naDNvsor
 
 Viola da Gamba.
 
 THE STORY OF THE 
 ART OF MUSIC 
 
 BY 
 
 FREDERICK J. CROWEST 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 THE GREAT TONE POETS 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 44889 
 
 NEW YORK 
 MCMXII 
 
 4
 
 Copyright, 1902 
 Bv D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 All rights reserved
 
 r 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Music has been styled the " youngest, but 
 greatest of the Arts." My experience tells me 
 that it is the oldest and grandest of all arts. To 
 tell the story then, in one small volume, of a sub- 
 ject which dates from Creation, is no easy matter, 
 it would seem. 
 
 My plan has been to be as concise as possible; 
 to keep the running note of theoretical and in- 
 strumental progress and development before the 
 reader; also to be non-technical where plain lan- 
 guage would answer. Mention has been made 
 only of composers and matters, who and which 
 have actually moved the art onwards ; and, inas- 
 much as one topic alone of the subject — say Form 
 or Orchestration, could not possibly be adequate- 
 ly treated in the space allotted for my entire story, 
 I must be pardoned if I have seemed to slip away 
 from important points. The difificulty has been 
 to get away. 
 
 The little volume is intended, not for erudite 
 musicians, but for the great general reading public, 
 
 5
 
 6 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 who may care to know how the beautiful art of 
 Music has grown a'-ound us ; and all I profess to 
 have done is to show the step by step growth of 
 the art in the various countries concerned with 
 Music's foundation and development up to to-day. 
 I have purposely avoided detailed reference to 
 living composers of every school — save perhaps 
 the Russian ; because, in my opinion, the last 
 word in Music worth hearing has been spoken for 
 many a long period — and this by the masters 
 dealt with in my very small space. 
 
 Frederick J. Crowest. 
 
 24 Ampthill Square, 
 London, N. W.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Introductory 9 
 
 II. Notation, Sol-fa, Mensural, British and 
 
 Saxon Music 28 
 
 III. Early Harmony — Folk Songs — Trouba- 
 
 DOURS and First Counterpoint ... 40 
 
 IV. Fourteenth Century Music — Rise of Opera 
 
 and Oratorio — The Organ — Early 
 
 Schools of Music 52 
 
 V. The Madrigal — Roman and Protestant 
 Church Music — Opera and the Over- 
 ture 67 
 
 VI. Passion Music — Bach and Handel — Per- 
 fected Oratorio 87 
 
 VII. Symphony — Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven 
 
 — Romantic Art in Opera and Symphony 104 
 
 VIII. Growth of Form and Orchestration , . 132 
 
 IX. Possible English School .... 153 
 
 X. Opera — Gluck to Verdi 161 
 
 XI. Modern German and Russian Music . . 171 
 
 7
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Viola da Gamba Frontispiece 
 
 Angular Kgyptian Harp 14 
 
 Angular ligyptjan Harp, another Pattern ... 14 
 
 Small Kgyptian Harps . 15 
 
 Egyptian tircai Harp 17 
 
 Early Kgyptian Harp on Stand 17 
 
 Kinnor or Cinnor (Harp) 18 
 
 Hasur — the Hebraic Cithar 19 
 
 Psaltery 20 
 
 Cymbals 22 
 
 Assyrian Cymbals 23 
 
 Ncumc Notations 30 
 
 Ancient Idea of an Organ •36 
 
 Primitive Organ . . . . .... 37 
 
 Perfonner on a Three-Stringed Crout or Rotte . . 44 
 
 Performer on a Circular Psaltery of Twelfth Century , 51 
 
 Ancient Knglish Church Organ 56 
 
 Mcnestrel Harp of the Fifteenth Century ... 65 
 
 Spinet 73 
 
 Virginal 78 
 
 Virginal on Supports ....... 80 
 
 f ierman Organ Bellows of the Sixteenth Century . . 89 
 
 Clavichord or Clarichord 94 
 
 Orchestral Drums ." ro2 
 
 Trombone 105 
 
 Ophicleide , , io3 
 
 B.i-sioon . . . . . , . , , .112 
 
 Clarionet I14 
 
 Trumpet .....,.,,, 118 
 
 Slide Trumpet 122 
 
 Saxophone 124 
 
 Oboe 127 
 
 IJandel's Organ 158 
 
 3
 
 THE STORY OF 
 THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 Who invented Music ? This question has been 
 asked by people of many ages, and a conclusive 
 answer is still wanting. It is an interrogation 
 that will be raised probably as long as music lasts 
 — since the problem is one admitting of no solu- 
 tion. The birth of music is wrapped in mystery, 
 and it is as well it should be so ; for no one mind, 
 however expansive, ought to be saddled with the 
 responsibility of inventing a matter so weighty 
 and so inimitably unbounded as is music. We 
 might as well ask *' Who invented the Atmos- 
 phere?" or " Who invented Heat?" All sound 
 is music, i.e. music is made up of sound, and the 
 more regulated and chastely garnered the sound 
 the better is the music. 
 
 Music's origin must be looked for in natural 
 causes. The elements of all music exist around 
 us in the sighing of leaves, the song of birds, and 
 the gentle monotone of bees, not less than in the 
 roar of monster ocean or the impressive tones of 
 mighty thunder. The bent of man's mind in all 
 ages has been to imitate this voice of Nature; 
 
 9
 
 lO THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 and in this way music had its origin, ages and 
 ages ago. 
 
 Whether sound existed at that remote time 
 when "darkness was upon the face of the deep 
 and the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the 
 waters " will never be known ; but that it came 
 with the creation of the firmament and the gather- 
 ing together of the waters is obvious. Whoever 
 it was who first conceived the idea of controlling 
 and using or imitating this raw sound for pur- 
 poses of harmonious gratification -deserves to be 
 styled the inventor or "father" of music; but, 
 although many enquirers have set themselves the 
 task of tracing the art to its fountain source, and 
 thereby elucidating a profound secret, none have 
 yet gone far enough to be successful. The best 
 among the theories which have been propounded 
 as to its origin are nothing more than conjecture. 
 Much as we should all like to know positively 
 who invented music, it is unimportant whether it 
 is to Mercury, Orpheus, Terpander or any other 
 mythical, or unmythical, being that the honour 
 belongs. Nor can it be seriously contended that 
 much value attaches to antediluvian music — that 
 unknown art quantity which began with Jubal — 
 " the father of all such as handle the harp and 
 organ," — and ended with the Deluge, a. m. 1656 
 or 234S B. c. 
 
 We must start, then, with the assumption that 
 this art of music — one exercising a stronger in- 
 fluence over humanity than any other — dates its 
 origin from the dawn of Nature. Music has been 
 and is styled the "youngest but greatest of the 
 arts," notwithstanding the fact that, historically 
 speaking, it is really the oldest. What is sing- 
 ing ? It is no more, it could be contended, than
 
 INTRODUCTORY H 
 
 beautiful speaking, and our earliest progenitors 
 possessed this gift in that happiest of times when 
 "the morning stars sang together." 
 
 Though \^e cannot elucidate the problem of 
 the origin of music, much interest centres round 
 several surmises, furnishing us, as they do, with 
 the first principles of several of our modern or- 
 chestral methods and systems. Take the " shell " 
 story. According to the Hymn to Hermes — at 
 one time attributed to Homer — the god, soon 
 after his birth, found a mountain tortoise grazing 
 near his grotto on Mount Kyllene. He disem- 
 bowelled it, took its shell, and out of the back of 
 the shell he formed the lyre. He cut two stalks 
 of reed of equal length, and, boring the shell, he 
 employed them as arms or sides (tt-^x^l's) to the 
 lyre. He stretched the skin of an ox over the 
 shell, it was perhaps the inner skin, to cover the 
 open part, and thus gave it a sort of leather or 
 parchment front. Then he tied cross-bars of 
 reed to the arms, and attached seven strings of 
 sheep-gut to the cross-bars. After that he tried 
 the strings with a plectrum.* Here is the first 
 suggestion of our family of stringed instruments, 
 also the primitive model of such instruments as 
 the harp, dulcimer, lute, and even the spinet, 
 harpsichord and concert grand pianoforte. Who- 
 ever blew the first reed, too, was unconsciously 
 supplying us with the principle upon which the 
 "king of instruments" does its work to-day. 
 Pipes, many or few, large and small, are in direct 
 communication with a wind-chest, generally un- 
 der the pipes, and we get an organ ; whereas, in 
 the case of the first pipe blown by an individual, 
 
 * Chappell's " History of Music," p. 29.
 
 12 THE STORY OF THE ART OF V.USIC 
 
 the wind was behind it. The same reasoning 
 would hold good in the case of that fortunate, or 
 unfortunate, being who first put his lips to a 
 beast's horn and produced a sound. He, it may 
 truly be said, was the father of all such as play 
 the cornet, ophicleide, or horn in this twentieth 
 century. 
 
 Apart from wind and string instruments there 
 is yet another family — instruments of percussion. 
 This variety is distinctly more remote and further 
 removed from us in its origin than is the family 
 which sprang from Mercury's reputed shell. The 
 man who struck the first blow that produced an 
 echo (even if this happened to be from the weapon 
 with which Cain smote Abel) was the inventor of 
 the first stage in the development of instrumental 
 music — viz., the drum stage — the first type of 
 three distinct epochs of development through 
 which prehistoric instrumental music passed. All 
 musical authorities are agreed upon this point, 
 and one of the most trustworthy says, *' never in 
 the musical history of mankind is the lyre stage 
 found to precede the pipe stage, nor the pipe 
 stage to precede the drum stage. That this 
 should be the order of development seems natural 
 if we consider the mechanical complexity of the 
 instruments themselves. The drum is evidently 
 the simplest of all ; the pipe is more complex 
 than the drum; but the lyre, which consists of 
 strings bound round pegs and strung on a frame, 
 is the most complex of all."* If further proof 
 were needed, we have only to turn to savages. 
 Their first idea of music is a drum. The pipe 
 and lyre come afterwards, and if they secure one 
 
 * " History of Music " (J. F. Rowbotham), p. 2.
 
 INTRODUCTORY 13 
 
 or both of the latter, the drum is never absent. 
 To this extent, therefore, the origin of music in 
 its bearings upon modern systems is interesting. 
 
 Melody naturally had its origin at this point ; 
 for even if the first pipe-blower lacked the inge- 
 nuity to make finger-holes in his primitive flute 
 or fife, the user of the plectrum upon the shell's 
 string would obtain varying notes as he plucked 
 his gut at different points. The earliest /^har- 
 mony, too, was not far off. Directly it entered 
 men's or women's heads to bind three or^our 
 reeds together, combinations of sound became 
 possible, on the part of one player or many. 
 What such earliest melody or harmony was like, 
 or worth, is another matter. 
 
 Five great nations stand out in the history of 
 ancient music. They are the Egyptians, He- 
 brews, Assyrians, Greeks, and Romans. Each of 
 these held music in more or less esteem, and 
 turned it to account in numerous ways and in 
 several phases of their social, political, and re- 
 ligious life. 
 
 Egypt was the colony chosen by Noah and 
 some of the descendants of Ham after the Flood. 
 Noah, acquainted as he was, with the antediluvian 
 arts and sciences — whatever these were — would 
 have carried this knowledge into Egypt, with the 
 laudable object of handing it down at least to his 
 own family and dependents, as these prospered in 
 the adopted country. Many writers identify 
 Osiris with Noah which, if correct, shows that the 
 patriarch was highly esteemed, for in later dy- 
 nasties Osiris was one of the gods which these 
 polytheists worshipped. In what state Noah 
 found music in Egypt has not transpired: but
 
 14 
 
 THE STOKY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Angular Epr\ptian Harp. 
 
 the oldest records point to the liberal use of the 
 art by this great and highly civilized nation. 
 Moreover, the hieroglyphics 
 and representations upon 
 their tombs and slabs con- 
 firm this, even if there were 
 not such writers as Plato, 
 Herodotus, Strabo, and 
 other authors of ancient 
 (ireece, throwing light upon 
 the subject and informing 
 us as to the extent and 
 quality of musical practice 
 among the Egyptians — es- 
 pecially in their religious 
 ceremonies, festivals, pro- 
 cessions, etc. 
 Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians dis- 
 puted with the Phrygians respecting the first use 
 of music, and, from the evidence that 
 has been forthcoming, it would seem 
 easy to award the honour to the 
 Egyptians. Anyone entering the 
 land of the Pyramids at the begin- 
 ning of the nineteenth dynasty — i.e. 
 some 2000 r.c. — would have found 
 the country in full plenitude and 
 prosperity under the sceptre of Ra- 
 meses H. The workers toiled by day 
 and amusements were left for the Angiaiar Egyp- 
 evening. Then the wealthy and all •^'^", ^^^: 
 
 . , , f, J • • 1 , , ■ another pat- 
 
 who could afford it indulged in mu- tern. 
 sic. We can picture a brilliantly 
 lighted hall, full of guests and attendant slaves. 
 At the far end of the apartment is a band of men 
 and women playing upon many instruments, while
 
 INTRODUCTORY 15 
 
 the host and guests are eating and talking. All 
 the musicians are slaves, and before each piece 
 they play do obeisance to the master of the house. 
 So long ago, therefore, as this remote age the 
 musician and his art were without dignity — a 
 state of things which thousands of years have 
 scarcely remedied. These slave-musicians' occu- 
 pation was to attend the banquets of the great, 
 
 Small Eg^'ptian Harps. 
 
 and play and sing for the amusement of the com- 
 pany. "We find them constantly represented in 
 the sculptures, in groups of from two to eight 
 persons — some women and some men — playing 
 on various instruments as the harp, pipe, flute ; 
 the harp, lyre, lute; double pipe, tambourine; 
 the harp, double pipe, lute and flute (apparently 
 the favourite collocation) ; the harp, double pipe, 
 lute, lyre and tambourine, and other similar col- 
 lations." * 
 
 In the meridian of their splendour and great- 
 
 * *' History of Music " (Rowbotham), p. 84. 
 2
 
 l6 Till-: STOKV U1-- THE art UF MfSIC 
 
 ness, music was certainly used largely by the 
 Egyptians. At some periods of the country's 
 history it was in a much higher degree of culti- 
 vation than at others. That practised before the 
 subjection by the Persians was, for instance, of 
 a much higher order than music under the Ptole- 
 mies and until the death of Cleopatra. The 
 priests largely appropriated the art to themselves, 
 using it for religious and important state func- 
 tions. Gradually it became disseminated among 
 the people, though laws restricted to their use a 
 number of melodies. 
 
 Of the several instruments possessed by the 
 Egyptians, the harp was pre-eminent — serving as 
 it did as the foundation of the Egyptian orchestra. 
 There were great harps and small harps. The 
 compass of the former was 
 
 — r- 
 
 while the latter covered 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 
 As the compass of the pipe extended from 
 
 
 the grand reach of the orchestra of this great 
 people was one of four octaves and a half — more 
 than a half of the full orchestra of to-day. These 
 facts furnish us with an important clue, m'z., that 
 the Egyptian musical system comprised both 
 melody and harmony. Even the barbarian will
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 17 
 
 make a species of harmony for himself, just as 
 children sing what they call " seconds " intuitively, 
 and remembering that a 
 full Egyptian orchestra 
 consisted of harps (20), 
 flutes (8), lyres(6), double 
 pipes (7), flutes (6), pipes 
 (i or 2), and tambourines 
 (2 or 3), it would be ab- 
 surd to suppose that this 
 combination persistently 
 worked in unison. The 
 harmony of the land of 
 the Pharaohs, however, 
 was not harmony as we 
 appreciate it to-day. It 
 was purely diatonic — 
 modulation being quite 
 unknown. Everything 
 was played from begin- 
 ning to end in one key — 
 and should have proved 
 extremely monotonous to 
 executants and listeners 
 alike. 
 
 It will be observed that the Egyptian orches- 
 tra possessed no instru- 
 ments of percussion, 
 and as there was a con- 
 stant presence of con- 
 ductors, we may con- 
 clude it was not of a 
 highly rhythmic order. 
 It was probably a spe- 
 cies of art of long 
 
 phrases and weak Early Egyptian Harp on Stand. 
 
 Egyptian Great Harp.
 
 stringed instrument 
 mentioned in the Pen- 
 tateuch. 
 
 1 8 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 rhythms— music that modern ears would scarcely 
 comprehend, given off from big vocal and orches- 
 tral bodies, and needmg not 
 one, but many conductors to 
 keep together. Batons were 
 not used, and time was kept 
 by the clapping of hands. An 
 idea of the extent of these or- 
 chestras may be gained from 
 
 __^ the description of a Baccha- 
 
 Kinnor or Cinnor "^lian festival, given by Ptole- 
 (" Harp"). The only my Philadclphus, when more 
 „. I .„„. » than six hundred musicians 
 
 were employed in the chorus, 
 together with three hundred 
 performers upon the cithara, i.e. the A shaped 
 harp. 
 
 The origin of Hebrew or ancient music is 
 wrapped in obscurity ; but the art so often re- 
 ferred to in the Bible was borrowed, probably, by 
 Moses and his people from the Egyptians. Any 
 country's music is appreciably influenced by 
 national intercourse and the long stay of the 
 Israelites in Egypt must have affected them 
 musically. Unlike that of the Egyptians, Hebrew 
 music was strangely harsh. Their instruments, 
 the harp, flute, tabret, buggab, timbrel, cymbal, 
 pipe, psaltery, and shawm, chiefly wind and per- 
 cussion instruments, meant noise, with piercing 
 and deafening effects. Unsettled, offensive, war- 
 like "dwellers in tents" as the Hebrews were, 
 this rough musical element and character were 
 unavoidable. 
 
 This coarseness did not extend to the Temple 
 Services, which were magnificent and as far as
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 19 
 
 possible beautiful. The antiphonal mode of 
 singing was practised and marked musical effects 
 were gained by the alternate employment of male 
 and female voices — soli and chorus. A tribe 
 was set apart for musicians, so that David could 
 appoint " four thousand Levites to praise the 
 Lord with instruments " ; and upon another 
 occasion ordain " two hundred four score and 
 eight who were cunning in song." As the Bible 
 tells us, the Hebrews were great in vocal art; 
 names of such vocalists as Miriam, Deborah, 
 Judith, and the daughters of Heman, can never be 
 obliterated; nor, probably, will those picturesque 
 circumstances which drew 
 forth that tender denial of 
 " How shall we sing the 
 Lord's song in a strange 
 land " ever be forgotten. 
 
 While the Hebrews 
 used their music in wor- 
 ship, war and socially, lit- 
 tle or none of it has been 
 preserved. They had no 
 notation — their religious 
 melodies being traditional 
 — but the tones for chant- 
 ing the Bible in imitation 
 
 of the reception of the law on Mount Sinai are 
 on record. They can hardly reflect, however, the 
 quality of the national song ; or, why that studied 
 request — " Sing us one of the songs of Zion ?" 
 
 Modern music has benefitted little from He- 
 brew art. Neither the trumpet of Jubilee, buc- 
 cina, organ, nablum, pipe (the latter used chiefly 
 at funerals when a female performer always led 
 the cortege), or cinnos have any important bear- 
 
 Hasur — the Hebraic Cithar.
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 ing on present day instrumentation. Asaph, David, 
 Solomon, Heman, and Jeduthun were Hebrew 
 music leaders whose names have come down to 
 us, but no one of them elabo- 
 rated a system of music. That 
 the Hebrews were naturally a 
 musical people there is no doubt; 
 their national, internal condi- 
 tions, however, were wholly un- 
 favourable to the work of fos- 
 tering a constructive art. Their 
 neighbours were a Semitic race 
 on the borders of the Tigris and 
 Euphrates, and it was their art, 
 tinctured with Egyptian influ- 
 ences, which made up the He- 
 brew monarchy music up to the time of the first 
 Temple. Subsequently Hebrew music was mod- 
 ified by the Babylonish captivity and other dis- 
 turbing influences. Everything has happened to 
 wipe ancient Hebrew musical art off the face of 
 the earth. 
 
 Psaltery (i/zoA/uds) 
 Psalm Ixxxi. 2, 
 
 It is uncertain how far Assyrian music was 
 formed from something musical borrowed from 
 other nations ; but that music was used liberally 
 by this ancient people is certain. Many slabs and 
 bas-reliefs shewing representations of musical per- 
 formances at banquets, religious ceremonies, also 
 on the triumphal return of victors from the battle- 
 field and the chase, testify to this. 
 
 It was essentially martial music — a phalanx of 
 tone suggestive of our present day application of 
 music in large forces. Quality gave way to quan- 
 tity, as the stone records familiar to visitors of 
 national museums shew. Solo effects were prac-
 
 INTRODUCTORY 21 
 
 tically ignored in favour of orchestral masses of 
 sound from such instruments as the harp, lyre, 
 asor, dulcimer, pipe, tamboura, drums, bells and 
 cymbals. The military dominated music, and it 
 is from the Assyrians that we get the first definite 
 example of the employment of music as an adjunct 
 in war. All Assyrian instruments were portable — 
 strapped to the body or carried — the harps all so 
 small that they could be held in the hand, the 
 dulcimers strapped to the shoulders and the drums 
 strapped to the chest as are our military drums 
 to-day; and, to conclude, the method of beating 
 time in the concerts was not by clapping the hands 
 as' with the Egyptians, but by stamping w'ith the 
 foot as if they had learnt their time from soldiers 
 marching.* Thus the performer could play on 
 the harp or lyre whilst walking or standing ; and 
 as most instruments were of percussion character, 
 i.e. struck or plucked, the character of the music 
 was far from refined. 
 
 These people had a peculiar liking for high- 
 pitched, shrill music. Indeed, this was the dis- 
 tinguishing character of Assyrian music. Every- 
 thing was treble or a little below it — lyres, lutes, 
 dulcimers, single pipes, flutes, small harps, trum- 
 pets, boys — and even the high voices of eunuchs. 
 There is no evidence that the science of Voice- 
 production, even as an idea, had occurred to 
 them, but the representations of women pinching 
 their throats in order to force the high notes, in- 
 dicate how this people sought after a shrill, high 
 tone quality of music; also that they wished to 
 bring about some physiological change in the 
 voice which they knew little about. Nowadays, 
 
 * " History of Music" (Rowbotham)-
 
 22 THE STORY Ol THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 happily, we refuse to screw up the throat for the 
 production of high notes, getting them by an 
 *^ ' exactly opposite 
 
 method — that of 
 a deep production 
 with a full drawn 
 breath packed well 
 under the clavicle. 
 It was to qualify 
 and moderate this 
 preponderating 
 treble, probably, 
 that they adopted 
 drums and cym- 
 bals, which would 
 modify the music's 
 character — as we 
 to - day (on the 
 principle of oil 
 neutralizing vine- 
 gar), associate the 
 drum with the fife. 
 All music needs a 
 foundation, and evidently this fact occurred to 
 the Assyrians. 
 
 Harmony cannot be traced to the Assyrians — 
 airs in octaves with instruments or voices accom- 
 panying in fourths and fifths contented them — 
 and the higher and shriller all this could be, the 
 better. The favourite instrument was the dulci- 
 mer — of which they had two kinds, the horizontal 
 and vertical. These were undoubtedly the parents 
 of our modern "grand" and "cottage" piano- 
 fortes and are worth examining on Assyrian bas- 
 reliefs, where they will be found in the proportion 
 of two to one of other instruments. Modern art, 
 
 Cymbals (Ku/t^oAov). Assyrian playing 
 the conical-shaped cymbals. 
 
 I
 
 INTRODUCTORY 23 
 
 then, is indebted to the Assyrians for two of its 
 prominent musical features — the massed military 
 band and the leading, long-suffering, domestic 
 musical instrument the pianoforte. 
 
 The Greeks made of music, philosophy. Noth- 
 ing great was expected of men ignorant of music ; 
 women practised it assiduously — even playing the 
 flute as did Lamia ; children began their educa- 
 
 Assyrian Cymbals. Found in the Tomb of the 
 Priest-Musician Ankape. 
 
 tion with it. The authors — Aristoxenus, Euclid, 
 Homer, Plutarch and Xenophon tell us how this 
 classic race reverenced and studied music — not 
 only as a personal accomplishment but as a duty
 
 24 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 towards themselves and their country. Harmon, 
 ics — the science and theory of sounds — was the 
 sole musical gospel, and many were the themes 
 propounded and conclusions gathered, by Pythag- 
 oras and many another Greek mathematician. 
 
 It is not improbable that the Greeks borrowed 
 their musical art from the Egyptians. Pythagoras 
 [circa B.C. 600) organiser of the Greek musical 
 system, travelled in Egypt and presumably gained 
 there that insight into the art which he and such 
 theorists as Lasos and Terpander set out to the 
 Greeks. The mathematical precision of harmonics 
 or sound-pntsations mostly occupied these great 
 minds. Of practical Greek musicians several 
 names have come down to us. Chief among 
 these stands Olympus the Phrygian who intro- 
 duced the art of flute-playing; also the soldier- 
 musician Tyrtaeus who to his martial qualifica- 
 tions added those of a troubadour or minstrel. 
 
 We have no indisputable evidence of what the 
 Greek musical system was. It comprised a nota- 
 tion which was most complicated by reason of 
 its auxiliary marks and signs. Though we meet 
 with the terms hartnonia (dpfxovia) and sympJwnia 
 {a-ufi(f)Oivia), these had no reference to combina- 
 tions of sounds or chords, but rather to the tailing 
 together of their tetrachords — the groups of four 
 notes which, when joined, resolved into modes or 
 measures. Of these there were several varying in 
 character, colour and sentiment ; thus, the ^olian, 
 Dorian, Lydian, Phrygian, Mixo-Lydian, and 
 more. The extent of the Greek scale did not 
 exceed two octaves, but the musicians divided 
 intervals into a smaller portion than the semi- 
 tone and thus obtained a perfection of intona- 
 tion and vocal technique to which the normal,
 
 INTRODUCTORY 25 
 
 modern ear must be held to be insensible. Their 
 vocal exercises were conducted to a solfeggio with 
 the following vowels : — tw, to, tt), re, ra, tw, ttj — 
 an excellent plan that could not be too generally 
 adopted in Voice-production instruction to-day, 
 embodying, as it does, the use of that prime tone- 
 producing dental — the letter "t." Notes and 
 rests, each five in number, of varying lengths, 
 graces — the prolepsis or slur, the procrusis, kom- 
 pismus (or " saucy " * grace), and inelismus, a sort 
 of connected-staccato, all helped to make up an 
 exquisite art of song in which the Greeks ex- 
 celled. In addition to the ordinary " times " of 
 music known to us, the Greeks had two others, 
 {^five and seven time), consisting of five and seven 
 quavers to the bar respectively. The connecting 
 link between the ancient Greek scales and the 
 modern was supplied in the system of Hexa- 
 chords. This was a six-note series of scales. 
 The Greeks repeated their tetrachords from one 
 to the other as we do from octave to octave. So 
 the Hexachord was worked upon its six notes. 
 
 Instruments favoured by the Greeks were the 
 flute, harp, cithara, lyre, and double (one mouth- 
 piece) pipes, the latter not joined but held loosely 
 in the hands, one serving for the melody, the 
 other being employed as a delicate accompani- 
 ment thereto. Among eminent instrumentalists 
 stood Epaminondas, Antigenidas who taught Al- 
 cibiades, and Amaeboeus the harpist, whose fee 
 
 * KOfiirifffios, kompismos : Extract from Liddell and 
 Scott's Lexicon, "a quavering or shaking on an instrument: 
 with the voice it was called fieXifffios (melismos) : both to- 
 gether, TtpTTiff/ios." There is no ground for the meaning 
 "saucy" — which seems to arise from the confusion of the 
 word with a derivative from KOfx-Kos, a noise, loud burst.
 
 26 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 was an Attic talent for each of his performances. 
 The Greeks had many uses for music — chieflv at 
 the games and public festivals. It was more or 
 less employed too, in the rendering of poems 
 
 8 
 
 4=v&. 
 
 e e 
 
 dd 
 c c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 la 
 sol 
 
 la 
 sol 
 fa 
 
 Bt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /«(12) 
 
 mi 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 la 
 
 mi 
 
 re J 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 sol 
 
 re 
 
 Mi 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 fa 
 
 ut 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 la 
 
 mi 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 la 
 
 sol 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 sol 
 
 fa 
 
 ut 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 A(2) 
 
 mi 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 U 
 
 mi 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 sol 
 
 re 
 
 ut 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 /« 
 
 ut 
 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 la 
 
 tni 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 sot 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 fa 
 
 ut 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 mi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 ut 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (^ C F G C F G 
 
 Hexachords. Mi meant everywhere the position of the half-note. 
 
 —the singing of the " Iliad " and "Odyssey" by 
 the immortal sightless Homer was preceded by a 
 sweep of the four-stringed lyre as a sort of pre- 
 lude, the magnificent periods being interspersed 
 with music. 
 
 Until recently only a few fragments of ancient
 
 INTRODUCTORY 27 
 
 Greek hymn music — and these of the Roman 
 period — were in existence. Excavations at Delphi 
 in 1893 and later, unearthed other fragments — 
 notably a hymn recording the prowess of Apollo. 
 None of these are held to represent ancient Greek 
 music at its highest excellence. Modern music, 
 therefore, is only indebted to the Greeks to the 
 extent of the philosophy and deductions of the 
 great theorists. 
 
 Roman music per se is unimportant as a factor 
 in modern art from the fact that there was no 
 distinctive art born of this aggressive, conquering 
 people. When the Empire was at its zenith, the 
 music of every ancient nation might have been 
 heard in the Capital. The Romans gave no 
 serious heed to the art until they conquered 
 Greece, when Greek music experienced quite a 
 renaissance at the hands and mouths of Grecian 
 slave-musicians. It was only for pleasure and 
 amusement as an accompaniment to the spectacle 
 however, that it, the best of pagan art, was re- 
 quired. War and conquest were the first consid- 
 erations with Romans, then intoxicating pleasure, 
 and to this end any music obtainable was wel- 
 comed, though for social and private use the 
 Greek kind was preferred. 
 
 Where the Greeks had splendid tragedy, the 
 Romans preferred pantomime, dance, and licen- 
 tious song — forms which, in themselves, were 
 inimical to much nobility in musical art. The 
 pantomimes were augmented with a chorus and 
 band, the whole forming a combination of stu- 
 pendous scale — numerically and tonally. Noise 
 was the order of the day and the din and roar 
 from hundreds of flutes, pipes, gongs, cymbals,
 
 28 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 rattles, horns, and trumpets, made up a model 
 Roman orchestra. 
 
 There is no doubt that the Chinese, the Indo- 
 Chinese, and other Mongoloids practised music 
 far back in prehistoric times. This was the case 
 in Britain. Long before the Roman invasion the 
 aboriginal British had their flint whistles, rude 
 drums and pipes. These were followed by horns 
 of brass and all that array of barbaric musical 
 usage from Prydain's day down to the visit of 
 Julius Cassar. Pytheas, the Greek navigator 
 was in Britain {circa 384-322 B.C.) and testified 
 to the musical tendency of the natives. The 
 six-stringed harp of Ireland, the cruit and 
 clairseach are probably as old as the instru- 
 ments of ancient oriental races if their true date 
 could be discovered. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 NOTATION, SOL-FA, MENSURAL, BRITISH AND 
 SAXON MUSIC 
 
 Mankind ever needed signs to record its inner 
 mind — a sort of sign-language which even the 
 modern tramp and burglar are extending. It 
 soon dawned upon it that music required some 
 medium of expression — a language through which 
 it could be spoken and understood. Hence the 
 origin of Notation — not only for singing but for 
 writing the various notes of the scale. 
 
 Old as the art and practice of music are, three 
 systems of notation have been found sufificient to
 
 NOTATION 29 
 
 express all that has been said through the art, 
 viz., letters, neumes, and notes. Letters were 
 used by the Greeks and Romans ; then came 
 the Pneume or Neume period and, finally, our 
 present system of Notes obtained, probably for 
 all time; since no improvement upon it appears 
 possible. In utilizing the letters of the alphabet 
 (and to the ready musician notes are always so 
 called) we have not gone far beyond the ancient 
 nations, although it would be extremely perplex- 
 ing to make sense of a Beethoven symphony if 
 hundreds of alphabetical characters took the 
 places of the notes. In very early times, how- 
 ever, when melody was simple and harmony 
 unknown, the letters of the alphabet to indicate 
 the tones of the natural diatonic scale answered 
 very well. 
 
 Boethius, a Roman, in the fifth century wrote 
 explanations of the harmonic theories of the 
 ancient Greeks, and was probably the first the- 
 orist to use the letters of the alphabet as scale 
 measurement markers. He employs the letters 
 A to P, thus — 
 
 -rr-^ 
 
 ABCDEFGHI KLMNOP 
 
 The Neume- Period * extended from the eighth 
 to the twelfth century. The monks of mediaeval 
 times required signs for indicating the rise and 
 fall of the voice in church music particularly, 
 and adopted neumes — a series of scratchy fig- 
 ures, not unlike shorthand characters, and pos- 
 
 * From Greek irviviM = breath.
 
 30 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 sibly of Asiatic origin or, perliaps, a reflectioa 
 of the ancient nota Romana. In the eleventh 
 century there were seven of these symbols. They 
 had grown out of three primitive accents — the 
 acute, the grave, and the circumflex — the first 
 characters — outside letters — that had been used 
 for marking movements of the voice. Obviously 
 
 .• .• 4^ J" *-* 
 
 if V •»# 
 
 Neume Notations. 
 
 the acute accent raised the voice, the grave flat- 
 tened or lowered it, and the circumflex indicated 
 an up and down movement much at the discre- 
 tion of the singer. The system was vague, and 
 as indistinct as that of the Greeks with its Uncial 
 letters and Minusculae — all written in a perplex- 
 ing variety of positions. 
 
 These Neumes placed over the words gave 
 the priests a clue to the inflexions and modula- 
 tions required in the chanting of the Gospel, 
 Epistles, Psalms, etc., but all was crude and un- 
 determined. The difficulty of fixing a tonic or 
 keynote was ever present and it was this want 
 that, later on, led up to the invention of the stave 
 or staff in music. At about the year 900, one 
 red line was introduced into Neume notation. 
 All notes written upon it were F's. Those above 
 the line were higher and those below lower. 
 With this line fixing the keynote and the Neume 
 characters on, above and below it, shewing the
 
 NEUMES 31 
 
 modulations of the melody, a great step had 
 been secured. If music at this time had been 
 much in request outside the Church, this red 
 line note might have been transposed to clefs to 
 suit the range of treble, alto or tenor voice. As 
 it was, one clef sufficed — mainly for the priests 
 and monks. 
 
 Withal — the Neume characters — the Virgia 
 (long single note) ; pimctus (shorter note) ; po- 
 datus (two notes of which the second was the 
 higher) ; clivis or flexa (two notes of which the 
 second was the lower) ; scandicus (three ascend- 
 ing notes) ; climacus (three descending notes), and 
 cephalicus (three notes, of which the second was 
 the highest) — all were at the whim and mercy of 
 the singer, as regarded both their intonation and 
 length of duration. In course of time other lines 
 were incorporated. An early specimen of Neume 
 notation shows a yellow line added to the red, 
 and by Guido d'Arezzo's time the Neumes were 
 distributed between four coloured lines. Guido 
 placed C upon the yellow line, thus establishing 
 the C clef. 
 
 "-- 'Music had not long taken root in Western 
 Europe ere men began to make harmony — writ- 
 ing down the same as far as their limited nota- 
 tion would allow. With the Roman and other 
 schools for singing at work, it became easy 
 enough to render the simple melodies of the 
 Gregorian Tones — used mainly for ecclesiastical 
 chanting. Children could, of course, sing in oc- 
 taves with their elders, but eventually additional 
 parts in fourths and fifths grew upon these oc- 
 taves, and very horrible they must have sounded. 
 
 HuCBALD, a Flemish monk (840-930), was one 
 of the first to write this primitive harmony — a 
 
 3
 
 -&~ 
 
 32 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 fauxbourdo7i or organum. The idea of the thing 
 probably arose from some ingenious monk pro- 
 posing to sing some known melody while another 
 voice kept up a drone on one note, or possibly 
 
 ^): o O - ^^ i> o " o °=5^=Q^- u^^ o r . 
 "-rr -ai-^ o o -6» " o rr-rT- ^f -^-rT-rj-cr 
 
 ^r_Q 0. 
 
 o o " o <_> o ^^ i 
 
 Specimen of Organum. 
 
 alternating notes, either above or below. Here, 
 then, with this diaphony was the first step in that 
 great sphere of technical musical art — the science 
 of Harmony. It was the addition of a second 
 part to am existing one — the tenor or "subject," 
 and no doubt the practice of this species of har- 
 mony lasted through several generations. Here 
 was the first step in the opening up of the vast 
 field of contrapuntal science and possibility in 
 which the organ and, later, British organists were 
 destined to play such a prominent and excellent 
 part. 
 
 That music was to prove a great civilising, 
 educating factor soon became apparent to edu- 
 cated men of primitive Christian times. As early 
 as the year 330 Pope Sylvester founded a school 
 for singing at Rome ; St. Ambrose, Archbishop of 
 Milan {circa 374-397), organised a fine choir in 
 his cathedral, and composed hymns and chants 
 based upon four diatonic scales known as the 
 " Authentic Modes " ; St. Chrysostom, St. Au- 
 gustine, Pope Gregory, Pope Vitalianus, the Em- 
 peror Constantine, then Charlemagne— each and 
 all encouraged the study of music.
 
 SOL-FA 33 
 
 In the barbarous and untutored state that 
 people were in generally, the Church became the 
 great teaching agent. Its chief musical work 
 consisted in founding music schools in every dio- 
 cese where singing priests and lay singers could 
 be taught the service music ; also where monks 
 and scribes could be educated to the work of 
 copying musical manuscrips and duplicating mis- 
 sal, gradual and psalter. By this course many a 
 set of " Antiphonaria " were made for the choirs. 
 
 Having singing, and scales born of the Greek 
 tetrachords and hexachords, what musical art 
 now needed was that regulated system of notes, 
 staff, bar lines and time characters which would 
 guide the vocalist and give fixed rules to musical 
 practice in place of the indefinite methods. Ap- 
 propriately enough the requirement was amply 
 fulfilled. In different parts of Europe men were 
 steadily mastering and formulating the technical 
 foundations of music. 
 
 About the year 770, Paul, a deacon of the 
 church of Aquilia, composed a hymn in honour 
 of St. John the Baptist with the words — 
 
 " Uxqueant laxis, 
 Rjgsonare fibris, 
 Mira gestorum 
 pAmuli tuorum, 
 ^pl>?e polluti 
 LAbia reatum." 
 
 Sancta Johannes, 
 
 GuiDO, a native of Arezzo (990-1050), sur- 
 named Inventor Musicce, reconstructed the scale, 
 and adopted these syllables tit, re, mi, fa, sol, la, 
 for teaching the art of solmization, or sol-faing,
 
 34 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 from which day the great system of teaching 
 singing in schools and elsewhere may be said to 
 date. In these schools the scholars were taught 
 the Gregorian Church music— the eight "authen- 
 tic " and " plagal " scales, which St. Gregory had 
 formed from the Greek tetrachords. Practice 
 was also afforded in singing the notes which many 
 musicians were beginning to write over words. 
 Guido was the father of solmization and the dis- 
 poser of notes on the staff lines. 
 
 The Authentic Scales, or keys, were — 
 
 „ „ :« » -"- _ ^ -e- ^=»- "^ 
 ^^^=P1 
 
 II o 
 
 Phrygian. 
 
 Dorian. 
 
 
 Lydian. Mixo-Lydian. 
 
 The Plagal, and less ancient scales, stood — 
 
 
 SEE 
 
 Hypo-Dorian or iEoIian. 
 . Li r» ""?" 
 
 ^ 
 
 :i^ct: 
 
 €t O 
 
 Hypo-Phrygian. 
 
 i 
 
 rr «» 
 
 ^^: 
 
 la^en 
 
 ^-I^ 
 
 Hypo-Lydian or Ionian. 
 
 Hypo-Mixo-Lydian. 
 
 Guido's four lines developed into the great 
 stave of eleven lines, whereon each voice has 
 allotted to it its particular range or distance — 
 
 :E^ 
 
 JNiP^^g 
 
 Bass. Baritone. Tenor. Alto. Mezzo- Soprano. Violin or 
 Soprano. G def.
 
 MENSURAL MUSIC 
 
 35 
 
 Each voice had its own Clef (Lat., clavis) as 
 follows — 
 
 Treble or G clef. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Soprano clef. 
 
 -^ 
 
 Alto clef. 
 
 Tenor clef. 
 
 Bass or F clef. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Franco of Cologne {circa 1090)* made the 
 next grand move. He formulated a system of 
 measured time notes with corresponding rests, 
 and also had " triple " or " perfect " time and 
 "duple" or "imperfect" time. This was most 
 important. The determining of the relative 
 lengths of notes was a tremendous advance upon 
 the go-as-you-please principle of all that had pre- 
 ceded it, and it laid the basis of all regulated 
 music. The first two notes of mensural music 
 were the nota longa and nota brevis, to suit long 
 and short syllables. Later on two more notes 
 were added — the semibrevis and minima twta. Sub- 
 sequently another note was brought into use — the 
 
 According to Forkel.
 
 36 THK STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 iimple or crotchet — two "simples" equalling a 
 minim. All this was a question of time. So far 
 as England is concerned, it is not known exactly 
 
 when musical characters 
 were first introduced, 
 but Thomas de Wal- 
 syngham, who flourished 
 about A.D. 1400, men- 
 tions five characters as 
 ^ being in use here — viz.. 
 
 Ancient idea of an Organ. -. i_ / / i 
 
 ^ the large, long, or eve, semi' 
 
 breve, and tninim, corresponding with the maxima 
 
 (or duplex lofiga), longa, brevis, semibrevis, and 
 
 minim of Franco's system. 
 
 In the tenth century there was another con- 
 tributory feature. Men were beginning to make 
 organs — primitive instruments, with probably one 
 or more rows of pipes tuned to the Gregorian 
 tones which, when sounded, accompanied the 
 voices in unison, possibly in fourths and fifths. 
 No one in England was more zealous than Dun- 
 stan (925-975) in encouraging the use of organs. 
 He provided several English abbeys with them, 
 realising no doubt, that the voices in the churches 
 needed instrumental support to keep them in pitch. 
 ^Ifheah, Bishop of Winchester (935-951) gave 
 the cathedral an organ which could be heard 
 throughout the town. 
 
 It was this passion for combining sounds which 
 set music on its great march. Oriental and clas- 
 sical races had enjoyed much experience with 
 music long before the Western world rose out of 
 its slumber, but no one of them, not even the 
 Greeks, accomplished much in the way of har- 
 mony. It was reserved for awakening Europe to 
 lay the foundations of the great art of music as
 
 EARLY SECULAR MUSIC 
 
 37 
 
 it is understood and practised to-day. Naturally 
 the progress was slow as so much had to be over- 
 come in the way of notation and time characters, 
 ere anything could be recorded or regularly 
 measured and rendered. The labours of Guido 
 and Franco in formulating a system which is in 
 use to-day wherever civilised races practise music, 
 can never be over appreciated. The great move 
 was about to be accomplished, however, when it 
 dawned upon mankind to mix voices and combine 
 sounds. 
 
 No one country can claim credit of opening 
 up the vast fields which the art was so soon to 
 
 
 Primitive Organ. 
 
 cover. With the material once provided, France, 
 Germany, Spain, the Netherlands and England — 
 each had a great share in settling and developing 
 scientific music in its early days. It was only 
 among the learned, chiefly the clergy, that records 
 were being kept of this and that advance in the- 
 oretical art; it must not be forgotten, however, 
 that in each of the countries named, a great nat- 
 ural home-born wave of distinctive music was 
 springing up which was destined to colour and 
 influence the character of these nations' music in 
 
 448G9
 
 38 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 a remarkable degree. The Church services every- 
 where kept music alive when perforce all other 
 agents failed. None the less, the secular element 
 — the land music — was bursting forth with a vig- 
 our that was bound to make it a considerable 
 factor in the formation of a national art, as also 
 in the development of music generally. In Eng- 
 land even, the folk song, .the origin of which 
 dates back to a time of which man knoweth not, 
 is now and then the unextinguished fire of earliest 
 ancient Britains which will ever characterise Brit- 
 ish music. 
 
 It was the same with the other countries men- 
 tioned. The germs of Oriental art had drifted 
 into Europe and affected them as they affected 
 Albion. These germs took life in a ready soil, 
 and so European or Western world music had its 
 origin. The natural innate harmony which filled 
 the breasts of the aborigines of those parts to 
 which history first points, must never be forgot- 
 ten in the consideration of Music's birth. That 
 such existed, particularly in the British Islands, 
 long before the influence of Eastern music was 
 felt in Europe, is indisputable. 
 
 So far as Great Britain is concerned, it can- 
 not be disproved — although no documentary evi- 
 dence exists to prove anything — that a system of 
 musical notation was not in vogue there hundreds 
 of years anterior to Guido and Franco. The an- 
 cient Britons must have possessed signs for hand- 
 ing down music from father to son — this being 
 almost a part of their religion ; while the very 
 earliest Welsh records seem to prove the exist- 
 ence of harmony in Wales. Doubtless it was of 
 the rudest kind, but it was far in advance of the 
 miserable attempts at harmony (if we may call it
 
 BRITISH AND SAXON MUSIC 39 
 
 so) which we find in the works of the early writers 
 on musical theory.* 
 
 We have done with Eastern music. Glancing 
 over musical Europe, musicians of the three or 
 four countries already mentioned were engaged, 
 in developing the elements of the art in their sim- 
 plest forms. The work which Sylvester, Gregory, 
 Vitalianus, and Charlemagne had initiated was 
 spreading wondrously. Troubadours or musi- 
 cians of the soil with their secular art and instru- 
 ments were beginning to shew themselves, first in 
 Provenge. Church organs had come into use ; 
 discantus (organum or diaphony), the art of play- 
 ing one melody over another, was merging from 
 an embryo state into something of a science ; 
 above all the inventions of Guido and Franco 
 were being gradually adopted. 
 
 Thus while Britain was dominated by the 
 Saxons who came in the first place with coarse 
 song and chorus not infrequently tinged with the 
 howl and oath, the same race subsequently be- 
 queathed such things as the glee-hall and the 
 gleeman's song, several musical instruments, the 
 art of part-singing, the "scop" or "scald," an- 
 swering to the British bard, etc. The times were 
 too stormy, however, for the cultivation of music. 
 Had it not been for the light and learning of such 
 minds as Caedmon, Benedict Biscop, and Bede, it 
 is most likely that the light of English music 
 would have been put out for many a generation. 
 
 * " History of Music" (Naumann) — Ouseley, vol. i., p. 395.
 
 4© THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 EARLY HARMONY — FOLK SONGS — TROUBADOURS 
 AND FIRST COUNTERPOINT 
 
 Now could the early harmonists set to work in 
 earnest as, indeed, they did. One of the first and 
 best to enter the lists of earliest music-makers 
 was an Englishman, Walter Odington, a Bene- 
 dictine monk of Evesham {^circa 1 180-1250) and 
 probably the most learned and versatile writer of 
 the period. Odington left behind him a valuable 
 manuscript, " De Speculatione Musicae," in six 
 books — a remarkable work which, according to 
 Burney, was " the most ample, satisfactory and 
 valuable which the Middle Ages can boast." It 
 treats of scales, harmonical proportions, organ 
 pipes, bells, poetry, rhythm, notation and organum 
 or the composition of additional parts to melodies. 
 Odington introduces us to the following char- 
 acters shewing that he, or others had developed 
 notation beyond that known to Franco. Thus — 
 
 Punctum ^ ■ Aposiropha y -- 
 
 Bispututum m A Bistropha <» o ~ 
 
 Tripunctum ♦ » ^ Tristropha J J ^ 
 
 Virga - 
 Bivirgia ^ m 
 
 Virga Biconpumtis 4 ^ ~l ^ 4 
 
 Virga Triconpututis—fondiatessaries, 
 
 Trivergia ^ ^ "^ condiapentis^ etc. 
 
 C Story of Brit. Music," p. 286O
 
 EARLY HARMONY 41 
 
 Marchettus of Padua {circa 1 280-1320) next 
 accomplished important work in the development 
 of mensural music and harmony. Marchettus' 
 chief contribution to musical progress was jn es- 
 tablishing the first correct principles of conso- 
 nance and dissonance. Harmony, or concord in 
 music is one thing and this was known to the ears 
 of many before Marchettus' time ; but music could 
 not long remain all concord any more than or- 
 dinary existence could be one undisturbed se- 
 quence of happiness. The acids of music were 
 required in order that harmony might be the more 
 appreciated. Consequently discords — combina- 
 tions of opposite notes which when struck de- 
 manded a resolution or settling into concord or 
 harmony — were invented. 
 
 John de Muris {circa 1330-1400) was a doctor 
 of the Sorbonne, Paris. To Muris (or Meurs) 
 belongs the honour of introducing the idea of 
 florid counterpoint, and among the rules of har- 
 mony he laid down — as also did Marchettus — was 
 that all-important one holding good to-day that 
 two perfect consonances, unison, fifth, and octave, 
 shall not succeed each other in similar motion. 
 Treatises of his are in existence which prove that 
 he rendered excellent aid in forming the founda- 
 tions of theoretical music — most important work 
 inasmuch as no marked development could take 
 place in composition until the grammar of music 
 had become law. Therefore it is that the step by 
 step labours of these early theorists require to 
 become known and understood. 
 
 It must not be gathered that musicians of 
 about the fourteenth century were engaged in writ- 
 ing dry treatises only. Composition was going 
 on apace in England, the Netherlands, France,
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 "SUMER IS ICUMEN IN." 
 {MS. No. 978 Haruian Collection, Brit. Mus.) 
 
 f3_._Q — zraz 
 
 =f=fi 
 
 S 
 
 Su - mer is i - cu - men in - - , Lhu - de 
 
 ^ 
 
 Su - mer 
 
 5?a: 
 
 Fi^rft-^ 
 
 Sing 
 
 cue • - cu 
 
 m 
 
 Sing 
 
 ^Bz 
 
 Sing 
 
 cue - - cu 
 
 Sing 
 
 =^1=^ 
 
 ::^±icii 
 
 Sing cue - cu 
 
 Grow-eth sed, and 
 
 *^ i« I - ni - fn**n in - - . T.Tiii - r1*» 
 
 is i - CU - men in - - , Lhu - de Sing cue- 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Su - mer is i 
 
 H 
 
 F=:=^7: 
 
 ^ 
 
 cue • • cu 
 
 Sing 
 
 nu . . Sing
 
 "SUMER IS ICUMEN IN' 
 
 43 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^: 
 
 blow-eth med, And sprlngth the w - - de 
 
 Grow-eth sed, and 
 
 :=r 
 
 -p=p^- 
 
 3=t: 
 
 :r3: 
 
 ^ 
 
 Lhu - de Sing cue- 
 
 &C. 
 
 Su - mer is 
 
 ^ 
 
 ::i: 
 
 Sing 
 
 ^ 
 
 cu Sing cue - - 
 
 Germany, and Italy. The most remarkable mu- 
 sical MS. in existence had long been written. 
 This v.- as an early part-song, *' Sumer is icumen 
 in,'" the work of an Englishman, John of Fornsete, 
 monk of Reading. 
 
 " Summer has come in " is the oldest piece of 
 polyphonic and canonical composition in exist- 
 ence. It is a Northumbrian round in six parts 
 including the "pes" or ground bass. In the 
 writing of the thirteenth century, it was probably 
 composed about 1226-1230, and both for its mel- 
 ody and harmony is an extraordinary composi- 
 tion. If compared with any other music of the 
 same date it will show English art to be far in 
 advance of that of every other country. No 
 music from the monasteries, either abroad or at 
 home, approaches it either in characteristic quality 
 or learning. Further on is a composition — of
 
 44 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 about the year 1280 — by Adam de la Hale, a 
 troubadour in the service of the Comte de Pro- 
 xhn^e which, agreeable as it is — bears no com- 
 parison with John of Fornsete's graceful, learned 
 work. 
 
 A digression from the story of music's gram- 
 mar and early composition must be made to con- 
 sider an element fast growing up all over Europe 
 that was to reflect itself in 
 the sacred as well as the 
 secular music of the pe- 
 riod. This was the soil 
 or land music. The posi- 
 tion that folk music oc- 
 cupied at a period when 
 Europe was without musi- 
 cal art, beyond what was 
 employed in churches, 
 was unique, seeing how 
 it has reflected itself, and 
 has been referred to in 
 every phase of modern 
 art. Its value and aid 
 as a sure index of the 
 people's mind wherever 
 
 it has sprung up ; its 
 
 Performer on a Three-striked tinge and colour; its earli- 
 Crout, or Rotte. est natural beauty; its 
 
 frequently unsatisfactory 
 shape (as looked at by the modern scientific 
 musician), all these are qualities of this art of the 
 countries of Europe which require to be consid- 
 ered in the task of accounting for modern music. 
 One cannot build up a nation's music without 
 regarding the untaught, />. the natural music of 
 each country concerned. Wherever the folk song
 
 FOLK SONGS 
 
 45 
 
 has sprouted and flourished amid its pure air of 
 nature, it has emanated from the Hfe of the peo- 
 ple, and has grown out of them and out of the 
 soil they trod. Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans 
 all had their songs of the soil, and, while women 
 lightened their more or less legitimate work with 
 their home-tunes, the men tempered the war- 
 weapon to their tunes and ploughed many a fur- 
 row to their rhythms. Every atom of folk-music 
 is an emanation from the human heart, and is as 
 psychologically true national music as music can 
 be. The shepherd tending his flock, the soldier 
 on the march, the fisherman repairing his nets, 
 the sower casting seed, the reaper joyous with 
 sickle, the mother and nurse at the cot; these, 
 and more, chanted tunes long before a scientific 
 art obtained in any country. Nor should we for- 
 get here the Sagaman and Scald of the Norse 
 peoples. To them Europe owes the Va/se rhythm, 
 used by them for singing the tales of the past 
 and their own time. 
 
 Unadorned by art, the chief characteristic of 
 the folk song is its fidelity to the natural and 
 human aspects of nature. It tells of the indoor 
 and outdoor life of every worker as we see it re- 
 flected in each faithful mirror of times dear to 
 every lover of his country. Realize the loftiness, 
 earnestness and manliness of the progenitors of 
 the English to-day in this song — 
 
 
 -\rvr 
 
 German Peasant Song. 
 
 Trace the enthusiasm and fancy in the folk 
 song of the Gaul ! How the vigour and hardiness
 
 46 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 of the Norse people assert themselves in their 
 land music. Consider the sweetness and loveli- 
 ness of the Provencal bards' folk song! Let the 
 lover of the Slav lands contrast the sturdy blunt- 
 ness of the following combination of Russian 
 tones with the warm enthusiasm and gaiety of 
 something that is melodically Spanish, such as 
 the Andalusian air below it — 
 
 Ird &c. 
 
 Russian Soldier's Melody. 
 
 Andalusian Air. 
 
 In national airs like these, we meet with un- 
 concealed musical truthfulness. Unhappily, the 
 English musical style has, at present, no character 
 at all, although it had once. The French is 
 sparkling and naive, the Italian suave and grace- 
 ful, the Polish, mournful and affecting, the Ger- 
 man, bracing and convincing ; Spanish, poignant 
 and gay; Russian, unsympathetic but attractive; 
 Scandinavian, keen and cutting; American, dis- 
 tressingly concordant ; African, hopelessly dis- 
 cordant. And so we might go on, but all that 
 has been said is perfectly true, artistically. No- 
 body is to blame for all this. The music of the 
 soil has grown of itself. The national music of 
 any country has no fixed composer and the ear- 
 liest inhabitants cannot account for it. Breath 
 of the sod, the original folk song with all its 
 warmth and truth, has given life to kindred tone 
 and colour centuries after; and even before that
 
 FOLK SONGS 
 
 47 
 
 time, when, thanks to Guido d'Arezzo's great 
 Work, the perpetuation of men's musical thoughts 
 became possible; an age (1000-1300) to which we 
 must turn for all that we desire to know about 
 the first blossomings of music of the soil. 
 
 In several countries this folk music has proved 
 of inestimable service in preserving the musical 
 character of county or country. We get it in 
 Scotland, Ireland and Wales ; but not quite so 
 much in England. English musical character has 
 passed through a series of adverse conditions, 
 chiefly of a so-called " improving " character, 
 which has made it all but unrecognisable among 
 the Continental musical schools; but that it had, 
 and might always have, its flavour if the system 
 of imparting national musical training were on a 
 proper basis, is indisputable. Pure British folk 
 music has all the mixture of influences which have 
 been infused into the British race, and which have 
 made them pre-eminent as a people. No one needs 
 to be reminded of the thoroughly home character 
 of old English songs and ballads, while the dis- 
 tinctiveness of the Irish, Scotch and Welsh airs 
 is as marked as it can well be. Note the native 
 character abounding in the following melodies — 
 
 Quickly 
 
 -^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^m.^^ 
 
 Plaintively 
 
 Scotch Melody. 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^m 
 
 HJ &c. 
 
 Welsh Melody.
 
 48 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Hwcetly 
 
 i^^^^^^pi 
 
 Irish Melody. 
 
 Probably every country has had folk music, 
 though comparatively little is noted down. Tra- 
 ditional airs, many of them have been long last- 
 ing strains of many forefathers before the art of 
 notation was known ; and certainly all early music 
 of every country would be largely permeated with 
 primitive musings. The early contrapuntists used 
 the best-known folk music as themes for their 
 masses and motets. As an art factor, the folk 
 song is important. Out of it, and the few notes 
 of Gregory known as the Gregorian Tones, the 
 vast structure of modern musical art has grown. 
 Guido, Franco, de Muris, Odington — all fed upon 
 them. 
 
 It was the minstrel in England, the minne- 
 singer in Germany, the troubadour in Southern 
 France and Provenge, who added grace and ro- 
 mance to the folk song by their polished singing 
 and delicate accompaniments — using the popular 
 melodies to carry stories of romantic and his- 
 torical interest. Thus the national song and 
 ballad had their origin. The Norman Conquest 
 gave a great impetus to this improvised music 
 which occupied the minds of rich and poor alike. 
 Here is a characteristic song — in present-day no- 
 tation — which Thibaut, King of Navarre (1201- 
 1253) was wont to sing —
 
 TROUBADOURS 
 
 49 
 
 ini^^^^ 
 
 I thought rdvanquish'clmightylove,butfindinyself de-ceived, 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?^^_E^3E^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 pit: 
 
 4-4- 
 
 ga3^.#gg^ 
 
 iii-li3a^35§^g,3^ 
 
 For ev'ry hour, a -las! I prove the conquest unachiev'd. &c 
 
 eESE 
 
 ±=5 
 
 :— -tf 
 
 
 Thirteenth Century Melody. 
 
 Other celebrated troubadours of this period 
 whose songs have come down to us were Adam 
 de la Hale {circa 1280), Chatelain de Courcy, and 
 Faidit. The following is a specimen of de la 
 Hale's work, an old French chanson in descant 
 or counterpoint for three voices. Its chief in- 
 terest centres in the sentiment it seeks to reflect 
 and the marked progress it shows in the difficult 
 art of counterpoint or constructional music — 
 
 De la Hale. 
 
 Q ' ** 4-:^ — o — "-^o -: 
 
 St^ 
 
 E^E^E^t^ 
 
 ^: 
 
 igi: — C2_ 
 
 n=t 
 
 E^ttti^ 
 
 =s=i"Ti-
 
 5° 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 5^pj^ 
 
 :!^ingE 
 
 m^^^g 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ -Tf 
 
 i^P=ai 
 
 Early French Chanson (Thirteenth Century Counterpoint). 
 
 Here is another example of de la Hale as a 
 melodist, harmonised by a modern musician, 
 Ritter — 
 
 
 r^r 
 
 D.C. # 
 
 ^#ftt^PfP^^ 
 
 UWJJ jv;^V!/y=au 
 
 From de la Hale's Masque Robin and Marion. 
 
 For several generations, then, most simple 
 harmony made up the ecclesiastical music of Eng- 
 land and other European countries. Not a little 
 of the development it underwent had its origin, 
 probably, from the fashion during the thirteenth 
 century of embellishing the ordinary plain chants
 
 ENGLISH MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
 
 51 
 
 with ornaments and graces in order to distinguish 
 
 the festivals and high days — which ornaments, 
 
 being Hked and becoming known, were eventually 
 
 adopted. Folk music — the song of the people — 
 
 continued to exercise 
 
 its influence outside 
 
 the Church, while the 
 
 best intellect of the 
 
 period devoted itself 
 
 to the development 
 
 principally of the organ 
 
 among instruments, and 
 
 to the groundwork of 
 
 musical grammar. 
 
 Besides the organ, 
 native English wind 
 instruments were the 
 horn, trumpet, bagpipe, 
 and flageolet. The old 
 crwth, identified with 
 British musical history 
 from time immemorial, 
 was popularly used. It 
 was a three- stringed instrument played with a 
 bow, and therefore a sort of primitive violin. 
 There was also the hurdy-gurdy, drum, tabor, 
 rote or zither, and a species of dulcimer plucked 
 with the finger or a plectrum. Bells, too, were 
 commonly used for sacred and secular purposes. 
 
 Performer on a Circular Psaltery 
 of Twelfth Century.
 
 52 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY MUSIC — RISE OF OPERA 
 
 AND ORATORIO — THE ORGAN EARLY SCHOOLS 
 
 OF MUSIC 
 
 The close of the fourteenth and opening of 
 the fifteenth centuries brought a marked advance 
 in Music's growth and history. Spontaneous art, 
 romance music, troubadours, and unwritten art 
 generally, were fast giving way before the march 
 of a more formal art. Four countries entered 
 Music's domain, almost simultaneously, and 
 founded the first of the European Schools of 
 Music. These early schools were the Nether- 
 lands or Belgian, the German, Italian, and Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 The Netherlands School — known also as the 
 Flemish — flourished for some two hundred years 
 (1400-1600). Its first great light was Guillaume 
 Dufay (1350-1432). Then came Johann Ocken- 
 heim {circa 1430-15 13), Josquin des Pres (1445- 
 1521), Willaert (1490-1563), and Orlando Lassus 
 (1520-1594). These men built up the Belgian 
 School. Each had pupils, many of them illus- 
 trious names in the art's history ; but the narra- 
 tive must pass over all who were not actual lead- 
 ers in musical thought and invention. 
 
 The art of Counterpoint was all and every- 
 thing with this School, until it became so famous 
 therein that other countries sent to it for profess- 
 ors of the fugal art. There was growing up in 
 Europe a great demand for sacred music, and 
 this canonic or fugal style found vent chiefly in 
 mass, motet, and other ecclesiastical music forms.
 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY MUSIC 
 
 53 
 
 DuFAY possessed a style that was at once pleas- 
 ing and finished. He left some remarkable speci- 
 mens of composition for the time at which they 
 were written ; indeed, many of his contrapuntal 
 devices have been ascribed to much later writers. 
 
 DUFAY. 
 
 Specimen of Canon in Two Parts (Octave above). 
 
 OcKENHEiM greatly extended Counterpoint, 
 especially in the direction of Canon — his compo- 
 sitions evincing a decided yearning after the 
 emotional element. Josquin, in his psalms and 
 motets, left musical " masterpieces which will be 
 listened to for all time, as real jewels among sa- 
 cred music." His style was replete with original- 
 ity and finish. The extract on pp. 54 and 55, well 
 impressed with contrapuntal device, from one of 
 his Masses, shews a great stride in composition. 
 Hitherto, music in three parts only had obtained ; 
 here we have a capital example of pronounced 
 four-part work from which it is easy to realise 
 that he " not only vanquished all the existing dif- 
 ficulties of canon, fugue, imitation, and every 
 species of learned contrivance and ingenious con- 
 texture of consonant combination, but invented 
 new structures of harmony, original adjustments
 
 54 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 oi part with part, and was, in a great measure, the 
 father of polyphonic composition.* 
 
 JOSQUIN DES PrES. 
 
 w 
 
 ^^ ^—.f h-, -^^^^^=^^^^^^^^^- 
 
 SE 
 
 .bo. 
 
 ^^si-EE^^_E 
 
 =z1=^^:^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 PC is: 
 
 i^PP^PP 
 
 4^-/-!?- 
 
 E^H^£_^;3 
 
 
 ^S^E5 
 
 ^ 
 
 eE^^E 
 
 * Busby. 
 
 ±iti±=:
 
 JOSQUIN DES PRES 
 
 ft . n 
 
 55 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 U B 
 
 
 :cf:=S¥>: 
 
 It 
 
 . O / > 1-0" 
 
 i 
 
 ^e 
 
 
 s 
 
 ^mm^ m^^i ^==:^^ ^ 
 
 i 
 
 =t=t; 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 g=£tE a ^^^p &=;i^ 
 
 specimen of Josquin's Counterpoint. 
 (From one of his Masses.)
 
 56 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Willaert's efforts were especially note- 
 worthy. He invented the madrigal form; im- 
 proved the motet , wrote compositions for five, 
 six, and seven parts ; chief of all, he introduced 
 the double chorus — using it antiphonally. Las- 
 sus, " Prince of Music," the last of these famous 
 early Belgian musicians, was remarkable chiefly 
 for the variety and grandeur of his harmony — 
 mainly owing to the introduction of the chromatic 
 element. His motets, lamentations, responsories. 
 
 Ancient English Church Organ. 
 
 hymns, etc., shew also a great advance in that 
 all-important direction — melody — the wings of 
 Music. Another country was coming along, how- 
 ever, with a melodic force that was destined to 
 shroud all that Belgium accomplished in this 
 direction. This was Italy. 
 
 Julius II. (1503-15 13) invited Belgian musi- 
 cians to visit Rome and take control of the 
 Church music. It was little short of a command,
 
 EARLY ITALIAN MUSIC 57 
 
 and the Netherlanders went to be eye-witnesses 
 of several remarkable musical developments. 
 
 The organ comes in here. Hitherto, there 
 had been the ancient hydraulic or water organ ; 
 a second century instrument with ten pipes and 
 a key-board; organs of the tenth century such as 
 Wulfstan and Dunstan erected, having few pipes 
 and many wind chests for blowing; keys, several 
 inches wide — which had to receive a blow from 
 the fist to make them yield. These instruments 
 could do no more, however, than echo the crude 
 plain-song or the still harsher orgamim. What 
 was to prove the most comprehensive of all in- 
 struments could not stop here. About 1490, 
 Bernhardt, a German, introduced that splendid 
 addition, the pedal board — beginning with an 
 octave set. Then some ingenious Venetian work- 
 ers thought of half notes or semitones for the 
 organ — which smaller interval, though long pro- 
 pounded in early Treatises, had hitherto been 
 lacking in keyed instruments. Squarcialupo, a 
 Florentine, and Bernhardt, surnamed "the Ger- 
 man," were notable organists in Venice during 
 the fifteenth century. 
 
 A still more important development — one that 
 greatly influenced musical art — was the invention 
 of Music Printing. Hitherto all music books and 
 MSS. were the outcome of penmanship. Missal, 
 gradual, psalter, and antiphonaria needed to be 
 copied and duplicated — and industrious monks 
 did this with their quills, finding in such work a 
 welcome relief to the monotonous life of the 
 monastery. In 1502 it occurred to Ottavio Pe- 
 trucci, a printer of Fossembrone, to print musical 
 notes with moveable metal types. Thus it is to 
 Italy that we owe the art of Music Printing — a
 
 5^ THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 process which since the invention of steam has 
 proved so beneficial in disseminating music. 
 
 It was about the year 1500 that the purely 
 Italian School had its rise. The first thorough 
 Italian master was Festa (d. 1545) whose music is 
 characterised by remarkable clearness, originality, 
 and the melodic suavity and grace, particularly 
 in the uppermost part, which have ever been 
 features of this school. All who know the 
 English version (Down in a flow'ry vale) of his 
 Madrigal, Qiiando ritrovo la mia pastorella, will 
 admit as much of his charming, delicate touch 
 and style. Its flow and harmony are surprising 
 for the period. Contemporary with him was 
 Palestrina (1524-1594). 
 
 Here we come to a really great name in early 
 Italian musical history. A pupil of Goudimel, he 
 "grasped the essential doctrines of his school, 
 without adopting its mannerism." Whatever those 
 " doctrines " were worth, Palestrina certainly took 
 forward the music of his country in wondrous 
 fashion. After a sound church musical training 
 and experience, he developed great powers as a 
 composer — writing a vast number of masses, 
 motets, a Stabat Mater for two choirs, etc. 
 
 One valuable feature marked all Palestrina's 
 sacred art. This was the lofty, reverent nature 
 of his harmony, which was as arresting as it was 
 beautiful. This aspect of his musical genius 
 suddenly brought him into great prominence. 
 It was in the year 1562 that the Council of 
 Trent condemned the frivolous style and char- 
 acter that the church music had assumed, and 
 proposed banishing music from the services. 
 Pope Pius IV. interposed. He was aware that 
 the Mass music had lost much of the simple,
 
 PALESTRINA 59 
 
 solemn character, which marked that introduced 
 by the Netherlanders : and not wishing to return 
 to the use of the Gregorian Plain-song as Mass 
 music, he engaged Palestrina to compose three 
 model masses upon which the Council would pass 
 judgment. Music, as represented by Palestrina, 
 triumphed, and he was commissioned to compose 
 masses for the Vatican services. Thus was music 
 saved in the Roman Church. 
 
 The great modification in musical custom and 
 growth that Palestrina effected was the taking of 
 the principal melody, or cantiis Jirmus, from the 
 tenor part, where it had hitherto been, and giving 
 it to the highest pitch voice — the treble or soprano 
 — by which step we may assume that boys' or 
 women's voices had by this time been drawn 
 into the church services. Down to Palestrina's 
 day, melody had been held of too little account. 
 This great reformer remedied this, and set musical 
 art upon the wings of tune as well as science. 
 Manifestly this giving the melody to the highest 
 natural voice was one of the most remarkable as 
 well as progressive stages that the art could be 
 made to take. 
 
 Another Italian musician who took music a step 
 onward at this period was Gabrielli (1540-1612). 
 He, it may be said, made the first attempts at 
 utilising instruments collectively, as in an orches- 
 tra. The idea of vocal compositions for two or 
 more choirs had even spread among composers. So 
 far, however, the orchestra had not been gathered 
 together. Gabrielli's crude attempts at orchestra- 
 tion, therefore, mark, however slightly, a period. 
 Among his compositions is a score I?i Ecclesiis 
 Be7iedicite Domifiiim for two choirs, with an orches- 
 tral accompaniment of one violin, three cornets,
 
 Co THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 and two trombones. This is probably the earliest 
 instance of the use of the orchestra, as we under- 
 stand the term, that modern music affords. In- 
 strumental music in the sixteenth century was in 
 such a confused state that it is difficult to find a 
 fixed point from which to date the development 
 of the modern orchestra. Gabrielli's score, how- 
 ever, furnishes an important start. 
 
 Something must now be said of Opera. We are 
 indebted to Italy for this well-tried musical form, 
 the origin of which took place at this period. A 
 number of Florentine literati conceived the idea 
 of an art-form that should be a combination of 
 music and the drama. It was to be based upon 
 the Greek plays — containing as they did song, 
 or flowing melody and monody, /. e. recitative or 
 declaimed, spoken music {jnusica parlante). The 
 first opera produced by this society of dilettanti 
 was Dafne^ which one of their number, Peri, 
 composed in 1594. It had an orchestra of one 
 harpsichord, one chitaraone — a sort of guitar — 
 one lyre and one lute, and was so much liked, that 
 others of its kind were speedily produced. 
 
 Obviously this was a distinct art step. It is 
 easy to comprehend how it widened out the 
 sphere of musical expression and practice ; how 
 it afforded scope for the declaration of the secular 
 as opposed to the ecclesiastical mind in music — 
 which latter had hitherto almost wholly obtained; 
 also how the technical and theoretical bearings 
 of music were bound to be affected by so grand 
 an art medium. In fact, in the second opera 
 Euridice, there were, for the first time, all the con- 
 stituents of modern opera — recitative, air, chorus, 
 and a hidden orchestra. 
 
 Strangely enough Oratorio came into existence
 
 RISE OF OPERA AND ORATORIO 6 1 
 
 at this same period — Italy being also the birth- 
 land of this sacred drama as it had been of the 
 secular. The oratorio was a development of 
 miracle plays and mysteries of mediaeval times, 
 which had fulfilled their purpose for good or ill 
 for ages. At about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century, Philip de Neri, founder of the Florentine 
 Order of Oratorians, introduced scenes from 
 sacred and secular history into the musical drama- 
 performances at his oratory. Thus was the 
 ground made for the Oratorio ; although it was 
 not until the year 1600 that the first real oratorio 
 was produced. 
 
 Emilio del Cavaliere was the composer of 
 the earliest true example of oratorio entitled 
 La Rappreseniazione deli Amj/ia e dell Corpo. In it 
 were principal characters for Soul, Body, Time, 
 Life, Intellect, etc. ; and, as it possessed a chorus 
 and orchestra it was not unlike oratorio as we 
 have it to-day. The orchestra of L'Anima e 
 Corpo consisted of a double lyre, a harpsichord, a 
 double guitar, two flutes and a theorbo — a kind 
 of bass — very different in character from that of 
 Gabrielli, who was bold enough to take brass 
 instruments into the church. 
 
 Between opera" and oratorio is one great dis- 
 tinguishing feature. In opera all is singing and 
 action, enabling many persons who can sing but 
 cannot act, and vice versa, to pass themselves off 
 as respectable performers. Unlike opera, action 
 is forbidden in oratorio — emotion, expression and 
 dramatic effect being secured by a dependence 
 upon orchestral invention and combination, with 
 the culture and intelligence of the soloists and 
 chorus. Thus, the oratorio is a much higher 
 form of musical art. It must not be concluded,
 
 62 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 however, that these earliest oratorios were al- 
 together without action. That would have been 
 too great a leap at first. Most likely is it that 
 they slightly resembled the modern Passion Play 
 as performed at Ober Ammergau. Unlike later 
 oratorii, too, L'Anima e Corpo had no duet, trio 
 and quartet to break the monotomy of solo and 
 chorus. 
 
 From the following air apportioned to Intel- 
 lect it will be seen that melody was not a strong 
 feature with Emilio, since in tunefulness it is far 
 behind the music of Festa. Perhaps, however, 
 the sense that the music was to be sung in a 
 church restricted it to this ecclesiastical, some- 
 what note against note, character — 
 
 Jntelletto 
 
 EOE 
 
 ¥^ 
 
 Og - ni CO: iuia il be - ne nessun vuol- 
 
 ^ 
 
 =EP= 
 
 ?^ 
 
 =1 \-^ 
 
 zA -r ■*• 
 
 star in pe • ne ; quin-di mel le de-si - ri. &c. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^f 
 
 - r> -i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 t3= 
 
 The world, then, stands indebted to Italy for 
 both Oratorio and Opera. While the " cradle of 
 art," as Italy has been termed, nestled these 
 forms, other countries were performing a great 
 work in the development of musical art. High 
 among these were Germany and England. 
 
 At about the year 1460 several German con- 
 trapuntists disputed with the Netherlanders the 
 monopoly of Northern musical art. Protestant
 
 CHORAL 6^ 
 
 Church song had become as much a necessity as 
 the Mass music of the Roman Church, and it 
 was the music identified with that great rehgious 
 movement — the Reformation — that was destined 
 to form the foundation of all future German 
 musical character, as well as to affect music — 
 particularly the oratorio. When Luther (1483- 
 1546) threw off his allegiance to the Church and 
 began to preach certain reform doctrines, he was 
 unconsciously modifying the music as well as the 
 religion of the world. Luther, Schutz, Reiser, 
 Graun, evolved a style of music which supplied 
 the foundation of all future German art — whether 
 instrumental or vocal. They gave it that solid- 
 ity, breadth, and earnestness which have ever 
 since been the prevailing features of Teuton art. 
 
 Luther perceived that song for the people 
 was to prove a powerful factor in the reformed 
 faith, and he needed an element to take the place 
 of the Roman plain-song. The outcome of this 
 was the C/iora/,* which he and his contemporaries, 
 and many after them, poured out with surprising 
 zeal. The breadth and vigour which character- 
 ised these hymn tunes with their broad harmo- 
 nies, went straight home to the hearts of the 
 German people, sung as they were in unison to 
 organ or orchestral accompaniment. 
 
 The Choral, traceable to the influence of the 
 Volkslied, hastened and influenced all subsequent 
 German sacred song and prepared the way for the 
 " Passion " music and oratorios in the composi- 
 tion of which German composers excelled beyond 
 
 * The German name for the Plain-song of the Roman 
 Church. After the Reformation the name Choral. (Eng. 
 " Chorale") was given to our hymns. 
 
 5
 
 64 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 all Others. If the oratorio had remained in the 
 land of its birth it is extremely improbable that 
 it would have developed into the grand shape as 
 we know it. The Italian musical character and 
 temperament were unsuited to it ; on the con- 
 trary, the bracing German national character 
 suited it exactly. Schutz (1585-1672) and 
 Keiser (1673-1735) were two celebrated com- 
 posers of Passion music anterior to the period of 
 the giants of German choral art. Keiser's " The 
 Bleeding and Dying Jesus" is a truly great 
 work. Graun's fine Passion oratorio Der Tod 
 Jesii (" The Death of Jesus ") is, if possible, a 
 still nobler composition. 
 
 English musical doings moved this while. The 
 innate love of music among the people was such 
 that from King Alfred's time up to the fifteenth 
 century the art spread amazingly among both the 
 upper and lower classes. While the nobles en- 
 joyed music in their castles and halls, the poorer 
 folk had their fireside or open air art. Minstrelsy 
 was the class of music that mostly obtained, and 
 this became so popular in England that laws and 
 licenses were found 10 be necessary to control 
 matters. Despite several centuries of stormy 
 times, too, the love of instrumental music de- 
 veloped. In Chaucer's time (1340-1400) there 
 were at least the treble, counter-treble, tenor and 
 bass in vocal music, with the harp, " sautry," 
 " trumpette," " claryowne," organ, lute, and giterne 
 to make an instrumental concert. 
 
 Dunstable {circa 1400-1458) might well be 
 styled the " Father " of English contrapuntists.* 
 
 * Too little is known of Odington, the composer of 
 *' Sumer is icumen in," and also of the author of a famous
 
 DUNSTABLE AND HAMBOIS 
 
 65 
 
 As a theorist he was not less famous on the Con- 
 tinent than in England — one of his treatises, De 
 Mensurabili Musica, being constantly referred to 
 by later musicians. Many of his compositions 
 can still be found in continental collections, and 
 these like his theoretical dissertations, stamp him 
 as one of the masters of his day. Contemporary 
 with Dunstable was Hambois, who is said to have 
 been (in 1463) the first bearer of 
 the title, " Doctor of Music." 
 
 It will be noted that we learn 
 more of the theoretical than of the 
 instrumental abilities of these early 
 masters, from which it would seem 
 that the pursuit of the scientific or 
 reasoning side of music was the 
 favourite occupation of musicians. 
 The fact is, instrumental skill in 
 music had scarcely yet become a 
 matter of emulation among men, 
 and the Church Services were still 
 in the hands of the Roman priests 
 and singing monks, so that but 
 little headway was possible this 
 while. 
 
 Notable English musicians of 
 this epoch, however, were Taverner, Menestrei Harp 
 who composed masses, motets and of the Fifteenth 
 anthems now existing in MS. ; ^° ^^^' 
 Tye, afterwards Queen Elizabeth's music master ; 
 Fairfax, Shepherd and Parsons. 
 
 hymn to the Virgin — " Angelus ad Virginem " — to credit them 
 with the title. The date of this hymn tune, unquestionably 
 English, has been approximately fixed at 1250-1260, or within 
 twenty years of the famous Northumbrian Round or " Read- 
 ing," Jiota, as it is called.
 
 66 THE STOKV OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 From 1535 to 1557. the monasteries were abol- 
 ished in England, and this with Henry VIII. 's 
 Reformation scheme, vastly influenced English 
 music, inasmuch as with the accession of Eliza- 
 beth church musicians found themselves com- 
 pelled to write music for the Reformed Church 
 services. This was unquestionably the making 
 of the English School of Music which properly 
 dates from the golden age of Elizabeth. From 
 that time musician after musician rose up, each 
 adding fresh character and glory to native art. 
 Among the most influential of these were Mar- 
 becke (1523-1585), Tallis (1529-1585). Byrde 
 (1543-1623), Farrant (1538-1580), and Bull (1563- 
 1622) — all particularly identified with Church 
 music — composed mostly for the Roman Faith. 
 
 It was at about this time that the orchestra 
 began to make a move in England. The Violin 
 had been introduced in 1577 and the Harpsichord 
 in 1610, while the Organ and organ-playing had 
 made great strides. As an organist no one in 
 Europe could surpass Dr. John Bull. If we wish 
 to realise the prevailing standard of organ-play- 
 ing a reference to music of the period will afford 
 some index. This must not be taken as a sure 
 guide. The art of epctemporizing on the instru- 
 ment was assiduously practised, and as Bull lived 
 after Tallis, who wrote a Song of Forty parts, the 
 art of fugue-playing^ust have been considerable. 
 In this we know Bull excelled — 
 
 " The bull by force in field doth raigne 
 But Bull by skill good will doth gayne." 
 
 The Musicians Company, too, was founded in 
 1604. 
 
 The first English-printed book in which the
 
 MARBECKE 67 
 
 science of music is mentioned had also appeared. 
 This was entitled " Polychronicon " by Ranulph 
 Higden (1482). Written in Latin in the four- 
 teenth century it contains an account of the dis- 
 covery of the harmonic consonances by Pythag- 
 oras. It was translated by Trevisa. Caxton 
 printed the first English edition. 
 
 It is to Marbecke (or Merbecke) that we are 
 indebted for " The Booke of Common Praier 
 Noted." The author states — "In this booke is 
 conteyned so much of the order of Common 
 Praier as is to be sung in Churches, wherein are 
 used only these iiii sortes of notes — 
 
 The first note is a strene note, and is a breve; 
 the second is a square note, and is a semi-breve ; 
 the third is a prycke, and is a mynmme. And 
 when there is a prycke by the square note, that 
 prycke is half as much as the note that goeth 
 before it. The iiii is a close, and is only used at 
 the end of a verse." Marbecke's noting is an 
 adaptation of the ancient plain-song Latin service 
 melodies. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE MADRIGAL ROMAN AND PROTESTANt 
 
 CHURCH MUSIC OPERA AND THE OVERTURE 
 
 We are nearing the Great Schools Epoch in 
 Music's history; but, before this splendid period 
 was reached, the art passed through several stages
 
 68 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 of growth in more than one country. The ca- 
 nonic or f ugal style — in Italy it was called the nuova 
 musica — was to be considerably developed before 
 the appearance of the great masters of music, and 
 this work was accomplished by composers in 
 Italy, France and England. Vittoria and Anerio 
 in the Roman School, Gabrielli and Croce in the 
 
 {Apollo descends in a cloud, singing-.) MONTEVERDE. 
 
 ^^=w- 
 
 Perch'a lo sdegno ed al do - lor in pre - da Co- 
 
 (Apollo and Orfeo ascend to heaven, singing.) 
 
 -\ — I I I I — f I I I i-
 
 MONTEVERDE 
 
 69 
 
 ,( 
 
 It 
 
 Can - 
 
 3^ 
 
 Specimens of Monteverde's style. 1 From his opera, Or/eo.) 
 
 Venetian, Orlando di Lasso in the Flemish, and 
 several others had brought Church music, partic- 
 ularly the Mass, to a high degree of perfection ; 
 so much so, in fact, that this period has been 
 styled the "Golden age" of Mass music. Its 
 prominent characteristic was an entire subjuga- 
 tion of artistic effect for solemn, devout expres- 
 sion ; and, happily, this character was maintained 
 by musicians of each country until it culminated 
 in a style which was recognised from one end of 
 Europe to the other. Perfect as these high- 
 minded masters of Church music had made the 
 Mass, however, the art had to go further forward. 
 In good time, there arose a man in Italy des- 
 tined to move music appreciably. This was Mon- 
 TEVERDE (1566-1650). For allowing greater free- 
 dom to his melodies; inventing fresh combina- 
 tions of harmony ; and for disregarding old rules 
 and making others which became laws, he is justly 
 entitled to a place among the great architects of 
 the ediiice of musical art. He was the first com- 
 poser to use the chord of the dominant seventh 
 without first preparing the seventh (or discord) 
 of that chord. He also improved " recitative " or 
 musica parlante. Flemish art had served all the 
 purposes of mass, motet, and " service " music,
 
 7° 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 but Monteverde's fresh harmonical modifications, 
 his free use of the dominant seventh chord, and 
 the natural yearning of himself and countrymen 
 towards a flowing expressive art, speedily gave a 
 new aspect to Italian music. 
 
 After Palestrina and Monteverde, the next 
 distinguished Italian musician was Carissimi 
 (1604-1674), who effected marked improvements 
 
 4 tempo moderato. 
 
 So that, the shipwas'like . . , . 
 
 . to be 
 
 P 
 
 
 ^=zjA-=^=X 
 
 i^^ ^=r=r 
 
 ^1^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^-^ 
 
 rrzrT- 
 
 ^t 
 
 i • 1 u 
 
 ^ -t^ 
 
 Andante 
 
 Now the Lord had pre-par-ed a great fish to 
 
 -I d WxA 1 ,— I 1 — V ' 
 
 T- -i -i -t-
 
 POLYPHONIC WRITING 
 
 71 
 
 ittrt 
 
 -T-l-fc 
 
 
 tzig^-i 
 
 swal 
 
 low Jo - - nah, who did pray from out of the &c 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^= 
 
 
 :itd: 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 ^" 
 
 i^ 
 
 From Carissimi'syi?«aA. 
 
 Extract from Double Chorus, "And there 
 WAS A Mighty Tempest " 
 
 very horrible roar - ing. 
 
 And did 
 
 Ig- P-*- 
 
 *=:r=«t 
 
 =i^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 very horrible roar - ing, 
 
 And 
 
 =P=t: 
 
 V V ff 
 
 i^-l^-c- 
 
 3=^ 
 
 very horrible roar - ing, 
 
 And 
 
 
 Rag'd around 
 
 the ves-sel with a ve-ry horrible 
 
 s 
 
 N S- 
 
 itt 
 
 m 
 
 Rag'd around the vessel with 
 
 a very horrible 
 
 around the vessel with a very horrible 
 
 ik:=fczfc 
 
 S 
 
 ?=t: 
 
 Rag'd . . . around the vessel with a ve-ry horrible
 
 72 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 > N N' -K 
 
 zMi=Hz 
 
 ^ 
 
 fall, did fall upon the 
 
 ititrtr 
 
 :S^ 
 
 fall upon the sea, did 
 
 -4^-fe--Mv- 
 
 eE 
 
 did fall upon the sea, did 
 
 l\^^^=^^^ 
 
 did (^11 upon the sea, did 
 
 And did 
 
 &C. 
 
 roar - ing, And did 
 
 From Carissimi's Jonah. 
 
 in Oratorio, particularly in " Recitative " dra- 
 matic effects, accompaniments, and in the inven- 
 tion of the Arioso movement. A comparison of 
 his oratorio scores with those of the old Roman 
 School, immediately before him, will show at 
 once the value of his influence upon vocal music, 
 particularly in opera and oratorio where recita- 
 tive is needed, standing as it does in strong con- 
 trast with the stilted character of all that had 
 preceded it. Polyphonic writing and harmony
 
 ORCHESTRAL ADVANCE 
 
 73 
 
 also advanced at his hands as an examination 
 of his oratorio, Jonah — particularly noticeable 
 for its double chorus and effects of realism — will 
 show. 
 
 Scarlatti (1650-1725) followed with im- 
 provements affecting alike oratorio and opera, 
 but particularly the latter. He helped the art by 
 introducing independent movements or intermezzi 
 for the orchestra, which would clearly be of 
 great value as rests for the vocalists. Also he 
 considerably improved the Aria, from which time 
 melody began to receive that attention which led 
 to its becoming the principal factor in Italian 
 opera. After him came Lotti, Caldara, Gasparini, 
 Jomelli, Porporo and Buononcini, all of whom 
 were animated with the desire to accord greater 
 prominence to the 
 soloist at the cost of 
 the chorus and oth- 
 er concerted pieces. 
 Thus were Oratorio 
 and Opera alike 
 helped along before 
 the appearance of 
 Bach or Gluck — the 
 first giants in these 
 departments. 
 
 The small begin- 
 nings of the orches- 
 tra as an adjunct to 
 vocal music were ex- 
 tending this while. In his opera, Orfeo, Monte- 
 verde employed an orchestra of two Harpsi- 
 chords, two Bass Viols, ten Tenor Viols, one 
 Double Harp, two small French Violins, two large 
 Guitars, two Organs of Wood, two Viola di 
 
 Spinet.
 
 74 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 
 Gamba, four Trombones, one Regal, two Cornets, 
 one small Octave Flute, one Clarion, and three 
 Trumpets with Mutes —thirty-five instruments in 
 all. Seeing that the orchestra of the first opera 
 seria Euridice (1600) consisted of but four instru- 
 ments, Monteverde's orchestra marks a great ad- 
 nce indeed. 
 
 Mention must be made of a form of secular 
 usical art that was popular, both in England 
 and on the Continent at this period — a species of 
 musical composition that prepared the way for 
 perhaps the most delightful aspect of art that is 
 with us to-day, namely Chamber Music; and one 
 which aroused the greatest rivalry among musi- 
 cians of the time who excelled in its practice. 
 This was the ^laddgal. 
 
 The Madrigal is a species of light part song, 
 generally of a pastoral character. Of all the 
 lesser forms of musical composition it is certainly 
 the most delightful, affording as it does, a field 
 for the union of both expression and ingenuity in 
 composition. This was a property which music 
 particularly needed at the time the Madrigal rose 
 into favour. 
 
 Opinions differ as to the birthplace of the 
 Madrigal. Some say that it was brought from 
 Italy ; others, that it was born of the Flemish 
 School, and was the first secular art form after 
 the age of the Troubadours. The credit of 
 originating it belongs unquestionably, we believe, 
 to the Netherlands School. One thing is certain. 
 Its composition was practised zealously in the 
 Netherlands, Italy, and England. It came as a 
 welcome relief to composers of the comparatively 
 restricted Church music, who, so far as secular 
 music was concerned, had grown tired of the
 
 MADRIGAL 
 
 75 
 
 unbridled art of troubadours, minnesingers, and 
 minstrels. There were three classes of this form : 
 — (i) Solo Madrigals with a "basso continuo"; 
 (2) Madrigals for voices, unaccompanied ; (3) 
 Madrigals accompanied by instruments. The 
 second class was the one that obtained popularity 
 in England. The earliest form of madrigal was 
 hardly distinguishable from the motet and 
 anthem — composers finding difficulty, probably, 
 in getting away from the stilted ecclesiastical 
 style. This stilted character marked both the 
 First and Second Period madrigals, but the Third 
 Period works were characterized by a dainty 
 charm, variety of rhythm, and a theoretical grace 
 and play which made them perfect samples of 
 musical scholarship. The two following extracts 
 by Marenzio and Byrde respectively illustrate 
 how grace and skill were combined in this charm- 
 ing art-form — 
 
 Marenzio. 
 
 fe 
 
 31 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 m 
 
 S^. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Vrz^O'i 
 
 
 m, 
 
 T-) 
 
 f-rt
 
 76 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 It. Heav'n lives O - ri - a - na 
 
 Byrde. 
 
 In Heav'n lives 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^i=^ 
 
 PH^^rry^T^^^ 
 
 In Heav'n lives O-ri - a - - na 
 
 &C. 
 
 J * * ^- 
 
 1 
 
 ct 
 
 In Heav n lives O - n- 
 
 Willaert and Arcadelt were two Flemish 
 musicians associated with the early madrigal. 
 The former gave to it its first artistic form; the 
 latter published at Venice (1538) a "First Book 
 of Madrigals," which speedily passed through 
 sixteen editions. To this First Period, or Belgian 
 School of Madrigalists (1450-1500), belong also 
 Waelrant and Orlando di Lasso, the composer of 
 " Matona, lovely maiden," one of the choicest 
 of early madrigals. With the steady migration 
 of Flemish musicians to Italy this art-form passed 
 into a genial land, at the hands of whose sons it 
 was destined to develop a Second Period (1480- 
 1520). The imported Flemish madrigal was 
 seized joyously, and patrician and plebeian alike 
 sang them lovingly. The blazoned roof of palace 
 — even the village osteria — echoed with their 
 strains. The delicate touch of Festa's hand is 
 seen in this brief extract from his madrigal, 
 Quando ritrovo la ?nia pastor ella —
 
 ENGLISH MADRIGALS 
 
 77 
 
 Festa. 
 
 3B 
 
 Down in a flow'.y vale, All on a sum-mer morning 
 
 ..U-Jlj-J-rJ-^-J-L^ J 
 
 =J=i: 
 
 &c; 
 
 ^g^fE 
 
 Marenzio was one of the most aecomplished 
 among Italian madrigalists of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. The extract from his madrigal, Dissi a 
 Vamata, illustrates how canonic imitation and 
 other contrapuntal devices, showing advance in 
 theoretical music, were drawn into this form even 
 at this early period. Other Italian masters who 
 adorned the madrigal were Palestrina, Ferretti, 
 and Anerio. 
 
 The "Golden Age" of the madrigal was] 
 reached in England. This was its Third Period { 
 (1550-1650). During this time several of the 
 brightest names in English musical history make 
 their appearance. To know what English music 
 might have been, and ought to have been, in 
 the nineteenth century, we must consider well 
 what English music was in the fifteenth century, 
 and especially what it was in the Madrigalian age. 
 Musician after musician adopted this chaste, 
 classical form until no madrigals surpassed those 
 of English mould, whether for their beauty of 
 expression or theoretical construction. The first 
 native madrigalist was Edwardes (1520-1566), 
 whose graceful composition, " In going to my 
 lonely bed," is admired to-day. Then came 
 Byrde, king of English madrigalists. 
 
 The successful madrigal rests not merely upon 
 the born melodic genius, but upon the inventive
 
 78 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 skill and scholastic wit of its maker. In this 
 respect the English School surpassed the world 
 in its handling of ^he madrigal — investing it lib- 
 erally with two most essential features — namely, 
 appropriate colour and flavour, combined with 
 skill and learning. These qualities rendered the 
 form at once delightful and ingenious. 
 
 The most famous collection of madrigals is 
 "The Triumphs of Oriana," in which the praises 
 of Queen Elizabeth are sung persistently — the 
 
 Virginal. 
 
 Queen being the " faire Oriana." It is a monu- 
 ment of rich musical thought and genius of the 
 Elizabethan period, and contains examples of 
 most of the leading English madrigalists of the 
 period. Morley, Wilbye, Dowland, Weelkes, Kir- 
 bye, Orlando Gibbons, Bateson, Benet, and Byrde 
 all contributed to it, so that it may be taken as 
 truly representative work of the Third Period 
 (1550-1650) of the madrigal. 
 
 Whether we should have had instrumental 
 Chamber Music without the madrigal might be 
 answered in the affirmative; but, certain it is 
 that madrigal music, in its day, filled the place 
 vocally which Chamber Music now occupies in-
 
 NEW CHURCH MUSIC 79 
 
 strumentally. The third species of madrigals were 
 "apt for viols and voyces," or were, according to 
 their Italian titles — madrigali coticertati con varie 
 sorte di stromenti. The original idea, no doubt, 
 was to employ instruments for the support of the 
 voices, but it was a happier thought to divorce 
 the two, and to employ instruments alone for the 
 purposes of concert. This separation may be 
 placed at about the opening of the sixteenth 
 century, from which time musicians began to 
 compose " Consort Lessons," " Ayres," " Fancies," 
 "Canzone da Sonare," etc., generally in six parts 
 — to accord with the number of instruments 
 which a " chest of viols" contained. As might 
 be expected, the earliest Chamber Music pieces 
 were much like madrigals — so much so, that if 
 words were fitted to anyone of them, a good, and 
 very often perfectly vocal madrigal would be the 
 result. Instrumental music could not long stand 
 still, however, and a demand quickly arose for 
 instrumental pieces, per se — pieces which were 
 out of reason from a vocal point of view. These 
 proved of less dignity than the madrigal style 
 music — being chiefly dance music — " Almaines, 
 Ayres, Corants, Sarabands, Moriscoes, Jiggs, etc." 
 Eventually these evolved into Suites, Sonatas, etc., 
 which in turn grew into the symphony proper. 
 
 Great musical changes were occurring in Eng- 
 land the while the madrigal was flourishing among 
 makers and singers thereof. When adventurous 
 Henry VIII. plunged into and consummated the 
 Reformation scheme, it was at the expense of 
 considerable inconvenience to musicians — obliged, 
 perforce, to change their musical manners as well 
 as their faith. In double quick time the old eccle- 
 siastical music had to be cast aside, and new 
 6
 
 8o THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 church music substituted. There was to be no 
 more Mass music, no more motets; but, in their 
 place, a new music suited to the changed religion. 
 This meant pangs and hardships to musicians, 
 possibly not too industrious, accustomed to the 
 old state of things. Simplicity, too, was the order, 
 a change that must have made musicians shudder 
 when they, like others before them, from the time 
 of Ockenheim, had regarded the Mass as the nat- 
 
 Virgfinal on Supports. 
 
 oral and orthodox vehicle for the display of the 
 contrapuntal miracles they wrought. 
 
 The Mass, regarded musically, dates from the 
 first years of the old religion, when it was rendered 
 to the ancient Plain-song or Canto-fer7no. Such 
 parts of the Roman liturgy as the Kyrie, Gl oria, 
 Credo^ Agnus Dei, Benedictus^_etc., were set to 
 music, and styled Masses. The older Italian mas- 
 ters deemed the Plain-song as the most suitable 
 music for the words — Marbecke's single voice 
 setting is an example of this kind; but it was not 
 long before the growth of melody and its influen- 
 cing properties, together with advanced theoreti-
 
 ♦•SERVICES" 8 1 
 
 cal learning, led to vastly greater freedom on the 
 part of composers of Mass music. Tlie various 
 parts of tile Roman service were adopted by mu- 
 sicians of every country as fields for the display 
 of extreme musical scholarship and device, until 
 it grew impossible for congregations to take any 
 part beyond listening to them. English compo- 
 sers before the Reformation were not less addicted 
 to this love of display in their ecclesiastical music 
 than were the composers of Italy and other coun- 
 tries. Byrde may be taken as an example. 
 
 Masses were sung at first, unaccompanied; 
 but towards the close of the sixteenth century, 
 the orchestra gradually asserted itself, a simple 
 instrumental accompaniment was added. This 
 was the position of the Mass as a musical compo- 
 sition at the time of the Reformation. 
 
 Needless to say, the Mass remained to the 
 Roman Church, and developed considerably. w In 
 the Anglican, or Protestant Church " Service " 
 music took the place of the Mass, while the An- 
 them displaced the Motet. Capable musicians, 
 indeed, were the English masters of the Tudor 
 Period who started composing 'Morning' and 
 ' Evening ' " Services " for such parts of the ritual 
 as were allowed to be performed musically — these 
 portions being rendered chiefly in the cathedrals 
 and abbey churches where musical establishments 
 were retained as in former days. The framers of 
 the new Prayer Book made little of music at the 
 Service, and that little was by no means obliga- 
 tory. The Canticles could be said or sung; the 
 Anthem was enjoined to be sung only as the 
 Rubric states — " in choirs and places where they 
 sing." At present there were no Hymns, for al- 
 though — thanks to Luther's efforts in Germany —
 
 82 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 a quiet and half unconscious preparation for them 
 had been going on, no Church Hymns had yet 
 appeared here. Eaglish Church Service music, 
 then, was an altogether new element. 
 
 "Service," as a musical term, means a collec- 
 tion of musical settings of the Canticles and other 
 portions of the Liturgy which are by usage allowed 
 to be set to free composition. With the Reforma- 
 tion such offices as Matins, Vespers, Mass, etc., 
 went out and the more homely ' Morning ' and 
 * Evening ' " Service " took their place. Two 
 forms of musical settings were provided for these 
 occasions and were named after them, and when 
 the two were united composers styled them a 
 'Full' "Service." These included musical ar- 
 rangements of the following: Venite, Te Deuni, 
 JBenedicite, Benedictus, Jubilate, Kyrie Eleison, Nicene 
 Creed, Sancttis, Gloria in Excelsis, Magnificat, Can- 
 tate Domino, Nunc Diinittis, Dens Alisercatur. 
 
 To the words of these Canticles, etc., English 
 composers set music with a will — as if to show 
 that though they had lost the scope which Mass 
 and Motet offered them, they would make amends 
 for this in the new field. The result was that 
 some of these pieces developed into quite elaborate 
 lengthy compositions. The Veftite and the com- 
 prehensive Benedicite omnia opera, for instance, 
 were freely treated in Motet form. This so un- 
 duly lengthened the Service that in course of time 
 the necessity arose to replace these free settings 
 with the music of single or double chants — a most 
 wise step which churchmen have ever since fol- 
 lowed. Tye (1500-1560), Tallis (1523-1585) — 
 the chief of the post-Reformation composers — 
 Byrde, Gibbons (1583-1625), and others, speedily 
 reflected their genius in this direction — thus the
 
 ANTHEM 83 
 
 first two Stages of development which " Service " 
 music went through, were: the simple harmonic 
 and early contrapuntal stages. The change from 
 Latin to English words seems to have caused 
 English musicians no concern — the transfer in no 
 degree affecting their broad dignified style. Gib- 
 bons' work especially is characterised by that true 
 church ring which has ever been the distinguish- 
 ing feature of the best English ecclesiastical music. 
 As composers treated the Anthem, so did they 
 these Services ; consequently we find in them 
 solos, "verse " parts and " full " portions. A full 
 setting from end to end would naturally prove 
 monotonous, although "full " Anthems and Serv- 
 ices are by no means uncommon. The solo and 
 verse parts, however, were not due altogether 
 from a desire for variety. Leading singers in the 
 cathedral and church choirs claimed opportunities 
 for displaying their voices in a solo or at least in 
 a duet, trio, or quartet. If the " verse " parts — 
 not the solos — were unaccompanied they liked it 
 all the better. The organ under the new religion 
 formed the only accompaniment to the singing. 
 
 Henry VIIL gave to the Church the Anthem. 
 There is an entry m the Regulations for the Royal 
 Household of the King in 1526 to the effect that 
 " six boys and six gentlemen of the Chapel are 
 ordered to perform daily, among other music the 
 genesis of an Anthem in the afternoon." 
 
 When the Anthem supplanted the Motet, 
 composers for the new religion simply adapted 
 the English words to music which had originally 
 stood to Latin Motet words — hence many of the 
 Anthems dating from this first period of the Prot- 
 estant Church services. One such anthem is 
 Byrde's " Bow thine Ear."
 
 84 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 The Anthem is a four voiced composition hav- 
 ing organ and sometimes instrumental accompa- 
 niments. There are four Icinds — the " Full," the 
 " Full with Verse," the " Verse," and the " Solo," 
 Anthem. The earliest examples were of the 
 "Full "species and consisted entirely of chorus, 
 with or without organ accompaniment. The 
 " Full with Verse " Anthem has solo parts be- 
 tween the choruses, which open and close the 
 composition, " Verse " Anthems begin with por- 
 tions to be sung by a single voice to a part ; while 
 the "Solo" Anthem always concludes with a 
 chorus of more or less length. 
 
 Springing from the Motet of the Roman 
 Church, we get the name of the first division of 
 the three into which the history of Anthem de- 
 velopment is arranged — namely, the Motet period 
 which lasted from 1530 to 1650. Later English 
 composers carried the composition of the Anthem 
 to a great pitch of excellence, notably Henry 
 Purcell and Samuel Sebastian Wesley. 
 
 Opera again claims attention. It must not be 
 forgotten that in the early operas there was 
 scarcely any difference between the Church music 
 of the period and the operas.* The choruses 
 were in the madrigal style. So agreeable a mu- 
 sical form, however, was hardly likely to stand 
 still — nor did it. Opera and Oratorio parted in 
 Monteverde's day — each to go on its own way. 
 Monteverde carried Italian opera to the borders 
 of that almost limitless field where the great 
 
 * Oratorio and opera were singularly alike. Each had 
 recitative, aria, duet, sometimes trio, quartet, quintet, etc., and 
 a chorus. The instrumental accompaniments of one would 
 have served equally well for the other — not only as regards 
 quantity but also in calibre and even character. 
 
 ^
 
 OPERA AND OVERTURE 8$ 
 
 melodists and colourists of music took it up. 
 Then Scarlatti, as we have seen, brought his im- 
 provements to bear upon the aria. His widest 
 dreams, probably, never led him up to the thought 
 of a Verdi, or a Wagner ! In 1645 Cardinal Ma- 
 zarin introduced Italian opera into France, with 
 the result that in 1659 Cambert produced La Pas- 
 torale — the first accepted French opera. In 1627 
 the first German opera tnX.\i\&(M)ap/ii!e, composed 
 by Schutz (1585-1672), appeared; while, some 
 fifty years later (1673), the first English opera, 
 Psyche, was produced. All these early operas 
 bore striking resemblance in every way to their 
 Italian models. 
 
 It was in France that Opera was to take firm- 
 est root. Cambert was followed by Lully (1633- 
 1687) who, from a position as kitchen scullion, 
 rose to be chief musician to Louis XIV. Lully 
 left his mark upon French Opera, for he discarded 
 the characteristic Italian air and duet, extended 
 the chorus, introduced the ballet, and invented 
 the overture. With these modifications, and in 
 addition fresh national colourings and surround- 
 ings, greater freedom orchestrally as such instru- 
 ments as the serpent, harpsichord, clarinet^ etc., 
 were invented, it is not surprising that French 
 Opera soon became a different thing from its 
 Italian predecessors, which were conventional in 
 form and lacking in dramatic expression. Ra- 
 meau (1683-1764), Gretry (1741-1813), Mehul 
 (1763-1817), Boieldieu (i 775-1 834) — all identified 
 themselves with dramatic lyric art. Rameau in- 
 troduced greater variety both of harmony and 
 melody, vocally and orchestrally. Gretry put 
 more expression and humour into opera, con- 
 siderably strengthening it vocally.
 
 86 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 The Comic Opera or opera-bouffe, more popular 
 in England at the present time than opera seria^ 
 sprang up as might be expected in France. 
 Strangely it was not born of the French people, 
 but of some Italians — a body of whom in 1752 
 went into France, played these light comic ele- 
 ment operas which became immediately popular. 
 The French people called the company Les Bouf- 
 fons. (rretry seized upon the idea and wrote 
 work after work in the new style, displaying 
 great talent in catching and utilising all the 
 subtle points of expression and humour which his 
 libretti afforded. Old French comic opera was 
 not as free, however, as Opera Coviique to-day — it 
 was simple, elegant, full of point — not suggestive. 
 
 .\s the Overture which LuUy invented was the 
 precursor of the Symphony, its growth and de- 
 velopment should be known. The preliminary 
 music to any composition may be called an over- 
 ture, and the ancient overtures were little more 
 than slight introductory symphonies. In time, 
 these introductions for instruments grew — and 
 the old overtures settled themselves into two 
 classes — the Lully and Scarlatti overtures. While 
 the Scarlatti overture consisted of three move- 
 ments or sections, Lully's were generally com- 
 posed in two parts. The opening movement was 
 usually an adagio — a slow stately movement; the 
 second part consisted of a lively minuet or fugue 
 which concluded the overture. Handel, Bach, 
 Graun, and most of the early eighteenth century 
 composers adopted this form. The modern over- 
 ture appeared towards the close of the eighteenth 
 century. It bears most resemblance to the first 
 movement of a sonata or symphony. Very fre- 
 quently its principal themes are taken from the
 
 PASSION MUSIC 87 
 
 work to which it is an introduction. Weber is 
 credited with originating the idea of incorpora- 
 ting in the overture, the leading themes of the 
 body-work, but, as a matter of fact, Mozart an- 
 ticipated this in his Don Giovanni overture (1787). 
 Nowadays we have overtures which are dis- 
 tinct orchestral pieces known as " Concert Over- 
 tures," for concert purposes ; for instance, Beetho- 
 ven's "Weihe des Hauses," Mendelssohn's "Mid- 
 summer Night's Dream," Schumann's " Julius 
 Caesar," Berlioz's " Les Francs Juges," Sterndale 
 Bennett's " Parisina," etc. These are the out- 
 come of the development and understanding of 
 musical form — especially the " Sonata " form. 
 Between these and the overture as fixed by 
 Mozart come many improvements — notably Che- 
 rubini's gradual and prolonged crescendo; Beetho- 
 ven's disregard of stereotyped themes, combined 
 with immense dramatic element, and fugal re- 
 source ; and not least, Weber's local colour paint- 
 ing for the orchestra. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 PASSION MUSIC BACH AND HANDEL PERFECTED 
 
 ORATORIO 
 
 Between Protestant Church Song and the 
 Oratorio as developed by the masters of German 
 music is a connecting link in Passion Music. Be- 
 fore considering the subject of Passion Music, 
 however, we should remember that we here enter 
 upon the Great Schools Period in Music's history 
 —that date in musical art when the epoch makers
 
 8S THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 of music lived and worked ; the era when Music 
 was Hfted to its high estate of sisterhood with 
 Painting and Literature; the age when Classical 
 art was indubitably and permanently established; 
 when oratorio, symphony, chamber-music and 
 opera were raised to their highest pitch of excel- 
 lence and development — a height to which it 
 would seem that subsequent generations of musi- 
 cians can but aspire, nor ever reach; unless, in- 
 deed, there are behind us men of greater genius 
 than the accepted " Masters " of music. 
 
 Bach (1685-1750) the first of the great mas- 
 ters of the German School, particularly identified 
 himself — though he was not the first composer to 
 do so — with the settings of the " Passion " epi- 
 sodes in the life of our Saviour. In Bach, how- 
 ever. Passion Music reached perfection. Born of 
 rare musical stock, he, as a boy was a fine treble 
 singer in the choir at Liineberg, and his environ- 
 ment remained one of Church work for practically 
 the whole of his long career. The life and char- 
 acter of Bach furnish one of the grandest pictures 
 in the world's work history. He worked for art 
 — and art alone. His greatest compositions never 
 saw the light of publication during his lifetime; 
 he seemed to compose just because he obeyed 
 the inward spirit of genius which drove him on- 
 ward, and although his chamber works became 
 fairly well-known, his larger compositions were 
 rarely performed outside the church or place for 
 which they were composed. From first to last it 
 was a career of direst monotony; his genius was 
 unrewarded absolutely during his lifetime. 
 
 At the age of twenty-three Bach was Court 
 Organist at Weimar, from which time his fame as 
 an organist and harpsicho'-d player speedily spread
 
 PASSION MUSIC 89 
 
 over the German States. In 1723 the important 
 post of Cantor of St Thomas' School, Leipsic, be- 
 
 German Organ Bellows of the Sixteenth Century. 
 From an old print. 
 
 came vacant, and to this Bach was appointed. He 
 pursued his work as well as he could in the face
 
 9° 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 of great difficulties, mainly arising from the stupid 
 conventionalities of the authorities. Bach, of all 
 musicians, was a stnsible man. Modest in the 
 extreme, he never seemed to realise how much 
 greater he was than all the musicians he was for 
 ever praising. His character was amiable in the 
 extreme — albeit one that commanded respect from 
 all; while no family was ever more united than 
 were the Bachs. 
 
 As an organist he was unrivalled. " J. S. 
 Bach " — as described by the poet Schubart — 
 " was a genius of the highest order ; his soul so 
 peculiar, so gigantic, that centuries will have to 
 pass before he is reached by anyone. He played 
 the clavier, the fliigel, the cymbal, with equal 
 creative power, and the organ — who is like him ? 
 who will ever equal him? His fist was gigantic; 
 he could, for example, stretch a 12th with the 
 left hand, and perform running passages between 
 with the three minor fingers; he made pedal runs 
 with the greatest possible exactness ; he drew 
 the stops so silently that the hearer almost sank 
 under the magic effect ; his hand was never 
 weary, and lasted out through a whole day's 
 organ playing. . . . What Newton was as a 
 philosopher, Bach was as a musician. He had 
 such wealth of ideas, that no one except his 
 own great son can come near him ; and with 
 all this he combined also the rarest talent as a 
 teacher." 
 
 If we append here a specification of an organ 
 that Bach played upon — such as he was often 
 called upon to " examine," " pass," and " open " — • 
 the reader will be able to form some idea of the 
 vast strides organ building had made since we 
 left the instrument with Dr. John Bull. Here is
 
 BACH 
 
 91 
 
 the scheme of Bach's favourite organ at the Uni- 
 versity Church in Leipsic — * 
 
 Great 
 
 1. Principal (open diapason), 16 feet. 
 
 2. Quintaton, , . . 16 " 
 
 3. Principal (open diapason 
 
 4. Schalmei, 
 
 00 00 
 
 
 5. German Flute, 
 
 
 8 ' 
 
 
 6. Gemshorn, 
 
 
 8 ' 
 
 
 7. Octave, . 
 
 
 4 ' 
 
 
 8. Quinte, . 
 
 
 3 * 
 
 
 9. Quintnasat, 
 
 
 3 ' 
 
 
 10. Octavina, 
 
 
 2 ' 
 
 
 II. Waldflote, 
 
 
 2 * 
 
 
 12. Mixture, 
 
 
 5 and 6 ranks 
 
 13. Cornet, . 
 
 
 3 ranks. 
 
 14. Zink, 
 
 
 2 " 
 
 Brustwerk 
 
 
 I. Principal, 
 
 8 feet. 
 
 2. Gamba, . 
 
 8 * 
 
 
 3. Grobgedacht, . 
 
 4. Octave, . 
 
 8 ' 
 4 ' 
 
 
 5. Rohrflote, 
 
 4 * 
 
 
 6. Octave (fifteenth), . 
 
 7. Nasat, 
 
 2 * 
 2 ' 
 
 
 8, Sedesima, 
 
 I * 
 
 
 9. Schweizer Pfeife, 
 
 I ' 
 
 
 10. Largo (Number of feet nc 
 
 11. Mixture, . 
 
 )t stated). 
 
 3 ranks. 
 
 12. Clear Cymbal, 
 
 2 " 
 
 * The Swell organ by Jordan was introduced in 1712, 
 since which time improvement has followed improvement, 
 until now what with pneumatic actions and other inventions,
 
 92 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Third Manual 
 
 I. 
 
 Lieblich Gedacht, . 
 
 8 
 
 feet. 
 
 2. 
 
 Quintaton, 
 
 8 
 
 
 3- 
 
 Flute douce, . 
 
 . - 4 
 
 
 4- 
 
 Quinta Decima, 
 
 4 
 
 
 5- 
 
 Decima Nona, 
 
 3 
 
 
 6. 
 
 Hohlflote, 
 
 2 
 
 
 7- 
 
 Viola, 
 
 2 
 
 
 8. 
 
 Vigesima Nona, 
 
 . H 
 
 
 9- 
 
 Weitpfeife, 
 
 I 
 
 
 lO. 
 
 Mixture, . 
 
 3 
 
 ranks. 
 
 II. 
 
 Helle Cymbal, 
 
 2 
 
 feet. 
 
 12. 
 
 Sertin, 
 
 Pedal 
 
 8 
 
 <( 
 
 I. 
 
 Principal, 
 
 1 6 feet. 
 
 2. 
 
 Quintaton, 
 
 i6 
 
 (( 
 
 3- 
 
 Octave, ... 
 
 8 
 
 (( 
 
 4- 
 
 Octave, . 
 
 4 
 
 iC 
 
 5- 
 
 Quinte, . 
 
 3 
 
 (I 
 
 6. 
 
 Mixture, . 
 
 5 and 6 ranks. 
 
 7- 
 
 Quinton-bass, . 
 
 6 feet. 
 
 8. 
 
 Jubal, 
 
 8 
 
 
 9- 
 
 Nachthorn, 
 
 4 
 
 
 lO. 
 
 Octave, . 
 
 2 
 
 
 II. 
 
 Second Principal, . 
 
 i6 
 
 
 12. 
 
 Sub-bass, 
 
 i6 
 
 
 13- 
 
 Pozaune, 
 
 i6 
 
 
 14- 
 
 Trompete, 
 
 8 
 
 
 15- 
 
 Hohlflote, 
 
 I 
 
 
 i6. 
 
 Mixtur, . 
 
 4 
 
 
 the modem instrument appears to have reached perfection. 
 What it needs most is more durable and better bellows, im- 
 pervious to damp, and uninviting to rodents !
 
 BACH 93 
 
 Bach as a composer best helps us along in 
 our story. The music of the Choral was brought 
 to perfection by him — even to the development 
 of Chorale-Cantatas, of which he wrote a vast 
 number. In these compositions which are sim- 
 ply astonishing in their enormous fertility of in- 
 vention, their variety of detail and their unity of 
 purpose, a complete hymn was carried out, each 
 verse forming as a rule a separate movement 
 whether for chorus or solo voices, though occa- 
 sionally a verse is omitted in the longer hymns. 
 Sometimes recitatives break th6 course of the 
 Chorale melody or the melody is played by the 
 instruments and accompanied by vocal recitative. 
 
 From the Chorale-Cantata to a larger form in 
 the shape of Passion Music was not a great leap 
 — yet naturally as it followed upon the Protestant 
 Choral., it constituted the important link between 
 simple German Church Song and those grand 
 choral conceptions which Handel gave to the 
 world in his Oratorios. 
 
 Passion Music may be described as music set 
 to the narrative of our Lord's Passion in the 
 Gospels. It was an old Christian idea — a very 
 good one — to celebrate the Holy Week, and 
 Luther encouraged the practice. In ancient 
 times the Gospel narrative was chanted by one 
 singer, the speeches of Jesus by another, while 
 a third represented the people or turbcs — all with- 
 out an attempt at any dramatic element. In the 
 early Passion Services of the Reformed Church 
 in Germany the people's part was allotted to a 
 chorus. Then, short instrumental pieces were 
 gradually introduced at convenient points of the 
 narrative; until, subsequently, Gese (1585), Schutz, 
 Keiser, and Sebastian! (1672) in turn incorporated
 
 94 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 further musical additions and improvements. In 
 Sebastiani's Passion appears for the first time 
 the artistic use of hymn tunes, the narrative is in 
 recitative instead of plain-song, and there is an 
 accompaniment for two violins and bass — the 
 first example of instrumental accompaniment in 
 a Passion Music. The Uirba are in four voice 
 chorus, and a fifth part, a high tenor one, is for 
 the Evangelist — who narrates to a continuous 
 
 F 
 
 f^''"'" 
 
 .(O?-'- 
 
 
 Clavichord or Clarichord. 
 
 accompaniment of two violins, four violas and a 
 bass. The melodies of the hymns only are sung, 
 the remaining parts being ordered to be played 
 by the stringed instruments. 
 
 Bach came to lift Passion Music to a far 
 higher plane than it had been before — one that 
 no other composer has reached with this class 
 of music. He wrote in all five Passions, but 
 only three of these are now accessible — the 
 settings of the Matthew, John and Luke Gospels, 
 and the latter is of doubtful authenticity. The 
 Mattheiv Pdssion is undoubtedly the finest work
 
 THE MATTHEW PASSION 95 
 
 — indeed Bach's chef axuvre. In it he follows the 
 Sebastian! model, but with his master mind en- 
 riches and ennobles everything beyond measure. 
 He adds new forms — great double choruses of 
 immense dramatic power, exquisitely expressive 
 solos with most delicate instrumental accompani- 
 ments, harmonised chorales — all culminating to 
 form a work of unrivalled genius, scholarship, 
 and piety. 
 
 Not the least among the deviations in Bach's 
 Passion Music was the calling upon the congre- 
 gation to sing the Chorales — thus giving wor- 
 shippers a lively interest in the proceedings, and 
 in this way probably making Passion Music a 
 thing for all time, although it will be noted that 
 this method was not followed in Oratorio. 
 
 The so-called Christmas Oratorio (1734) can 
 hardly be styled an Oratorio, as it consists rather 
 of six cantatas to be sung on successive days 
 during the Christmas season. The same may 
 be said of his Easter Oratorio— %o that Bach was 
 not, strictly speaking, an Oratorio composer. He 
 wrote works of various kinds, vocal and instru- 
 mental — but nothing approaching nearer to an 
 Oratorio than his great Matthew Passiojt Music. 
 
 After the John Passion Music, his next most 
 important vocal work is the Mass in B Minor. 
 From beginning to end it is on a gigantic scale — 
 each movement being a masterpiece; but like his 
 other Masses it is more scholarly than beautiful, 
 or even religious. As Hilgenfeldt says — "This 
 mass is one of the noblest works of Art, full of 
 inventive genius, depth of feeling, and astonish- 
 ing artistic power ; there is no other of the same 
 calibre that can be compared to it. . . . It is pos- 
 sible that a Protestant artist such as he was could
 
 96 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 not entirely enter into the religious point of view 
 which he was obliged to take in composing for 
 the Catholic Church."* It is an extremely inter- 
 esting work historically, inasmuch as its Credo 
 exhibits one of the most remarkable examples on 
 record of tiie treatment of an ancient canto fermo 
 with modern harmonies and elaborate orchestra- 
 tion. 
 
 Bach's instrumental compositions include 
 works for the orchestra, organ, cembalo, clavi- 
 chord, spinet, etc. Of these the Wohltemperirte 
 Clavier is universally known. There is no work 
 for the keyboard like it, and Bach was quite right 
 in appraising highly its educational value. f As 
 every pianist and organist knows the complete 
 work forms a set of preludes and fugues through 
 all tones and semitones, both with major and minor 
 thirds. The term " well-tempered " refers to the 
 equal temperament J of which Bach was so strong 
 an advocate, and many of the pieces would be 
 impossible with any other system of tuning. In 
 this work Bach performed a great service in em- 
 phasising his system of " Fingering " — the art of 
 playing and using the fingers properly upon a 
 keyed instrument. He disregarded the accepted 
 principles, and employed both thumb and little 
 finger as frequently as the other fingers. 
 
 This master certainly took music forward 
 
 * Bach, " Leben Wirken und Werke," p. 115. 
 
 f My organ master, the talented Augustus L. Tamplin, 
 inscribed the following in my copy ; — This book contains the 
 elements of all music: Bible: Religion, Euclid: Mathe- 
 matics, Bach : Music. 
 
 X This is a recondite subject — too abstruse to discuss 
 here, buf it is admirably explained under the word Tempera- 
 ment in Stainer and Barrett's " Dictionary of Musical Terms."
 
 BACH'S "FINGERING" 97 
 
 vastly. Apart from all that his great mind spoke, 
 he developed the technical aspects of the art to 
 an enormous degree. In his Matthew Passion 
 and the Cantata, Ein feste Burg, will be found 
 massive choruses which fully represent his grand 
 style. The orchestra of the Cantata contains 
 three trumpets, one flute, two oboes, one oboe di 
 caccia, two violins, viola, violoncello, organ, and 
 figured bass. His method with orchestral instru- 
 ments almost invariably was to make each play 
 an independent counterpoint — thus his scores 
 show as many contrapuntal parts as there are 
 voices and instruments employed. This poly- 
 phonic texture is often destructive to perspicuity, 
 but his constant, earnest, and lofty tone counter- 
 balances this characteristic. Examined, side by 
 side, with that of his contemporaries his orches- 
 tral style is as different as it is advanced in the 
 method of orchestration. The skilful manner of 
 his instrumentation proves him to have been far 
 in advance of his time ; and, although it is not as 
 clear, natural, and rich, as that of Haydn and 
 Mozart, it is exquisitely quaint and beautiful. 
 
 His passion for contrapuntal exercise and in- 
 genuity has made him a troublesome writer for 
 vocalists. Though always fervent and generally 
 beautiful, his vocal parts are emphatically un- 
 vocal, suitable enough for execution on instru- 
 ments but not by the human voice. Strange, 
 indeed, that his contemporary, Handel, should 
 be unsurpassed to-day for his splendid vocal 
 writing while Bach is wholly the reverse. It 
 can only be accounted for in his life-long, dull, 
 clogged environment. Summed up, Bach's music 
 is unequalled — perhaps unapproached — in its 
 peculiar style. The reader will easily perceive
 
 98 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 the development in polyphonic and orchestral 
 art by a comparison of Bach's scores with say 
 Carissimi's Jonah. 
 
 Handel (1685-1759) was contemporary with 
 Bach ; but the " mighty Saxon " was a cosmo- 
 politan who found opportunities for learning all 
 he could of the conditions of music. At the age 
 of twenty-one he went to Italy — threw his heart 
 and soul into opera — and in the end found him- 
 self the composer of at least fifty operas — none 
 of which are heard to-day ! The story of his 
 childhood; his father's attempts to "break" him 
 off music; his early appointments as violinist 
 and harpsichordist in the German Opera; his 
 visits to Italy and then to England, in order to 
 "run " Italian music — which, as rendered by Ital- 
 ian singers, had influenced the whole of Europe; 
 his well-nigh life-long struggle with Italian Opera 
 in England; his physical and financial collapse 
 through the failing of his operatic schemes — all 
 this is known well enough. We start with the 
 fact that he was fifty-five years old before he be- 
 gan to compose that series of oratorios or sacred 
 dramas by which he is immortalized. 
 
 It was in 1706 that Handel visited Florence. 
 He produced Rodrigo there in the following year, 
 and in 1708 Agrippina appeared at Venice. It 
 had eight characters, a chorus, and orchestra of 
 trumpets, drums, flutes, and the usual stringed 
 instruments. What made the greatest impression 
 was the fulness and dignity of Handel's music, 
 particularly in the overture, which struck the 
 Italians greatly. Taking up opera as he found 
 it, he attempted no reforms, but embellished it 
 with the force of his dignified style, superior
 
 HANDEL 95 
 
 vocal writing and brilliant orchestration ; and 
 there is no doubt that Handel's operas were 
 superior to anything that the Italians had made 
 themselves or that they had heard before. The 
 accepted form was a work of three acts, each 
 divided into scenes. The scene must perforce 
 end with an aria, for the audience who came to 
 hear its favourite singers would not tolerate 
 choruses; if one was permitted it was at the 
 close of the last act, and then only by the com- 
 bined voices of all the characters. The " scenes " 
 consisted of recitative followed by an aria, and 
 the arias were of several classes. Everything 
 depended upon getting the best solo singers and 
 instruments — and each singer expected, some- 
 times demanded — one or more songs to herself 
 or himself. 
 
 Opening with an overture as established hj 
 Lully, recitative, aria and " scena " went on until 
 the (we should imagine welcome) close. The 
 arias in form were much as Scarlatti left them. 
 It was the quality of his arias and the depth of 
 Handel's orchestration that assisted his operas. 
 The foundation of Handel's opera orchestra was 
 the strings and the harpsichord. To these he 
 added oboes, generally in unison with the strings 
 and bassoons, with the string basses. But he had 
 no fixed system. Trumpets, drums, horns, flutes 
 (including the flute a bee), the viol da gamba, 
 theorbo, harp and organ — all were requisitioned 
 as his mighty genius dictated. His free and de- 
 scriptive song accompaniments, with their beau- 
 tiful obbligato parts and choice devices for brass, 
 reed and string instruments must have charmed 
 listeners unaccustomed to such skilled and ad- 
 vanced orchestration.
 
 lOO THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Handel wrote, besides his operas and ora- 
 torios, serenatas, odes, church music, vocal cham- 
 ber music, and instrumental music. His orato- 
 rios, however, are his masterpieces, and of these 
 he composed twenty-three in all. If his operas 
 are out of date and antiquated, this cannot be 
 said of his settings of Holy Writ, some of which 
 are immortal. What impelled him to write Ora- 
 toriil Force of circumstances chiefly. He was 
 crushed — ruined in health by his operatic ven- 
 tures. Handel, though, was a man of indomi- 
 table will, and he had a constitution of iron. 
 With returning health he determined to try the 
 public with Oratorio — a thing after his own 
 heart. 
 
 It was in 1739 that Handel took the Haymar- 
 ket Theatre for the purpose of giving oratorio 
 performances twice a week. In the previous year 
 he had composed Saul — this in less than three 
 months — and he opened with it. The success of 
 Sau/ wa.s complete, and decided Handel to devote 
 his whole attention to oratorio. It was a grand 
 move, because this masterful man possessed all 
 the qualities necessary to command success. He 
 was a born ruler; his skill as an organist was 
 only shadowed by his powers as a composer; 
 withal the great middle class English public then, 
 as now had ears and hearts for stories from the 
 Bible, adorned with such tone painting as Handel 
 laid on. 
 
 In the score of Sau/ there appears at the end 
 of the second of the four movements this note, 
 Orgamim ad libitum. Here the mighty genius 
 stepped in and gave one of those grand extem- 
 pore performances, in which he was unrivalled. 
 Oh! that one could have heard him. Thus
 
 THE MESSIAH lOI 
 
 was oratorio brought by him to the height of ex- 
 cellence: thus was it planted for all time in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Israel in Egypt, composed in the marvellously 
 short space of twenty-seven days, followed Saul, 
 and so on, as the demands of the public called for 
 them, came Samson, Judas Maccabcetis, Joshua, 
 Solomon, Theodora, Jephtha, and other sublime 
 works. 
 
 The Messiah is Handel's masterpiece. Can it 
 be easily conceived that the imperishable pro- 
 duction was written in twenty-three days! Its 
 first performance took place at Dublin "for the 
 relief of the prisoners in the several gaols, and for 
 the support of Mercer's Hospital and the Chari- 
 table Infirmary " — a most appropriate connection. 
 It was Handel's own wish to offer it '"to that 
 generous and polite nation," as he termed the 
 Irish people, and he was justified. " The sublime, 
 the grand, and the tender, adapted to the most 
 elevated, majestic and moving words, conspired 
 to transport and charm the ravished heart and 
 ear." No wonder it towers above all the other 
 works of Handel. He wrote it in the very midst 
 of his misery and bankruptcy, with his earnest- 
 ness at white heat over the enormousness of his 
 subject. His ideal was the loftiest possible, 
 and in The Messiah he gave the public the 
 very best music that he could pen. Heart and 
 soul were in his work, so that when he wrote 
 the glorious "Hallelujah" Chorus his religious 
 exaltation was such that he could exclaim, "I 
 did think I did see all Heaven before me, 
 and the Great God Himself." God surely was 
 with him. 
 
 The Alessiah supplies the perfection of oratorio,
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Handel's examples in this field constituting the 
 most remarkable creations in the whole range of 
 musical science. The massive choruses, the power- 
 ful solos and recitative in which the highest skill 
 of composer and performer are called forth, have 
 been equalled by no other composer. Whether 
 we stay to admire its varied tonal-imagery, its or- 
 chestration, its splendid vocal parts in solo and 
 chorus, or the entire general handling of the great 
 religious theme, we are filled with wonder and 
 ecstasy. Without the common sensational ele- 
 ments of dramatic unity and style — with little 
 coherence of story, it yet possesses features of 
 the most powerful kind — one full of diversity 
 of sentiment — the lively, the pastoral, the ten- 
 der, the sombre, the pathetic, the grand and 
 sublime. 
 
 Up to Handel's day the stern, severe, colour- 
 less style of Palestrina had reigned in sacred 
 
 music for two hun- 
 dred years. Handel, 
 with his wealth of 
 colour and dramatic 
 expression, put a new 
 face upon religious 
 music. His tone- 
 \. ^ ^^gr -xff I - painting was a reve- 
 ^... I i ^*~ lation to his age, and 
 
 found the starting 
 point from which 
 vaster results were 
 to follow in works 
 by Beethoven, Schu- 
 mann and others. 
 Every shade of expression will be found studded 
 throughout his oratorios — great tone pictures, 
 
 Orchestral Drums.
 
 HANDEL'S ORCHESTRATION 103 
 
 such as the sun standing still, a darkness to be 
 felt, the Red Sea cleft by a miracle, shepherds 
 abiding in the fields, etc. 
 
 For that nervous, dignified energy which char- 
 acterises his music he is largely indebted to the 
 English Cathedral composers whose works he 
 studied — Purcell particularly. 
 
 Handel believed in large orchestras — say of 
 twelve first and twelve second violins, four bas- 
 soons, four violoncellos, two harpsichords, oboes, 
 flutes, and side drums — plus an organ at which he 
 presided when not conducting. He did not in- 
 crease the material of instrumentation, but his 
 manipulation of it, his original and beautiful util- 
 isation of the various instruments, whether in ob- 
 bligato accompaniment or in chorus, carried or- 
 chestration far ahead. 
 
 His tremendous choruses rise grandly over 
 everything of their kind. Their vastness, contra- 
 puntal ingenuity and descriptive character are 
 amazing — yet, learned as they are, they offer no 
 insuperable vocal difficulties, so well does he write 
 always for the voice. He creates the most ex- 
 traordinary choral effects by the simplest means, 
 and this simplicity always ends in sublimity. His 
 oratorios are one long manifestation of original- 
 ity, grand conception, and energetic execution. 
 His musical influence has been immense, but it is 
 general rather than specific. Some say he stifled 
 Purcell. He left no pupils to carry on his work. 
 After him, however, choral music could be taken 
 to no greater heights.
 
 I04 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 SYMPHONY — HAYDN, MOZART AND BEETHOVEN- 
 ROMANTIC ART IN OPERA AND SYMPHONY 
 
 In the last chapter we left vocal music on its 
 highest pinnacle. So far as sacred choral art was 
 concerned no composer could hope to surpass 
 Bach and Handel. Now, the progress of instru- 
 mental art has to be considered again; and, in 
 the course of the present chapter we shall find 
 that aspect of music dealt with in such splendid 
 fashion by the masters uf orchestral music that 
 any improved developments of instrumental ex- 
 pression seem beyond possibility. 
 
 Haydn (i 732-1809) was the " Father of Sym- 
 phony." His early training was that of a chor- 
 ister — a training that was as valuable as it was 
 real in Germany in his time. Accustomed to 
 hard life from infancy, he stands a splendid ex- 
 ample of what may be accomplished in music — 
 and probably in everything else — under almost 
 impossible conditions. His poverty proved his 
 blessing, for it impelled him to a habit of industry 
 which, at the close of his career, left him the com- 
 poser of 118 symphonies, 83 quartettes, 24 con- 
 certos, 24 trios, 44 sonatas, 19 operas, 15 masses, 
 400 odd dances, 163 baritone pieces, and some 
 oratorios, including that grand work, The Crea- 
 tion^ besides several other works. 
 
 His first appeal to the public was with an 
 opera, entitled. The Devil ofi Two Sticks, which 
 was a failure. Shortly after this he turned his 
 attention to instrumental music, and made his un- 
 dying fame thereby.
 
 HAYDN 
 
 105 
 
 Prince Esterhazy discovered Haydn's genius 
 through the merit and originality of an early sym- 
 phony. This led to an appointment as private 
 chapel-master to the Prince, during 
 the tenure of which — some thirty years 
 — Haydn wrote most of his instru- 
 mental music. 
 
 As a composer or Doth vocal and 
 instrumental music, Haydn, of course, 
 ranks among the giants of the art. 
 Strangely enough, he was sixty-six 
 years of age ere he composed his 
 great oratorio, The Creation. He had 
 retired from professional life, and was 
 in that contemplative mood, fit for 
 the expression of a p?ean that should 
 not unfitly crown his career — a life 
 that was marked by real piety. It 
 was Haydn's first oratorio, and was no 
 sooner heard than its fame spread over Europe. 
 In England it was, until some thirty years ago, 
 second only to the Messiah in popular favour. 
 That which the iwx poptili, even in England, 
 proclaimed of The Creation was an entirely true 
 verdict. Its arias and choruses alike are beau- 
 tiful and admirably vocal ; in one chorus " The 
 Heavens are telling the Glory of God," Haydn 
 reaches the truly grand if not the sublime. But, 
 pietist as Haydn was, his natural vein was too 
 playful for the wholly successful composition of 
 oratorii. The Creation lacks that depth and so- 
 lemnity, that impressive emotional quality which 
 quickens the soul. We miss the majestic moving 
 power that is so abundant in the oratorios of 
 Handel and Mendelssohn, which is to be regretted, 
 for the true intent was really present in Haydn.
 
 I06 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 The Seasons is a secular work although in ora- 
 torio form. Here the genial composer is more 
 successful than in his great sacred work. His 
 wonderful descriptive power, his ravishing fresh- 
 ness and immense simplicity, and above all, his 
 brilliant orchestral resources are, in this work, seen 
 to greater advruuage than in The Creation — replete 
 as the latter is " ."ith splendid pictures of instrumen- 
 tal imagery. The subjects of The Seasons did not 
 call for dignity, solemnity and depth as did his 
 Creation and Masses, and the absence of which in 
 his sacred music has brought its inevitable verdict. 
 
 Great as Haydn was as a symphonist, he was 
 surpassed in this domain by later talents — but no 
 one of the great tone poets surpassed him as a 
 composer of Chamber Music. This aspect of art 
 — Musica di Camera — in its perfected shape dates, 
 roughly speaking, from Haydn's day, and its story 
 requires to be told. 
 
 It was at the close of the sixteenth century 
 that for Chamber Music purposes vocal and in- 
 strumental music began to part company. The 
 first writers for instruments aimed at a lighter and 
 more flowing kind of music than the austere mad- 
 rigal. A pioneer composer was Dowland, whose 
 LachrimcB consxsx.?, of small pieces in various styles 
 for instruments in five parts. Jenkins (1592-1678) 
 composed " Fantasias " for six instruments — the 
 contents of a "chest of viols" — to meet the new 
 taste for instrumental art which set in just as the 
 world was to be enriched by its band of greatest 
 composers — the golden age, when all that is 
 grandest and noblest in music seems to have 
 found expression in some one of their composi- 
 tions. These Titans of music embellished every 
 musical form with their surpassing genius, but in
 
 STRING FAMILY I07 
 
 no direction did their masterly labour and inven- 
 tiveness leave greater mark than on Chamber 
 Music. 
 
 The design of Chamber Music is to lead the 
 music lover into a sanctuary of art where perfec- 
 tion of execution, loveliness of detail, and highest 
 mental participation become the sole aspiration. 
 Each performer is a soloist, and the composers of 
 the best Chamber Music have so worked that the 
 extreme skill of the player, the characteristic 
 quality and capability of the instrument, as well 
 as the spirit of the author are brought out to per- 
 fection. 
 
 As if to rival the charm of four part vocal 
 music, the string quartet immediately asserted it- 
 self. It has ever stood safe, for it cannot be sur- 
 passed. The most perfect form of all Chamber 
 Music, it charms composer, performer and auditor 
 alike. Many of the larger forms which play 
 round it are beautiful enough ; but the earnest 
 amateur prefers the purity and grace of the four 
 strings. Get over the quartet, and immediately 
 the domain of the symphony is attacked. 
 
 Haydn, as a writer of string quartets is sim- 
 ply matchless; the great masters have expressed 
 their greatest thoughts in this form ; yet famous 
 artists who perform quartets make Haydn their 
 idol. His naive and pointed style charms a 
 whole race of dilettanti — enthusiasts who revel in 
 such quartets as the C major (Op. jti)^ D major 
 (Op. 64), D minor (Op. 76), and the one with 
 Variations on " God Preserve the Emperor." A 
 Haydn quartet furnishes a perfect sense of satis- 
 faction and completeness. Such quartets as Nos. 
 63, 78 and 81 are marvellous examples of simply 
 delightful tonal combinations — works in which
 
 Io8 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 the Student can realise what the family of violins 
 is capable of accomplishing when under the sway 
 of so great a geniui: as Haydn. 
 
 The almost illimitable range of tone possible 
 from the bass viol to the far-reaching violin, 
 speedily eclipsed the scope of the Madrigal, even 
 when it was accompanied instrumentally ; and, it 
 is scarcely surprising that composers made eager- 
 ly for a sphere so admirably adapted for the ex- 
 pression of theirchoicest thoughts. The " strings," 
 so alike in family, are yet distinct in individual 
 quality. The expression each is capable of is 
 wonderful. Their smooth even quality of tone, 
 their properties of blending in sweetest contrast, 
 their effectiveness whether in vigorous or gentlest 
 mood, their intensity of intonation when finely 
 manipulated — these and more quali- 
 ties make a combmation of stringed 
 instruments, the union par excellence 
 for Chamber Music. 
 
 The materiel of Chamber Music, 
 however, was to be strengthened, 
 and composers arose who recognised 
 " wood " and " reed " as fit to join be- 
 times with the immortal " strings." 
 More colour, too, was to be given to 
 the form. 
 
 Bach brought in the small organ ; 
 Haydn, the piano ; Mozart added un- 
 told wealth in his clarinet, horn and 
 bassoon parts — so that he is nowhere 
 seen in more transcendent beauty than 
 in such works as the C major and D minor quar- 
 tets, the G minor and A major quintets, and the 
 serenades for oboes, clarinets, horns, and bassoons. 
 Spohr's double quartet, the C major sextet (Op. 
 
 Ophicleide.
 
 MOZART 109 
 
 140), and his nonetto in F major are marvels of 
 characteristic orchestral combination and worthily 
 reflect his extraordinary, exuberant, colouring gift. 
 Chopin, Mendelssohn, Schubert, Schumann and 
 Beethoven — all have made splendid contributions 
 to the store of Chamber Music. The Italian School 
 is well reflected in the works of Veracini, Locatelli, 
 Valentini, Marcello, Bottesini, and especially the 
 irresistible, playful Boccherini. Among British 
 musicians Purcell, Loder, Onslow, Balfe, Macfar- 
 ren, Bennett, Stanford, Parry, and Mackenzie, are 
 known by scores not unworthy of being placed 
 high in the list of miisica di camera. 
 
 But, the masters of every school have entered 
 this delightful realm of art, contributing treasure 
 upon treasure of string music; and the creation 
 of " ever new delights " in this direction is still 
 proceeding. Haydn, however, is still the repre- 
 sentative of Chamber Music. He affords a sense 
 of perfect proportion and completeness, com- 
 bined with matchless melodic expression. Of 
 course in powerful emotion and poetic meaning, 
 Schubert, Schumann, and particularly Beethoven 
 have eclipsed him. 
 
 Moz.\RT (1756-1791) brings us again to Opera. 
 It can be said of him that he was the greatest 
 operatic composer the world had seen — for, in 
 his day, the romantic element in Opera was want- 
 ing. Mozart was a born genius, and his father 
 made of him a musical prodigy, for he could both 
 compose and play when but a mere child. Tour 
 after tour was made to the musical centres of 
 Europe, so that his early life was one long round 
 of "show " business with the inevitable wonder- 
 ment, caresses, rewards, and not infrequently dis-
 
 no THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 appointment to the father, so far as pecuniary 
 return was concerned. 
 
 In his brief life of thirty-five years Mozart 
 accomplished an almost superhuman amount of 
 work, even if we consider only his compositions. 
 He was destined to lead the way in the work of 
 investing music with all that warmth and emo- 
 tional element which was needed to render it a 
 great living agent. Bach and Handel had ac- 
 complished much, but there was, comparatively 
 speaking, a poverty of instruments in their day 
 which fettered them. Mozart brought the soul 
 element into the music, and there is not a page 
 wherein the shadows of life — the hopes and de- 
 spondencies of mortal existence are not delineated. 
 Whether in the composition of opera, symphony, 
 or requiem, he rose to the summit of excellence. 
 
 Mozart's chief sacred music is his Masses. 
 Bach, in his great D Minor Mass and Durante, 
 Pergolesi, and Jomelli, in their Italian works, had 
 brought the Mass form to the importance of a 
 Cantata, treating it exhaustively with contra- 
 puntal and orchestral device until in cast and 
 colour it was an entirely different thing from the 
 grand old mediaeval pattern Mass. Haydn, and 
 especially Mozart, added to it a grace and free- 
 dom which made this Church form even delight- 
 ful as music — if this can be deemed a virtue in 
 sacred music. No longer was it stereotyped, 
 formal, impersonal music; Mozart introduced the 
 imaginative element and with his delicious mel- 
 ody — melody which the very angels might sing — 
 made Mass music ravishing. His Requiem in D 
 minor is supremely beautiful, its impressive dig- 
 nity and sacred nature being appropriate in the 
 extreme.
 
 GERMAN MUSICAL DRAMA III 
 
 Mozart's instrumental music includes works 
 in every form, chief among which are his sym- 
 phonies, quintets, quartets, and concertos. At 
 least forty-nine symphonies for orchestra came 
 from his pen, the finest being the E fiat major 
 (Op. 58), the G minor (Op. 45), and the C major, 
 surnamed the " Jupiter " (Op. 38). In all points 
 these three are far in advance of all similar 
 works that had preceded them, and with those 
 which Haydn penned mark an historical epoch 
 in orchestral musical art. Mozart's wonderful 
 capacity for treating instruments individually and 
 collectively ; his masterly scholarship — especially 
 as a contrapuntist ; his unsurpassed gifts as a 
 melodist — all this is known of the master and it 
 is grandly reflected in these symphonies. 
 
 A famous and often discussed orchestral un- 
 dertaking was his "Additional Accompaniments" 
 to The Messiah and other of Handel's works. 
 Many people suppose this was on account of 
 what they were pleased to term the original 
 *' thin " scoring. That is not so. The orchestra 
 of Handel's day usually out-numbered the chorus. 
 Oboes, bassoons and flutes were used in masses 
 like the violins, and not in single instruments to 
 a part as at present. The old fashioned wind in- 
 struments were undoubtedly thin in tone, but 
 this was all complemented by the mighty ad lib. 
 organ part in which Handel indulged, and also 
 encouraged. 
 
 The stilted, conventional style of early Italian 
 opera was remedied by Mozart. Taking up the 
 old Italian opera form he changed it completely, 
 and laid the basis of a natural German musical 
 drama. The first opera to show his fresh proc- 
 esses was Idomeneo which, although on the old 
 8
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Italian model, was superior in vocal breadth and 
 orchestral variety to anything that had preceded 
 it. There was a greater power, freedom and in- 
 dependence in every direction, and the form was 
 evidently about to be transformed into a much 
 grander dramatic composition. Nor was this 
 long about. Five years later Le Nozze di Figaro, 
 ^ and afterwards, Don Giovanni disclosed 
 
 " the mind and method of the greatest 
 
 operatic genius, veritably, that the world 
 had seen. The dramatic power exhibited 
 in Le Nozze di Figaro and the extraordi- 
 nary emotional delineations in Don Gio- 
 vanni made men marvel. The incessant 
 melodiousness, vocal and instrumental, 
 the constant thematic and contrapuntal 
 ijM combinations, the powerful and appropri- 
 
 I ate orchestral masses, the ever-changing, 
 
 J ever fresh variety of human and local 
 
 Bassoon, colour — all this was striking indeed ; but, 
 when all was combined, when a union was 
 made of the master's wondrous dramatic power 
 with his musical resource and command the result 
 was stupendous. 
 
 Die Zauberflote was Mozart's last opera. Bee- 
 thoven declared it to be Mozart's greatest work, 
 that in which he showed himself for the first 
 time a truly German composer. It is important, 
 forming as it does a landmark in the history of 
 Opera, and constituting the first work in that 
 purely German School of musical drama which 
 subsequently engaged Weber and Wagner. " The 
 whole musical composition is pure German," says 
 Jahn, " and here for the first time German Opera 
 makes free and skilful use of all the elements of 
 finished art. If in his Italian operas he assimi-
 
 BEETHOVEN 113 
 
 lated the traditions of a long period of develop- 
 ment, and in some sense put the finishing stroke 
 to it, with the Zaiiberflote Mozart treads on the 
 threshold of the future, and unlocks for his coun- 
 trymen the sacred treasures of natural art."* 
 
 *' Natural art," as Jahn says. This was the 
 secret of Mozart's overwhelming success in his 
 chief department, albeit, he was a master in all 
 other branches. Old Italian opera had been 
 lifeless. Mozart brought living humanity on to 
 the stage — each one speaking his individual 
 character — and supported all this with masterly 
 orchestral aids. His great musical genius and 
 scholarship, his marvellous dramatic power (for 
 one so young), his deliberate flights into hitherto 
 unsought regions of musical expression and dec- 
 laration — these made him one of the world's 
 masters of music — the greatest of all in the one 
 field where such a combination of genius was 
 necessary — namely, the Opera. 
 
 Beethoven (1770-1827). We are confronted 
 here with the greatest genius in the annals of 
 Music — one whom it is impossible to comprehend 
 can ever be surpassed in either the imaginative or 
 theoretical departments of music. A master spirit, 
 he overcame all the obstacles of early poverty 
 and rose to be the brightest orb in the musical 
 firmament. He excelled in every branch of his 
 art. One solitary opera, Fidelio^ was sufficient to 
 prove his great power as a dramatic-lyric com- 
 poser; he stands foremost as a composer of 
 pianoforte music; the *' Mount of Olives," al- 
 though not to be compared with Handel's Messiah, 
 or Mendelssohn's Elijah, reflects his genius as a 
 
 * *' Life of Mozart," vol. ii. p. 533.
 
 114 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 composer of sacred music; his Chamber Music is 
 superior to all th^-'t had preceded it; while as a 
 Symphonist, he is the greatest the world has ever 
 seen. 
 
 The story of the symphony covers the whole 
 area of instrumental musical history; for what is 
 a symphony in the abstract, and apart 
 from its ideal purport, but a huge result 
 of the handling of every orchestral re- 
 source; as an art form, it belongs to the 
 age of classical art, beginning with Bach, 
 and continued to-day by Tschaikowsky 
 and others. Its growth was steady and 
 natural. As instrument after instru- 
 ment was invented or discovered ; as 
 the capabilities of instruments became 
 /f^^ known ; as the taste for developing all 
 ^i^^ instrumental resource grew : and, above 
 all, as it slowly dawned upon mankind 
 that music had an ideal import — a some- 
 thing to say and picture, as a book or 
 canvas might — so the symphony grew. 
 When Rinnucini in his first opera Euri- 
 dice, employed a harpsichord, guitar, viol, 
 lute and flutes, he was paving the way 
 for the great tone poems of Haydn, 
 Beethoven and Berlioz. Monteverde's 
 effort to invent scenes and situations 
 with characteristic and dramatic colour- 
 Clarionet, ing (if it was not always truly local), was 
 a laudable step in the direction of real- 
 ism in art, the greatest splendour of which is only 
 reached through the medium of that perfect art 
 creation, the symphony. 
 
 All early music that was not vocal was " sym- 
 phony," so comprehensive and phable was the
 
 GROWTH OF THE SYMPHONY 115 
 
 use of the term. The simple accompaniments 
 to early music, the overtures, introductions, ritor- 
 nelli, pieces for single instruments, ballet tunes, 
 toccatas — all were included under the one head, 
 "symphony." This lasted long, albeit these were 
 forms which it was evident could be extended in- 
 definitely. Scarlatti and Lully both recognised 
 this. The latter attacked the "introductory" 
 movement, which was the symphony in hoc statu, 
 and gave it so distinct a form in handling, that it 
 became the Overture. Scarlatti, too, gave such 
 decided character to the movements comprising 
 the overture, that from these two stages the sym- 
 phony, as known to-day, undoubtedly sprang. 
 
 The direct form leading to the symphony 
 was the Sonata of the seventeenth century, 
 with Corelli's (1653-1712) name closely allied 
 to it. Then came the Concerto, invented by 
 Torelli (1683-1708), who employed the ordinary 
 string quartet and the solo instrument. Wind 
 instruments were added subsequently by Benda 
 (1722-1795), and Stamitz (1719-1801). Then 
 occurred the idea of doubling the parts, and 
 thus was secured a real approach towards sym- 
 phonic materiel, long before the ideas of tone 
 colouring and sound illustration had entered 
 men's minds. Such was the first stage of that 
 surpassing orchestral art which was to culmi- 
 nate in the great tone epics of Haydn, Mozart, 
 and Beethoven, to say nothing of the lights of 
 modern schools. 
 
 Musicians prominently associated with early- 
 symphonic music were Emmanuel Bach (1714- 
 1788), Gossec (1733-1829), and Vanhall (1739- 
 1813). The symphonies of these musicians show 
 the status of the form in its early independent
 
 Il6 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 existence when a public would not listen to the 
 sinfonia avanti l' opera — playing cards and such like 
 until the acting began — thus forcing the com- 
 poser to invest the overture or symphony to a 
 piece with some counteracting interest. The mu- 
 sician succeeded, and from the moment that the 
 preamble began to serve as a reflex of the opera 
 itself, the symphony as a separate musical form 
 was assured. 
 
 The first period symphony, when it was as 
 frequently styled an overture, was scored for 
 two violins, viola and bass, two oboes or two 
 flutes and two cors de chasse. The violins were 
 always at work ; at times the oboes and flutes 
 supported them; the viola did very little, while 
 the bass had carte blanche, and could be added 
 ad libitum. The Bachs — John Christian and 
 Emmanuel added much to the colour of the 
 orchestra, besides improving the general style 
 and form of the symphony. Their later scoring 
 will be seen from the extract on the opposite 
 page. 
 
 Haydn inaugurated a new era in orchestral 
 music — an era of realism, in the development 
 of which the tone art has soared to the highest 
 summits to which it can attain as an exponent 
 of the noblest thought and varied fancy of intel- 
 lectual perception and magnitude. Haydn found 
 the symphony with three slight movements — an 
 Allegro, Adagio, or Largo, and a Vivace to termi- 
 nate it. He extended these, and constructed each 
 section upon a much broader basis, so that his 
 symphonies have four large massive movements: 
 {a) Allegro; {U) Andante or Largo; {c) Mimcetto 
 and Trio; {d) Allegro or Finale. To the first of 
 these movements Haydn prefixed a short intro-
 
 GROWTH OF THE SYMPHONY 
 
 117 
 
 Corni in Eflat 
 
 -^- 
 
 Emmanuel Bach. 
 
 ji 
 
 ^- 
 
 ±iiiz 
 
 Flauti 
 
 =!=: 
 
 Oboi ^ 
 
 =^-E 
 
 :EEE 
 
 Violini i and 2 
 
 'Celli, Fagotto, Bassi e Cembalo 
 
 aiEE 
 
 ten. 
 
 1?= 
 
 ductory Adaf^io, as indicated in the following 
 opening bars — 
 
 From Haydn's "Military" Symphony in G, 
 No. 12 (Grand or Salomon Set) 
 
 A dagio — Violin 
 
 p ^'- ^ ___^_^ is 
 
 ipe^ 
 
 ^1 
 
 H
 
 ii8 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 This Opening was adopted by Mozart as late as 
 his 44th Symphony, and by Beethoven in his first 
 and second Symphonies. 
 
 Each of these movements has a 
 distinctive character. After the slow 
 introduction comes the joyous Allegro, 
 in which Haydn, Mozart, and Bee- 
 thoven particularly excelled. Some 
 estimate of their stupendous talent 
 may be formed from the reflection 
 that it is from such slender mate- 
 rials, as the few notes of the sub- 
 jects contained in the following ex- 
 amples, that the masters of orches- 
 tration have built up their vast 
 creations of perpetual music, scintil- 
 rumpet. j^ting with all the gorgeous thread 
 and colouring of orchestral combination and sci- 
 entific device — 
 
 Aliegro 
 Violin p 
 
 
 From Haydn's Symphony in D, No. 6 (Salomon Set). 
 
 A llegro con trio 
 P 
 
 From Beethoven's C minor Symphony. 
 
 Allegro 
 
 W^ 
 
 Vi=f=^t 
 
 =i5=t 
 
 ^^fee 
 
 ^^ 
 
 From Mozart's G minor Symphony, No. 48. 
 
 After the Allegro comes the Andante or Largo 
 -sometimes an Allegretto, as in Haydn's " Mili-
 
 MINUET 
 
 119 
 
 tary " Symphony. A wonderful slow movement 
 of this kind is that marked "Adagio " in Haydn's 
 •* Oxford " Symphony, while in the same com- 
 poser's Symphony No. 8 is found a truly charac- 
 teristic Largo in D. Mendelssohn was extremely 
 happy in his Andanti. Here is the subject of the 
 well-known one in the " Scotch " Symphony — 
 
 Andante con Ttzoto 
 
 S^ig^^^^ 
 
 ife^ 
 
 -PS- 
 
 m^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 =P=PC 
 
 ^^ 
 
 =n= 
 
 H^HEe 
 
 :«: 
 
 -(- 
 
 From Mendelssohn's A minor Symphony {" Scotch"). 
 
 All can imagine the Minuet — the stately, 
 courtly, old style movement. It was Haydn's 
 favourite measure, in which no composer has 
 surpassed him. One, indeed, threatened its 
 existence, but even the sprightly Scherzo which 
 Beethoven invented to supplant it, wins its favour 
 by an elegance equally marked though exactly 
 opposite to that of the Minuet. The Minuet has 
 a piquant step. Here are some indications of 
 Beethoven's examples of Minuets — 
 
 A llegro molto e vivace 
 
 ^ 
 
 ce . I I V I 
 
 &c. 
 
 From the " First " Symphony. 
 
 Tempo di Minuetto 
 
 f ■*■ <t^ ^f ^f ^f 
 
 sf s/ 
 
 From the " Eighth " Symphony.
 
 I20 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 The following are two bits of Scherzi such as 
 Beethoven invented. Their elasticity and irre- 
 sistible *' go " are simply glorious — 
 
 Scherzo — Viol 
 
 ;o — Viol I III » .*=»- -*. : 
 
 
 £^ 
 
 From C major Symphony, No. i. 
 
 Allegro vivace 
 
 From the " Eroica" Symphony. 
 Vivace Assai — Wind 
 
 &C. 
 
 From Benedict's G minor Symphony. 
 
 Another Allegro or Vivace completes the Sym- 
 phony. The whole orchestral lorces are em- 
 ployed and persistently occupied. Thus was its 
 form settled for all time. Only once has this 
 orthodox form been assailed, and this, as we 
 have said, by Beethoven when he displaced the 
 Minuet with his rapturous, flying Scherzo. 
 
 Of the large number of symphonies Haydn 
 wrote, the twelve " Grand " or Salomon set, 
 which he composed to the order of that cele- 
 brated entrepreneur, are best known and admired. 
 They stand lustrous amid the firmament of in- 
 strumental art. " You will never surpass these 
 symphonies," said a dear friend. " I never mean 
 to try," was the characteristic reply of the won- 
 derful composer, who had a singular faculty for 
 gauging his own compositions. 
 
 Haydn's ist Symphony was scored for two
 
 HAYDN'S ORCHESTRATION i2I 
 
 violins, viols, bass, two oboes, and two horns. 
 But his mission was to take the form into its 
 second or *' great " period, and it was not long 
 before instrument after instrument was requisi- 
 tioned, until the general strength of a symphony 
 score became as follows — 
 Flutes ^ 
 
 ^, • , > Each with two parts music. 
 Clarinets j ^ 
 
 Bassoons J 
 
 Horns — In two to four parts music. 
 
 Trumpets — Generally two parts music. 
 
 Trombones — Two or three parts music. 
 
 Kettledrums — Two, tuned in fourths or fifths. 
 
 ist Violins 
 
 Violas'(Tenors) )>^^' ^'^^ ^^^'' respective parts 
 ■XT- 1 ^11- ^ t music. 
 Violoncelli | 
 
 Double Basses J 
 
 A reference to the opening bars of the Allegro 
 in Beethoven's C minor Symphony will show that 
 he used all instruments with tremendous effect; 
 nor must we forget that in his '• Choral " Sym- 
 phony he even demanded the human voice. 
 
 To end our story of the Symphony — told at 
 some length because the Symphony is the con- 
 summation of orchestral splendour — Mozart's 
 forty-nine were, save the three great epics al- 
 ready mentioned, on the small lines of E. Bach's 
 examples, but they for the most part abound 
 in that loveliness and passionate expression of 
 which Mozart was so great a master. Beethoven 
 reached the summit of even his tremendous ge- 
 nius in nine of these great tone poems. Schubert 
 composed nine, leaving the ninth — which prom- 
 ised to be, as Beethoven's was, his greatest — un-
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 finished. Mendelssohn's finest examples are 
 the C minor, the " Reformation," "Italian," and 
 "Scotch." Schumann's E flat or "Rhenish" 
 Symphony, and those in C major and D minor, 
 are works of noblest order. Spohr is 
 1 famous for his " Power of Sound " 
 
 j^t Symphony. France has had famous 
 
 l^j symphonists in Cherubini, Berlioz, 
 
 David, and others ; among modern 
 Germans the works of Brahms, Dvorak, 
 Raff, and Liszt are universally admired; 
 the Russian Tschaikowsky is at the 
 present time surprising the world with 
 his symphonies ; and England cannot 
 be said to be unfavourably represented 
 in this domain by Sterndale Bennett, 
 Macfarren, Sullivan, Cowen, Mackenzie, 
 Stanford, and Prout. 
 
 The Symphony is, indeed, a great 
 reality — a wonderful realization of the 
 steady growth of instrumental addenda 
 and treatment of theoretical musical form. The 
 predominant force and poetical import of the 
 greatest symphonies astonish even the trained 
 musician, however eminent. How they appeal to 
 and strike the ordinary listener cannot be meas- 
 ured. It is enough to know, however, that these 
 great tone poems of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, 
 Schubert and Schumann fulfil the highest mission 
 of Music — a regenerating force and power, second 
 only in importance to Religion itself. 
 
 Slide 
 Trumpet. 
 
 Weber (i 786-1 826) appreciably influenced 
 music through the medium of Opera. The son 
 of a travelling actor, he was associated from 
 infancy with theatrical surroundings and para-
 
 WEBER 123 
 
 phernalia, and his whole life was spent in stage 
 musical work. If Mozart furnished the founda- 
 tion of German national lyric drama, Weber 
 added considerably 10 the fabric, not merely 
 through the many brilliant musical dramas which 
 he composed and produced, but by means of the 
 characteristic original quality and atmosphere 
 with which he invested his operas. 
 
 Mozart had already demonstrated that the 
 Monodists of the seventeenth century had com- 
 mitted a fatal mistake in rejecting in their operas 
 the contrapuntal experience of their great pred- 
 ecessors, and Weber arose to clothe opera with 
 a grand distinguishing garment. All that deli- 
 cious melody, dramatic situation, and masterly 
 scholarship could accomplish for opera had been 
 exhibited by Mozart — but German opera for 
 Germans was not yet made. There was needed 
 the musical complement of the corresponding 
 romantic element in German literature, which 
 was forming and flourishing in Weber's time. 
 Weber was born to provide this — and here we 
 have the starting point of German opera as 
 maintained and left by Wagner. "Wagner's 
 Lohengrin,'' says Schluter, "is the offspring of 
 Eiiryanthe by direct descent." 
 
 The supernatural glamour, if we may so call 
 it, which Weber threw into his operas, is first 
 traceable m Riibezahl (1806) — from which date 
 may be ascribed the introduction of that new and 
 remarkable development of the German Opera 
 which musical historians embody in the " Roman- 
 tic " School — an aspect of Art which, since the be- 
 ginning of the nineteenth century, has exercised 
 a more decided influence upon the progress of 
 dramatic music than any other recognised agent.
 
 124 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Euryanthe (1823) may certainly be regarded 
 as a landmark in the development of Opera. Its 
 reception when produced was not satisfying to 
 Weber; but he had made the founding of a dis- 
 tinct school of German opera the mission of his 
 life, and he successfully accomplished his under- 
 taking. "The Italians and the French," he said, 
 "have fashioned for themselves a distinct form 
 of opera, with a framework which 
 allows them to move with ease and 
 freedom. Not so the Germans . . . 
 The German wants a work of art 
 complete in itself, with each part 
 rounded off and compacted into a 
 perfect whole. For him, therefore, a 
 fine ensemble is the prime necessity." 
 Weber had a very passion for 
 mediaeval romanticism, and the tradi- 
 tions and literature of his country 
 readily furnished him with subjects 
 for dramatic characterisation kin- 
 dred to Riibezahl — the Spirit of the 
 Mountain. Silvana and Abii Hassan 
 are akin ; Der Freischiitz, Freciosa, Euryanthe and 
 Oberon still more so. 
 
 Of these operas people are mostly familiar 
 with Der Freischiltz^ which enjoys undiminished 
 popularity to-day. In this work Weber is as great 
 in his way as is Beethoven in the Symphony. No 
 opera composer has ever given us such scenes — 
 some haunting, some ravishing, some heavenly — 
 as has Weber in Der Freischiitz. Everything is 
 marvellously beautiful — reflecting everywhere that 
 sentiment of mediaeval, fanatical Catholicism — 
 that almost pantheistical nature-worship which 
 was the religious sentiment of Weber's day. 
 
 Saxophone. 
 
 I
 
 SCHUBERT 125 
 
 Nor was it in Opera alone that Weber's in- 
 fluence has been so remarkable and abiding. To 
 him is due, be it remembered, that romantic 
 movement which has affected all music, vocal and 
 instrumental. We have only to try and imagine 
 music without this element — without all its intent 
 and spirit-feature — to see what an unsatisfactory, 
 cold and bloodless art it would be. Weber must 
 be chronicled as the composer who gave more 
 than any other to the atmosphere of music, espe- 
 cially in opera; just as Beethoven was as great 
 in the spiritual purport and import. 
 
 Schubert (1797-1828) was a master spirit 
 who excelled in almost every phase of musical 
 art, being lavishly endowed with that fecundity 
 which almost invariably accompanies real genius. 
 His dramatic music and masses would alone en- 
 title him to a high place among composers ; his 
 symphonies place him with the great tone mas- 
 ters. 
 
 The dramatic music which he composed in- 
 cludes the operas Alfonso und Estrella, Fierabras, 
 the music to Rosamunde, and the cantata Miriam's 
 Battle Song. His nine symphonies for orchestra 
 rank among the greatest works of their kind. 
 They are his masterpieces — illustrating more 
 than any other of Schubert's music the grand 
 breadth of his imagination, and the surpassing 
 fertility of his genius. They do infinite honour 
 to the German School. 
 
 Schubert's name is so well known to-day that 
 it is almost impossible to imagine that in his own 
 time his merits as a composer were unknown save 
 by a few Austrian friends. Schubert was twenty 
 years the junior of Beethoven, and the two musi- 
 cians resided in Vienna for many years ; yet Bee-
 
 126 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 thoven seems to have been quite unconscious of 
 the genius so near '^o him. To-day h\s post obitum 
 fame is hardly less than Beethoven's. 
 
 It is as Song writer — a composer of lieder — 
 that Schubert excelled ; indeed, he is the King of 
 Song. As has been written before, " Many may 
 know him by other music, but the world at large 
 knows him only by those inspiring melodies which 
 enkindle all the emotions appertaining to human 
 nature — love and hatred, joy and sorrow, hope 
 and despair, consolation, resignation, and the 
 like. Those six hundred and fifty songs form a 
 unique and precious bequest to music, and com- 
 plete the last, and not least, of the stately and 
 strong columns on which the vast edifice of mod- 
 ern musical art rests — the Symphonies and So- 
 natas of Beethoven, the Operas of Mozart, the 
 Oratorios of Handel, the Chamber Music of 
 Haydn, and the Songs of Schubert."* His mar- 
 vellous songs constitute an unrivalled section of 
 the world's finest music, and to them every musi- 
 cian loves to turn, and in fancy soar whitherso- 
 ever their composer's passionate and soul-stirring 
 melodies lead. 
 
 The song, as a musical form, is the setting of 
 a short poem or portion of prose, for one or more 
 singers. Needless to say it has received a variety 
 of treatment, but the German lied as a song form 
 undoubtedly belongs to Schubert. As has been 
 said, " It was he who first invested it with a dra- 
 matic character, and sought to make the union of 
 the music and verse absolutely perfect." It 
 would be misleading to avow that Schubert made 
 the song. All its foundation had been laid, and 
 
 * " The Great Tone-Poets " (Crowest), p. 288.
 
 SCHUBERT'S SONGS 1 27 
 
 the form settled long before his time; but Schu- 
 bert made it a perfect vehicle of musical expres- 
 sion : he crowned the edifice. 
 
 Schubert had defects musically. By reason of 
 his irregular and deficient early training he lacked 
 the quality of order — conciseness and com- 
 pactness. This diffusiveness is apparent 
 everywhere, there being scarcely a compo- 
 sition that would not be improved by a 
 process of revision and pruning. It is in 
 his instrumental music that this defect is 
 particularly apparent. He could not com- 
 press and restrict. It is present in his 
 songs. That distinctiveness of classifica- 
 tion which makes a bass song of Handel's 
 something which a bass only can sing, 
 does not stamp Schubert's songs. From 
 the compass of Schubert's songs it is easy oboe. 
 to perceive that their composer had little 
 care for vocal possibilities. J, ike most German 
 songs they are mainly written for almost any voice, 
 and consequently belong to none — so that for 
 legitimate singing they are almost a sealed book. 
 Had they been classified and written for the best 
 part of soprano, contralto, tenor, or bass voice, they 
 would by their sheer inherent beauty have been 
 invaluable. Such leaps as repeated sevenths and 
 ninths are scarcely agreeable baits for vocalists. 
 
 The accompaniments to Schubert's songs are 
 most interesting. Their range and figure are fre- 
 quently extraordinary. Embracing almost every 
 form and figure, they are as remarkable for their 
 realism as for their beauty. By the power alone 
 of the rhythm of some of these accompaniments, 
 Schubert frequently raises the simplest vocal mel- 
 ody to the highest dramatic reach. 
 
 Q
 
 1 28 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Mendelssohn (1809-1847) is a great name in 
 music, and the more remarkable in that he accom- 
 plished so much when so much had been done be- 
 fore him. The son of a banker, he was brought 
 up amid favouring influences, among which the 
 best music played a great part. A born musician, 
 his talent showed itself as a child. Happily this 
 was fostered and trained just as if his future live- 
 lihood depended upon his being a competent pro- 
 fessional musician. It was at the age of sixteen 
 that Felix was taken to Cherubini for that great 
 master's judgment upon the boy's promise. It 
 was highly favourable, and thus one of the great- 
 est and most eclectic musicians the world has 
 ever known found his appointed sphere. 
 
 The work which stamped Mendelssohn as a 
 light of the world was the C Minor Symphony 
 (1824) composed when he was but fifteen years 
 old. " The work " — to quote a great authority — 
 "is more historically than musically interesting. 
 It shows, as might be expected, how much 
 stronger the mechanical side of Mendelssohn's 
 artistic nature was, even as a boy, than his 
 poetical side. Technically, the work is extraor- 
 dinarily mature. It evinces not only a perfect 
 and complete facility in laying the outline ana 
 carrying out the details of form, but also the 
 acutest sense of the balance and proportion of 
 tone of the orchestra. The limits of the attempt 
 are not extensive, and the absence of strong 
 feeling or aspiration in the boy facilitated the 
 execution. The predominant influence is clearly 
 that of Mozart. Not only the treatment of the 
 lower and subordinate parts of the harmony, but 
 the distribution and management of the different 
 sections, and even the ideas are alike. There is
 
 MENDELSSOHN 1 29 
 
 scarcely a trace of the influence of Beethoven, 
 and not much of the features afterwards char- 
 acteristic of the composer himself.* From the 
 time of the composition of this symphony Men- 
 delssohn was a notable personality. 
 
 There is not a department of music — save 
 Opera — which he did not adorn ; and when we 
 consider his vast array of compositions and their 
 splendid quality, in view of his short life he must 
 be accounted one of the world's wonder-workers. 
 It is to be regretted that he went on at such head- 
 long speed, for it proved fatal. 
 
 From his earliest years Mendelssohn evinced 
 great gifts as a performer upon the pianoforte 
 and organ, his memory and powers of improviza- 
 tion growing more remarkable as he got older. 
 But his creative powers as a composer shadowed 
 everything. Among his varied pianoforte music 
 his graceful Lieder ohne Worte not merely intro- 
 duce us to a new and beautiful form, but provide 
 a charming collection of pieces in which even the 
 advanced pianist may find enjoyment and good 
 practice. They are something more than mere 
 exercises in harmonical combination. 
 
 As an instrumental composer Mendelssohn 
 was powerful in the extreme. His Chamber 
 music ranks with that of the best masters. Such 
 magnificent works as the Trio in D minor (Op. 
 49), the Quintet in B flat (Op. 87), the Sextet in 
 D major (posthumous), and many others have 
 only to be heard to convince the listener that in 
 them the greatest possibilities of Chamber Music 
 are realized. 
 
 * " Dictionary of Music and Musicians " : *' Symphony," 
 Article (Parry), vol. iv. p. 31.
 
 I3o THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 His chief instrumental scores are his sym- 
 phonies, descriptive overtures, concertos, and the 
 music to the plays of Sophocles, Goethe's "Wal- 
 purgisnacht," etc. In all of these we meet with 
 his vast imaginative faculty and individuality to 
 perfection. Mendelssohn completed five sym- 
 phonies which, in the order they were written, 
 are as follows — '* C minor" (1824), "Reforma- 
 tion" (1830), "Italian" (1833), " Lobgesang " 
 (1840), and the "Scotch" (1842). They are all 
 noble works and justly great favourites. In them 
 we meet with all that magnificent array of orches- 
 tration, instrumental resource, massive, dramatic, 
 and emotional feeling, florid, yet rich harmony 
 and melody, with a consistent impressiveness of 
 which he was so great a master. Standing, as he 
 does, midway between the classical and romantic 
 schools of musical thought, he approaches nearer 
 to Beethoven than any other composer who has 
 followed the Bonn master. 
 
 Mendelssohn left many sacred compositions, 
 among which his oratorios Elijah, St. Paul, and 
 the Hymn of Praise rise conspicuously. Many 
 regard St. Paul as the finer work of the two 
 oratorii, but no sacred composition save Handel's 
 Messiah, has won greater popularity than has 
 Elijah. For impressive dignity and originality 
 this oratorio leaves nothing to be desired; and it 
 is not likely to be soon surpassed by any future 
 composer. 
 
 Because of his Elijah Mendelssohn is popularly 
 regarded as the compeer of Handel ; yet he is 
 not. In our opinion it is extremely doubtful if 
 the Elijah will, in the long run, outlive the fame 
 of the Messiah. The two masters must not be 
 compared since they are both tremendous in
 
 SCHUMANN 
 
 131 
 
 their different ways. As has been well said in 
 speaking of these magnificent oratorios Elijah 
 and St. Paul, "the works of Handel bear no com- 
 parison with those creations save in a few of the 
 choral numbers, as the styles of both masters are 
 quite opposed to each other in every respect. 
 The harmonies of Handel are thin and colourless 
 beside those of Mendelssohn, and the whole 
 structure and character of the dramatic and 
 emotional feeling is entirely different in both."* 
 Work after work of Mendelssohn, both in con- 
 ceptive breadth, clearness of design, poetic in- 
 tention, scholarship, detail, orchestration, and 
 impressiveness, belongs to music of the first 
 order; yet, on the whole, Mendelssohn does not 
 reach the altitude of Bach, Handel, Mozart, an(^ 
 Beethoven. 
 
 Schumann (1810-1856) is the last, for the 
 present, of the great masters of music. He was a 
 most exalted genius whose pianoforte works alone 
 entitle him to a place in the first rank of the 
 wonder-workers in music. Such pianoforte com- 
 positions as his first period works — the Sonatas 
 in F sharp minor and G minor, with his fantasias 
 stamp him as one of the most original minds the 
 world of music has ever known. He accom- 
 plished greater things however in his symphonies 
 — those great works in B flat, D minor, C major, 
 and E flat jf, which it might be stated are not yet 
 properly understood. His originality in these 
 pianoforte and orchestral compositions is amaz- 
 ing, and some day, probably, what is now re- 
 garded as " too involved and obscure " will be 
 
 * " Biographical Dictionary of Musicians " (Brown), p. 
 425-
 
 132 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 better understood and appreciated. He stands 
 the crowning glory of the classical in musical art. 
 It may be said of Schumann, that he never wrote 
 a commonplace idea; but free from all fetters of 
 defined terms he is constantly nobly fantastic, 
 passionate, original and master-like in the ex- 
 treme. 
 
 Schumann's musical individuality is immense. 
 Throwing himself from the outset into the poet- 
 ical and ideal in music he stands probably the 
 most advanced among romantic composers. 
 Speaking a musical language peculiar to himself, 
 and wholly independent of previous or contem- 
 porary models, he has left work upon work, 
 teeming with advanced thought and aspiration 
 towards the Unknown, that will always command 
 him a place among the giants of art and the 
 world's greatest thinkers. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 CxROWTH OF FORM AND ORCHESTRATION 
 
 At the hands of the Masters of Music the art 
 reached perfection point. The vast future may 
 reveal yet extremer things through Music's aid, 
 although it is difficult to imagine beings, con- 
 stituted as we are, capable of discerning greater 
 tonal revelations than are already before man- 
 kind. Nevertheless, so illimitable is the sphere 
 of Music, so uncontrolled is the imaginative and 
 comprehending faculty of man, that it is possible 
 that a new race may be endowed with gifts en- 
 abling it to make even more far-reaching excur-
 
 FORM AND ORCHESTRATION 133, 
 
 sions into the great vista of art-possibility. A 
 region so vast cannot be held to have been fully 
 explored ; and there may be fresh chords and 
 harmonica! combinations awaiting the intellect 
 and patience of future students of music, not 
 dreamt of in our philosophy. Happily, most of 
 us are content with harmony and counterpoint 
 as they are ; and the man who to-day could in- 
 vent a new chord would hardly be regarded as a 
 friend of his race. 
 
 What is meant by " Form " ? It is the shape 
 in which musical thoughts or ideas are set out. 
 That great authority. Sir Hubert Parry, describes 
 form thus: "The means by which unity and pro- 
 portion are arrived at in musical works are, the 
 relative distribution of keys and harmonic basses 
 on the one hand, and of 'subjects ' or figures or 
 melodies on the other; and this distribution is 
 called \.\i& forni of the work."* Consider, say, 
 the construction of a symphony. If a man sits 
 himself down to write such a composition he 
 must be an architect of his edifice, much in the 
 same way as if he were building a structure of 
 brick and stone. He must not say all he has to 
 say in one long breath. There must be the several 
 parts of the structural whole, and it is in the 
 regular construction of these parts that the laws 
 of " form " are brought into play. Composers de- 
 viate, more or less, from accepted method and ex- 
 ample ; but one and all strive after one end — the 
 mind and attention of the auditors. " Their at- 
 tention has to be retained for a space of time, 
 sometimes by no means insignificant ; and con- 
 
 * Article on " Form " : " Dictionary of Music and Musi- 
 cians," vol i. p. 541.
 
 134 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 nectioii has to be established for them without 
 the aid of words or other accessories between 
 parts of the movement which appear at consider- 
 able distance from each other, and the whole 
 must be so contrived that the impression upon 
 the most cultivated hearer shall be one of unity 
 and consistency. In such a case Form will in- 
 evitably play an important part, becoming more 
 and more complex and interesting in proportion 
 to the development of readiness of comprehen- 
 sion in the auditors. The adoption of a form 
 which is quite beyond the intellectual standard of 
 those for whom it is intended is a waste of valu- 
 able work ; but a perfect adaptation of it to their 
 highest standard is both the only means of lead- 
 ing them on to still higher things, and the only 
 starting-point for further progress."* 
 
 Monody is the voice of Nature — the animal 
 not having yet appeared capable of uttering more 
 than one sound at one and the same moment. 
 This is a starting-point. The addition of a 
 second part to this monody provided two part 
 harmony, and suggested the duet. In process of 
 time part was added to part until four, eight, and 
 even forty-part vocal music was secured. In- 
 struments were treated in the same way. As 
 each instrument appeared it was introduced into 
 the orchestra. At first such instruments were 
 used collectively without much regard to their 
 individuality ; but gradually their characteristic 
 qualities came to be considered, and composers 
 arose who made each instrument an identity, 
 speaking its own language and asserting its char- 
 
 * *' Form " (Parry) : " Dictionary of Music and Musi- 
 cians," vol. i. p. 541.
 
 FORM 
 
 135 
 
 acter much in the same way as should the human 
 being. 
 
 With these resources such grand polyphonic 
 textures as the choruses of Bach's Passion music, 
 Handel's oratorios, and the finali of Beethoven's 
 Symphonies, became possible, and were step by 
 step, or as the growth of " form " went on, se- 
 cured. 
 
 The shape or " form " in which musical ideas 
 are set out is divided into two orders — melodic 
 and harmonic — the first embracing the laws of 
 melody and rhythm, the second having to do 
 with tonality and chords. There is a division of 
 the first order into the following parts : motive 
 or theme, section, phrase, sentence, and subject. 
 Two motives form a section ; two sections make 
 up, generally, a simple phrase ; two phrases con- 
 stitute a sentence ; two or more sentences com- 
 bined form a musical subject.* A gradual de- 
 velopment of these small beginnings has led up 
 to the mighty symphonies of Beethoven and 
 others. There are few more instructive stories 
 than this slow unfolding or evolutionary process 
 of Music's theoretical side ; but it is so large a 
 subject and branches off into so many directions 
 
 * The term " subject " also applies to the opening theme 
 of a fugue in the working out of which such leading theme 
 will be found more or less identical in all four parts, if it be a 
 fugue of four parts. Here is a " subject " — 
 
 A Uegretto 
 
 ^^ ^ £g ^g-1^^^^ ^^ 
 
 From Bach's Fugue 2, C minor in Le Clavecin bien 
 tempere.
 
 136 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 that it becomes a study in itself, and can only 
 be touched upoii here. A theme, section, 
 phrase, sentence, and subject, then, at the hands 
 of a scholarly theorist, develop into what are 
 known as " movements " ; which movements 
 combined make up a composition of large or 
 small proportions according to the will of its 
 maker. The due apportionments of these move- 
 ments with their subsidiary parts, constitute the 
 study of Form; and without a sufficient knowl- 
 edge of this branch of art no one can build up a 
 successful orchestral composition any more than 
 can an incapable architect design a satisfactory 
 edifice. 
 
 We have already seen how men began making 
 *' harmony." These rough additions to the Plain- 
 song were at first controlled by no rules or laws; 
 yet gradually method and custom became law, 
 until musicians of every European country grew 
 agreed generally upon theoretical doctrines. 
 "Counterpoint" was the first step towards regu- 
 lated melody and the union of one or more mel- 
 odic parts. Counterpoint is the art of adding 
 one or more parts to a given melody — an art in 
 which early theorists indulged with an ingenuity 
 and patience truly astonishing. Its simplest 
 aspect* is the setting of one note in harmonic 
 relationships, and according to theoretical 
 rule, with another note above or below it. This 
 is called Counterpoint of the "first" species. 
 Thus — 
 
 * Counterpoint is divided into " simple," or plain, and 
 "double." Double counterpoint concerns the musician more 
 than the general reader, but it may be defined as a kind of 
 artificial composition where the parts are inverted in such a
 
 COUNTERPOINT 
 
 ^37 
 
 Counterpoint 
 
 Jfc3tt=:cr=z^z33. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Plain Song or Canto fermo 
 
 X^- 
 
 When two notes are added to one of the sub- 
 ject we get the "second " species — 
 
 Counterpoint 
 
 ' ^^ 
 
 Subject 
 
 The "third" species consists of three notes- 
 to one — 
 
 manner that the uppermost becomes the lowermost, and vice 
 versa. Here is an example — 
 
 ^^^^^^^ 
 
 Tn 
 
 /» lo 
 
 ^£ 
 
 ng^_[iL^ ^ '^ ff ^fs 
 
 ^^P^^ss 
 
 Such elementary Counterpoint applies merely to two- 
 part music. It may be extended and applied to almost any 
 number of voices or instruments, according to the will of the 
 worker.
 
 138 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 Counterpoint 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^! 
 
 Plain Song 
 
 eEEE 
 
 ^cp 
 
 In the " fourth " species we meet with counter- 
 point practically note against note of the subject, 
 but with each note syncopated, i.e. bound and 
 carried into the following bar — 
 
 Counterpoint 
 
 =r4: 
 
 e^ 
 
 m 
 
 Theme 
 
 S^ 
 
 s^n^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 A " fifth " species is a mixture of those already 
 enumerated — all the laws of each order standing 
 good wherever the various species are introduced, 
 and such are concerned — 
 Counterpoint 
 
 ^g %4d:B5 s ^d=^ M f ryn 
 
 Subject 
 
 r^=rr7=^^i^ gg^ig 
 
 =ltff: 
 
 ^
 
 THE SONATA 
 
 139 
 
 The early musicians did not deliberately set 
 about establishing "form" in music. It was an 
 unconscious growth — quite unpremeditated — that 
 came about through the natural evolution of tune 
 or melody and subsequently of harmony. In 
 course of time dance-tunes became established 
 things, settling themselves into various shapes; 
 and it was these earliest dance rhythms which 
 constituted the germs of most of the elaborate 
 forms of composition in modern music — the so- 
 nata, symphony, etc.* In this way the Rondo — 
 the first traceable form in music — presented itself. 
 Reduced to its simplest elements the Rondo is the 
 repetition of a phrase or melody with a short pas- 
 sage in the middle connecting the two. Out of 
 the Rondo movement grew the Sonata form, which 
 in its turn gave off other form branches. 
 
 Before reaching the Sonata shape of composi- 
 tion, however, the Rondo form exhibited itself in 
 a series of musical movements which settled 
 themselves under the title of Suites — all more or 
 less favoured dance forms, i.e. a quick movement 
 and a slower one, with a wind-up in a still quicker 
 movement ; which movements, becoming more and 
 more perfectly handled by composers, eventuated 
 in the Sonata form. From this we may deduce 
 the law that the Suite begat the Sonata form in 
 composition, which eventually resolved itself into 
 a composition of definite form and arrangement. 
 
 * Such old dance forms were the Coranto, Allemande, 
 Gavotte, Gaillard, Gigue, Sarabande, Cotillon, Minuet, Passe- 
 pied, Polacca, Pavaine, Passecaille, Tarantelle, Hornpipe, 
 Rigadoon, and more. The student would do well to compare 
 these old forms with their imitations and developments in the 
 works of their adaptors. The prototypes are invariably 
 stronger and more distinctly marked than any of the copies.
 
 I40 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 While the Rondo as an established art form 
 may readily be met with in the compositions of 
 Lully and Couperin (1668-1733) and earlier mas- 
 ters, strings of dance tunes or " Suites " date 
 from the time of Edward III. of England. Most 
 of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries' 
 composers indulged in such suites-des-pieces. The 
 harpsichord was the favourite instrument, but 
 suites were also written for strings and organ, 
 violins and harpsichord, with a basso continuo. 
 Corelli, Bach, Purcell, Handel, Scarlatti and others 
 all left Suites. 
 
 ' Sonata '* is an important word in Music's his- 
 tory because it comprehends and means much. 
 It is at once the name of an established and 
 much esteemed form />er se in musical composi- 
 tion, and it is a constituent aspect of that great 
 requisite in composition — musical form. It be- 
 longs entirely to instrumental musical order — 
 there being nothing in vocal music to which the 
 word "sonata" at all applies. The Sonata may 
 be described as a composition to be sounded in- 
 strumentally, not sung vocally, and it is divided 
 generally into four different movements: (i) A/- 
 legro\ (2) Andante; (3) Minuet or Scherzo \ (4) 
 Allegro or Presto. 
 
 As an established form by itself, it can be 
 seen to perfection in the pianoforte sonatas of 
 Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, Clementi, Hummel 
 and others. Hence we must regard it in its bear- 
 ing upon, and as a part of that great question of 
 form in music. 
 
 In early times there were two species of Sona- 
 
 * From It. : Sonare — to sound. The cantata was to be 
 sung : the sonata was its antithesis and had to be played.
 
 THE SONATA I4I 
 
 tas — the Sonata di Chiesa (Church Sonata), and the 
 Sonata di Camera (Chamber Sonata). It was this 
 latter which developed amazingl}'. Italy, Ger- 
 many, and England — each lay claim to its origin; 
 but no better landmark can be found than the 
 "Twelve Sonatas of three parts, two violins and 
 a base, to the organ or harpsichord," which Pur- 
 cell published in 1683. It has already been point- 
 ed out that we owe the Sonata to the Suite; and 
 an examination of any of the Sonatas by com- 
 posers contemporary with, or subsequent to. Pur- 
 cell will show how akin are its various movements 
 to some one or another of the old dance forms 
 out of which it grew, and of which it may be de- 
 scribed as a regulated combination. 
 
 In the construction of a Sonata, musicians 
 worked upon a plan. They adopted a form and 
 adhered to it ; and it is this fixed form which 
 (on the principle that the greater includes the 
 lesser) has been followed in the construction of 
 the Concerto, Overture and Symphony. 
 
 The first movement of a Sonata (or of a 
 quartet or symphony) is the Allegro, and this 
 is constructed or ought to be upon certain 
 definite form lines. It has two subjects, or 
 themes, which should be as varied and as much 
 in contrast as possible; the first of these princi- 
 pal subjects being in the tonic key, the second in 
 the key of the dominant. After establishing him- 
 self in his tonic key, and saying what he has to 
 say, theoretically and instrumentally, with as 
 much power, scholarship and originality as he 
 can command, the second principal theme is 
 worked out according to the utmost skill of the 
 composer. This process is called the sonata or 
 binary form of treatment. It furnishes the basis
 
 142 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 of treatment for all great instrumental composi- 
 tions, and will be found perfected in Beethoven's 
 Symphonies; albeit it was one among the many 
 directions in which both Haydn and Mozart ad- 
 vanced the symphony. Mozart especially was a 
 great adherent to this form; thirty-three out of 
 thirty-six of his best known sonatas having their 
 first movement in binary form. The second 
 movement of a symphony or sonata is its Andante 
 or Largo. It usually has a principal cantabile 
 theme — naturally in some related key to that of 
 the work itself. Its tone and style should be in 
 strong contrast to what has preceded it. This in 
 the Mature Period of the symphony is followed 
 by a third movement — a Minuet or Scherzo \ the 
 composition concluding with a fourth movement 
 — an Allegro or Presto, written usually in the same 
 key as the opening movement. Of course, in a 
 symphony all the movements are on a much 
 larger scale, and are worked out with greater 
 detail and poetical intent than in the pianoforte 
 sonata. 
 
 Such was the construction of the Symphony, 
 a model of classicism, as left by Haydn, its great 
 designer. His symphonies reveal his emotional 
 world just as he saw it. He taught his instru- 
 ments to speak, and associate one with another 
 as instruments had never done before, and in 
 work after work we get that simple naivete., irre- 
 sistible humour and buoyancy which immediately 
 distinguish all Haydn's music. The great realm 
 of orchestral expression and possibility was barely 
 thought of by unromantic "Papa" Haydn. Mo- 
 zart, on the other hand, surrounded his sympho- 
 nies, indeed all his orchestral music, with a much 
 warmer, varied and imaginative atmosphere. The
 
 THE SONATA 143 
 
 luxuriant, richly-coloured instrumentation of the 
 younger composer astonished listeners accus- 
 tomed to the symmetrical, formal Haydn. Every- 
 where does Mozart show himself as an advance 
 upon Haydn. Where the latter, for instance, 
 bases his first movement on one principal idea 
 or theme, Mozart, seeking greater contrasts, as- 
 sociates with his first distinctive theme a second 
 one — the latter much quieter and more reposeful 
 in character, than the pointed, clean-cut principal 
 theme. Mozart again is invariably the instru- 
 mental superior in his brilliant passages, effect- 
 ive variations, exquisite, elegant ornaments — in 
 short, in his orchestral breadth and wield gener- 
 ally. 
 
 It was for Beethoven to take symphonic form 
 to its highest place. He saw in music a constitu- 
 tion and nature entirely different from even a 
 poetic or plastic art — opening a path for Scho- 
 penhauer's spirit and reasoning. Beethoven 
 stands out as the master in whom instrumental 
 music fulfilled its highest ideal — the composer 
 who of all others vindicated the true spirituality 
 of music. His impress upon the sonata form 
 consisted principally in the varied interest he 
 threw into it. The warmth and elasticity which 
 he imparted to its stiff, rigid form, gave it prac- 
 tically a wholly new character. The latter he 
 brought about mainly by a profuse exercise of 
 ingenuity in working out his subjects; by vary- 
 ing his themes when repeating them — so avoiding 
 monotony; also by investing his subjects, when 
 once introduced, with intense contrapuntal treat- 
 ment, and therefore interest. Neither before him 
 nor since has there been his equal as an exponent 
 of thematic music — one who, giving vent to his 
 10
 
 144 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 thematic play, could build a gigantic movement 
 out of merely an " idea " of four notes — as say in 
 the opening Allegro of the '* Fifth " Symphony. 
 He may be said to have invented the Scherzo 
 movement. Certainly, he settled its form and 
 character, and gave it the permanent position in 
 the Symphony which it now occupies. 
 
 Now let us trace the growth of the Orchestra 
 and Orchestration. Instrumental music, as we 
 know it, is of comparatively modern date — little 
 more than two hundred years old. Of course, 
 did space permit, we might trace the relationship 
 of such ancient instruments as the pipe (avAos), 
 harp [apTTo), sambuca {a-afji/SvKr}), etc. to certain 
 members of the modern orchestra; but such an 
 examination would involve a book in itself. Nor 
 need much be said here about orchestration prior 
 to the sixteenth century, when the art of writing 
 for the voice was more regarded than instru- 
 mental composition. In fact it was not until 
 the appearance of such heaven-sent geniuses as 
 Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven that the great 
 vista of orchestral conception and realization 
 was comprehended and compassed. The erudite 
 musician is interested in orchestral germs and 
 developments long before the age of the Masters 
 of Music ; but for all practical purposes the clos- 
 ing decades of the sixteenth century provide a 
 reasonable starting-point for the consideration 
 of the instrumental as distinct from the formal 
 shaping of musical art. 
 
 Before that time the instrumental music of 
 England would fairly well reflect the state of 
 orchestral art in other European countries. Here
 
 ORCHESTRATION 145 
 
 as elsewhere, bands of minstrels, troubadours, 
 jongleurs, giullari, " weyghtes " (or " waits ") and 
 other itinerant performers kept up a supply of 
 music for palace, castle, baronial hall and village 
 green. Some of these irregular musicians were 
 " retained " — many were not ; some took out 
 their values in clothes and kitchen fare. All 
 these musicians kept up an extempore sort of 
 vocal art — based largely upon tradition — which 
 they accompanied more or less instrumentally. 
 Readers of Chaucer (1328-1400) know that in 
 the time of the "father of English poetry " the 
 lute, rote, crwth or fiddle, sautre, bagpipe, cittern, 
 ribible, trumpet, clarion, flute, the organ, and many 
 more were instruments in common use. These 
 and many more which Shakespeare mentions, 
 grew obsolete, and disappeared long before the 
 golden age of the masters of music. 
 
 During the latter half of the sixteenth century, 
 composers added instrumental parts — accompani- 
 ments such as could be performed by a *' chest of 
 viols " — to madrigals and other vocal music forms. 
 Between 1600-1650 a new fashion arose. There 
 was a divorce between vocal and instrumental 
 music; the two parted company, which proceed- 
 ing, becoming general over Europe, may be said 
 to constitute the moment when instrumental art 
 began to be a great and distinct factor in music. 
 It was a supreme art moment — this time when 
 the idea of adapting musical ideas to the varied 
 capacities of instruments definitely declared itself. 
 "It is scarcely possible," says an authority, "to 
 over-estimate theinfluence exercised by thisbranch 
 of technical science upon the advancement of 
 modern music. The modifications through which 
 it has passed are as countless as the styles to
 
 146 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 which it has given rise ; yet its history, as recorded 
 in the scores of the Great Masters, proves the 
 principles upon which it is based to be as unalter- 
 able as their outward manifestation is, and always 
 must be variable, and subject to perpetual prog- 
 ress.* 
 
 It would be interesting to show in detail the 
 gradual progress by which orchestral art was 
 developed until it has indisputably obtained the 
 ascendancy. This would be a difficult task, 
 however, especially at the outset of instrumental 
 growth, because there were so many contributory 
 agents both in England and on the Continent. 
 Men wrote music for which there were no ade- 
 quate instruments; others made instruments for 
 which no music existed; sometimes two men in 
 different countries were developing and perfect- 
 ing the same instrumental idea at one and the 
 same time. Between them all, however, orches- 
 tral music pure and simple, slowly appeared to 
 develop into a tremendous element among the 
 world's resources. 
 
 From the tenth century the Organ received 
 attention at the hands of men interested in me- 
 chanical instrumental development. Its gradual 
 perfection went hand in hand with that of counter- 
 point. It was left to Conrad Paumann, however, 
 a Nuremberg musician of the fifteenth century, 
 to become the first writer for the instrument. 
 Paumann, although born blind, made himself 
 thoroughly familiar with the instruments within 
 his reach, and wrote distinct organ music of which 
 the following are specimen bars — 
 
 * Article on " Orchestration " (Rockstro), " Dictionary of 
 Music and Musicians," vol. ii. p, 567.
 
 FIRST ORGAN MUSIC 
 
 147 
 
 3E 
 
 P ^ m^^ 
 
 &a 
 
 i 
 
 ^m 
 
 a=^=gi 
 
 ¥ 
 
 ^f^ 
 
 ^a 
 
 ^ 
 
 rr 
 
 f^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 OdU^^ 
 
 ^^P^ 
 
 &c. 
 
 These specimens of organ pieces must not be 
 taken as representing the actual state of organ 
 playing. Such two and three part counterpoint 
 (and it is somewhat florid) was probably as much 
 as fifteenth century organs would bear — rapid 
 execution and quick-speaking stops were yet to 
 come. The pieces are mostly interesting as being 
 the oldest known specimens of pieces for keyed 
 instruments — reflecting the state of counterpoint 
 and the condition of tune or melody at the time 
 they were composed. 
 
 A spirit of mediaevalism prevailed in Germany
 
 148 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 in the fourteenth and two following centuries, and 
 the social life of the people was much influenced 
 by religious teachings. By this means the organ 
 became a necessity in the home as much as in the 
 church — and this meant a growing demand for 
 organs and organ music. Makers of instruments 
 and composers sprang up throughout Germany, 
 until in Frescobaldi (1587-1654) with Bach and 
 his sons, the art of organ playing and the making 
 of music for the organ reached their culminating 
 point. From that time to the present the history 
 of the organ has been one long series of develop- 
 ments and improvements. Organ music has not 
 improved. 
 
 The first half of the sixteenth century was 
 reached by a distinct orchestral movement. Vir- 
 ginals had come into use; the "chest of viols" 
 was an established fact ; an Italian named Afra- 
 nio, in 15 39, invented the bassoon ; and in the fol- 
 lowing year the Regal, a small portable organ, 
 became popular in England. Not that it wanted 
 more instruments to make an orchestra — say in 
 England. There was no end to the instruments 
 there — even to Saracenic instruments dating from 
 the time of the Crusades — but there was nothing 
 written for them. To tell the truth, the orchestra, 
 considered as an artistic element, was in a state 
 of utter confusion all over Europe in the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 The first to make a deliberate move towards 
 distinct orchestration was Gabrielli, whose crude 
 attempts will long preserve his name in Music's 
 history. His first orchestra was as follows — 
 
 1 Violin, 
 
 3 Cornets, 
 
 2 Trombones,
 
 MONTEVERDE'S ORCHESTRATION 
 
 149 
 
 which, subsequently, he extended to 
 
 2 Violins, 
 
 3 Cornets, 
 
 4 Trombones. 
 
 The earliest true dramatic representation nat- 
 urally affected the orchestra. For this opera 
 there was an orchestra of 
 
 I Harpsichord, 
 I Chitarrone, 
 I Lyre, 
 I Lute. 
 When the first oratorio was given, the or- 
 chestra was as follows— 
 
 I Harpsichord, 
 I Lyre (Double), 
 
 1 Guitar (Double), 
 
 2 Flutes, 
 
 I Theorbo or Bass. 
 
 Monteverde made the next advance. The 
 orchestra that accompanied Orfeo consisted of 
 thirty-five instruments, the performers upon 
 which would seem to have played what they liked 
 from a simple figured bass, which constituted the 
 chief part of the accompaniment. Order was 
 what the orchestra of Monteverde's day mostly 
 needed — and there shortly followed a better ar- 
 rangement of instrumental resources. 
 
 The favour with which keyed instruments 
 were received had an indirect influence upon or- 
 chestral usage and arrangement. Out of the 
 virginal sprang the spinet, clavichord and, even- 
 tually, the harpsichord — which latter was no 
 sooner invented than it was introduced into the 
 orchestra to sustain the harmony, while the viols 
 and other large stringed instruments rendered 
 the thorough-bass. In England, the virginal and
 
 15° 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 its offshoots became as popular as did the organ 
 in Germany, and composers — EngHsh, French, 
 German, and Italian — soon began writing pieces 
 for keyed instruments. None excelled English 
 musicians of the Elizabethan age in the compo- 
 sition of these preludes, fancies, dance tunes and 
 variations — pieces which led up to such estab- 
 lished forms as the concerto, march, overture, 
 quartet, sonata, and finally the symphony. 
 
 It is not clear when that wondrous instrument 
 the violin was invented. It was introduced into 
 England in 1577 when Baltazarini was giving 
 performances upon it. The first of the Amatis 
 (Andrea) was making violins at Cremona (1550- 
 1577)) ''.nd before that time they were manu- 
 factured in Germany. In his Orfeo orchestra 
 Monteverde had Duoi violi?ii piccoli alia Fra?icese 
 — from which it would seem that the instrument 
 had previously appeared in France ; but an earlier 
 reference is made to it in connection with Emilio's 
 first oratorio, wherein it was recommended that 
 the violin should play in unison with the soprano 
 voice throughout. 
 
 One of the earliest uses of the violin as an ac- 
 companying instrument was made by Cavalli. In 
 his opera, // Giasone, a song has an accompani- 
 ment of two violins and a bass, such as served 
 Handel fifty years afterwards. Scarlatti com- 
 bined two violins, viola and bass, and so secured 
 the string quartet which has maintained its place 
 in every European Music School since the close 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 With the quartet of strings secured it needed 
 but the growth of wind instruments to make up 
 the modern orchestra. They soon arrived. The 
 serpent — an instrument of the clarinet class, and
 
 HANDEL S ORCHESTRA 151 
 
 now obsolete, appeared in 1390; in 1690 Denner 
 invented the clarinet ; Handel greatly favoured 
 bassoons and oboes ; Mozart v^^rote for a new in-, 
 strument in the Conio di bassctfo (Basset-Horn) ; 
 while the double-bassoon found its way into the 
 Handel Commemoration Festival, held at West- 
 minster Abbey in 1784. The trumpet, horn, and 
 drum, were all old time instruments; while such 
 basses as the bombardon, tuba, and euphonium 
 are comparatively modern additions to the or- 
 chestra. 
 
 The method of using the orchestra is, perhaps, 
 more interesting than the matter of its develop- 
 ment. Handers plan was this. He made a 
 foundation of strings and harpsichord, to which 
 he added oboes often in unison with the violins, 
 and bassoons with the string basses. Other in- 
 struments were introduced for special effects. 
 
 Thus, in a pathetic song the flnte-a-bec would 
 be used ; in a march he ordered trumpets and 
 drums — sometimes, horns. He would even go 
 to the extent of having an instrument made for 
 some special effect — as when he caused a double- 
 bassoon to be made for his fagottist, Lampe. 
 Often he would make all the violins play in 
 unison with nothing but the chords on the 
 harpsichord between them and the bass ; at 
 other times he would use violas and basses only. 
 Sometimes he divided his violins into two, three, 
 four, or even five parts, and his violas into 
 several. 
 
 Bach was far more complex, orchestrally, than 
 Handel, writing as Bach did contrapuntally for 
 each voice and instrument. In his treatment of 
 Eifi feste Burg (" A Strong Tower is our God "),
 
 152 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 the orchestra contains three trumpets, one flute, 
 two oboes, one oboe di caccia, two vioUns, viola, 
 violoncello, organ and figured bass. Its first 
 chorus, vocally and instrumentally, is truly repre- 
 sentative of Bach, as he treated the Cantata form. 
 Its effect, properly rendered, is sublime and over- 
 whelming, and may be taken as a fair sample of 
 the composer's style when he was in full play. 
 His voices and instruments do not reiterate one 
 note in each chord, but they move about. Each 
 one is doing something contrapuntally. This is 
 no mere display of learning and theoretical skill 
 — it is the inward Bach ; and a close examination 
 of his elaborate works will reveal the fact that 
 the greater the contrapuntal task he sets himself, 
 the more expressive is the music. Every kind of 
 orchestral experiment was tried by Bach. Every 
 instrument, with particular tone colour (many 
 are now obsolete), was selected to accompany 
 the voice parts. Thus he often took the oboe 
 d'amore, taille, lituus, violetta, etc., where more 
 commonly known instruments would equally 
 have served. A favourite effect of Bach's was 
 to accompany an aria by a flute and muted violin 
 with the rest of the strings, pizzicato and the 
 organ part, staccato. As an orchestralist Bach is 
 seen at his fullest in the Matthe7v Passion — 
 wherein double choruses and double orchestras 
 play parts such as they never filled before. In 
 this tremendous work all the resources of art are 
 employed as only Bach used them. 
 
 From this time the orchestra passed through 
 the hands of Haydn, Mozart, Weber, Beethoven, 
 and many others — all of whom impressed it with 
 their varying distinguishing characteristics. Its 
 movement is an ever onward march, and now
 
 POSSIBLE ENGLISH SCHOOL 153 
 
 that the boundless field of emotional art has fur- 
 nished such vast results it is impossible to fore- 
 cast the measure of the future of orchestral 
 possibility. There is a glorious prospect for 
 orchestral tone-painting, even if no composer 
 arises to say some new thing in Music. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 POSSIBLE ENGLISH SCHOOL 
 
 ■ After the Elizabethan era English art stood 
 still for fifty years. There were the Church 
 musicians — Gibbons (1583-1625) ; Child (1606- 
 1677) ; Wise (1640-1687) ; Blow (1648-1708) ; also 
 Lawes (1600-1662), famous for his "Masques" 
 ■ — the private theatricals of the time; and Lock 
 (1620-1677), who has a reputation ioxh\sMacbetk 
 Music, and /'jj^//^, the first purely English opera; 
 but no native musician of importance arose until 
 Purcell. 
 
 Here was a moment when there was a great 
 chance for the English School. The country was 
 awakening to a new sense of herself after a long 
 period of untoward artistic conditions. It was 
 possible for the splendid status and condition of 
 Elizabethan musical art to be revived. Unfor- 
 tunately this was not to be, despite favourable 
 social conditions, and the presence of a genius 
 with all the power to resuscitate the native school 
 and style. 
 
 It is deplorable that the English Mozart should 
 have been taken av/ay ere his powers even ap- 
 proached their maturity. If we listen to Purcell's
 
 
 154 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Church music, and compare it with the preten- 
 tious blase productions of to-day, it is easy to 
 reaHse how much was lost with his premature 
 decease. Had he lived it is not impossible that 
 he might have formed, and had pupils to carry 
 on an English School, and that there would have 
 been no place for Handel in England. There 
 is no doubt that Handel was largely indebted to 
 Purcell, whose style and music he assimilated, 
 and made his own. But for the English master's 
 untimely decease Handel's blow at native English 
 productivity, from which it only began to recover 
 in the latter part of the nineteenth century, might 
 have been counteracted. As it was, the mighty 
 Saxon's overpowering grandeur and strength quite 
 knocked out the English School of composition, 
 reinstated afresh by Purcell. To say the least, it 
 effectually nipped it in the bud. 
 
 "To him," as has been well said, " is due that 
 broad and dignified style of music, which is always 
 called English, and which numbers among its ex- 
 ponents such men as Handel, Arne, Boyce, Att- 
 wood. Bishop and Macfarren ; not to mention 
 many minor luminaries who have been more 
 directly under Purcell's influence. Purcell was 
 not only the greatest composer of his country, 
 but also of his period, and there can be no doubt 
 that all of his foreign contemporaries are quite 
 overshadowed, if not in science, certainly in ge- 
 nius, by the great Englishman."* 
 
 Purcell (1658-1695) stands the greatest light 
 among English musicians. Though his early life 
 was spent entirely in the atmosphere of Church 
 music, strange to say, before he reached manhood, 
 
 * " Dictionary of Musicians " (Brown).
 
 PURCELL 
 
 155 
 
 he displayed a remarkable capacity as a composer 
 for the stage. When nineteen years old he sur- 
 prised the world with his opera Dido and y^neas, 
 which was so well received, that it was forth- 
 with followed by The Tefnpest, Xing Arthur, Don 
 Quixote, The Fairy Queen, music to CEdipus, and 
 other dramatic compositions. His youth and 
 capacity astonished contemporary musicians. It 
 was the quality of Purcell's music, as well as his 
 fertility, which commanded so much admiration 
 and attention — and he distinguished himself 
 equally in sacred and secular art. 
 
 No one listening to his *' Services " and an- 
 thems can fail to be impressed by their beauty of 
 expression and powerful qualities — characteristics 
 alike of his dramatic works. All abound in fresh- 
 ness, vigour, and an originality which in them- 
 selves proclaim him a heaven-born genius. He is 
 never else than beautiful, and to a remarkable 
 fidelity of expression combines a wealth of mu- 
 sical invention and resource. 
 
 The story of music in England from Purcell's 
 time to the present day is one long striving after 
 an English musical supremacy, or, perhaps, dis- 
 tinctiveness. The struggle has been important 
 artistically. Every direction has been tried — 
 symphony, opera, chamber music, church music, 
 song and dance; but, notwithstanding the efforts 
 of the leading musicians, an agreement seems yet 
 to be wanting as to what the English style is, or 
 shall be. Certainly no character attaches to the 
 compositions of British musicians since Purcell 
 that can claim to be as distinctive, and peculiarly 
 English, as was the music of the Elizabethan 
 Period musicians. Nor, until that excellent model 
 — a wholly uninfluenced style — is persevered in,
 
 156 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 and accentuated by composer after composer, as 
 each arises, is the national English musical style 
 likely to be restored. 
 
 No nation, probably, spent so much money 
 upon music as did the English during the Vic- 
 torian era; but the making and buying of 
 pianofortes; the equipping of orchestras; the 
 building of concert halls ; the success of music- 
 publishing enterprises, and a host of other trade 
 aspects of music do not prove that the country is 
 yet imbued with the true musical temperament. 
 
 Several native musicians, following Purcell, 
 impressed art with their talent. 
 
 Arne (1710-1778) was an English musician, 
 standing between Purcell and Wesley, who would 
 probably have risen to greater things had he not 
 been overshadowed in England by Handel's pres- 
 ence and influence. As it was he produced 
 much genuine dramatic music with a thoroughly 
 English ring, some of which keeps the stage 
 to-day — his Tempest music with its beautiful 
 song " Where the Bee Sucks " for instance. He 
 took music a step onwards in his opera The Maid 
 of the Mill (1765) which was one of the first 
 musical dramas since Purcell's time, wherein con- 
 certed music was used to give continuity to the 
 play. 
 
 Wesley (1766-1837). This is a cherished 
 name in English musical history — the first of a 
 list of native musicians who, if they have not built 
 up a School, have done infinite credit to the art 
 of the nineteenth century. Not even among the 
 great masters is there a more remarkable instance 
 of precocious musical gifts. At the age of three 
 years, Wesley could play and extemporize ; at 
 five he knew Handel's Messiah and Samson by
 
 ENGLISH SCHOOL 157 
 
 heart ; and when eight years old had composed 
 an oratorio — Ruth. Here at least, was an English 
 musical genius who excited world-wide interest. 
 Unfortunately, he did not develop as foreign 
 musicians mature into a great master. A classical 
 scholar, he set many Latin works, wrote anthems, 
 "services," and much organ music; withal, and 
 although possessed of great aptitude for orchestral 
 composition, he became little more than a cathe- 
 dral organist of the highest order. His son, 
 Samuel Sebastian, inherited much of the genius 
 of his father. 
 
 Attwood (1767-1838), Crotch (1775-1847), and 
 Goss (1800-1880), maintained the traditional Eng- 
 lish Church style in their sacred compositions. It 
 is notorious, however, that nearly every composer, 
 especially leading cathedral organists since Goss, 
 have almost without exception gone out of their 
 way to invest their anthems and service-music, 
 even hymn-tunes, with an excess of sentimental 
 melody and a superfluity of unctuous, anointed 
 harmonies quite opposed to the spirit and ring of 
 true English Church music. How can an English 
 musical style, or school, be arrived at when those 
 who should set an example thus disfigure the one 
 aspect of their art which they were designed to 
 maintain and adorn? 
 
 In Opera — England has had particularly a 
 Bishop (1786-1855); Balfe (1808-1874); and 
 Wallace (1814-1865) — each of whom may be 
 said to have well striven for, and even to have 
 maintained much that was essentially British in 
 their compositions for the dramatic-lyric stage. 
 In a more or less degree this excellent plan 
 has been followed by Sullivan (1844-1900) and 
 Stanford (1852- ).' With all their endeavours.
 
 158 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 however, English opera composers have not suc- 
 ceeded in h'fting that aspect of musical art to any 
 very permanent position. Sullivan succeeded in 
 his lifetime; hut the most that can be predicted 
 
 Handel's Organ.
 
 STERNDALE BENNETT 
 
 159 
 
 for his operas is, that they will survive as material 
 for orchestral fantasias, rather than as works for 
 stage representation. 
 
 The name of Bennett (1816-1875) will fitly 
 close this sketch, enforcedly brief, of English 
 music and its growth. The son and grandson of 
 musicians, Bennett was a native genius; the 
 greatest since Purcell — one who could have raised 
 himself at the head of a Modern English School. 
 Unhappily, he again became infected with for- 
 eign influence, which proved his artistic curse. A 
 Royal Academy student as violinist, pianist and 
 composer — in all of which he excelled, it grew 
 apparent that his great gifts lay particularly in 
 the way of composition. He was only seventeen 
 years old when he attracted public attention, and 
 among others who had heard him play a Concerto 
 of his own composition was Mendelssohn, who 
 thereupon "took him up." From that time, Ben- 
 nett's personality was doomed, and with all he did 
 afterwards he developed into nothing more than 
 a disciple of Mendelssohn. Such is, and practi- 
 cally always has been, the timidity of English 
 musical talent. It must, it would seem, rest itself 
 upon some, often inferior, foreign prop. 
 
 Either as a composer of orchestral or vocal 
 music it may fairly be stated that no other com- 
 poser, save Purcell, has been Bennett's equal. He 
 accomplished much in the serious departments of 
 art; but he could unquestionably have done 
 much more had he possessed an over-ruling will 
 forcing him to compose and invent. As it was, 
 he developed misgivings of his powers — until, at 
 length, no less an one than Schumann speaking 
 of the Caprice^ Op. 22, wrote: "We begin to fear 
 that Bennett appears to be spinning himself up
 
 l6o THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 into a mannerism, from which he finally will not 
 emerge. Of late he says always the same things 
 only in varying form; and the more perfectly 
 he has learnt to master the form, the more the 
 real invention seems to diminish in him." This 
 criticism, unhappily, was borne out; and instead 
 of becoming a " master " Bennett turned drudge 
 and died one. 
 
 Bennett's compositions include a symphony 
 for full orchestra (G minor) ; several concertos 
 for pianoforte and orchestra ; the Naiads, Pari- 
 sina diW^ Wood Nymph, concert-overtures for full 
 orchestra; an oratorio — The Woman of Samaria \ 
 and the May Queen cantata. It is no exaggera- 
 tion to say that from whatever point the works 
 named are regarded they stand unsurpassed in 
 the whole range of English music. There is an 
 exquisite finish and air of refinement pervading 
 all his music; his use of orchestral resource is so 
 carefully adjusted to the demands of his fruitful 
 imagination; his vocal music is so beautifully 
 balanced, blended, and steeped with perfect local 
 colour that he becomes almost faultless as an ex- 
 pressionist. His works are full of gems. 
 
 With all this, with his splendid gifts, and con- 
 summate capacity for work he advanced musical 
 art neither in its resources nor forms. What Ben- 
 nett can be said to have done is to have strength- 
 ened and developed, especially among his own 
 countrymen, an interest in the higher forms of art. 
 It is not too much to say that instead of dying a 
 teacher of music he ought to have parted from us 
 as a second Mendelssohn. Macfarren, G. A. 
 (1813-1887), was Sterndale Bennett's greatest na- 
 tive contemporary. 
 
 I
 
 OPERA-GLUCK TO VERDI i6l 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 OPERA GLUCK TO VERDI 
 
 Opera was left in Handel's hands. Little 
 more was done to it until Gluck arose; and this 
 brings us again to the French School and its opera 
 workers. 
 
 Gluck (17 14-1787) arose and reformed Opera 
 for which work he was styled the " regenerator " 
 of Opera. After producing musical dramas at 
 Milan and London, he formed the acquaintance 
 of a Florentine poet, Calzabigi, between whom 
 was evolved a work of art which appreciably 
 affected all future opera. This work was entitled 
 Orfeo. So strikingly original was Orfeo, and so 
 different was it to all previous lyric dramas that 
 it at once commanded attention, and proved an 
 unqualified success. The result speedily became 
 known as Gluck's " Reformed " Opera. In what 
 did this " reformed " style consist ? In it the 
 musical drama was released from the restraints 
 and conceits which had long characterised and 
 hampered it. There was a more general sim- 
 plicity; an avoidance of difficulties that tended 
 to indistinctness ; a subjugation of the music to 
 the poetry, and this with a heightening instead 
 of lessening of dramatic effect. Alceste (1769), 
 Armida (1777), and Ip/ngema in Tauris (1779), 
 emphasized what Gluck had to say, and soon he 
 won a European reputation as the "saviour" of 
 opera.* This position in Opera has never been 
 
 * As Gluck's improvements constitute an epoch in opera 
 development some of his own words are worth hearing: "I
 
 1 62 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 taken notwithstanding it has been boldly at- 
 tacked. 
 
 The Italians would have none of the new 
 notions. Piccini championed the Italian School 
 — wrote operas to demonstrate his cause, and, 
 with his party carried on a most inharmonious 
 war which became famous as the " Gluck and 
 Piccini feud." In the end the Gluckists prevailed. 
 This was the beginning of the French School of 
 Grand Opera which has enjoyed such great dis- 
 tinction through the dramatic works of Cherubini, 
 Auber, Halevy and Meyerbeer ; and, to take the 
 modern school through the operas of Flotow, 
 Gounod, Offenbach, Lecocq, Massenet, Ambroise 
 Thomas, and more. 
 
 The principles which Gluck enunciated were 
 right enough, and it is regrettable that succeeding 
 opera composers did not adhere to them. Un- 
 fortunately he was assaulting an insuperable posi- 
 tion in the overwhelming vanity of human nature, 
 which always has been, and probably will be, a 
 barrier to true art expression — especially in Music. 
 " Stars " will have their show pieces in Opera, a 
 condition which composers seem powerless to 
 alter. The long list of opera composers follow- 
 
 proposed to entirely abolish all those abuses introduced by the 
 injudicious vanity of singers, or by the excessive complais- 
 ance of masters which have so long disfigured the Italian 
 opera. . . . My idea was that the overture should prepare 
 the spectators for the plot to be represented, and give some 
 indication of its nature ; that the concerted instruments ought 
 to be regulated according to the interest and passion of the 
 drama. ... My most strenuous efforts are towards noble 
 simplicity, and the avoiding of a parade of difficulty at the 
 expense of clearness. In short — the banishment of all abuses 
 against which reason and good sense have so long protested 
 in vain."
 
 THE FRENCH SCHOOL 163 
 
 ing Gluck refused the example he set them, and 
 it was not until Wagner arose that another reso- 
 lute stand was made for the cause of dramatic 
 truth and genuine, unaffected musical expression 
 in Opera. The Bayreuth master stood the deter- 
 mined modern apostle of an operatic method which 
 cast aside the feelings of singers and public alike 
 for the sake of a literal, ideal, natural utterance 
 in musical drama. Wagner more than any master 
 since Gluck, succeeded in combining the musical 
 and poetical elements of Opera m a strict har- 
 monious action. 
 
 Space limits preclude a detailed account of ex- 
 cellent work done for Opera by composers of the 
 French School. Cherubini (1760-1842) wrote 
 Med^e, Les Deux Journe'es, and other operas, but 
 they lacked dramatic situation and effect ; and 
 when he turned to Church music, the very quali- 
 ties wanting in his operas were too pronounced. 
 His broad, vigorous style was marred by a dra- 
 matic, theatrical quality unsuited to ecclesiastical 
 music. AuBER (1782-1871), the composer of the 
 so-called revolutionary opera Masaniello, with his 
 elegant and sparkling style, was successful in 
 " Opera-Comique " — a form of art well suited to 
 the expression of French national characteristics. 
 Halevy (1799-1862) gave promise of becoming 
 a "light" when he produced La Juive\ but he 
 developed a monotony of style, especially in the 
 reiteration of phrases which alienated him from 
 public favour. Meyerbeer (1791-1864) was of 
 quite another order. He stands the great architect 
 — the Haussmann of French Grand Opera. Les 
 Huguenots^ Le Prophete, and L' Africaine are operas 
 representing his brilliant style, and all told they 
 reflect the climax of his country's dramatic-lyric
 
 164 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 art. There is no doubt that Meyerbeer appreci- 
 ably improved Opera in a dramatic sense, besides 
 giving a great impulse to its external and spec- 
 tacular surroundings. His style is not one of un- 
 qualified originality, but for its effectiveness and 
 splendour in vocal and instrumental contrivance, 
 Meyerbeer's music could not readily be surpassed. 
 Berlioz (1803-1869), who must be mentioned 
 here, only indirectly affected Opera. He was the 
 perfecter of French orchestration. In his grand 
 orchestral compositions the highest reaches of 
 orchestral possibility have been attempted. In 
 such symphonic poems as La Damnation de Faust, 
 L' Enfance dii Christ, the Symphonie fantastique 
 entitled Episode de la Vie d'un Artiste, and the 
 Harold en Italie and Romeo et Juliette symphonies, 
 orchestral tone-painting has gone to the fullest 
 length essayed by any French master. Free, 
 even bizarre is Berlioz's music, nevertheless its 
 grand proportions, breadth, richness and bril- 
 liancy render it remarkable. That his vast orches- 
 tral creations, works which command the em- 
 ployment of almost every instrument invented, 
 constitute inspired music cannot be allowed. 
 For their originality, ambitious character, and 
 magnificent orchestral embodiments they have 
 won their composer a pronounced position among 
 Music's greatest masters. His genius is con- 
 stantly being questioned and disputed; albeit 
 there is no doubt about his being the greatest 
 instrumentalist that France has produced. We 
 shall never see, probably, a composer attempting 
 more with the aid of orchestral resource as a 
 painting-agent than Berlioz attempted. It is 
 quite possible, however, that musicians may yet 
 arise, capable of expressing themselves more
 
 CHOPIN 165 
 
 lucidly and convincingly through instrumental 
 channels than did Berlioz. 
 
 Chopin (1810-1849) especially associated with 
 the pianoforte, must go with the French School. 
 He wrote no operas, but every pianist, every 
 musician knows the unique place that this master- 
 artist occupies in music. By nationality a Pole, 
 he eventually settled in Paris, where, partly owing 
 to his great genius, and partly to his remarkable 
 personality, he became the centre of attraction to 
 a large body of fashionable society and musicians. 
 He devoted himself entirely to the pianoforte, 
 and wrote a large number of compositions which,, 
 while they made him facile princcps among com- 
 posers purely for that instrument, also revolu- 
 tionised the style of pianoforte rendering. The 
 playing that prevailed was the even, smooth- 
 fingering style. Liszt, a good judge, says, "It is 
 to Chopin that we owe the extension of chords,, 
 struck together in arpeggio or en batterie ; in the 
 chromatic sinuosities of which his pages offer 
 such striking examples ; the little groups of super- 
 added notes falling like light drops of pearly dew 
 upon the melodic figures."* 
 
 Chopin was of romantic mould — so, too, is his 
 music. His Polonaises, Mazurkas, Nocturnes, 
 Waltzes, etc., all breathe a broken, melancholy,, 
 national spirit; which, combined with much that 
 is tender, delicate, and dreamy render them some- 
 thing quite apart from all other pianoforte music. 
 The Polonaises, strongly marked with Polish char- 
 acter and colour, especially are characteristic of 
 the master. 
 
 * " Life of Chopin " (Liszt).
 
 l66 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 We left Opera in Italy with Monteverde, whose 
 instrumental forces and vocal accompaniments 
 were well in advance of all his predecessors. 
 Handel improved upon Monteverde, from which 
 time little advance was made at the great home 
 of Opera until the advent of Spontini (1784- 
 1851). He was gifted with an exceptional power 
 of treating masses of voices and instruments, and 
 no composer probably has ever surpassed him in 
 the measure and extent of his operatic concep- 
 tions. La F<?i/a/<? (1807), Ferdinand Cortez [i^og), 
 and Olympic (181 7) are his representative works; 
 and anyone taking the trouble to examine these 
 scores will be surprised if not startled at the 
 audacity of his musical method. They abound 
 in remarkable effects, as well as in real beauty 
 of expression and emotional fervour. But his 
 powerful and brilliant effects killed his operas. 
 His notion of adding dramatic action to Gluck's 
 severe and lofty style, which suited antique 
 tragedy, but did not meet the needs of modern 
 lyrical art, was sound enough, had he treated 
 matters reasonably ; instead of which he piled 
 orchestral force upon force until, as a wag wrote, 
 there was real danger of his blowing the French 
 horn straight ! 
 
 Rossini (i 792-1868). Here we meet one of 
 the most distinguished masters of the modern 
 Italian School — one who left a great impress upon 
 his country's Opera, especially in the direction of 
 its melody. The growth of melody in music can 
 be attributed to no one School or composer, since 
 every composer has had a share in its develop- 
 ments. Rossini, however, played a great part in 
 the expansion of the melodic element of art. 
 Rossini began operatic composition as a pupil
 
 ROSSINI 167 
 
 of the Bologna Lyceum, and went on producing 
 masterpieces of lyric art until the age of thirty- 
 seven. Then he suddenly stopped. The only 
 important music he afterwards wrote was of a 
 sacred character — a Stabat Mater and Messe Solen- 
 nelle, neither of which are worthy the name of 
 sacred music. 
 
 // Barbiere di Seviglia (1816), Otello (1816), 
 La Ceneretitola (1817), Semiramide (1823), and 
 Guillaume Tell (1829) are Rossini's operatic mas- 
 terpieces ; and Williain Tell may be described as 
 his chef-d'oeuvre. In their day these operas won 
 their composer a popularity and fame unparal- 
 leled in the case of any other composer. This 
 unexampled contemporary fame was wholly due 
 to Rossini's remarkable gifts in the dramatic and 
 melodic departments of opera. He had an inex- 
 haustible talent for melody, and no Italian com- 
 poser can be compared with him for his fine, 
 effective, clearly and distinctly formed melodies. 
 They abound in vocal ornament and vocal diffi- 
 culties — albeit Rossini invariably caught and ex- 
 pressed the mood of situations and characters — 
 which difficulties become only the more beautiful 
 when the accomplished diva has exhausted upon 
 her scena all the resources and irresistible graces 
 of her glorious art. Rossini stood the very an- 
 tithesis to Gluck, and raised melody on the highest 
 pedestal as the supreme factor of the Opera. 
 For which, nineteenth century Europe amply 
 applauded and enriched him. The art of singing 
 has, unhappily, so much declined that vocalists 
 cannot readily be found to sing Rossini's operas 
 — which is one of the reasons for their not keep- 
 ing the stage. 
 
 Rossini greatly strengthened the dramatic side
 
 1 68 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 of Opera — he being gifted with fine theatrical 
 gifts and perception. Among his improvements 
 of music were the banishment of the pianoforte 
 from the orchestra; the allotment of leading 
 parts to the bass voice; the large addition of wind 
 instruments where was only the string band pre- 
 viously ; the greater prominence accorded to the 
 chorus element; the improved recitative, etc. His 
 influence generally upon the dramatic music of 
 Italy was, undoubtedly, very great and valuable. 
 As an orchestralist he surpassed all his country- 
 men in lavish and varied colourings. No one 
 who has listened to the overture of his last and 
 greatest opera, Giiillaume Tell, would deny Ros- 
 sini's great capacity as an instrumentalist. The 
 determination expressed in its strongly marked 
 impetuous rhythm, the rush and tear of violins, 
 the climax upon climax of orchestral expenditure 
 — the power and brilliancy of the whole, are excit- 
 ing indeed. In a more or less degree this orches- 
 tra! exuberance and excess distinguishes all his 
 instrumental accompaniments, and often cover 
 harmonical and vocal defects. 
 
 Mercadante (1797-1870), Donizetti (1798- 
 1848), and Bellini (1807-1835), are three Italian 
 masters, especially identified with Opera who 
 stand between Rossini and the last great light of 
 that school — Verdi. Each of these composers 
 fell to duplicating opera after opera of the stereo- 
 typed pattern — works wherein string after string 
 of melodious tunes were connected together (with- 
 out any attempt at design or artistic proportion), 
 and which with a duet, trio, quartette, and bois- 
 terous chorus to conclude were held to constitute 
 " grand " opera. In / Due Illustri Rivali, Merca- 
 dante is at his best. It was in this work that we
 
 VERDI 169 
 
 first meet with the employment of brass instru- 
 ments for emphasizing accents — an example which 
 subsequent composers followed. Donizetti wrote 
 dozens of operas of which La Favorita is, perhaps, 
 the favourite. They burst with luxuriant, beauti- 
 ful melody, interspersed (all too infrequently) 
 with music of a varied and sometimes even dra- 
 matic interest. Bellini is best known, perhaps, 
 by the operas La Sonnambula {^i%2>'^'). Norma (1834), 
 and L Furitani {I'&T)^). In them we are still con- 
 fronted with that entire subjugation of all that is 
 reflective in music for the sake of, seemingly, inter- 
 minable melody, having for its object the pleasing 
 of the ear rather even than the expression of the 
 dramatic situation. The general tone 'of Bellini's 
 music is towards the beautiful and idyllic. If he 
 was ever powerful and vigorous it was in Nortna — 
 a result that was mainly owing to Rossini's advice 
 to Bellini, to work for more dramatic effect and 
 stronger orchestral illustration. 
 
 Verdi (1814-1901) stands the last of the Ro- 
 mans. Here is an Italian who has held his own 
 on the operatic stage, against all comers for fifty 
 years. By genius and hard work he gained celeb- 
 rity, and this went on increasing until the year of 
 his death. At one time it seemed as if Verdi's works 
 would be plunged into discredit and obscurity by 
 the great wave of Wagnerism which carried every- 
 thing before it in the musical world. But "Verdi 
 was a musical power to be reckoned with. His 
 career divides itself into three periods : — [a) when 
 he produced Frnani, Due Foscari and Nabuco- 
 donosor ; (b) the period of Rigoletto, II Trovaiore, 
 the Traviata, and U71 Ballo in Maschero ; {c) dur- 
 ing which Aida, Otello, and Falstaff, were given 
 to the world. His early operas were on the anti-
 
 170 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 quated Italian model ; his second period showed 
 a restless transition state; in the third period he 
 is his matured self. Writing for the space of half 
 a century, he was not insensible to the currents 
 of Time — so that in his works we may readily 
 trace the changes in fashion that Italian Opera 
 went through during the latter half of the nine- 
 teenth, century. He was the mere copyist of no 
 master. 
 
 Like Rossini he possessed the superlative gift 
 of penetration, and was ready enough to recognize 
 the principles and influence of Wagner upon Op- 
 era. Thereupon, in old age, he set about building 
 up a national opera that should represent Italy as 
 Wagner represented German musical drama. In 
 this he succeeded signally with his third period 
 works. Therein the principles of growth and ex- 
 pansion in opera and musical drama requirements 
 are amply demonstrated and fulfilled. From what- 
 ever point of view we study the operatic writings 
 of Verdi he stands the champion, /a:/- excellence^ of 
 perfect Italian Opera. 
 
 Like the works of his musical ft-atelli, Verdi's 
 operas abound in ravishing melody combined with 
 forcible orchestration which increased almost with 
 each work. Of musical scholarship and learning, 
 there was for a long while little; but in Aida, 
 Otello and Falstaff, Verdi taught us that he could 
 not only write with power, but that he could, at 
 will, summon all the resources, vocal and instru- 
 mental, of musical tradition and erudition with an 
 ease that is simply astounding.
 
 MODERN GERMAN AND RUSSIAN MUSIC 17 1 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 MODERN GERMAN AND RUSSIAN MUSIC 
 
 The ramifications of musical art are so com- 
 plex, and its sphere so vast that as long as the 
 world lasts composers will be found expressing 
 their thoughts in music. Whether men or women 
 will be created to build up untried musical struc- 
 tures, to invent new forms and to break fresh 
 ground is another matter; but until this takes 
 place, the art, it seems to us, will remain very 
 much where the last of the tone giants, Schumann, 
 left it. 
 
 The contention is that if we survey Music to- 
 day, whether as a science or structure, it has not 
 been advanced by any of the so-called "futurists" 
 — a slight exception being allowed, perhaps, in 
 the case of Wagner in his manipulation of Opera. 
 Yet, after all, the Bayreuth master has only ap- 
 plied modern machinery and artistic acceptances 
 to the opera-model which Gluck set up — a direc- 
 tion wherein much that Verdi accomplished (in 
 his last three operas) is even more remarkable 
 than some of the doings of Wagner. Mascagni, 
 Leoncavallo, Boito and Perosi have not advanced 
 Italian Opera — they have only added to it; the 
 French school stands still; while, in England, 
 music is, on the whole, being studied more than 
 demonstrated. 
 
 The "master" period of German music is all 
 that art era when Germany raised itself above 
 every other musical country. Its greatness is due 
 to the original solidity of its art basis, and to the 
 absence of all superficiality and surface matter.
 
 172 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Grasping the inner meanings and hidden prin- 
 ciples of the tonal art, by their masterly — it would 
 seem almost inspired — manipulation of these 
 forces, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and 
 Schumann sought far into the boundless regions 
 of imaginative reach for their musical expression 
 — a love-labour that brought these great tone 
 poets eternal, immortal fame, and lifted their 
 country's musical art to a pre-eminence which 
 may possibly be attained but which can never be 
 surpassed while the mind of man and musical 
 forces remain what they are. 
 
 This brings us to the question : " Have mod- 
 ern musicians improved upon the art of music as 
 they received it?" The answer to this interro- 
 gation we unhesitatingly state to be — No. All 
 of us have listened to Wagner, Raff, Dvorak, 
 Rubinstein, Liszt, Brahms, Tschaikowsky, and 
 more. If we except Brahms, we can find nothing 
 genuinely new in them. They only say merely 
 the old things over again in their various man- 
 ners and according to their national characteris- 
 tics. Such modern music is surprising, even re- 
 markable ; yet, though it be at moments arrest- 
 ing, it is rarely sublime, and the orchestral effects 
 obtained lack the 'master' ring, while that lofty 
 impressiveness which makes, for instance, Bee- 
 thoven's music especially, such a thing, apart 
 from all others, is never attained. Though Wag- 
 ner has sought after it, we miss in his music that 
 peculiarly inward and spiritual feeling, that seems 
 to be in touch with the infinite, which pervades 
 Beethoven's tones. Brahms staggers us with his 
 heaped-up massive orchestration, but the inspired, 
 soul-moving power is limited. Tschaikowsky, 
 with his weird and wild tearings, arrests and com-
 
 MUSIC OF THE FUTURE 
 
 173 
 
 mands the attention mainly because all is so 
 mightily fantastical, but this extravagant, imagina- 
 tive music does not loiter about the soul. Nor, 
 when it has been listened to attentively, does it 
 make one feel spiritually strengthened. 
 
 We must not always be serious in music, of 
 course, and the imaginative mind must have its 
 secular play, even if tonal resource be employed 
 to illustrate the colossal proportions and solidity 
 of a mountain, or the antics of a cork on the 
 surface of the ocean. What has to be decided, 
 however, is whether the so-called "music of the 
 future " will displace the classics of music. We 
 say — No ! Our chief contention is that, taken 
 in the bulk, its great falsity is that it is not co7i- 
 vincing, and art of any kind that is not convincing 
 can never become permanent. Nor does it tell 
 us much that we have not heard or realised be- 
 fore. Even Mendelssohn has given us as good 
 wild, romantic, imaginative, tone-painting in his 
 "Italian" and "Scottish" Symphonies as have 
 Tschaikowsky and other orchestral romanticists 
 of Russia and the Slavonic countries, who make 
 the tonal description of scenes and characteris- 
 tics of their various countries their speciality 
 rather than the musical expression and exposition 
 of the emotions which belong to humanity. The 
 fine scholarship and thematic treatment which 
 distinguish the works of the great German mas- 
 ters, and make their various scores so interesting 
 to the reflective, academical mind, disappear in 
 this "up-to-date" art. Tremendous unisonal 
 sweeps of full orchestra, varied with thundering 
 concussions of instrumental force, yet with an al- 
 most entire disregard of contrapuntal resource 
 and play, cannot constitute highest musical art.
 
 174 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 It may all be effective, and it is remarkable tone 
 colouring, but it is only a return to the joyous, 
 brilliant, rhythmic style of the Guillaume Tell 
 Overture. Such art-work does not fulfil the high- 
 est mission of music. It does not constitute any 
 progress in music, resolving itself rather into a 
 pleasant accessory to much of far nobler design 
 and build already with us. In a quite modern 
 programme appears the following description of 
 Tschaikowsky's Capriccio Italien (Op. 45) — a de- 
 scription which explains alike the character of 
 much of this latter-day descriptive music, and 
 something of the manner in which it is formu- 
 lated and treated — 
 
 " The Italian Capriccio is based on melodies 
 that reflect the style of the folk-songs and dances 
 of Italy. It opens with an Andafite, the chief 
 theme of which is ushered in by a trumpet-call 
 and a series of chords. When this melody has 
 been developed and repeated, a second, of lighter 
 character (which is afterwards used in a glorified 
 form towards the close of the piece), claims at- 
 tention. Treatment of this leads to an Allegro 
 moderato, based on two striking melodies, well 
 contrasted as regards rhythm. The opening An- 
 dante now returns, and is followed by a Tarantella 
 movement, worked out with great skill and vi- 
 vacity, and eventually giving way to the glorified 
 version of the second theme, already referred to. 
 A repetition of the Tarantella brings the piece to 
 a brilliant finish." 
 
 Liszt (1811-1886) was among the few kin- 
 dred spirits, who in 1849 met at the Court Theatre, 
 Weimar, and there discussed that style of music 
 which drifted into the " School of the Future," a 
 species of art which has developed widely through-
 
 
 LISZT 175 
 
 out Europe. Liszt became an " apostle," and 
 through life he stood one of the staunchest of 
 the advocates of Wagner theories. Liszt was 
 not so much an expressionist as an expositor. 
 He posed — rather than composed ; but this state- 
 ment is made not slightingly, but to explain that 
 he was an interpreter rather than a creator. 
 
 An Hungarian by birth, his music breathes that 
 romantic, far-soaring, unbridled character, which 
 seems to be inseparable from the Hungarian 
 temperament. He took up the pianoforte, and 
 through it expressed himself even more emphati- 
 cally than upon score-paper; indeed, if we except 
 Rubinstein, it would be difficult to name one who 
 has brought a more striking individuality into 
 play on this unconquerable instrument. As an 
 interpreter of Beethoven, as well as of composers 
 of the advanced school, he has had no equal. 
 His execution and expression were his alone, and 
 had he remained only an expounder of other men's 
 compositions, his name would still be that of a 
 wonderful-art personality. 
 
 Liszt's early compositions were mostly oper- 
 atic transcriptions, remarkable alike for their 
 fulness and brilliancy, and for the demands they 
 made upon the technique of pianoforte playing. 
 Later on — in his mature period, he furnished proof 
 of extraordinary creative power, exemplified in a 
 series of masterly orchestral works, which include 
 the "Faust" and "Dante" Symphonies; sym- 
 phonic poems, or musical treatment of Tasso's 
 Larnetito e Trionfo, Die Ideale (Schiller), Mazeppa 
 (Hugo), Hamlet, Froynetheus, and more. Other 
 important orchestral music were two Concertos 
 (in E flat and A), several Hungarian Rhapsodies 
 and Festal Marches. In vocal music he set the
 
 176 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Oratorios S/. Elizabeth, Christiis, the Cantata St. 
 Cecilia, and some lesser works. 
 
 The striking feature of Liszt's compositions is 
 the immense emotional quality and boldness of 
 flight which characterise them. An actual origi- 
 nality cannot be so generally allowed ; but their 
 intrepid tone and aspiration quickly attracted the 
 attention of the musical world. Opinions differ 
 as to whether such exceptional creations were real- 
 ly an embodiment of true art principles, or whether 
 they furnish the key to a fresh realm of art of in- 
 definable limit. Liszt's tonal vagaries, in truth, 
 were variously regarded as triumphs, miscarriages, 
 rhapsodical absurdities; and to-day — now that 
 the " future " school has had a fair trial — much of 
 the same divided opinion exists. When a com- 
 poser, even a genius — and Liszt was a genius — 
 forsakes what is academical in art, for what can 
 only be termed rhapsodical (even though this be 
 to advance the doctrines of a new religion), he 
 can, after all, only be judged by the law of things 
 as this is generally accepted and understood. 
 Considered from this standpoint, and allowing for 
 the ambitions of the advanced school of musical 
 thought and expression, Liszt is little more than 
 a splendid imitator and supporter of Wagner. 
 
 Raff (1822-1882) is notable for much sym- 
 phonic music of a very high order. His versatil- 
 ity, originality and resource, together with a rare 
 power of welding melody and harmony of the 
 most intricate kind reflect the mind of a true 
 genius Rubinstein's (1829-1S94) music is of 
 great merit, partaking more of Mendelssohn's 
 style rather than that of much of the advanced 
 music. It is not so well-known as it deserves 
 to be — if we may judge of it from the " Ocean "
 
 WAGNER 177 
 
 Symphony, a Pianoforte Concerto in G, and his 
 Sonata in D, for Violoncello, which have been 
 performed in lingland. As a pianist, he was a 
 wonder — as great almost as Liszt. Brahms (1833- 
 1897) must be accounted the greatest German 
 master since Schumann. His music — and it em- 
 braces almost every form of art — does not be- 
 long to the " Future " School. It is nevertheless 
 marked with an extraordinary yearning after emo- 
 tion and expression, which, at times, is carried to 
 such a degree of intensity that it then becomes 
 difficult to enjoy. He possessed a peculiar gift 
 of submitting his themes to a rare degree of finish, 
 and it is this fine thematic treatment which raises 
 him high above latter-day composers. To much 
 original figure and harmony he couples a style of 
 severity and asceticism which seems peculiarly his 
 own. At moments he is barbarously noisy, and 
 this orchestral massiveness is perhaps his chief 
 weakness. 
 
 TsCHAiKowsKY (1840-1893). This talented 
 man gave the world much orchestral music of 
 the most advanced kind, strongly marked with 
 the Russian character and element. Its emo- 
 tional workings are intense. 
 
 Now to Wagner (1813-1883). Here we have 
 the most discussed — criticised character in all 
 musical history — inasmuch as he was one of the 
 world's greatest musical minds; then he was un- 
 rivalled as an art iconoclast; and finally, had the 
 fortune to live in a critical age — an age much 
 more given to the disputative rather than creative 
 faculty in Music. 
 
 Wagner was a many-sided genius. Had he 
 wholly eschewed Opera, his instrumental music 
 which is of a very high order, entitles him to rank
 
 178 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 among the greatest orchestral creators. Hardly 
 less celebrated is he as a writer — his many vol- 
 umes forming a most important contribution to 
 the critical literature of his country. His ideas 
 upon music and the opera-drama are distinctly 
 more valuable than is his social philosophy. The 
 main work of his life, however, was an endeavour 
 to revolutionize the accepted system of Opera and 
 to demonstrate his views by his works. The mu- 
 sical world has from the outset been divided as to 
 the soundness and worth of his measures and 
 methods. 
 
 Wagner, like humanity before him, began to 
 do and say everything in the old way. His early 
 operas Die Feen (1833) ; Das Liebesverbot (1836) 
 and Rienzi (1842) were framed upon the accepted 
 lines of opera. Then came Die Fliegende Hollan- 
 der (1843) and Tannhduser (1845) — from which it 
 was clear that a change had come over their com- 
 poser's mind. Lohengrin (1850) emphasized this 
 art change, and then, gradually, Wagner led up to 
 Tristan und Isolde (1865), Die Meister singer von 
 Niirnberg (1868), Der Ring des Nibelungen (1876), 
 and Parsifal (1882), 
 
 What was Wagner's mission ? Briefly stated 
 it was the abolition of Opera as treated by his 
 predecessors, and the substitution of a new form 
 of dramatic art work exemplified in his own oper- 
 atic works. The idea was excellent — Wagner 
 was not its originator, however, much as he carried 
 it out. Gluck first prompted a revolution which 
 he could not realize, because the musical mind and 
 materiel of his day were not equal to it. Bee- 
 thoven, in one of his moods of discontent, wrote : 
 " If I were to write an opera after my own mind, 
 these people would run away, for they would find
 
 MODERN GERMAN MUSIC 179 
 
 in it none of the arias, duets, terzets, and all the 
 stuff with which the ordinary operatic patch-work 
 is made up." Here was the fundamental principle 
 of all Wagner's art-theories. If Beethoven instead 
 of Wagner had worked it out, we would have been 
 in possession (we believe) of a perfect musical 
 drama. As it was, the work was undertaken by 
 the great reformer, essayist and insurrectionist, 
 Wagner — the composer whose statue was once 
 adorned by a laurel wreath on the head, and a 
 hempen cord round the neck — because its owner, 
 a Jew banker of Frankfort greatly admired the 
 music of Wagner, but had an ardent antipathy for 
 its maker. 
 
 Wagner was not a reformer of music, but only 
 of Opera — of the use and application of music to 
 dramatic poetry. He possessed the idea that a 
 modern German yEschylus — a composer as well 
 as poet — could best make Opera what it should 
 be, and place it in its lawful position. Everything 
 artistic was involved — music, poetry, painting, 
 architecture, even sculpture. All was to be uni- 
 fied with the one end and aim of obtaining the 
 highest and most complete dramatic expression. 
 This was styled " Art-work of the Future." 
 
 The conception was excellent, if not original, 
 and only needed realization and an universal ac- 
 ceptation. No doubt a .composer is at a great 
 advantage if he can be his own librettist, for mu- 
 sical history abounds with instances of composers' 
 discontent with their libretti; some masters having 
 left us without operas, because of their inability 
 to find suitable matter to set. Wagner's books 
 soon made it clear that the conventional form of 
 solo, duet, trio, quartet, were to be banished, and 
 a less disjointed opera evolved. One great and
 
 •l8o THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 valuable feature characterised the new kind of 
 musical drama. There was a closer union between 
 the poetry and mjsic, and the artistic balance, 
 one part with another was immensely improved. 
 All was tied together by the much discussed leit- 
 motive, a species of musical phrase. P'or a long 
 while it was understood that these leit-motives were 
 invented to distinguish the personages in his 
 dramas. Not quite. " They stand for deeper 
 things, for the attributes of the play's characters; 
 for the spiritual as well as the material develop- 
 ments of the plot ; for the fundamental passions 
 of the story." 
 
 Formally, then, the main difference in Wagner's 
 operatic method, and all others, was the exchang- 
 ing of melody and the cavatina form for con- 
 tinuous declamatory recitative. These modifica- 
 tions supported by a vast command of powerful 
 instrumental resource, original, andwholly peculiar 
 to the master were applied to musical drama. 
 Wagner completed the reform which Gluck, in 
 classic opera, began a century before him — the 
 modern reformer having romantic opera upon 
 which to centre his genius. 
 
 The Wagner struggle, even for an existence, 
 was a tremendous and bitter controversy of a 
 quarter-century back. In German society it was 
 long considered a breach of good taste to men- 
 tion Wagner's name; while the reception of his 
 music in England was far from encouraging. 
 "The composer of Lohengrin is an anti-melodious 
 fanatic, and every new opera of his has become 
 more and more tedious, noisy, and abstruse." 
 " Wagner is no artist, either in taste or creative- 
 ness. I do not believe a single work of his will 
 survive; Tannhduser will disappear after the second
 
 WAGNER NEEDED l8r 
 
 performance." " The Fliegende Hollander overture 
 is an infernal racket, and has made me sea-sick." 
 Such were the opinions of the critics upon the 
 advent in England of Wagner's music. To-day 
 Wagner has a complete hold of opera-goers and 
 the general musical public — a hold which is in- 
 creasing rather than diminishing. 
 
 It must be allowed that Wagner, if not entirely 
 successful in his task, has established an opera 
 example for all future composers. The world has 
 only to decide whether it will have the perfected 
 Verdi or Wagner: whether the old Italian model, 
 brought up to date, as in Aida, Otello, and Falsfaff, 
 and still with an abundance of melodic element — 
 or the modern German opera with all its artistic 
 fitness shall henceforth obtain. Possibly there 
 will be found room for both, inasmuch as with all 
 the art proprieties of Wagner, human nature will 
 reluctantly ever part with melody. When the 
 Italians give up melody in their operas then the 
 W^agner theories will have a better opportunity, 
 than they yet have, of an universal acceptance — 
 but not till then. 
 
 There is no doubt that Wagner was much 
 needed. The absurdities and incongruities into 
 which, in many respects, Italian Opera had been 
 allowed to lapse were opposed alike to reason and 
 good taste. The subordination of the orchestra 
 to the voice, which meant tame, insufificient, and 
 general inefficient instrumentation ; the pervading 
 statuesqueness and unreality ; soloists singing and 
 gesticulating — not to each other but to the occu- 
 pants of the stalls and gallery ; incongruities, like 
 heart-broken lovers separating for ever at the 
 close of a duet, only to return, hand in hand be- 
 fore the curtain, to be the recipients of plaudits-
 
 1 82 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 and bouquets; choruses presenting themselves in 
 soUd phalanx at the footlights to sing, not act 
 their part, to the audience in front of them — these, 
 and many more defects marked Italian Opera. No 
 wonder all dramatic effect was lost, for all dramatic 
 pretence was suppressed. What the audience 
 wanted was tune, and it was content to wait for it 
 until the leading singers in the piece came forward 
 and treated them to it, in successive instalments. 
 Italian lyrical opera had drifted, in fact, into a sort 
 of costume recital wherein each lady and gentle- 
 man soloist entered into rivalry with show songs 
 to show off their voices and increase their salaries. 
 
 Artistically minded people rebelled against this 
 — and among them was Wagner. Hence his creed 
 and maxim. " Far from the madding crowd," he 
 built a model theatre wherein his high ideal of 
 music-drama could be secured. Once there he 
 felt he could " hypnotise " his admirers into that 
 frame of mind essential to the mental reception 
 of good music. At Bayreuth he carried out his 
 great reforms — producing work after work em- 
 bodying his high artistic principles. He placed 
 the orchestra out of sight ; lowered the lights 
 everywhere in the house, except on the stage; 
 drew his curtains aside instead of raising them; 
 abolished all encores and applause throughout the 
 acts; made his performers and chorus ignore the 
 audience, and confine their minds and voices to 
 the stage; subordinated the vocal part of opera 
 to the instrumental — in short, he left no material 
 device and method untested in order to secure the 
 success of his system of reform. 
 
 Rienzi reflected little of his new notions. In 
 the Flying Dutchman and Tannhduser he spoke like 
 a changed man, although the composer himself
 
 WAGNER'S IDEAL 183 
 
 took care to state that these works did not rep- 
 resent his ideal. Lohengrin wa? a distinct ad- 
 vance upon Tannhdiiser, so much so that when it 
 was first produced in London (1875) talented 
 musicians could not understand music which to- 
 day is intelligible to, and admired by all who hear 
 it. In Tristan und Isolde and the Meister singers 
 was given the full embodiment of Wagner's real- 
 isation of what opera should be. His enormous 
 four-fold work, Der Ring des Nibelungen, and final- 
 ly, Parsifal — the last and in many respects the 
 greatest of his creations — are a full and complete 
 enunciation of Wagner's views and principles. 
 
 With something of strange irony, Wagner died 
 at Venice — in the land whose Opera was so repel- 
 lent to him. He lived long enough, however, to 
 witness a world-wide interest in his methods, and, 
 to some extent, an acceptance of his principles. 
 His reputation has gone on increasing, but he has 
 not seriously imperilled Italian Opera. Wagner 
 was not a composer of the calibre of Beethoven ; 
 for, where the one master realised the highest 
 spiritual beauty and nobility, the other can only 
 be said to have aspired thereto. Wagner's in- 
 fluence has been enormous — his orchestral meth- 
 ods especially capturing the minds of his follow- 
 ers. Here, however, his boldness and brilliancy 
 of instrumental purport and application do not 
 reach consistently the level of the highest orches- 
 tral expression. In his straining after startling 
 original effects he is often unintelligible, and pro- 
 duces the feeling of an inability to express him- 
 self sufficiently. Whether the great tone reformer 
 will prove to be an epoch-maker in Music's history 
 remains to be seen. It appears improbable and 
 impossible.
 
 INDEX 
 
 A. 
 
 Abel, 12. 
 
 Aboriginal British Music, 28. 
 Abu //assan, 124. 
 Accompaniments, Schubert's Song, 
 
 127. 
 Adam de la Hale, 44, 49. 
 Additional Accompaniments, iii. 
 iElfheah, 36. 
 Afranio, 148. 
 Agrippina, 98. 
 Aida, 169, 170-181. 
 Alceste, 161. 
 
 Alfonso imd Estrella^ 125. 
 Alfred, King, 64. 
 Amseboeus, 25. 
 Amati, 150. 
 Ambrose, St, 32. 
 Anerio, 68, 77. 
 Angehis ad Virginenty 65. 
 Anthem, Displaces the Motet, 81 ; 
 
 Henry VUI and, 83; the First 
 
 Period Style of, 83-84. 
 Antigenidas, 25. 
 Apollo, 27. 
 Arcadelt, 76. 
 
 Aj^iA, Scarlatti and the, 73. 
 Aristoxenus, 23. 
 Arinida, 161. 
 Ame, 154, 156. 
 Asaph, 20. 
 Assyrian Music, 20. 
 Attwood, 154, 157. 
 Auber, 162, 163. 
 Augustine, St, 32. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bach, 73, 86, 90, 104, no, 114, 131, 
 
 135, 140, 148, 151. 
 Bach (E.), 115, 121. 
 Bach (J. C.), 116. 
 
 Balfe, log, 157. 
 
 Baltazarini, 150. 
 
 Bassoon, 112, 148. 
 
 Bateson, 78. 
 
 Bjde, 30. 
 
 Beethoven, 29, 87, 102, 109, 112, 113, 
 115, 118, iig, 121, 122, 124, 125, 
 126, 129, 130, 131, 13s, 140, 142, 
 
 143. 144, 152, 172, 17s. »78, 179^ 
 
 i83._ 
 Bellini, 168, 169. 
 Benda, 115. 
 Benedict Biscop, 39. 
 Benet, 78. 
 
 Bennett (S.), 87, 109, 122, 159. 
 Berlioz, 87, 114, 122, 164. 
 Bernhardt, 57. 
 Binary Form, 141. 
 Bishop, 154, 157. 
 Blow, 153. 
 Boccherini, 109. 
 Boethius, 29. 
 Boieldieu, 85. 
 Boito, 171. 
 Booke of Common Prater , Nottd^ 
 
 67- . . 
 Bottesini, 109. 
 Bouffons, Les, 86. 
 Boyce, 154. 
 Brahms, 122, 172, 177. 
 British Musical Instruments, Early^ 
 
 51- 
 Bull, 66, 90. 
 Buononcini, 73. 
 Bumey, 40. 
 Busby, 54. 
 Byrde, 66, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83. 
 
 c. 
 
 Caedmon, 39. 
 Cain, 12. 
 Caldara, 73.
 
 i86 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 Calzabigi, i6i. 
 
 Canon, 53. 
 
 Cantatas, Bach's, 53._ 
 
 Cantus Firmus^ Shifting the, 59. 
 
 Carissimi, 70, j8. 
 
 Cavaliere, Emilio del, 61. 
 
 Cavalli, 150. 
 
 Caxton, 67. 
 
 Chamber Music, Origin of, 78 ; 
 Haydn's, 106 ; Purport of, 106 ; 
 Haydn as a composer of, 107 ; the 
 " strings " in, 107 ; materiel of, 
 108 ; Beethoven's, 114; Mendels- 
 sohn's, 129. 
 
 Charlemagne, 32, 39. 
 
 Chatelain de Courcy, 49. 
 
 Chaucer, 64, 145. 
 
 Cherubini, 87, 122, 128, 162, 163. 
 
 Child, 153. 
 
 Chinese Music, 28. 
 
 Chopin, 108, 165. 
 
 Choral, 63, 93, 95. 
 
 Choral Symphony, The, J21. 
 
 Christmas Oratorio^ 95. 
 
 Christus, 176. 
 
 Chrysostom, St, 32. 
 
 Cinnor, or Kinnor, i8. 
 
 Clarinet, 151, 114. 
 
 Clavichord, 94. 
 
 Clefs and Staff, 34. 
 
 Clementi, 140. 
 
 Cleopatra, 16. 
 
 Concerto, 115. 
 
 Constantine, 32. 
 
 Corelli, 115, 140. 
 
 Council of Trent and Music, 58. 
 
 Counterpoint, 136. 
 
 Couperin, 140. 
 
 Cowen, 122. 
 
 Creation^ The, 105. 
 
 Croce, 68. 
 
 Crotch, 157. 
 
 Crout, or Rotte, 44. 
 
 Cymbals, Assyrian, 22, 23, 
 
 D. 
 
 Dafne, 60. 
 
 Damnation de Faust, 164. 
 
 Dante Symphony, 175. 
 
 Daphne, 85. 
 
 Das Liebesverboty 178, 
 
 David, 19, 20. 
 
 David (F.C.), 122. 
 
 Deborah, 19. 
 
 Denner, 151. 
 
 Der Freischiitx, 124. 
 
 Devil on Two Sticks, 104, 
 
 Dido and ^neas, 155. 
 
 Die Feen, 178. 
 
 Die Fliegende Hollander, 178, 181, 
 
 182. 
 Die Jdeale Symphony, 175. 
 Die Zauberjiote, 112. 
 Don Giovanni, Overture of, 87; 
 
 Dramatic power of, 112. 
 Donizetti, 168, 169. 
 Don Quixote, 155. 
 Dowland, 78, 106. 
 Drums, Orchestral, 102. 
 Due Foscari, 169. 
 Dufay, 52. 
 Dunstable, 64. 
 Dunstan, 36, 57. 
 Dvorak, 122. 
 
 Easter Oratorio, 95. 
 
 Edward III, 140. 
 
 Edwardes, 77. 
 
 Egyptian Music, 13. 
 
 Fin Feste Burg, 97, 151, 
 
 Flijah, T30. 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 66, 78. 
 
 Epaminondas, 25. 
 
 Episode de la Vie (tun Artiste, 
 
 164. 
 Ernani, 169. 
 Esterhazy, 105. 
 Euclid, 23. 
 
 Euridice, 60, 74, 114. 
 Euryanthe, 123, 124. 
 
 Faidit, 49. 
 
 Fairfax, 65. 
 
 Fairy Queen, 155. 
 
 Falstaff, 169, 170, 181. 
 
 Farrant, 66. 
 
 Faust Symphony, 175. 
 
 Ferdinand Cortez, 166. 
 
 Ferretti, 77. 
 
 Festa, 58, 62, 76. 
 
 Fidelia, 113. 
 
 Fierabras, 125. 
 
 Flemish School, The, 52. 
 
 Flotow, 162. 
 
 Folk Music, 44-51. 
 
 Forkel, 35. 
 
 Form, in Music, 133, 135. 
 
 Fossembrone, 57. 
 
 Fourteenth Century Music, 32, 53. 
 
 Franco, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 48.
 
 INDEX 
 
 187 
 
 French Chanson (Thirteenth Cen- 
 tury), 49-50. 
 Frescobaldi, 148. 
 
 Gabrielli, 59, 61, 68, 148. 
 
 Gasparini, 73. 
 
 Gese, 93. 
 
 Gibbons (O.). 78, 82, 153. 
 
 Gluck, 73, 161, 162, 166, 167, 171, 
 
 178, 180. 
 Goethe, 130. 
 Goss, 157. 
 Gossec, 115. 
 Goudimel, 58. 
 Gounod, 162. 
 Graun, 63, 64, 86. 
 Greek Music, 23. 
 Gregory, 32, 34, 39, 48. 
 Gretry, 85. 
 Guido d'Arezzo, 31, 33, 37, 38, 39, 
 
 47, 48. 
 Guillauine Telly j6j, 168, 174. 
 
 H. 
 
 HALfiVY, 162, 163. 
 
 Ham, 13. 
 
 Hambois, 65. 
 
 "Hamlet" Symphony, 175. 
 
 Handel, 86, 93, 97, 98, 104, 105, 106, 
 
 110, III, 113, 126, 127, 130, 131, 
 
 140, 150, 154, 156. 
 Harold en Italic, 164. 
 Harps, Egyptian, 14, 15, 17 ; M^nes- 
 
 tral, 65. 
 Hasur, 19. 
 Haydn, 97, 104, 107, 108, no, ni, 
 
 114, 115, n6, 118, 120, 126, 140, 
 
 142, 144, 152, 172. 
 Hebrew Music, 18. 
 Heman, 10, 20. 
 Henry VIII, 66, 83. 
 Hermes, 11. 
 Herodotus, 14. 
 Hexachords, 26. 
 Higden, 67. 
 Hilgenfeldt, 93. 
 Homer, 11, 23, 26. 
 Hucbald, 31. 
 Huguenots, Les, 163. 
 Hummel, 140. 
 Hymn of Praise, 130. 
 
 I. 
 
 ItUmeneo, i\i. 
 
 I Due Illustri Rivalt, i68. 
 
 // Barbiere di Sevig-lia, 167. 
 
 // Giasone, 150. 
 
 // Trovatore, 169. 
 
 In Ecclesiis Benedicte Dominutn^ 
 59. 
 
 Instrumental Music, Mozart's, 
 in; Beethoven and, 143. 
 
 Intermezzi, 73. 
 
 Invention of Music, o; Coeval with 
 Creation, 10 ; the " Shell " story 
 of, II ; Printing, 57 ; Organ Ped- 
 al, 57- 
 
 Iphigenta in Tauris, 161. 
 
 I Puritani, 169. 
 
 Israel in Egypt, loi. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jahn, 113. 
 
 Jeduthun, 20. 
 
 Jenkins, 106. 
 
 Jephtha, loi. 
 
 John the Baptist, St, 33. 
 
 John of Fornsete, 43, 44. 
 
 John de Muris, 41. 
 
 Johti Passion Music, 95, 
 
 Jomelli, 73, no. 
 
 Jonah, 70, 98. 
 
 Jordan, 91. 
 
 Joshua, loi. 
 
 Josquin des Pres, 52, 53, 54. 
 
 Jubal, 10. 
 
 Judas MaccabauSy 101, 
 
 Judith, 19. 
 
 Julius Caesar 28. 
 
 Julius II., 56. 
 
 K. 
 
 Keiser, 63, 64, 93. 
 King Arthur, 155. 
 Kinnor, or Cinnor, 18. 
 Kirbye, 78. 
 
 La Cenerentola, 167. 
 La Favorita, 169. 
 L^A/ricaine, 163. 
 Lajuive, 163. 
 Lamento e Trionjo, 175, 
 Lampe, 151. 
 L'Ani»ia e Corpo, 6i« 
 La Pastorale, 85. 
 La Sotinambula, 169. 
 Lasos, 24. 
 Lassus, 52, 56. 
 La Traviata, 169,
 
 i88 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 La Vestale, i66. 
 
 Lawes, 153. 
 
 Lecocq, 162. 
 
 Lett-Motive, Wagner's, 180. 
 
 L' Enfance du Christ, 164. 
 
 Le Nozze di Figaro, 112. 
 
 Leoncavallo, 171. 
 
 Le Prophete, 163. 
 
 Les Deux Journies, 163. 
 
 Lieder ohne JVorte, 129. 
 
 Liszt, 122, 165, 172, 174. 
 
 Locatelli, 109. 
 
 Lock, 153. 
 
 Loder, log. 
 
 Lohengrin^ 123, 178, 180, 183. 
 
 Lotti, 73. 
 
 LuUy, 85, 86, 99, 115, 140. 
 
 Luther, 63, 81, 93. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macbeth Music, 153. 
 
 Macfarren, log, 122, 154, 160. 
 
 Mackenzie, log, 122. 
 
 Madrigal, 58 ; popularity of, 74 ; 
 
 periods of the, 75 ; first book of 
 
 the, 76 ; " Golden Age " of, 77. 
 Maid of the Mill, 156. 
 Marbecke, 66, 67, 80. 
 Marcello, 109. 
 Marchettus, 41. 
 Marenzio, 75, 77. 
 jMasaniello, 163. 
 Mascagni, 171. 
 Mass, 80. 
 
 Mass in B Minor , 95, 
 Massenet, 162. 
 Matthew Passion Music, 94, 95, 97, 
 
 152. 
 May Queen, 160. 
 Mazarin, 85. 
 
 Mazeppa Symphony, 175. 
 Med^e, 163. 
 Mehul, 85. 
 
 Meistersinger ■von NUrnberg, 178. 
 Mendelssohn, 87, 105, 109, 113, 119, 
 
 122, 128, 159, 173. 
 Mensural Music, 35. 
 Mercadante, 168. 
 Mercury, 10, 12. 
 Messe Solennelle, 167. 
 Messiah, 101, 105, in, 113, 130, 
 
 156. 
 Meyerbeer, 162, 163. 
 Minstrelsy, 64. 
 Minuet, 119; Beethoven's examples 
 
 of the, iig. 
 Miriam's Battle Song, 125. 
 
 Monteverde, 69, 73, 84, 114, 149, 150, 
 
 166. 
 Morley, 78. 
 Motet, 81. 
 
 Mount oj" Olives, 113. 
 Mozart, 87, 97, 108, 109, lis, 118, 
 
 121, 123, 126, 128, 131, 140, 142, 
 
 143, 144, 151, 152, 172. 
 Muns, John de, 41, 48. 
 Musicians Company founded, 66. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nabzicbdonosor, 169. 
 Naiads Overture, 160. 
 Neumes, see Pneumes. 
 Newton, 90. 
 Noah, 13. 
 Norma, 169. 
 Notation, 28. 
 
 Oberon, 124. 
 
 Oboe, 127. 
 
 Ockenheim, 52, 53, 80. 
 
 Odington, 40, 42, 48, 64. 
 
 CEdipus, 155. 
 
 Offenbach, 162. 
 
 Olympie, 166. 
 
 Olympus, 24. 
 
 Onslow, 109. 
 
 Opera, Origin of, 60 ; and Church 
 Style, 84; Earliest English, 
 French and German, 84 ; Origin 
 of Comic, 86 ; Handel and, 99 ; 
 Mozart and, 109 ; Early Italian, 
 III ; Landmark in, 112; Weber's 
 influence upon, 122 ; Landmark 
 in, 123-124 ; in England, 157 ; 
 Gluck's " reformed," 161 ; " Co- 
 mique," 163 ; Meyerbeer's im- 
 provements in, 163 ; Rossini's 
 bearing upon, 166 ; Verdi's influ- 
 ence upon, 169 ; Wagner's re- 
 forms, 178. 
 
 Ophicleide, 108. 
 
 Oratorio, Origin of, 60 ; Improve- 
 ments in, 70 ; separated from 
 opera, 84 ; Bach's, 88, 152 ; Bee- 
 thoven's, 113 ; Bennett's, 160 ; Ca- 
 rissime's, 70 ; Handel's, 100, ni, 
 151 ; Haydn's, 105 ; Mendels- 
 sohn's, 130 ; Wesley s, 157 ; Scar- 
 latti's, 73. 
 
 Orchestra, First, 59 ; in Oratorio, 
 61 ; in England, 66 ; Extension of, 
 73 ; in Sixteenth Century Masses,
 
 INDEX 
 
 189 
 
 81 ; Handel's influence upon, gg ; 
 Handel's, iii ; First Period Sym- 
 phony, 116: Haydn's '"First" 
 Symphony, 120 ; Growth of Or- 
 chestration and, 144 ; Gabrielli's, 
 148 ; Monteverde's, 14Q ; Scar- 
 latti's, 150; Handel's, 151 ; Bach's, 
 151 ; Perfecter of French, 164. 
 
 Or/eo, 6q, 73, 149, 150 ; Gluck's, 
 161. 
 
 Organ, Ancient, 36, 37, 56 ; Bel- 
 lows, German of Sixteenth Cen- 
 tury, 89 ; Leipsic University, pi ; 
 pedals invented, 57 ; First Writer 
 of Music for the, 146 ; Handel's, 
 158- 
 
 Organum, 32. 
 
 Orlando di Lasso, 69. 76. 
 
 Orpheus, 10. 
 
 Osiris, 13. 
 
 Otello, Rossini's, 167 ; Verdi's, 169, 
 170, 181. 
 
 Overture, LuUy invents the, 85 ; 
 two classes of, 86 ; Mozart's, Che- 
 rubini's, Beethoven's and Weber's 
 improvements in the, 87; the 
 Guillaujiie Tell, 174. 
 
 P. 
 
 PaLESTRINA, 58, 70, 7i,,*084 
 
 Parisina Overture, 100. 
 
 Parry, Hubert, log, 133. 
 
 Parsi/al, 178, 183. 
 
 Parsons, 65. 
 
 Passion Music, 64, 87, 93, 135, 152. 
 
 Paul, 33. 
 
 Paumann, 146. 
 
 Pedals invented, Organ, 57. 
 
 Pergolesi, no. 
 
 Peri, 60. 
 
 Perosi, 171. 
 
 Petrucci, 57. 
 
 Philip de Neri, 61. 
 
 Piccini, 162. 
 
 Plain Song, 57, 59, 80, 136. 
 
 Plato, 14. 
 
 Plutarch, 23. 
 
 Pneumes, 29, 30. 
 
 Polychronicon, 67. 
 
 Polyphonic Composition, oldest, 43; 
 
 advance in, 72. 
 Porporo, 73. 
 Pope Pius IV., 58. 
 Preciosa, 124. 
 
 Printing, Invention of Music, 57. 
 Prometheus Symphony, 175. 
 Prout, 12,2. 
 
 Prydain, 28. 
 
 Psaltery, 20 ; Circular, 51. 
 Psyche, 85, 153. 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, 18. 
 Pythagoras, 24, 67. 
 Pytheas, 28. 
 
 PURCELL, 84, 103, 109, 140, 141, IJ3, 
 156, 159. 
 
 Raff, i2«, 176. 
 
 Rameses II., 14. 
 
 Rameau, 85. 
 
 Recitative, Improvements in, 72. 
 
 Reformation and the Church Senr- 
 
 ice, 66 ; Effect upon Music, 79 ; 
 
 English Composers and the, 81 ; 
 
 the Organ and, 83 ; Regal, 148. 
 Requievi Mass, Mozart's, no. 
 Bienzi, 178, 182. 
 Rigoletto^ 169. 
 
 Ring des Nibelungen, 178, 183. 
 Rinnucini, 60, 74, 114. 
 Ritter, 50. 
 Rodrigo, g8._ 
 Roman Music, 27. 
 Romeo et Juliette, 164. 
 Rondo, 139. 
 Rosamunde, 125. 
 Rossini, 166, 170, 174. 
 Rotte, or Crout, 44. 
 RUbezahl, 123, 124. 
 Rubinstein, 172, 175, 176. 
 Ruth, 157. 
 
 St A mbrose, 32. 
 
 St Cecilia, 176. 
 
 .S"^ Elizabeth, 176. 
 
 St Paul, 130, 131. 
 
 Solomon, 120. 
 
 Samson, 101, 156. 
 
 Saul, 100, loi. 
 
 Saxophone, 124. 
 
 Scarlatti, 73, 85, 86, 99, 115, 140, X50. 
 
 Scherzo, Beethoven and the, 119, 
 
 144. 
 Schluter, 123. 
 Schubart, 90. 
 
 Schubert, 109, 121, 122, 125, 172. 
 Schumann, 87, 102, 109, 122, i3It 
 
 i59i 172, 177- 
 Schutz, 63, 64, 93. 
 Seasons, The, io6. 
 Sebastiani, 93, 95. 
 Se?niramide, 167.
 
 1 9© 
 
 THE STORY OF THE ART OF MUSIC 
 
 *' Services," Origin of, 8i. 
 
 Shakespeare, 145. 
 
 Shepherd, 65. 
 
 Siiz'ana, 124. 
 
 Solomon, loi. 
 
 Solomon, 20. 
 
 Sonata, The, construction of, 139, 
 140. 
 
 Sophocles, 130. 
 
 Spinet, 73. 
 
 Spobr, 108, 122. 
 
 Spontini, 166. 
 
 Squarcialupo, 57. 
 
 Sta/>at Mater, 167. 
 
 Staff and Clefs, 34. 
 
 Stamitz, 115. 
 
 Stanford, 109, 122, 157. 
 
 Strabo, 14. 
 
 Stringed Instruments, Origin of, 11. 
 
 Suites, 139. 
 
 Sullivan, 122, 157. 
 
 " Summer is icumen in," 42-43, 64. 
 
 Sylvester, 32, 39. 
 
 Symphony, Growth of the, 114; 
 Haydn's Improvement of the, 116, 
 142; Construction of the, 116; 
 the " Salomon " set, 120; Human 
 Voice in the, 121 ; Notable Ex- 
 amples of, 121 ; Liszt's, 175 ; Men- 
 delssohn's C minor, 128. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tallis, 66, 82. 
 
 Tamplin, 96. 
 
 Tannhduser, 178, 180. 
 
 Taverner, 65. 
 
 Tempest, Purcell's, 155. 
 
 Tempest music, Ame's, 156, 
 
 Terpander, 10, 24. 
 
 Theodora, loi. 
 
 Thibaut, 48. 
 
 Thirteenth Century Melody, 49 ; 
 
 Counterpoint of, 50. 
 Thomas, 162. 
 
 Thomas de Walsyngham, 36. 
 Torelli, 115. 
 Trevisa, 67. 
 
 Tristan und Isolde, 178, 183. 
 Triumphs o/^ Oriana, 78. 
 Trombone, 105. 
 Troubadours, 48, 145. 
 Trumpet, 118; Slide, 122. 
 Tschaikowsky, 114, 122, i/a, 173, 
 
 174, 177' 
 Tye, 6s, 82. 
 Tyrtaeus, 24. 
 
 U. 
 Un Ballo in Maschero, 169. 
 
 Valentini, 109. 
 
 Vanhall, 115. 
 
 Veracini, 109. 
 
 Verdi, 85, 168, 169, 171, 181. 
 
 Viola da Gamba, Frontispiece, 
 
 Virginal, 78, 80, 148, 149. 
 
 Vitalianus, 32, 39. 
 
 Vittoria, 68. 
 
 W. 
 
 Waelrant, 76. 
 
 Wagner, 85, 112, 123, 163, 17T, 17a, 
 
 I75i ^76, 177- 
 Wallace, 157. 
 
 Walsyngham, Thomas de, 36. 
 " Walpurgisnacht," 130. 
 Weber, 87, 112, 122. 
 Weelkes, 78. 
 Wesley, 84, 156. 
 Wilbye, 78. 
 Willaert, 52, 56, 76. 
 Wind Instruments, 150. 
 Wise, 153. 
 
 IVohltemperirte Clavier, 96a 
 IVotnan 0/ Samaria, 160. 
 Wood Nymph Overture, 160. 
 Wulfstan, 57. 
 
 Xenophon, 83. 
 
 (4) 
 
 THE END
 
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