil, 27 Hyder Ali Khan: at war with the Eng- lish, 120 I, J Iberville, Pierre Lemoyne, Sieur d' : at- tempts to make a French settlement in America, 85 Iloilo: occupied by Americans (1899), 317 Incas : description of, 45 India: Europe's trade with, 11; the Por- tuguese in, 39; work of the Jesuits in, 97; British conquest of, 144 Indians : treatment of, 17 Indo-China : French rule in, 272 Ingago: battle of (1880), 230 Intercolonial Railway : built, 176 Isabella I, Queen of Spain: patronizes Columbus, 36 Isandlana: battle of (1879), 229 Ivory Coast: description of, 281 Jamaica: taken by the English, 71; re- volt of the Maroons, 139; increase in its produce, 237; negro insurrec- tion (1831), 240; decline of, 241; negro insurrection (1865), 245 James I, King of England : grants Nova Scotia to Sir William Alexander, 83 James II, King of England : taxes colo- nies, 89 Jameson, Leandcr S. : raid of. 231 Jamestown, Virginia : description of, 24 ; settled, 84 note Janssens : governor of Cape Colony, 220 Java: settled by the Dutch, 56; con- quered by the Dutch, 113; taken by the English (1811), 144; returned to Holland, 144; description of, 286 INDEX 421 Jews: settle in Brazil, 47; establish sugar plantations in Brazil, 92 Jesuits: value of their services, 48; their work in Brazil, 92; their work in South America, 93; suppression of, 98 Johannesburg: built, 231; occupied by the British (1900), 233 John II, King of Portugal: trade policy of, 35; dispatches Covilhao and Paiva, 38 John III, King of Portugal : his colonial policy, 48 John Maurice, Prince of Nassau : his career in Brazil, 60 Johnson : his work among the convicts in New South Wales, 183 Jolo: occupied by Americans (1899), 317 K, L Kaffirs: description of. 221 Kalakaua, King of Hawaii : reign of, 309 Kamehameha IV, King of Hawaii : death of, 309 Kamerun : description of, 300 Kapunda Mines : sketch of, 195 Kiau-Chau : seized by Germany (1897), 301 Kidd, Captain William : death of, 69 Kimberley: siege of (1900), 233 Kingston : made capital of Canada (1840), 158 Kirk, Sir David: his campaiG;n in Can- ada, 83 Kitchener, Horatio HerbtTt, Viscount Kitchener of Khartum: h\< cam- paigns in South Africa, 233 Klondike : opening of. 307 Kouron: failure of, I2r Kroonstad Proclamation, The (looo), 233 Kwang-Chau, Bay of: leased to France, 274 Labrador: becomes England's pmpcrtv, 86 Labuan, Island of: made a I'riti-h col- ony, 254 Laccadive Islands : sketch of. 2^t, Ladrone Islands: purcha-ed by Ger- many. 302 Ladysmith : siege of (1000). 233 Lagos : sketch of, 257 Laing's Neck: battle of (1880), 230 Lally, Thomas Arthur, Count de : his career in India, 119 Lancaster, John of: his administration as governor of Brazil, 105 Laos : under French rule, 273 La Perouse : voyages of, 129 La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de : ex- plorations of, 85 Las Casas, Bishop of Chiapa: aids na- tives in Mexico, 45 Latin Nations: characteristics of, 7. 25 Lannceston, Van Diemen's Land : founded, 188 Laurier, Sir Wilfrid: wins victory for Liberals, 173 Lazear, Jesse W. : heroism of, 330 Leclerc, Victor Emmanuel : his expedi- tion to Santo Domingo, 140 Leeward Islands : government of, 245 ; under French rule, 276 Lewis, Meriwether : explorations of, 130 Lexington: battle of (1775), 127 Liliuokalani, Queen of Plawaii : reign of, 310 Lobengula, King of Matabeleland : con- cludes treaty with the English, 230 Locke, John : directs the Board of Trade and Commerce, 8g Logoland : description of. 300 London Convention (1884), 230 Lopez, Narcisso: his fdibustering expe- dition to Cuba, 327 Los Islands: given to bVance. 281 Loni>bnrg: captured by the English ( 1745). 107; (1757). 117 Loui~i;in:i: ceded to the Unitetl States. 130. 13(1. 2()(). 304 Lunaliio. King of Hawaii: reign of, 309 M Macan : under Portuguese rule. 208 Macartluir. John: his work for Aus- traha, 185 Macdonald. Sir John A. : at the Qm-bec convention. 165; leads conscrsativc party. 167. 174 Macquaire. T.achlan : made govi-riujr of New South Wales, 1S4 42a INDEX Mackenzie, Sir Alexander: explorations of, 129 M'Nab, Sir Allan: leader of the Con- servative Party, 157 Madagascar: French attempts to colo- nize, 78; French protectorate estab- lished, 278 Madeira : under Portuguese rule, 299 ]Madura, Island of: description of, 286 Madras: taken by the French, 115 ]\Iafeking: siege of (1900), 233 Magellan, Ferdinand : names the Pacific Ocean, 44 note; voyage of, 51 Maine: destruction of, 328 Maitland, Sir Peregrine : his campaign in Hayti, 138 Majuba Hill: battle of (1881), 230 Malacca: siege of (1511), 42; surren- ders to the British (1795), 139, 251 Malta: taken by the English (1800) 141 ; history of, 253 ; government of, 254 _ Malta, Knights of : found colonies in the West Indies, 71 Manila: built, 51; taken by the English (1762), 120; made a free port, 133; captured by the Americans (1898), 316 Manila Bay: battle of (1898), 315 Manitoba, Province of: created, 169 Marchand, Jean Baptiste : his expedition to Fashoda, 282 Marianne Islands : purchased by Ger- many, 302 iMarlborough, New Zealand : formed, 213 Marquesas Islands: annexed by France (1842), 276 _ IMarsden, Dr. : his work in New Zea- land, 210 I^Iarshall Islands : annexed to Germany, 302 Martinique : French policy concerning, 100; taken by the British (1762), 118; (1810), 143 Masulipatam: taken by the English (1761), 120 Matabeleland : declared to be within the British sphere, 230 Mauritius: French policy concerning, 100; obtained by France, 115; his- tory of, 263 ^layotte, Island of: France takes posses- sion of, 278; placed under the gov- ernor of Madagascar, 279 Melbourne : founded, 189 ; growth of, 194 Melbourne Conference, The (1890), 203 Mercator, Gerard : invents a method for making accurate charts, 122 Metcalfe, Charles Theophilus : his ad- ministration as governor of Can- ada, 158, 162 Methuen Treaty (1703), 106 Mexico: inhabitants of, 7; discovered, 43 ; cost of Cortez's conquest, 91 Miquelon : history of, 268 Milan Decree (1807), 142 Miles, Nelson Appleton : his campaign in Cuba, 323 Milner, Sir Alfred : his negotiations with President Kriiger, 232 Minas Geraes : organized, 105 ; insurrec- tion of, 106 Mohammed Ali Khan : made Nabob of Arcot, 119 Moluccas : conquered by the Dutch (1607), 57 Monck, Viscount: made governor of Canada, 161 Monckton, Robert : takes Martinique, 118 Money, J. W. B. : influences thought concerning the Dutch East Indies, 290 Montcalm, Louis Joseph, Marquis de : at the battle of Quebec, 118 Mont Pelee: eruption of (1902), 271 Montreal : founded, 82 ; taken by the English (1760), 118; made seat of Canadian government, 158 Monts, Pierre de : receives grant of Acadia, 83 Moret Law (1870), 327 Morgan, Sir Henry: captures Porto Bello and Panama, 69 Moriscoes : expelled from Spain, 104 Munster, Treaty of (1648), 114 N Napier, Sir George : governor of Cape Colony, 223 Napicrville: battle of (1837), 156 Napoleon (i) Bonaparte, Emperor of INDEX 423 the French: his expedition to Egypt, 141 ; his campaign in the Spanish Peninsula, 142; his Eastern schemes, 268 Nassau ; seat of government for the Ba- hamas, 246 Natal : early history of, 225 Navigation, Act of: the primitive, 16; (1651), 22; its effect on the West Indies, 70 Nechos, King of Egypt : expedition of, 9 note Nelson, New Zealand : settled, 212 New Amsterdam : see New York City New Brunswick : contests between the governor and the legislature, 163 New Caledonia : taken by France (1853), 275 New England: settlement of, 81 New France: named, 49; history of, 81; growth of, 106; see also Canada New Granada : created, 104 New Guinea : British possessions in, 217; northeastern part of, annexed by Germany, 302 New Guinea, British : history of, 256 New Holland : see Australia New Laws : introduced, 45 New Orange: see Albany New Orleans : ceded to Spain, 120 New Plymouth, New Zealand : settled, 212; see also Taranaki New South Wales : receives its name, 181; government of, 197; ratities the new Constitution (1899), 206 New York City: founded, 64 New Zealand: discovered, 123; liistory of. 210 New Zealand Company: chartered, 212; dissolved, 213 Newcastle, New South Wales : founded, 184 Newfoundland: discovered, 49; settled, 49; becomes lingland's proprrtN, S(') : under Iinglish rule, 149; history uf, 177 Niagara: taken by the Briti.-h (1813), 154 NicoI)ar Islands: sketch oi. 253 Nile: battle of the (ijcK^), 141 Niiu't\-t\vi) Resolutions. 155 Nobrega. F.nunauuel de : his work in Brazil, 92 Norfolk Island, Australia: convict set- tlement established at, 132 North Borneo Company, British : see British North Borneo Company Northwest Company : sketch of, 168 Nossi Be : France takes possession of, 278 Nova Scotia : granted to Sir William Alexander, 83; ceded to England, 120; history of, 161 ; see also Acadia Nymwegen, Peace of (1678-1679), 64, 72 O, P Ontario, Province of : created, 167 Orange, Fort : see Albany Orange River Colony: settled, 224: or- ganized, 226; declared annexed to British empire, 233 Ornuiz : reduced by Albuquerque, 42 Oswego, New York : taken by the French (1757), 118 Otago, New Zealand: founded, 213 Otis, Ehvell Stephen : commands Amer- ican forces in the Philippines, 316 Ottawa : made capital of Canada, i6r Paardeljerg: battle of (1900), 233 Paijo Pago : ceded to the United States, 32 X Paiva (Pa)-va), Alfonso de : journev of, 38 Panama: taken by Morgan, 69; history of. 331 P;irai;nay: supremacy of the Jesuits in, 05; supi)rcs^ion of the Jesuits in, 98 Paris. Treaties df: (l7('3), 76; (1783), 1117, ijS; ( 1S15). 221 Park, Minii^ii: bis work in Africa, 130 Parkes, Sir llenry: suggests the Mel- bourne cc inference, 203 Patterson: !ii< work in Africa, 130 P:in!i-t-: -keteli of, 04 I'elew I>lan(ls: purchased by Germany, 302 Peiui. Sir Willi.-uu : his expedition aL;'niu-;l Santo Domingo, 71 Peini. \\"iHi;ini: his treatment of the In- dians. TO Peini-yl\ :tni;i. i^tate of: organization of, ]'). IT. iwth of, as a colony. 85; growth lu' its commerce, iu8 ; growth 424 INDEX of its population, 109; Quakers emancipate their slaves, 130 Perth, Western Australia: founded, 187 Peru: early inhabitants of, 17; discov- ered, 44; work of the Jesuits in, 97; revolt of (1780), 133 Philadelphia: First Continental Con- gress meets, 127 Philip, Arthur: his work in Australia, 132; commands founding of penal colony in Australia, 182 Philippine Company, Spanish : failure of, 102 Philippine Islands: discovered, 51; his- tory of, 311 Philippine Islands under American Rule, The, 353 Philippines Civil Government Act (1902), 319 Phoenicians: influence of, 8; colonization of, 15 Pichegru, Charles : his campaign in the Netherlands, 139 Pinzon, Vicente Yanez : his explorations in South America, 43 Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham : esti- mate of, 118 Pizarro, Francis : his conquest of Peru, 45 Placido : death of, 327 Plaisance: ceded to the English, 86 Plata River, Viceroyalty of the: created, 104 Piatt Amendment (1901), 330 Plattsbiirg: battle of (1814). 154 Plymouth, Massachusetts: settled, 84 note Pocock, Sir George: takes Havana, 118 Poincy, de : his administration as gov- ernor in the West Indies, 71 Pombal, Sebastiao, Jose de Carvalho e Mello, Marquis of: his hostile policy toward the Jesuits, 97 Pondichcrry : obtained by the French (1668), 114; besieged by the Eng- lish (1748). 115; taken by the Eng- lish (1761), iig; returned to France (1S02), 144 Popham, Sir llorne Riggs: occupies I'uciins Ayres, 143 P'irt-aii- Prince: taken by the French (1801), 140 Port Durban: founded, 225 Port of Freemantle : founded, 187 Port Phillip : growth of, 194 Port Royal, Jamaica: destroyed by an earthquake, 237 Port Victoria, Seychelles: description of, 263 Porto Bello: taken by Morgan, 69 Porto Rico: early conditions in, 73; his- tory of, in the nineteenth century, 323 Portroyal, Nova Scotia : founded, 83 Portuguese East Africa : description of, 298 Pratt : his negotiations with the Filipi- nos, 315 Prester, John: Covilhao visits the court of, 39 Pretoria: named, 227; occupied by the British (1900), 233 Pretorius, President: his administration, 227 Prevost, Sir George: governor of Can- ada, 154 Prince Edward Island : admitted to Ca- nadian union, 168 Principe, Island of: description of, 298 Purry, John: sketch of, 112 Purrysburg: founded, 112 Pursley : explorations of, 130 Q, R Quebec : founded, 63, 82 ; taken by the English (1759), 118 Quebec Act (1774), 151 Quebec Convention, The (1864), 165 Quebec, Province of: created, 167; elec- tion of 1878, 171 ; election of 1891, 172; election of 1896, 173 Queensland: created, 196; ratifies the new Constitution (1899), 206 Queenston: battle of (1812), 154 Quito : made part of New Granada, 104 Raffles, Sir Thomas Stamford : takes possession of Singapore, 251 ; Eng- lish governor of the Dutch East In- dies, 290 Raleigh, Sir Walter : his attempt against Guiana, 58; his expeditions to Amer- ica, 84; his expedition to the Wild Coast, 87; holds a monopoly of wine in England, 102 INDEX 425 Recif: founded, 105 Reed, Walter: aids in stamping out yel- low fever in Cuba, 329 Reunion (Island of Bourbon): Frcncb policy concerning, 100; taken by tlie English (1810), 143; history of, 279 Revolution, The American, 127 Revolution, The French, 30, 136 Rhodes, Cecil J.: organizes British South Africa Company, 230 ; responsi])le for the Jameson Raid, 231 Rhodesia : sketch of, 260 Rice: introduced into the Carolinas, 78 Riel, Louis : leads rebellions of French half-breeds, 169, 173 Rio de Oro: under Spanish rule, 299 Rio Janeiro: increased importance of, 105 ; taken by the French (1711), 106 Rio Muni : under Spanish rule, 299 Rivera, Primo de : concludes treaty with Filipino insurgents, 314 Rizal, Jose: sketch of, 313: exiled, 314 Robe, Major: governor of South Aus- tralia, 195 Roberts, Sir Frederick Sleigh : his cam- paigns in South Africa, 233 Roberval, Frangois de : attempts to make settlements in America, 8r Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donaticn de Vimeure, Count of: his campaign in Hayti, 140 Rodney, Sir George Brydgcs : takes Martinique, 118; his victory olf Guadeloupe, 128 Royal Council of the Indies: established, 45 Roman Empire: modern civilization's debt to the, 7; absorbs Plurnician and Greek colonies, 16 Royal Niger Company: sketch of, 25S Royal Philippines Company: chartered, Kyswick, Peace of (1697), 76, 114 Saigon: occupied by the French, 272 St. Bartholomew. Inland of: hi-tory of, 298 St. Charles: battle oi (1S37), 15''' St. Christopher: settled, 68; English ex- pelled, 76 St. Croix, Island of: under Danish gov- ernment, 297 St. Denis: battle of (1837), 156 St. luistachc: battle of (1837), 156 St. Eustatius : under Dutch rule, 7;^ St. Helena : sketch of, 263 St. John : discovered, 49 St. Lucie : French policy concerning, 100 St Paul, Brazil : founded, 94 St. Pierre: history of, 268; destroyed (1902), 271 St. Sacrament: battles of (1680), 95; (1705), 95 St. Thomas, Island of: taken by the Danes, 7;^ ; history of, 297 St. Thome, Island of: under Portuguese rule, 298 St. Vincent: ceded to England, 120; seized by France (1778), 128 Saintc Marie : seized by France, 277 Samoan Islands : part of. annexed by Germany, 302 ; Pago Pago ceded to the United States, 321 Sandwich Islands: discovered, 124; his- tory of. 307 San lldefonso. Treaty of (r8or). 269 San Juan Island: under Spanish rule, 299 San Salvador: assaulted by the Dutch, 59 Santiago de Cuba: battle of (1898). 329 Santo Donn'ngo : traces of pirates in, 69; conquered by the English, 71 ; under French colonization, 72; condition of, at the outbreak of the FVench Revolution, 137: insiuTcction (1791), 13S; trade of. ruined, 2^^7 Saratoga: liattle of (1777), 128 .Sarawak: sketcli of. 255 Saskatchewan, I'ro\ince of: created and admitted to tlu' CaiKub'an union, 170 Schreir.cr, William P.: leads .-Vfrikander Bund, 232 Schurnian. J;ico!) G. : member of Phil- ipjiine connnission. 316 Selim I, Snhan of Turkey: conquers l-gypt. 4-3 Selkirk. Thomas Douglas. Earl of: re- ccive-i grant of land from the Ilud- -^I'U r.ay Company. US .Senegal Company. bVench : oppo-e .set- tlement of .Swedes in .\frica. 130 Senegambia: dc.-criplioii of, 2S1 426 INDEX Seringapatam : siege of (i799)> 144 Seven Years' War, 76 Seward, William Henry: acquires Alaska for the United States, 305 Seychelles: taken by England, 263 Sharp, Granville : his efforts in behalf of slaves, 130 Shepstone, Sir Theophilus : his mission to South Africa, 229 Siam: concludes treaty with France, 273 Sierra Leone : made a free colony for negroes, 130; sketch of, 257 Singapore: growth of, 251 Slavery: introduction of negroes into the West Indies, 74; agitation against, 130; French emancipation of slaves, 134; slave-trade abolished at the Cape, 221 ; slave-trade in the West Indies, 238; slave-trade abol- ished by England, 239; abolished in English colonies, 240 ; slave-trade abolished by the United States, 240; slave-trade and slavery abolished by Denmark, 297; abolishing of, in Cuba, 327 Smith, Adam : writings of, 134 Society Islands : made a PYench protec- torate, 276 Sofala : factory founded at, 46 Sokotra, Island of: acquired by Eng- land, 252 Somali Coast Protectorate, British : de- scription of, 262 Somali Coast Protectorate, French : gov- ernment of, 282 Somaliland, Italian: description of, 300 Somcrs, Sir George : takes possession of the Bermudas, 249 Somcrs, John, Baron Somers : directs the Board of Trade and Commerce, 89 South Africa: history of, 218 South Africa Company, British : see British South Africa Company South African Republic: formed. 226 South Australia: organized, 190; rati- fies the new Constitution (1899), 206 South Sea Company: sketch of, 103 Southland, New Zealand : formed, 213 Spanish-American War, 329 Spooner Amendment (1901), 319 Stamp Act, 127 Stirling, William Alexander, Earl of: receives grant of Nova Scotia, 83 Straits Settlements: history of, 251 Sturt, Sir Charles : his explorations in Australia, 187 Succession, War of Spanish, 106 Succession, War of Austrian, 107 Sudan : description of, 262 Suez Canal: opened, 224 Sumatra: settled by the Dutch, 56; his- tory of, 289 Sumner, Charles : opposes annexation of West Indian islands, 322 Surat: obtained by the French (1668), 114 Surinam : settled, 87 Swan River Colony : see Western Aus- tralia Swaziland : sketch of, 259 Sydenham, Charles Powlett Thompson, Lord : his administration as gov- ernor of Canada, 158 Sydney, Australia: convict settlement established at, 132; settled, 182 Sydney Conference, The (1880), 203 Tache, fitienne Paschal : at the Quebec convention, 165 Taft, William Howard : member of Phil- ippine commission, 318 Tamatave: bombardment of (1883), 278 Taranaki, New Zealand: receives its name, 214 Tasmania: receives its name, 189; rati- fies the new Constitution (1899), 206; see also Van Diemen's Land Temati : taken by the English (1810), 143 Terra Australis : Cook searches for, 123 Terra Firma: conquest of, 50; made part of New Granada, 104 Terrc Napoleon : sec Australia Teutons : characteristics of, 7, 25 ; navi- gation of, 10 Tilley, Samuel Leonard : at the Quebec convention, 165 Tippoo Sultan : at war with the Eng- lish, 145 Tobago: ceded to England, 120; restored INDEX 427 to France (1783), 128; annexed to Trinidad, 246 Tonkin : under French rule, 273 Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 43 Toussaint I'Ouvcrture: leads insurrec- tion in Hayti, 138; made president of Ilayti, 139; death of, 140 Townshend Acts, The (1767), 127 Trade and Plantations, Committee of: formed, 89 Transvaal : declared annexed to the Cape, 233; see also South African Republic Trinidad : early conditions in, 'J2) \ growth of, 2yj; history of, 246 Tristan da Cunha: taken by the British, 263 Troyes, de : his campaign against the Hudson Bay Company, 86 Tsimandroho, King of the Sakalaves : concludes treaty with the French, 277 Tuamotu Islands : under French rule, 276 Tubuai Islands : under French rule, 276 Tunis: under French protection, 280 Tupac Amaru : leads revolt in Peru, 133 Tupper, Sir Charles : leads movement in Nova Scotia for union with Canada, 164; at the Quebec convention, 165 Tutuila : ceded to the United States, 322 U. V Uganda : description of, 261 Union, Act of (1840), 157 United Company of ^Merchants Trading to the Fast Indies; founded, 63; end of, 141 I'trcciit, Peace of (1713). 85. T07 Vaillant, Comte Jean Baptiste I'hilibcrt: his work in Africa, 130 Vancouver, Ceorgc : voyages of, 129 Vancouver Island: joined to P>rilisli Co- lumbia, 170 Van Diemen's Land: scttleniciit of, 132; history of, iSS; see aIJ5), (>H, S8 West India IsL'uuls : iK-scription of, 66 \\'(\^t Indies, Danisli : hi^tury of, 207 ^^"^'^t Indii-s. Dutch : description of. 2S5 We-^t Indict, I'.nt^lish : condition of (i77h). no; ctYcct of the Aniericin I\f\ iil'.Uion (^n, 1,1 1 Western Anstra]i:i: fivmded, \'i^'j \ griv- eriunciU of, 109; r,-ttities the now Constitution ( looo), 207 Westlaiid. Xew Zealand : formed. 213 Weyler y XicoLiu. Valeriano. Marquis of TeneriiYe : his administration in Cuba. 32S Wilberforce. William; his ctTorts for the abolition of slave-trade. 238 428 INDEX Wildman, Edwin : his negotiations with the Filipinos, 315 Willekens, Jacob: assaults San Salvador, 59 William III, King of England : condition of the colonies under, 8g Witt, John de: advocates colonial enter- prise, 65 Windward Islands : government of, 246 Winter, Sir James : fall of his ministry, Wolfe, James: his expedition against Quebec, 118 Wood, Leonard : made military com- mander of Sulu, 318; his adminis- tration in Cuba, 329 Wren, Captain : restores the English in St. Christopher, 76 X, Y, Z Xavier, Saint Francis : in Goa, 48 York, Canada : taken by the Americans, IS4 . . . Yorktown, Virginia: Cornwallis surren- ders at, 128 Yukon, Province of: organized, 170 Zanjon, Peace of (1878), 328 Zanzibar: secured by the Portuguese, 46 Zanzibar Protectorate: description of, 262 120 D 105 SOUTM GEOC,i'^ lu C /'.'-... -I AA 000 071956 7 trntn >wnicn "^ ^ec'O-^f -A 1#