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 Untechnical Addresses 
 
 ON 
 
 Technical Subjects 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES DOUGLAS, LL.D. 
 
 SECOND EDITION WITH ADDITIONAL ADDRESSES 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 JOHN WILEY & SONS 
 
 LONDON : CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED 
 
 1908
 
 Copyright. 1904, 1908, 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES DOUGLAS 
 
 a hr >rirnt ifir $rra 
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 3)74 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 IN reprinting the following addresses, omissions 
 are made occasionally to avoid repetition. In other 
 cases, in order to bring the information up to date 
 or to amplify the subject, considerable additions 
 are interpolated; but these, where they occur, are 
 
 enclosed in brackets. 
 
 iii
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 ~> PAGE 
 
 \ THE CHARACTERISTICS AND CONDITIONS OP THE TECH- 
 
 . NICAL PROGRESS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY .... 1 
 
 ^ THE DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN MINING AND METAL- 
 
 \jW LURGY, AND THE EQUIPMENTS OF A TRAINING SCHOOL 39 
 
 ^ WASTES IN MINING AND METALLURGY 60 
 
 ^j SOME OF THE RELATIONS OF RAILWAY TRANSPOR- 
 
 ^ TATION IN THE UNITED STATES TO MlNING AND 
 
 f\ METALLURGY 85 
 
 SECRECY IN THE ARTS , . 127
 
 The Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 Technical Progress of the Nineteenth 
 
 Century 
 
 (Presidential Address at the California meeting, September, 1899) 
 
 AT this, the last meeting of our Institute for 
 the last year of the century, it is appropriate that 
 we should look back at the past. 
 
 To review the century's progress in the exact 
 sciences and the resulting arts, that fall within 
 the scope of our labors, is beyond my ability. 
 But I wish to draw your attention to some phases 
 of that progress which are almost as important, 
 though they be within the. zone of sociology a 
 science which touches at many points the do- 
 main of applied technology. 
 
 One of these is suggested by the library of tech- 
 nical literature which this century has produced 
 not the least important contribution to which 
 is our own Transactions. The nineteenth century 
 has witnessed the beneficial spread of democracy
 
 2 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 in politics. Under the impulse, to no small 
 degree, of the same spirit, there has grown up a 
 brotherhood of fellow-workers and a sense of 
 fellow-ownership in the secrets of nature. Though 
 the Patent Office has assumed such proportions 
 as to have become a source of national revenue, 
 and a multitude of inventors, great and small, 
 are seeking through its agency to secure some 
 pecuniary profit from their devices, there is even 
 greater eagerness among both interested and dis- 
 interested workers in the field of technology to 
 publish their observations, and even their dis- 
 coveries, and to give them to the world without 
 remuneration. The motives influencing the great 
 body of writers who, without any pay, use the 
 technical journals and such media of communi- 
 cation as our Transactions, in order to give to the 
 brethren of their craft the results of their often 
 dearly-earned experiences, are various and com- 
 plicated. But, in the majority of cases, the im- 
 pulse originates in the desire for reciprocity, and 
 in the hope that others will tell what they know, 
 in return for what we ourselves communicate, 
 and that therefore we shall learn at least as much 
 as we can teach.
 
 Technical Progress of the igth Century 3 
 
 The spread of this healthy desire for liberal 
 intercourse is assisted by the increase of means 
 and opportunities for its gratification. Meetings 
 such as this, for the personal interchange of 
 thoughts and experiences, after a journey of 
 4000 miles, are possible only through the aid of 
 railroads. The dissemination of our Transac- 
 tions and of the great bulk of technical literature 
 can be effected only through a government Post 
 Office, working for the public good, and, in some 
 of its departments, at unprofitable rates. These 
 agencies have been the product of the nineteenth 
 century, and only under their stimulus and through 
 their machinery could such efforts be rendered 
 practicable as technical men, the world over, are 
 making for the furtherance of their common pur- 
 suits, interests and aims. Attribute the move- 
 ment to what cause we may, I think it is fair to 
 claim as one of the glories of the vanishing cen- 
 tury the development of the spirit of open-minded- 
 ness and fraternal helpfulness, even in such self- 
 seeking pursuits as those in which we are engaged. 
 I use the word "development" advisedly; for I 
 am far from admitting that progress in this direc- \ 
 tion has reached the consummation of beneficial
 
 4 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 intercommunication which the twentieth century 
 will witness, and which will aid mightily in the 
 further advancement of science, as well as of art. 
 
 To-day, more than ever, technical experience 
 is not only more freely discussed and disseminated 
 than ever before, but the results of that experience, 
 carried into actual practice, are more unreserv- 
 edly than ever thrown open to technical inspec- 
 tion. The proof of this we, visiting members 
 in attendance at this meeting, have experienced 
 at every step of our journey. There are few great 
 metallurgical works in this country, entrance to 
 which is refused to a visitor who has any real 
 right to ask for admission.* In Europe, even, 
 where old conservative practices are more endur- 
 ing than here, the barrier of exclusiveness is 
 being rapidly broken down. As a rule, those 
 establishments whose doors are most sedulously 
 closed are those least worth studying, except as 
 technical anachronisms. 
 
 Moreover, I think it may be accepted as a fact 
 
 * This observation does not apply in full force to chemical 
 manufactories, where there are supposed to be more secret 
 processes worked behind-doore than in any other branch of 
 technology.
 
 Technical Progress of the 19th Century 5 
 
 that those branches, especially of metallurgy, 
 which have made most progress, are those in 
 which least secrecy and reserve have been prac- 
 ticed. No art has made such marvellous strides 
 as the manufacture of iron and steel. Speaking 
 from my own experience, I may say that I have 
 never been refused admission to any iron- or 
 steel-works on either side of the Atlantic, not 
 even the works of Mr. Frederick Krupp, at Essen. 
 But though iron-masters abroad may freely throw 
 open their doors, our own American iron-mas- 
 ters are even more liberal in communicating their 
 plans and methods. Managers from England, 
 smarting under American competition, who have 
 come to this country to visit our furnaces and 
 rolling-mills, with the avowed object of borrowing 
 their plans, have expressed to me the greatest won- 
 der and admiration at the frankness with which 
 they are allowed to study the great works which 
 have demoralized prices the world over. 
 
 Not only do the iron- and steel-workers of 
 every land bid their rivals enter and view the 
 titanic feats, which each vies with his neighbors 
 in performing: they seem to take delight in 
 telling their very secrets. Certainly no special
 
 8 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 which practice it on a large scale in this country 
 and Europe have acquired, only after much trouble 
 and serious expense, the experience which en- 
 ables them to turn out copper of invariable quality 
 with almost absolute certainty. After spending 
 time, labor and money in overcoming the diffi- 
 culties which mysteriously and unexpectedly 
 turn up, the owner of a copper refinery deems 
 it unbusinesslike to divulge the solution of these 
 problems, and thus place his rival's works on 
 equal footing with his own. But, in reality, his 
 rivals have all been battling with exactly the 
 same foes, and most of them have been victo- 
 rious. The result, therefore, of a mistaken reti- 
 cence is, that each of the works has had to ex- 
 pend, in surmounting exactly the same obsta- 
 cles, six or seven times more mpney and energy 
 than if all had been willing to exchange expe- 
 riences. There is very little to choose between 
 one brand of electrolytic copper and another. 
 All are good; and all have been brought to the 
 present high standard by separate labor and 
 separate series of experiments, in separate es- 
 tablishments; whereas, had there been co-opera- 
 tion on points of purely technical manipulation,
 
 Technical Progress of the igth Century 9 
 
 the same results would have been attained with 
 an immeasurable saving of time, mental wear 
 and tear, and financial expenditure. It is diffi- 
 cult for a skilful manufacturer to appreciate and 
 admit this. But that a truer appreciation of the 
 value of the higher principle of co-operation has 
 taken possession of our copper refiners is evinced 
 by the publication of such a paper as that of 
 Mr. Keller, the Chemist of the Baltimore Copper 
 Co., in the last volume of the Mineral Industry. 
 
 I have used the above instance, drawn from 
 copper-metallurgy, as an illustration of the waste- 
 ful effects of secrecy, and because it stands out 
 in such a glaring contrast to the nobler practice 
 of mutual helpfulness, which has been one of the 
 most potent forces in raising all manufacturing, 
 but especially that of iron and steel, to the ex- 
 alted position it has attained during the latter 
 half of the century with which we are regretfully 
 parting. 
 
 As time goes on, and a generous dissemination 
 of personal knowledge, even if it be not strictly 
 practical, becomes the rule and not the excep- 
 tion, it will be discovered that, after all,, success 
 in manufacturing will depend as much on the
 
 8 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 which practice it on a large scale in this country 
 and Europe have acquired, only after much trouble 
 and serious expense, the experience which en- 
 ables them to turn out copper of invariable quality 
 with almost absolute certainty. After spending 
 time, labor and money in overcoming the diffi- 
 culties which mysteriously and unexpectedly 
 turn up, the owner of a copper refinery deems 
 it unbusinesslike to divulge the solution of these 
 problems, and thus place his rival's works on 
 equal footing with his own. But, in reality, his 
 rivals have all been battling with exactly the 
 same foes, and most of them have been victo- 
 rious. The result, therefore, of a mistaken reti- 
 cence is, that each of the works has had to ex- 
 pend, in surmounting exactly the same obsta- 
 cles, six or seven times more money and energy 
 than if all had been willing to exchange expe- 
 riences. There is very little to choose between 
 one brand of electrolytic copper and another. 
 All are good; and all have been brought to the 
 present high standard by separate labor and 
 separate series of experiments, in separate es- 
 tablishments; whereas, had there been co-opera- 
 tion on points of purely technical manipulation,
 
 Technical Progress of the iQth Century 9 
 
 the same results would have been attained with 
 an immeasurable saving of time, mental wear 
 and tear, and financial expenditure. It is diffi- 
 cult for a skilful manufacturer to appreciate and 
 admit this. But that a truer appreciation of the 
 value of the higher principle of co-operation has 
 taken possession of our copper refiners is evinced 
 by the publication of such a paper as that of 
 Mr. Keller, the Chemist of the Baltimore Copper 
 Co., in the last volume of the Mineral Industry. 
 
 I have used the above instance, drawn from 
 copper-metallurgy, as an illustration of the waste- 
 ful effects of secrecy, and because it stands out 
 in such a glaring contrast to the nobler practice 
 of mutual helpfulness, which has been one of the 
 most potent forces in raising all manufacturing, 
 but especially that of iron and steel, to the ex- 
 alted position it has attained during the latter 
 half of the century with which we are regretfully 
 parting. 
 
 As time goes on, and a generous dissemination 
 of personal knowledge, even if it be not strictly 
 practical, becomes the rule and not the excep- 
 tion, it will be discovered that, after all, success 
 in manufacturing will depend as much on the
 
 lo Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 personal energy and skill with which the knowl- 
 edge is applied as on the possession of the knowl- 
 edge itself. 
 
 Whether we will or not, secrecy, as a business 
 method, is becoming almost obsolete under the 
 prying scrutiny of the press and the telegraph. 
 The old rules of business, dependent on reserve 
 and on news secured in advance of one's neigh- 
 bor, have given place to new methods. The 
 chronicle of the world's doings is at the disposal 
 of any one for a few cents, every morning of the 
 year. But a man of business genius draws from 
 it conclusions very different from those of his 
 less imaginative or less enterprising rival. Both 
 men may possess, as stock in trade, the same 
 facts, but the abler man makes successful use of 
 them. His correct and far-sighted deductions 
 lead him to adopt a policy and pursue a course 
 of action as different from those of his sluggish 
 competitor as if he had himself possessed special 
 sources of information. 
 
 And so it is in the practice of our peculiar arts. 
 The personal element determines the success of 
 one man and the failure of another, though both 
 start out with the same store of facts. Neverthe-
 
 Technical Progress of the igth Century n 
 
 less, the more facts he has, the more rapid will 
 be the rise of the man of genius, while the pace 
 of the other will certainly not be retarded. The 
 man of genius, therefore, need not grudge the 
 communications of his facts to his less progressive 
 competitor, provided he learns, in exchange, what 
 few facts his slower neighbor may have picked 
 up by the way. 
 
 While all must admit that the world's rapid 
 advance in material well-being has been due to 
 the dissemination of knowledge, and that this 
 can be effected only by the breaking down of the 
 barriers of secrecy, some of our brethren have 
 yet to be persuaded that there are few, if any, 
 limitations to be set to this universal law. Un- 
 fortunately, many barricades, raised by mistaken 
 selfishness, are still to be stormed and demolished. 
 But the coming century will in this respect carry 
 forward the work of the receding age, whether 
 we shall see its accomplishment or not. At any 
 rate, we may congratulate ourselves that socie- 
 ties such as ours have aided to further so good 
 a cause, not only as media of communication, 
 but also as sources of influence for the most con- 
 firmed secret-keeper cannot benefit by the candid
 
 12 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 revelations of his rival without some compunc- 
 tion; and, sooner or later, reform follows re- 
 pentance. It is, therefore, not presumptuous 
 to hope that, as the scientific temper more and 
 more permeates the habits of our technical workers, 
 the old fashion of relying on secrets for success 
 will be replaced by the truer method of generous 
 giving and thankful receptivity. 
 
 At present the world's acquisitions in pure, 
 and, to a great extent, in applied science, are 
 thrown into a common stock, from which the tech- 
 nical worker draws what he wants without stint. 
 He, in his turn, is coming to acknowledge and 
 recognize the truth that it will be to his advan- 
 tage to enlarge the sphere of unreserved inter- 
 communication until there shall be no trade- 
 secrets; for then, while society will be the gainer, 
 he himself will be able to draw from a larger capi- 
 tal of facts than now stands to his credit. More- 
 over, it may accepted almost as a law of nature 
 that the preson who has not cultivated the habit 
 of mental giving acquires a spirit of narrow ex- 
 clusiveness which cramps the faculty of open- 
 minded receptivity for receiving and giving are 
 reciprocal intellectual motions.
 
 Technical Progress of the iQth Century 13 
 
 Though the influence of individuals on the in- 
 dustry of the country is keenly felt, national 
 progress, in its widest range, is not made through 
 the impelling force of one man, be he ever so able. 
 It results from the united efforts of many minds . 
 and many hands, acting under the contagion of 
 a common inspiration. Looking at the develop- 
 ment of a whole people, or of a single industry 
 as a unit, we may therefore perceive that the 
 old habits of secrecy in manufacturing enter- 
 prises frustrate the very object which the secret- 
 keeper aims at; for while he is guarding behind 
 double doors his depreciated treasure, the great 
 army of progress is marching past him. 
 
 To a certain extent, community of ideas and 
 methods is secured through such combinations 
 of capital and manufacturing interests as have 
 become the most prominent features of modern 
 industrial development. All the peculiar pro- 
 cesses and methods (if there be such) practiced 
 by each of a dozen combined mills become the 
 property of the unified concern, and can be ap- 
 plied in all its establishments. But should the 
 result of industrial combinations be the reversal 
 of the tendency towards freer discussions, and
 
 14 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 should the managements of these tremendous ag- 
 gregations of power prohibit on the part of their 
 employees all discussion of technical subjects, a 
 strong prejudice against their existence would 
 .be created in the public mind, which naturally 
 distrusts all secretiveness. The public will not 
 unreasonably conclude that if one of the great 
 economical benefits which accrue from such com- 
 binations is the "pooling" of individual secrets, 
 much greater would be the general benefit if all 
 reserve should disappear, and the technical facts 
 learned by each industrial combination were 
 communicated to all, as freely as Rontgen gave 
 to the world his discovery of the "X" rays. 
 Ours is stigmatized as a mercenary age. Never- 
 theless, there is a spirit of fraternal helpfulness 
 abroad in the world. I believe that before long he 
 will be honored as the most successful man who has 
 communicated to his fellow-craftsmen the greatest 
 number of useful facts and the largest stock of 
 valuable personal experience; and I believe, also, 
 that any combination of selfish men or interests 
 which may try to withstand this rising tide of 
 free thought and free speech will be swept away. 
 As I have already remarked, this modern spirit
 
 Technical Progress of the iQth Century 15 
 
 of voluntary interchange of thought and expe- 
 rience has been stimulated by the means of trans- 
 portation and communication which alone have 
 made its effective operation possible. Railroads, 
 steamboats and the telegraph have been the 
 apostles and missionaries of free thought and 
 free speech. But they have served another pur- 
 pose. They have virtually determined the cur- 
 rent of population and the drift of mining and 
 metallurgical industry. 
 
 It is difficult to realize the diminutive propor- 
 tion of human settlement on this continent dur- 
 ing the first three decades of this century. In 
 the year 1800 the population of the United States 
 was 5,305,937. There were only 903 post-offices 
 and 21,000 miles of post-roads and very bad 
 roads at that. The Post Office revenue amounted 
 to only $231,000; and only four cities could boast 
 of a population exceeding 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 In 1830 the population had increased, chiefly 
 by natural increment, to 12,860,020. But the 
 manufacture of metals was still a local industry; 
 and so it continued for nearly two more decades 
 while the railroad system of the country was 
 expanding, so as to link section with section and
 
 1 6 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 fuel with ore. The year 1830 was economically 
 the critical period of our history, for in it the rail- 
 road first appears as a factor in our industrial 
 life. Twenty-three miles of track had been laid. 
 By 1840 locomotives were running over 4535 
 miles of road, and in that year the first attempt 
 was made to incorporate industrial statistics by 
 quantity, instead of value, in our census-returns. 
 
 If we compare two items of the statistics of 
 1840 with the same in 1899 we shall appreciate 
 how potent the railroad has been as a controlling 
 power in mining and smelting, and what a revo- 
 lution it has wrought in the industrial life of the 
 nation. 
 
 As we have said, in 1840 there were 4535 miles 
 of railroad in operation. In 1840 there were 
 scattered over the inhabited sections of the coun- 
 try 804 small blast-furnaces, making 256,100 
 tons of pig iron. In 1899 our railroad system 
 included 250,142 miles of track, and there were 
 made in 200 blast-furnaces 13,620,703 tons of 
 pig iron. If we multiply by 53 the number of 
 miles of railroad in operation in 1840 and the 
 number of tons of pig iron made in that same year 
 by the same multiplier, we get approximately
 
 Technical Progress of the 19th Century 17 
 
 the mileage of track now in existence and the 
 tonnage of pig iron turned out by our blast- 
 furnaces, viz., 249,425 miles of track, instead of 
 250,142, and 14,085,500 tons of pig iron instead 
 of 13,620,703. The relation cannot be accidental, 
 for there is every reason why the magnificent 
 iron industry of the country should keep pace 
 with the extension of its railroad system. The 
 lines of growth have not always been perfectly 
 harmonious, but there has never been any wide 
 divergence from parallelism. 
 
 [Though the production of pig iron since 1898 
 has increased more rapidly than the mileage of 
 the steam railroads, if the mileage of the extra- 
 urban electric and steam street roads, and the 
 increase in second tracks, be added to that of 
 the railroads, the ratio is closely maintained. 
 Recently the miscalled street railroads, as ur- 
 ban, suburban and interurban roads have been 
 extended in competition with the railroads from 
 town to town, and in some cases are constructed 
 on the standard of a railroad, with heavy steel 
 and rolling stock for freight. The Union Trac- 
 tion Co. controls not less than 1201 miles of road, 
 centering in Philadelphia; the United Power &
 
 i8 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 Transportation Co. controls some 220 miles; and 
 the United Traction Co. of Reading 650 miles. 
 In California, the system centering in Los Angeles 
 has in operation or under construction 826 miles 
 of track. In 1904, the mileage in operation or 
 under construction of these street railroads in 
 the United States, has reached a total of about 
 28,000 miles. The Census Bulletin Number 3 
 reports for 1902, 22,589 miles as in operation. 
 In 1903 the number of miles of railroad track 
 was 283,821. If to this be added 28,000 miles 
 of street railway track, we have a total mileage 
 of 311,821. The pig iron production for 1903 
 was 17,942,840. If, therefore, the pig iron pro- 
 duction of 1840 be multiplied by 70, we have 
 17,927,000 tons, as against the actual produc- 
 tion for that year of 17,942,840. And if the rail- 
 road mileage of 4835 in 1840 be multiplied by 
 the same multiplier, we have 317,450 miles of 
 track, as against the actual of 311,821 miles of 
 track.] 
 
 Equally important in its bearing on the iron- 
 trade has been the development of inland navi- 
 gation. The difference between the first steamer, 
 "Walk on the Water," that timidly ventured
 
 Technical Progress of the iQth Century 19 
 
 out on Lake Erie, and the present large iron 
 steamers, which, with their consorts, last year 
 transported 14,000,000 tons of iron-ore from 
 Lake Superior ports, is as great as between the 
 "John Bull" of the Mohawk & Hudson R. R. 
 and No. 999 of the N. Y. Central & Hudson 
 River R. R. [The tonnage of the steamers on 
 our Lakes, especially those devoted to the trans- 
 portation of iron-ores, is growing as rapidly as 
 the size of our railroad trains. 
 
 The "Augustus B. Wolvin" and the "Sahara," 
 the two largest boats on the Lakes, were both 
 launched in 1904. Their dimensions are : 
 
 
 Length, 
 
 Beam, 
 
 Depth, 
 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 "Wolvin" 
 
 540 
 
 56 
 
 32 
 
 10,000 gross tons on 
 
 
 
 
 
 draught of 18 J feet 
 
 "Sahara" 
 
 474 
 
 52 
 
 29 
 
 8,000 to 9,000 gross 
 
 
 
 
 
 tons 
 
 Of vessels plying the Great Lakes there are 67 
 having a tonnage capacity exceeding 4500 gross 
 tons. Nineteen of these have a tonnage capacity 
 exceeding 5000 gross tons.] 
 
 With increased size of, and improved machin- 
 ery in, vehicles on land and water, the cost of
 
 20 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 transportation has correspondingly decreased, 
 until freight has been carried, on long-distance 
 hauls, with profit to the railroad company, for 
 four mills per ton-mile. [Railroad freights on 
 certain commodities are as low as even two and 
 a half to three mills per ton-mile for long hauls.] 
 The data for comparison with former freights 
 are scanty, but the statistics of the Fitchburg 
 R. R. give us as the average freight rate in 1848 
 4.523 cents, and in 1897 0.870 cent per ton- 
 mile. 
 
 When Lake Superior began to ship iron-ore, in 
 1857, the transportation-charges were about $3 
 per ton to Lake Erie ports. The "wild" and 
 "daily" rate in 1897 was 55 cents; the contract- 
 rate, 65 cents. From Escanaba it was only 45 
 cents, and from Duluth 57 cents. Freight has 
 been transported across the Atlantic, a distance 
 of 3000 miles, for a little over $1 per ton. This 
 obliteration of distances by steam-power has 
 altered completely the commercial and even the 
 social conditions of the country. Before the rail- 
 road and steamboat produced the industrial uni- 
 fication of the continent, not only were food and 
 clothes the product of local and domestic manu-
 
 Technical Progress of the igth Century 21 
 
 facture, but such a necessary article as iron was 
 cast in small furnaces or reduced in small bloom- 
 eries, wherever iron-ore and charcoal were found, 
 even in limited quantities, near a water-power, 
 To transport either fuel or ore for any distance 
 over bad country-roads to large establishments 
 was less economical than to run the village fur- 
 nace or forge. With the appearance of the rail- 
 road commenced the concentration of raw mate- 
 rial and the shifting of the centers of the iron- 
 industry to a few favored localities. The process 
 has continued ever since, to the serious detriment 
 and even destruction of some of the older mining 
 and metallurgical districts, and the creation of 
 prosperous communities in what was, a genera- 
 tion or two ago, an inaccessible wilderness. Ore 
 and fuel need no longer occur in natural juxta- 
 position: ore from the Mesaba range in Minne- 
 sota, has been delivered at so low a figure at 
 Pittsburgh, in Pennsylvania, that, when turned 
 into iron and steel by the aid of mechanical appli- 
 ances, steel rails have been made from it, and 
 sold at $16 per ton. It is less than a generation 
 since Bessemer rails, made by the same process, 
 but out of costlier ores and by cruder appliances,
 
 22 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 cost $120 per ton. In very truth, so obedient 
 have the forces of nature become to the will of 
 man that weight and distance, which were, in the 
 days of hard labor and horse-carts, controlling 
 considerations, are being well-nigh eliminated 
 from the calculations of modem engineers. 
 
 Cheap transportation has not affected the iron 
 industry alone. It has made it possible to utilize 
 the copper- and lead-ores of the West, and to 
 reduce the cost of their treatment, by taking 
 advantage of neighboring natural facilities. For 
 instance, the Anaconda Co. transports its ore 
 for a few cents from Butte to water at Anaconda, 
 38 miles distant; and it is advantageous to carry 
 Boston & Montana ore over 176 miles to water- 
 power on the Missouri River. But the very 
 romance of transportation was reached in the 
 following instance: matte was bought at full 
 price in Tennessee; transported by rail to Nor- 
 folk, Va.; then shipped to Tampico, in Mexico; 
 carried half-way across that Republic; saturated 
 with gold and silver; concentrated into black 
 copper, and brought back by rail and water to 
 New Jersey for electrolytic treatment! Every- 
 where the same wonderful interchange of products
 
 Technical Progress of the igth Century 23 
 
 and transfer of energy from one part of a land to 
 another, or from one country to another, are being 
 effected by the same agencies, thus making the 
 whole world kin, and more or less interdependent 
 as well as independent. With further improve- 
 ment in motive-power by land and sea, the pres- 
 ent cost of transportation, low as it is, will be 
 steadily reduced, until the day will come when the 
 natural resources of every land will be the com- 
 mon property of the whole world. Already the 
 great German iron and steel plants of Stettin 
 rely entirely on imported crude material. Eng- 
 land, Germany, and France draw most of their 
 supply of iron-ore from foreign lands. Even we 
 ourselves do not depend altogether on home 
 supply. And when we review the world's re- 
 sources, we must be convinced that the quantity 
 available within economical reach is so enormous 
 as to preclude all risk of failure from the ex- 
 haustion of raw material or of the acquisition 
 by any one country of a monopoly of manufac- 
 ture. In the north of Sweden, within the Arctic 
 circle, are iron ore deposits of phenomenal size. 
 
 Since 1899 these enormous deposits of iron-ore 
 have been rendered accessible by a railroad ter-
 
 24 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 minating at Narvik or Victoriahavn on the Atlan- 
 tic, a port free from ice the year around. The 
 railroad was opened on November 15, 1902, 
 but the docks of Narvik are not yet completed. 
 The Gellivara mines have been shipping over 
 1,000,000 tons of ore a year over a railroad which 
 has been open for several years to Lulea on the 
 Gulf of Bothnia, a port which is closed by ice 
 during the winter. But the Gellivara is one of 
 the smaller deposits. The Kiirunavaara deposit 
 has a continuous length of over two miles and 
 an average width of about 300 feet, and its ex- 
 tension, the Luossavaara deposit, which has not 
 yet been touched, is estimated to contain above 
 the level of Lake Luossagaivi 218,000,000 tons 
 of ore. That the ore contains on an average far 
 too much phosphorus for treatment on an acid 
 bottom is considered no disadvantage by the 
 German works at Lulea, where some of the phos- 
 phorus is separated mechanically as apatite, as 
 is now done on Lake Champlain, for treatment 
 by the German steel works, who have no preju- 
 dice against the basic bottom. The Kiirunavaara- 
 Luossavaara deposit is only 105 miles by railroad 
 from the port of Narvik. The Gellivara deposit
 
 Technical Progress of the iQth Century 25 
 
 is 168 miles, and the Roulevara deposits, which 
 are almost as extensive as the Kiirunavaara- 
 Luossavara deposits, lie only 70 miles west of 
 Gellivara. There are therefore within an area 
 not larger than that comprised within the Mesaba 
 and Vermilion Ranges deposits of iron-ore re- 
 markably high in iron, though high also in phos- 
 phorus, whose horizontal section is approximately 
 1,000,000 square meters, and containing above 
 the surface not less than 500,000,000 tons of ore. 
 Their accessibility to the markets of Northern 
 Europe compares favorably with that of our own 
 Lake Superior ores to our own iron centers. The 
 average distance which the Kiirunavaara-Luos- 
 savara ores must be carried to reach Narvik is 
 very few miles greater than that over which the 
 ores of the Mesaba and Vermilion Ranges are 
 transported over the D. & I. R.R. or the D. M. 
 & N. Ry. to the docks on Lake Superior. Once 
 on board ship the Swedish ores travel 1170 miles 
 to reach Middlesborough as against 834 miles 
 which is the distance of Duluth from Cleveland, 
 or 985 from the same point to Buffalo. If con- 
 signed to Pittsburgh furnaces, the Lake Superior 
 ore has to be trans-shipped at an Erie port and
 
 26 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 carried by rail 150 miles further. The climatic 
 conditions for transportation and the geographical 
 relation of the Swedish ores to the furnaces of 
 Northern Europe are as favorable as that of the 
 Lake Superior ores to our furnaces on the Lakes, 
 and more favorable than their relation to Pitts- 
 burgh.* 
 
 According to the Engineering and Mining Jour- 
 nal, it is reported that four of the largest iron pro- 
 ducers in Germany, including the Gutehoffenung, 
 Deutscher Kaiser, Rheinische and Krupp com- 
 panies, have entered into a contract with the 
 Trafaktiebolaget Grangesberg Ocselosun, the 
 owners, for the delivery of 14,000,000 tons of 
 iron-ore. The shipments are to be made via 
 Emden and Holland ports. The ore will be 
 mined from the deposits of Grangesberg, Gelli- 
 vara and Kiirunavaara. 
 
 On the shores of Hudson Bay, of Baffin Bay, 
 and of Newfoundland large deposits of iron-ore 
 occur, which are not excluded by ice for a much 
 
 * Lundbohm, Iron-Ore Fields of the Province of Norrbolten, 
 Stockholm, 1898, and W. F. Wilkinson on " Iron-Ore Mining in 
 Scandinavia" Transactions of the Institution of Mining and 
 Metallurgy.
 
 Technical Progress of the iQth Century 27 
 
 longer period of the year from the market of the 
 world than are ours by like obstacles from our 
 own markets; [and very extensive deposits of 
 high grade ore exist almost on the Pacific coast 
 of Mexico. This seems a locality far from the 
 commercial centers of the world, but when the 
 Panama Canal is opened, it will be within the 
 circle of accessible commerce]. When our canals 
 shall have been enlarged, or new ones shall have 
 been built, Lake Superior ores may find their 
 way to European furnaces almost as cheaply as 
 to Pittsburgh. [While no Lake Superior ore has 
 as yet been shipped in quantity to Europe, Lake 
 Champlain mines have consigned large shipments 
 to Scotland and Holland. The Engineering and 
 Mining Journal is responsible for the statement 
 that in June of 1904, 12,000 tons were sent, to be 
 followed by 18,000 tons more to cover contracts 
 of 30,000 tons. This ore is shipped by Wither- 
 bee, Sherman & Co., and is from the mines owned 
 by that company, in the Lake Champlain dis- 
 trict in New York. The ore is carried from Port 
 Henry by Lake and Canal to New York harbor. 
 The movement has been favored by low ocean 
 rates, the charge from New York to Antwerp
 
 28 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 being about five shillings, or $1.20 per ton.] Cali- 
 fornia has drawn coal from New South Wales and 
 sulphur from Japan. England depends largely 
 on New Zealand for her fresh mutton; and our 
 wheat, beef and pork feed the population of the 
 world. Thus nature's commodities, now that 
 we are learning how to control and use nature's 
 forces, are becoming the common property of all 
 mankind. If that be so, and if the world's re- 
 sources are in the future to become more and 
 more cosmopolitan, the race for industrial pre- 
 eminence will not necessarily be to those who 
 possess within their own national domain the 
 crude materials for workmanship, but to those 
 who by native wit and scientific learning and 
 acute research can, out of the crude material, 
 manufacture, most cheaply and of best quality, 
 just what the world at large wants. And there- 
 fore, if certain groups of the world's inhabitants 
 progress more rapidly than others, it will not be 
 altogether or primarily because they possess an 
 undue share of nature's material gifts, but be- 
 cause they evince more aptitude in availing them- 
 selves of the opportunities which nature offers 
 them.
 
 Technical Progress of the igth Century 29 
 
 Our own industrial growth has excited the 
 wonder of the world. While it is true that our 
 progress would not have been so rapid and so far- 
 reaching in its influence, had the nation not pos- 
 sessed within its own boundaries natural resources 
 as extraordinary for their diversity as for their 
 quantity, certain political and social forces have 
 concurred in facilitating our growth. Only two 
 generations have passed since the era of our rapid 
 industrial advance began. Since then we have 
 been able to tap the untouched resources of a 
 whole, marvellously rich continent, with the 
 whole world's past experience to draw from, 
 while relieved from many of the social and indus- 
 trial complications which impede free action in 
 the Old World. Never in the history of mankind 
 have so many favorable causes combined to assist 
 the industrial development of a people. During 
 the first half of the century, few sordid distrac- 
 tions withdrew the nation's energies from the 
 greatest task a people can undertake the crea- 
 tion and consolidation of a system of popular 
 government. With the establishment of this on a 
 firm basis, the discoveries of modern science and 
 technology coincided. Thus a free nation was
 
 30 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 enabled to turn to account its splendid resources 
 with the aid of appliances and natural forces 
 which were contemporaneously and for the first 
 time being brought under the control of man- 
 kind. Yet, for all that, had there not been cer- 
 tain qualities in the national character, or, per- 
 haps, to speak more accurately, in the spirit of 
 our industrial classes, these bounties of nature 
 would have remained hidden or neglected. 
 
 When we try to analyze the social influences 
 which have been, apart from the natural advan- 
 tages of this country, the impelling causes in 
 bringing about its rapid rise in the industrial 
 scale, certain differences which distinguish the 
 conditions existing here from those of the older 
 industrial centers of Europe are very conspicuous. 
 Labor, generally superabundant abroad, has here 
 been scarce, and therefore dear. To this cause 
 is, in part, though not altogether, attributable 
 our substitution of machinery for hand-labor in 
 every department of life. To consider the ulti- 
 mate effect of this substitution on our national 
 life is beyond our province, but is is almost cer- 
 tain that this elimination of manual labor is ex- 
 erting both an elevating and a depraving influ-
 
 Technical Progress of the 19th Century 31 
 
 ence on our working classes. The handling of 
 machinery requires, in some vocations, a keener 
 intelligence than the manual use of tools. The 
 engineer of a steam-hoist brings into play a set of 
 faculties very different from those exercised by 
 the men toiling at the handles of a windlass. The 
 gunner of a modern man-of-war must be some- 
 what of a mathematician as well as a sailor. On 
 the other hand, the effect of repeating, day in 
 and day out, the same series of manual opera- 
 tions, in keeping up with the unvarying speed 
 of a machine, tends to reduce the man to the 
 level of the machine itself, and must have a most 
 benumbing effect on the faculties. The all- 
 round mechanic of former days is rapidly be- 
 coming extinct. 
 
 A factor in our progress which should not be 
 overlooked is that our miners and metallurgists 
 have the advantage of working new mines and 
 starting and operating new smelting works, in- 
 stead of being the successors of generations of 
 eminent men, whose fame was in all the schools, 
 and to question whose methods, and even their 
 theories, were heresy. The conditions facing the 
 trained miner and metallurgist even in the East,
 
 32 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 but especially in the West, are so different to 
 those for which rules and precepts were laid 
 down by his teachers, that he had of necessity 
 to depart from precedent, and shape out for him- 
 self new machinery and adopt for his practice 
 new processes, while living up to the scientific 
 principles which must underlie all successful 
 work. It is easier, however, for him to do so 
 than it is for the manager of Old World estab- 
 lishments to adapt himself to altered conditions, 
 and more modern methods. Even if his rever- 
 ence for the past be as profound, and his knowl- 
 edge of its ways as deep, as those of his European 
 confreres, it wounds him less to tear himself away 
 from the old ways which have become almost 
 sacred through long practice than it would be for 
 the manager of works in Saxony or the Hartz, or 
 Swansea, to desecrate the memory of his ancestors. 
 Again, while it is true that without the scien- 
 tific assistance which highly trained metallur- 
 gists have contributed to our American miners 
 and metallurgists who compose so large a pro- 
 portion of our operating staff, our eminent posi- 
 tion would not have been attained, unless the 
 initiative had generally been taken by men who
 
 Technical Progress of the iQth Century 33 
 
 brought native wit rather than training to bear 
 on the solution of the many new problems that 
 have presented themselves. 
 
 And this spirit of originality, not of revolt 
 against the past, influences the business depart- 
 ment of our important enterprises as keenly as 
 it does the operating. It is seen in nothing more 
 conspicuously than in the worthlessness attached 
 to an old plant; the recognition of the fact that 
 it is intrinsically valueless except for the work 
 it is actually doing, and that as soon as it falls 
 behind the plant of a competitor in efficiency it 
 must be torn down and replaced by another, which 
 will enable its owner to maintain his position. 
 Of course, this expensive practice is economical 
 only when applied to works where the saving 
 on the unit of production is so large as to warrant 
 it, and where, as invariably happens, the new 
 plant introduces new mechanical appliances, 
 which reduces the labor cost. Nevertheless, the 
 willingness with which capital thus wipes out 
 what stands at such a high figure on its books, 
 the certainty with which it anticipates that busi- 
 ness will grow and not decline, and the cheerful- 
 ness with which it faces depression and even dis-
 
 34 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 aster, when buoyed up with this confidence, are 
 traits which have distinguished American mining 
 and metallurgical companies, in all departments, 
 from their foreign competitors. 
 
 In many other respects our rivals in trade are 
 handicapped, and it is fair that we should take 
 credit only for what we really deserve. In this 
 country, few local ties bind the employer and 
 the employed. In the Old World the case is 
 different. There certain branches of manufac- 
 ture have been planted for generations in the 
 same locality. The business has been conducted 
 by the ancestors of the present owners, and the 
 work has been done by the ancestors of the present 
 operatives; and there has grown up a certain 
 sense of joint interest, if not common ownership, 
 in the works. This makes difficult the intro- 
 duction of modern methods and of modern ma- 
 chinery, which, to say the least, necessarily in- 
 volves a dislocation of old associations. In 
 the famous Krupp works at Essen, for instance, 
 the house, not bigger than a hut, in which the 
 founder of the famous firm lived, is preserved as 
 the nucleus of the existing wonderful mill, as 
 sacredly as though it were the sanctuary of a
 
 Technical Progress of the igth Century 35 
 
 temple. In going through the plant, I observed 
 that the Bessemer converters were idle. All the 
 steel was being made in the open-hearth furnaces. 
 I asked my guide what had become of the Besse- 
 mer workmen. He said they were being em- 
 ployed on buildings for a new colony. I, not 
 unnaturally, observed that steel-workers must 
 prove unhandy operatives at any other craft; 
 but my guide replied that Mr. Krupp never dis- 
 charged a faithful man if it were possible to find 
 temporary employment for him in some other 
 department. Such a sentimental motive seldom 
 influences our great employers of labor; and 
 our independent workmen would despise as un- 
 business-like such a procedure. 
 
 [Shortly after my visit to Mr. Krupp's works 
 I met an American manufacturer who told me 
 that by introducing electricity as a motive power 
 from a central station he had been able to dis- 
 charge five hundred workmen. I asked him what 
 had become of the five hundred. His reply was 
 that there is plenty of vacant land in America 
 as well as vacant employment for them. Their 
 future gave him no concern, nor perhaps need 
 it have done so.]
 
 36 Characteristics and Conditions of the 
 
 Looking at this phase of our industrial system 
 from an economical point of view, the absence 
 of such sympathy, and the latitude it allows to 
 our manufacturer to do what self-interest sug- 
 gests, materially aid in introducing economies 
 which (at any rate, temporarily) give him an ad- 
 vantage over his European competitors. Abroad 
 this bond is so strong between the owners of old 
 works and the descendants of the ancestral work- 
 men, that I know of one large establishment in 
 Britain which is anxious to introduce modern 
 appliances, involving a change in methods so 
 radical as to require the discharge of a very large 
 number of its old hands; but the odium and 
 opposition incurred by doing this in the home of 
 the old industry would be so intolerable that, 
 rather than face them, despite the economical 
 absurdity of the alternative recourse, the old 
 works will probably be completely abandoned 
 and new ones will be erected in a distant portion 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 It is difficult for us to appreciate the gravity 
 of such obstacles to change and progress; and 
 yet, at the same time, one regrets that before 
 the inexorable claims, of modern mechanical
 
 Technical Progress of the iQth Century 37 
 
 progress, the fine family feeling of co-partnership, 
 in which such obstacles originate, should be 
 crushed. And, looking beyond the present, we 
 must perceive that on the solution of these difficult 
 and obstinate problems the advance of some over 
 others of the great industrial communities of the 
 world in the twentieth century will depend. 
 
 We shall, however, commit a grievous mis- 
 take, if we imagine that the reaction of our ex- 
 ample upon Europe will not be as sensitively felt 
 as the influence of Europe has been felt by us in 
 the past. England is more seriously handicapped 
 than any of the progressive peoples in reorganiz- 
 ing her industrial household, by the fact that for 
 half of the last century she was the paramount 
 power in the industrial world, and that it is diffi- 
 cult for any country thus situated to reach the 
 conclusion that some, even, of the machinery and 
 methods of trade and manufacture, which gave 
 her supremacy, may have become obsolete, and 
 should be discarded. But she is rapidly recog- 
 nizing the truth that conditions have changed, 
 and that she must change with them. Germany, 
 on the other hand, and to a lesser extent Belgium 
 and France, started on the new development of
 
 38 Technical Progress of the igth Century 
 
 their mineral resources at a later date than our- 
 selves, and are less weighted down than is Eng- 
 land by old plants and old prejudices. 
 
 As all these vigorous competitors are in the 
 field, and will be bidders against us in the markets 
 of the world, which we are about to enter, and 
 rivals even in our own markets, we will make a 
 grave error if we count on victory mainly through 
 the resources of the coal and the iron-ores, which 
 we possess within our own land; for the conclu- 
 sion and lesson I would rightly or wrongly draw 
 from the preceding general survey is, that the 
 industrial standard of a nation in the twentieth 
 century is likely to be determined more by its 
 capacity for progress than by its mere possession 
 of crude natural resources. Not only the world's 
 primary supplies, but also the world's technical 
 experience, are becoming more and more the 
 heritage of all; and consequently the lead will 
 be taken by the nation whose technical managers 
 possess skill, stimulated and not stunted by edu- 
 cation, and so directed as, by elevating the intel- 
 lectual condition of its operatives, to prevent 
 them from sinking to the level of mere cogs in the 
 wheel of a soulless industrial machine.
 
 The Development of American Mining and 
 
 Metallurgy, and the Equipments of a 
 
 Training School 
 
 An Address Delivered before the School of Mines and Metallurgy, of 
 the University of Missouri, May 30th, 1901. 
 
 GENTLEMEN : 
 
 I have been asked to address you to-day on the 
 twin subjects of the Development of American 
 Mining and Metallurgy and the Requirements of 
 a Mining School, for which please understand 
 the requirements of a student after he has left a 
 Mining School. The subjects are so closely re- 
 lated that the elucidation of the one will serve 
 as a text to the other. I will not bore you with 
 a table of statistics, which are forgotten by the 
 hearer as rapidly as uttered by the speaker. 
 They certainly flatter our national vanity, but 
 are not, in so far as they consist merely of unre- 
 lated columns of figures, especially useful. Some 
 day or other the statistical branch of political 
 
 39
 
 4-O American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 economy may be reduced to the order of a sci- 
 ence. When this is done even mineral statistics 
 may assist us in forecasting the future, which is 
 one of the provinces of science, and thus in a cer- 
 tain sense, give stability to our industrial system 
 if system it may be called. This will come 
 about when we trace the industrial relations of 
 metals to one another and to the vicissitudes of 
 economic life. Take for instance the fact that 
 the production of pig iron in this country and the 
 increase in mileage of our railroads have almost 
 exactly kept pace during the last sixty years; or 
 the further fact that the production and con- 
 sumption of iron and copper, taking the world as 
 a whole, during the past half century has grown 
 in equal proportions. If we could trace a num- 
 ber of such relations, we would have partial data 
 on which to predict the activity of a given branch 
 of metallurgy when the country was enjoying 
 prosperity, or the depression which must follow 
 when railroad traffic is in sympathy with na- 
 tional distress. Again, if we could formulate the 
 law, assuming that there be such a law, which 
 expresses the reliance, both as to production and 
 demand, of the rarer useful metals on iron, and
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 41 
 
 their price, by comparison with the demand for 
 and the price of iron and steel, we would convert 
 the study of mineral statistics from being the 
 driest and most tedious accumulation of isolated 
 and often irrelevant figures into one of the most 
 useful branches of economics. Moreover, when- 
 ever you discover a statistical fact or a statistical 
 relation which tends to erect statistics into a sci- 
 ence, you help to bridge that heretofore impass- 
 able gulf intervening between the exact sciences, 
 which are independent of human volition, and 
 therefore of human interference, such as mathe- 
 matics and astronomy, and that still more im- 
 portant group of sciences in which man, as a 
 sentient and willful being, seems to modify, if 
 he does not control, the play of natural forces. 
 But, as I said, I shall not worry you with columns 
 of figures. 
 
 That we should be the largest producers of 
 metals in the world is not to be wondered at, 
 considering our preponderating size and advan- 
 tageous geographic position among its industrial 
 units, and taking into further account the fact 
 that we are working virgin soil of an almost newly 
 discovered continent, while our most important
 
 42 American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 competitors were metal producers from ten to 
 twenty-five centuries ago. The surprising feat- 
 ure of our short industrial history is rather the 
 amazing speed with which we have reached our 
 dominant position. 
 
 And what, therefore, it is of utmost importance 
 to us to study are the causes, including traits of 
 national character, which have helped us towards 
 taking the lead as metal producers; for, if we are 
 to maintain it, you, as miners and metallurgists, 
 must be inspired by the same spirit and follow 
 the same general methods as have enabled the 
 passing generation to raise this country from a 
 position of dependence to that of a leader, not 
 only in bulk of production, but in ingenious appli- 
 cation of scientific principles to practical utility. 
 
 If we go back a little more than half a century 
 to 1840, when the first industrial census was made, 
 we find that there were scattered throughout the 
 length and breadth of the land, from Maine to 
 the wilderness of Wisconsin, 804 iron blast-fur- 
 naces, making 256,100 tons of pig iron, or one 
 pig per diem per furnace, and 796 bloomeries and 
 forges, making small quantities of wrought iron 
 direct from the ores, or converting some of the
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 43 
 
 pig into malleable iron. These little furnaces 
 and bloomeries and forges were not worked by 
 trained metallurgists, but by farmers and back- 
 woodsmen, who .had to produce a local supply of 
 iron, owing to the distance from a market and 
 the difficulty of transportation, and who, wherever 
 there was wood from which to make charcoal and 
 water to give them blast, and a small or large 
 deposit of rich iron ore, employed that mechan- 
 ical ingenuity, self-reliance, and adaptiveness 
 which have always been such marked character- 
 istics of the American character to supply their 
 wants. They were not in any sense educated 
 metallurgists, but they possessed that same spirit 
 which has converted into shrewd geologists, of a 
 rough and ready type, and into skillful, practical, 
 if not theoretical, metallurgists, hosts of men from 
 every walk of life who have drifted from the East 
 across the Missouri and become, as prospectors, 
 the pioneers and real developers of our Great 
 West. And had it not been for the infusion of 
 this same temper into the builders of our magnifi- 
 cent modern metallurgical establishments, we 
 would not be setting the pace to the world to- 
 day. Had our Fritzes, Thomsons, Fricks, and
 
 44 American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 Carnegies been willing only to follow precedents 
 and foreign tradition, and had they been hide- 
 bound by the teaching of the schools, our output 
 of iron and steel would not stand first on the list 
 of the world's production. But even as the back- 
 woodsman of the early decades of the last century 
 turned from his plow and his axe to make iron in 
 his own way, so our great ironmasters, not being 
 hampered with overmuch reverence for the past, 
 have fearlessly expanded their furnaces, applied 
 new mechanical contrivances, enlisted electricity, 
 and in many other ways applied the inventions, 
 which they have been willing enough to accept 
 from abroad, on expanded and often new lines. 
 
 Looking at the field of mining and metallurgy 
 to-day, the prominent features of our progress 
 have been, first of all, the large scale on which 
 we work, and secondly, the very extensive use of 
 machinery, which is a necessary concomitant to 
 large production and extensive operation. The 
 large scale on which our continent is built and 
 the corresponding size of its natural resources have 
 unquestionably stirred the imagination of the 
 people and excited their energies. It is true 
 that had we not possessed the natural resources,
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 45 
 
 we could not have made the progress, but there 
 are other peoples who have possessed resources 
 and allowed them to lie idle. Whence, there- 
 fore, our success? It is due in great part, though 
 not altogether, to our substitution of machinery 
 for hand-labor in every department of life. It 
 has become a guiding and controlling principle 
 with every American that it is more economical 
 to use your wits than your hands, whether in the 
 kitchen or the workshop; that nature's forces are 
 less easily exhausted than your own; and that 
 iron and steel can stand a heavier strain than 
 human bone and sinew. Acting on this principle, 
 whenever machinery can be made to do man's 
 work, the instinct of the American is to devise 
 some means of bringing this substitution about. 
 When scarcity and the high cost of labor made 
 labor-saving machinery a necessity, this trait of 
 the national character found full scope for its ex- 
 ercise, and the necessity was abundantly satis- 
 fied. The material of which our buildings are 
 erected is hoisted into place by machinery, and 
 we are hoisted into our offices by machinery. 
 We make watches by machinery for a few cents 
 apiece, and locomotives for as few thousand dol-
 
 46 American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 lars. The ore for our furnaces is mined by ma- 
 chinery, transported to the mills by machinery, 
 hoisted to the furnace-top by machinery, and 
 dumped into the furnace by machinery. By 
 machinery the liquid product is carried to the 
 converter, blown by machinery into steel, and 
 the steel, by a continuous mechanical operation, 
 is wrought into manufactured shapes and loaded 
 on the cars. Half a century ago, to make iron in 
 the small furnaces then in blast, at least six days' 
 labor was expended for a ton of pig iron alone. 
 To-day, in some of our iron-mines, 4 tons of ore 
 is the tale of a man's daily work. In the large 
 steel-works, the product of the blast-furnace de- 
 partment is 3 1 tons of pig iron, and that of the 
 whole manufacture is 2 tons of finished steel, 
 m%de from the ore, per man employed, including 
 the clerical force. In the field of copper, the 
 impulse set by the ironmaster has reacted on the 
 more sluggish copper metallurgist. Instead of 
 the small brick cupola, in which, thirty years ago, 
 it was thought a notable feat to melt 10 tons a 
 day, furnaces are now running which consume 
 from 400 to 500 tons of ore per day, and dis- 
 charge their valuable contents into Bessemer con-
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 47 
 
 verters, which blow it into pure copper in as few 
 minutes as it used to take days to roast and 
 re-roast and fuse and re-fuse the ore when the 
 cupola process of reduction was employed. And 
 the reverberatory furnaces which were thought to 
 do well if they smelted 10 tons a day have been 
 so enlarged that, when gaseous fuel is used, as 
 much as 150 tons per day can be passed through 
 a single furnace. Mechanical dipping and ladling 
 have also displaced the feebleness of men in bailing 
 out the copper from the copper refinery by spoon- 
 fuls. Machinery has not so completely taken the 
 place of the furnaceman in our copper-works as 
 in our iron- and steel-mills; but every year wit- 
 nesses a steady advance in that direction; and 
 to-day ore mined in the morning can be loaded 
 as copper into the cars by evening. A second- 
 ary but important effect of the extended use of 
 machinery is the necessity which it forces on 
 the manufacturer of producing large quantities. 
 Take, for instance, the Bessemer converter as 
 applied to copper. The smallest converter which 
 can well be used economically will make from 
 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of copper per 
 month from a 45 to 50 per cent matte. If,
 
 48 American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 therefore, this limit be reached, any increase of 
 plant almost compels a doubling of the output 
 which would bring the production of such small 
 works up to the total for the whole country in 
 1870. 
 
 The Yankee, after all, has been the creative 
 genius of our continent, and we are all indebted 
 to him for the infusion into the national life not 
 only of his political ideas, but of his mechanical 
 proclivities. The original Yankee was a mechanic 
 and turned his talent to making wooden nutmegs 
 and wooden clocks. He continues, as a mechanic, 
 to make clocks, but it will probably be a German 
 chemist who will make artificial nutmegs. The 
 result of this Yankee infusion is that, as a people, 
 we are more given to devising mechanical con- 
 trivances than to synthetical chemistry. 
 
 Among the mechanical factors which have helped 
 to create our existing metallurgical industry, 
 the railroad must be placed first. Through its 
 agency, and aided by the steamer, ores can be 
 brought to the fuel, or fuel to the ores, and through 
 this concentration of crude material at favorable 
 localities works of greater magnitude can be 
 erected than the supply of crude material in any
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 49 
 
 single district could feed. The formation of our 
 continent facilitates not only the construction 
 and equipment of railroads on a large scale, which 
 minimizes both original outlay and operating 
 cost, but permits of the adoption of changes in 
 obedience to the demands of progress, in a manner 
 which it would be impossible to imitate in most 
 foreign lands. A train can run from New York 
 to San Francisco without once entering a tunnel 
 or losing sight of daylight, and therefore structural 
 changes to meet increased traffic can be made 
 with less disturbance than in most other countries. 
 Another advantage which we possess is that the 
 railroads abroad were in a great measure built 
 through, or to connect, large and populous cities 
 and running through populous districts, when 
 the art of railroad building was comparatively 
 in its infancy. With us the great expansion of 
 our railroad system has taken place when we had 
 the world's experience to guide us. It has been 
 no small gain to us that our active industrial life 
 really commenced contemporaneously with the 
 advent of the railroad; that it has been built upon 
 the railroad as a substructure, instead of the 
 railroad serving, as it has done abroad, as a mere
 
 50 American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 adjunct. Taking the railroad as a part of our 
 great mining and metallurgical machine, and 
 looking upon transportation as a mere branch of 
 productive industry, it is interesting to follow 
 say Lake Superior ore, from the mine back to the 
 mine as steel rail, for by doing so we get a clearer 
 conception of the all-important part machinery 
 plays in the cycle of our mining and metallurgical 
 operations. The railroad which connects the 
 Minnesota iron mines with Lake Superior, and 
 the huge trains in which their ore is hauled 
 from Bessemer to Pittsburgh, are as much 
 mining machinery as the steam-shovels by 
 which the softer ores are handled, or the 
 hoists by which the deeper ores are raised to 
 the surface. 
 
 While scarcity and the high cost of labor in this 
 country make labor-saving machinery a necessity 
 of our industrial life, and while the necessity 
 coincides with the tendency of the national char- 
 acter and the habits of the people, we must not 
 flatter ourselves by supposing that we are the 
 only people that use machinery, or that we were 
 the first to make all these applications of it, still 
 less that we have been great inventors of great
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 51 
 
 processes. We did not construct the first rail- 
 road; we did not build the first large blast-furnace; 
 we were not the first to apply hot-blast to them. 
 We did not invent the Bessemer converter with 
 its beautiful dependence of chemical on mechani- 
 cal forces. We did not invent the Siemens- 
 Martin open-hearth process, nor suggest the basic 
 lining, nor invent the dynamo. But we have 
 applied Faraday's great discovery more widely 
 than any of our neighbors. We now build blast- 
 furnaces so much larger than theirs that one 
 single Duquesne stack turns out annually as 
 much as the 804 little furnaces did per diem or 
 per annum in 1840, and we drive our furnaces 
 at a greater speed even though we shorten thir 
 lives. We get more blows out of our converters 
 (as modified by Holly and others), and more 
 work out of our rolling-mills as improved and 
 remodelled by such men as John Fritz. We can 
 do all this, not because we understand better than 
 our rivals the laws of mechanics or of electricity, 
 or have studied more accurately the chemistry 
 of the blast-furnace, but because nature has sup- 
 plied us with an abundance of material to work 
 upon, and because we live up to the principle that
 
 52 American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 whatever our wits or our hands find to do we do 
 with all our might. 
 
 The same is true in the metallurgy of other 
 metals. The invention of all others which has 
 helped in the development of our copper resources 
 the adoption of the pneumatic method in modi- 
 fied converters was worked out abroad, not here; 
 but for one ton of Bessemer copper made else- 
 where we make 100 in this country. So likewise 
 the electrolytic method of refining copper was 
 proposed, used and substantially perfected in 
 Europe, but works are considered there of large 
 size which will turn out 10,000,000 pounds a 
 year of refined copper, whereas we have more 
 than one with a capacity of far over 100,000,000 
 pounds. 
 
 In all these instances our progress has been 
 mainly due to the employment of mechanical 
 and physical forces as auxiliaries to chemical 
 and metallurgical processes to a greater extent 
 than our rivals; and therefore I feel as if it were 
 superfluous to even argue that a knowledge of 
 mechanics and physics is as absolutely neces- 
 sary to the miner and the metallurgist as an 
 acquaintance with mineralogy or the principles of
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 53 
 
 chemistry and metallurgy. I use the word 
 "physics" in its widest sense. Familiarity with 
 the laws of heat is essential if we would use eco- 
 nomically steam or hot air as motive powers. 
 Electricity is doing our work under ground and 
 above ground; striking our drills; cutting our 
 coal; propelling our cars; pumping our water; 
 hoisting our ore; moving our machinery in every 
 department, generating heat for the decompo- 
 sition of our more infusible chemical compounds 
 as well as decomposing solid and liquid com- 
 pounds in our many electrolytic operations; 
 transmitting the power from localities where it 
 can be cheaply generated to far distant localities 
 where alone it can be economically used; lighting 
 in mines, and works serving our ends and purposes 
 in a hundred ways, but destined, as we, learn 
 more accurately and wisely how to use it, to be 
 of still wider service in the future. But not 
 only have we harnessed electricity to our mining 
 and metallurgical machinery; we use ah* and 
 water under pressure to an extent that makes 
 it necessary that a mining engineer or a metal- 
 lurgist, if thoroughly equipped, should be ac- 
 quainted, not only with the laws, but likewise
 
 54 American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 with the application, of aerostatics and hyrdau- 
 lics. 
 
 Now, gentlemen, from what I have said you 
 will gather that, as essentials to success as miners 
 and metallurgists, you must possess not only a 
 knowledge of what was formerly supposed to be 
 all that was necessary, namely, of mathemat- 
 ics, chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, but you 
 must be acquainted also with the fundamental 
 principles and facts of mechanics and physics; 
 for the educational equipment of a successful 
 miner and metallurgist to-day is as much more 
 intricate than it formerly was as the magnificent 
 steam-engine, with which he will hoist his ore, 
 is more complex than the windlass or the horse- 
 whim, with which the primitive miner worked. 
 As I have always said, without machinery 
 and machinery of the very highest type we 
 could not handle the quantities, without which 
 our large organizations could not be supported. 
 If we compare, for instance, the 125,000 tons 
 of iron made in 1840 with the 17,000,000 tons 
 made to-day, you have a standard by which 
 you estimate the difference between the past and 
 the present.
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 55 
 
 But while the applications of the principles of 
 mechanics have alone enabled us to work on 
 such a gigantic scale, the demand for quality 
 has meanwhile become quite as exacting, and 
 quality can be attained only by the application 
 of chemical analysis to the elucidation of chemi- 
 cal laws. As professional men you will have to 
 do, therefore, with the extremes of large masses 
 and extremely minute quantities, the quality 
 of the large mass being dependent upon the 
 presence or absence, and the play of extremely 
 minute quantities, of certain foreign bodies. To 
 determine the existence of these and to explain 
 their effects, you must be more or less familiar 
 with chemistry and its allied branches. Thus 
 if you are to handle ores and metals in bulk, 
 you can do so only through a knowledge of me- 
 chanics; if you are to secure uniformity in qual- 
 ity, you can do so primarily only through the 
 agency of chemistry. It is not so many years 
 ago that even some of the largest metallurgical 
 establishments in this country worked by rule 
 of thumb, without the aid of a chemist, for when 
 I came to Pennsylvania in 1875 no chemist was 
 employed by what was then one of the largest
 
 56 American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 manufacturers of both pig iron and malleable 
 iron in the East. But since the introduction of 
 the Bessemer process, in which the making of 
 good steel depends on the presence or absence 
 of minute quantities of carbon, silicon, and phos- 
 phorus; and since the peculiar properties con- 
 ferred on steel by minute quantities of nickel, 
 magnesium, aluminum, and other metals are 
 being taken advantage of, metallurgical works 
 without a chemist, or a metallurgist without a 
 knowledge of chemistry, has become an anachro- 
 nism. 
 
 Horror at mastering such an appalling volume 
 of knowledge, as would have to be acquired, 
 if all the facts, phenomena, and theories of all 
 these sciences had to be packed into the brain 
 of a metallurgist and miner, might well deter 
 any of us from undertaking the task of qualify- 
 ing ourselves for creditably filling the humblest 
 place in the ranks of the profession. The utmost 
 that we can do is to familiarize ourselves with 
 the main principles of the sciences I have referred 
 to, so that when we come to occupy, as I hope 
 most of you will do, prominent positions in one 
 corner or another of the industrial world, you
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 57 
 
 will at least be able to map out the lines on which 
 work is to be done, and be able to judge whether 
 the technical specialists whom you employ are 
 fit to do the work which you have assigned them. 
 
 It is true in our profession, as in medicine, that 
 a specialist who is not more or less of a general 
 practitioner is a dangerous man. At the same 
 time the range of medical science has been so 
 extended that the specialist has become a neces- 
 sity. So in the walk of life which you intend 
 pursuing, even if you decide to devote yourself 
 and direct your studies to some special branch, 
 you cannot escape the necessity, if you are to be 
 useful men, of being generally informed on all 
 of them. And if you take up no special branch, 
 you will find yourself seriously handicapped, un- 
 less you know enough of every specialty to avoid 
 being a mere slave of your special adviser. 
 
 In any case, what you want to study are the 
 principles which underlie such sciences as come 
 within the range of your studies, rather than the 
 applications. The applications change the prin- 
 ciples never change. For instance, the type 
 of furnace used to-day is likely to be discarded 
 to-morrow. The Bessemer converter is being
 
 58 American Mining and Metallurgy, and 
 
 rapidly displaced by the open-hearth furnace. 
 The top furnace gases, which were only recently 
 supposed to be turned to their most economical 
 use in heating hot-blast stoves, are now freed 
 from certain valuable by-products and used to 
 drive large gas-engines. Hot blast, secured by 
 the combustion of top furnace gases, and hot-blast 
 stoves were hailed as the consummation of all econ- 
 omies. To-day frozen blast and the consequent 
 condensation of oxygen is the aim of the iron- 
 master. Thus in a thousand ways nature's forces 
 and products are turned to newer and more eco- 
 nomical uses. What you want to study are the 
 forces themselves, and to be ever on the alert 
 to make them do your special work. 
 
 And, as you will find, your real education will 
 commence when you leave college and go out 
 into the world and have a wider field of observa- 
 tion than you possess here. But if you are to 
 derive the fullest advantage from this wider field, 
 it must be by not omitting an opportunity of 
 picking up stray pieces of knowledge, by observing 
 the results of other people's experience. I used 
 to have a professor of Greek who occasionally 
 preached to us suggestive sermons from humble
 
 The Equipments of a Training School 59 
 
 topics, on texts which were generally suggested 
 by the wisdom of the Greeks. I recollect his 
 once breaking off his lecture to descant on the text: 
 
 "Pussy cat, Pussy cat, where have you been? 
 I've been to London to see the Queen. 
 Pussy cat, Pussy cat, what saw you there? 
 I saw a little Mouse under the Chair." 
 
 The moral hardly needs to be enforced. Our 
 first duty as professional men, no matter where 
 we are or what we go to see, is to have our eyes 
 open, and our minds retentive of what to us must 
 be the all-important objects of our professional 
 "life gathering professional facts and professional 
 experience. When Pussy cat at last got to 
 Court, she forgot Royalty and its state and its 
 circumstance, in attending to her particular func- 
 tion watching the "little Mouse under the 
 Chair." So in our case, no pleasure, no dis- 
 traction, no self-gratification should ever stand 
 in the way of entering a mine, visiting works, 
 picking up a scrap here and a scrap there of pro- 
 fessional information, and learning something 
 from others' success as well as others' failure.
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 Address given before the Michigan College School of Mines. 
 April 22, 1904. 
 
 I DO not unduly magnify our office as miners 
 and metallurgists when I claim for ourselves, 
 as winners of its mineral constituents from the 
 earth's crust and producers of the useful metals 
 from the raw products of the mines, a somewhat 
 more dignified position than that of the mere 
 merchant who disposes of our handiwork. But 
 when we reduce our own and his energies to a 
 common motive, we both stand on the same 
 plane as money-makers. 
 
 It may be an inglorious position, but while we 
 may, and should, personally work with higher 
 aims than the sordid considerations of personal 
 gain, as employees and representatives of capital 
 we must make money, or the enterprises we man- 
 age will very soon become derelicts on the ocean 
 
 of industry or ignorance. In trying to do so you 
 
 60
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 61 
 
 will come face to face with many problems and 
 perplexities which may even assume the gravity 
 of cases of conscience. 
 
 I do not speak of direct bribes, nor of the insidi- 
 ous bribes which are often offered under the guise 
 of contingent fees; but of the feeling of guilt 
 which oppresses a conscientious miner or metal- 
 lurgist, when he is knowingly, and therefore will- 
 fully, wasting the treasures of nature, of which 
 he should be the conservator. 
 
 The subject is a wide one and of many phases. 
 For certain prominent shortcomings, such as the 
 loss of heat, and therefore waste of coal, in gener- 
 ating power through the agency of steam and for 
 the waste of power in its transmission, when once 
 generated, we can hardly be held responsible, as 
 the remedies for these fall within the province of 
 the mechanical engineer. But there are, unfortu- 
 nately, too many wastes for which we cannot 
 shift the blame to the shoulders of others, and of 
 some of these I wish to speak to you. 
 
 Theoretically, every valuable ingredient of an 
 ore should be recovered. The day may, and 
 will, come when this consummation of one of the 
 higher ideals of metallurgy will be reached; but
 
 62 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 to-day it is unattainable, partly because our 
 methods are incomplete or defective, partly be- 
 cause economic considerations forbid us to recover 
 by-products where there is no market for them. 
 The latter excuse is, however, so rapidly disap- 
 pearing under the extension of transportation 
 facilities and the reduction of freight rates that 
 ere long it will be our fault only if we are enlisted 
 in the great army of wasters, instead of hi the 
 select company of the salvage corps. 
 
 In the recollection and experience of many of 
 us, such notable advances have been made towards 
 the consummation of what we all have at heart, 
 that there is reason to hope the most sanguine 
 expectations of the most enthusiastic believer in 
 the salvation of nature's resources will be real- 
 ized. Half a century ago every blast-furnace in 
 the Black Country of England, and in our own 
 then insignificant iron centers, was a torch, belch- 
 ing forth the flame, and the smoke and gas which 
 are now used to heat the blast in the stoves, and 
 to raise the steam for the blowing-engines, thus 
 reducing the consumption of carbon in extracting 
 pig iron from its ores to about one-quarter of what 
 formerly was consumed.
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 63 
 
 It was later still before Mr. Bessemer suc- 
 ceeded practically in applying the heat generated 
 by the combustion of the carbon and silicon in 
 the pig iron to the conversion of cast iron into 
 steel. It only remains to apply the waste heat 
 from the converter to the generation of power for 
 operating the blowing-engine to make this cycle 
 complete. 
 
 Another example of the utilization of the fuel 
 in an ore for the separation of its valuable con- 
 stituents is afforded by the treatment of pyrite. 
 Pyritic smelting can hardly be said to have pass- 
 ed beyond the stage of incipient development. 
 Yesterday, hot blast was declared necessary. 
 To-day, cold blast at high pressure is found more 
 advantageous, but such progress is being made 
 by many metallurgists, the world over, to place 
 pyritic smelting on a sound technical footing, that 
 before long we should see not only the sulphur in 
 sulphuretted ores used to smelt the charge, but 
 the sulphur escaping from the stack and the cop- 
 per converter recovered as acid by the contact 
 or some other process. 
 
 But a still more instructive example of the sav- 
 ing, not only of money, but of the valuable con-
 
 64 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 stituents of pyrite has been worked out in 
 Spain. 
 
 Till within a few years the minerals from the 
 great lenses of pyrite at Rio Tinto and Tharsis 
 were sorted and the portions richest in copper 
 shipped to the chemical centers of the world. 
 The poorer ore was roasted in heaps for the pur- 
 pose of partially sulphatizing, and extracting as 
 much of the copper by leaching as possible. 
 
 The pyrite exported is treated by the so-called 
 Henderson process, which, however, should be 
 more justly credited to Longmaid. After kiln 
 roasting the crude ore, in order to extract most 
 of the sulphur for acid making, the cinders are 
 crushed and roasted with salt, whereby the cop- 
 per is almost completely chloridized, and ren- 
 dered soluble in the weak hydrochloric acid 
 liquor obtained by passing the leach liquors 
 through a condensing tower connected with the 
 roasting-furnace. Iron is used as the precipitant 
 of the copper, but before the cupriferous liquors 
 pass to the copper precipitating-tanks the silver 
 and some of the gold, which have been dissolved 
 with the copper, are separated by iodide of zinc, 
 as first proposed by Claudet. The tank residues,
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 65 
 
 practically free from sulphur and copper, consist 
 of very pure iron oxide which was formerly used 
 as fettling in the puddling-furnace, but now 
 enters the blast-furnace. Thus the sulphur, the 
 copper and the precious metals and the iron are 
 all more or less perfectly recovered. And we 
 have here, therefore, an instance of an attempt to 
 save all the useful elements of the ore. But till 
 the fuel used in roasting can be eliminated and 
 till the salt consumed in chloridizing and the iron 
 in precipitating are regenerated, or recovered in 
 some valuable form, the series of operations, 
 looked at from an economical point of view, is 
 incomplete. 
 
 The treatment, however, of the second-class 
 ores at the mine is what I wish particularly to 
 call your attention to, as it conveys several les- 
 sons. The manufacturing chemists of Europe 
 were driven to the use of pyrite about half a cen- 
 tury ago by the unwise action of the Sicilian 
 government in imposing a heavy export duty on 
 brimstone. Three notable producers of pyrite 
 soon entered the market the Mason and Barry 
 mines of Portugal, and the Tharsis and Rio Tinto,
 
 66 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 on the same chain of deposits in the province of 
 Huelva, Spain. 
 
 The Portuguese government forbade the roast- 
 ing of pyrite by the Mason-Barry Co., which, 
 therefore, was forced to screen and export all its 
 lump ore. It was soon discovered that decom- 
 position set up in the piles of raw fine screenings, 
 when they were wetted, resulting in the extrac- 
 tion of the copper. 
 
 The fact, however, was overlooked as of any 
 importance by the two great neighbors of the 
 Portuguese company. They were building their 
 second-class ore into huge heaps and roasting off 
 the sulphur at enormous loss to themselves and 
 the destruction of all surrounding vegetation. 
 The Tharsis company was the first to correct its 
 mistake, but though the Tharsis and Rio Tinto 
 properties are only a few miles apart, it was years 
 before the Rio Tinto was willing to abandon its 
 old, obsolete and extravagant methods. 
 
 The result is now that both at Tharsis and Rio 
 Tinto two or three million tons of raw pyrite a 
 year are built into heaps and irrigated at intervals 
 for four years, by which time the copper is prac- 
 tically extracted. The piles shrink in size by
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 67 
 
 about one-quarter of their weight, but when 
 broken down for shipment to the chemical works 
 of Europe and this country the remaining three- 
 fourths consists of lumps of iron pyrite, retain- 
 ing their original shape and structure, but of 
 somewhat higher percentage of sulphur than 
 before lixiviation. 
 
 I shall not discuss the interesting reactions that 
 occur in the heaps during the four years of lixi- 
 viation, nor the still more interesting bearing of 
 the whole process on the problem of the solution 
 of metals in and from the earth's crusts, and their 
 re-disposition as secondary ores. What I want 
 to bring out is that there are saved to the world 
 annually about 1,000,000 tons of sulphur, of 
 which we get our share for the manufacture of 
 the world's most indispensable chemical com- 
 pound, sulphuric acid sulphur which heretofore 
 simply polluted the atmosphere. 
 
 At Rio Tinto there are in their two yards about 
 20,000,000 tons of badly roasted pyrite in heaps, 
 collected during some thirty years, still slowly 
 undergoing oxidation and yielding a little copper, 
 but from which 7,000,000 tons of sulphur should 
 have been recovered, whose value, at lOc. per
 
 68 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 unit, would not have been less than $70,000,000 
 had the company's metallurgists been keenly 
 alive to what was actually occurring elsewhere, 
 even on their own Iberian peninsula. 
 
 There is no greater mistake than to work with 
 too intense concentration and with your vision 
 too firmly focused on your own enterprise. Tech- 
 nical travel displaces many an illusion and preju- 
 dice; and during your travels you will learn 
 generally more than you would from books; for 
 while few practical men will actually refuse to 
 communicate their experience when asked, espe- 
 cially if you also reciprocate by communicating 
 yours, still fewer are eager to take the trouble to 
 publish their observations and their practice, 
 even when their employers allow them. 
 
 Unfortunately there are a few employers who 
 think that they can gain something by imposing 
 secrecy on their officials. You will generally 
 find they are willing enough to try and pump 
 you dry; but they forget that the law of give and 
 take is of universal force. 
 
 The waste of sulphur is not confined to Spain. 
 The clouds which hang over Bergen Point and 
 the northern part of Staten Island in the very
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 69 
 
 neighborhood of New York are a very visible 
 and sensible protest against our own waste of 
 that element. 
 
 A significant example of the recovery of all 
 the valuable constituents of an ore is afforded 
 by the present treatment of that complex min- 
 eral, franklinite, mixed with willemite-zincite, 
 by the New Jersey Zinc Co. The minerals con- 
 sist of iron, zinc, and manganese. Every attempt 
 to extract the zinc by the Belgian method was 
 futile, as the iron melted the retorts, but now 
 that the Wetherell process of magnetic separa- 
 tion has been applied, a very pure zinc ore 
 the willemite-zincite is recovered, zinc oxide 
 is made from the franklinite, and the resulting 
 iron and manganese are melted into spiegeleisen. 
 As an iron ore the mixed mineral was of little 
 or no value, because associated with so much 
 zinc; as a zinc ore it was worthless because of 
 its iron contents, and ten per cent of manganese 
 added nothing to its attractiveness. Each of 
 these metals was simply a deleterious waste 
 product to the others. Now each adds value 
 to its associate. 
 
 Such instances as these inspire the hope that
 
 yo Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 the self-interest of capital directed by the teach- 
 ing of the members of our profession will soon 
 remove from the technical industries the stigma 
 of wittingly continuing to practice needless waste. 
 But there remains much to be done even along 
 lines already followed and methods already prac- 
 ticed. Take for example the waste of coal in min- 
 ing it, and the appalling waste of by-products 
 in coking it. 
 
 For many years after our limited stock of an - 
 thracite in Pennsylvania was first mined and 
 marketed, the proportion saved was only 30 per 
 cent of the vein mined. The balance was either 
 left as pillars underground, which were never 
 extracted, or thrown as waste into mountains of 
 culm. Of late the figures have been nearly 
 reversed, for about 60 per cent is recovered, 
 and only 40 per cent is lost, a saving due 
 to somewhat better mining, and to the burning 
 of culm on perforated grates by forced draft. But 
 this loss by no means represents the total, for in 
 many localities, ^in extracting the coal from the 
 best of the veins, coal in parallel veins is irre- 
 trievably lost, either in whole or in part by caving 
 and crushing.
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 71 
 
 The demand for anthracite as a domestic fuel 
 being urgent, and the supply being necessarily 
 met from one limited region, arrest of produc- 
 tion can hardly be permitted in order to study 
 and apply improvements in methods of mining 
 and preparation. This explanation may be ac- 
 cepted as a partial excuse for the waste of this 
 rare and invaluable fuel. But no such justifi- 
 cation exists for the waste of the by-products 
 in the coking of bituminous coal; since the utiliza- 
 tion of the waste gases was practiced long before 
 the introduction of the Otto type of retort ovens, 
 which is merely an amplification of the illumi- 
 nating-gas plant. 
 
 There is made in this country about 22,000,000 
 tons of coke, of which less than 2,000,000 tons 
 are made in by-product ovens. The actual 
 proportion is 5.4 per cent of the whole, while 
 94.6 per cent is made in non-by-product ovens. 
 The coke is made from 34,000,000 tons of coal, 
 from which about 1,800,000 tons alone yield 
 by-products. 
 
 Average coal in its coking yields per ton as by- 
 product about 20 Ibs. of ammonium sulphate, 
 when the ammonia is recovered as sulphate, and
 
 72 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 10 gals, of tar. If these by-products were re- 
 covered from all the coal coked, there would be 
 saved about 340,000,000 gals, of tar, worth at $5 
 per ton $8,168,000, and ammonia sufficient to 
 make 340,000 tons of ammonium sulphate, worth 
 at $60 per ton $20,400,000; and allowing 60 
 per cent of the gas to be consumed in heating 
 of the ovens, there would be available for power 
 140,000,000,000 feet of gas, each cubic foot of 
 which, if burnt, would yield about 500 B.T.U. 
 of heat. 
 
 The total volume of gas now wasted, therefore, 
 after thus deducting 60 per cent, would give us 
 72,000,000,000,000 B.T.U., and allowing 12,000 
 B.T.U. per horse-power hour, 6,000,000,000 horse- 
 power hours, if burnt in gas engines or far more 
 than the power now actually produced from the 
 Falls of Niagara. The figures of loss are startling 
 and appalling. The tar wasted would enable us 
 to outstrip Germany's famous lead in the manu- 
 facture of aniline dyes and other hydrocarbon 
 products, if we brought Germany's perseverance 
 and skill and chemical science to bear upon the 
 industry. The gas would yield ammonia enough 
 to require the multiplication of our acid and fer-
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 73 
 
 tilizing works for making cheap manures with 
 which to revive our depleted prairie lands, and 
 power enough, if distributed, to create new cen- 
 ters of manufacturing activity. 
 
 If Germany can afford the expense of coking 
 ovens of the retort type, with the object of mak- 
 ing so good a coke out of her inferior coals that 
 they can compete with our own in the markets of 
 Mexico, surely we can do the same. And we 
 would do so, were it not for the reckless haste to 
 make money, and make it at once with whatever 
 appliances we possess. 
 
 None are so willing as our own manufacturers 
 to discard an old plant and replace it at any cost 
 with new, but they hate complications; and 
 therefore it will take time to persuade our coke 
 manufacturers to complicate the simple process 
 of coke making in the bee-hive oven as long as 
 it makes a good coke out of our splendid coals 
 with all kinds of chemical processes, which must 
 be operated by chemical experts who are even 
 more obnoxious than their processes. 
 
 But the gains are so obvious that prejudice 
 must rapidly vanish, and we shall soon see two 
 great changes taking place. More coke will be
 
 74 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 made at the works where it is consumed, for ooal 
 can be transported more cheaply than coke, on 
 account of its lesser bulk, and it does not suffer 
 in transportation, if intended for coking; whereas, 
 coke loses in volume and efficiency by attrition 
 in carriage. 
 
 If, moreover, the 25 to 30 per cent of volatile 
 gases given off, even from the bee-hive ovens, are 
 burnt, as they issue from the oven, under steam 
 boilers, or, better still, exploded, after purifica- 
 tion, in gas engines, the total weight of combus- 
 tibles carried from the mine will be burnt either 
 as coke in the blast-furnace or as gas for the gener- 
 ation of power. 
 
 There may be furnace plants in localities where 
 the by-products of the coke oven are valueless, 
 though they are becoming fewer with the exten- 
 sion of our railroad system. But even so, it will 
 generally be found cheaper to coke the coal at the 
 furnaces where it is to be consumed, and then 
 utilize the escaping gases for power purposes, than 
 to haul, on the same trains from the distant coal- 
 fields, coal for generating power and the costly 
 bulky coke already wastefully deprived of its vol- 
 atile gases.
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 75 
 
 The utilization of the gas at the great centers 
 of the coke industry, as in the Connellsville dis- 
 trict, for the generation of power, would formerly 
 have been impossible; but now that long dis- 
 tance electrical transmission under high voltage 
 has been practically effected, there is no excuse 
 for wasting the energy which escapes with the 
 gas from 25,000,000 tons of coal coked in Penn- 
 sylvania alone, where power is in such demand.* 
 
 When Siemens introduced his gas producer he 
 imagined the time would come when gas instead 
 of solid fuel would be sent from the mine to the 
 consumer. The conception has never material- 
 ized, for obvious reasons. But none of the ob- 
 jections which prevail against the transportation 
 of gas hold good against the transmission of the 
 more subtle mysterious agent electricity. And 
 therefore, with the interposition of only one or 
 for certain purposes, two conversions and trans- 
 
 * Erskine Ramsay, in a paper on the " Generation of Steam 
 from the Waste Gases of Coke Ovens," communicated to the 
 Alabama Industrial and Scientific Society, Vol. Ill, 1893. 
 calculates, from his experience at the Pratt Mine coke ovens 
 in Alabama, that if the 18,000 Connellsville ovens were run 
 to their capacity of 50,000 tons of coal daily, the escaping 
 gases would be equivalent to 18,000 tons of coal burnt under 
 steam boilers.
 
 76 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 formations, we shall sooner or later see Siemens' 
 dream realized; when the gas generated at the 
 mine will be transmitted as electric energy to the 
 consumer, and the smoke nuisance, the ash nui- 
 sance, and a host of other nuisances, if they do not 
 disappear from our cities and our homes will be 
 notably reduced. 
 
 The effect of the saving of waste on the price of 
 our staple metals will be incalculable. In fact, 
 when all the volatile products of the coke oven 
 and of the blast-furnace, which are now saved in 
 Scotland, are deprived of their heat-giving prop- 
 erties, and their chemical constituents, and when 
 the slag as well as the metal have returned their 
 heat to man instead of to the atmosphere, and 
 the slag itself has been turned into cement, or 
 some other useful article, it will be a question as 
 to whether the pig iron is the principal object of 
 manufacture, or one of the by-products. 
 
 There is another waste for which we are respon- 
 sible, but for the removal of which I cannot see so 
 speedy an outlook; I mean the burying of our 
 forests in our mines. I do not know how many 
 feet of lumber, board measure, are actually and 
 irrevocably covered up in your copper and iron
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 77 
 
 mines, though I know how intelligently and ear- 
 nestly your iron masters have worked to stop 
 this heinous waste by replacing timber with steel 
 and concrete, but I am ashamed to say that 
 twenty-five feet of Oregon pine replace every ton 
 of copper ore we extract from the Copper Queen. 
 There the quantity used is exceptionally large, 
 for the ore is in great measure extracted from soft, 
 irregular masses embedded hi a wet clay matrix, 
 and square setting, as a measure of safety, has to 
 precede the ore extraction. We cannot see how 
 to actually displace this expensive and wasteful 
 method by back filling or caving, and yet it seems 
 iniquitous to waste so valuable and vanishing a 
 natural product as timber in recovering another 
 of perhaps less national importance. 
 
 The preservation of our forests and their per- 
 petuation, by replanting, are of course a subject 
 which you in Michigan must have very near at 
 heart, and therefore to Sweden you should look 
 for lessons in the economical use of your forest 
 resources. There is still in operation a public 
 company the Kopparberg whose charter dates 
 back to the thirteenth century, and which de- 
 pends still for its prosperity on the lumber cut
 
 78 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 from the tracts of forests which then came into 
 its possession. Nothing is rejected. What is 
 not used for pulp making and dimension lumber 
 is devoted to metallurgical purposes converted 
 either into charcoal for the blast-furnace or into 
 gas for steel making in the open hearth furnace. 
 Not a twig nor a grain of sawdust goes to waste; 
 and the price Sweden obtains for her steel is her 
 reward for and warrants the care and the cost 
 involved. It also goes without saying that a 
 tree is planted to replace the tree cut down. But 
 in Sweden men and their children are willing to 
 wait till a* tree grows. Here we are not. And 
 there the State, conscious of its immortality and 
 provident of the national resources for future 
 generations, puts some checks on the selfishness of 
 the individual who looks only to to-day. This 
 phase of the subject involving the duty of the 
 State to interfere with the free action of the in- 
 dividual and with the reckless waste of the na- 
 tion's resources is, I know, a delicate one, yet 
 none the less momentous. But to discuss it 
 would lead us far afield of our present object, 
 which is to consider cursorily our individual obli-
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 79 
 
 gation to use our best endeavors towards minim- 
 izing the evil. 
 
 My own experience has been largely gained in 
 working mines and treating the copper ores of 
 the West, and dates back to the period when 
 both Arizona and the Butte copper interests were 
 in their infancy. I have therefore observed the 
 heavy costs involved through losses which are 
 incidental to inexperience, and which must neces- 
 sarily occur during the premature development 
 of mines on a large scale. I can therefore also 
 appreciate the impossibility of avoiding them 
 altogether. The few remarkable instances, out 
 of many, which I have quoted, of waste on a 
 national scale, it may not be within the power of 
 many or of any of us to remedy, but we shall all 
 have to consider again and again what provision 
 can be made to preserve, for future treatment, 
 valuable material which at the moment is vir- 
 tually waste. 
 
 It is difficult to forecast the future and to an- 
 ticipate the economical charges which time will 
 bring with it; but of this we may be certain, that 
 the drift of events will be inevitably toward lower 
 treatment charges and therefore the utilization
 
 80 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 not only of lower-grade ores, but of what is to-day 
 actually rejected as waste. In mining, therefore, 
 it is better to store at surface, if the character of 
 the ore will permit of it, lower-grade ores than to 
 bury them in the stopes as filling, under the cer- 
 tainty that the day is not distant when they will 
 be valuable; or if they must be left underground, 
 separate the ore, no matter how low, from actual 
 waste. It may cost a trifle more at first to do 
 so, but in the end it will pay, and the end must 
 always be kept in view. I have to do with a 
 mine which, when first worked, was 125 miles 
 from a railroad, and the standard of the ore fed 
 to the furnace was fixed by the management at 
 18 per cent of copper. With lower freight and 
 cheaper fuel the standard was reduced to 12 per 
 cent. Now we are satisfied to feed our furnaces 
 with ore of between 6 and 7 per cent. During 
 the first stage 12 per cent was waste; during the 
 second 7 per cent was waste. To-day it would be 
 rash to count any copper-bearing material as 
 actual waste; but at each stage of development 
 the ore rejected for the moment was treated as 
 worthless and thrown away as stope filling, and 
 is recovered, though at needless cost. As, how-
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 81 
 
 ever, the property has thrice changed hands 
 since the early days, the original owners would 
 have derided the suggestion that, for the good of 
 their successors, they should have incurred a dol- 
 lar of unnecessary expense. In very truth, how- 
 ever, the property would not so often have changed 
 hands had the future and not the immediate pres- 
 ent been more prominent in the calculations of 
 each successive administration. 
 
 The ores of the Arizona mines have changed 
 and so have the methods of treatment. For 
 years it was considered that with the appearance 
 of sulphur would date the rapid decline of the 
 mines. Then that valuable element was regarded 
 as pernicious and worse than waste. To-day it is 
 in urgent demand; for with the introduction of 
 the pneumatic method, and the cleaner slags 
 made by matte smelting, it is found cheaper to 
 make copper from a sulphide mixture, though by 
 several operations, than from carbonate ores by 
 a single furnace treatment. Moreover, we are 
 everywhere resmelting the rich slags formerly 
 made, where they were preserved. Unfortunately, 
 at certain furnaces they were considered as of 
 such little prospective value as to have been
 
 82 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 granulated and run into the river or so dumped 
 that they have been washed away. We are not 
 to blame for having made copper direct from 
 carbonate ores, though it involved waste, for 
 sulphuretted ores were not obtainable nor would 
 it have paid to reduce a sulphide charge by the 
 older methods in vogue twenty years ago. But 
 we were at times to blame for not anticipating, 
 and believing that metallurgy and railroading 
 and all associated industries would rapidly ad- 
 vance, and put cheaper methods, cheaper fuel, 
 cheaper transportation within our reach, and 
 thus ennoble what was then waste into valuable 
 material. 
 
 The same has been eminently true of the waste 
 from gold, silver and copper concentrating-mills. 
 Only some 60 per cent of the hundreds of mil- 
 lions which the Comstock lode yielded was recov- 
 ered at the time, and yet at first those enor- 
 mously rich tailings were not even collected 
 such was the haste of the miner to empty that 
 stupendous deposit, which should have made 
 Nevada prosperous for generations instead of 
 whirling the whole country into a mad dance of 
 reckless speculation. And at Anaconda there
 
 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 83 
 
 are said to be tailings by the millions of tons 
 which will run from 2 to 2 per cent of copper, 
 made when a large production rather than minute 
 economies was the order of the day. The values 
 locked up in our Arizona slags, in the Comstock 
 slimes, in the Anaconda tailings, all represent a 
 large waste and heavy loss, even though they 
 may be in part recovered by subsequent treat- 
 ment. 
 
 Who or what is responsible? Primarily the 
 company system and the heavy capitalization of 
 our large mines, involving a large output at any 
 expense, if the value of the shares is to be raised 
 or their price maintained at the financial centers. 
 
 Overcapitalization generally demands overpro- 
 duction, and overproduction almost inevitably in- 
 volves waste at some stage of the metal's prog- 
 ress from the mine to the consumer. 
 
 The company system and the company man- 
 agers may be greater sinners than ourselves, for 
 they set the pace, and we must maintain it. At 
 the same time the management at the eastern 
 end is generally composed of able and honest 
 business men, whose ignorance of technical de- 
 tails obliges them to rely upon their technical
 
 84 Wastes in Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 advisers, and the more worthy the members of 
 the technical staff are, the more implicit will be 
 the confidence imposed in them, and, therefore, 
 their influence. On us, therefore, ultimately rests 
 the responsibility in great measure of correcting 
 the evils of waste to which I have drawn your 
 attention. For, depend upon it, if from no higher 
 motive, you will find the eastern management 
 willing enough to spend money in order to save 
 money, and there is always money saved in 
 avoiding waste. But apart from this sordid view 
 of the subject, it will elevate your whole concep- 
 tion of the dignity of your profession and your 
 work, if you regard yourselves, which indeed you 
 should be, as the preservers of the gifts with 
 which a beneficent Providence has stored our 
 world, for next to being a creator, the highest 
 function a man can attain to is being a saver a 
 savior.
 
 Some of the Relations of Railway Transporta- 
 tion in the United States to Mining and 
 Metallurgy 
 
 (An Oration delivered before the Graduating Class under the Faculty of 
 Applied Science, at Columbia University, June 1 2, 1906) 
 
 WE can best appreciate the part the railroad 
 has played in the industrial progress made by 
 this country by comparison with one of our 
 industrial rivals England, for example. The 
 railroad, as a factor in commercial life, came into 
 existence on both sides of the Atlantic in 1829 
 and 1830, when the Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railroad ran its first train, when the " Stourbridge 
 Lion " from England made its first trip on the 
 Delaware & Hudson Co. track at Honesdale. In 
 1830 Peter Cooper's "Tom Thumb " moved a train 
 out of Baltimore, and the " Best Friend," built at 
 the West Point Foundry, was run on the South 
 Carolina R. R. These few miles increased to 95 
 in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Vermont 
 and South Caroliua during 1831 . 
 
 85
 
 86 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 But mining and metallurgical operations were 
 much more active on the little island than on our 
 big continent. When the railroad arrived to 
 assist in reversing the industrial status, the 
 insular position and the configuration of Great 
 Britain enabled her to take advantage of her 
 mineral resources; while our population, scat- 
 tered even then over almost half our section of 
 the continent, with few canals or no really cheap 
 means of intercourse or transportation, could not 
 have built up any large metallurgical enterprise, 
 no matter what the natural resources might be. 
 
 England's production of pig iron was then 
 677,417 tons, but the success of the Liverpool 
 and Manchester Railroad created a railroad- 
 building mania so acute that before 1840, 299 
 acts authorizing the construction of 3,000 miles 
 of railroad had been passed by, or were before, 
 Parliament; but the 3,000 miles had not been 
 actually built. The stimulus thus given to the 
 iron trade was, however, such that the production 
 of iron rose in 1840 to 1,396,400 tons. We thus 
 get the first example of the tremendous reciprocal 
 influence which railroads have exerted upon 
 the iron trade.
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 87 
 
 Here, once started, our progress in railroad 
 building was rapid, for by 1840 we had 2,818 
 miles in actual operation, or more than England. 
 But in 1830, when neither country possessed 
 facilities for inland transportation,. England far 
 surpassed us in metal production. There were, 
 as I have said, produced in Great Britain 678,417 
 tons of pig iron. She mined about 50,000 tons 
 of coal, made 11,500 tons of copper, about 58,000 
 tons of lead, and 4,400 tons of tin. Since then 
 her railroad mileage has increased to 22,700, 
 her production of pig iron to 9,000,000 tons, her 
 lead production, however, has declined to 20,000 
 tons, her production of copper has become a 
 negligible quantity, and her tin production 
 has not increased.* 
 
 Meanwhile our railroad mileage has grown to 
 212,000, our pig iron production from 135,940 
 tons to 22,822,380 tons; our coal from 209,000 to 
 314,562,880 tons; our copper from nothing to 
 462,000 tons, and our lead from 10,000 to 322,886 
 tons. 
 
 *In 1907 England's production of pig iron was 10,100,000 
 tons, but the production of pig iron in the United States has 
 risen to 25,975,944 tons, and the tonnage of coal to over 
 600,000,000.
 
 88 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 That England, without railroads, should have 
 occupied so conspicuous a position in the metal- 
 lurgical world, while we, with a population at 
 that date of only three and a half millions less 
 than that of England, Scotland, and Wales, pro- 
 duced so much less, was due to her geographical 
 configuration, and the distribution of her im- 
 portant metallic and non-metallic deposits. 
 England, Scotland and Wales are included in a 
 long, narrow island, which is so deeply indented 
 by the estuaries of navigable rivers that the 
 average width from navigable water on the west 
 coast to navigable water on the east coast does 
 not exceed 250 miles. And if we except the lead 
 of Derbyshire, all of Great Britain's mineral 
 wealth, including coal, lies sufficiently near navi- 
 gable water to have rendered her in early days 
 prosperous without the aid of railroads. The coal 
 fields of Durham and Northumberland are on the 
 seashore, or intersected by the Tyne; the Clyde 
 and the Firth of Forth cut into the Scottish coal 
 basin, which extends across the narrow neck from 
 the Atlantic Ocean to the North Sea; and the 
 Welch coal field lies on or near the Bristol Chan- 
 nel. The Cleveland iron ores are close to the
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 89 
 
 east coast, and, unlike any of our own great ore 
 bodies, except those of Alabama and Tennessee, 
 are almost in contact with the fuel suitable for 
 their reduction. On the west coast are the rich 
 and pure haematites which give industrial life to 
 Barrow-on-Furniss. The coal measures reach the 
 sea near by at Whithaven, Cumberland. The 
 copper and tin of Devon and Cornwall have been 
 mined from time immemorial on a narrow penin- 
 sula washed by the Atlantic and the English 
 Channel. England would, therefore, owing to 
 her insular position and conformation, have re- 
 tained her metallurgical prominence without the 
 railroad. Its introduction has been in fact one 
 cause of her relative decline, inasmuch as not 
 being as essential to her growth as to that of her 
 great rivals, railroad traffic has not been de- 
 veloped with the same energy as in this country 
 and in Germany. 
 
 Turning to our own position, as metal miners 
 and workers, in 1830, the year of the railroad's 
 advent, when the census records were still given 
 by value, we made $4,757,403 worth of pig iron, 
 of which Pennsylvania contributed $1,643,702. 
 Taking Swank's value of pig at $35, the total
 
 90 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 production of pig was 135,940 tons. Our copper 
 industry did not assume appreciable proportions 
 till years afterwards the first recorded produc- 
 tion being 150 tons in 1840. But the lead mines 
 of Missouri, which had been one of the tempting 
 baits to induce dupes of an earlier day to invest 
 in Thomas Law's Mississippi Bubble, were in 
 1830, with small contributions from Wisconsin, 
 producing all of the 8,000 to 10,000 tons which 
 we were then making. These regions were suffi- 
 ciently near navigable waters to be accessible.* 
 
 If we advance to the census of 1840, the first in 
 which quantities are recorded instead of values, 
 we are struck by the fact that the advent of the 
 railroad does not seem to have stimulated the 
 manufacture of iron here as acutely as it did in 
 England. The production of 135,940 tons in- 
 creased to only 286,902 tons an increase of 
 
 * According to Warden, in 1810 the furnaces, forges and 
 bloomeries in the United States amounted to 530, of which 
 the State of New York furnished 69. But many of the 
 important seats of the industry of that day have dis- 
 appeared. The Franconia Works in New Hampshire, estab- 
 lished in 1810, are particularly mentioned as employing a 
 capital of $100,000. The Vergennes Works in Vermont 
 promised to be very important. He tells us that the pi ice 
 of bar iron at that establishment was $140 per ton.
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 91 
 
 150,963 tons, while in England it rose from 677,- 
 417 to 1,396,400 tons. Though most of the roads 
 were laid with strap rails, T rails were already 
 supplanting them, but none were rolled in this 
 country till 1844. 
 
 And the concentration of the iron industry, 
 was not notable, the Alleghanies not having yet 
 been surmounted by an iron road. In that year 
 the 286,903 tons of pig iron were made in 804 
 blast furnaces, located all over the inhabited 
 country from Maine to Michigan, the average 
 production per furnace per day being only 2170 
 pounds. Of these 213 were in Pennsylvania. 
 There were almost the same number of bloomeries, 
 forges and rolling mills, making only 197,233 tons 
 of bars Pennsylvania producing but 87,244 tons. 
 Minnesota, which now stands first and foremost 
 as an iron ore producer, was still a part of that 
 great undefined wilderness known as the North- 
 west Territory, but Michigan had been for four 
 years admitted to the privileges of statehood 
 and was a producer of iron, and finished iron 
 products, using charcoal as fuel. The South- 
 ern States made iron in small quantities for 
 local uso, but New York, New Jersey and
 
 92 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 Pennsylvania were the most active manu- 
 facturers. 
 
 Though Pennsylvania was at the head of the 
 list of iron producers, she occupied that position 
 by virtue of her possession of iron deposits within 
 her own limits of such size and richness that they 
 still sustain centers of great local activity. The 
 Cornwall ore banks maintain the credit of the 
 famous South Mountain Range, and hold their 
 own as one of the great iron mines of the country. 
 Their production in 1903 was 401,469 tons, 
 though, with the iron industry generally, they 
 fell off in 1904. There were in Allegheny County, 
 where Pittsburgh is now situated, in 1840, 28 
 charcoal furnaces, producing 6,584 tons of pig 
 iron and 12 bloomeries and forges, producing 
 28,100 tons of bars. The large amount of finished 
 iron was due to the fact that already the fine coals 
 of that district attracted pig made elsewhere to 
 Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania occupied prominence 
 by virtue of her home supply of ore, and Pitts- 
 burgh was the heart of Pennsylvania's iron trade 
 by reason of her coal. To-day Pennsylvania's 
 furnaces make half the iron of the country, but 
 not from her own ores, for in 1905 her furnaces
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 93 
 
 poured forth 10,599,107 tons of pig iron, but 
 her mines produced only 810,000 tons of ore. 
 
 The explanation lies in the potency of trans- 
 portation. Pittsburgh possesses coal and coke, 
 Michigan and Minnesota the largest, purest, and, 
 considering their quality, the most cheaply mined 
 ores in the country. It is at present cheaper 
 to bring the ore to the fuel, and to the people 
 who buy and consume the iron, than to take 
 the fuel to the ore and carry back most of the 
 finished product. And the complete revolution 
 effected within the last half century in this and 
 every other great branch of metallurgy has been 
 brought about by the railroad and steamboat. 
 Of the fifty million tons of ore treated in this 
 country last year, 34,353,456 came from Lake 
 Superior, and by far the largest shipments were 
 from the Mesaba Range, 1,025 miles distant from 
 Pittsburgh, where the ores were reduced. 
 
 In deciding where it is most economical to 
 reduce ore to metal, the cost of transporting the 
 raw material, the fuel and the finished product 
 to the most profitable market, are the determin- 
 ing factors. 
 
 There are some strange contradictions of this
 
 94 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 rule, as for instance, the persistency with which 
 the copper and brass trade adhere to the Nau- 
 gatuck Valley in Connecticut. It has been an 
 old industry there, for Warden in 1819 says 
 "Metal button^ have been manufactured at 
 Watcrbury and New Haven of which the annual 
 amount has been estimated at $100,000." And 
 there are ill-suited locations of some of our large 
 iron works, which were started originally near 
 some small iron deposits now exhausted, or on 
 a water power, too trifling to be used to-day, 
 but which survive as geographical anomalies 
 because the necessity is not yet urgent enough 
 to oblige the owners to wipe out the large capital 
 invested. But our more progressive corpora- 
 tions are taking this radical step, as in- 
 stanced by the Lackawanna Steel Co., whose 
 owners have transferred their works from 
 Scranton to Buffalo, while their name alone 
 perpetuates their former prosperous existence 
 in the heart of Pennsylvania. If we assume 
 for instance that at present two tons of Lake 
 Superior make one ton of pig iron, and that one 
 ton of fuel is consumed in reducing them to one 
 ton of pig, and this pig iron is used up in the
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 95 
 
 east, then two tons of cheaply handled ore are 
 transferred to Pittsburgh, whereas if that ore 
 were reduced at the mine, one ton of fuel, whose 
 transportation, owing to its bulk, is more costly 
 than that of a ton of ore, would have to be car- 
 ried from Pennsylvania or Ohio, and one ton of 
 pig of high value, and therefore commanding a 
 higher freight rate, would of necessity be shipped 
 back to the eastern market. Under either con- 
 dition four tons of freight must be shipped to lay 
 down a ton of pig in Pittsburgh two tons from 
 west to east, and two from east to west, but the 
 eastbound ore can be handled with less loss and 
 at less cost than coal and coke could be carried 
 west and pig iron east. Therefore, up to the 
 limit of the demand of the eastern market for 
 pig iron, it is cheaper to make it of Lake Superior 
 ore in Pittsburgh than to make it on Lake Superior. 
 But the western market is rapidly growing, and 
 new works are being laid out on Lake Michigan, 
 rather than either in the heart of Pennsylvania 
 or on Lake Erie, for both Michigan and Minne- 
 sota ore can be laid down more cheaply on the 
 shores of Lake Michigan than at any point in 
 Pennsylvania or Ohio; and though the great
 
 96 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 central coal basin does not yield a good coking 
 coal, it does produce cheap fuel for converting 
 pig into finished product. Last year the ship- 
 ments of iron ore from Lake Superior amounted 
 to 34,353,456 tons.* Of this 84.4 per cent were 
 transferred inland by rail to ports on Lake Erie; 
 the balance, 5,369,098, was shipped to points 
 on Lake Michigan. 
 
 As, however, the west grows and the west is 
 shifting always to points still further west, its 
 demands for iron grow almost more rapidly than 
 the east, and the center of manufacturing will 
 continue to move westward. This tendency we 
 see in the rapid expansion of the only large iron 
 and steel organization west of the Missouri 
 the Colorado Fuel and Iron Co. While in 1900 
 its furnaces at Pueblo made only 150,204 tons 
 of pig iron, they made in 1905, 407,774 tons. 
 And yet these furnaces depend on long distance 
 freight for their supply of ore. Some of it comes 
 over a haul of 700 miles from southern New 
 Mexico; and much of it comes from Wyoming, 
 
 * In 1907 the shipments from Lake Superior amounted to 
 about 42,000,000 tons.
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 97 
 
 and distant points in Colorado. But the fuel 
 supply is near at hand in the Trinidad coal field. 
 We know of no iron deposits in the west com- 
 parable in size to those on Lake Superior, but 
 there are many which can be profitably worked. 
 And though within our own territory west of the 
 Great Salt Lake Basin, we have no good coking 
 coal, our neighbors to the north can supply it, 
 or we can draw it from New South Wales, which 
 already has shipped coal for railroad purposes to 
 the Pacific Coast. From our other neighbor on the 
 south, should iron and steel works be started on 
 the west coast, we can draw ore from the large 
 deposits said to lie on the very seashore near 
 Acapulco; for distance is being rapidly oblit- 
 erated by steam, and by it also let us hope inter- 
 national selfishness and commercial exclusiveness. 
 Literature is tending to unify the race, and com- 
 merce, through the railroad and steamboat, is 
 another beneficent force working to the same end. 
 As people come to know one another better, they 
 will surely imitate and adopt, under a process 
 of natural selection, each other's better qualities, 
 and without losing their national idiosyncrasies, 
 acquire a higher cosmopolitan character.
 
 98 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 The marvellous feats which two geneartions of 
 engineers, in handling steam and electricity, have 
 enabled us to perform, may not be duplicated by 
 equal progress during the next half century. 
 Yet it goes without saying that but for our trans- 
 portation facilities we would not occupy in the 
 world's race the same advanced position we have 
 acquired to-day, for the very vastness of our 
 country, and the actual distance of our national 
 resources from one another and from the popu- 
 lation which consumes them, would have ren- 
 dered many of them valueless. But, given control 
 of steam, the great size of our mineral deposits 
 and the long distances over our continental areas 
 that we must transport material, has inspired 
 our transportation engineers to work on a larger 
 scale than their fellow craftsmen across the sea. 
 We handle longer trains, with larger cars, and as 
 a rule at a much lower rate of freight than they 
 do. Otherwise, neither our miner nor our metal- 
 lurgist could perform the duty required of them. 
 
 Take for instance the cost of transporting a 
 ton of iron ore from Lake Superior to Pittsburgh 
 70 cents from the mines to Duluth, a distance 
 of 80 miles; 75 cents for 1000 miles by steamer
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 99 
 
 to Cleveland (though the rate has been as low as 
 57 cents, and though, when the first shipments 
 were made from Michigan in 1856, the rate was 
 $3.00); then $1.18 from Lake Erie points to 
 Pittsburgh, a distance of 135 miles making the 
 total transportation $2.63 for 1250 miles, in- 
 cluding transfers. 
 
 Soft coal is carried by eastern roads at about a 
 half cent per ton a mile, but the rate on some 
 western roads is as low as four mills a ton per mile. 
 
 Nor is it only in the iron trade that low rates 
 of carriage have helped the metallurgist. Copper 
 is transported at $10 a ton from Montana to the 
 Atlantic, a distance of nearly 3000 miles. And 
 the necessity of low fuel costs to the metallurgy 
 of copper is obvious, seeing that when treating 
 ores of copper, whose percentage of valuable metal 
 is so low that, even including those submitted to 
 preliminary water concentration, as many as twenty 
 tons are probably smelted on an average to yield 
 one ton of copper. In such cases the fuel must be 
 carried to the ore not the ore to the fuel, as when 
 smelting rich iron ores. At the Copper Queen Works 
 in the early days the cheapest coke was Cardiff 
 Patent Pressed brought round the Horn in wheat
 
 loo Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 ships to San Francisco. It cost more than three 
 times the price at which New Mexico or Colorado 
 coke is now delivered, after a railroad haul of 
 from 800 to 1000 miles. Coal for steam genera- 
 tion was then so costly that the country was 
 swept clear of its scanty accessible forests. For 
 raising steam crude oil is now brought in from 
 Texas and California at a frieght rate not ex- 
 ceeding three-fourths cent per ton mile, so that 
 at one smelting works in southern Arizona, 700 
 miles away from the nearest coal or available 
 petroleum wells, power is generated at a cost for 
 fuel, maintenance and all expenses, of $79 per ton 
 per year. Montana draws its coke largely from 
 Pennsylvania, or from coke ovens on Lake Superior, 
 fed with Pennsylvania coal, the fuel travelling 
 over 2000 miles from the pits to the furnaces. 
 While complaint may be made against some 
 railroads for charging exorbitant rates on coal, 
 our western roads are certainly not culpable, or 
 Montana would not be able to turn out in metallic 
 copper about one-fifth of the world's total, and 
 Arizona about one-seventh of the world's total,* 
 
 * In 1907 the order of precedence was reversed, Arizona 
 having made 116,230 tons of copper and Montana 101,635 
 tons.
 
 Mining and Machinery 101 
 
 bhough both are situated in the heart of a con- 
 tinent, and between 2000 'and 3000 miles distant 
 from the point where their crude product is 
 refined and marketed. 
 
 The interdependence of mines on railroads and 
 of railroads on mines is best appreciated by some 
 familiar examples of what each does. Butte, 
 both the town and the great Butte Mines, are 
 situated on a mountain side facing a valley be- 
 neath whose surface water can be reached in any 
 quantity and at all seasons only by wells, but 
 where none flows. The two great corporations 
 operating there have been obliged, therefore, 
 in order to concentrate mechanically their large 
 tonnage of low grade ore, to transport their ores 
 to water. A site 26 miles distant on the Deer 
 Lodge River was selected by the Anaconda Co., 
 and thither to their new Washoe Works are 
 carried daily from Butte, of their own and 
 custom ore, about 9000 tons at a cost of about 
 $5.00 per car, or 14 cents per ton. As the ore 
 contains less than three per cent of copper per 
 ton and $1.29 in gold and silver, a haul of that 
 length would be profitable only if carried at such 
 low rates of freight. The other large company,
 
 1O2 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 the Boston and Montana Co., sends its ores 170 
 miles to Great Falls, where, however, the com- 
 pany has the advantage of water power. 
 
 The mining, transportation and smelting opera- 
 tions of our large corporations are on a stu- 
 pendous scale, but the transportation is as essen- 
 tial an item in the result as the mining and smelt- 
 ing. For the United States Steel Corporation 
 there were handled last year 18,486,556 tons of 
 Lake Superior ore, and they themselves manu- 
 facture 12,242,909 tons of coke, which must have 
 used up 20,000,000 tons of coal. This coal pro- 
 duction is exclusive of 2,204,950 tons mined by 
 themselves alone. For flux they use 4,000,000 
 tons of limestone. About 38,000,000 tons of 
 freight, therefore, as ore, fuel and flux, must 
 have been transported, half of it for over an 
 average of 1,000 miles, in addition to 10,000,000 
 tons of finished product for a shorter distance. 
 A total of about 48,000,000 tons of freight were 
 contributed by this single corporation. As it 
 made only 9,940,799 tons, out of 22,992,380 tons 
 of pig iron made in this country, or 43 per cent 
 of the whole, the total tonnage moved for a 
 longer or shorter distance by the iron smelting
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 103 
 
 industry must have been approximately one 
 hundred and nine million tons. 
 
 An interesting instance of the facilities which 
 transportation gives the metallurgist is afforded 
 by the shipment of copper matte from Tennessee 
 to the heart of Mexico, where it has been used 
 to collect gold and silver from dry ores in the 
 furnace and converter, and then returned for 
 electrolytic refining and separation to the United 
 States. Copper bars come from New Zealand to 
 be refined here, and the refined product is returned 
 to Europe for consumption, for we ship abroad 
 about 40 per cent of our production. Without 
 cheap carriage, often for long distances, of ore 
 necessary to make a profitable mixture in lead 
 and copper furnaces, many a district would be 
 unexplored and unexploited. Till recently, for 
 instance, the mines at Globe, Arizona, languished 
 for want of sulphur and iron flux, and could 
 barely make a million Ibs. of copper a month. 
 But the railroads, appreciating the needs of the 
 miner, and appreciating what is their own true 
 interest, published a low ore tariff which en- 
 abled pyrites to be imported from distant districts 
 where it is in excess; and as a result the pro-
 
 104 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 duction rapidly rose to three million pounds a 
 month. 
 
 The copper industry, as compared with the 
 iron trade, if gauged by the quantity of copper 
 produced, is insignificant; but if measured by 
 the ore raised in making a ton of copper, it as- 
 sumed very different proportions. Instead of 
 two tons of ore to the ton of metal, as in the case 
 of iron, the average of ore mined, previous to 
 water concentration, is more nearly forty tons, 
 and therefore there are handled, to make our 
 460,000 tons of copper, about 18,000,000 tons of 
 ore. Though this is not carried the same dis- 
 tance that iron ore is carried to fuel, nearly all 
 of it is moved by steam for a longer or shorter 
 distance; and as about four tons of fuel are con- 
 sumed to make one ton of copper, nearly twenty 
 million tons of freight must be carried by the 
 railroads to enable us to maintain our position 
 in the copper world. 
 
 Without going into the economies of railroad 
 rates, I would remind you that the low rates, at 
 which are carried these large quantities of low grade 
 freight, on which the very existence of our large 
 metallurgical industries depend, are economically
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 105 
 
 possible only if supplemented by higher rates on 
 higher class freight. And the very remunerative 
 wages given miners and mill workers, and the 
 high standard of their living, gives the railroad 
 a large proportion of such profitable traffic. For 
 instance, on a railroad with which I am connected, 
 and which depends almost exclusively for its 
 traffic on mines, the proportion of the different 
 classes of freight is approximately as follows: 
 
 Ore, 49 per cent 
 
 Coke, 16 
 
 Coal and Petroleum, 3 
 
 Lumber, 8 
 
 Copper bullion, 7 
 
 Merchandise, fodder, etc., 17 
 
 83 per cent of traffic 
 is carried at a very 
 low rate. 
 
 at a higher rate. 
 
 The Interstate Commerce Statistics of Railroads 
 for 1906 gives a summary showing traffic move- 
 ment and the large proportion of mineral freight 
 carried (see table on page 106). 
 
 Our western copper industry, like our iron 
 industry, sprang into life on the touch of the 
 railroad. Not until the Southern Pacific ap- 
 proached Arizona in 1880 was any notable copper 
 made there, and the railroad alone galvanized 
 Butte within a year afterwards into activity. 
 And to-day our increasing production of that 
 much sought-after metal is due either to rail-
 
 106 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
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 Mining and Metallurgy 107 
 
 road extension into new regions or to lower freight 
 rates over existing railroads. For our railroads 
 have been learning that their prosperity depends 
 on the healthy growth of the industries along 
 their lines, and that these industries can be 
 starved to death by high freight rates or fed 
 into lusty vigor by encouragement. I venture 
 to think that none of us miner or metallurgist 
 will often be driven to take advantage of any of 
 the useful but drasticclauses of the Rate Bill which 
 both Houses are so busy framing for our benefit. 
 If we have a grievance, it will be easier to make 
 the railroad traffic manager, with his knowledge of 
 local conditions, understand it and induce him to 
 apply the remedy than to explain the intricacies of 
 our case and depend for relief on a Commission in 
 Washington. The railroads may not have been 
 always in the past as far sighted as their customers, 
 and their officials have not always strictly obeyed 
 the laws. But inasmuch as some of the most 
 energetic, as well as the most able, men in the 
 country now control them, if the public will not 
 give them credit for common honesty or patriotism, 
 it cannot deny them the vice or virtue of self- 
 interest (call it selfishness if you will) and this,
 
 io8 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 not favoritism nor legislative compulsion, in- 
 duces them to foster the great industries de- 
 pendent on their road. Moreover, and the rule 
 has proved to be almost of universal application, 
 that the small shipper benefits by the advantages 
 secured by his big wholesale neighbor, and enjoys 
 rates which otherwise his own scanty traffic 
 would not permit the railroad to give him; for 
 low freights are dependent on large quantities 
 carried, and the enormous bulk of our business 
 is one of the principal reasons why our railroads 
 can furnish such cheap transportation. It would 
 be foreign to my purpose and improper in this 
 place to discuss the accusations brought against 
 the railroads, or rather against their officers, of 
 fraud and favoritism; but it is not improper to 
 direct attention to the extraordinary courage, 
 energy and skill, as well as amount of capital 
 which have been put into the building up of our 
 stupendous railroad system, and to its vital 
 influence on all our great industries, which have, 
 as a general rule, developed with the same rapidity 
 as the railroads on which they depend. Any 
 check, therefore, given to legitimate expansion 
 of our railroads by ill-advised legislation, and
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 109 
 
 by creating disturbance of public confidence, must 
 react sensitively, not only on railroad securities, 
 which is a small matter, but on our farming, our 
 mining and all the other branches of national indus- 
 try which depend on railroad transportation, and 
 on whose prosperity conversely railroads depend. 
 
 And it is rather remarkable that, considering 
 the scrutiny to which railroads are subjected, 
 the intense competition in seeking business, not 
 only between the railroads as corporations, but 
 as between the subordinate officers and depart- 
 ments of each road, that so few suits have been 
 brought and so few convictions obtained for 
 breach of the existing laws. There are 1,400,000 
 railroad employes, all, as a rule, eager to advance 
 their interests by furthering the prosperity of the 
 corporation which they serve, and the corpora- 
 tion is responsible for any improper means that 
 any of them may employ to attain that end. 
 
 There remains a product of the miner's skill 
 upon which, above all others, the commercial 
 and political welfare of the country depends. I 
 refer, of course, to coal. Fortunately, nature 
 has not only been lavish of this gift, but has 
 scattered it so widely that every great section
 
 lio Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 has received its share. Moreover, in most local- 
 ities, the coal beds are so accessible and are 
 deposited so horizontally that it can be mined 
 much more cheaply than in any of the active 
 industrial centers of Europe. The effect of this 
 cheap fuel on our mining and metallurgical 
 industries has been already referred to as one 
 reason for the concentration of our most impor- 
 tant industry that of iron and steel making at 
 localities where fuel is exceptionally cheap. But 
 there are other and more important phases of this 
 subject which have a profound national bearing. 
 
 Of the 249,612,420 tons of bituminous coal 
 mined in 1904 
 
 Tons. 
 
 142,681,714, or 57 per cent, came from Middle States: Mary- 
 land, Ohio, Pennsylvania West 
 Virginia. 
 
 70,703,161, or 28 " came from Western States: Colo- 
 rado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 
 Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, 
 Montana, Nebraska, North Da- 
 kota, Wyoming. 
 
 4,308,312 or 2 " came from Pacific States: Cali- 
 fornia, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, 
 Washington. 
 
 31,486,852, or 13 " came from Southern States: Ala- 
 bama, Arkansas, Georgia, In- 
 dian Territory, Kentucky, New 
 Mexico, North Carolina, Ten- 
 nessee, Texas, Virginia.
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 1 1 1 
 
 Now, if we distribute the density of railroad 
 traffic, measured by the tons of freight carried 
 one mile, over the same section, we find that 
 density to be 
 
 Tons of Freight Carried one Mile 
 
 86,909,756,058 in Middle States, or 50 per cent of total. 
 51,270,332,531 in Western States, or 29 
 8,002,279,490 in Pacific States, 
 where petro- 
 leum is largely 
 
 used, or 5 " " 
 
 27,231,621,498 in Southern States, or 16 " " 
 
 174,522,089,577 100 per cent. 
 
 Such parallelisms cannot be accidental, and while 
 it shows how necessary coal is to the life of 
 the nation, and how necessary, therefore, it is 
 that no unnecessary barriers be erected against 
 its free distribution, it at the same time proves 
 that coal mining and railroading are such allied 
 industries that they cannot very well be divorced. 
 The relation of coal mined to density of traffic 
 in 1906 agrees so closely, as shown by the follow- 
 ing figures, with the relation existing in 1904 
 (when the lecture was delivered) , that the argu- 
 ment is irresistible that the coal production and 
 the coal transportation facilities of the country at 
 large are meeting under some economic law, not
 
 1 1 2 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 by accident, the industrial requirements of the 
 country. 
 
 Of the 306,136,274 tons of bituminous coal 
 mined in 1906 
 
 Tons. 
 
 183,705,937, or 60 per cent, came from Middle States: Mary- 
 land, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West 
 Virginia. 
 
 80,668,599, or 26 per cent, came from Western States: Colo- 
 rado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 
 Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, 
 Montana, Nebraska, North 
 Dakota, Wyoming. 
 
 4,612,019, or 2 " came from Pacific States: Cali- 
 fornia, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, 
 Washington. 
 
 37,151,719, or 12 " came from Southern States: Ala- 
 bama, Arkansas, Georgia,North 
 Carolina, Kentucky, New Mex- 
 ico, Indian Ter., Tennessee, 
 Texas, Virginia. 
 
 If we again distribute the density of railroad 
 traffic in 1906, measured by the tons of freight 
 carried one mile, over the same sections, we find 
 that density varies very slightly in proportion 
 from what it was in 1904. 
 
 Tona of Freight Carried one Mile 
 
 107.488,614,742 in Middle States, or 50 per cent. 
 
 64,574,629,694 in Western States or 30 " 
 
 10,150,860,535 in Pacific States or 5 " 
 
 33,663,446,270 in Southern States, or 15 " 
 
 215,877,551,241 100 per cent.
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE. 
 
 
 1904, 
 Coal 
 Mined. 
 
 1904, 
 Density 
 of Traffic. 
 
 1906, 
 Coal 
 Mined. 
 
 ifioe. 
 
 Density 
 of Traffic. 
 
 Middle States 
 
 57% 
 
 309 7 
 
 60% 
 
 50% 
 
 Western States 
 Pacific States 
 
 28% . 
 2% 
 
 5% 
 
 26% 
 
 30% 
 
 5% 
 
 Southern States 
 
 13% 
 
 16% 
 
 12<7 
 
 15% 
 
 
 
 
 /o 
 
 
 
 100% 
 
 100% 
 
 100% 
 
 100% 
 
 Therefore, if the ratio of coal produced in each 
 great section of our land bears so intimate a 
 relation to the total traffic of that section, any 
 disturbance of traffic by the imposition of rates 
 which would hamper manufacturing industries, 
 would immediately tell upon the consumption 
 and therefore the production of coal, and vice 
 versa any great rise in the price of coal through 
 depressing manufacturing, would tell at once 
 on the traffic. As, however, both traffic and coal 
 mining not only maintain the ratio, but both in- 
 crease rapidly in quantity, the inference is that 
 railroads, in the matter of rates and general 
 facilities for transportation, keep pace with the 
 demands of the coal miner and the requirements 
 of the manufacturing public, on whose activities 
 the density of traffic depends. If the railroad
 
 1 14 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 should transgress, as they are generally supposed 
 to do, punishment in loss of general traffic would 
 as soon overtake them as punishment at the 
 hands of the Interstate Commerce Commission. 
 
 But cheap fuel and cheap transportation have 
 destroyed industrial sectionalism. 
 
 Each great group of states, as we have seen, 
 produces independently its coal requirements 
 and its railroads, and industries generally are sup- 
 plied from its own mines. The Pacific coast and 
 the Southeastern Atlantic coast, are most scantly 
 endowed with coal, but on the other hand have 
 abundant petroleum resources, though for metal- 
 lurgical purposes, the western states sometimes 
 draw coke from other regions. Were it not for 
 this comparatively uniform distribution of fuel, 
 railroad transportation would of necessity be 
 higher, and all interests, especially metallurgical 
 and manufacturing, would suffer. As it is, the 
 old economical divisions into manufacturing New 
 England and northern seaboard states, into the 
 southern cotton growing states, and the western 
 wheat raising states, have disappeared, and with 
 this disappearance has vanished that diversity 
 of interest, involving political dissension, which
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 115 
 
 was so marked and dangerous a feature of national 
 life before the War of Secession. The coal of the 
 southern states has facilitated the introduction 
 of cotton spinning and of other manufactures 
 which give diversity and a higher grade of 
 employment to the negro population than hoeing 
 corn and picking cotton. Every western state, 
 even those west of the Missouri, is becoming a hive 
 of industrial manufacturing life, owing to cheap 
 coal. New England alone, largely due to her 
 distance from coal, is making less comparative 
 progress along these lines than other sections, as 
 she is shut off by tariff partition from her nearest 
 and natural coal supply, that of the maritime 
 provinces of Canada. 
 
 Thus has this great coal industry, to whose de- 
 velopment transportation is as much an element 
 as mining, becomes a prominent factor in our 
 national life. 
 
 The action of a few railroad officials and coal 
 mine owners, or the policy of some coal roads, 
 may require that further safeguards be erected 
 for the protection of the public, inasmuch as 
 the above consideration and figures conclusively 
 demonstrate that of all the vast interests of the
 
 1 16 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 country, the mining and the distribution of its 
 coal is the most vital to individual and national 
 well-being. But on the other hand, any reckless 
 interference with fhe machinery by which such 
 beneficent results have been brought about, and 
 are now being conferred on the public, may 
 bring about disturbance to trade which it may 
 be more difficult to remedy than it was to create. 
 The embarrassment arising from a plethora of 
 business is often as great as that which arises 
 from its paucity, and this presents another phase 
 of the coal situation which may explain some of 
 the irritation against the coal roads. A rail- 
 road's equipment is approximately adjusted to 
 the volume of its traffic, but when, as sometimes . 
 happens, our industries grow with abnormal 
 rapidity, the demands on the railroads outstrip 
 not only their material resources, but the human 
 endurance and human skill of their employes. 
 To take as a single instance, the coal cars neces- 
 sary to handle the coal output of 1901, which 
 was 261,874,830 tons, were probably sufficiently 
 in excess of actual requiremnets to handle that of 
 1902, which increased to only 269,117,177 tons; 
 but when our coal production jumped in 1903
 
 Mining and Metallurgy i 1 7 
 
 to 319,069,229 tons, there was inevitably a 
 car shortage.* In 1904 there was a slight falling 
 off in production, but when in 1905 it reached 
 suddenly the extraordinary output of over 373,- 
 000,000 tons, all mines but those which owned 
 their cars must have suffered at the hands of the 
 underequipped railroads. And at such a crisis 
 relief cannot be readily obtained, as the car 
 manufacturers have orders booked a year and 
 more ahead. These conditions, which are peculiar 
 to the commercial vicissitudes of this country, 
 generally, and fortunately, in the direction of 
 increased prosperity, throw a strain on the rail- 
 roads which the public at large can hardly be 
 expected to appreciate. 
 
 There is one more subject bearing on the re- 
 lation of mining and railroads to which I wish 
 
 * On October 2, 1907, there was a shortage of "coal gon- 
 dola and hopper" cars throughout all of the railroads in 
 the United States of 139,291. This shortage was most 
 acute in the States of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, 
 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and the Birmingham District. 
 
 During the month of October the transportation business 
 reached its highest mark, and from that time up to the 
 1st of Feb., 1908, there was a steady falling off in traffic. 
 As a result, instead of a shortage of over 139,000 "coal 
 gondola and hopper" cars, there was on February 1st an 
 actual surplus of this class of equipment throughout the 
 United States amounting to 156,634 cars.
 
 1 18 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 to draw your attention, and that is also statis- 
 tical. The intimate relation of the railroads to 
 our great mineral and metallurgical industries 
 iron and steel is illustrated by the parallelism 
 between the extension of the railroad and the 
 increased production of the metal. In 1840 
 there were 4535 miles of railroad in operation 
 and there were made 256,100 tons of pig iron. 
 By the end of the century there were 250,142 
 miles of track, including double and single, and 
 the production of our 200 blast furnaces was 
 13,620,703 tons. Fifty-three as a multiplier ap- 
 proximately represents the increase in both 
 branches of industry. Since then the mileage 
 of our steam roads has not kept pace with our 
 iron production, but if to the steam road mileage 
 of to-day be added about 30,000 miles of recently 
 completed urban and interurban roads, 70 as a 
 multiplier, instead of 53, represents approxi- 
 mately in both spheres of activity the still more 
 intense energy exerted within the last few years. 
 A similar parallelism may be traced between all 
 branches of metallurgical industry. During the 
 last ten years, when copper has been used so 
 extensively in both electricity and architecture
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 119 
 
 in association with iron, one ton of the rarer 
 metal has been used to 83 tons of the more abund- 
 ant, and this proportion has varied only slightly 
 from year to year. 
 
 If we recede in our comparative study beyond 
 ten years, we find that the quantity of iron in 
 proportion to copper between 1886 and 1892 con- 
 sumed in this country was much greater, viz., 97 
 tons of iron instead of 83, to one ton of copper. 
 The increased use of copper in architecture and 
 electricity explains its relatively, as well as its 
 absolutely, greater consumption. But whereas 
 more copper per ton of iron is now used than 
 formerly, less lead is consumed, copper generally 
 replacing it in architecture. Zinc has maintained 
 to iron a very steady ratio. This dependence of 
 every metal on every other, of all on coal, and of 
 both coal and the metals on transportation forms 
 one of the chains of relations which link together 
 the elements of our industrial life as intimately 
 as nature binds in dependence and interde- 
 pendence all matter and force, not omitting 
 ourselves, though we often struggle to liberate 
 ourselves from its clutches. In fact, in watch- 
 ing the efforts of men to regulate their lives by
 
 1 2O Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 legislation, one cannot help comparing the ease 
 with which, without interference, a large city 
 like our own is fed and clothed, under some 
 natural laws of supply and demand, with the 
 great difficulty which the commissariat of the 
 most systematic of governments finds in feeding 
 and clothing an army of half a million men. 
 And one wonders whether we are not nowadays 
 taking a great deal of trouble to correct by violent 
 interference evils which would cure themselves. 
 
 The vast scale on which our continent is built 
 and the abundance with which its resources are 
 stored, both on its surface and below ground, 
 has exerted an influence over the national char- 
 acter by stimulating the emotions and imagina- 
 tion of almost every section of the people. One 
 effect has been to excite such faith in its illimitable 
 possibilities that both our manufacturers and 
 metallurgists are willing to provide for anticipated 
 business at large outlay on a scale from which 
 our foreign and more prudent competitors shrink. 
 And there is not a railroad manager in the country 
 who would not run his road through an un- 
 inhabited desert in full confidence that it contains 
 resources which it only needs the transports-
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 121 
 
 tion facilities he will provide to induce others 
 as sanguine as himself to develop or unearth. 
 This is peculiarly true of the west where every 
 man is a fanatic as to his own capacity and the 
 value of his property, and where this sublime 
 self-confidence is as infectious as mountain fever 
 and soon attacks the stranger. 
 
 But there is danger in this laudable pride of 
 country and in this over-weaning self-confidence, 
 tor, vast as our resources are, they are not in- 
 exhaustible. Mr. Carnegie in his Saint Andrews' 
 address assigned to our own iron deposits a 
 life of sixty years, while Professor Shaler in his 
 book unfortunately his last on the ''Earth 
 and Man/' reduces that span to fifty years. 
 Our anthracite is a rapidly vanishing quantity, 
 and vast as are our bituminous coal fields, they 
 will not last forever. And we are using nature's 
 resources with most wasteful prodigality. We 
 are draining our prolific cow to the last drop 
 skimming off the cream, and not even making 
 cheese out of the skimmed milk. We are saving 
 only 60 per cent of our anthracite, burning away 
 the by-product of 90 per cent of all our coke 
 ovens, and cutting down our vast forests with-
 
 1 22 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 out replanting. In fact, except in the northwest, 
 our timber resources are almost exhausted, and 
 we are borrowing largely from Canada. And 
 from abroad we shall sooner or later have to 
 borrow more than timber. When we reach that 
 stage, we will make less money, which will be 
 far from an evil, for it may oblige us to replace 
 some of our pelf with humility and meekness of 
 spirit. Even to-day we do not suffer acutely 
 from looking abroad for some of the material of 
 our prosperous manufacturers. We do not make 
 any pig tin on the contrary, import it from 
 the Malay Peninsula, whence we do not refuse 
 to draw it, though it is made by Chinese labor; 
 and yet our tin plate industry is flourishing. 
 And so, as our resources fail, we shall not lack 
 for raw material as long as the world's supply 
 lasts, for transportation charges by land and 
 water will grow steadily less, and we cannot but 
 believe that many of the selfish barriers which 
 now separate nations commercially will be swept 
 away by the spread of saner notions on political 
 economy, and more unselfish international re- 
 lations. 
 The extraordinary wealth which has been accu-
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 123 
 
 mulatcd of late years, primarily through the 
 marvellous growth of our railroads and the rapid 
 development and utilization of our resources of 
 all kinds, due to that railroad extension, is un- 
 doubtedly a menace. But the grave question 
 is how to right the wrong and avert the dangers 
 without retarding the progress; how we can cure 
 the patient without killing him. For if a few 
 of the leaders in the movement have become too 
 rich, their proportion of the gross turnover has 
 been small. 
 
 The people at large, quite apart from the 
 multitude who hold the stock of the great cor- 
 porations, benefit to the extent of at least three- 
 quarters of the gross expenditure. This is 
 substantially true of all our successful enter- 
 prises. Of the statistics of the unsuccessful 
 ventures, in which capital loses a great deal of 
 its money, we hear little. But the operations of 
 the successful ones are on such a stupendous 
 scale nowadays that the comparatively small 
 amount received by those whom we call the 
 promoter per unit of output, whether in the form 
 of material or in the form of energy, represent 
 those great private fortunes which are a stimu-
 
 1 24 Relation of Railway Transportation to 
 
 lant to some, a source of jealousy to others, and 
 of wonderment to all. To many of their possessors 
 they are certainly a cause of keen heart search- 
 ing, for some of them certainly find great difficulty 
 in disposing of their accumulation, and we may 
 therefore assume that they feel acutely the 
 responsibility of its possession, and of wisely 
 administering it. To check the growth in future 
 of their fortunes by legislation is the evident, 
 if not the avowed or understood, object of much 
 state and federal legislation. If it can succeed 
 in doing so without checking the development 
 of the enterprises which have created these 
 fortunes, no harm will certainly be done, and 
 many of us will thereby be saved from temptation. 
 But probably the evil will remedy itself, for 
 in making haste to be rich every one has been 
 making corresponding haste in depleting our 
 national resources cropping and recropping our 
 fertile prairie lands, and not restoring their 
 fertility by manure emptying our mines more 
 rapidly in a decade than old Europe has emptied 
 hers in as many centuries cutting down our 
 forests, and leaving the refuse lumber a prey 
 to fire, and covering our lands with railroads
 
 Mining and Metallurgy 125 
 
 by which these extraordinary results have been 
 brought about. We stand aghast at our own 
 handiwork, and wonder what will be the out- 
 come. The outcome will inevitably be a more 
 modest pace and a saner frame of mind as our 
 resources become gradually exhausted and that 
 some men will have to work harder for less pay. 
 
 But it will not be the mechanical engineer, or 
 the mining engineer, or the chemist, who will 
 suffer; for as we begin to feel the pinch of want 
 and really appreciate that our resources are not 
 illimitable, and that we must stop wasting and 
 use some economy, we will be obliged to look 
 to you to save us. By-products have been a 
 by-word among us heretofore. Ere long they 
 will be here as elsewhere the profitable items of 
 our industries, and by reducing waste and intro- 
 ducing economies the nation will expect you to 
 maintain the supreme position it has secured. 
 This high standing has been attained by the 
 most energetic use of nature's resources. You 
 must do it by the introduction of economies 
 we now almost despise, and by inventing sub- 
 stitutes for material which is now cheap and 
 abundant, but will be ere long scarce and costly.
 
 126 Mining and Metallurgy 
 
 We already see a symptom of the coming change, 
 an unconscious prophecy as it were of future 
 development, in the increasing substitution of 
 concrete, the ingredients of which on the surface 
 of the earth are substantially inexhaustible, for 
 the metals which soon will become rare, and in 
 the generation of heat by the conversion of 
 force instead of exclusively by the combustion 
 of carbon. 
 
 You have therefore before you for solution 
 problems of most momentous importance, not 
 only to this country but to the world at large, 
 for, thank heaven, selfishness may build tariff 
 walls against trade and folly, or ambition embroil 
 nations in war, but no one has yet been able 
 to confine the divine prerogative of free thought 
 or of free speech by those brave enough to use 
 it, and that I am sure you will be.
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 Paper read at the Meeting of the American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers (Toronto, July, 1907) 
 
 THOUGH liberality is not supposed to be a 
 prominent trait of the Scottish character, Canada 
 owes to a Scotchman, Sir William Macdonald, 
 more than to any other of its people, not only 
 wise ideas, but pecuniary help towards extending 
 education; and another Scotchman, in New 
 York, has sumptuously housed under one roof 
 three branches of the engineering fraternity, of 
 which we are one. 
 
 Having thus created us members of the same 
 family for the metaphorical meaning of house 
 and kinship is identical Mr. Carnegie expresses 
 more emphatically than even he could in words, 
 that, by affording facilities for closest inter- 
 course, he invites the mechanical, electrical, and 
 mining engineers to participate in the freest 
 
 interchange of idea and experience, and to cor- 
 
 127
 
 1 28 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 relate and combine the results of their studies and 
 activities; and, being members of the same house- 
 hold, to banish reserve and secrecy. 
 
 And now we, the members of the American 
 Institute of Mining Engineers, assemble as though 
 we were at home in a neighboring country. For 
 whether we meet in Canada, in England, or else- 
 where, the Institute is always received as though 
 no political or geographical divisions separated 
 its members from those of congenial associations 
 in the land of its host. In truth, the title which 
 we have assumed claims for the sphere of our 
 activities the whole American continent, regard- 
 less of such trifling details as boundary lines. 
 The fact that we must combine to communicate 
 each other's experience, to discuss our difficul- 
 ties, and to seek each other's aid in solving the 
 intricate problems that so often present them- 
 selves in the course of our professional life, is 
 an acknowledgment of our individual helpless- 
 ness; and therefore an argument for united effort. 
 But no effort can be of any value if there is an 
 underlying suspicion of reserve and lack of candor 
 in our treatment of the technical questions which 
 it is our province at these meetings to discuss.
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 129 
 
 Yet there are limits to the extent to which we 
 may go as officials of public companies. We 
 know that even as professional men it is not 
 always easy to reconcile principles with practice, 
 and on this subject of sincerity and transparent 
 diffusion of our experience there is some slight 
 difference of opinion and great difficulty of applica- 
 tion. Few of us are as favorably situated as the 
 college professors, whose first duty is to un- 
 bosom themselves to their students of all they 
 know, and perhaps of a little which they only 
 suppose they know. The most of us are paid 
 officials of corporations whose raison d'etre is to 
 make money, and whose executive officers some- 
 times, not without some reason, consider their 
 trade secrets as part of their capital. Some 
 companies confide these secrets to the honor of 
 their technical workers under as strict rules as 
 those imposed on their cashier in the distribution 
 of their money. Unless, therefore, our em- 
 ployers permit, we as employees are under pledge 
 of secrecy. Many large manufacturing, mining, 
 and metallurgical concerns put no restriction 
 upon the freedom of their technical staff, but 
 some of our largest certainly impose on their
 
 130 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 employees absolute silence as to all that trans- 
 pires within their laboratories or workshops. 
 
 If the question were left to us alone, it would 
 be easy of solution. Our reliance on one another, 
 as workmen in such distinct branches of engi- 
 neering as civil, mechanical, electrical, and min- 
 ing, is so close that we must cooperate in every 
 large enterprise we undertake. We cannot suc- 
 ceed singly, for few of us claim to be so ency- 
 clopaedic in our knowledge or universal in our 
 experience as to make it safe to rely on our own 
 acquaintance with the practical details of every 
 one of these important departments. We there- 
 fore seek each other's assistance, and conse- 
 quently share in each other's secrets; for every 
 man's special knowledge is to the other man, 
 who is more ignorant or inexperienced, a secret, 
 or a "mystery," as old tradesmen and profes- 
 sional men used to call it. 
 
 Every industrial advance brings us closer 
 together and makes it more impossible to act 
 independently. Till very recently the civil en- 
 gineer surveyed and located the line of railroad; 
 the metallurgist made the rails and the iron and 
 steel for the locomotives; the mechanical engi-
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 131 
 
 neer designed the equipment, and what was left 
 for the electrician to do was to string the tele- 
 graph wires. Now all this is changed. The 
 electrical engineer is, in importance, springing 
 into the first rank; and he requires such special 
 acquaintance with the mysterious forces, whose 
 distribution and useful energy he handles with 
 so much audacity, and yet safety, that few of 
 us are particularly anxious to meddle with his 
 operations. 
 
 Or, to take a mining instance, in reaching a 
 decision as to the adoption in underground or 
 overground haulage of electricity or compressed 
 air, even in metalliferous mines, the verdict must 
 depend on so many delicate and purely technical 
 considerations that few superintendents or general 
 managers would consider themselves sufficiently 
 informed to commit themselves until their me- 
 chanical and electrical advisers had marshaled 
 all the facts and arguments for and against each 
 system. I need not cite other instances in which 
 cooperation is demanded in the carrying-out of 
 almost every modern enterprise, or in the equip- 
 ment of the complicated mechanisms which have 
 replaced the simpler contrivances of our fore-
 
 132 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 fathers. The modern steamship exceeds Colum- 
 bus's caravels in size and complexity of con- 
 struction as much as does a limited train an old 
 stage-coach. And in proportion to the multitude 
 of their parts and the tremendous energy of the 
 forces which must be called into play to move 
 them, is the diversity of knowledge, talent, and 
 skill required to design, construct and operate 
 them. As I have said, therefore, if it depended 
 upon us alone there would be no difference of 
 opinion as to the necessity of perfect open- 
 mindedness, and as little backwardness in apply- 
 ing this principle to practice. 
 
 I think, moreover, that many of us are also 
 convinced that open-mindedness to the sugges- 
 tions of others is a useful quality to carry into 
 our work, even after we and our scientific staff, 
 in our joint wisdom, have cooperated in for- 
 mulating and laying out our plans. Every 
 draftsman in our offices, every master mechanic 
 in our shops, every foreman in our mines, is an 
 expert in his particular line, and may be supposed 
 to be familiar with minutiae which have escaped 
 our observation, or, to put it frankly, may know 
 more than we do ourselves on some of the in-
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 133 
 
 numerable details which make up the sum total 
 of the questions on which we have ultimately 
 to pass. The suggestions coming from such 
 subordinate sources may not always be worthy 
 of acceptance; but, on the other hand, it is 
 never wise on our part to turn a deaf ear or a 
 disdainful shoulder to them. In our own small 
 way and work, we feel sometimes almost ashamed 
 to accept credit accorded to us for ingenuity and 
 foresight in devising either mechanical or in- 
 dustrial novelties, or in organizing enterprises, 
 when we recall the hints from others which have 
 suggested thoughts to ourselves. For though 
 undoubtedly, especially in the most imposing 
 cases, the one inspiring mind has conceived the 
 idea, either of the invention or of the enterprise, 
 only by the cooperation of a number of sub- 
 ordinate agents, who often belong to the multi- 
 tude of the unknown and forgotten, could the 
 idea have been worked out to the glory and the 
 profit of the inventor or promoter. It is always 
 difficult to decide how much of the result should 
 be passed to the credit of the conspicuous man 
 and how much to that of the hard-working, 
 plodding, unimaginative grubber among details,
 
 134 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 or to the brilliant, erratic, and, because erratic, 
 unsuccessful fellow who does not a little of the 
 world's work, and yet gets so little of the praise 
 or the gold. But this is certain, that in our 
 own work, whether it be conspicuous or not, we 
 shall always benefit by inviting suggestions from 
 the humblest of our co'Jperators, encouraging 
 them to think independently, and fearlessly to 
 express their thoughts. That this is already one 
 of the prominent qualities of American industry 
 is manifest from the large number of patents 
 which are taken out by inconspicuous laborers 
 in the fields of engineering, especially of me- 
 chanics. 
 
 I recently went, one Friday morning, into our 
 purchasing department and found every desk 
 empty, and all the clerks assembled in the mana- 
 ger's room. He had found it conducive to the 
 most efficient conduct of his office to assemble 
 all his staff once a week for free discussion as to 
 the most economical distribution of work. The 
 result was that instead of late hours and over* 
 time the necessary day's work was overtaken very 
 easily within office hours; for suggestions from 
 the men actually engaged were found to be
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 135 
 
 worth more than those from the men merely 
 superintending. The youngest were not snubbed 
 if they ventured to make a remark; and thus 
 the spirit of pride and cooperation pervaded the 
 whole group. 
 
 We have all heard how Mr. Carnegie is said 
 to have stimulated the rivalry of his superin- 
 tendents and heads of departments by getting 
 them to meet at intervals over an excellent 
 lunch, where around the table all jealousy van- 
 ished, and little technical secrets, which are 
 liable to exist even among friends, were revealed. 
 But good cheer is not, or should not be, necessary 
 to make the great brotherhood of technical 
 workers unfold their sympathy and unbosom 
 their secrets to one another. 
 
 But we return to our main subject. How 
 far and how completely should even corpora- 
 tions and industrial concerns permit and en- 
 courage the interchange of information? I am 
 inclined to think that few limits should be set; 
 for every limitation means the concealment of 
 some fact or some principle which only if re- 
 vealed can be developed to its full significance 
 and utility. As a rule this can be best done by
 
 136 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 the action of many minds and many hands. 
 Till developed it does not yield its full advantage 
 to even the original discoverer, for he alone, 
 unaided, in the solitude of his laboratory or 
 behind the bars of his factory, without the prac- 
 tical assistance of his fellow-workers, rarely 
 brings his original germinal idea into efficient, 
 practical utility. 
 
 Were we free to appeal to purely altruistic mo- 
 tives, it would therefore be superfluous to argue 
 in favor of complete knowledge- and experience- 
 sharing, but profit-sharing is after all the im- 
 pelling motive of industrial advance to-day, as 
 it has been in all ages, and to reconcile the 
 admitted evils of secrecy with the admitted 
 advantages of publicity, the patent laws have 
 been framed. They have always given the 
 patentee the right to use either in his person 
 or through his agent his invention or discovery 
 for a limited number of years, provided he 
 describes it so fully that it can be practiced 
 by one skilled in the art. The publicity 
 and knowledge conveyed by the specification 
 stimulates the inventive faculties of others, and 
 patented and unpatented improvements, along
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 137 
 
 the line of the original invention, demonstrate 
 both the value of publicity and the cupidity of 
 men, even of the technico-scientific class. Among 
 the great inventors of our day was Sir Henry 
 Bessemer. Before the Royal Commission, ap- 
 pointed to suggest revision of the British patent 
 laws, he gave evidence, some of which he has 
 embodied, with very suggestive comments, in his 
 autobiography.* Before he became famous he 
 devised machinery for making bronze powder, 
 and manufactured the powder in secret. Of this 
 he says : 
 
 "While referring to patents for inventions, I 
 cannot refrain from pointing to this particular 
 invention of bronze powder as an example that 
 may advantageously be borne in mind by those 
 short-sighted persons who object to grants of 
 letters-patent. There can be no doubt of the 
 fact that the security offered by the patent law 
 to persons who expend large sums of money and 
 valuable time in pursuing novel inventions, 
 results in many new and important improve- 
 ments in our manufactures, which otherwise it 
 
 * Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S.: An Autobiography, pp. 82 
 to 85. London: Offices of Engineering (1905).
 
 138 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 would be sheer madness for men to waste their 
 energy and their money in attempting. But in 
 this particular case the conditions were most 
 unfavorable for patenting, owing to the fact 
 that the article produced was only a powder, 
 and could not be identified as having been made 
 by any particular form of mechanism. There- 
 fore it could not be adequately protected by 
 patent; moreover, by my machinery, the cost of 
 production, if only paid for at the ordinary rates 
 of wages, did not exceed one-thirtieth of the 
 selling-price of the article. This fact alone 
 offered an irresistible temptation to others to 
 evade the inventor's claims, and so rendered the 
 patent law a most inadequate protection. On 
 the other hand, the great value of a small bulk 
 of the material made it possible to carry on the 
 manufacture in secret, and this method of manu- 
 facture was rendered the more feasible by making 
 each different class of machine self-acting, and 
 thereby dispensing entirely with a host of skilled 
 manipulators. It may therefore be fairly con- 
 sidered, so far as this particular article was con- 
 cerned, that there were, in effect, no patent 
 laws in existence.
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 139 
 
 "Now let us see what the public has had to 
 pay for not being able to give this security to 
 the inventor. To illustrate this point, I may 
 repeat the simple fact that the first order for 
 bronze powder obtained by my traveller was for 
 two pounds of pale-gold, at eighty shillings per 
 pound net, for the Coalbrookdale Iron Company. 
 I may further state that, in consequence of the 
 necessity for strict secrecy, I had made arrange- 
 ments with three young men (my wife's brothers), 
 to whom salaries were paid far beyond the cost 
 of mere manual labor (of which, indeed, but 
 little was required). My friend Mr. Young 
 desired to occupy the position of sleeping part- 
 ner only, and not be troubled with any details 
 of the manufacture; so I entered into a contract 
 with him to pay all salaries, find raw materials, 
 pay rent, engine power, and bring the whole 
 produce of the manufactory intd stock, in one- 
 ounce packages, ready for delivery, at a cost 
 for all qualities, of five shillings and sixpence per 
 pound; after which he and I shared equally all 
 profits of the sale. It is rather curious a coin- 
 cidence that the one-ounce bottles of gold paint 
 were labelled five shillings and sixpence each, off
 
 140 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 which the retailer was allowed a liberal dis- 
 count. 
 
 "Had the invention been patented, it would 
 have become public property in fourteen years 
 from the date of the patent, after which period 
 the public would have been able to buy bronze 
 powder at its present market price, viz., from 
 two shillings and threepence to two shillings and 
 ninepence per pound. But this important secret 
 was kept for about thirty-five years, and the 
 public had to pay excessively high prices for 
 twenty-one years longer than they would have 
 done had the invention become public property 
 in fourteen years, as it would have been if pat- 
 ented. Even this does not represent all the 
 disadvantages resulting from secret manufac- 
 tures. While every detail of production was a 
 profound secret, there were no improvements 
 made by the outside public in any one of the 
 machines employed during the whole thirty-five 
 years; whereas during the fourteen years, if the 
 invention had been patented and published, 
 there would, in all probability, have been many 
 improved machines invented, and many novel 
 features applied to totally different manufactures.
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 141 
 
 "I have lingered long over this subject of 
 bronze powder, because it is one which has had 
 great influence on my career; it was taken up 
 at a period when my energy and my endurance 
 and my faith in my own powers, were at their 
 highest; and as I look on all the incidents sur- 
 rounding it, through the lapse of time and the 
 many changes of the fifty years since it was 
 undertaken, I wonder how I had the courage to 
 attack a subject so complicated and so difficult, 
 and one on which there were no data to assist 
 me. There were not even the details of former 
 failures to hold up the finger of warning, or point 
 out a possible path to pursue, for no one had 
 yet ventured to try and replace the delicate 
 manipulation which experts had made their own, 
 both in Japan and China, where texts and prayers 
 printed with bronze were offered up at the shrine 
 of Confucius two thousand years before I had 
 ever seen a particle of bronze powder." 
 
 He concludes this first reference to his powder 
 in the following paragraph: 
 
 "In closing these details of the bronze powder 
 manufacture, I may say that, later on the hand- 
 some royalties paid by may. steel licensees ren-
 
 142 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 dered the bronze powder business no longer neces- 
 sary to me as a source of income ; and I had then 
 the extreme satisfaction of presenting the works 
 to my brother-in-law, Richard Allen, who had, 
 with so much caution, successfully kept, for more 
 than thirty years, a secret for which, he per- 
 fectly well knew, some thousands of pounds 
 would have been given him at any moment." 
 
 But he returns to the subject of patents when 
 discussing another invention of his, that for 
 making optical and plate glass, the value of 
 which, for some reason or other, the trade has 
 never appreciated. He says (pp. 117, 118): 
 
 "There is one point in connection with pat- 
 ented inventions upon which I have always felt 
 strongly. I have maintained that the public 
 derive a great advantage by useful inventions 
 being patented, because the invention so secured 
 is valuable property, and the owner is necessarily 
 desirous of turning that property to the greatest 
 advantage; he either himself manufactures the 
 patented article, or he grants licenses to others 
 to do so. In cither case the public reap the 
 advantage of being able to purchase a better or 
 cheaper article than was before known to them,
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 143 
 
 due to the inventor's perseverance in forcing 
 his property upon the market. But if a novel 
 article or manufacture is simply proposed by a 
 writer, and published in the technical press or 
 in newspapers, as a rule (almost without a single 
 exception) no manufacturer will go to the trouble 
 and expense of trying to work out the proposed 
 invention. He says to himself: 'I shall not risk 
 the expense necessary to develop this new idea, for 
 it may entirely fail; or even if I succeed, its de- 
 velopment will cost me much more than it will 
 cost other manufacturers, who will immediately 
 avail themselves of it if I succeed; no, let some 
 one else try it;' and so the invention is lost to 
 the world in consequence of having been given 
 away. This loss to the public is equally the case 
 with patents that are not taken up; and one of 
 the simplest and most effective inventions which 
 I have ever made may be here cited as an ex- 
 ample, as it formed part of the novel system of 
 plate glass manufacture just referred to." 
 
 After describing his plate-glass invention and 
 its public neglect, he says (p. 122) : 
 
 "From what I have said I think I have shown 
 that, however self-evident an invention may be,
 
 144 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 or however advantageous it might be to a manu- 
 facturer, if it is public property he will not touch 
 it." 
 
 Sir Henry was doubtless correct in asserting 
 that under the impulse of self-interest inven- 
 tions are pushed by the inventor more vigorously 
 than if he had merely the scientific credit due 
 and given to investigators to spur him on. But 
 he really gives us an argument against patents 
 when he describes the apathy of the public to 
 his glass patents. His steel patents he worked 
 out himself and brought to perfection after years 
 of heavy expense and labor, and by adopting 
 certain modifications to fit special cases. His 
 plate-glass patents he never himself applied, 
 but they would probably have been loaded 
 down with royalties which the trade did not 
 care to pay while taking the risk of applying 
 them to practice. As to his bronze powder, he 
 would probably have made far more out of it 
 had he reduced the exorbitant prices and in- 
 creased the demand, even while manufacturing 
 it behind closed doors. 
 
 It is, however, foreign to my purpose to discuss 
 the patent laws, except casually as they bear
 
 Secrecy in the Ajts 145 
 
 upon the subject of secrecy in the arts. Sir 
 Henry's generalizations are substantially correct, 
 but they are too sweeping; for there have been 
 great inventions which the public has not been 
 backward in using, though they were freely 
 given to the world. One's . thoughts pass with 
 pleasure from the contemplation of the money- 
 making inventors and investigators to such 
 prophets and apostles of science as Sir Michael 
 Faraday. Sir Michael's profound and original 
 investigations into electricity and magnetism 
 gave the world the dynamo. Though he did not 
 work out the mechanical details of a practical 
 generator, he undoubtedly invented appliances 
 which might have been used for making a strong 
 basis-claim for a patent. But nothing could 
 have been more repulsive to his spirit or foreign 
 to his high aim in life than gauging his time 
 and talents by a mere money standard. He 
 lived contentedly on the small salary he re- 
 ceived from the Royal Institution, preparing his 
 lectures to children with as much care as he be- 
 stowed on those delivered before the Institution 
 which made him famous; and turning his great 
 learning and power of investigation to the nation's
 
 146 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 good in return for very scanty remuneration, 
 for he deliberately decided to devote his life 
 to scientific research for truth's sake, rather 
 than to use his vast attainments in the service 
 of Mammon. At the commencement of his 
 career, Faraday added to his salary from the 
 Royal Institution by what he called commercial 
 work. At first, his average earnings from this 
 source were 240 per year. By 1831 they reached 
 1090. By 1838 they had shrunk to nothing; 
 for in the meantime his great discovery of magneto- 
 electricity was made, and his thoughts were so 
 intently directed to his experimental work that 
 no time could be spared for money-making. 
 
 Faraday's mind was too absorbed in wonder- 
 ment and almost religious fervor, as the secrets 
 of nature revealed themselves, for sordidness 
 in any form to find lodgment. He wasted his 
 energy neither in money-making nor in cap- 
 tiously defending his discoveries and great con- 
 ceptions from supposed infringement by other 
 scholars. He never forgot, despite his brilliant 
 original work, that generally the great inves- 
 tigators only lay the keystone in the arch which 
 many less gifted workers have been erecting
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 147 
 
 stone by stone. He did not consider it any 
 detraction from his honor that he was permitted 
 only to crown the structure which others had 
 helped to build from the foundation up. They 
 are the greatest among the great who appreciate 
 this limitation and recognize what they owe to 
 others. Faraday knew that his discoveries gave 
 him but imperfect glimpses of some of the laws 
 and phenomena of nature, which men, through 
 their ignorance and prejudice, are slow in under- 
 standing, but these laws sooner cease to be secrets 
 if we could only disabuse our minds of false con- 
 ceptions, see facts as facts instead of as argu- 
 ments for our theories, and then work together 
 with single-heartedness. 
 
 Faraday felt also, as every true disciple of 
 science should feel, that when we penetrate to 
 the discovery of even the least important of the 
 facts of nature, we are unveiling one of God's 
 gifts to humanity. If that be so, we may well 
 ask ourselves, what right have we to draw the 
 curtain over it and conceal it again from God's 
 children in order that we may make money out 
 of it? Looked at from this point of view, we may 
 well question the right to buy men's thoughts;
 
 148 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 and when through their thoughts we have un- 
 raveled some of nature's secrets, and learnt 
 something to our profit, use our power and an- 
 other's necessities to impose secrecy? We are 
 enslaving a human mind, and can any slavery be 
 worse? A natural phenomenon or new force, once 
 so understood that it can be controlled, is it not 
 as much a gift of God as rain and sunlight, and 
 therefore part of the heritage of all mankind? 
 Corporate wealth and corporate energy are doing 
 much for mankind, despite the fact that of cor- 
 porate shortcomings we hear just now more 
 than we do of corporate benefactions; but 
 corporate influence will have reached its most 
 beneficent development, when the wealth and 
 activity and masterful management of the able 
 men who wield it are united to the knowledge 
 and skill of their technical staff in not only dis- 
 covering but publishing the truths of nature, 
 which they may be agents in revealing. Nor are 
 we oversanguine in believing that this high 
 aspiration, if carried into practice, would not 
 interfere with the lower motive of their existence, 
 money-making. 
 Sir Michael Faraday is not the only worker in
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 149 
 
 the field of practical science who has given the 
 results of his labor unreservedly to the world. 
 It is almost invidious to single out instances 
 when so many distinguished and such a multi- 
 tude of obscure toilers are working at the intri- 
 cate problems of technology from sheer attach- 
 ment to truth and without any thought of gain. 
 But three notable names may be mentioned as 
 representative of this noble army of the unselfish 
 our own Prof. Henry, Dr. Roentgen, and that 
 devoted couple, whom we rank as one for, as 
 husband and wife, they were as united as they 
 were one in love of science Mons. and Madame 
 Curie. The Roentgen ray needed no patents, or 
 patentable devices, or any business organization 
 to push its beneficial applications to the allevia- 
 tion of suffering humanity, but had Dr. Roentgen, 
 before describing his discoveries, wished to make 
 money out of them it would not have been difficult 
 to concoct patents to protect his discoveries. And 
 could the practical resources of radial activity be 
 measured by dollars, what a fortune the bereaved 
 widow would reap ! But Prof. Roentgen enjoys a 
 better harvest than royalties, and Madame Curie 
 would not exchange for a mountain of gold the
 
 ] 50 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 world's admiration and reverence for her husband's 
 memory. 
 
 But to descend to a lower plane. If it is the 
 fact that technical science has progressed of late 
 with such unwonted speed through the coopera- 
 tion of many workers, and that this cooperation 
 has been made possible by the publication and 
 exchange of ideas and experiences in the technical 
 and scientific journals, would not our progress 
 be even more rapid and thorough if all barriers 
 of secrecy were broken down, and every en- 
 couragement were given to our technical workers 
 to describe, in print and by conference, their 
 notions and their actual experiments? This is 
 the attitude of some, I may almost say of most, 
 of our large concerns, but unfortunately it is not 
 that of all. It is impossible to compare, as to 
 efficiency and profit, works the gates of which are 
 fast shut, and in which obscurity and secrecy 
 are imposed and practiced, with those to which 
 free admission is granted and in which freedom 
 of information is encouraged. But the following 
 reflections force themselves upon us in this con- 
 nection. We know that very few technical papers 
 issue from certain establishments; that on their
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 1 5 1 
 
 officials silence is imposed; and that to these 
 works inquisitive visitors are politely but perem- 
 torily refused admission. There are not many 
 such, but they are and have been very successful. 
 But suppose that in imitation of their practice 
 and regulations all were tempted to adopt it, 
 so that the same policy became universal, what 
 a sudden paralysis of industry would follow! 
 Our secretaries would find it difficult to fill even 
 their shrunken volumes of transactions with 
 papers worth printing; our students would have 
 to content themselves with the antiquated learn- 
 ing which their professors could supply, for there 
 would be no more summer classes for practical 
 work in mines, smelters, and electrical factories, 
 and the professors themselves would have to 
 learn from old books. Every manufacturer and 
 smelter would be obliged to bribe his neighbor's 
 workmen and tempt away his neighbor's super- 
 intendents for information. As a result, before 
 long, the very works which now find it so profit- 
 able, or think they do, to tap their friends' stock 
 of knowledge and experience, and give nothing 
 in return, would be driven in upon their own 
 resources, and would undoubtedly then find* them
 
 1 52 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 not so complete as they imagine. Of course I 
 am supposing an impossibility, because the spirit 
 of intellectual freedom in our professions is too 
 strong and too widsepread to submit to such a 
 tyranny, and because, before such darkness of 
 ignorance had settled down on our great indus- 
 tries, the most pronounced advocates of secrecy 
 would feel and acknowledge the ultimate conse- 
 quences of concealment, and would become 
 reformers. To-day they may have secrets, as 
 valuable as Sir Henry's method of making plate 
 glass and bronze powder, which it may pay them 
 to conceal from their competitors, so long as they 
 are admitted freely to their competitor's open 
 shops, but even this is doubtful. For the spirit 
 of secrecy is intimately allied with the spirit of 
 suspicion and distrust; and the mind which is 
 always suspecting is closed tight against the 
 admission of fresh and fair impressions. Being 
 jealous of others, it is prejudiced against their 
 suggestions, and correspondingly prejudiced in 
 favor of its own preconceptions. Progress there- 
 fore ceases. 
 
 This is a temper of mind foreign to a new 
 country like ours, whose special industries have
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 1 53 
 
 not been established long enough to wear grooves 
 of rigid practice and sink into ruts of self-satisfied 
 indifference. About the best correction we can 
 apply to the growth of dry-rot is the banishment 
 of secrecy. A curious instance of its blighting 
 influence is seen in some of the older, not the newer, 
 industries of the old world. The iron and steel 
 works of Europe have not kept pace with ours 
 in size and production, but the ironmasters of 
 Great Britain and Germany, in coke-making and 
 in blast-furnace economies and in steel-making 
 processes, have been our teachers. Nor have they 
 been shy of communicating their improvements, 
 or, through jealousy of our success, slow in adopting 
 ours. There exists no nobler monument of inter- 
 national comity in thought and experience than the 
 seventy volumes of the Proceedings of the Iron and 
 Steel Institute. And with few exceptions the iron 
 and steel-works of England, Scotland, Germany, 
 and France are open to any accredited worker 
 in the same domain. Yet before England was 
 conspicuous as a maker of iron, she was famous 
 the world over for her copper and tin production. 
 But, between self-conceit and the inbred habits 
 of trade secrecy, her copper-smelting industry has
 
 1 54 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 fallen from its high estate. And it is not acci- 
 dental, but linked as closely as any effect with 
 its cause, that this decline is in great part the 
 result of habits of secrecy which grew with the 
 growth of age. At Swansea, every gate to the 
 smelting-works is guarded, and as a result it has 
 been as difficult for ignorance to escape out as for 
 suggestions to find their way in. Swansea should 
 still enjoy the leadership which her skilled labor, 
 splendid coal, and commanding maritime situa- 
 tion put within her reach; but she has preferred 
 to gloat over her secrets behind closed doors 
 rather than go out into the world in search of new 
 business as well as technical methods, while also 
 inviting the world to enter and exchange ideas 
 with her. What is the consequence? New Zea- 
 land copper comes here to be refined, notwithstand- 
 ing the first practical application of electrolysis 
 to metals was made by Elkinton in England, 
 and the Vivians adopted the Manhds method be- 
 fore Parrel introduced it into this country. 
 
 There are, however, of course, exceptions in 
 England to this too prevalent habit of secrecy. 
 To the works of the Rio Tinto at Port Talbot 
 or of the Cape Copper Co. at Briton Ferry in
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 1 55 
 
 South Wales, where metallurgical novelties have 
 been tried, introductions are not refused. But 
 the relation between decay and suspicion in the 
 instance I have given can hardly be accidental; 
 and we may be sure that what is baneful in its 
 effects in Europe is not likely to be beneficial 
 here; for while the Atlantic separates continents 
 it does not delimit the operation of laws. 
 
 In political life, vitality is maintained only 
 when every man takes his full share as a debater 
 in the discussion of political questions, and as a 
 voter in the determination of state affairs. So 
 in scientific and technical matters, the banish- 
 ment of deceit, mystery, and jealousy, and th e 
 freest admission of daylight by means of the 
 unreserved diffusion of information through the 
 press and personal intercourse, will instill into 
 the whole body of workers a feeling of healthy 
 rivalry, which, while stimulating their mental 
 activity, will correspondingly benefit the financial 
 interests of their employers. 
 
 -I have supposed an extreme case that the 
 example set by our few secretive establishments 
 were followed by all. Let me imagine a more 
 probable issue, such as, I believe, will result
 
 1 56 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 from the fellowship of knowledge and experience 
 which Mr. Carnegie, in presenting to our national 
 engineering societies their new home, urges them 
 to cultivate namely, that all of our technical 
 manufacturers will learn how much they will gain, 
 and not lose, by encouraging their staff-officers to 
 study their neighbors' methods, and by throwing 
 open their own establishments, in turn, to the freest 
 criticism of their competitors in trade. What 
 will result? Nothing but advantage, I believe, 
 to all whose wisdom and means have enabled 
 them to provide themselves with the raw material 
 of manufacture on advantageous terms, and to 
 locate their works or factories at localities favor- 
 able for economical operation: Loss only to 
 those who, in any case, ought to go out of business, 
 because they have failed to secure the conditions 
 essential to success! And, above all, benefit to 
 the public, which, after all, is the finality we 
 should always keep in view. 
 
 How, then, can these two cardinal conditions 
 financial success and public approval be best 
 attained? Unquestionably, by mutual help and 
 the most unreserved publicity. In any branch 
 of industry, no intelligent worker claims that he
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 157 
 
 and his staff have attained either the utmost 
 economy in operation or the most thorough 
 asquaintance with all the reactions which enter 
 into the processes which he practices. Each 
 knows that hundreds of other intelligent and 
 well-informed men are eagerly at work on the 
 solution of the same problem. Some may be a 
 little cleverer than others, and some may have 
 made a little more progress in certain lines than 
 their co-workers. But this discrepancy will not 
 necessarily continue ; for the clever fellow is picked 
 up by rival works; the secret so carefully guarded 
 leaks out, and the disturbed average of paid 
 ability and of stock of knowledge is restored. 
 On the other hand, if the companies and their staff 
 are unwilling unreservedly to pool their knowledge 
 and experience, the advantage of making into one 
 great stock the accumulated experience and knowl- 
 edge of these hundreds of workers is forfeited. 
 With certain reservations, and by special permis- 
 sion, many of our larger establishments, in all or 
 in certain departments, are freely open to each 
 other's technical officers; but instead of being 
 admitted upon sufferance, they should be in- 
 vited in, with full liberty to study processes and
 
 158 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 test machinery; for assuredly the host would 
 benefit as much as the guests by the discussion 
 which would follow such untrammelled exchange of 
 ideas and comparisons of appliances and methods. 
 I have referred to certain limitations to pub- 
 licity. One, undoubtedly, is costs. Under our 
 present economic system, no manufacturer or 
 miner or metallurgist cares to give away his 
 costs, and that for very obvious reasons. What 
 they are may be inferred, but professional courtesy 
 forbids direct inquiry into that delicate subject. 
 This restriction, however, need not interfere 
 with unstinted technical freedom of intercourse. 
 There is, moreover, another judicious limitation 
 to publicity. Most of our largest concerns are 
 incorporated and financed as joint-stock organi- 
 zations, in which thousands of technically ig- 
 norant and helpless shareholders are interested. 
 Unquestionably, indiscriminate admission to works 
 and mines must be refused, for unfortunately 
 there would be visitors who, if admitted, after 
 the visit would tell remarkable stories, from actual 
 observation, with the view to affect the value 
 of stocks. But such restrictions do not affect 
 the main proposition, that mercantile concerns,
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 159 
 
 of every class, depending for success on technical 
 knowledge and skill, would gain by the removal 
 of restraint on the thought and action of their 
 technical staff. 
 
 I am not blind to the fact that the same object 
 is sought to be attained by the consolidation of 
 many works under one organization, or by the 
 encouragement of friendly financial co5peration 
 among even competing companies; but this ten- 
 dency to consolidation has not yet succeeded 
 in obliterating competition, and will not as long 
 as there are active, intelligent men among us, 
 who prefer to rule rather than to be ruled, and to 
 manage their own business rather than have it 
 managed for them. 
 
 On the benefits or disadvantages of the present 
 movement towards consolidation of works and 
 the combination of capital in large industrial 
 undertakings, there is, and will be, of course, 
 considerable diversity of opinion. That com- 
 petition is wasteful and is encumbered with other 
 evils few will deny; that it has a keenly stimulat- 
 ing effect all will admit. Yet it remains to be 
 determined whether a board of absentee managers 
 and paid officials will be a compensating sub-
 
 160 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 stitute for the ambitions, personal pride, and 
 tireless energy and skill of the individuals who 
 have built up great works which they may have 
 seen, perhaps reluctantly, absorbed into a com- 
 bination. There are, apart from the political 
 and sociological aspects of the present consolida- 
 tion tendency, technical and economical conditions 
 which force themselves upon the consideration of 
 those of us under whose management works have 
 grown from small to large dimensions. The 
 difficulty of maintaining a high standard of 
 quality as the demand is made for enormously 
 increased production is urgently presenting itself 
 both to the management and to the public. 
 And it is doubtful whether, after expansion has 
 reached the point where administration charges 
 become light, there is actual economy in unlimited 
 expansion; and whether the most skillful and 
 closely-managed corporate organization can re- 
 place the personal supervision of a single mind. 
 But what immediately concerns us in the pre- 
 sent discussion is the dangerous temptation to 
 adopt secretive methods by very large corpora- 
 tions. 
 The larger the combination grows the more
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 16 1 
 
 sensitive will the management be lest business 
 and trade secrets which they possess, or think 
 they possess, be revealed by subordinate officers. 
 The imposition, therefore, of strict rules of silence 
 on all except those in supreme command is likely 
 to result. If the absorption of any one class of 
 our national resources should pass under the 
 control of any one organization, the technical 
 knowledge necessary to the development of that 
 particular resource would be of interest to that 
 organization alone, and the risks of publicity, 
 and therefore the evils of secrecy, would become 
 a merely academic question. This dangerous 
 point, under our present industrial system, will 
 probably not be reached; for state socialism, 
 to which concentration steadily approaches, would 
 be the inevitable alternative and would be 
 adopted before the other alternative had been 
 attained. But it must be to the management 
 of those enormous consolidations a grave con- 
 sideration how they can give such latitude to 
 the members of their staff as will produce that 
 healthy self-reliance which comes from freedom 
 of speech and freedom of opinion, without en- 
 dangering the tremendous financial interests for
 
 162 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 which they arc responsible. Whatever individual 
 difference of opinion on this subject there may 
 be among the managers of the great industrial 
 establishments, there is not any difference of 
 opinion in the country at large ; and public opinion 
 has to be consulted. Therefore, would it not 
 be safer and better for the interests of the share- 
 holders to adopt the policy of freedom which I 
 have outlined, and thus placate the public? 
 For the growing public anxiety, amounting to 
 animosity and suspicion, against our big corpora- 
 tions would be allayed if it were apparent that 
 the technical officials of the small concern had 
 at least the right of knowing what the big concern 
 was doing, and the big official did not arrogate 
 to himself the possession of exclusive knowl- 
 edge and exclusive skill. From the point of 
 view of public policy, the question is one well 
 worthy of consideration; for it is coming about 
 that not only railroads, as public highways, but 
 all large corporations utilizing the country's 
 natural products and converting them into neces- 
 sary objects of trade, will pass under closer 
 legislative scrutiny and public criticism in the 
 future than they have in the past a necessary
 
 Secrecy in the Arts 163 
 
 limitation, which will become more exacting the 
 larger the corporations grow if the tendency 
 to growth continues. 
 
 While unquestionably dangers can be foreseen 
 as arising out of these great industrial aggrega- 
 tions not only of capital but of industrial energy 
 dangers technical, social, and political there 
 are also great possibilities of good. One of the 
 benefits may justly be claimed to reside in the 
 large funds that are thus rendered available for 
 technical research, from which the public derives 
 benefit indirectly, even if the results are not 
 published. But if we could banish secrecy; if 
 every industrial establishment of any magnitude, 
 which is in its own interest carrying on technical 
 research, should encourage its technical staff 
 to confer freely with the members of every other 
 technical staff, the sciences and arts would prog- 
 ress far more rapidly than if one huge organ- 
 ization controlled a given industry. As all our 
 principal metallurgical and chemical concerns 
 have laboratories, and carry on investigations 
 and make experiments, generally on a large 
 working scale, I believe the advancement of 
 technological science is better attained in a
 
 164 Secrecy in the Arts 
 
 number of such laboratories than if there were 
 fewer or in only one. There is keener competi- 
 tion of wits when many brains are working inde- 
 pendently. The friction of honest rivalry is a 
 force not to be despised. The stimulus of am- 
 bition is sure to be stronger in smaller than in 
 large consolidated workshops. The air in such 
 laboratories is freer and purer than when men 
 are working in the stifling atmosphere of secrecy, 
 or even in great public state establishments. I 
 believe that such a consolidation of mind and 
 high impulses would carry us further and faster 
 along the road of human progress than all the 
 money that all the trusts could appropriate for 
 the advancement of technical knowledge.
 
 SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE 
 
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 JOHN WILEY & SONS 
 
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 LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED 
 
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 1
 
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 Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 
 
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