w 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Class 
 
 
THE USES OF PLANTS 
 
THE USES OF PLANTS : 
 
 H jfl&anual of Economic Botany, 
 
 WITH 
 
 SPECIAL REFERENCE TO VEGETABLE PRODUCTS 
 
 INTRODUCED DURING THE LAST 
 
 FIFTY YEARS. 
 
 BY 
 
 G. S. BOULGER, F.L.S., F.G.S., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AT THE CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE, 
 
 AUTHOR OF 'FAMILIAR TREES,' ETC. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 sgdLlFORNAJ 
 
 LONDON: 
 ROPER & DROWLEY, n, LUDGATE HILL. 
 
 1889. 
 
ft 
 
to 
 
 MY BEST FRIEND AND FELLOW-WORKER, 
 MY WIFE. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION : 
 
 I. Economic Botany more than Fifty Years ago - 9 
 
 II. The Progress of Economic Botany in England 
 
 during the last Fifty Years (1837-1887) - 13 
 
 PART I. FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD- ADJUNCTS - 21 
 
 Section I. Starches and Bread-stuffs - - 28 
 
 2. Sugars - - 35 
 
 3. Pulse - 38 
 
 4. Roots and Tubers - - 40 
 
 5. 'Vegetables' - 44 
 
 6. Fruits - So 
 
 7. Nuts- - 57 
 
 8. Food-adjuncts - 61 
 
 (1) Alcoholic - 61 
 
 (2) Condiments - - 63 
 
 (3) Flavourers - - 65 
 
 (4) Alkaloids - 68 
 
 II. MATERIA MEDICA - - 72 
 
 III. OILS AND OIL- SEEDS, ETC. - - 127 
 
 192511 
 
viii CONTENTS. 
 
 PART IV. GUMS, RESINS, ETC. ... 
 
 Section i. Gums - ^5 
 
 2. Resins - . . i^g 
 
 3. Caoutchoucs and Guttas - 153 
 
 V. DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS - - 157 
 
 VI. FIBRES AND PAPER MATERIALS - 164 
 
 VII. TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS - - -173 
 
 VIII. AGRICULTURAL PLANTS - - . !g 9 
 
 IX. MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS - - -192 
 
 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPTICAL INDEX - - . -196 
 
 GENERAL INDEX - - - _ . . 2IO 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 I. ECONOMIC BOTANY MORE THAN FIFTY YEARS 
 
 AGO. 
 
 'As plants convert the minerals into food for animals,' 
 says Emerson, 'so each man converts some raw 
 
 material in Nature to human use Justice has 
 
 already been done to steam, to iron, to wood, to coal, 
 to loadstone, to iodine, to corn, and cotton ; but how 
 few materials are yet used by our arts !'* It is no 
 mean boast for botanical science that, from the first 
 writings of the herbalists of the sixteenth century 
 down to the present day, her chief votaries have never 
 allowed the charm of pure science to divert their 
 attention from the practical application of their 
 studies to the wants of their fellow-men. From the 
 days when Gerard (1545-1612) sent collectors to the 
 Levant to supply his physic-garden in Holborn, and 
 from the foundation of our great national collection 
 by Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), whose correspondents 
 
 * 'Representative Men,' London, 1870, p. 4. 
 
io THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 sent him specimens from almost every corner of the 
 globe then known, down to our own time, British 
 naval and commercial enterprise, and that love of 
 travel for its own sake that forms one of our most 
 marked national characteristics, have been adding 
 to our knowledge of the uses of plants. Our old- 
 established Botanical Gardens have long carefully 
 collected those species that have been used in medi- 
 cine. The Physic Garden of Oxford, founded by the 
 Earl of Danby in 1632, was the first. In 1690 the 
 gardens at Hampton Court were placed by William 
 and Mary under the charge of the botanist Plukenet 
 (1642-1706), who sent collectors abroad ; and about 
 the same date Sloane presented the garden at Chelsea, 
 afterwards rendered famous by the encyclopaedic 
 works of Philip Miller (1691-1771), to the Society of 
 Apothecaries. In 1760 the Botanic Garden at Kew 
 was established by the Princess of Wales, under the 
 advice of Lord Bute (1713-1792), who was an en- 
 thusiastic botanist ; and some notion of the assiduity 
 with which plants were gathered together by special 
 collectors during the reign of George III. (mainly 
 through the efforts of Sir Joseph Banks, 1743-1820) 
 may be formed from the fact that the second edition 
 of the ' Hortus Kewensis,' published in 1813, enu- 
 merates 9,800 species, as against 5,500 in the edition 
 of 1789. Cook's voyages, on one of which he was ac- 
 companied by Banks, the discovery of the new world 
 of Australasia, and its further exploration by Flinders, 
 Robert Brown, and Ferdinand Bauer, added enormously 
 to our knowledge of the plants of the world. Bauer, 
 the artist, died in 1826; but Brown survived until 
 
INTRODUCTION. n 
 
 1858. He brought home 4,000 species as the result 
 of the expedition, and his ' Prodromus Florae Novae 
 Hollandiae,' completed in 1830, was thus no less im- 
 portant as a merely descriptive work than it was as 
 introducing into England the Natural System of 
 classification. 
 
 The acquisition of Linnaeus's collections in 1784 by 
 Dr. (afterwards Sir) J. E. Smith (1759-1828), and the 
 foundation, four years later, of the Linnean Society, 
 gave considerable impetus to botanical science in this 
 country ; whilst the Horticultural Society, founded in 
 1 8 10, under the presidency of the eminent physiologist, 
 Thomas Andrew Knight (1759-1838), carried out Sir 
 Joseph Banks' policy of sending out collectors. By 
 them the ill-fated David Douglas (1798-1834) was 
 sent to supplement the work of Kalm, of Fraser, of 
 Nuttall, and of the Bartrams in North America ; whilst 
 George Don was sent to Brazil, the West Indies, and 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 It would be difficult to exaggerate the great 
 services rendered to botany by the successive officers 
 of the East India Company, especially the surgeons, 
 many of them trained in Edinburgh, who advanced 
 the empire of Flora almost as rapidly as dive -and 
 his successors did that of temporal sovereignty. So 
 the work of Roxburgh, Colebrooke, and Roscoe was 
 carried on by Wallich, Griffith, Wight, Royle, and 
 Horsfield, and the vast collections were accumulated 
 that, in 1880, were transferred to Kew. 
 
 Though, after the deaths of King George III. 
 and Sir Joseph Banks in 1820, the Botanic Gardens 
 at Kew retrograded from want of either Royal or 
 
12 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 scientific encouragement, in spite of the exertions of 
 Mr. John Smith, the Curator ; yet, even then, innumer- 
 able travellers in every corner of the globe were add- 
 ing rapidly to our knowledge. 
 
 Many plants have been so long in cultivation, and 
 have been so altered thereby, that we no longer know 
 what was their wild original form. Such is the case 
 with Wheat (Triticum vulgare, L.), Oats (Avena saliva, 
 L.), and the Barleys (Hordewri). The cultivation of 
 other food-plants, such as Peas (Pisum sativum, L.), 
 Beans (Faba vulgaris, Moench.), Plums (Prunus 
 domestica, L.), and Apples (Pyrus Mains, L.), in this 
 country ; and of the Fig (Ficus Carica, L.), the Grape 
 (Vitis vinifera, L.) and the Indian Corn or Maize (Zea 
 Mays, L.), in other countries, may fairly be said to be 
 of prehistoric antiquity. So, too, with some other 
 plants not used for food, such as Flax(Lmum usitatis- 
 simum, L.), and Hemp (Cannabis sativa, L.), in the 
 Old World, Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica, L.), in the 
 New World, and Cotton (Gossypium] in both hemi- 
 spheres. Others, again, though generally employed in 
 the industrial arts for ages, can hardly be said to have 
 been cultivated till a comparatively recent period, if 
 at all. Such is the case of most timber-trees until 
 within the last two centuries, and of such tropical food- 
 plants as the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera, L.), and 
 the Banana (Mtisa sapientum, L.). 
 
 The Indian expedition of Alexander the Great 
 and the wide-reaching conquests of the Roman 
 generals no doubt introduced many useful plants 
 into Europe. Our cornfields still bear witness, in 
 their weeds, to the wide area from which the Roman 
 
INTRODUCTION, 13 
 
 granaries were supplied.* Many plants known to the 
 ancients were, however, lost sight of during mediaeval 
 times, though to the scientific ardour of the Moors 
 and the careful leech-craft of the monastic orders we 
 probably owe our knowledge of many new uses of 
 plants. But these accretions to our powers of utilizing 
 natural products were vastly eclipsed by the novelties 
 that resulted from the voyages of discovery during 
 the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
 
 Even after these, a complete enumeration of all the 
 plants economically applied in England, or in Europe 
 generally, at the beginning of the present century, 
 would represent but a small proportion of those now 
 more or less in use, to so great an extent has the 
 vegetable world been ransacked in search of new raw 
 materials during the last half-century. After fifty 
 years of a reign of prosperity, it is natural to look 
 back and contrast our knowledge at the beginning of 
 that period with that of the present day. 
 
 II. THE PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC BOTANY IN 
 ENGLAND DURING THE LAST FIFTY YEARS 
 (1837-1887). 
 
 The year 1837 cannot be said to mark a very definite 
 epoch in the history of this steadily continuous pro- 
 gress. The year before, A. B. Lambert had completed 
 the publication of his great work on ' Pinus,' in which 
 David Don (1800-1841) incorporated much of the 
 researches of Coulter ; whilst Darwin, returning in 
 
 * See a paper by the present writer on ' The Influence of Man 
 upon the Flora of Essex, 7 Trans. Essex Field Club, vol. iv., 
 p. 31. 1884. 
 
14 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 the Beagle, brought back the well-known and orna- 
 mental Rerberis that bears his name. Allan Cunning- 
 ham had gone out to succeed his murdered brother 
 Richard at Sydney, where he, too, died in 1839. 
 John Gibson was collecting Dendrobiums in India a 
 collection which, with the subsequent labours of the 
 Messrs. Veitch, their hybridizer Dominy, and other 
 collectors, such as Low, Skinner, Rucker and Bate- 
 man, has combined to render the cultivation of these 
 beautiful exotics one of the most prominent features 
 of the gardening of our time. Within the next few 
 years John Miers was to return from Brazil with the 
 large collections which he spent so many years in 
 describing ; Dr. George Gardner was to leave the same 
 country with 7,000 specimens, and Hugh Cuming 
 was to return from the Philippine Islands with his 
 vast collection of 13,000. Loudon was but beginning 
 to issue those monuments of his industry, of which 
 the ' Arboretum Britannicum ' (1833-38) is, perhaps, 
 the best, and Lindley had his best work yet to do. 
 Giles Munby did not start for Algeria until 1839, nor 
 Robert Fortune for China until 1843. 
 
 In 1838 it was even proposed to abolish the gardens 
 at Kew; but in 1840, after their condition had been 
 reported upon by Dr. Lindley, her Majesty was 
 pleased to transfer them to what is now the Depart- 
 ment of Works ; and shortly afterwards Sir W. J. 
 Hooker, then Professor of Botany at Glasgow, was 
 appointed Director. Among the most important 
 acts of this most energetic administrator was the 
 establishment, in 1847, of the first public Museum of 
 Economic Botany in the world. The nucleus of this 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 museum was Sir W. Hooker's private collection, 
 formed at Glasgow. 'No sooner was the establish- 
 ment and aim of the museum generally made known 
 than contributions to it poured in from all quarters of 
 the globe, until, in a few years, the ten rooms of the 
 building, with its passages and corners, were absolutely 
 crammed with specimens. Its appreciation by the 
 public being thus demonstrated, application was made 
 to Parliament for a grant to defray the expense of an 
 additional building.'* The economic collection, mainly 
 from the British Empire in forming which Sir W, J. 
 Hooker was much assisted by Professor J. S. Henslow 
 is now in three buildings at Kew, one of which is 
 exclusively devoted to timber. 
 
 The blow received by British agriculture in 1845, 
 on the appearance and rapid spread of the Potato 
 disease, undoubtedly directed attention during the 
 next few years to new plants as articles for food or 
 for cultivation. Though New Zealand Flax (Pkormium 
 tenax, Willd.), failed as a crop in Ireland, the increased 
 importation of Maize (Zea Mays, L.), as an article of 
 food, from 1846, and its partly successful introduction 
 at least as a fodder-crop, together with the far more 
 satisfactory introduction of Italian Rye-grass (Lolium 
 italicum\ especially for sewage farming, may be 
 partly attributed to this cause. But, in spite of the 
 stimulus of a rapidly increasing foreign competition 
 since the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1845, it must 
 be admitted that British agriculture during the last 
 half-century has shown very little of that elasticity 
 
 * ' Official Guide to the Museums of Economic Botany,' 
 P- 4- 1883. 
 
16 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 that has distinguished our importing and manufac- 
 turing industries. Exceptions to this statement 
 must be admitted in justice to the successful cultiva- 
 tion of the true medicinal Rhubarb (Rheum officinale, 
 Baill.), first introduced by the illustrious Daniel 
 Hanbury, and of the Opium Poppy (Papaver somni- 
 ferum, L.), by the Messrs. Usher, at Bodicott, near 
 Banbury, and to that of the Sugar Beet (Beta mari- 
 tima, Willd., var. altissima] at Lavenham in Suffolk. 
 
 The greatly increased variety of raw materials 
 now imported may, undoubtedly, be in part attri- 
 buted to the adoption of Free Trade, and in part, 
 also, to the series of International Exhibitions which 
 were, with so much foresight, originated by the Prince 
 Consort, and which have been so materially promoted 
 by the interest evinced by his Royal Highness the 
 Prince of Wales. 
 
 From the Exhibitions of 1851, 1862, and 1886, and 
 from those at Paris in 1855 and 1867, large additions 
 were made to the Kew collection; and in 1880 the 
 entire series of specimens illustrating Economic 
 Botany in the India Museum was transferred to 
 Kew, where no less than 4,000 of them were selected 
 for exhibition. 
 
 The Great Exhibition of 1851 was, moreover, the 
 immediate cause of the appearance of the first 
 popular work devoted to the entire field of Economic 
 Botany the late Professor T. C. Archer's < Popular 
 Economic Botany/ published in 1853, a very useful 
 little work, from which, even at this distant date, the 
 present writer has gathered much useful information. 
 
 The discovery of the art of vulcanizing caoutchouc 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 in 1842, and the introduction of Gutta-percha in the 
 following year, practically re-created an extensive 
 branch of our manufactures ; whilst the spread of 
 education and the removal of duties, causing an 
 enormously expanded demand for paper, have pro- 
 duced a corresponding increase in the import of 
 both old and new materials for its preparation, chief 
 among the latter being Alfa (commonly called 
 Esparto) Grass and wood-pulp. Fibrous substances 
 and tanning materials have also been introduced in 
 great variety ; and though no remedy of vegetable 
 origin belonging, like quinine, to the highest grade 
 of importance has been discovered, many drugs of 
 minor value have been brought into use. 
 
 The advance, however, of those of our industries 
 that depend upon vegetable products has not been 
 the result of the introduction of new materials alone. 
 The rapid strides of chemistry, the employment of 
 steam as a motive-power, the great general improve- 
 ment in machine-construction and our increased bo- 
 tanical knowledge of the sources of our economic 
 products, especially of materia medica, leading to 
 their cultivation in new lands, have had even greater 
 influence. The introduction of the Tea, Chinchona 
 and Caoutchouc-yielding plants into various parts of 
 India has had, or is destined to have, an influence 
 upon British trade at least equal to that of any single 
 fresh importation into our own country. 
 
 ' Vegetable products, 5 writes Professor Archer, in 
 1853,* 'constitute nine ? twelfths of the whole com- 
 merce in raw produce which employs the vast 
 * ' Popular Economic Botany/ p. vi. 
 
 2 
 
18 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 mercantile marine of this great kingdom. They 
 furnish us with the bulk of our food and clothing, 
 our medicine and our building materials, and with 
 many other necessaries and luxuries. It may be 
 argued that most of the benefits we derive from the 
 vegetable kingdom have been discovered without the 
 aid of science. True, but is not this a great and 
 powerful argument in favour of the application of 
 scientific investigation in this department? For, if 
 so much has been done without its aid, how much 
 may we not hope will be effected when the principles 
 of scientific research, which have effected such miracles 
 in every other department, are brought to bear upon 
 that of Economic Botany ?' 
 
 Since this was written, much has in fact been done. 
 Government botanists in our various colonies, our 
 consular agents and many manufacturing firms and 
 skilled specialists at home, always ably and willingly 
 assisted by the officials at Kew, have carried out 
 thorough, if not always systematic, investigations into 
 the possible utilisation of what are at present waste or 
 undeveloped substances. The literature of Vegetable 
 Technology has accordingly become so extensive as 
 to have had a valuable bibliographical work (Mr. 
 B. D. Jackson's * Vegetable Technology,' Index 
 Society, London, 1882) devoted to it exclusively. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enumerate here in extenso the 
 many hundred works to which reference has been 
 made in the preparation of this manual. Acknow- 
 ledgment must, however, be made of the writer's 
 great indebtedness to the following books of a more 
 general character : 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 ' Annual Statements of Trade,' issued by the Board 
 of Trade. 
 
 Archer, T. C. : ' Popular Economic Botany.' Lon- 
 don, 1853. 
 
 Bentley and Trimen : ' Medicinal Plants.' 1875-79. 
 
 Bevan, G. P. : ' British Manufacturing Industries.' 
 1 6 yols. London, 1877, etc. 
 
 Christy, T. : 'New Commercial Plants.' Parts i-io. 
 1878-87. 
 
 Church, Prof. A. H. : ' Food.' London, 1876. 
 
 1 Encyclopaedia Britannica.' Ninth edition. Vols. 
 I.-XXII. (A S.) 
 
 Fliickiger and Hanbury : ' Pharmacographia.' 
 London, 1874. 
 
 ' Guide to the Museums of Economic Botany.' 
 London and Kew. Part i. Dicotyledons and 
 Gymnosperms. 1883. 
 
 Jackson, B. B. : ' Vegetable Technology.' London, 
 1882. 
 
 ' Journal of the Society of Arts.' 1852-87. 
 
 ' Pharmaceutical Journal.' 1842-87. 
 
 Smith, John : ' Dictionary of Useful Plants.' 
 London, 1882. 
 
 Spon, E. : ' Encyclopaedia of the Industrial Arts.' 
 2 vols. Edited by G. Andre* and C. G. W. Lock. 
 1879-82. 
 
 The question of classification is a difficult one. The 
 merely alphabetical arrangement of a dictionary, 
 though most convenient for reference, has the disad- 
 vantage, in so wide a subject as the present, of placing 
 in juxtaposition things entirely incongruous. In a 
 scientific collection or treatise covering the whole field 
 
 2 2 
 
20 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 of Economic Botany, such as the Kew Museum and the 
 guides thereto, the Natural system of botanical ar- 
 rangement is undoubtedly preferable. It is, in fact, a 
 remarkable confirmation of the truly natural character 
 of that system, based, as it is, upon structure, especially 
 that of flowers, fruits, and seeds a proof that it 
 successfully approximates to a pedigree of the Vege- 
 table Kingdom that it is found to correspond in its 
 various divisions with marked distinctions in the 
 economic substances which the plants produce. The 
 acrid character of the Ranunculacece ; the pungent but 
 wholesome Cruciferce ; the aromatic pot-herbs of the 
 Labiates; the tough 'liber,' or inner bark of the 
 Urticace&i Thymelacea, Tiliacece, and Malvacece ; the 
 rubber-yielding ' latex ' of the Euphorbiacece ; the tonic 
 bitter of the CincJwnea, Gentianacecz, and Simarubea ; 
 the abundant resin in the Conifera ; and the poison- 
 ously narcotic character of so many of the Solanacece, 
 all alike serve to indicate this correspondence. In a 
 short practical manual, however, such as the present, 
 there is a great advantage in a grouping mainly 
 technological. Following out such an arrangement, 
 in an order as nearly logical as it seems any linear 
 arrangement can be, the main divisions of the subject 
 will be: I. Foods, food- stuffs, and food-adjuncts; II. 
 Materia medica, or medicines, drugs, poisons, and 
 other chemical substances of vegetable origin ; III. Oil- 
 yielding seeds, vegetable oils and materials used in the 
 manufacture of soap and perfumery ; IV. Gums, resins, 
 oleo-resins, and inspissated saps ; V. Dyeing and 
 tanning materials ; VI. Fibres and paper-making 
 materials ; VII. Wood, whether for timber, furniture, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 engraving or other purposes ; VIII. Fodder and other 
 agricultural products ; IX. Miscellaneous substances 
 not belonging to either of these classes. 
 
 The Systematic Synopsis will render this grouping 
 as simple to the botanist as to the technologist. 
 
 PART I. FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD- 
 ADJUNCTS. 
 
 IN no class of our wants is our dependence on the 
 vegetable kingdom so strikingly seen as in our food. 
 With the exceptions of water and salt, all our food is, 
 either directly or indirectly, of vegetable origin. 
 
 There is hardly any class of plants, or any part of 
 the plant, that has not contributed in some form to our 
 food supply. Ferns, mosses, and club-mosses afford 
 little or no nutrient matters ; but, not to speak of can- 
 died violets and rose-petals, the fleshy corollas of the 
 Mahwa (Bassia latifolia, Roxb.) form an important 
 article of diet to men and animals in India, and have 
 been imported into this country for the latter ; whilst 
 in the genus Typha^ of which the common Reed-maces 
 are well known British species, even the pollen has 
 been employed, both in Scinde and in New Zealand, as 
 a bread-stuff.* The stigmas of the Saffron Crocus 
 (Crocus sativuS) Bert.), the cultivation of which in Eng- 
 land is extinct, and the unopened flower-buds of the 
 Clove (Caryophyllus aromaticus, L.) and the Caper (Cap- 
 parisspinosa, L.), the fleshy peduncles of the Fig (Ficus 
 Carica, L.) or the Cashew-nut (Anacardium occidental > 
 L.), and the succulent bases of the bracts in the in- 
 
 * Lindley, Society of Arts Lectures on the Exhibition of 
 1851, p. 220. 
 
22 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 florescence of the Globe Artichoke (Cynara Scolymus, 
 L.), are other instances of the employment of unusual 
 structures as food. 
 
 In this department of Vegetable Technology the 
 most striking feature in the progress during her 
 Majesty's reign is, perhaps, the results of the vastly 
 increased facilities of transport, steam-navigation 
 having rendered distant lands tributary, even of their 
 fresh produce, to our population, which has so long 
 outgrown its home supplies of the necessaries of life. 
 In this way many perishable articles have now found 
 their way even into the market of our streets ; whilst 
 many improved processes have added largely to our 
 supplies of preserved fruits and vegetables. In 1882, 
 for instance, we imported in all 64,240,749 cwt. of 
 Wheat, of which 24,500,000 cwt. came from the 
 United States, 11,000,000 from India, 3,000,000 from 
 Canada, and more than that amount from Russia, 
 besides 52,000,000 cwt. of other corn. Owing to the 
 continuous reduction of virgin land into cultivation in 
 the Far West of Canada and the United States, the 
 exporting capacities of these countries are rapidly 
 increasing, whilst increased railway communication so 
 facilitates this export that it is stated that Wheat, 
 which is said to cost 403. a quarter to grow in England, 
 may possibly be delivered in Liverpool in a very few 
 years at 235. We are at present importing Potatoes 
 most largely from France ; but of raw fruits our 
 supplies are drawn from Malta, the Azores, Canaries, 
 Madeira, the United States, and even the West Indian 
 islands. Thus in 1878 the Azores alone shipped over 
 410,000 boxes of Oranges, each containing 400, to 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD- ADJUNCTS. 23 
 
 England ; and in 1882 we imported in all over 
 4,250,000 bushels of Oranges and Lemons. In 1886 
 we imported 3,261,460 bushels of raw Apples, of 
 which 1,647,052 came from the United States, whilst 
 of the raw fruit ' unenumerated ' imported during the 
 same year, 906,000 bushels came from Spain. 
 
 In 1837 Pine-apples were almost exclusively home- 
 grown, and, necessarily, expensive ; but, writing in 
 1854, the late Professor Archer says :* ' The importa- 
 tion of Pine-apples from the Bahamas has now become 
 an extensive trade ; more than 200,000 were imported 
 in 1851 . . . . For export to Europe it is gathered 
 before it is quite ripe, and usually reaches England in 
 pretty good condition. The English-grown Pine- 
 apple usually is from ten to twelve shillings per pound, 
 while the imported ones rarely exceed half-a-crown for 
 the whole fruit.' In 1867 this fruit was first exported 
 from St. Michael's, in the Azores, 427 fruit being 
 despatched in that year. Much capital was then 
 invested, and in 1875-76 over 34,500 were sent out. 
 Since then the trade has so increased that those 
 islands, with the Madeiras and Canaries, now afford 
 us our chief supply, though, by the use of refrigerators, 
 they are now brought from the West Indies. Fruits 
 of various kinds, especially Peaches and Apricots, 
 having been exported in syrup from the United States, 
 mainly since 1867, the preservation of the Pine-apple 
 in this manner was first carried out at Nassau 
 (Bahamas) in 1874. 
 
 Similarly, the trade in Bananas, of which fruit only 
 564 bunches were imported from St. Michael's in 
 * ' Popular Economic Botany,' p. 47. 
 
24 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 1879, has enormously increased, though nothing more 
 has been heard of the ' Plantado passado/ or dried 
 plantain-fruit, recommended by Mr. P. L. Simmonds 
 in 1854.* The Plantain (Musa paradisiaca, L.) and the 
 Banana (M. sapientum, L.) are generally considered 
 distinct species, but vary so as to defy discrimination. 
 They produce far more food, in proportion to the 
 space they occupy, than any other plant. One 
 Banana plant will yield three bunches, each weighing 
 44 lb., in the year, which is equal to 140,000 to 
 400,000 lb. on three acres. Thus the same area 
 that yields 33 lb. of Wheat, or 99 lb. of Potatoes, 
 will produce 4,400 lb. of these fruits, f Mr. Simmonds 
 calculated that the almost imperishable food-substance 
 referred to could be sold in London at threepence a 
 pound. Professor ChurchJ speaks of the Banana as 
 ' a nutritious food, having less water and more nitro- 
 genous matter than is commonly found in fresh fruits. 
 It contains, when ripe, much sugar, but very little 
 starch.' 
 
 As in many other departments of the present 
 inquiry, the progress made in the half-century can be 
 to a great extent gauged by a comparison of the 
 articles now in commercial use with those reported 
 upon at the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851. 
 Undoubtedly the greatest change that has taken 
 place in our food-supply, so far as derived from the 
 plant-world, during this period, is the enormously 
 increased consumption of Maize, and the introduction 
 
 * 'Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom,' 1854. 
 f J. Smith, ' Domestic Botany/ p. 174. 
 J 'Food/ 1876, p. 123. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 25 
 
 of glucose, which is largely prepared from it. No 
 doubt our consumption of many fresh vegetables and 
 fruits, of Asparagus, Tomatoes, Spinach, Artichokes, 
 and Mushrooms, has increased more than pro- 
 portionally to the increase of population ; but this 
 has been mainly met by more extensive home market- 
 gardening, and has not seriously affected our imports. 
 The extension of the cultivation of Maize throughout 
 Asia, Africa, America, and Southern Europe has been 
 mainly the work of the last 150 years. It is cultivated 
 with less labour, probably, than any other cereal- 
 Prior to the potato famine of 1846 Maize was not a 
 regular article of British commerce. In 1847, 
 3,614,637 quarters were imported ; in 1850, 1,286,263 
 quarters ; in the first eight months of 1876, 27,000,000 
 cwt.; and in 1886, 31,000,000 cwt. Of this last 
 amount, 16,700,000 cwt. came from the United 
 States and 7,576,612 cwt. from Roumania. The 
 removal of legislative restrictions has led to its em- 
 ployment in large quantities in malting, as well as in 
 cattle-feeding. Many preparations of maize are also 
 popular articles of food, such as corn-flour, oswego, 
 and maizena. It is poorer in flesh-formers than 
 Wheat, but richer than Rice, and it contains more oil 
 than any cereal ; but 64^ per cent, of its composition 
 is starch. It cannot be relied upon to ripen its grain 
 in England ; but may sometimes answer as a fodder- 
 crop, the young stems being very rich in sugar and 
 yielding in warmer climes from 50,000 to 80,000 Ib. 
 of green fodder per acre. In Brittany it forms a 
 useful autumn crop on sandy soil too poor for Clover 
 or Lucerne. Three-fourths of the Maize produced in 
 
26 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 the United States is grown within 450 miles of Spring- 
 field, Illinois. In the Western States it is sometimes 
 grown as the cheapest form of fuel. It was not until 
 1855 that glucose was prepared by treating the starch 
 with dilute sulphuric acid, which has afterwards to be 
 neutralised and removed as sulphate of lime. In 
 1 88 1, 11,000,000 bushels of Maize were converted 
 into glucose in the United States. In 1885 there 
 were in Germany about fifty factories engaged in the 
 manufacture of glucose, mainly from potato-starch, 
 in which 10,000 tons of 'hard' sugar, with little 
 dextrin present ; 20,000 tons of ' syrup,' with much ; 
 and 1,250 tons of 'colour,' or glucose burnt to 
 caramel, were produced. It can be produced at half 
 the price of cane-sugar, and is mainly used in brew- 
 ing and confectionery. In 1886 we imported 502,567 
 cwt., of which 441,374 cwt. came from Germany. 
 Other important changes in the starch and sugar 
 industries will be mentioned in the sequel. 
 
 In attempting a classification of the vegetable 
 foods which we must pass under review, the best 
 method available seems to be that used by Professor 
 Church in arranging the Food Collection at Bethnal 
 Green Museum, first got together in 1857, anci in tne 
 handbook to the collection, published by the Science 
 and Art Department in 1876. 
 
 Taking into account both the chemical composition 
 of the substances and the purposes which they serve 
 in the body, food-materials may be primarily divided 
 into 'Nutrients' and 'Food-adjuncts.' 'It is im- 
 possible,' says Professor Church,* 'to draw a sharp 
 * Op. tit., p. 1 68. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 27 
 
 line of distinction between true nutrients and food- 
 adjuncts. There is scarcely a single article of food 
 which does not possess some constituents which give 
 it flavour, perfume, or colour, but which yet cannot 
 be considered as doing any actual work in the body. 
 But these adjuncts, in the forms of flavouring and 
 colouring matters, etc., make our food agreeable, 
 stimulate a flagging appetite, aid indirectly in the 
 digestion of the nutrients, and help to render palat- 
 able food which would otherwise be wasted. More 
 than this : some of the food-adjuncts actually furnish 
 along with their characteristic flavouring, stimu- 
 lating or narcotic constituents real nutrients. Cocoa 
 and beer are examples in point. And it has been 
 thought that the active principles of certain food- 
 adjuncts have some power of economizing the true 
 nutrients by arresting the rapid changes of tissue, 
 etc., which go on in the body.' 
 
 The nutrient food -principles Professor Church 
 arranges in four groups ; viz., (i.) Water ; (ii.) Salts ; 
 (iii.) Carbon compounds, ' heat - givers ' or * force- 
 producers,' such as starch, sugar and fat, and the 
 substances resembling starch, gum, mucilage, pectose 
 and cellulose; and (iv.) Nitrogen compounds, 'al- 
 buminoids/ or 'flesh-formers,' such as fibrin, albumen, 
 and casein. The food-adjuncts also form four groups ; 
 viz., (i.) Alcohol ; (ii.) Volatile or Essential Oils, as 
 contained in condiments and spices ; (iii.) Acids, such 
 as those in most fruits ; and (iv.) Alkaloids, nit- 
 rogenous crystallizable substances such as caffeine, 
 theobromine and nicotine. We may, therefore, con- 
 sider the nutrients practically under the following 
 
28 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 seven heads, the food-adjuncts forming an eighth : 
 (i) Starches and the Cereals or Bread-stuffs; (2) 
 Sugars ; (3) Pulse, seeds rich in nitrogen, largely as 
 casein ; (4) Roots and tubers, watery and mostly 
 amylaceous, non-green 'vegetables'; (5) Stems, leaves, 
 fruits and whole plants, mostly eaten green, as ' vege- 
 tables,' i.e., with salt ; (6) * Fruits,' commonly so called, 
 watery and saccharine, containing also acids and fre- 
 quently pectin ; (7) ' Nuts/ oily fruits and seeds. 
 
 I. STARCHES AND BREAD-STUFFS.* 
 
 STARCH, having the composition C 6 H 10 O5-f-2H 2 O, 
 or perhaps C 36 H 62 O 31 + I2H 2 O, is perhaps the most 
 important force-producer in human food. It occurs in 
 the leaves, stems and seeds of most plants that contain 
 chlorophyll, being one of the first products of the pro- 
 cesses of assimilation, and being stored up in many 
 tubers, etc., as a reserve- material, in characteristic 
 granules. It is largely used for other purposes besides 
 food, viz., in calico-printing, in dressing textile fabrics, 
 for laundry purposes, as adhesive paste, in toilet powder, 
 and in the manufacture of dextrine, or British gum, and 
 of glucose, or starch-sugar. It was formerly separated 
 from the grain, mainly of Wheat, by a process of 
 steeping and fermentation, which removed the other 
 constituents of the grain ; but in 1840 Orlando Jones 
 patented its separation by dilute caustic potash, which 
 rendered possible its preparation from Rice.-f- Heat 
 
 * F. Crace-Calvert, 'Journ. Soc. Arts,' viii (1859), 87. J. 
 Paton, ' Encyclopaedia Britannica,' vol. xxii. 
 
 f P. L. Simmonds, ' Commercial Products of the Vegetable 
 Kingdom,' 1854. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 29 
 
 (320 F.) or dilute acid convert it into Dextrine, now 
 used in dressing muslins and crapes and for postage- 
 stamps and envelopes. The preparation of starch 
 from Rice and Maize and the manufacture of Dextrine 
 were of comparatively recent introduction in 1851;*" 
 Glucose, made by further fermentative change, was 
 not, as we have seen, introduced until 1855* At 
 present laundry starch is mainly made from Rice ; 
 dextrine from Potatoes ; and glucose from Maize 
 and Wood, in the United States, and from Potatoes 
 in Germany. 
 
 The chief edible starches are the Arrowroots, 
 Tapiocas, Sagos and Maizenas, and these have been re- 
 cently successfully imitated by preparations of Wheat 
 (such as Semolina), Barley, Oat and Rice Meal. 
 
 ARROWROOT is obtained from the rhizomes of 
 various species of Maranta, Curcuma, Canna, Tacca, 
 and Mani/iotthat from the West Indies and Ber- 
 mudas from Maranta arundinacea, L. ; that from the 
 East Indies, from Curcuma angustifolia, Roxb., mainly ; 
 that from Brazil, from Manihot utilissima^dhl., known 
 by the native names of 'Moussache' and ' Cipipa' ; and 
 that from Otaheite, from Tacca pinnatifida, L. fil., 
 ' Pia.'f Tous-les-mois or Touloula, from St. Kitt's, is 
 the product of a variety of Canna indicalL,., having the 
 largest starch -grains of any known plant. J Arrow- 
 root is now largely imported from Natal ; but it is of 
 inferior quality, fetching only 2^d. to 3jd. per Ib. in 
 
 * Prof. E. Solly, Society of Arts Lectures on the 1851 Ex- 
 hibition. 
 
 t Spon's ' Cyclopaedia of the Industrial Arts.' ' Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica,' vol. ii, p. 631. Archer, ' Economic Botany,' p. 84. 
 
 J Smith, 'Domestic Botany,' p. 174. 
 
30 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 October, 1887, when Bermuda Arrowroot was priced 
 is. to is. 3d.* Natal Arrowroot, the product of 
 Maranta arundinacea, was first imported in 1853, 
 rising to 13,336 worth in 1859, but now averaging 
 between 2,000 and 3,000. The Durban selling 
 price in 1886 was about 363. per cwt.-f- 
 
 TAPIOCA has long been prepared in Brazil, Peru, 
 Guiana, Africa, and Penang, from the large tubers 
 of the Euphorbiaceous Manihot utilissima, Pohl, and 
 M. Aipi, Pohl; the former Bitter, the latter Sweet 
 Cassava. Tapioca mainly differs from Brazilian 
 Arrowroot in having undergone a partial conversion 
 into dextrine by being dried upon hot-plates, instead 
 of in the sun. The boiled juice of the Cassava, 
 known as ' Cassareep,' is used in many table sauces. J 
 
 SAGO, the demand for which, in the finely granu- 
 lated form in which the Malays send it to market, 
 has steadily increased, is obtained from the stems of 
 various Palms, especially Metroxylon Rumphii, Mart, 
 and M. lave, Mart., which are cultivated in the island 
 of Ceram, in Borneo, and at Sarawak. Inferior kinds 
 are derived from the Gomuti palm (Arenga sacchari- 
 fera> Lab.), the Kittool palm (Caryota urens, L.), the 
 Cabbage palm (Corypha umbraculifera, L.), from C. 
 Gebanga, Bl., Raphia flabelliformis, L., Phoenix farini- 
 fera, Roxb., and Metroxylon filare. Mart., in the East 
 Indies, and from Mauritia flexuosa, L. fil., and 
 Gttilielma speciosa, Mart., in South America. The 
 
 * ' Encyclopaedia Britannica/ loc. cit. ' Pharmac. Journ.' ser. 
 iii., vol. vi (1875), P- 20 4 J v l- v " C 1 ^?^)? P- l &9- 
 
 f 'Official Handbook for Natal' (Colonial and Indian Exhibi- 
 tion), p. 84. 
 
 I ' Guide to Ke\v Museum,' p. 148. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 31 
 
 United Kingdom in 1884 imported 346,188 cwt., 
 valued at 195,680, mostly via Singapore.* 
 
 Various preparations of MAIZE STARCH (Zea Mays, 
 L.), under the names Corn-flour, Corn Starch, Oswego 
 Starch or Maizena, are now extensively used for 
 puddings and blancmange, especially for children and 
 invalids. 
 
 SEMOLA or SEMOLINA consists of the small round 
 or oval particles of some of the harder or 'flinty' 
 varieties of Italian Wheat which collect in the fur- 
 rows of the millstones. It also is used for puddings. 
 RICE, or PATENT, STARCH, made from Rice 
 (Oryza sativa, L.) by the caustic alkali process 
 already referred to, is now the chief form of starch 
 employed for laundry purposes, and is also largely 
 used in the muslin manufacture. 
 
 The staple food of more than four-fifths of the 
 human race is formed of the grains or fruit of various 
 grasses, most of which are ground' into meal or flour 
 and largely used in the form of bread. These grasses 
 are known as ' cereals.' Of these the chief are Wheat 
 (Triticum vulgar e, L.), Barley (Hordeuiri), Oats (Avena 
 sativa, L.), Rye (Secale cereale, L.), and the Millets, of 
 which the most important is Durra {Sorghum vulgar e, 
 P.). With them may be classed the Buckwheat (Fago- 
 pyrum esculentum, Mch.), which is not a grass, and 
 Maize and Rice, which, though grasses, are not used 
 in the main as bread-stuffs. 
 
 WHEAT, unknown in a wild state, belongs mainly 
 
 to two distinct forms Winter Wheat (Triticum hyber- 
 
 num, "L.) and Summer Wheat (T. czstivum, L.). Though 
 
 used in matting, in the manufacture of starch, and 
 
 * ' Encyclopaedia Britannica,' vol. xxi, pp. 148, 149. 
 
32 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 especially in the form of damaged flour in dressing 
 cotton fabrics, wheat is chiefly employed for bread- 
 making. Though from 3 to 4 million acres in Great 
 Britain are annually devoted to the growth of wheat, 
 and 1 8 million quarters of this grain are annually 
 grown in the United Kingdom, we have to import 
 from 47 to 64 million cwt.* This supply is derived 
 from Germany, Russia, the Danubian provinces, 
 Egypt and India, but especially from Canada and 
 the United States. We also import about 15 million 
 cwt. of flour. Macaroni, vermicelli, Italian paste, etc., 
 are prepared from hard, highly nitrogenous varieties 
 of wheat. Wheat and other straw is, of course, also a 
 valuable commodity, not only for plaiting into bonnets 
 and hats, etc., but especially as a material for paper. 
 
 BARLEY is the grain of various species or varieties 
 belonging to the genus Hordeum and cultivated from 
 so remote an antiquity as to be, like wheat, unknown 
 in a wild state. The chief are Winter, or Six-rowed, 
 Barley, H. hexastichum, L., and Spring, or Two-rowed, 
 Barley, H. distichum, L., an inferior kind known in 
 Scotland (where it grows on poor soil or exposed 
 situations) as Bere or Bigg. Barley is used as a 
 bread- stuff, though not so extensively as formerly. 
 It is also used, with the husk of the grain entirely 
 removed, as Scotch or Pearl Barley. It is, however, 
 mainly employed for malting or fermentation for the 
 brewing of ale or porter and the distillation of 
 whisky and gin. For these purposes upwards of 
 10 million quarters are annually grown in the United 
 
 * A bushel of wheat weighs 55-64 lb., so that a quarter 
 weighs about 4 cwt. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 33 
 
 Kingdom and from 6 to 10 million hundredweights 
 are imported, mainly from the North of Europe. 
 
 OATS (Avena sativa, L.), though a grain also used 
 from ancient times as a bread-stuff, and still employed 
 in Scotland for oatcake and oatmeal porridge, are 
 grown and imported (both on a very large scale) 
 mainly as cattle food. Nearly 3 million acres in 
 Great Britain are annually devoted to the cultivation 
 of Oats. When decorticated and partially crushed 
 they are known as Groats and are used for gruel for 
 invalids. 
 
 RYE (Secale cereale, L.), said to be a native of the 
 Crimea, is largely grown as a bread-stuff in Northern 
 Europe ; but not to any great extent in the British 
 Isles. The grain is frequently blackened, distorted 
 and 'spurred' by the fungus known as Ergot 
 (Claviceps purpurea, Tulasne), the * Secale cornutum ' 
 of druggists. 
 
 DURRA, GUINEA CORN or TURKISH MILLET, also 
 known in India as Joar, is the grain of various forms 
 of the genus Sorghum, native in India, though now 
 cultivated in Southern Europe and in the United 
 States. In the West Indies it is known as Negro 
 Corn and is made into cakes, but with us it is mainly 
 used for feeding poultry. In the United States the 
 Shaker communities obtain sugar from Sorghum and 
 make carpet-brooms and brushes out of the dried 
 fruit-panicles. Other millets grown in India and on 
 the Continent of Europe are Panicum miliaceum, L. 
 and P. italicum, L. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT (Fagopyrum esculentum, Mcench), be- 
 longing to the natural order Polygonacece, probably a 
 
 3 
 
34 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 native of Central Asia, is used in the United States 
 for making cakes, but is imported and grown in this 
 country as food for pheasants. 
 
 MAIZE or INDIAN CORN (Zea Mays, L.), a native of 
 North America, is now largely cultivated in South 
 Europe. Though it will ripen its fruit in England, it 
 can only be relied on as a green fodder crop. When 
 pearled it is called ' samp ;' when split, ' hominy ;' 
 and when ground and boiled, ' mush ' in the United 
 States, and ' polenta ' in Italy. Our importation of 
 maize as food for human beings, horses, poultry, etc., 
 now reaches 2 million tons. The sheathing leaves of 
 the cobs are used in South Europe for packing 
 oranges. 
 
 RlCE (Oryza sativa, L.), a native of India, is grown 
 extensively in China, in Carolina, Central America, 
 and even in the South of Russia, and is said to 
 furnish food to one-third of the human race. We 
 import it in enormous quantities, for food and for the 
 manufacture of starch, from Bengal, especially Patna 
 and Dacca, from Arracan and from Carolina, retaining 
 nearly 200,000 tons, or upwards of 10 Ib. per head, for 
 home consumption. When in the husk it is known 
 as l paddy.' 
 
 MANNA CROUP is the ' groats/ or decorticated and 
 partly crushed grains, of Glyceria fluitans^ R. Br., a 
 common grass, imported in small quantities from 
 Russia, especially Poland. 
 
 Among other farinaceous substances* mention may 
 be made of the grass known as CANADIAN RICE 
 
 * 'Pharm. Journ.,' ser. iii, vol. iii (1873), P- 8 33- 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 35 
 
 (Zizania aquatica, L.), which was unsuccessfully intro- 
 duced some years ago, both as a food and as a paper- 
 material, into the Lincolnshire fens. 
 
 2. SUGARS. 
 
 SUGARS are colourless, soluble, crystalline solids, 
 having the composition C 12 H 22 O n (' saccharons ') or 
 C 6 H 12 O 6 ('glucoses'). Sugar has never been made 
 synthetically, though readily formed from starch or 
 cellulose. Fahlberg's ' Saccharine,' now introduced 
 for the use of diabetic or gouty subjects, prepared 
 from coal-tar, is not a true sugar, nor is it in any way 
 
 CO 
 
 nutritive. It has the composition C 6 H 4 e0NH, and 
 
 is many times sweeter than cane-sugar, but passes 
 through the body unchanged.* 
 
 The chief sugars are Cane, Maple, Beet, Sorghum, 
 Palm and Starch. 
 
 CANE-SUGAR is the product of the large grass Sac- 
 charuin officinarum, L.,a native of Southern Asia, grow- 
 ing ten or twelve feet high, and now largely cultivated 
 in tropical and sub-tropical countries generally. Our 
 supplies are now derived from the West Indies, Brazil 
 and Mauritius. The canes are crushed, and crystal- 
 line ' raw ' or ' brown ' sugar and uncrystallized ' mo- 
 lasses ' are obtained, subsequent refining yielding 
 White or Loaf Sugar, Treacle and Golden Syrup. 
 From the molasses Rum is distilled. 
 
 MAPLE-SUGAR, though its production is somewhat 
 declining and it is almost entirely consumed in the 
 
 * 'American Chemical Journal,' i, pp. 170, 425 ; ii, 181. 
 
 32 
 
36 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 country of production, is occasionally imported. It is 
 prepared from the spring sap of Acer saccharinum, L., 
 and the allied species A.pensylvanicum, L., A. Negundo 
 L., and A. dasycarpmn,VJ\\\&., one tree yielding about 
 four pounds annually for many years. From 30 to 50 
 million pounds are made annually in the United 
 States, especially in Vermont, New York, Ohio and 
 Pennsylvania ; and Canada made more than 20 
 millions in 1885.* 
 
 The cultivation of the WHITE SUGAR-BEETS 
 (Beta alba, D.C.) was first encouraged by Napoleon L, 
 during the war with England, and has since been 
 supported by bounties. In 1 880-8 1, 1,774,545 tons 
 were made on the Continent of Europe, as against 
 1,979,900 tons of cane-sugar from the rest of the 
 world. In 1884-85 the figures were 2,546,000 tons of 
 Beet-sugar to 2,260,100 tons of Cane-sugar. In 1837 
 a Beet-sugar refinery was established at Chelsea, and 
 the roots were much planted at Wandsworth in 1839. 
 The Silesian variety, the best for the purpose, was 
 successfully introduced into Berks, Bucks, Norfolk 
 and Suffolk, about i868-7o.-f > The average yield is 
 7 Ib. of sugar from 100 Ib. of beetroots. 
 
 SORGHUM-SUGAR, obtained from the stems of the 
 
 * Reports of the U.S. Government Board of Agriculture. 
 
 f 'Beet-root Sugar,' Arnold Baruchson. London, 1870, ed. 2 ; 
 Its Manufacture, W. Crookes, London, 1870, 8vo. ; Lewis S. 
 Ware, Philadelphia, 1880, 8vo. ; see also A. Voelcker in 'Pharm. 
 Journ.,' ser. iii, vol. i (1871), p. 854; and 'Journ. Soc. Arts/ 
 vol. xix, No. 953, 1871 ; P. L. Simmonds, ' Commercial Pro- 
 ducts of the Vegetable Kingdom, 5 1854; 'Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica,' vol. xxii, sub voce ' Sugar,' by James Paton ; C. G. 
 Warn ford Lock, G. W. Wagner, and R. H. Harland on Sugar 
 Growing and Refining, 1882. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 37 
 
 Guinea corn (Sorghtim saccharatum, Willd.), or sugar- 
 millet, has long been grown in China, and has been 
 introduced successfully into the United States, France, 
 Italy, South Russia and Australia. Several varieties 
 are grown in America, of which the best, Minnesota 
 Early Amber, was tried at Belvoir by W. Ingram in 
 1880, but not very successfully. It may, however, 
 succeed as a fodder-plant. Its cultivation is declin- 
 ing in America, only 600,000 Ib. being made in 
 1885.* The Zulus cultivate an allied species (S. 
 caffrorum), under the name of ' Imphec,' both for 
 sugar and for its starchy seeds. 
 
 PALM-SUGAR has been introduced into this country 
 since 1830, often, it is believed, as Cane-sugar. In 
 1850 it was estimated to form one-fifth of the sugar 
 imported ; but it is mainly consumed in India. It is 
 obtained from the ' toddy ' of several palms, especially 
 Phoenix sylvestris, Roxb., whence it is termed ' Date- 
 sugar.' The ' toddy ' flows from incisions in the 
 spadix, an average tree yielding about 35 Ib. of 
 'jaggery/ or raw sugar, annually. Other species 
 which yield * toddy ' are Borassus flabellifer, L., the 
 Palmyra Palm, Cocos nucifera, L., the Cocoa-nut, 
 Saguerus saccharifera, Bl., the Gomuti, Caryota urens, 
 L., the Kittool, and Nipa fruticans, Thunb. 
 
 We consume in all upwards of a million tons of 
 sugar, or nearly 70 Ib. per head of our population, 
 annually. 
 
 * W. Ingram, London, 1881, 12010. ; F. L. Stewart, Phila- 
 delphia, 1867, 8vo. ; New York, 1880, I2mo. 
 
38 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 3. PULSE. 
 
 Of these leguminous plants, the seeds of which are 
 rich in the nitrogenous substance known as 'legumin' 
 and are known generally as pulse, the most im- 
 portant are Peas (Pisum sativum, Z-.), Beans (Faba 
 vulgaris, Mcench), Haricots (Phaseolus vulgaris, L.), 
 French Beans (P. multiflorus, Willd.), and Lentils 
 (Lens esculenta, Mcench). 
 
 PEAS (Pisum sativum, L.), a cultivated form of 
 prehistoric origin, probably derived from a plant 
 native to the shores of the Black Sea, are largely 
 eaten, both in an unripe state, as a green vegetable, 
 and when ripe, as dried and split peas and pea-flour. 
 Peas are rich in the albuminoid casein, containing 
 22 per cent, of this substance. ' For i part of flesh- 
 formers in peas, there are only 2 \ parts of heat-givers, 
 reckoned as starch. One pound of peas contains 
 flesh-formers equal to 3^ oz. of the dry nitrogenous 
 matter of muscle or flesh. According to Frankland, 
 i Ib. of dry peas, when digested and oxidized in the 
 body, might liberate force equal to 2,341 tons raised 
 i foot high. The greatest amount of external work 
 which it could enable a man to perform is 468 tons 
 raised I foot high.'* 
 
 FIELD, BROAD, or WINDSOR BEANS, the seeds of 
 Faba vulgaris, Mcench (= Vicia Faba, L.), a native of 
 Persia, are also eaten when unripe. Large quantities 
 are imported, in addition to those of home-growth, as 
 food for horses. 
 
 FRENCH, or KIDNEY BEANS are the unripe seed- 
 
 * Church, ' Food,' p. 83. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 39 
 
 pods, or legumes, of Phaseolus vulgaris, L., a native 
 of India, cultivated in this country since the end of 
 the sixteenth century, and also extensively on the 
 Continent and in America. Its ripe seeds, known as 
 Haricots or Haricot Beans, are largely used for food 
 in France, but less so with us. 
 
 The SCARLET- RUNNER BEAN is the unripe pod of 
 Phaseolus multiflorus, Willd., believed to be a native of 
 Mexico, the ripe seeds of which are unwholesome. 
 
 LENTILS are richer in casein than either peas or 
 beans, containing 24 per cent. REVALENTA, or 
 Ervalenta, an invalid food, introduced about 1845, 
 and sold at high prices, consists mainly of the meal 
 of Lentils (Lens esculenta, Mcench).* Lentils them- 
 selves have a small sale in England considering their 
 high nutritive value. The smaller ' Egyptian ' species 
 is used mainly as a cattle-food. 
 
 CHICK-PEAS, or Gram (Cicer arietinum, L.), are 
 occasionally imported and used, it is alleged, to 
 adulterate Coffee. 
 
 GROUND-NUTS, Monkey-nuts, Earth-nuts, or Pea- 
 nuts, the subterranean fruits of Arachis hypogcea, L., 
 largely grown in the tropics, formerly only occasion- 
 ally imported, are now regularly so. They are eaten 
 largely by poor children here as ' monkey-nuts,' and 
 in America in ' pea-nut candy/ They yield as much 
 as 50 per cent, of a bland oil, used in India as a 
 substitute for olive or for gingelly oil, and in Europe, 
 since 1840, in soap-making, pomades, cold cream, etc. 
 The oil sells at 2os. to 303. per tun, and the kernels 
 
 * 'Pharm. Journ.,' iv (1845), 4*55 viii (1848), 30; x (1850), 
 64, 309- 
 
40 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 at 8 to 15 per ton, in London (October, 1887). 
 The cake is a useful cattle food. In 1874, 145 million 
 pounds were exported from West Africa, mainly to 
 Marseilles, London, Hamburg, and Berlin.* 
 
 4. ROOTS AND TUBERS. 
 
 Of these more watery vegetables, the Potato 
 (Solanum tuberosum, L.) is the most important. Its 
 tropical substitutes, the Sweet Potato (Ipomcea Batatas^ 
 Lam.), and the Yams (Dioscorea\ and the Jerusalem 
 Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus, L.), are somewhat 
 similar in composition ; the Turnip (Brassica cam- 
 pestriS) L., sub-sp. Rapa], Carrot (Daucus Carota, L.), 
 Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa, L.), Beetroot (Beta rubra, 
 B.C.), and Onions (Allium Cepa, L.), less so. 
 
 The POTATO is the tuber, or underground enlarge- 
 ment of a branch of Solarium tuberosum, L., a native 
 of Chili, and apparently of Peru and Mexico. It 
 was brought to Ireland by Sir John Hawkins in 
 1565 ; and to England by Sir Francis Drake in 1585, 
 and a year later by Sir Walter Rawleigh ; and is 
 engraved in Gerard's ' Herbal/ published in 1597 ; 
 but did not become popular until late in the last 
 century. It is now only second in importance among 
 our vegetable foods to the cereals ; and, besides being 
 extensively cultivated, especially in Ireland and 
 Scotland, is imported in large quantities from France, 
 Portugal, etc. Since 1845 our potato crops have in 
 damp summers been devastated by a fungoid mildew 
 (Phytophthora infestans, De Bary). The potato con- 
 * ' Encyclopaedia Britannica,' vol. xi. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 41 
 
 tains 75 per cent, of water and 15 per cent, of starch. 
 This starch is but little affected by the disease. It 
 has been already mentioned as a substitute for arrow- 
 root and as a source of glucose. The latter substance 
 is obtained by boiling the starch with dilute sulphuric 
 acid ; and is largely used in brewing and in distilling, 
 yielding Potato spirit or British Brandy. From Potato- 
 starch also, by roasting, British gum, or Dextrin, used 
 for postage-stamps, etc., is also prepared. Whilst the 
 Potato belongs to the Nightshade Order (Solanace&\ 
 the Sweet Potato belongs to the Convolvulacea, and 
 the Yams to the Monocotyledonous Dioscoreacea. 
 
 The SWEET POTATO (Ipomcza Batatas, Lam.), 
 unknown in a wild state, is extensively cultivated 
 throughout the tropics and in Southern Europe. It 
 is imported in small quantities from Spain. Its 
 tubers reach a far larger size than those of the Potato, 
 from which they differ also in containing 3 per cent, 
 of sugar. An allied species, Ipomcza chrysorhiza, 
 Hook, fil., is eaten under the name of Kumarah by 
 the Maoris of New Zealand. 
 
 YAMS are the tubers of several species of Dioscorea 
 (D. sativa, L., and alata, L., natives of India, D. Batatas, 
 native of China, etc.), which sometimes reach a weight 
 of 30 or 40 lb., and resemble potatoes even more 
 closely than the Sweet Potato. D. Batatas, the 
 Chinese Yam, yields enormous crops in France and 
 Algeria, and is hardy here, but is not appreciated. 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES, the tubers of Helian- 
 thus tuberosus, L., a Composite plant, introduced from 
 the northern United States early in the seventeenth 
 century, but a native of Mexico or Brazil, take their 
 
42 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 name from resembling the true Artichoke (Cynara 
 Scolymus, L.) in flavour, and from the Italian ' gira- 
 sole,' the equivalent of our old English name for 
 Sunflower c Turnsole.' They contain no starch, so 
 do not become floury on boiling, but are rich in 
 sugar and in a soluble substance resembling starch, 
 known as ' inulin/ 
 
 The TURNIP (Brassica Rapa, L., a variety of B. 
 campestris, L.) is the enlarged root of a biennial 
 Cruciferous plant, which occurs wild in England. It 
 contains 92 per cent, of water, and no starch or sugar, 
 but a pungent essential oil. The Swede and the Rape 
 are distinct varietal forms. 
 
 The CARROT (Daucus Carota, L.), a cultivated 
 variety of a British plant, is said to have been intro- 
 duced into cultivation from Holland during the reign 
 of Elizabeth. The tap-roots contain 89 per cent, of 
 water and 4*5 per cent, of sugar. 
 
 The PARSNIP (Pastinaca sativa, L.), like the Carrot, 
 is the tap-root of a British species belonging to the 
 Umbelliferce. It has been cultivated since Roman 
 times, and is generally eaten with salt meats. It 
 contains 81 per cent, water, 3 per cent, sugar, and 
 3* 5 per cent, starch, and is occasionally fermented 
 into a wine or beer, or distilled for spirit. 
 
 The BEETROOT (Beta rubra,T>.C., Nat. Order, CJteno- 
 podiacece)) believed to be a variety of a common sea- 
 shore weed, was introduced into cultivation about two 
 centuries ago. Its enlarged red root is boiled and 
 eaten cold. It contains 82 per cent, water and 10 per 
 cent, sugar. 
 
 The ONION (A Ilium Cepa, L.), the bulbous stem of 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 43 
 
 a Liliaceous plant native to the Levant, is not more 
 nutritious than the turnip. Its cultivation is very 
 ancient. 
 
 The PARSNIP-CHERVIL (Cheer ophy Hum bulbosum^L,.), 
 a native of France, with a small root, and the SKIRRET 
 (Slum Sisarum, L.), a native of China and Japan, 
 formerly much cultivated, are both umbelliferous. 
 They are eaten boiled, as also is the root of the 
 RAMPION (Campanula Rapunculus, L.), which is con- 
 siderably used in France. 
 
 SALSAFY (Tragopogon porrifolius, L.) and SCOR- 
 ZONERA (Scorzonera hispanica, L.) are Compositae 
 with edible roots. 
 
 The RADISH (Raphanus sativus, L.), a native of 
 China, is a Crucifer that has been in cultivation for 
 upwards of three centuries. There are, accordingly, 
 several varieties, red and white, spindle-shaped and 
 turnip-shaped. Though sometimes cooked, they are 
 commonly eaten raw as salad. 
 
 Potatoes have become such a necessary of life in 
 the British Isles, that ever since the ravages of the 
 fungus Phytophthora efforts have been made to find a 
 satisfactory substitute. During the last few years 
 Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., of Kew, and Messrs. Sutton, 
 of Reading, have introduced to notice two new species 
 of tuber-bearing Solanums and some hybrid forms. 
 Whilst Solatium tuberosum, L., is a native of the 
 interior of Chili, growing at a considerable altitude, 
 in very dry soil, 5. Maglia, Schlect., grows by the 
 shore in a much moister climate, as noticed by 
 Darwin in the voyage of the Beagle. Originally 
 introduced in 1822, it was overlooked as identical 
 
44 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 with the Potato until 1881. This form is probably 
 better adapted to our climate, and is capable of im- 
 provement and hybridization. 5. Commersoni, Duval, 
 is a low-level plant from Uruguay and the Argentine, 
 which will not hybridize. This important experiment 
 is still in progress.* 
 
 The ARRACACHA (Arr acacia esculenta, DC.), an 
 umbelliferous plant native to the northern Andes, is 
 largely cultivated and eaten in Venezuela, etc., and is 
 naturalized in Jamaica. It was introduced as a sub- 
 stitute for the Potato about fifty years ago, but did 
 not succeed. t 
 
 The MUSQUASH (Claytonia virginica, L.), belonging 
 to the Portulacea, was similarly recommended in 
 18544 
 
 5. STEMS, LEAVES, FRUITS, AND WHOLE PLANTS, 
 EATEN AS 'VEGETABLES' OR AS SALADS. 
 
 Besides the roots and tubers which we have already 
 enumerated there are other vegetables, mostly con- 
 taining the substance known as chlorophyll, or leaf- 
 green, and therefore known as ' green vegetables.' 
 This group contains plants of which various parts are 
 eaten, either the whole plant, the leaves, leaf-buds, 
 leaf-stalks, stems, inflorescences or fruits being used. 
 
 * J. G. Baker, ' Journ. Linn. Soc.' (Botany), 1884, pp. 489- 
 506, pi. 41-46. Christy, ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 7, p. 41 ; 
 No. 8, p. 19. 
 
 f Smith, * Domestic Botany,' p. 358. 
 
 % P. L. Simmonds, ' Common Products of the Vegetable 
 Kingdom,' 1854. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS, 45 
 
 They are mostly eaten boiled, and with salt and not 
 with sugar, those eaten raw being known as salads. 
 Of these the most important, perhaps, are the varieties 
 of the Cabbage. 
 
 The CABBAGE (Brassica oleracea, L.), a maritime 
 British Cruciferous plant, has been in cultivation for 
 ages, and has given rise to several very distinct races 
 of esculents. In the Channel Islands, by picking off 
 the lower leaves, the stem is made to grow to a height 
 of twelve feet or more, and is used for walking-sticks. 
 Forms with loosely-arranged, enlarged, and fleshy 
 leaves (forma acephald) are known as Bore-cole or 
 Cow-cabbage. Those in which the leaves are in a 
 compact rounded head, including the Red Cabbage, 
 used for pickling, and the White Cabbage, are forma 
 capitata ; and those in which the disc of the leaf is 
 increased so that its surface rises into little hollow 
 projections (forma bullata) are Savoys or Curled 
 Kail. A number of small leaf-buds on the stem 
 (forma gemmiferd) constitutes Brussels Sprouts ; 
 and an abnormally enlarged, branched, and fleshy 
 flower-stalk with abortive flowers (forma Botrytis) is 
 the Broccoli and Cauliflower form. 
 
 SPINACH is the name applied to various plants, 
 mostly Chenopodiacece, the leaves of which are eaten 
 boiled. Spinacia oleracea, L., supposed to be a native 
 of Western Asia, the leaves of which are rich in potas- 
 sium nitrate (KNO 3 ), has been longest in cultivation. 
 Atriplex hortensis, L., Mountain Spinach or Garden 
 Orache, a native of Eastern Europe, is occasionally 
 used, especially in France, as are also the leaves of 
 small varieties of Beet (Beta vulgaris, L.). Cheno- 
 
46 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 podium auricomum, Lindl, Australian Spinach, recently 
 introduced, is one of the few food-plants we have 
 received from Australia. Tetragonia expanses, Willd., 
 Summer or New Zealand Spinach, belongs to a dis- 
 tinct order the Tetragonieae. 
 
 SEA-KALE (Crambe maritima, L.) is another British 
 Crucifer, only cultivated within the last two centuries, 
 and but little altered thereby. Its stems and leaf- 
 stalks are blanched by being earthed up, and eaten 
 boiled. 
 
 CELERY (Apium graveolens, L.), a British Umbel- 
 liferous plant, strongly smelling and unwholesome 
 when green, is similarly treated. It is also eaten 
 raw. Its consumption in London is very large. 
 
 ASPARAGUS consists of the young annual leafy 
 shoots of the liliaceous Asparagus officinalis, L., a 
 native of our sea-coast, cultivated since Roman 
 times. It is now in enormous request, and is largely 
 imported. The shoots or tops of Nettles (Urtica 
 dioica, L., etc.) and of Hops (Humulus Lupulus, L.) 
 have been similarly employed. 
 
 The ARTICHOKE (Cynara Scolymus, L.) is a Com- 
 posite from the Mediterranean region, of which the 
 edible portion is the common receptacle and the 
 fleshy bases of the large imbricated bracts of the 
 thistle-like inflorescence. 
 
 The CARDOON (C. Cardunculus, L.) is an allied 
 species, in which the young leaf-stalks are blanched 
 for eating. 
 
 The LEEK (A Ilium Porrwn, L.), an ally of the 
 onion, is eaten whole. 
 
 Salad plants are rich in salts, especially potash. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 47 
 
 The chief are Lettuce, Watercress, Cress, Mustard, 
 Endive, Chicory, and Sorrel. The LETTUCE (Lactuca 
 sativa, L.), one of the Composite, is slightly narcotic 
 (see p. 1 02, infra). WATERCRESS (Nasturtium officinale, 
 L.), a native plant belonging to an order the Cruci- 
 ferae all of which are innocuous, is pungent, and is 
 rich in sulphur. It is now largely cultivated in run- 
 ning water near the Metropolis and other large cities. 
 
 CRESS (Lepidum sativum, L.), probably a native 
 of Persia, and MUSTARD (Sinapis alba, L.), a British 
 species, are also members of this order. They are 
 eaten when very young seedlings. Mustard also 
 yields the condiment so named, from its ripe seeds. 
 
 ENDIVE (Cichorum Endivia, L.), one of the Com- 
 positse, is a native of Northern China. Its leaves 
 are eaten blanched. Those of CHICORY (C. Intybus, 
 L.), an allied species, the roots of which are em- 
 ployed to mix with coffee, are similarly used, espe- 
 cially in France, as are also the blanched leaves and 
 roots of the allied DANDELION (Taraxacum officinale, 
 Wiggers). SORREL (Rumex sctitatus, L.), one of the 
 Polygonacese, a native of Southern Europe, is used 
 as a salad, especially in France. The chief fruits 
 eaten as * vegetables ' are those of the Tomato, the 
 Vegetable Marrow, and the Cucumber, besides the 
 Beans already mentioned. 
 
 The TOMATO (Lycopersicum esculentum, Mill.), 
 belonging to the Solanaceae, probably native to 
 Mexico, is eaten ripe, either raw, cooked, or as sauce. 
 Numerous varieties with red or yellow fruit of differ- 
 ing form are now grown on a large scale in England, 
 and imported fresh or in tins from America, etc. 
 
48 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 The VEGETABLE MARROW (Cucurbita ovifera, L.), 
 probably, like the Pumpkin, a variety of the common 
 Gourd (C. maxima, Duch.), is, like other Cucurbita- 
 ceous fruits, eaten unripe, but cooked. 
 
 The CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativa, L.) is generally 
 eaten raw. Very young cucumbers are pickled, 
 under the name of gherkins. Vegetable marrows 
 and cucumbers are very largely cultivated in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The CHAYOTE, or Choco (Sechium edule, Sw.), 
 the fruits of a Cucurbitaceous plant of Mexico and 
 Venezuela, are occasionally sold in Covent Garden. 
 They are about four inches long, oblong, tuberculate, 
 and yellowish. 
 
 OKRO, Okra, Bendi-kai (Canarese and Tamil, 
 used in Southern India), or Gombo (French colonies), 
 the unripe fruits of Hibiscus esculentus, L. (Abel- 
 moschus esculentus, Guill. and Perr.), may also be 
 mentioned here. Cultivated throughout the tropics, 
 and round the Mediterranean, it has been introduced, 
 mainly in tins from the United States, during the 
 last twelve years, as a vegetable. It is a taper- 
 ing, 5-ioangled, loculicidal capsule, 4 to 10 inches 
 long.* 
 
 FUNGI, in spite of Dr. Badham's ' Esculent 
 Funguses' (1847), an d many other similar works, 
 are still most imperfectly appreciated as food in 
 this country, barely half a dozen species coming to 
 Covent Garden. They are undoubtedly somewhat 
 
 * ' Encycl. Brit., 3 vol. xi, sub voce ' Gumbo ;' * Pharmaco- 
 graphia, 3 p. 86 ; Archer, ' Econ. Botany,' p. 142 ; * Kew Museum 
 Guide/ p. 17. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 49 
 
 difficult to discriminate, and are dangerous subjects 
 for experiment; but the Giant Puff-ball (Lycoperdon 
 giganteum, Batsch), the Edible Bolete (Boletus edulis, 
 Hull.), the Orange-milk Agaric (Lactarius deliciosus, 
 Fr.), the Champignon (Marasmius oreades, Fr.), and 
 others, might well be systematically collected as food. 
 The United States Board of Agriculture circulates 
 coloured plates and cooking recipes of the commoner 
 edible kinds. 
 
 Those that are commonly eaten in England are 
 the Mushroom (Agaricus campestris, L.), the Horse 
 Mushroom (A. arvensis, Schseff.), and the Truffle 
 (Tuber cibarium, Sibth.). Of these, the Mushroom is 
 carefully preserved in meadows, though it occurs 
 sporadically wild, is forced in pits, and is imported 
 from France ; the Horse Mushroom, collected in a 
 wild state, and, owing to its firm flesh, largely sold 
 in London, is coarser and more suited for ketchup ; 
 and the Truffle is mainly imported from France, 
 the English species (T. czstivum, Vitt.) being inferior. 
 The Morel (Morchella esculenta, Pers.) and Chantarelle 
 (Cant/iarellus cibamus, Fr.) are less commonly eaten. 
 
 IRISH Moss, or Carraigeen (Chondrus crispus, 
 Lyngbye), the commonest edible seaweed, contains 
 much mucilage, but its nutritive value is doubtful, 
 Messrs. Fliickiger and Hanbury speaking of it* as 
 'much over-estimated,' and Professor Churchf as 'con- 
 siderable/ It was introduced as a remedy in pulmo- 
 nary complaints in 1831, and is used as cattle-food, for 
 thickening colours in calico-printing, in sizing paper 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia/ p. 68 1. 
 f * Food/ p. 106. 
 
50 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 and cotton ; and, in America, for fining beer. It is 
 collected around Sligo, on the coast of Massachu- 
 setts,* and at Hamburg. 
 
 CEYLON Moss, Jaffna Moss, or Fucus Amylaceus 
 (Sphcerococcus lichenoides, Agardh.), another of the 
 Floridecz, from the coasts of Ceylon, Burma, etc., was 
 introduced to European notice by O'Shaughnessyf 
 between 1830 and 1840, and is now used as a 
 demulcent food-jelly for invalids. 
 
 Other seaweeds used as food are GREEN LAYER 
 (Ulva Lactttca, L., and U. latissima, L.), used as a 
 sauce with roast mutton, now regularly sold in 
 London ; PURPLE LAYER, or SLOKE (Porphyra 
 laciniata, Agardh., and P. purpurea, Agardh.) ; DULSE 
 (Rhodymenia pahnata, Grev.), used in Scotland and 
 Iceland ; TANGLE (Laminaria digitata, Lx., and L. 
 saccharina, Lx.) ; and BALDERLOCHS (Alaria esculenta, 
 Grev.). 
 
 6. FRUITS. 
 
 The enormously increased importation of fresh 
 fruit of all kinds from Spain and other countries, 
 of oranges from the Azores and elsewhere, of pine- 
 apples, and of raw apples, has been already alluded 
 to. This last trade, together with that in apple- 
 chips, etc., is mainly the creation of the last few 
 years. 
 
 The APPLE (Pyrus Mains, L.) has been in cultiva- 
 tion from prehistoric times, being supposed by 
 
 * G. H. Bates, ' Pharm. Journ.,' xi (1870), p. 298. 
 f ' Pharmacographia/ p. 68 1 ; Cooke, * Pharm. Journ.,' i 
 (1860), p. 504, etc. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 51 
 
 Darwin to be derived from a wild * crab ' of the 
 Caucasus, and is now, as might be expected, repre- 
 sented by many distinct races. It is eaten raw or 
 cooked, and its juice is largely fermented into cider. 
 It is essentially a tree of temperate latitudes, and we 
 now import the fruit largely from North America. 
 
 The PEAR (Pyrus communis, L.), an allied member 
 of the same genus of Rosaceae, is also represented 
 by several wild and a host of cultivated varieties. 
 Some of the finest are grown in the Channel Islands. 
 Its fermented juice is made into perry. The flavour 
 of pears may be due to iso-amylic acetate, an 
 alcoholic solution of which substance is used as 
 ' Essence of Jargonelle Pears.'* 
 
 SERVICE-BERRIES, the fruits of Pyrus torniinalis, 
 Ehr., known provincially as ' chequers ;' the QUINCE 
 (Cydonia vulgaris, Pers.), used mainly for flavouring ; 
 and the MEDLAR (Mespilus germanica, L.), are fruits 
 of allied trees less largely consumed. 
 
 The ' stone-fruits ' are the ' drupes ' of the sub- 
 order Drupacecz of the Rose tribe, having a stony 
 ' endocarp ' within a fleshy ' epicarp,' enclosing a 
 4 kernel ' or seed. Plums, cherries, apricots, peaches, 
 and almonds, belong to this group ; but in the latter 
 the kernel, not the epicarp, is eaten. PLUMS in all 
 their varieties, including Damsons, Greengages, and 
 the dried * prunes ' (var. Juliana}, or French plums 
 (var. Catharinea), largely imported from France, 
 Germany (vax.prunealina), Bosnia, etc., are forms of 
 Prunus domestica, L. 
 
 * Church, op. cit., p. 115 ; Armstrong, 'Organic Chemistry,' 
 p. 256. 
 
 42 
 
52 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 The CHERRY (Prunus Cerasus, L.), also repre- 
 sented by many varieties, is largely cultivated in 
 Kent. The liqueurs known as Cherry Brandy and 
 Kirschwasser are prepared from it. 
 
 The APRICOT (Prunus armeniaca, L.), with us 
 merely a dessert fruit, is, when dried, an important 
 article of food in the East. It is now imported, 
 both fresh and in tins, from the United States. 
 
 The PEACH (Amygdalus persica, L.) is now also 
 imported from America in large quantities, being 
 mainly ripened under glass in this country. The 
 NECTARINE is a smooth-skinned variety (var. Icevis) 
 with a distinct flavour. 
 
 The GRAPE (Vitis vinifera, L.), probably originally 
 native to Western Asia, is cultivated between 30 
 and 40 N. lat., and in Cape Colony and South 
 Australia, for the manufacture of wine, and in colder 
 climates, under glass, as dessert fruit. We import 
 over 13,000,000 gallons of wine annually for home 
 consumption, half of which comes from Spain and 
 Portugal. 'Raisins' are the dried fruit, 'Valencias' 
 and ' Malagas' coming from Spain, ' Sultanas,' which 
 are naturally seedless, from Smyrna. We import 
 about 20,000 tons of the various kinds. ' Currants ' 
 are the dried fruit of a smaller seedless form (var. 
 corinthiacd), cultivated at Corinth, whence its name, 
 Patras, Zante, Ithaca, etc., of which we import twice 
 as great a weight as of raisins. They must not be 
 confused with the small black, red, and white fruits 
 of species of Ribes> known as ' Currants ' in our 
 gardens. We also import several hundred tons of 
 fresh grapes annually, mostly from Lisbon. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 53 
 
 The ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium, Riss.) is more 
 largely imported than any other fruit. Introduced 
 into Europe apparently by the Moors, we import it 
 now from the Azores, Lisbon, Malta, Sicily, and 
 Florida, the St. Michael's being the smallest, and 
 the Maltese a seedless, variety. Hitherto the im- 
 ported fruit has, from the slowness of transport, 
 been gathered when unripe, so as never to reach 
 this country in perfection. The Seville Orange, used 
 for marmalade, is a distinct species (C. vulgaris, Riss.). 
 
 The LEMON (C. medica, var. Limonum, Brand.), 
 said to have been introduced at the time of the 
 Crusades, is also largely imported. Of Lemons and 
 Oranges together we import over four million bushels. 
 The SWEET LIME (C. medica, var. acida, Brand.), also 
 an Indian variety, though now largely grown at 
 Montserrat for the sake of its juice ; the SHADDOCK 
 and POMALO, or ' Forbidden Fruit ' (vars. of C. 
 decumana, L.), and the CITRON (C. mcdica, Riss.), 
 which comes, mainly as candied peel, from Madeira, 
 are imported in far smaller quantities. 
 
 The DATE (Phanix dactylifera, L.), the fruit of a 
 palm, borne in clusters of 20 Ib. weight or more, has 
 for ages been the chief article of food in parts of 
 North Africa and Arabia. It was probably the 
 Lotos of the Lotophagi (Lotos-eaters). The trees 
 are preserved as estates, and handed down as dowries. 
 Animals and men in Fezzan, where many varieties 
 are grown, live upon them for nine months of the 
 year. The sap of the young shoots is fermented 
 into ' arrack.' The fruit is imported in considerable 
 quantities. 
 
54 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 The POMEGRANATE (Punica Granatum, L.) is a 
 Myrtaceous shrub, native to Western Asia, but 
 naturalized in the Mediterranean region. Its fruit, 
 which resembles a brown and rosy poppy-head, is 
 imported in increasing quantities, mainly from 
 Portugal. It consists of two tiers of red carpels 
 with pithy partitions and a leathery rind. 
 
 The BANANA (Musa sapientum, L.) and the 
 PLANTAIN (M. paradisaica, L.), fruits of closely 
 allied prolific and gigantic Monocotyledonous plants, 
 which are rather herbaceous than arboreous, are most 
 important articles of food throughout the tropics, 
 and are very nutritious, containing nearly 20 per 
 cent, of sugar and pectose (the jelly-like substance 
 common in fruits), nearly 5 per cent, of nitrogenous, 
 or ' albuminoid ' matter, and only 74 per cent, of 
 water. Reference has already been made to the 
 increased importation of these fruits, gathered when 
 green, and to the proposed introduction of ' plantado 
 passado ' (see pp. 23-24). 
 
 WATER-MELONS (Citrullus vulgaris, Schrad.), oval 
 dark-green Cucurbitaceous fruits, with white flesh, 
 are imported from the Mediterranean ; whilst a con- 
 siderable variety of Melons (Cucumis Melo, L.) are 
 cultivated under glass in this country. 
 
 Among English-grown small fruits, the STRAW- 
 BERRY (Fragaria vesca y L.) is pre-eminent. It is 
 cultivated on an enormous scale in the north of 
 Kent, round Rochester, for the London market, near 
 Aberdeen, and elsewhere. In the same division of 
 the Rosaceae are the wild BLACKBERRY (Rubus 
 fruticosus, L.), which is collected for puddings and 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 55 
 
 jam, and some varieties of which are now cultivated, 
 especially in the United States, and the RASPBERRY 
 (Rubus Idceus, L.). The GOOSEBERRY (Ribes Gros- 
 sularia, L.), the BLACK CURRANT (R. nigritm, L.), 
 and the RED and WHITE CURRANTS (R. rubruui, 
 L.) are allied species of the order Ribesiacese, which 
 occasionally occur in a naturalized state in England. 
 These small fruits, besides their use in puddings and 
 jams, are ingredients, as are also the berries of the 
 ELDER (Sambucus nigra, L.), in British wines. 
 
 The PINEAPPLE (Bromelia Ananas, L.) is not 
 truly a single fruit, but a collection of fruits on a 
 fleshy peduncle, or flower-stalk. Originally native 
 to Brazil, and cultivated in hothouses in England for 
 two centuries, it is now extensively imported from 
 the Bahamas and Azores, both fresh and in tins, so 
 as to be retailed at a very low price. 
 
 The MULBERRY (Merits nigra, L.) is similarly 
 the united product of a cluster of flowers. The 
 leaves of the perianth become purple and juicy. The 
 tree has been grown in England for three centuries, 
 being originally a native of Western Asia. It belongs 
 to the same order (Moracese) as does 
 
 The FlG (Ficus Carica, L.). In this tree a native 
 of the Eastern Mediterranean region the edible 
 portion is an enlarged peduncle, or flower-stalk, 
 enclosing numerous minute flowers, which in the 
 ' Green Figs ' grown in this country, especially at 
 Worthing, Sussex, are never fertilized, as they are, 
 by insect agency or artificially, in their native 
 countries. Hundreds of tons of figs are annually 
 imported in a dried state, mainly from Smyrna. In 
 
56 I HE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 this condition they contain 5/J per cent, of glucose, 
 17 J per cent, of water, 7 per cent of cellulose, 6 per 
 cent, of albuminoid matter, 5 per cent, of pectose 
 and gum, and 3 per cent, of starch,* and are, there- 
 fore, very nutritious. 
 
 The petiole, or leaf-stalk, of the RHUBARB (Rheum 
 Rhaponticum, L.), a Siberian plant, cultivated in 
 England since 1628, and valued for its acidulous 
 taste, due to oxalates, is, of course, not a fruit ; but 
 is mentioned here as being eaten with sugar, and not, 
 as are those plants usually called ' vegetables/ with 
 salt 
 
 CRANBERRIES (Oxycoccus palustris, Pers., and O. 
 macrocarpus, Pers.) are now largely imported, the 
 former from Russia, the latter mainly from the neigh- 
 bourhood of Berlin, Wisconsin, via Chicago. 
 
 LlTCHlS (Nephelium Litchi, Camb.), the fruit of a 
 Sapindaceous tree, a native of China, cultivated in 
 India, now forms a regular article of import, selling at 
 3s. to 45. per lb., and LONGANS (N. Longana, Camb.) 
 are also occasionally seen. 
 
 Among other less common fruits are the TAMA- 
 RIND (Tamarindus indica, L.), the pulpy seeds of a 
 Leguminous shrub, imported in a preserved state from 
 both the East and West Indies ; the GUAVA (Psidium 
 Guajava, L.), a Myrtaceous tree of Central America, 
 imported as jelly ; the MANGO (Mangifera indica, 
 L.), belonging to the Anacardiacece, eaten ripe in 
 India, but only unripe and pickled in this country ; 
 GRANADILLAS (Passiflora quadrangular is, L.) and 
 POMMES D'OR (P. maliformis, L.) from the West Indies ; 
 * Church, op. cit., p. 121. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNL 75. 57 
 
 'CHINESE PASSION -FRUITS,' some Solanaceous 
 species ; LOQUATS, or Japanese Medlars (Eriobotrya 
 japonica, Lindl), first introduced by Robert Fortune ; 
 KUMQUATS (dims japonica, Hook, fil.), another of 
 Fortune's discoveries, which are sent over in syrup ; 
 YANG-MAES (Myrica Nagi, Thunb.) of Chusan, a hardy 
 plant introduced by Fortune in 1844; JAPONICAS 
 (Zizyphus sinensis, Lam.) ; and the PRICKLY PEAR, or 
 ' INDIAN FIG ' (Opuntia Ficus-indica, Webb), which has 
 become a regular article of importation from Algeria. 
 CAROB BEANS, St. John's Bread, or Algaroba 
 (Ceratonia Siliqua, L.), pods containing a quantity 
 of saccharine pulp, but * by no means deficient in 
 flesh-formers/* were largely used for our cavalry- 
 horses in the Peninsular War, and are now exten- 
 sively imported for the manufacture of cattle-food, 
 though in 1854 they were but little known in this 
 country.-)- They are eaten by children, but contain 
 butyric acid, which is apt to become rancid, and 
 being hygroscopic, they are also liable to mouldiness. 
 
 /. NUTS.t 
 
 Nuts are rich in nitrogenous matter, in addition to 
 the 25 to 50 of fixed oil or fat. 
 
 The HAZEL-NUT (Corylus Avellana, L.) is the most 
 familiar. Its varieties, the Filberts, white and red 
 (vars. alba and rubrd), and the Cob-nuts (vzrs.grandis, 
 
 * Church, 'Food,' p. 124. See also ' Kew Museum Guide,' 
 p. 50. 
 
 f P. L. Simmonds, ' Commercial Products of Vegetable 
 Kingdom,' 1854. 
 
 % P. L. Simmonds, in ' Journ. Soc. Arts/ xx (1872), p. 475, 
 and * Pharm. Journ.,' ii (1872), pp. 958 and 1037. 
 
58 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 glomerate^ and crispd) are largely grown in Mid- Kent. 
 The Filberts are characterized by the long husk, 
 which entirely encloses the nut. Many thousand 
 bushels are annually imported as ' Barcelona nuts ' 
 from Tarragona. They belong to the varieties Barce- 
 lonensis, oyata, pumila, and variegata.. TURKEY NUTS 
 (C. Columdy L.), imported from Smyrna, are a distinct 
 species. The oil of the nut is valuable to watch- 
 makers and artists. 
 
 The WALNUT (Juglans regia, L.), native of the 
 Himalayas, Persia, and the Caucasus, now grown 
 throughout temperate Europe, is eaten unripe as a 
 pickle, and is imported, mainly from Germany and 
 the South of France, to the extent of several 
 thousand bushels annually, partly for oil, but mainly 
 as a dessert fruit. The 'marc,' or cake, after the 
 expression of the oil, forms a valuable cattle-food 
 used in North Italy. The timber of the tree is 
 valuable, as is that of allied species, and other 
 members of the order Juglandece, such as : 
 
 The HlCKORY-NUTS (Carya a^a^utt.^nd C.tomen- 
 to0,Nutt.) and PECCAN-NUTS (C. olivaformis, Nutt.). 
 These American nuts are not imported in large 
 quantities ; whilst the BUTTER-NUT (Juglans cinerea, 
 Michx.) and the HOG-NUT (Carya porcina, Nutt.) of 
 Canada are still more rarely seen in trade. The 
 Peccan-nut comes mainly from New Orleans. 
 
 BRAZIL-NUTS, or Castanhas (the seeds of Berthol- 
 
 letia excelsa, H. B.) have long been largely imported 
 
 from Para, not only as food, but as yielding a fine 
 
 sweet oil.* About twenty-four of these seeds are 
 
 * John Miers, ' Pharm. Journ.,' v (1875), P- 7 26 - 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUf-FS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 59 
 
 contained in one fruit of the enormous Myrtaceous 
 tree by which they are produced. The allied SAPU- 
 CAIA-NUT (Lecythis Zabucajo, Aubl., and L. Ollaria, L.) 
 and the Camelliaceous SOMARI-NUT (Caryocar nuci- 
 ferum, L., C. tomentosum, Willd., etc.) of Demerara, 
 are only used here, as dessert fruit, to a far less 
 extent. 
 
 The SWEET ALMOND (Amygdalus communis, L., 
 var. dulcis) is a Rosaceous fruit, cultivated for its 
 kernels in the Mediterranean area. The varieties 
 known as Jordan (corrupted from ' Jardin,' garden, z>., 
 cultivated) and Valencia Almonds are imported from 
 Malaga without the shell or endocarp ; the smaller 
 Barbary or Italian sort come over in this shell. The 
 BITTER-ALMOND is a mere variety (var. amara) im- 
 ported from Barbary for the sake of its essential oil, 
 which is used in confectionery, but is dangerous, 
 owing to the presence of traces of hydrocyanic or 
 prussic acid (HCN). 
 
 The CHESTNUT (Castanea mdgaris, Lam., C. vesca, 
 Gaertn.), generally known as the Spanish Chestnut, a 
 native of Western Asia, is a starchy nut, containing 
 little oil, which forms a staple article of food in Spain 
 and Italy. Though grown in England, it is mainly 
 imported from these countries, Holland and Belgium. 
 
 The COCOA-NUT, or COKER-NUT (Cocos nucifera y 
 L.), the fruit of one of the most useful of the tropical 
 palms, is extensively imported. The uses of this 
 plant are said to be as numerous as the days in a year. 
 The timber is known as ' Porcupine- wood'; the leaves 
 are used for thatch ; the drupaceous fruits, twenty or 
 twenty-five of which are produced by a tree every 
 
60 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 month, consist of a membranous husk or ' epicarp ' 
 enclosing a ' mesocarp ' of the valuable * coir ' fibre 
 used for matting, etc. ; and the hard shell, or * endo- 
 carp,' used for cups ; the white ' albumen ' and ' milk ' 
 serve as food and drink, and the former, on pressing, 
 yields an oil used for cooking, lamps and candle- 
 making ; and the sap of the ' spadix,' or flower-head, 
 yields sugar, and, on fermentation, ( toddy ' and 
 arrack.' 
 
 The PISTACHIO-NUT (Pis facia vera, L.), one of the 
 Anacardiacese, native of Western Asia, and much 
 cultivated in the Greek Islands, has a kernel green 
 with chlorophyll, resembling the Sweet Almond in 
 taste, and considerably used in French confectionery. 
 In the allied CASHEW-NUT (Anacardium occidentale, 
 L.) of the West Indies, not only is the roasted kernel 
 edible, but also the pear-like enlargement of the floral 
 receptacle. Though not truly a nut, mention must 
 here be made 'of the OLIVE (Olea europea, L.), native 
 to Syria and Greece, the fleshy green drupaceous 
 fruits of which are imported pickled in brine, but 
 are still more largely used for oil. Two varieties, the 
 large, or Spanish, and the smaller, or Italian, Olives 
 are imported. 
 
 DlKA-BREAD (Irvingia Barteri, Hook, fil.j is pre- 
 pared from kernels of one of the Simarubece, growing 
 in profusion on the Gaboon. Containing 73 per cent, 
 of a solid fat, it has been suggested as a soap-making 
 material. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 61 
 
 8. FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 
 (i) Alcoholic. 
 
 Alcohol is obtained from a great variety of sub- 
 stances by the distillation of fermented saccharine 
 liquids. When chemically pure it is termed 'absolute,' 
 whilst ' proof spirit ' contains 49^ per cent, of this 
 absolute alcohol. Beer is a fermented infusion of 
 malt, to which hops are added to make it keep and 
 render it bitter. Malt is the germinated grain of 
 barley, rye, wheat, maize, or rice, containing a sugar 
 known as maltose. This is fermented by the addition 
 of the yeast fungus (Saccharomyces cerevisice, Rees) ; 
 and then the flowering catkins of the HOP (Humulus 
 Lupulus, L.), the bracts of which are studded with 
 yellow glands, containing a bitter substance known as 
 ' lupulin,' are added. A considerable acreage in Kent, 
 Herefordshire, and Sussex is devoted to hop-growing; 
 but increasingly large quantities are imported, espe- 
 cially from Bavaria and Belgium. Much grain is 
 imported for malting, and some yeast, in a dried state, 
 from Germany. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the Grape-vine, 
 Gooseberries, Currants, and Elderberries, as wine- 
 making materials. Cowslip-flowers (Primula veris, L.), 
 Oranges, Ginger, and Rhubarb are also used in 
 ' British wines,' and artificial ethers in some foreign 
 wines. Cider, from Apples, and Perry, from Pears, 
 have also been mentioned. 
 
 Among distilled spirits those in common use in 
 England are. brandy, whisky, gin, and rum. Brandy 
 
62 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 is distilled from wine, sweetened and flavoured with 
 prunes ; but ' British Brandy ' consists largely of 
 ' silent' (potato) spirit and caramel, or burnt sugar. 
 Whisky should be distilled from fermented grain, 
 deriving its smoky taste from traces of creosote, which 
 it acquires from the wood or peat smoke used in pre- 
 paring it. Gin is also at least, when genuine 
 obtained from fermented grain ; but is flavoured with 
 the essential oil of juniper-berries (Juniperus com- 
 munis, L.) or with turpentine. ' Sweetened Gin ' con- 
 tains sugar ; cordial gin, oils of cinnamon, cloves, etc. 
 Rum is distilled from the molasses or uncrystallizable 
 liquid extract of the Sugar-cane, chiefly in the West 
 Indies, and is sometimes coloured with caramel or 
 flavoured with Pineapple. 
 
 In other countries many other substances are dis- 
 tilled, such as the saccharine juice of various palms, 
 yielding ' arrack,' and rice, yielding the Japanese 'saki.' 
 A great variety of flavouring substances is also used 
 in the sweetened spirits known as * liqueurs ' or 
 ' cordials.' Among these may be mentioned the 
 essential oil of Angelica (Angelica Archangelica, L.) 
 used in Chartreuse, and the oil of Bitter Almonds in 
 Noyau and Ratafia. 
 
 Under this head reference need only be made, in 
 conclusion, to the extensive use of Glucose, or Starch- 
 sugar, and of Potato, or ' silent ' spirit. The alleged 
 adulterants of beer are mostly far too expensive to be 
 used for such a purpose. Maize is largely used in 
 distillation in the United States ; and, though the 
 ' arrack ' at present obtained from the Mahwa-flowers 
 (Bassia latifolia, Rcxb.) is described as a coarse spirit, 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 63 
 
 Mr. Christy has* recommended it for this purpose. It 
 is to be regretted that, during the last few years, the 
 sale of the very deleterious Continental liqueur 
 ABSINTHE, manufactured from Artemisia pontica, L., 
 and Imda Helenium, L., has much increased in our 
 Metropolis. 
 
 (2) Condiments. 
 
 These mostly owe their value, as do the Spices and 
 Fiavourers, to volatile essential oils. Some of these, 
 such as the so-called compound ethers, have been 
 produced synthetically. 
 
 MUSTARD is the flour or ground seed of Brassica 
 nigra, Koch, and, to a less extent, of B. alba, Hook. 
 fiJ. and Thorn. the former cultivated in Lincolnshire 
 and Yorkshire, the latter in Essex and Cambridgeshire. 
 It is adulterated with flour coloured with turmeric. 
 
 Mustard is apparently, however, partly the produce 
 of Brassica juncea, Hook. fil. and Thorn., since no less 
 than 790 tons of its seed were imported from British 
 India into the United Kingdom, as ' Mustard-seed,' in 
 1872. 
 
 TURMERIC, the trade in which is declining, since, 
 though used in curries and to adulterate mustard, it is 
 no longer employed as a dye, is obtained in China, 
 Madras, Bengal, and Java from the rhizomes of 
 Curcuma longa, L., but in Africa from those of a 
 species of Canna cultivated at Sierra Leone. 
 
 PEPPER is the fruit of Piper nigrum, L., a climbing 
 plant, native to the East Indies, but widely cultivated 
 
 * ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 2, p. n, and No. 3, p. 36. 
 
64 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 throughout the tropics. White Pepper is prepared 
 from the same species by rubbing off the husk or 
 pericarp of the berry. Other species of the genus 
 (P.longum, L.,and P. officinarum, CDC, P. Betle, L., 
 and P. methysticum, Forst.) yield the Dutch Long 
 Pepper, Betel Pepper, and Kava. 
 
 CAYENNE PEPPER is prepared from the pods of 
 species of the Solanaceous genus Capsicum. Those 
 of C. fastigiatum, Blume, are generally known as 
 Chillies or Pod-peppers; those of the larger, C.annuum, 
 L., are known as Capsicums. Cayenne-pepper is 
 derived from both these, and perhaps other species. 
 
 CAPERS are the flower-buds of Capparis spinosa, L., 
 which are imported, pickled in vinegar, from the 
 South of Europe. The unripe fruits of the Garden 
 Nasturtium (Tropceolum inajus, L.) are sometimes 
 used instead. 
 
 Among common garden-grown condiments are 
 HORSE-RADISH, the root of Cochlearia Annoracia, L. ; 
 FENNEL (Fceniculum capillaceum, Gilib.), the leaves of 
 which are eaten with fish, whilst the fruits are used in 
 cordials ; GARLIC (A Ilium sativum, L.), SHALLOTS 
 (A. ascalonicum, Willd.), and CHIVES (A. Schoeno- 
 prasum, L.), the first-named of which is a bulb of 
 stronger flavour than the Onion, while the others are 
 milder; TARRAGON (Artemisia Dracimculus, L.) and 
 PARSLEY (Apium Petroselinum, L.). 
 
 Our aromatic pot-herbs, the leaves of most of 
 which are used in a dried state, are all members of 
 the order Labiatae. Among them are : MINT (Mentha 
 viridis, L.) ; SAGE (Salvia officinalis, L.) ; THYME 
 ( Thymus vulgaris, L.) ; BASIL (Ocimum Basilicum, L.) ; 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 65 
 
 MARJORAM (Origanum Marjorana, L.) ; and SAVORY 
 (Satureja, L.). 
 
 DlLL (Anethum graveolens, L.) and CUMIN (Cumi- 
 num Cyminum, L.) are Umbelliferae with aromatic 
 fruits, used in cordials. The latter is also employed 
 in curry-powder and as a flavouring to Dutch cheese. 
 
 ANISE, the fruits of the Umbelliferous Pimpinella- 
 Anisum, L., long cultivated on, and imported from, 
 the Continent, yields an oil consisting of Anethol or 
 Anise-camphor, C 10 H 12 O, and variable proportions of 
 an isomer of oil of turpentine. This substance is 
 practically identical with that obtained from FENNEL, 
 TARRAGON or STAR- ANISE. The latter (Illidum 
 anisatum, Loureiro) has been largely substituted for 
 anise in flavouring Dutch Aniseed and Anisette de 
 Bordeaux. In Singapore, /. Griffitkii and /. majus, 
 Hook. fiL and Thorn., are used. /. religiosum, Sieb. 
 and Zucc., of Japan, a similar plant, is poisonous. 
 /. floridanum, Ellis, and /. parviflorum, Michx., are 
 used in the United States.* 
 
 GINGER, though, in Jamaica and India, the produce 
 of Zingiber officinale, Roscoe, has been recently shown 
 to be in Siam, and perhaps in China, the rhizome of 
 some species of Alpinia.^ 
 
 (3) Flavourers. 
 
 It is, as Prof. Church points out (op. /.), impossible 
 to draw any very distinct line between condiments 
 and spices ; but we may, perhaps, include the latter 
 (which are mostly dried seeds or bark, and are eaten 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia ;' Spon's ' Encyclop. of Industrial Arts.' 
 f ' Pharm. Journ.,' xviii (1886). 
 
66 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 with articles of food containing sugar) with the 
 flavourers. NUTMEGS are the seeds of Myristica 
 fragrans, Houttuyn, a beautiful tree of the Molucca 
 Islands, of which about 250 tons are annually im- 
 ported. Other species are now used for soap-making. 
 MACE, also used as a spice, is the fleshy ' aril/ or outer 
 coat, of the Nutmeg, and, when fresh, is scarlet. 
 
 ALLSPICE, or PIMENTO, is the dry berry of Pimento, 
 officinalis, Lindl. (Myrtus Pimenta, L., Eugenia 
 Pimenta, DC.), a West Indian evergreen-tree, of 
 which we import about 2,000 tons annually from 
 Jamaica. An aromatic oil is distilled from it ; and 
 from an allied species (P. acris, Wight) OIL OF BAY, 
 used in the United States in the manufacture of the 
 perfume known as Bay Rum, is obtained. 
 
 CLOVES are the dried flower-buds of an allied 
 Myrtaceous plant, Eugenia caryopkyllata, Thunberg 
 (CaryopJiyllus aromaticus, L.), the inferior dry fruits of 
 which are imported as MOTHER CLOVES. A native 
 of the Moluccas, this spice is now largely imported 
 from Penang, from Zanzibar, and from the West 
 Indies. To the order Umbelliferae belong the Cara- 
 way, the Coriander, and the Angelica. The CARAWAY, 
 the ripe fruit, or rather half-fruit (' mericarp ') of 
 Carum Cartii, L., is grown in Kent, Essex, and in 
 the North of Europe, about 1,000 tons being imported, 
 mainly from Holland. 
 
 The CORIANDER, the whole fruit of Coriandrum 
 sativum, L., is also cultivated to a small extent in 
 Essex, but is obtained mainly from the Mediter- 
 ranean and from India. 
 
 The fruits of ANGELICA (Angelica Archangelica, L.) 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 67 
 
 are used in Chartreuse, and the leaf-stalks are candied 
 as a sweetmeat. 
 
 PEPPERMINT (Mentha Piperita, Hudson) is a 
 Labiate, the whole plant of which is rich in aromatic 
 essential oil. It is cultivated at Mitcham, Surrey ; 
 Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire ; Market-Deeping, Lincoln ; 
 and Hitchin, Hertfordshire ; but far more extensively 
 in New York, Michigan and Ohio, U.S.A., the oil 
 being used for cordials and sweetmeats. 
 
 CARDAMOMS are the fruits of Elettaria Cardamo- 
 mum, Maton, of Malabar, and various other Zingi- 
 beraceous plants,* and are employed, as are GRAINS 
 OF PARADISE (Amomum Melegueta, Roscoe), to give 
 pungency to cordials and cattle-foods. 
 
 CINNAMON is the ' liber/ or inner bark, of the 
 Lauraceous Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Breyne, grown 
 mainly in Ceylon. We import over 800 tons. Allied 
 species, chiefly C. Cassia, Blume, yield the bark known 
 as CASSIA BARK, CASSIA LIGNEA or CHINESE CASSIA, 
 and the unripe fruits called CASSIA-BUDS, largely im- 
 ported from Canton.f 
 
 Besides the fresh, dried or candied peel of oranges, 
 lemons, and other species of Citrus, the essential oil of 
 lemons obtained from them, the oil of bitter almonds 
 and the artificial fruit-essences, to all of which allusion 
 has already been made, the most important flavourer 
 is Vanilla. 
 
 VANILLA,! after being well known in the last 
 century, disappeared from trade, and was re-intro- 
 
 * Hanbury, in * Pharm. Journ./ xiv (1855) 352, 416; and 
 1 Pharmacographia,' pp. 587-9. 
 t * Pharmacographia,' pp. 474-80. 
 % Augustin Desvaux, ' Pharm. Journ.,' vii (1847), p. 73. 
 
 52 
 
68 THE USES OF PLANTS, 
 
 duced comparatively lately. It is one of the most 
 costly vegetable productions ; but Professor Morren's 
 discovery in 1837 that the flowers of the various 
 orchids of the genus ( Vanilla planifolia, Andrews, etc.), 
 from the placentae of which the odorous substance 
 is obtained, could be artificially fertilized* has enabled 
 them to be successfully cultivated throughout the 
 tropics. They owe their value to I per cent, of 
 vanillin, C 16 H 8 O 6 , a feebly acid, crystalline substance, 
 the nature of which was demonstrated in i858.f In 
 1874 this substance was prepared by Tiemann and 
 Haarmann from Coniferin (C 16 H 22 O 8 + 2H 2 O), a com- 
 pound first observed by Hartig in 1861 in the cambium 
 of various conifers.^ Coniferin is now largely collected 
 in Continental forests and manufactured into vanillin. 
 This substance has also been recently obtained from 
 asafcetida. A former substitute for it was the Sassa- 
 fras-nut, Puchury or Pichurim-bean, the large cotyle- 
 dons oiOcotea Pichurim, H. B. K. (NectandraPuchury> 
 Nees) of the Rio Negro. || 
 
 (4) Alkaloids. 
 
 Undoubtedly the greatest service which chemistry 
 has rendered to medicine during the present century 
 has been the extraction from many vegetable sub- 
 stances of those crystalline, nitrogenous bodies known 
 as alkaloids, by which exact doses of known character 
 can be experimented with in a state of isolation, or 
 
 * ' Annals of Natural History,' iii (1839), p. i. 
 
 t Gobley, * Journ. de Pharm.,' xxxiv (1858), p. 401. 
 
 % ' Pharmacographia,' p. 597. 
 
 ' Archivd. Pharm.,' June, 1886, p. 434. 
 
 II Archer, ' Econ. Bot.,' p. 94 ; 'Pharmacographia,' p. 485. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 69 
 
 administered to the patient. Many of these act 
 powerfully on the nervous system, generally as seda- 
 tives or narcotics ; but the action of those among 
 them which can be classed as food-adjuncts is often 
 modified by the presence of other substances, such, 
 for instance, as the stimulating essential oil and the 
 tannin which are present in tea. 
 
 As has been before suggested, a botanical identifi- 
 cation is often nearly as important as a new discovery ; 
 and thus Fortune's identification of the Tea-plant 
 cultivated in China as TJiea viridis, L., was followed, 
 at a short interval, by its extensive introduction into 
 India, from which country we now derive much of our 
 most costly teas. In 1882 we imported more than 21 1 
 million pounds of tea, of which nearly 54 million 
 were from British India, over 165 million being for 
 home consumption. 
 
 It is also a singular fact that most nations have 
 some non-alcoholic beverage, similar to tea, depending 
 for its value upon an alkaloid, and that these alkaloids, 
 though derived from different often widely different 
 plants and countries, are in several cases identical, 
 and in others most closely allied. Tea, coffee, kola, 
 guarana, mate, and holly leaves, all contain Caffeine, 
 or Theine, as it is sometimes called, whilst Theobro- 
 mine, the alkaloid of the Cacao (Theobroma Cacao, L.) 
 is very nearly related. 
 
 COFFEE affords an instance of the ease with which 
 a trade may be destroyed. Its importation from 
 Ceylon fell from 921,506 cwt. in 1870 to 407,222 cwt. 
 in i88i,and 310,922 cwt. in 1885, mainly owing to 
 the attacks of the leaf-fungus Hemileia vastatrix* 
 
70 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Berk, and Broome, and now its cultivation is mainly 
 superseded in the island by that of the tea.* Similarly 
 a small moth, Cemiostoma coffeellum, Mann, has by 
 its ravages almost entirely destroyed the plantations 
 in Dominica. The bulk of our coffee supply now 
 comes from Central America. Coffea arabica, L., has 
 been to some extent replaced by the more robust 
 LIBERIAN COFFEE (Coffea liberica, Bull and Hiern) 
 introduced in 1876, the ' beans ' of which are imported 
 as 'best Java.'f Another large-leaved variety has 
 been recently discovered, under the name 'Mara- 
 gogipe,' in Brazil. J 
 
 Of Cocoa we imported in 1886 14^ million pounds 
 for home consumption. 
 
 KOLA-NUTS, the seeds of Cola acuminata^ R. Br., a 
 native of West Tropical Africa, belonging to the 
 Sterculiacea, the same Natural Order as the Cacao, 
 were first brought into notice as a new source of 
 Caffeine about i865. It is the Stercnlia acuminata 
 of P. Beauvois (Flore d'Oware), and is known as the 
 Guru-nut in the Western Soudan, where it is highly 
 valued. It is used to clear and sweeten muddy water, 
 to assist digestion and to allay hunger. In 1882 MM. 
 Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen showed that it contained 
 theobromine and glucose, three times as much starch 
 as Cacao-beans, and more caffeine in a free state than 
 
 * In 1877, 1,175 lb. f tea were exported ; in 1885, over 3! 
 million. 
 
 t 'Journ. Lin. Soc.' (Botany), 1876; ' Pharm. Journ.,' vii 
 (1877), P- 574- I n Ceylon, G. A. Cruewell, Colombo, 1878, 8vo. 
 In West Indies, N. A. Nicholls, London, 1881, 8vo. Christy : 
 ' Commercial Plants,' No. I. 
 
 % Christy : ' Commercial Plants,' No. 7, p. 79. 
 
 ' Pharm. Journ.,' vi (1865), pp. 450 and 457, by Prof. Attfield. 
 
FOODS, FOOD-STUFFS, AND FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 71 
 
 the best Coffee.* Their detailed researchesf showed 
 it to contain more theobromine than Cacao, to be 
 closely allied to other species, especially 5. cordifolia, 
 Cav,, introduced into the West and East Indies, Sydney, 
 and the Seychelles, etc., but quite distinct from the 
 Bitter, or Male Kola (Garciuia Kola, Heckel), which 
 does not contain caffeine. Mr. Christy has succeeded 
 in preparing a chocolate from them. 
 
 GUAR ANA -BREAD is prepared from the roasted 
 seeds of Paullinia sorbilis, Mart., a strong-growing 
 Sapindaceous climber of the Amazon Valley. The 
 seeds are pounded and rolled into sausages, from 
 which pieces are broken and in fused,! both as medicine 
 and as a drink. 
 
 MAT, or, more properly, Yerba de mate (mate 
 being only the name of the gourd ' tea-pot '), the 
 leaves of Ilex Paraguay 'ensis, St. Hil., and other allied 
 species, according to John Miers, has long been culti- 
 vated in Paraguay, where it has been drunk by all 
 classes since the beginning of the seventeenth century. 
 It is now in use throughout South America, where it 
 was estimated in 1855 that 15 million pounds were 
 consumed annually. It allays hunger, has a mildly 
 tonic and aperient action, and keeps better than tea. 
 Mr. Christy suggests it as valuable to our working- 
 classes^ It is interesting that the leaves of our 
 
 * 'Comptes Rendus,' March 2oth, 1882, p. 802. 
 
 t Christy, ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 8 (1885), p. 5, with 
 plate. 
 
 t T. C. Archer, * Paullinia sorbilis and its Products.' ' Pharm. 
 Journ.,' v (1863), p. 135 ; ' Kew Museum Guide, 5 p. 33: Bentley 
 and Trimen, ' Medicinal Plants,' pi. 67. 
 
 Christy, * New Commercial Plants,' No. 3, pp. 15-19. 
 
72 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 common Holly (Ilex Aquifolium, L.) have long been 
 used as tea in the Black Forest. 
 
 Mention may be made here of two adulterants of 
 coffee, neither of v/hich contains Caffeine, or any 
 alkaloid : 
 
 * MOCHARA CHICORY ' is prepared from roasted and 
 pulverized Figs.* 
 
 'NEGRO-COFFEE,' brought to Liverpool from the 
 Gambia, is the seeds of Cassia occidentalis , L. It 
 proves to be very valuable as a febrifuge. j- 
 
 DATE COFFEE, prepared from date-stones, has also 
 been introduced. 
 
 PART II. MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 IN no division of Economic Botany has the history 
 of the introduction of new substances been so com- 
 pletely recorded as in that of Materia Medica. 
 Various works, such as Andrew Duncan's * Catalogue 
 of Medical Plants ' (Edinburgh, 1826), George Graves 
 and J. D. Morries' ' Hortus Medicus ' (Edinburgh, 
 1834), and especially Stephenson and Churchill's 
 'Medical Botany' (London, 1831), show us the state 
 of the study fifty years ago. The admirably thorough 
 records in the Pharmaceutical Journal from 1842 to 
 the present time, and Lindley's ' Flora Medica ' of 
 1846, carry on the story; whilst the complete historical 
 synopsis in Fliickiger and Hanbury's ' Pharmaco- 
 graphia' (1874) has received adequate illustration 
 
 * Spon, ' Encyclopaedia of the Industrial Arts,' p. 707. 
 t Christy, 'New Commercial Plants,' No. 8, p. 40. 
 
MATERIA MEDICA. 73 
 
 and has been thoroughly supplemented by Messrs. 
 Bentley and Trimen's ' Medicinal Plants/ and the suc- 
 cessive numbers of ' New Commercial Plants ' by 
 Mr. Christy, who has himself done so much to intro- 
 duce new remedies. In these publications all that is 
 of interest to us in the work of Continental pharmacists 
 has been fully reproduced. 
 
 As has already been remarked, the most notable 
 change during the half-century has been the extrac- 
 tion from various drugs of their alkaloids, essential 
 oils, stearoptenes, or other principles, by which means 
 they can be more exactly dispensed. Though Gomes 
 in 1812 obtained a crystalline extract from Cinchona, 
 it was not till 1820 that Pelletier and Caventon 
 separated Quinine from Cinchonine, whilst the sub- 
 sequent researches of Winckler, Pasteur, Hesse, and 
 many others, have added enormously to our practical 
 knowledge of the various alkaloids obtainable from 
 this plant. So, too, nearly all the alkaloids of opium, 
 and, in fact, those of most drugs, have been extracted 
 during the last fifty years, until at the present day 
 their number seems inexhaustible. Since such ex- 
 cellent works as those of Lindley, Fliickiger and 
 Hanbury, and Bentley and Trimeri, are all arranged 
 systematically according to the Natural System of 
 Classification, beginning with the higher Dicotyledo- 
 nous Phanerogams, in the following enumeration and 
 it can be little more than an enumeration the same 
 order will be followed. 
 
74 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 RANUNCULACE^E. 
 
 Hydrastis canadensis, L., Yellow Puccoon, or GOLDEN 
 SEAL, contains Berberia and Hydrastia, and is used 
 as a tonic, aperient, and diuretic in North America, 
 but not much here."* 
 
 Helleborus niger, L., CHRISTMAS ROSE, in 1852 
 yielded Helleborin, C 36 H 42 O 6 , and, in .1864, Helleborin, 
 C 26 H 44 O 15 , two glucosides. With us its use is almost 
 obsolete.f 
 
 Coptis Teeta, Wallich, from the Mishmi Hills, in 
 Assam, first described in 1836, the bitter root of 
 which is used as a tonic by the natives, and Coptis 
 trifolia, Salisb., the ' GOLD THREAD' of North 
 America, which also contains Berberine, and is 
 similarly used, are neither much employed here.J 
 
 Delphinium Staphisagria, L., STAVESACRE, con- 
 tains the base Delphinine, C 24 H 35 NO 2 . It was known 
 to the ancients as Herba pedicularia, its seeds, which 
 are imported from Trieste and the South of France, 
 being used for the destruction of lice. 
 
 Aconitum ferox, Wallich, the ' BlSH ' poison of 
 Nepal, came into notice in 1858 as a source of 
 ACONITINE, preferable to the European A. Napellus, 
 L., which is, however, undoubtedly mixed from care- 
 
 * Prof. Bentley, ' Pharm. Journ.,' iii (1862), pp. 540-6 ; V. van 
 der Espt, #., iii (1873), P- 604 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. i ; * Kew 
 Museum Guide,' p. 7. 
 
 t ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 2, 3 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 2. 
 
 J Bentley and Trimen, pi. 3 ; ' Pharmacographia,' p. 3 ; 
 'American Journ. of Pharmac.,' 1873, P- J 93 5 Wallich, 'Trans. 
 Med. Soc. Calcutta,' viii (1836), p. 85. 
 
 ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 5-7 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 4. 
 
MATERIA MEDICA. 75 
 
 less collection with other Alpine species. A.ferox is 
 now regularly imported.* 
 
 Cimicifuga racemosa, Elliott, ' BLACK COHOSH,' 
 * Bugbane,' a native of North America, has been used 
 here, chiefly in rheumatism, as tincture, since about 
 
 i86o.t 
 
 Xanthorhiza apiifolia, Willd., of North America, is 
 in repute there as a tonic, both root and wood being 
 
 used.J 
 
 MAGNOLIACE^. 
 
 Drimys Winteri, Forster, 'WINTER'S BARK,' the 
 bark of a South American tree, discovered in 1578 
 by Captain Winter, the companion of Drake, and 
 used by him as an antiscorbutic, is now used mainly 
 in Brazil as a tonic in cases of diarrhcea. 
 
 Illicium anisatum, Loureiro, ' STAR ANISE,' to 
 which reference has already been made, seems to 
 have come into use as a source of a flavouring oil, 
 not used here as medicine, about 1842. Coming 
 from China overland, it was once known as ' Anis de 
 Siberie.'H 
 
 The seeds of Magnolia Yulan, Desf., have a repu- 
 tation as a febrifuge, and the bark of Liriodendron 
 tulipifera, L., is used as a stimulant tonic in America. 
 
 MENISPERMACEyE. 
 
 The researches of Messrs. Fluckiger and Hanbury 
 have done much to clear up the origin of the drugs 
 
 * * Pharmacog.,' p. 9 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 5, 6. 
 f Bentley, ' Pharm. Journ.,' ii (1861), p. 460. 
 % Ibid., iv (1862), p. 12 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 9. 
 ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 17-20. 
 
 || Bentley and Trimen, ' Medicinal Plants,' pi. 10 ; ' Pharmaco- 
 graphia,' p. 21. 
 
76 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 known as ' PAREIRA BRAVA,' and the restoration of 
 this remedy to the British Pharmacopoeia. The true 
 1 Pareira Brava ' is Chondrodendron tomentosum, Ruiz 
 and Pavon, the chief substitute for it, Cissampelos 
 Pareira, L., belonging to the same order. They 
 contain Buxine, C 18 H 21 NO 3 (formerly termed Pelosine 
 and Bibirine), and are valued as diuretics.*" 
 
 Jateorrhiza palmata, Miers, ' CALUMBA ROOT,' a 
 native of the forests of East Africa, the large fleshy 
 roots of which contain several related bitter principles, 
 is much used as a mild tonic. It is shipped from 
 Zanzibar.f 
 
 Anamirta Cocculus, Wight and Arnott, ' COCCULUS 
 INDICUS,' though now discarded from our Pharma- 
 copoeia, is still in use in India for destroying lice, and 
 is imported to the extent of about 50,000 Ib. of the 
 dried, berry-like fruit annually, at the price of seven 
 to nine shillings per cwt., mainly for re-exportation. 
 The seeds contain from four to one per cent, of the 
 poisonous picrotoxin Ci 2 H 14 O 5> and so stupefy fish 
 when thrown on the water. 
 
 Tinospora cordifolia, Miers (= Cocculus cordtfolius, 
 DC.), ' GULANCHA/ has a bitter tonic root and stem, 
 and is used in India. 
 
 BERBERIDACE^E. 
 
 Berberis aristata> DC, B. Lycium, Royle, and B. 
 'asiatica, Roxb., yield the tonic bark known in India 
 as ' RUSOT.'J 
 
 * Fliickiger, ' Neues Jahrb. f. Pharm.,' xxxi (1869), p. 257 ; 
 'Pharm. Journ./ xi (1870), p. 192; Hanbury, ib. (1873), PP- 8l, 
 102 ; * Pharmacog./ pp. 25-30 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. n. 
 
 f ' Pharmacographia, 3 pp. 22-5 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 13. 
 
 % ' Indian Pharmacopoeia,' p. 436 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 16. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 77 
 
 Podophyllum peltatum y L., of Canada and the United 
 States, contains in its rhizome the purgative resin 
 PODOPHYLLIN, admitted to the British Pharmacopoeia 
 from that of the United States in 1864.* 
 
 Canlophyllum thalictroides^ Michx.,t the 'BLUE 
 COHOSH,' Z.K& Jeffersonia diphylla,\ Pers., the 'TwiN- 
 LEAF,' belong to the same order. 
 
 SARRACENIACE^:. 
 
 Sarracenia purpurea, L., ' THE INDIAN CUP,' re- 
 commended as a remedy in small-pox, is valueless. 
 
 PAPAVERACE.E. 
 
 Sanguinaria canadensis, L., the ' BLOOD-ROOT,' or 
 ' PUCCOON,' of North America, is stimulant and 
 diaphoretic. 
 
 Papaver somniferum, L., the OPIUM POPPY, said to 
 be truly wild in the islands of the Mediterranean (P. 
 somniferum t var. setigerwn, Boissier), has been culti- 
 vated from a remote antiquity for its sedative pro- 
 perties. The dried milky ' latex ' obtained from in- 
 cisions in the unripe fruit- capsules constitutes opium, 
 the narcotic property of which depends upon mor- 
 phine, C 17 H 19 NO 3 , and various other related alkaloids. 
 Six distinct kinds occur in commerce, viz., (i) that of 
 Asia Minor or Smyrna, and Turkey or Constan- 
 
 * Bentley, ' Pharm. Journ.,' iii (1862), p. 452 ; ' Pharmacog.,' 
 p. 35 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 17. 
 
 f ' Pharm. Journ.,' iv (1862), p. 52. 
 
 J Ibid.) p. 104. 
 
 Ibid., pp. 263-9, an <i G. D. Gibb, c Pharm. Journ.,' i (1860), 
 p. 454 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 20. 
 
78 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 tinople, and (2) that of Egypt, the produce of the 
 round-capsuled P. somniferum, var. glabrum, Boissier, 
 and that of (3) Persia, (4) India, (5) China, and (6) 
 Europe, the produce of the ovate-capsuled var. 
 album, Boissier. We import the drug mainly from 
 Turkey. The capsules are used whole for fomenta- 
 tions, and the seed (known as ' Maw-seed ') for oil. 
 The residue, after the extraction of the oil, is an oil- 
 cake, valuable for cattle. The petals of our common 
 wild poppy (Papaver Rhceas, L.) are used in pharmacy 
 merely as a red colouring agent. 
 
 Chelidonium majus, L., the GREATER CELANDINE, a 
 rustic remedy for warts, gives its name to, but does not 
 enter into the composition of, a patent cure for corns. 
 
 CRUCIFER^E. 
 
 Brassica nigra, Koch, MUSTARD, which has already 
 been mentioned as a condiment (p. 63, supra), is a 
 powerful external stimulant. It contains an albu- 
 minous substance, discovered in 1839, known as 
 ' myrosin/ and an essential oil, Allyl sulphocyanide, 
 C 4 H 5 NS, which also occurs in Reseda lutea, L., and 
 R. Luteola, L. Myrosin occurs in Brassica alba, 
 Hook. fil. and Thorn., together with Sinalbin, 
 C 30 H 44 N 2 S 2 16 * 
 
 CANELLACE^:. 
 
 Canella alba, Murray, a West Indian tree, yields 
 an aromatic bark known in the Bahamas, whence it 
 is imported, as * WHITE WOOD BARK ' or ' CINNAMON 
 
 BARK.'f 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, pi. 22, 23. 
 f Ibid., pi. 26. 
 
MATER1A MEDIC A. 79 
 
 Gynocardia odorata, R. Br., of India, contains in its 
 seeds an oil known as CHAULMUGRA OIL, introduced 
 from the Indian Pharmacopoeia for rheumatism, 
 syphilis, etc., about 1872, since when it has increased 
 in popularity.* 
 
 POLYGALACE^:. 
 
 Krameria Ixina, L. ( = K. tomentosa, St. Hil.), 
 ' SAVANILLA ' or ' NEW GRENADA RHATANY,' was 
 found in 1864 to be equal, if not superior, to that 
 from Peru (K. triandra, Ruiz and Pavon) as an 
 astringent in dysentery.f 
 
 Polygala Senega, L., SENEGA ROOT, is a North 
 American stimulating expectorant and diuretic. 
 
 GUTTIFER^:. 
 
 Garcinia Hanburii, Hook, fil., the main source of 
 GAMBOGE in Cambodia, was described by Christison 
 in 1851 ; but more fully, with a figure, in 1864^ by 
 Hanbury, to whose memory it was dedicated by Sir 
 J. D. Hooker in i8/5. Gamboge consists of a 
 resin, with fifteen or twenty per cent, of gum,|| and 
 acts as a drastic purgative. 
 
 * 'Gynocardia odorata,' by Richard C. Lepage, London (1878), 
 8vo. ; Christy, ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 2, p. 3 ; ' Phar- 
 macographia,' p. 70 ; Bentley and Tiimen, pi. 28. 
 
 f Bentley and Trimen, pi. 31 ; Hanbury, * Pharm. Journ.,' vi 
 (1865), p. 460 
 
 % 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' xxiv (1864), p. 487, tab. 50, under the 
 name G. Morella, vzx.pedicellata. 
 
 ' Journ. Linn. Soc.,' xiv (1875), p. 485. 
 
 || ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 77-79 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 33. 
 
So THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 G. indica, Choisy, yields from its seeds KOKUM 
 BUTTER, said to have been used to adulterate ghee, 
 and since recommended for use in pharmacy.* It 
 consists chiefly of stearin, so might be of use in 
 candle-making. 
 
 Calophyllum inophyllum^ L., one of the most valu- 
 able timber-trees of the tropics, known as ' Poon ' or 
 ' Tamanu/ has in its seeds an oil known as ' NDILO ' 
 in Fiji, or as BITTER-OIL in India, recommended for 
 soap-making, but used locally for ringworm. f 
 
 DIPTEROCARPACE^E. 
 
 Dipterocarpus alatus, Roxb., D. turbinatus^ Gsertn. 
 fil., and other species, yield, on incision of the stem, 
 GURJUN BALSAM, or WOOD-OIL, the essential oil of 
 which has the composition of Copaiba, C 40 H 32 , for 
 which it is used as a substitute. It is imported from 
 Moulmein and elsewhere as ' East Indian Balsam 
 Capivi.' Its wood is used in boat-building, and the 
 balsam as a protective varnish against white ants.J 
 
 Dryobalanops aromatica, Gaertn., yields the stearop- 
 tene known as Borneol,C 10 H 18 O, BORNEO or SUMATRA 
 CAMPHOR, which is so eagerly bought up by the 
 Chinese that it does not come into Europe. 
 MALVACEAE. 
 
 Althaea officinalis, L., the MARSH MALLOW, a 
 British plant, has long been used as a demulcent. 
 
 * Pereira, 'Pharm. Journ.,' xi (1852), p. 65 ; ' Comptes Ren- 
 dus,' xliv (1857), p. 1355 ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 32. 
 
 t 'Pharm. Journ.,' vol. xvii (1886). 
 
 j Smith, ' Domestic Botany, 3 p. 477 ; * Kew Museum Guide,' 
 p. 17 ; ' Pharmacographia,' p. 81. 
 
 Sir W. J. Hooker, in ' Pharm. Journ.,' xii (1852), p. 300 ; 
 4 Pharmacog.,' p. 464 ; W. T. Thiselton Dyer, Journ. Bot., 1874, 
 p. 98. 
 
OF THE 
 
 ([ UNIVERSITY J 
 
 KlATERIA MEDICA. 81 
 
 Its root is an ingredient in the French Guimauve 
 cough-lozenges. 
 
 Passing over the slight medical character of Kola 
 (vide supra, p. 70) and the mere vehicle Cocoa-butter, 
 we come to the 
 
 LINAGES. 
 
 Limun nsitatissimum, L., -the FLAX, cultivated in 
 Egypt and Europe from prehistoric times as a fibre- 
 plant, yields also oily seeds known as LlNSEED, 
 which are used not only as a source of oil for lamps, 
 and painting, etc., but also in medicine, either for a 
 demulcent infusion or tea, or for poultices. The seed 
 is mainly imported from Russia, nearly 2,500,000 
 quarters being imported in 1882. 
 
 Erythroxylon Coca, Lamarck (1786), COCA, the 
 dried leaves of which are chewed to assist digestion 
 of starchy food by the Indians of South America, 
 has sinca 1885 been admitted into the British Phar- 
 macopoeia, having been in use since about 1870, and 
 being strongly recommended as allaying hunger by 
 the late Sir R. Christison.* From them has been 
 obtained the valuable local anaesthetic COCAINE, 
 already in universal use in dental and other surgery.f 
 
 ZYGOPHYLLEyE. 
 
 Guaiacwm officinalc, L., and G. sanctum, L., West 
 Indian species, yield LIGNUM VIT.E, chips of which are 
 
 * ' Pharm. Journ.,' vi (1876), p. 883 ; see also P. Mantegazza, 
 ibid.) i (1860), p. 506 ; Abl, ibid., vii (1865), 33 ; Fournier, ibid.) i 
 (1870), p. 43 ; Christy, ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 3, p. 24. 
 
 t W. Martindale, * Coca, Cocaine, and its Salts,' 1886. 
 
 6 
 
82 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 used in compound decoction of sarsaparilla, and a resin 
 frequently prescribed for rheumatism and gout.* 
 
 GERANIACE^:. 
 
 Geranium maculatinn, L., ' ALUM-ROOT/ is recom- 
 mended for dysentery,f for which the now largely 
 disused ANGOSTURA BARK (Galipea Cusparia, St- 
 Hil), which contains angosturine, is also employed. 
 This last belongs to the 
 
 Barosma, various species of which genus yield the 
 BUCHU leaves, introduced in 1821, contains a cam- 
 phor like that of peppermint. The leaves are a 
 reputed diuretic. 
 
 Ticorea febrifuga, St. Hil., a Brazilian tree, has a 
 bark recommended as a quinine substitute. 
 
 Zanthoxylum fraxineum, Willd., the TOOTH-ACHE 
 SHRUB, has a bark recommended as provocative of 
 saliva.! 
 
 Z. caribceum, Lam., and Z. Perrotetii, D.C., of 
 Cayenne, the ' Bois PIQUANT,' or YELLOW orTHORNY 
 CAVALIER, is a powerful febrifuge, which may possibly 
 rival the Cinchonas. It contains C 12 H 24 O as a crystal- 
 line solid and an alkaloid. 
 
 Pilocarpus pennatifolius, Lemaire, 'JardinFleuriste/ 
 iii., t. 263 (1852), and perhaps P. Selloanus, Engler, pro- 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 92-97. Bentley and Trimen, pi. 41. 
 
 f R. Bentley, ' Pharm. Journ.,' v (1863), pp. 20-25. 
 
 t Ibid., iv (1863), pp. 399-407. 
 
 ' Pharm. Record,' 1886, p. 342 ; Heckel and Schlagden- 
 hauffen, 'Repertoire de Pharmacie,' 1886; Christy, 'New 
 Commercial Plants,' No. 9, p. 62. 
 
MATERIA ME DIC A. 83 
 
 duce the leaves known as PERNAMBUCO JABORANDI, 
 containing pilocarpine and acting as a diaphoretic and 
 powerful sialagogue. It was introduced into Europe 
 in 1847, but not to England until 1874,* and has, in 
 1885, been admitted into the Pharmacopoeia. It has 
 been used with some success in hydrophobia. 
 
 Ptelea trifoliata, L., ' SHRUB TREFOIL/ or ' WATER 
 ASH,' has been recommended as a vermifuge, and for 
 ulcers. f 
 
 Toddalia aculeata, Pers., an aromatic prickly bush, 
 a native of India, yields a bark from its roots, used in 
 India as a stimulating tonic.J 
 
 AURANTIACE.E. 
 
 The peel of the Seville or Bitter Orange, the 
 ' Bigaradier ' of the French (Citrus vulgaris, Risso = C. 
 Aurantium, var. amara, L. = C. Bigaradia, Duhamel), 
 is an aromatic tonic ; but the other products of the 
 genus, the peel of the lemon (C. Limonum, Risso), the 
 essence or essential oil of Lemon, essence of Berga- 
 mot, obtained from the unripe fruits of the Calabrian 
 Bergamot Orange (C. Bergamia, var. vulgaris, Risso 
 and Poiteau), essence of Neroli, prepared from the 
 flowers, essence of petit grain, from the leaves and 
 shoots, and essence of orange-peel from the unripe 
 fruit of C. vulgaris, and, in the case of the last-men- 
 tioned, of C. Aurantium,'R.isso, and essence of Cedrat 
 
 * Baillon and Holmes, ' Pharm. Journ.,' iv (1874), p. 850 ; v 
 (1874-5), PP- 364, 561, 569, 574, 5.8i, ?8i ; vi (1876), p. 750 ; vii 
 (1876-7), p. 10, 496, 731, 892 ; viii (1878), p. 892, with plate at 
 pi. 581 of vol. v ; Bentley and Trimen, pi. 48. 
 
 f Bentley, 'Pharm. Journ.,' iv (1863), pp. 494-7. 
 
 J ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 101-3. Bentley and Trimen, pi. 49. 
 
 62 
 
84 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 from the fruit of C. medica^ Risso, are used mainly in 
 perfumery, or for liqueurs, or merely as flavourers in 
 medicine. 
 
 jEgle Marmelos, Corn, the BAEL fruit of India, is 
 used in diarrhoea or dysentery, attention having been 
 directed to it in Europe about 1850.* 
 
 SIMARUBE.E.f 
 
 Picrcena excelsa^ Lindl. (= Quassia excelsa, Swartz 
 = Simaruba excelsa, DC.), QUASSIA or BITTER WOOD, 
 a native of Jamaica, is employed as a stomachic and 
 tonic, its wood being often turned into 'Bitter-cups.' 
 That of Quassia amara, L., of Surinam, is also used. 
 
 Simaba Cedron, Planchon, ' CEDRON,' of Panama, has 
 bitter seeds, suggested as a quinine substitute and for 
 subcutaneous injection in hydrophobia, and used locally 
 for snake-bite. It was sent to Kew by Purdie and 
 Seemann between 1843 and 18504 
 
 BURSERACE^E. 
 
 Boswellia Carteri, Birdwood, was first recognised 
 as the source of GUM OLIBANUM, or FRANKINCENSE, 
 by Surgeon-Major H. J. Carter, in South-East Arabia, 
 in 1846.11 B. Bhau-Dajiana, Birdw., of Somali-land, 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' p. 116; ' Pharm. Journ.,' x (1850), p. 
 165 ; ii (1861), p. 499. Bentley and Trimen, pi. 55. 
 
 f A. W. Bennett, ' Notes on Indian Simarubeas/ 
 
 J Smith, 'Dictionary of Economic Plants,' Hooker's 'Journ. 
 of Botany/ v (1846), 566. 
 
 Linn. Trans.,' xxvii (1871), p. 143. 
 
 || Journ. of Bombay branch, Royal Asiatic Soc., ii (1848), 
 p. 380, tab. 23. Bentley and Trimen, pi. 58. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 85 
 
 1 Luban Maitee,' B. Frereana^ Birdw., being often 
 mixed with it. 
 
 B. serrata, Roxb., the ' Salai ' of the Deccan, and 
 B. glabra, Roxb., are used locally as ' INDIAN OLIBA- 
 NUM,' for incense.* 
 
 Balsamodendron Myrrha, Nees, * AFRICAN or TUR- 
 KEY MYRRH/ B. Opobalsamum, Kunth, ' ARABIAN/ and 
 B. Kafal, Kunth, ' EAST INDIAN MYRRH/ are, accord- 
 ing to the researches of Dr. Trimen,t R. H. Parker,J 
 Mr. E. M. Holmes and Professor Oliver, the sources of 
 that other gum-resin which is more used in medicine 
 than the last-mentioned. 
 
 B. Mukul, Hook. ('Journ. Botany/ 1849), is the 
 source of * GOOGUL' or INDIAN BDELLIUM ; B. Play- 
 fairii, Hook, fil., discovered in 1862, by Colonel Play- 
 fair, that of ' HODTHAI/ or OPAQUE BDELLIUM. 
 
 Canarium commune, L., is believed to be the source 
 of the resin known as MANILLA ELEMI, admitted to 
 the Pharmacopoeia in 1867, though Idea heptaphylla, 
 Aubl., 'HYAWAGUM/ /. Caranna, H.B.K., ' CARANA/ 
 and other species, yield similar products known as 
 BRAZILIAN ELEMI. Further information is still much 
 needed as to the sources of these oleo-resins. 
 
 MELIACE^L. 
 
 Swietenia senegalensis, Desv., ' CAILCEDRA/ has a 
 tonic bark, containing ' Calcedrine.' 
 
 * Fliickiger, ' Pharm. Journ./ viii (1878), p. 407 ; Spoil's 
 'Encyclop. Indus. Arts.' 
 
 t ' Pharm. Journ./ ix (1878-9), No. 462, p. 893 ; Bentley and 
 Trimen, ' Medic. PI./ i, pi. 59-60. 
 
 % ' Pharm. Journ./ ix (1879), No. 475. 
 
 Christy, * New Commercial Plants/ No. 10, p. 42. 
 
86 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Melia indica, Brand is ( = M. Azadirachta, L.), the 
 NlM or MARGOSA of India, contains an alkaloid in 
 its bark, known as Margosine, used in India as a tonic 
 and antiperiodic.* 
 
 Soymida febrifuga, Juss. ( = Swietenia febrifuga, 
 Willd.), the BASTARD CEDAR, or ROHUN, another 
 Indian tree, has also an astringent tonic bark, valuable 
 in dysentery, f 
 
 RHAMNACE^:. 
 
 Rhamnus cathartica, L., the BUCKTHORN, a British 
 shrub, has berries which are collected, when ripe, in 
 Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire, and Oxfordshire, for 
 their juice, from which a purgative syrup and the pig- 
 ment known as SAP GREEN are prepared. The latter 
 substance is, however, mainly prepared from Persian 
 berries, the fruit of R. infeclorius, L.J 
 
 R. Purshiamis, DC., yields a bark which has been 
 introduced under the name of CASCARA SAGRADA 
 (* Sacred Bark ') as a tonic purgative. 
 
 ANACARDIACE^:. 
 
 The resins of the MASTICH (Pistacia Lenttscus, L.) 
 and the Terebinth (P. Terebinthus, L.), the latter 
 known as CHIAN TURPENTINE, are practically obso- 
 lete in English medicine ; though this latter has 
 recently been suggested for use in cancer. 
 
 Comocladia integrifolia, Jacq., ' MAIDEN PLUM,' of 
 the West Indies, has a bark said to be hypnotic.|| 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, pi. 62. f Ibid., pi. 63. 
 
 J Ibid., pi. 64 Ibid., pi. 68, 69. 
 
 || 4 Christy, ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 10, p. 106. 
 
MATERIA MED 1C A. 87 
 
 CONNARACE^E. 
 
 Cnestis glabra, Lam., is the < MORT AUX RATS' of 
 the Mascarene Islands. 
 
 LEGUMINO&B. 
 
 Ulex europ&uS) L., has been found by Mr. A. W. 
 Gerrard* to contain an alkaloid, ULEXINE, more 
 powerful as a purgative than SPARTEINE, obtained 
 from Cytisus scoparius> Link., whilst C. Laburnum, L., 
 contains two poisonous substances, CYTISINE and 
 LABURNINE, discovered in 1865 by Messrs. Huse- 
 mann and Marne. 
 
 FENUGREEK, the seeds of TrigonellaFcenumgr&cum, 
 L., though still used in curry-powder, in cattle foods, 
 in veterinary medicine, and, from containing Cou- 
 marin, in adulterating inferior hay, is obsolete in 
 ordinary pharmacy. 
 
 Astragalus gummi/tr, Labil., and other species in 
 Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece, have been shownf to 
 be the sources of that mucilaginous transformation of 
 medullary cells that constitutes the officinal GUM 
 TRAGACANTH, which is largely imported from 
 Smyrna. 
 
 Glycyrrhiza glabra, L., the LIQUORICE, a native of 
 the Mediterranean area, cultivated at Mitcham, 
 Surrey, and near Pontefract, Yorkshire, and imported 
 to the extent of some hundreds of tons annually, from 
 
 * ' Pharm. Journ.,' Aug. 7, 1886. 
 
 f Boissier, 'Flora Orientalis,' ii (1872) ; ' Pharmacographia,' 
 p. 152 ; * Kew Guide,' p. 41 ; M. Giraud, 'Pharm. Journ./ 1878, 
 No. 405. Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 73. 
 
88 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Spain, Russia, Germany, France, and Turkey, con- 
 tains in its root much sugar, and a substance known 
 as Glycyrrhizin, C 24 H 36 O 9 , It is used as a demulcent 
 in cough-lozenges, as a sweetmeat, and in the pre- 
 paration of tobacco. 
 
 Arachis hypogcea, L., already alluded to (p. 39, 
 suprcc], was first imported to Marseilles from Goree, 
 as an oil-seed, about 1840, and is largely used as a sub- 
 stitute for olive-oil. 
 
 Abrus precatorius, L., the root of which is an inferior 
 substitute for liquorice, has been found to contain in 
 its seeds, the well-known Crab's-eyes or Jequirity- 
 seeds, an alkaloid JEQUIRITINE, stated to be anta- 
 gonistic to Atropine.* They have recently been used 
 in ophthalmia, lupus, etc. 
 
 Erythrina corallodendriim, L., of Brazil, and other 
 tropical countries, yields a bark said to be hyp- 
 notic.f 
 
 Mucuna pruriens, DC., COWHAGE, a tropical 
 twining plant, has the pods densely covered with 
 stiff brown hairs, which are a powerful mechanical 
 irritant, and are administered, in honey or syrup, as a 
 vermifuge. 
 
 Physostigma venenosum, Balf., the ORDEAL BEAN 
 of Old Calabar, first made known in England by Dr. 
 W. F. Daniell, about 1840, and described by Balfour 
 in 1861, was found, in 1863, to contain an alkaloid, 
 Physostigmine, having the composition C 30 H 21 N 3 O 4 , 
 directly antagonistic to atropine, and is now much 
 
 * Heckeland Schlagdenhauffen, 'Der Fortschritt' (Geneva), 
 1887, Nos. 2, 3, 4 ; Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 77 ; Christy, ' New 
 Commercial Plants/ No. 10, p. 107. 
 
 f Bentley and Trimen, p. 102 ; ' Nouv. Remedes,' 1886, p. 418. 
 
MATERIA MED 1C A. 89 
 
 used in ophthalmic and nervous diseases. The longer 
 beans of P. cylindrospermum, Holmes, have been 
 recently imported and found to be more valuable.* 
 
 Pterocarpus Marsupium, Roxb., was shown by 
 Roylef to be the main source of KINO, which astrin- 
 gent was originally obtained from the African P. 
 erinaceus, Poir. It is also obtained from Butea fron- 
 dosa, Roxb., the ' DHAK,' or ' PALAS KINO,' and in 
 Australia from Eucalyptus rostrata, Schlecht., E. 
 corymbosa, Sm., E. citriodora, Hook., and other 
 species. 
 
 Piscidia Erythrina, L., the WHITE DOGWOOD of 
 Jamaica, is stated to possess hypnotic and anodyne 
 properties in the bark of the root,J and the bark of 
 the valuable timber tree Andira inermis, Kunth., of 
 the West Indies, is said to be a drastic purga- 
 tive. 
 
 Andira Araroba, Aguiar, * ARAROBA/ or ' GOA 
 POWDER,' has, since 1864, attracted considerable 
 attention, and the pith is now, under the name 
 'CHRYSAROBIN,' admitted to the Pharmacopceia. 
 
 Myroxylon Toluifera, H.B.K., is a native of Vene- 
 zuela and New Granada, from the stems of which 
 BALSAM OF TOLU is obtained. It was first fully 
 described by Mr. John Weir, plant-collector to the 
 
 * Spon's * Encyclop. Indust. Arts,' p. 795 ; 'Pharmaco^raphia,' 
 p. 167, and references there given ; Smith, 'Domestic Botany,' 
 p. 431. Bentley andTrimen, ii, pi. 80. 
 
 f ' Pharm. Journ.,' v (1846), p. 495; ' Pharmacographia,' 
 p. 170 ; Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 81. 
 
 J Dr. Halsey, 'Therapeutic Gazette,' August, 1886. 
 
 ' Pharm. Journ.,' v (1864), p. 345 ; E. M. Holmes, ibid., v 
 (1875), pp. 723, 729, 801, 816; ibid., ix (1878-9), pp., 29, 755 ; 
 ibid^ x (1879-80), pp. 42, 814, (Thos. Greenish) ; and pamphlet 
 by Dr. Balmanno Squire. 
 
90 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Royal Horticultural Society, in 1863.* It is used in 
 cough-lozenges. 
 
 Myrospermum Pereirce^ Royle, a tree of Central 
 America, is the source of BALSAM OF PERU, now but 
 little used. In 1861 the tree was successfully intro- 
 duced into Ceylon. f 
 
 Ccesalpinia Bonducella, Roxb., and C.Bonduc., Roxb., 
 produce the seeds known as ' NlCKER NUTS,' used in 
 India, and recommended here, as a tonic. 
 
 Hcematoxylon Campechianum, L., LOGWOOD, a 
 Central American tree, now naturalized in Jamaica, 
 and largely imported as a dye, has been used in diar- 
 rhoea. 
 
 Cassia acutifolia, Delile, and C. angustifolia, Vahl, 
 shrubs native of North Tropical Africa, from Timbuktu 
 to Nubia, and of Somali-land, Arabia, and the Panjab 
 respectively, are the main sources of SENNA. The 
 leaves of the former are known as Alexandrian or 
 Nubian ; those of the latter as Bombay or Tinnevelly 
 Senna. In addition to oxalic, tartaric, and malic 
 acids, Senna contains a substance described as Cathar- 
 tic acid, on which its valuable purgative properties 
 may depend. J C. marilandica, L., is the source of 
 AMERICAN SENNA. The saccharine pulpy lining of 
 the transverse septa in the pods of the Indian tree, 
 
 * ' Journ. Royal Hort. Soc.,' May, 1864 ; 'Pharm. Journ.,' vi 
 (1865), p. 60; Bentlev and Trimen, ii, pi. 84. 
 
 -f D. Hanbury, ' Pharm. Journ.,' v (1864), pp. 241,315 ; J. 
 Attfield, ibid.) pp. 204-6, and H. Baillon, ibid.) iv (1873), p. 382 ; 
 Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 83. 
 
 J ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 189-194 ; Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 
 90,91. 
 
 4 Pharm. Journ.,' v (1846), p. 345 ; ' Kew Museum Guide/ 
 p. 49 ; Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 88. 
 
MATERIA MEDICA. 91 
 
 C. Fistula, L., now largely grown in the West Indies, 
 is the mild laxative PURGING CASSIA.* 
 
 Cassia occidentalis, L., ' Cafe Nigre/ or NEGRO- 
 COFFEE, already mentioned (p. 72, supra], is said to 
 be a febrifuge. f 
 
 Tamar Indus indica, L., the TAMARIND, a large tree, 
 native of the tropical regions of the Old World, but 
 cultivated largely in the West Indies, has a pulpy 
 interior to its pods, which is mildly laxative. The 
 Brown or Red Tamarinds of the West Indies come 
 over preserved in syrup ; the Black Tamarinds of the 
 East Indies, without sugar or syrup.J 
 
 Copaifera Lansdorffi, Desf., of Brazil, C. officinalis, 
 L., of Central America, C. Martii, Hayne, of Guiana, 
 and C. guianensis, Desf., are the sources of the oleo- 
 resin known as BALSAM OF COPAIBA. 
 
 Hardwickia pinnata, Roxb., a nearly allied large 
 tree of Southern India, yields an oleo-resin used for 
 Copaiba. || 
 
 Erythrophlceuni guineense, Don, is the 'Sassy Bark/ 
 ' Mancona/ or ' Casca/ recently recommended in dis- 
 eases of the heart and lungs. The tree is a native of 
 Sierra Leone, and the bark is used in native ordeals.H 
 
 The gums derived from the genus Acacia, and the 
 astringent Cutch extracted from its duramen, are 
 mentioned in the sequel. 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 195-7; ' Kew Museum Guide,' 
 p. 49 ; Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 87. 
 
 t Christy, ' New Commercial Plants, 7 No. 8, p. 40. 
 
 t 'Pharmacographia,' pp. 197-200; Bentley and Trimen, ii, 
 pi. 92. 
 
 Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 93 ; ' Kew Museum Guide/ p. 52. 
 * Pharmacographia,' p. 205. 
 
 If LauderBrunton/ Lancet,' December 2, 1876; June 26, 1880. 
 
92 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 ROSACES. 
 
 The use of the oils extracted from Sweet and Bitter 
 Almonds (Amygdalus communis, L., vars. dulcis and 
 amara, DC.) has been already mentioned (p. 59, supra). 
 Under the influence of the organic ferment ' emulsin,' 
 or 'synaptase,' a form of vegetable casein, the crys- 
 talline substance, 'amygdalin,' present in Bitter 
 Almonds, decomposes into prussic acid, oil of bitter 
 almonds, and a glucose, as shown by Liebig and 
 Wohler in 1837 : * 
 
 CaoH^Npn + 2HO = HCN + C r HO + C 19 HO 19 
 Amygdalia Water Prussic Oil of Dextro- 
 
 Acid Bitter Almonds glucose. 
 
 Primus serotina, Ehrhart, the American WILD 
 BLACK CHERRY, the bark of which is there esteemed 
 for its tonic and sedative properties, was introduced to 
 notice by Professor Bentley, in 1863.1 
 
 P. Lauro-cerasus, L., the CHERRY-LAUREL, was 
 admitted into our Pharmacopoeia in 1839, for the 
 manufacture of cherry-laurel water, now superseded 
 by prussic acid. 
 
 Hagenia abyssinica, Willd., ' Koso/ the flowers of 
 which contain an acrid bitter resin, known as Kosin, 
 has been used as a vermifuge. It was introduced here 
 in 18504 and admitted to the Pharmacopoeia in 
 1864. 
 
 Reference will be made in the sequel to the OTTO 
 or ATTAR OF ROSES, prepared from the petals of 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 220-1 ; Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 99. 
 f ( Pharm. Journ.,' v (1864), p. 97 ; Bentley and Trimen, ii,pl. 
 
 97- 
 
 J Pereira, 'Pharm. Journ.,' x (1851), p. 15; Bentley and 
 Trimen, ' Medicinal Plants,' ii, pi. 102 ; * Pharmacographia,' pp. 
 228-30. 
 
MATERIA MED 1C A. 93 
 
 Rosa-gallica, L., R. centifolia, L., and R. damascena, 
 Mill., chiefly in Roumelia. Rose-petals are largely 
 distilled for rose-water, for which purpose roses are 
 grown at Mitcham and elsewhere, in Holland, and 
 round Paris, and an infusion is commonly used as a 
 vehicle for other medicines. 
 
 Cydonia vulgaris, Pers., the QUINCE, has a muci- 
 laginous testa to its pips, which is said to be useful in 
 dysentery, and as a demulcent in skin and eye 
 complaints. 
 
 HAMAMELIDEyE. 
 
 Hamamelis virginiana, L., is said to be the source 
 
 of the popular POND'S EXTRACT OF WYCH-HAZEL. 
 
 Liquidambar orientalis, Miller, a native of the South- 
 west of Asia Minor, was shown, in 1841, to be the 
 botanical origin of LIQUID STORAX, a soft viscid 
 resin, now used mainly in perfumery.* 
 
 MYRTACE^E. 
 
 Eucalyptus globulus, Labil, and other species, are 
 supposed to possess febrifugal properties in their 
 leaves, which have been recommended as cigars in 
 asthma. They yield an antiseptic oil, somewhat 
 similar to Cajeput.f 
 
 Syzygiumjambolanum^ DC., a large East India tree, 
 has seeds which are recommended in diabetes.J 
 
 * D. Hanbury, 'Pharm. Journ.,'xvi (1857), pp. 4 17, 461 ; and 
 iv (1863), p. 436 ; Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 107. 
 
 f Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 109. C. R. Wattel, ' Pharm. 
 Journ.,' Hi (1872), pp. 22, 43 ; iv (1873), P- 494 5 vi (1876), p. 912 ; 
 and vii (1876), p. 90. 
 
 % Christy, ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 10, p. 63. 
 
94 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Melalettca Leucadendron, L., var. minor, Smith, a 
 native tree of the Indian Archipelago, is the plant 
 from the leaves of which the rubefacient and stimulant 
 CAJEPUT-OIL is obtained by distillation. It is pre- 
 pared mainly in Celebes, Bouro, and Amboyna, and 
 consumed chiefly in India.* 
 
 CLOVES and MOTHER CLOVES, only important as 
 spices, have been already mentioned (p. 66, supra). 
 CLOVE-STALKS, another product of Eugenia caryo- 
 pkyllata, Thunb., are used to adulterate ground cloves. 
 The essential oil is used in pills and for toothache. f 
 
 PIMENTO (Pimenta officinalis, Lindl.) yields a dis- 
 tilled water, frequently prescribed.^ (See also p. 66, 
 supra). 
 
 The cork both of the stem and of the root of the 
 POMEGRANATE (Punica Granatum, L.) is officinal in 
 India. 
 
 CUCURBITACE^:. 
 
 Ecballium Elaterium, A. Richard (Momordica, L.), 
 the SQUIRTING CUCUMBER, a native of Southern 
 Europe, cultivated on a small scale at Mitcham and 
 Hitchin, yields the powerful cathartic ELATERIUM, 
 the juice round its seeds containing the crystallizable 
 principle Elaterin, C 20 H 28 O 5 .|| 
 
 Citrullus Colocynthis, Schrader (Cucumis, L.), COLO- 
 CYNTH, a plant more widely distributed though the 
 drier regions of the Old World, contains Colocynthin, 
 C 56 H 84 O 23 , and is similarly employed.lf 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 108. f Ibid.) ii, pi. 112. 
 | Ibid.) ii, pi. Hi. Ibid., ii, pi. 113. 
 
 II Ibid., ii, pi. 115. IF Ibid.) ii, pi. 114. 
 
MATERIA MED 1C A. 95 
 
 TURNERACE^. 
 
 Turnera d ffusa, Willd., and its variety, aphro- 
 disiaca, DAM I AN A, is recommended as a tonic for 
 dyspepsia. It contains gum, tannin, resins, and a 
 volatile oil.* 
 
 PAPAYACE/E. 
 
 Carica Papaya, L., the Papaw, a fruit believed to 
 be of American origin, has most interesting properties, 
 which, since about 1878, have been utilized in medi- 
 cine. It contains an essential principle, ( Papaine/ 
 analogous to the animal ferment trypsine, which gives 
 it a rapid solvent action, that has suggested its suc- 
 cessful use in dyspepsia, diphtheria, etc.f 
 
 UMBELLIFER^:. 
 
 Hydrocotyle asiatica, L. In the Pharmacopoeia of 
 India, and admitted to have some alterative tonic 
 properties ; is suggested for use in scrofula. J 
 
 CEnanthe crocata, L., is said to be a specific in 
 epilepsy. 
 
 Conium tnaculatum, L., the HEMLOCK, a British 
 plant, contains in its leaves, and more especially in its 
 fruits, the alkaloid Conia, C 8 H 15 N, a poison which is 
 employed as a sedative arid antispasmodic with other 
 allied substances. The fruits were only introduced 
 into our Pharmacopoeia in 1864.!! 
 
 * ' Pharm. Journ.,' vi (1875-6), pp. 24, 423, 581. 
 
 t Ibid., ix (1878), p. 449 ; S. P. Oliver, ibid., x (1879), P- 68. 
 A. Wurtz and Bouchut, ibid., p. 283 ; T.Peckolt, ibid., pp. 343.383. 
 
 % Christy, ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 10, p. 97 ; Bentley 
 and Trimen, ii, pi. 117. 
 
 Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 124 ; Christy, op. tit., p. 41. 
 
 j| Bentley and Trimen, ii, 118. 
 
96 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 CARAWAYS, the half-fruits of Carum Carui, L., are 
 mainly employed as a spice (see p. 66, supra) ; but 
 the essential oil or distilled water is used in perfumery 
 and as a stimulant in medicine. 
 
 Carum copticum, Benth., the AjOWAN of India 
 ( = C. Ajowan, Benth. and Hook. fil. = PtycJiotis Ajowan, 
 DC.) is now a chief source of the stimulant and car- 
 minative stcaroptene THYMOL, C 10 H 13 HO, also ob- 
 tained from Thymus vulgaris, L., and Monarda 
 punctata, L. The fruits are mainly exported from 
 Calcutta to Leipzig. Thymol was admitted into our 
 Pharmacopoeia in 1885.* 
 
 The fruits of FENNEL (Fceniculum capillaceum, 
 Gilib.), which contain the stearoptene Anise-camphor 
 or Anethol, C 10 H 12 O, are distilled, but chiefly for 
 cattle medicines and cordials (see p. 64, supra). There 
 are several varieties in commerce.f The fruits of 
 ANISE (Pimpinella Anisum, L.) have a similar com- 
 position (see p. 65, supra) and are similarly employed. 
 
 Ferula Sumbul, Hook, fil., discovered in 1869 in the 
 mountains south-east of Samarkand, is the source of 
 SUMBUL, which was introduced into Russia about 
 1835 as a substitute for musk, was then used in cases 
 of cholera, reached England about 1850, and was 
 admitted into our Pharmacopoeia as an antispasmodic 
 in 18674 
 
 Similarly Ferula NartJiex, Boiss., F. Scorodosma, 
 Benth., and allied species, producing the reputedly 
 stimulant ASAFCETIDA, have only become well known 
 
 * Spon, ' Encyclop. Indust. Arts,' p. 791 ; Bentley and 
 Trimen, ' Medicinal Plants,' ii, pi. 120, 205, 208. 
 
 t 'Pharrnacographia,' pp. 274-5; Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 123. 
 \ Bentley and Trimen, ii, 129; 'Pharrnacographia,' p. 278. 
 
MATERIA MED 1C A. 97 
 
 from the collections of Buhse, Bunge, Bellew, Aitchison, 
 and other recent travellers in Persia and Afghanistan, 
 whilst GUM SAGAPENUM is not yet certainly ascer- 
 tained, but is believed to be from F. persica, Willd., or 
 F. Szowitsiana, DC.* 
 
 GUM GALBANUM, an antispasmodic and stimulant 
 expectorant, reaching Russia via Astrachan and 
 Orenburg, but also obtained from Bombay and the 
 Levant, is apparently the product of the Persian 
 F.galbaniflua, Boissier and Buhse,f and F. rubricaulis, 
 Boiss., and of F. Scha'ir, Borszc, of Turkestan. 
 
 GUM AMMONIACUM, a similar substance, shipped 
 from the Persian Gulf via Bombay, is the product of 
 Dorema Ammoniacum, Don,J D. Aucheri, Boiss., and, 
 in Africa, of Ferula tingitana, L.|| 
 
 OPOPANAX, a gum-resin largely used in perfumery, 
 is attributed to Opopanax Chironium, Koch, a native 
 of the Mediterranean area. 
 
 The distilled water of the fruits of DILL (Anttkum 
 graveolens, L.) and CORIANDER (Coriandrum sativum, 
 L.),^[ already referred to (pp. 65 and 66, supra), are 
 carminative, and those of CUMIN (Cuminum Cyminum, 
 L.)** are used to a considerable extent in veterinary 
 practice. 
 
 RUBIACE^E. 
 
 Uncaria Gambier, Roxburgh, the astringent extract 
 
 * Kew Museum Guide,' p. 77. E. M. Holmes, ' Pharm. 
 Journ.,' 1888. 
 
 f Bentley and Trimen, ii., pi. 128. J Ibid., pi. 131. 
 
 Ibid., pi. 130. || 'Kew Museum Guide,' p. 75. 
 
 Bentley and Trimen, ii., pi. 134. ** Ibid., pi. 134. 
 
 7 
 
98 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 from the shoots of which is known as ' GAMBIER,' is 
 mainly important in dyeing and tanning.* 
 
 Sarcocephalus esculentus, Afzelius, ' DOUNDAKE,' 
 or (?) AFRICAN PEACH-ROOT, though often mixed 
 with bark of species of Morinda and Cochlospermum, 
 yields extracts more powerfully febrifuge and sedative 
 than Berberine, and giving an old-gold colour. It is 
 recommended as a tonic and antiperiodic, and pos- 
 sibly as a quinine substitute. -j- 
 
 ClNCHONA. Nothing in the modern history of 
 Materia Medica equals in importance the identification 
 of the various species of Cinchona that yield QUININE 
 and other valuable alkaloids, and the introduction of 
 these plants into other countries. There is no record 
 of this invaluable drug before the year 1630. In 1638 
 the Countess Ana of Chinchon, wife of the viceroy of 
 Peru, was cured of a fever by it, and it became known 
 in Spain as ' Polvo de la Condesa/ the Countess' 
 Powder. Jesuits introduced it to Brussels about 1650 
 as Palo de Calenturas, Lignum febrium, China febris, 
 or Pulvis febrifugus, and a few years later it became 
 known in England as Jesuits' Powder, being admitted 
 into the Pharmacopoeia in 1677 as Cortex Peruanus, 
 Peruvian Bark. The reckless destruction of the trees 
 for the sake of the bark having resulted in its exter- 
 mination in many of its native habitats, directed 
 attention to its cultivation in other countries. In 
 1872, 28,450 cwt. of Peruvian bark was imported. 
 Hugh Algernon Weddell, in 1848, brought home 
 
 Bentley and Trimen, ii., pi. 139. 
 
 f Christy, * New 'Commercial Plants,' No. 8, p. 45, and No. 
 9, p. 7, with 2 plates ; ' Pharm. Journ.,' xvi, 1885, p. 49. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 99 
 
 seeds, and in 1852 the Dutch began cultivation in 
 Java. Royle recommended planting in the Nilghiris r 
 in 1839, and again in 1858, when he pointed out that 
 the East India Company were spending 7,000 a year 
 for bark and ^"25,000 for quinine. Mr. Clements 
 Markham went to Peru and secured the assistance 
 of the botanist Richard Spruce, of John Weir, and 
 of Robert Cross in 1860. From that year plants have 
 been raised at Kew, and from the year following at 
 Ootacamund, then under the charge of W. G. Mclvor. 
 They have since been largely planted at Darjeeling, 
 in the Kangra Valley, in Ceylon, Burma, Mauritius, 
 Jamaica, and Trinidad. Indian Cinchona bark first 
 came into the English market in 1867. Ceylon now 
 exports a very large amount. This dispersal of these 
 valuable plants,, though largely carried out by means 
 of seeds, was much facilitated by Mr. N. B. Ward's in- 
 vention of the cases which are always known by his 
 name. 
 
 Though there are numerous other species, varieties 
 and hybrids, those chiefly grown are the original 
 C. officinalis, L., yielding PALE CINCHONA, CROWN 
 or LOXA BARK ; C. Calisaya, Weddell, discovered by 
 that botanist in 1847, and its variety, Ledgeriana, 
 Moens, yielding YELLOW CINCHONA, or CALISAYA 
 BARK, and C. suairubra, Pavon, yielding RED CIN- 
 CHONA BARK. This last is largely cultivated as a 
 source of cinchonidine, and from it the cheap febrifuge 
 made in India is prepared.* All of these are trees 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 302-31, where a bibliography is 
 given ; ' Fliickiger, F. A., and Power, F. B., ' The Cinchona 
 Barks,' 1884. Bentley and Trimen, ii., pi. 140-143. 
 
 72 
 
ioo THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 from 20 to 40 feet high, growing wild on the Andes 
 at altitudes of from 2,500 to 7,500 feet 
 
 Remijia Purdieana, Willd., and R. pedunculata, 
 Trian., from Colombia, have of late years been im- 
 ported in enormous quantities as sources of quinine 
 etc.,* under the name of CUPREA BARK. 
 
 IPECACUANHA, the root of a small Brazilian shrub, 
 Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, A. Richard, a useful emetic, 
 and the only known specific for dysentery, was intro- 
 duced into Europe in 1672. We import about 
 65,000 lb., valued at nearly 15,000, annually. The 
 plant has been introduced into Northern India from 
 the Edinburgh Botanic Garden since i866.f Mention 
 may here be made of the Violaceous lonidium 
 Ipecacuanha, Vent., which, with allied species con- 
 stituting the ' Poaya blanca ' of Brazil, has been scld 
 as ' WHITE IPECACUANHA.' 
 
 VALERIANACE^:. 
 
 Vakriana officinalis, L., a British species, the 
 rhizome of which yields a volatile oil, possessing anti- 
 spasmodic properties, is cultivated near Chesterfield, 
 Derbyshire ; in Holland ; and in the north-eastern 
 United States.J 
 
 COMPOSITE. 
 
 Inula Helenium, L., ELECAMPANE, a rare British 
 perennial, has an aromatic tonic root, now mainly 
 used in Absinthe (see p. 63, supra), and in veterinary 
 medicine. It gives its name to Inulin, the soluble, 
 
 * Christy, * New Commercial Plants/ No. 8, p. 41 ; and 
 'Pharm. Journ.,' 1884. 
 
 f 'Pharmacographia/ pp. 331-7. BentleyandTrimen,ii.,pl. 145. 
 % Jbid., pi. 146. 
 
MATERIA MEDICA. 101 
 
 crystallizable isomer of starch, characteristic of the 
 Compositae."* 
 
 Anacyclus Pyrethrum, DC., PELLITORY, a native 
 of Algeria, which is perennial, and A. officinarum, 
 Hayne, GERMAN PELLITORY, an annual, cultivated 
 in Germany, have roots which are employed as a 
 rubefacient and as a gargle.f 
 
 AntJiemis nobilis, L., CHAMOMILE, a perennial 
 British plant, is cultivated at Mitcham, the inflores- 
 cence of the cultivated form having nearly all its 
 florets white ' ray ' flowers, i.e., being * double.' The 
 inflorescence is infused as a bitter stomachic and 
 tonic tea, or the whole plant is distilled for a car- 
 minative oil.J 
 
 Artemisia pauciflora, Weber, SANTONICA, a native 
 of the Kirghiz steppes, yields the valuable anthel- 
 mintic known as WORMSEED, which consists of the 
 unopened flower-heads or capitula, and contains a 
 crystalline body known as Santonin, C 15 H 18 O 3 , dis- 
 covered in i83O. The wood of other species of this 
 genus was formerly used for the same purpose, whence 
 the name WORMWOOD, and in fever before the intro- 
 duction of Cinchona. The common British MUGWORT 
 (A. vulgaris, L.) is a rustic remedy for rheumatism. 
 
 Arnica montana, L., a native of Central Europe, 
 yields a tincture used externally for bruises, sprains, 
 etc. || 
 
 Taraxacum officinale, Wiggers, the DANDELION, 
 a widely distributed weed, yields a milky latex, 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 150. f Ibid., pi. 151, 152. 
 % Ibid., pi. 154. Ibid., pi. 157. || Ibid., pi. 158. 
 
102 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 chiefly from the root, which is a mild laxative and 
 tonic, and has been in use for centuries. 
 
 Mikania Guaco, H. B., GUACO, a cure for snake- 
 bite, popular in South America and the West Indies, 
 has been recommended as a febrifuge and anthel- 
 mintic.* 
 
 Siegesbeckia orientalis, L., ' Herbe de Flacq,' 
 1 GueVit vite/ is suggested for use as an alterative, 
 etc. It is used in Mauritius, and contains a principle 
 known as Darutyne.f 
 
 Parthenium Hysterophorus, L., of the West Indies, 
 yields Parthenine, a suggested quinine substitute.^: 
 
 Lactuca altissima, Bieb., possibly only a variety of 
 L. Scariola, L., a native of the Caucasus, now culti- 
 vated in Auvergne, the species just named, L.virosa, L., 
 and L. sativa, L., the Garden Lettuce, are the sources 
 of LACTUCARIUM, a sedative produced by the Fair- 
 grieve family near Edinburgh from about 1844, near 
 Clermont-Ferrand, Auvergne, from 1841, and near 
 Zell, in Rhenish Prussia, from 
 
 LOBELIACE^E. 
 
 Lobelia inflata, L., INDIAN TOBACCO, a North- 
 American species, in small doses is an expectorant, 
 useful in spasmodic asthma; in larger doses a powerful 
 emetic, or even an aero-narcotic poison. || 
 
 * P. L. Simmonds, ' Pharm. Journ.,' x (1851), p. 534; xiii 
 (1854), p. 412 ; J. G. Baker, ibid., xi (1880), pp. 471, 369. 
 
 f Christy, ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 9, p. 49, and No. 
 10, p. 85. 
 
 | Ibid., No. 10, p. 99. 
 
 * Pharmacographia/ p. 345 ; 'Pharm. Journ.,' viii (1877), 
 p. 202. Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 160, 161. 
 
 || Ibid., pi. 162. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 103 
 
 ERICACEyE. 
 
 Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Sprengel, the BEARBERRY, 
 a northern mountain evergreen, has astringent leaves, 
 useful as a tonic in affections of the bladder.* 
 
 EBENACE^:. 
 
 Diospyros Embryopteris, Pers., the GAUB of India, 
 has an astringent pulp in the unripe fruit, used in 
 India in dysentery, f 
 
 STYRACE^E. 
 
 Styrax Benzoin, Dryander, is believed to be the 
 source of GUM BENZOIN or GUM BENJAMIN, of 
 Sumatra and Siam, which is used in bronchitis, etc., 
 and forms a principal ingredient in ' FRIAR'S 
 BALSAM/ though it is mainly consumed as incense in 
 the Greek Church. { 
 
 OLEACE^:. 
 
 Fraxinus Ornus, L., the FLOWERING or MANNA 
 ASH of Sicily and Southern Italy, is the chief source 
 of the mild laxative, MANNA, which consists mainly 
 of a sugar known as Mannite, C 6 H U O 6 . 
 
 OLIVE-OIL, the produce of Olea europcea, L., though 
 employed in medicine, will be more fully alluded to 
 in the sequel. 
 
 APOCYNACE^:. 
 
 Carissa xilopicron^\i&\\3xs> in an alcoholic extract of 
 the root, || Geissospermum Vellosii,A.\\em, which contains 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 163. f Ibid., pi. 168. 
 
 % 'Kew Museum Guide,' p. 94. Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 169, 
 
 Ibid., pi. 170. , 
 
 [| Christy, ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 10, p. 103. 
 
104 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Pereirine, Alstonia scholaris, R. Br., ' DlTA BARK,' the 
 bark of a tree well known in the tropics of the Old 
 World,* A.constritta,.v<m Muell., its Australian con- 
 gener, now much used in the United States as 'QUEENS- 
 LAND FEVER-BARK/f *x&Aspidosperma Quebrac/w,the 
 ' WHITE QUEBRACHO BARK ' of Chili, which contains 
 Aspidospermine, are all members of this order, which 
 have been recommended as tonic antiperiodic febri- 
 fuges instead of quinine. 
 
 Strophanthus hispidus, DC., or 6*. Kombe, Oliver, 
 the ' WANIKA ARROW POISON ' of East Africa, is 
 statedj to be almost a specific in fatty degeneration 
 and other cardiac affections, the root being the part 
 employed. 
 
 Holarrhena antidysenterica, Wall., is the ' MANOIS 
 REMEDY ' for chronic dysentery in Mauritius. It 
 yields a principle known as Conessine. 
 
 Gelsemium nttidum, Michaux, c CAROLINA JESSA- 
 MINE-ROOT/ has been admitted to the Pharmacopoeia 
 (1885), its rhizome being used in neuralgia, rheuma- 
 tism, and fever, though over-doses seem dangerous. || 
 
 ASCLEPIADE^:. 
 
 Hemidesmus indicus, R. Br., INDIAN SARSAPA- 
 RILLA, a twining shrub, is used mainly in Southern 
 India.f 
 
 * ' Pharm. Journ.,' xii (1853), p. 422; vi (1875), P- *4 2 \ 
 ' Pharmacographia/ p. 378. Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 173. 
 
 f 'Chemical News,' November icjth, 1878. 
 
 Christy, ' New Commercial Plants/ Nos. 9 and 10, p. 7, 
 with engravings of several species. 
 
 Ibid., No. 10, p. 40, and ' Pharm. Journ.,' xvii (1886), p. 83. 
 
 || Pharm. Journ./ iv (1874), p. 998 ; vi (1875-6), pp. 481, 521, 
 561,601 ; Bentley and Trimen, iii, p. 181. 
 
 Tf 'Kew Museum Guide/ p. 97. Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 174. ' 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 105 
 
 Calotropis gigantea, R. Br., and C. procera, R. Br., 
 the MUDAR, Indian fibre-yielding shrubs, of which the 
 latter is naturalized in North-east Africa and the 
 West Indies, have an alterative tonic bark to their 
 roots.* 
 
 Tyloplwra asthmatica, Wight and Arnott, COUNTRY 
 IPECACUANHA, common in India and naturalized in 
 Mauritius, is used as a substitute for Ipecacuanha.^* 
 
 LOGANIACE^:. 
 
 Spigelia anthelmintica, the DEMERARA PlNK-ROOT, 
 is recommended as a vermifuge, a use to which its 
 congener, 5. marilandica, L., has been put for a 
 century.! 
 
 Strychnos toxifera, Schomb., together with 5. cogens, 
 Benth., 5. Schomburgliii, Klot., and other species in 
 other districts, are the sources of the celebrated Wou- 
 rali, or Curare poison of Guiana, which has been tried 
 for rabies, and which, from its anaesthetic action, has 
 proved of such value in physiological research. 
 
 Strychnos Nux-vomica, L., indigenous to India, and 
 vS. Ignatii, Bergius, ST. IGNATIUS' BEAN, a native of 
 the Philippines, contain in their seeds the bitter, 
 highly poisonous, but tonic alkaloids STRYCHNINE, 
 C 21 H 22 N 2 O 2 , and BRUCINE, C 23 H 26 N 2 O 4 .|| 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 176. 'Catalogue of Indian 
 Exhibits : Colonial and Indian Exhibition/ p. 103. 
 t Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 177. 
 % Ibid., pi. 180. G. R. Bonyan, Pharm, Jtmrn.,' v (1846), 
 
 PP- 354-5- 
 
 T. Redwood in ' Pharm. Journ.,' iii (1843), p. 74 ; J. Moss, 
 ibid., viii (1877), P- 421 ; and Gustave Planchon, ibid., xi 
 (1880- 1), pp. 469, 49i, 754- 
 
 || Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 178, 179. 
 
io6 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 GENTIANE^:. 
 
 Gentiana lutea, L., yields the bitter tonic GENTIAN- 
 ROOT, which has long been much used in medicine. 
 It is collected in the mountains of Switzerland, and 
 other parts of Central and Southern Europe.* 
 
 Ophelia Chirata, Griseb., ' CHIRETTA ' of India, a 
 valuable bitter tonic, was admitted to the Edinburgh 
 Pharmacopoeia in 1839. When cheap it is substituted 
 for gentian in cattle foods.f 
 
 CORDIACE/E. 
 
 Cordia Boissieri, DC., ANACAHUITE-WOOD, was im- 
 ported about 1860, from Tampico, in Mexico, as a 
 remedy for consumption.! 
 
 CONVOLVULACEyE. 
 
 Convolvulus Scammonia, L., SCAMMONY, a native of 
 the Levant, has a milky juice in its long tap-root, 
 which yields a gum-resin called JALAPIN, C 31 H 50 O lfl , 
 and has accordingly long been valued as a purgative. 
 The same substance probably occurs in the KALA- 
 DANA RESIN, obtained from the seed of Pharbitis 
 Nil, Choisy, which is officinal in India, as it certainly 
 does in the roots of Ipomcea. 
 
 The true JALAP is the tuber of Ipomcea Purga, 
 Hayne, a native of the Mexican Andes, growing at 
 altitudes of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet, near Xalapa, from 
 which place it takes its name, and imported from 
 Vera Cruz to the extent of over eighty tons annually. 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 182. 
 
 f Ibid., pi. 183. R. Bentley, ' Pharm. Journ.,' v (1874), P- 
 481 ; * Pharmacographia, 3 p. 392. 
 
 \ 'Pharm. Journ.,' ii (1861), p. 407; iii (1861), p. 164; iv 
 (1862), p. 271. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 107 
 
 Ipomcea simulans, Hanbury, TAMPICO JALAP, is 
 often, /. orizabensis, Ledanois, ORIZABA-ROOT, more 
 rarely, imported in lieu of the true Jalap.* 
 
 SOLANACE^E. 
 
 Solanum paniculatum, L., JURUBEBA, of Brazil, is 
 suggested as a tonic and diuretic, in syphilis, etc.f 
 
 Solanum Dulcamara, L., the BITTERSWEET, or 
 WOODY NIGHTSHADE of our hedge-rows, though used 
 in the form of a decoction of the leaves and stalks, 
 which have a taste at first bitter and then sweet, has 
 no certain value.J 
 
 CAPSICUMS, the fruits of Capsicum fastigiatum, 
 Blume, and C. annum, L., already alluded to (p. 64, 
 supra), are of use as digestives, and in gargles. 
 
 A tropa Belladonna, L., the DEADLY NIGHTSHADE, 
 not uncommon on our limestone hills, is a powerful 
 narcotic poison. Its leaves, and especially its roots, 
 contain the alkaloid Atropine, C 17 H 23 NO 3 . This pro- 
 duces contraction of the iris, i.e., dilation of the pupil 
 of the eye, whence its use in ophthalmic medicine, and 
 by the ladies of Venice in the sixteenth century, 
 from which it derived the name ' Bella donna.' || 
 
 Datura Stramonium, L., the THORN-APPLE, ap- 
 parently a native of the Caspian region,^!" D. Tatula, 
 L., of America, D. fastuosa, L., and D. alba, Nees, 
 both Indian plants, contain in their leaves and seeds 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 401-2. Bentley and Trimen, iii., 
 pi. 185-187. 
 
 t Christy, 'New Commercial Plants,' No. 10, p. 101. 
 
 t Bentley and Trimen. Iii., pi. 190. Ibid., pi. 188, 189. 
 
 || Ibid., pi. 193. \ Ibid., pi. 192. ' Pharmacographia/ pp. 
 412-16. 
 
io8 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 the narcotic poison Daturine, an isomer of Atropine, 
 valuable as a sedative, and therefore the leaves are 
 employed as cigars in asthma.* 
 
 Hyoscyamus niger, L., HENBANE, a British plant, 
 cultivated on a small scale for medicinal purposes, is 
 sedative, anodyne, or hypnotic, and is used instead 
 of opium. It contains an alkaloid, Hyoscyamine, 
 C 15 H 23 NO 3 , which acts on the iris like Atropine.^ 
 
 TOBACCO, the dried leaves of Nicotiana Tabacum, 
 L., and N. rustica^ L., natives of America, is but little 
 used medicinally, though its active principle, the vola- 
 tile oily alkaloid Nicotine, C 10 H 14 N 2 , is a powerful 
 narcotic poison. It is produced in the drying leaf by 
 a fermentative process, but is mainly destroyed when 
 the tobacco is burnt. The enormous growth of the 
 use of this substance in Great Britain, as in the rest of 
 the Old World, since its introduction in the sixteenth 
 century, may be gauged from the facts that over 
 .9,000,000 was paid on it as Customs duty in the 
 year 1886-7, tne tariff on unmanufactured tobacco 
 being 33. 6d. per lb., and that about 51,000,000 lb., 
 or if lb. per head of the population, was retained for 
 home consumption during the same year. By far the 
 greater part of this supply comes from the United 
 States. SNUFF is prepared from the stalks and veins 
 of the leaves. Tobacco has recently been experi- 
 mentally cultivated in this country, without much 
 success.J 
 
 * De Candolle, ' Geographic Botanique,' ii (1855), p. 731. 
 
 f Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 194. 
 
 j Lock, C. G. W., ' Tobacco : Growing, Curing, and Manu- 
 facturing ; a Handbook for Planters in all Parts of the World/ 
 8vo., 1886. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 109 
 
 Duboisia Hopwoodi, F. von Muell. ( = D. myoporoides, 
 R. Br.), the broken leaves and twigs of which form 
 PlTURl, which is chewed by the Australian natives 
 as a stimulating tonic, or intoxicant. It contains 
 Hyoscyamine and Duboisine ; and, on its introduc- 
 tion to medicine by Dr. Bancroft, about 1873, proved 
 to be a powerful mydriastic, one part in 32,000 suf- 
 ficing to dilate the pupil.* 
 
 Fabiana imbricata, Ruiz and Pavon, of Chili and the 
 Argentine, contains FABIANINE, and has proved ser- 
 viceable in cystitis. f 
 
 SCROPHULARIACE^E. 
 
 Digitalis purpurea, L., the FOXGLOVE, a favourite 
 British flowering plant, was mainly introduced into 
 medicine by Withering. J It is a powerful poison, 
 reducing the action of the heart ; but its dried leaves 
 are used as a sedative and diuretic. 
 
 ACANTHACE.E. 
 
 Andrographis paniculata, Nees, the KARIYAT of 
 India, is used, like Chiretta, Gentian, or Quassia, as a 
 stomachic bitter tonic. 
 
 Hygrophila spinosa, Vel., is recommended as a 
 diuretic.|| 
 
 SESAMES. 
 Sesamum indicum, X)C., indigenous to India, but 
 
 * G. Bennett, ' Pharm. Journ.,' iv (1873), P l8 4 I v 0877), 
 p. 878 ; viii (1878), pp. 705, 720 ; ix (1879), P- 638- 
 
 f Christy, No. 10, p. 108. 
 
 Withering, William, * Account of the Foxglove/ 8vo., Bir- 
 mingham, 1785. Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 195. 
 Ibid., pi. 197. || Christy, No. J.o, p. in. 
 
no THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 now cultivated in Southern Europe, has oily seeds 
 from which is expressed GlNGELY or SESAME-OIL, 
 the chief oil of India, a useful substitute for olive-oil, 
 now largely used in soap-making, especially at Mar- 
 seilles. Further reference will be made to it in 
 Part III. 
 
 LABIATE. 
 
 An order of aromatic herbs containing volatile oils 
 holding in solution hydrocarbons analogous to 
 Camphor, known as stearoptenes. Several of them 
 have long been cultivated at Mitcham, Surrey ; 
 Hitchin, Herts ; and Market Deeping, Lincolnshire. 
 
 Mentha arvensis, DC., v&ts. piper ascens and glabrata, 
 and M. piperita, Sm., are the sources of MENTHOL, or 
 CHINESE OIL OF PEPPERMINT, C 10 H 18 +H 2 O, which 
 first came into commerce about 1872, and proved use- 
 ful in neuralgia. It was admitted to the Pharmacopoeia 
 in 1885.* 
 
 The cultivation of PEPPERMINT (M. Piperita, Hud- 
 son), for its essential oil, has already (p. 67, supra} 
 been mentioned. The common MINT or SPEARMINT 
 (M. viridis, L.) of our kitchen-gardens is similarly 
 cultivated and distilled, and the oil is employed in the 
 United States as a perfume by soap-makers.f 
 
 M. Pulegium, L., PENNYROYAL, another British 
 species, is distilled as a carminative and anti- 
 spasmodic.J 
 
 Lavandula vera, DC., LAVENDER, a native of South- 
 west Europe, extensively cultivated at the above- 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 203. f Ibid., pi. 202 
 % Ibid., pi. 201. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. in 
 
 mentioned English localities, yields, mainly from the 
 flowers, the favourite perfume, Oil of Lavender, that 
 prepared at Mitcham being by far the best. The 
 allied species L. Spica, DC, and L. Stcechas, L., yield 
 the less fragrant OIL OF SPIKE, which is used in 
 china-painting.* 
 
 Thymus vulgaris, L., the GARDEN THYME of our 
 kitchen-gardens, a native of Southern Europe, is dis- 
 tilled in the South of France for the sake of its 
 essential oil, an external stimulant containing the 
 camphor Thymol, C 10 H 14 O.t This substance is now 
 prepared mainly from Ajowan fruits, Ammi Copticum, 
 L. (see p. 96, supra). 
 
 Rosmarinus officinalis, L., ROSEMARY, a native of 
 the Mediterranean area, has long been in cultivation 
 with us. for the sake of its flowers and the volatile oil 
 distilled from them. This is used as a perfume and 
 as an external stimulant, being supposed to promote 
 the growth of the hair. It is largely produced in the 
 island of Lesina, Dalmatia, and exported from 
 Trieste.J 
 
 Orthosiphon stamineus, Benth., of Java, is recom- 
 mended in affections of the kidneys and bladder. 
 
 Marrubium vulgare, L., the HOREHOUND, is now 
 grown in California, to flavour honey for colds. || 
 
 PLANTAGINE^:. 
 
 The mucilaginous seeds of Plantago decumbens, 
 Forsk., ISPAGHUL, or SPOGEL, are used in India as a 
 demulcent drink, especially in dysentery .^[ 
 
 Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 199. f Ibid., pi. 205. 
 
 % Ibid., pi. 207. Christy, No. 10, p. 104. 
 
 II Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 210. \ Ibid,, pi. 211. 
 
ii2 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 POLYGONACE^:. 
 
 Rheum palmatum, L., the real source of the long- 
 used stomachic and purgative RUSSIAN or TURKEY 
 RHUBARB, was first found wild by Colonel Pre- 
 jevalsky, in the extreme North-west of China, in 
 1872-3.* 
 
 R. officinale, Baillon,f found in South-east Thibet by 
 French missionaries, has been grown at Bodicott, near 
 Banbury, since 1873, where also R. Rhaponticum, L., 
 the species used for culinary purposes, is also grown 
 for its roots (see p. 56, supra). Our imports of 
 medicinal Rhubarb amount to about 350,000 Ib. 
 annually.J 
 
 MONIMIACE^E. 
 
 Atherosperma moschata, Lab., of Australasia, the 
 AUSTRALIAN SASSAFRAS bark, is used in asthma and 
 bronchitis as a sedative, and the leaves of Peumus 
 Boldus, Molin., the BOLDO, of Chili, have been 
 recently imported for use in liver complaints, syphilis, 
 
 MYRISTICE^:. 
 
 NUTMEGS, the seeds of Myristica fragrans, Hout- 
 tuyn, which grows chiefly on the Banda Islands, 
 Jilolo, Celebes, and Amboyna, though used chiefly as 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 214. 
 
 t Ibid.) pi. 213. ' Pharm. Journ.,' iii (1872), p. 301, and iv 
 (1874), p. 690. See also vol. viii (1878), p. 588. 
 
 $ * Kew Museum Guide,' p. 107 ; ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 
 442-51. 
 
 Christy, No. 4, p. 46, and No. 10, p. 38. 
 Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 217. 
 
MATERTA MED 1C A. 113 
 
 a condiment (see p. 66, supra], are employed in medi- 
 cine as a stimulant. The seeds are imported via 
 Batavia and Singapore. They are noticeable struc- 
 turally for the * ruminated ' or marbled appearance 
 seen in section, due to the folding of the inner seed- 
 coat into the albumen, and for the ' aril,' or Mace.* 
 
 LAURINE/E. 
 
 Sassafras officinale, Nees, Laurus Sassafras, L., the 
 SASSAFRAS of the United States, is aromatic, 
 especially in the wood, root, and root-bark, and is dis- 
 tilled chiefly in its native country to flavour soap, 
 tobacco, and drinks.-f- It is is said to be sudorific. 
 
 Cinnamomum Camphora, Fr. Nees and Ebermaier, 
 Laurus Camphora, L., the CAMPHOR LAUREL, yields 
 the true CAMPHOR, C 10 H 16 O, a volatile, crystalline 
 sublimate from the wood, prepared in Japan and 
 Formosa, long valued as a perfume and medicine. We 
 import over roo tons of refined, and 600 tons of un- 
 refined, camphor annually. Camphor is a stimulant, 
 and is considerably used in an alcoholic solution. 
 
 C. zeylanicum, Breyne, a variable species, is the 
 main source of CINNAMON ; and other species, such as 
 C. Cassia, Bl., and C. iners, Reinw., of CASSIA 
 LlGNEA, both which are used as stimulants and 
 cordials, but mainly as spices (see p. 67, supra}.\ 
 
 Cinnamomum Cassia, BL, of Southern China, is 
 generally stated to be the source of CASSIA LlGNEA, 
 or CASSIA BARK, which, though used as a cordial and 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 218. 
 
 t Ibid., pi. 220. 'American Journal of Pharmacy,' 1871, 
 p. 470. 
 
 J. Bentley and Trimen, iii, pi. 223, 224. 
 
 8 
 
ri4 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 stimulant in medicine, is more largely consumed as a 
 spice ; but Sir J. D. Hooker, in his ' Himalayan 
 Journals/* describes several other species as the 
 sources of that produced in the Khasya mountains. 
 
 Nectandra Rodiczi, Schomburgk, the well-known 
 GREENHEART, or BEBEERU of British Guiana, con- 
 tains in its bark an alkaloid Bebeerine (now shown to 
 be identical with Buxine, C 18 H 21 NO 3 ), discovered by 
 Hugh Rodie, a naval surgeon, in 1835. It was 
 examined by Dr. Maclagan in 1843, an< ^ nas Deen 
 admitted to the Pharmacopoeia as a febrifuge. It 
 forms the main ingredient of ' WARBURG'S DROPS,' a 
 popular medicine in India.f 
 
 Daphne Mezereum, L., MEZEREON, a rare British 
 species, contains in its acrid bark a glucoside, Daphnin, 
 C 31 H 34 O 19 , and has been prepared as an ethereal 
 extract for a stimulating liniment.j The bark itself 
 is used as a vesicant. 
 
 URTICACE^. 
 
 Canndbis sativa, L., the HEMP, a native of Asia, 
 yields various products of a resinous character, chiefly 
 valued in Oriental medicine. ' GUAZA,' or ' GUNJAH,' 
 occasionally comes into the English drug market, and 
 consists of the dried flowering shoots of the plant. 
 
 BHANG, or HASHISH, the dried resinous leaves and 
 
 * Vol. ii, p. 303, ed. 1855. 
 
 f Maclagan, ' Pharm. Journ.,' iii (1843), P- 1 77 ; H. Rodie, 
 ibid., iv (1844), p. 281 ; Bentley and Trimen, iii, pi. 219. 
 
 | ' Pharmacographia/ p. 487. Bentley and Trimen, iii, pi. 225. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 115 
 
 fruits, is smoked in India, as is CHARAS, the crude 
 resin. All these products are narcotic.* 
 
 Humulus lupulus, L., the HOP, a British species,yields 
 the bitter principle Lupulin, C 32 H 50 O 7 , first isolated in 
 1863, together with wax and resin (see p. 61, supra). 
 Hops warmed in pillows form a useful sedative, and an 
 extract of the bitter principle is now largely used as a 
 tonic drink.-f- 
 
 ULMACE.E. 
 
 Ulmusfulva, Michaux, the SLIPPERY ELM of North 
 America, contains in its inner bark a mucilage which 
 causes it to be powdered for poultices. J 
 
 EUPHORBIACE.E. 
 
 Euphorbia resinifera, Berg, was described in 1863 
 as the source of the once used GUM EUPHORBIUM, 
 which is still employed as a vesicant and in veterinary 
 practice. It is a native of the lower slopes of the 
 Atlas Mountains. 
 
 E. pilulifera, L., the AUSTRALIAN ASTHMA HERB, 
 has been lately recommended in bronchial cases. || 
 
 E. Drummondii, Boiss, yields the anaesthetic 
 DRUMINE, an alkaloid similar to Cocaine.^ 
 
 Croton Eluteria, Bennett, in 1859 was shown** from 
 
 * Ibid.^. 493; IMd.)\V) pi. 231. Cooke,' Seven Sisters of Sleep.' 
 f Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 230. 
 i Ibid.) iv, pi. 233. 
 
 Ibid., iv, pi. 240. ' Pharmacographia/ p. 502. 
 * Pharm, Journ./ xvii (1886), p. 144. 
 Christy, ' New Commercial Plants/ No. 10, p. 95. 
 ** ' Proc. Linn. Soc., Bot./ iv. (1860), 29, and Daniell, 
 ' Pharm Journ./ iv (1863), pp. 144, 226. Bentley and Trimen iv, 
 pl. 238. 
 
 82 
 
ii6 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 specimens collected in the Bahamas, by Daniell, in 
 1857-8, to be the true source of CASCARILLA BARK, 
 which is imported to a considerable extent as a tonic. 
 A spurious bark sometimes sent over is suggested by 
 Mr. E. M. Holmes to be that of C. lucidus, L.* 
 
 C. niveus, Jacquin (C. Pseudo-Ckina, Schlecht), the 
 1 Quina blanca,' of Mexico, yields COPALCHI BARK, 
 occasionally imported as a quinine substitute.-)- 
 
 C. Tiglium, L., yields from its seeds the power- 
 fully cathartic and rubefacient CROTON OIL. The 
 tree is a native of the Malabar Coast, and the seeds 
 are mainly imported from Bombay.]; 
 
 Ricinus communis, L., the CASTOR OIL, a native of 
 India, long cultivated in Europe, but only admitted 
 to the London Pharmacopoeia in 1/88, contains oil to 
 the extent of about half the weight of its kernels. 
 We import over 1,800 tons of this oil annually, about 
 two-thirds from India and the rest chiefly from Italy. 
 It is a valuable mild purgative ; but is also used in 
 soap-making. 
 
 Mallotus philippinensis, Mull. Arg. (^Rottlera 
 tinctoria, Roxb.), a tree common throughout the 
 Madras Presidency, has its capsules covered with 
 ruby-like glands which constitute the powder known 
 as KAMALA, or WARS. It is used as a dye for silk, 
 and during the last thirty years as a tsenifuge. It 
 was admitted to our Pharmacopoeia in 1864.!! 
 
 * ' Pharm. Journ.,' v (1874), P- 810. 
 f Ibid., ix (1850). p. 463 ; and xiv (1855), p. 319. 
 J Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 239. 
 Ibid., iv, pi. 237. 
 
 || Smith, ' Domestic Botany,' p. 263 ; ' Pharmacographia,' 
 >. 515. Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 236. 
 
MATERIA MED 1C A. 117 
 
 PIPERACE^. 
 
 Piper angustifolium, Ruiz and Pavon ( Artanthe 
 elongata, Miquel), MATICO, of northern South 
 America, was introduced to notice as a styptic in 
 Europe in 1839.* In 1863. Professor Bentley recog- 
 nised that P. aduncum, L., was equally efficacious.f 
 
 P. Cubeba, L. fil., Cubeba officinalis, Miquel, CUBEBS, 
 a native of Java, Borneo, and Sumatra, once used as 
 a spice, has, since 1815, been successfully employed 
 in gonorrhoea.^ The small, dried, unripe fruits con- 
 tain a resin, which is the active part of the drug. We 
 import nearly 60 tons of Cubebs annually, vid 
 Singapore. 
 
 P. methysticum, Forst, the KAVA ROOT, has been 
 recommended by Prof. Gubler as a sudorific, and as 
 a substitute for Cubebs. 
 
 ARTOCARPACE.E. 
 
 Dorstenia Contrajerva, L., CONTRAYERVA ROOT, of 
 Brazil, is a rhizome imported to this country, and 
 having a reputation as a cure for snake-bite. || 
 
 * Jeffreys, 'Remarks on the Efficacy of Matico,' London, 
 1845. 
 
 t ' Pharm. Journ.,' v (1864), p. 290. See also Von Martius, 
 ibid., ii (1843), p. 660; ibid., v (1874), p. 523; J. Marcotte, 
 'Etude gdndrale de Matico/ Paris, 1863; and Bentley and 
 Trimen, iv, pi. 242. 
 
 \ Crawfurd, ' Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,' xiv 
 (1818), p. 32; ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 526-30. Bentley and 
 Trimen, iv, pi. 243. 
 
 'Pharm. Journ.,' August, 1876, p. 149; Christy, No. 10, 
 
 P- 93- 
 
 11 Smith, ' Domestic Botany,' p. 230. 
 
ii8 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 ARISTOLOCHIACE.E. 
 
 The rhizome of Aristolochia serpentaria, L., the 
 VIRGINIAN SNAKE-ROOT, is now used, generally with 
 Cinchona, as a stimulant tonic. A. reticulata, Nutt, 
 TEXAN SNAKE-ROOT, is also used, as are also its con- 
 geners in Peru, Brazil and India.* 
 
 CUPULIFER^. 
 
 The bark of our COMMON OAK (Quercus Robur, L.) 
 and the ALEPPO or TURKEY GALLS, produced by the 
 puncture of a gnat on the shoots of Q. infectoria, 
 Oliv., are important sources of the astringent Tannic 
 and Gallic Acids.f 
 
 SALICACE^E. 
 
 One of the most important discoveries of late years 
 has been that of SALICYLIC ACID (HC 7 H 5 O 3 ), as a 
 specific in many rheumatic affections. It is admitted 
 to the Pharmacopoeia as obtained from Betula lenta, 
 L., or Gaultheria procumbens, L. ; but the active prin- 
 ciple, SALldNfi, C 13 H 18 O 7 , now much used as a quinine 
 substitute, is obtained from the barks of Salix Rus- 
 selliana, Sm., *S. alba, L., vS. Caprea, L., S. fragilis^ L., 
 S.pentandra, L., S.purpurea, L., and other species of 
 that genus and of Populus. 
 
 SANTALACE^. 
 
 Santalum album, L., the SANDAL-WOOD of India ; 
 S. Freycinetianum, Gaudin, and vS". pyrularium^ A. 
 Gray, of the Sandwich Islands ; 6\ Yasi, Seemann, of 
 Fiji; 5. Austro-caledonicum, Vieill., of New Caledonia; 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 246. 
 f Ibid.) iv, pi. 248, 249. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 119 
 
 and Fusanus acuminatus, R. Br., of Australia, though 
 mainly used for cabinet-work, incense, and perfumery, 
 yield an essential oil, lately used as a substitute for 
 Copaiba.* 
 
 ZINGIBERACE.E. 
 
 Zingiber officinale, Roscoe, GINGER, a native of 
 Asia, now largely cultivated in Jamaica, though mainly 
 used as a condiment (see p. 65, supra), is a useful 
 stomachic. We import some 1,600 tons of its rhizomes 
 annually.f 
 
 Elettaria Cardamomum, Maton, the true or MALA- 
 BAR CARDAMOM, a native of Southern India, has long 
 been valued in India and in Northern Europe, its 
 aromatic seeds, which contain a camphor isomeric 
 with that of turpentine, C 10 H 16 (H 2 O) 3 , being used 
 mainly as a condiment (see p. 67, supra}. The seeds 
 of various species of Amomum are substituted for it 
 in Asia.]: 
 
 Amomum, Melegueta, Roscoe, GRAINS OF PARA- 
 DISE, the production of which gives its name to the 
 Grain Coast of West Tropical Africa, long similarly 
 used, is a more pungent and less aromatic substance. 
 It used to be employed with ginger and cinnamon in 
 making the spiced wine known as Hippocras, but is 
 now used in fiery cordials and in cattle medicines. 
 
 Alpinia officinarwn, Hance, of the island of Hainan, 
 has only been known as the source of the aromatic 
 
 * * Pharmacographia,' pp. 540-5. Bentley and Trimen, iv. 
 pi. 252. 
 
 f Ibid., iv, pi. 270. 
 
 Ibid., iv, pi. 267. ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 582-9. 
 
 Ibid., pp. 590-592 ; W. J. Hooker, ' Pharm. Journ.,' xii 
 (1852), p. 192. Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 268. 
 
120 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 rhizome GALANGAL since 1870.* It is used chiefly 
 in Russia. 
 
 IRIDACEJE. 
 
 ORRIS-ROOT is the dried rhizome of Iris Germanica, 
 L., /. pallida, Lam., and /. Florentina, L., long used 
 in perfumery and in tooth-powder, having the odour 
 of violets. It is imported from Leghorn, Trieste and 
 Mogador.f 
 
 SAFFRON, used in pharmacy only as a colouring 
 agent, but still used in Cornwall and elsewhere for 
 colouring cakes, consists of the stigmas of Crocus 
 sativus, L., a species unknown in a wild state. Its 
 cultivation in Essex, which gave a name to the town 
 of Saffron Walden, died out before 1768 ; but in 
 Cambridgeshire it seems to have lingered into the 
 present century. It is now grown in Spain and in 
 the French department of Loiret.J 
 
 PALMACE^E. 
 
 Areca Catechu, L., the ARECA-NUT, was added to 
 the Pharmacopoeia, as a taenifuge, in 1874. The 
 Areca Palm is a native of the East Indies, where its 
 small pear-shaped seeds are largely chewed with 
 lime and the leaves of the Betel Pepper (Piper Betle, 
 L.), and are therefore known as Betel Nuts. Its 
 charcoal is used as tooth-powder. 
 
 Dcemonorops Draco, Martius, a Malayan Rattan 
 Palm, exudes from its fruits the dark-red resin known 
 
 * ' Journ. Linn. Soc.' (Botany), xiii (1873), p. i ; ' Pharma- 
 cographia,' pp. 580-582. Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 271. 
 f Ibid., iv, pi. 273. 
 t Ibid., pi. 274. 
 Ibid., pi. 276. 
 
MATERIA MED 1C A. 121 
 
 as DRAGON'S BLOOD, used for colouring plasters, 
 tooth-powders, and varnishes. 
 
 AROIDE^E. 
 
 Rhaphidophora, sp., probably R. vitiensis, Schott, 
 produces the root and stems which, together with the 
 inactive leaves of the Verbenaceous Premna taitensis, 
 Schauer, form the bulk of the native remedy known 
 as TONGA, which has been found very efficacious in 
 neuralgia.* 
 
 Acorus Calamus, L., the SWEET SEDGE, a natura- 
 lized British plant, yields an aromatic stimulant and 
 tonic bitter from its rhizome, used in herb-beers, gin, 
 and snuff, for chewing to clear the voice, for ague and 
 dyspepsia. It is imported from South Russia, via 
 Germany, f 
 
 Urginea Scilla, Steinheil ( = U. maritima, Baker, 
 = Scilla maritima, L.), a Mediterranean species, yields 
 the bulb known as SQUILLS, imported from Malta for 
 use as an expectorant and diuretic. In larger doses 
 it is an uncertain emetic and purgative.J 
 
 Aloe vulgaris, Lamarck, the COMMON or BARBA- 
 DOS ALOE, which grows wild from India to the South 
 of Spain and the Canaries, and is cultivated in the 
 West Indies ; A. succotrina, Lam., the SOCOTRINE 
 ALOE, imported vid Zanzibar and Bombay ; and A . 
 spicata, L. fil., the CAPE ALOE, and other varieties, 
 
 Pharm. Journ.,' x (1880), p. ^y. 
 t ' Pharmacographia,' p. 613; Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 
 779. 
 \ Ibid., p. 627 ; ibid.) iv, pi. 281. 
 
122 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 yield a valuable purgative, which is obtained as a 
 bitter juice from the fleshy leaves. We import over 
 300 tons of Aloes annually.* Aloes have since 1869 
 formed an article of export from Natal, f 
 
 Xanthorrhcea arborea, R. Br., and X. quadrangulata, 
 F. von Muell., the singular GRASS GUM TREES of 
 Australia, contain abundance of Picric acid, used as 
 a dye and in the preparation of the explosive potas- 
 sium-salt.! 
 
 MELANTHACE.E. 
 
 Veratrum album, L., WHITE HELLEBORE, a native 
 of the mountains of Central and Southern Europe, 
 and V. viride, Aiton, the INDIAN POKE, of North 
 America, contain various alkaloids in their rhizome, 
 which render them purgative, the former drastically 
 so. They are mainly employed in veterinary medi- 
 cine and in the United States. 
 
 Asagrcea officinalis, Lindl. ( = Schxnocaulon, A. 
 Gray =Sabadilla, Brandt), SABADILLA, a native of 
 Mexico, contains Veratria, C 5 2H8 6 N 2 O 15 , useful as an 
 ointment in rheumatism and neuralgia, in its seeds. || 
 
 Colchicum autumnale, L., the MEADOW SAFFRON or 
 AUTUMNAL CROCUS, the resemblance of which to 
 the true Saffron Crocus is merely superficial, is a 
 native of British limestone pastures, which has long 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 616-27 ; Bentley and Trimen, iv, 
 pi. 282-4. 
 
 t Spon, < Encyl. Indust. Arts.' 
 
 !t Smith, ' Domestic Botany,' p. 160. 
 
 * Pharmacographia, pp. 630-3 ; Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 
 285-6. 
 
 || Ibid., p. 633; ibid., iv, pi. 287. 
 
MATERIA MEDIC A. 123 
 
 been used in gout, rheumatism, and skin diseases, 
 both its corms and seeds containing a principle named 
 Colchicin. It is collected principally in Gloucester- 
 shire and in Germany.* 
 
 SMILACE.E. 
 
 Smilax officinalis, H. B. K., and 5. medica, Schlecht. 
 and Cham., woody climbers of New Granada and of 
 Mexico respectively, are the main sources of SARSA- 
 PARILLA, the adventitious rootlets of which have for 
 three centuries been largely used as an alterative 
 and tonic. We import some 150 tons annually, the 
 mealy or starchy varieties coming from Honduras, 
 Guatemala, and to a small extent from Para, and the 
 non-mealy varieties from Jamaica, Mexico, and Guay- 
 aquil.f 
 
 NAIADACE^E. 
 
 Elodea canadensis, Rich., which, since 1840, has been 
 looked upon as an unmitigated nuisance, is now said 
 to be a germicide that checks malaria and epidemic 
 diarrhoea. J 
 
 GRAMINACE^E. 
 
 Various substances obtained from the Grass tribe 
 appear in Pharmacopoeias, such as Sugar, Pearl Barley, 
 Rice-water, Groats, Flour, etc., but are merely vehicles 
 or foods, not active drugs. 
 
 Andropogon Nardus, L., cultivated in Ceylon and 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 636-9; Bentley and Trimen, iv, 
 pi. 288. 
 
 f Ibid., pp. 639-47 ; ibid., iv, pi. 289-90. 
 
 j Christy, ' New Commercial Plants/ No. 10, p. 37. 
 
124 m THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Singapore, yields ClTRONELLA OIL ; A. citratus, DC, 
 LEMON GRASS OIL, or OIL OF VERBENA, grown 
 throughout India, and A.Schcenanthus, L., non Wallich, 
 OIL OF GERANIUM, produced in Northern and Cen- 
 tral India. These essential oils, used medicinally in 
 India, are imported to a considerable extent as per- 
 fumes, the latter being a frequent adulterant of Attar 
 of Rose.* 
 
 CONIFERS. 
 
 Juniperus Sabina, L., SAVIN, a native of Southern 
 Europe, contains in its young green shoots an oil 
 resembling turpentine, which is a powerful uterine 
 stimulant. The berries of the common JUNIPER (/. 
 communtSy L.), a British shrub, are reputed diuretic. f 
 
 The LARCH (Larix europcza, DC.) yields VENICE 
 TURPENTINE, formerly used in veterinary medicine, 
 and its astringent bark is also used in bronchitis or 
 haemorrhage. J 
 
 Tsuga Canadensis, Carriere, the HEMLOCK SPRUCE 
 of Canada, yields the slightly stimulant CANADA 
 PlTCH, used instead of BURGUNDY PITCH, the pro- 
 duce of the NORWAY SPRUCE, Picea excelsa, Link 
 ( = Pinus Abies, L., Abies excels a, DC.).|| 
 
 Abies balsamea^ Mill, yields CANADA BALSAM, a 
 turpentine more used as a cement than as a drug ; 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' p. 660 ; Bentley and Trimen, iv., pi. 
 297. 
 
 f Ibid., pp. 565-8 ; ibid.y iv, pi. 254-5. 
 
 I lbid.y p. 551 ; ibid., iv, pi. 260. 
 
 Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 264. 
 
 || Ibid., iv, pi. 261 ; 'Pharmacographia,' p. 556. 
 
 \ Ibid., iv, pi. 263. 
 
MATERIA MED 1C A. 125 
 
 and A. pectinata* DC. ( = Pinus Abies, Du Roi = />. 
 Picea, L.), the SILVER FlR, yields STRASSBURG TUR- 
 PENTINE, more fragrant than common turpentine, but 
 now seldom used. 
 
 COMMON TURPENTINE, in Europe, is produced by 
 the SCOTS FIR, Pinus sylvestrisfi L., the CLUSTER or 
 MARITIME PINE, of Bordeaux, P. Pinaster,\ Aiton, 
 and the CORSICAN PINE, P. Laricio, Poiret ; and in 
 America by the PITCH PlNE, P. Australis^ Michaux, 
 and the LOBLOLLY, P. Tceda, L.|| 
 
 Pinus Laricio, Poir., the CORSICAN PlNE, is the 
 species mainly employed in the manufacture of PlNE- 
 WOOL and FlR OIL, recently recommended for rheu- 
 matic and catarrhal affections.^" The latter, when 
 inhaled, affords relief to colds in the head. 
 
 FILICES. 
 
 Aspidium Filix-mas, Swartz, has, since 1851, been 
 administered as an ethereal extract. It is used chiefly 
 as a tsenifuge.** 
 
 FUNGI. 
 
 Agaricus muscarius, L., the FLY AGARIC, having 
 been found to contain an alkaloid, MUSCARINE, wholly 
 antagonistic in - its action to Atropine, has recently 
 attracted a good deal of attention in physiology ; but 
 it is difficult altogether to account for the large ex- 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, pi. 262; 
 
 f Ibid., pi. 257. \ Ibid., pi. 256. 
 
 Ibid., pi. 258. || Ibid., pi. 259. 
 
 T[ S. Beaver, ' Pharm. Journ.,' iv (1863), pp. 424-5. 
 ** Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 300 ; * Pharraacographia." 
 p. 667. 
 
126 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 portation of this fungus from Archangel. Other 
 fungal poisons being apparently either Muscarine or 
 some closely allied substance, Atropine may prove 
 valuable as an antidote in the not infrequent cases of 
 fungal poisoning. 
 
 Claviceps purpurea, Tulasne, the ERGOT OF RYE, 
 belonging to the order Pyrenomycetes, is a fungus 
 which occurs on many grasses, but is chiefly imported 
 on Rye {Secale cereale, L.) from Vigo, in Spain, Ham- 
 burg, and Odessa. It is a violet-coloured, spindle- 
 shaped ' sclerotium,' or compact mass of fungoid 
 ' mycelium/ or ' spawn,' from Jinch to ij inches long, 
 entirely replacing the grain. It is known officinally 
 as ' Secale cornutum,' and is employed to produce 
 muscular contraction of the uterus.* 
 
 LICHENS. 
 
 Of this group, now generally considered to consist 
 of fungi living upon lowly-organized algae in a state 
 of ' symbiosis,' if not of parasitism, only one species, 
 Cetraria Islandica, Acharius, ICELAND MOSS, has any 
 claim to be considered medicinal. Though a native 
 of our British hills, this lichen is mainly collected on 
 barren hills in Sweden, and the mucilaginous modifi- 
 cation of starch, known as lichenin, which it contains, 
 renders it demulcent as well as nutritious, f 
 
 Among members of this class, reference has already 
 
 * Pharmacographia,' p, 67-2 : Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 
 303, and supra, p. 33. 
 
 f Prof. A. H. Church, ' rooa/ p. 103; * Pharmacographia/ 
 p. 670 ; Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 302. 
 
OILS AND OIL-SEEDS, ETC. 127 
 
 been made (pp. 49, 50, supra) to Chondrus crispus, 
 Lyngbye,* IRISH MOSS, and Sphczrococcus lichenoides, 
 Ag., CEYLON Moss,f which are used as demulcent 
 foods for invalids. 
 
 Fucus vesiculosus, L., the BLADDER-WRACK, the 
 commonest sea-weed on our coasts, besides being an 
 excellent manure, of use in times of scarcity as a cattle- 
 food, and when burnt into ' kelp/ a main source of 
 iodine, has been employed, when charred, as VEGE- 
 TABLE ETHIOPS, or as a jelly, in scrofulous tumours 
 and glandular enlargements, and is the essential consti- 
 tuent in the remedy for obesity known as * Anti-fat. 'J 
 
 PART III. OIL-YIELDING SEEDS, VEGE- 
 TABLE OIL, AND SUBSTANCES USED IN 
 PERFUMERY. 
 
 THE term ' Oil ' is difficult to define, and the diverse 
 substances included under it are accordingly difficult 
 to classify. Oils may be solid, viscid, limpid or vola- 
 tile, odourless or odorous, and, though consisting 
 mainly of carbon and hydrogen, need not do so exclu- 
 sively. They are mostly insoluble in water, and are 
 all readily inflammable. They may be physically 
 arranged under five groups, so far as they are of 
 vegetable origin : 
 
 i. Non-drying, or greasy fluid oils, 
 ii. Drying oils. 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 305. 
 
 t Ibid., iv, pi. 306. % lbid.> iv, pi. 304. 
 
128 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 iii. Fats, 
 iv. Waxes. 
 
 v. Volatile or essential oils. 
 
 Of these, the first four groups, known as the Fixed 
 Oils, constitute a series of compounds formed, as was 
 shown by the classic researches of the centenarian, M. 
 Chevreul, between 1811 and 1823, of a glyceride, or 
 body analogous to the alcohol glycerin, C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 , in 
 combination with a fatty acid having, in nearly all 
 cases, the formula C n H 2n O 2 , or C n H 2n _ 2 O 2 . Linoleic 
 acid is C 16 H 28 O 2 , and ricinoleic, C 18 H 34 O 3 . The true 
 waxes contain no glyceride ; but some of those of 
 vegetable origin do so. If heated with steam under 
 pressure, the oil is decomposed into these two con- 
 stituents : thus Stearin, ( C H v>^ I O 3 , becomes 
 
 ^3^5 J 
 
 Stearic acid, 3 c i8H^ 5 O j Q ^ and Glycerin if treated 
 
 with alkalies, or basic oxides in the presence of water, 
 oils become saponified, the oxide uniting with the 
 acid to form a soap, i.e., generally a soda or potash 
 salt of the acid, glycerin being liberated. This is the 
 basis of the modern soap and candle industry, which, 
 since the removal of the duty on soap, in 1852, has 
 grown to an incredible extent. 
 
 The essential oils are freely soluble in alcohol, or 
 in the fixed oils : they are not greasy, and at ordinary 
 temperatures they are nearly all limpid liquids. They 
 consist mainly of hydrocarbons, such as terpene, 
 C 10 H 16 ; but at a low temperature many of them 
 separate into a liquid ' elaeoptene ' and a solid ' stear- 
 optene.' Of these latter bodies, Camphor, C 10 H 16 O, 
 
OILS AND OIL-SEEDS, ETC. 129 
 
 may be taken as a type. Essential oils are used 
 mainly in perumery for as flavouring in food. 
 
 The more important non-drying oils are the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Almond from Amygdalus communis, L. 
 
 Ben Moringa pterygosperma, Gaertn. 
 
 Brazil-nut Bertholletia excelsa, H. B. 
 
 Castor Ricinus communis, L. 
 
 r , f Brassica carnpestris, var. old/era, 
 
 "t DC. 
 
 Cotton-seed Gossypium, spp. 
 
 Croton Croton Tiglium, L. 
 
 Ground-nut Arachis hypogcea, L. 
 
 Mustard Brassica, spp. 
 
 Olive Olea europea, L. 
 
 ^ f Brassica campestris, var. oleifera, 
 
 Rape | DC> 
 
 Sesame or Gingelly Sesamum orientate, DC. 
 
 The chief drying oils are : 
 
 Candle-nut from Aleurites triloba, Forst. 
 
 ^ ( Camelina sativa, Crantz ( = Mya- 
 
 German Sesame ,,| rum sativu ^^. 
 
 Hemp Cannabis sativa, L. 
 
 Linseed Linum usitatissimum, L. 
 
 Madia Madia satiua, Willd. 
 
 Niger Guisotia abyssinica, Cass. 
 
 Nut Juglans regia } L. 
 
 Poppy Papaver somniferum, L. 
 
 Safflower Carthamus tinctorius, L. 
 
 Sunflower Helianthus annuus, L. 
 
 9 
 
130 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 The chief vegetable fats in commerce are : 
 
 C b *1 ( f rom Carapa guianensis, Aub. 
 
 Cocoa-nut oil Cocos nucifera, L. 
 Cocoa butter Theobroma Cacao, L. 
 
 Ch i n bTe e tlflow } " Stillin ^ sebi f e > Michx - - 
 
 Dika butter Irvingia Barteri^ Hook. fil. 
 
 Kokum butter Garcinia indica, Choisy. 
 
 Mahwa butter Bassia latifolia, Roxb. 
 
 Shea butter B. Parkii, G. Don. 
 
 Nutmeg oils Myristica moschata, Thunb., etc. 
 
 Piney tallow Valeria indica, L. 
 
 The vegetable-waxes, the first of which alone is of 
 any commercial importance, are : 
 
 Japanese wax from Rhus succedanea, L. 
 Carnauba wax Copernicia cerifera, Mart. 
 Palm-tree wax Ceroxylon andicola, H. and B. 
 Myrtle-berry wax Myrica cerifera, L. 
 Ocuba wax Myristica Ocuba. 
 
 Cow-tree wax Galactodendron. 
 
 Among the chief essential oils in commerce, to 
 which reference will be made in the sequel, are the 
 following : 
 
 Eucalyptus from various species. 
 
 Indian Geranium Andropogon Schosnanthus, L. 
 
 Lemon Grass A. citratus, DC. 
 
 Vetivert A. muricatus, Retz. 
 
OILS AND OIL-SEEDS, ETC. 131 
 
 Patchouli from Pogostemon Patchouli ', Pell. 
 
 Wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens, L. 
 
 Of those enumerated above, Ground-nut, Brazil-nut, 
 Olive, Poppy, Sunflower, Safflower, and nut oils, are 
 used as food. Colza, Rape, Candle-nut, German 
 Sesame, Madia, and Safflower are used as lamp-oils. 
 In soap-making, the principal materials employed are 
 Palm and Palm-kernel oil, Cotton-seed oil and Rosin, 
 or Colophony, in ordinary soaps ; Olive-oil in Castile 
 and Brown Windsor ; Cocoa-nut oil in hard soaps ; 
 Rape, Hemp, and Linseed oils in soft soaps ; and 
 Almond and Ground-nut oils and Cocoa-butter in 
 various toilet-soaps. Various essential oils are added 
 to give perfume, and many of the other oils men- 
 tioned are used to a less extent.* 
 
 In candle-making, besides such animal or mineral 
 substances as Wax, Tallow, Spermaceti, Paraffin, and 
 Ozokerit, the most important substance employed by 
 far is PALM OIL, of which over 400,000 cwt. were im- 
 ported, in excess of the like amount exported, in 1882. 
 All the vegetable waxes, besides Palm-seed and Cocoa- 
 nut oils, Dika, Shea, Mahwa, and Nutmeg butters and 
 Chinese and Piney tallows are also used. Myrtle- 
 berry wax was formerly used in the United States, 
 
 In perfumery, besides animal substances, such as 
 ambergris, civet, musk, and the essential oils already 
 referred to, use is made of many resinous substances, 
 such as Myrrh, Storax, Benzoin, Opoponax, and the 
 Balsams of Tolu and of Peru, and of a few artificially 
 prepared aromatic bodies. One of these latter, 
 
 Professor Church in Bevan's ; Manufacturing Industries.' 
 
 92 
 
132 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Vanillin, has been already mentioned. Another, 
 COUMARIN, is interesting from its occurrence in a great 
 variety of plants. Its composition is C 9 H 6 O 2 , and it 
 has been found in Dipteryxodorata?N\\\&. (Coumarouna 
 odorata, Aubl.), the TONQUIN BEAN, used to scent 
 snuff, Angrczcum fragrans, Reich, fil, the FAHAM TEA 
 of Mauritius, Orchis militaris, L., O. Simia, Lam., O. 
 fusca, Jacq., and O. ustulata, L., Asperula odorata, L., 
 the SWEET WOOD-RUFF, once used to give perfume 
 to Rhine wines, Eupatorium aromaticum, L., and E. 
 glutinosum, Lam., of North America, the Swiss Melilotus 
 ccerulea, Desr., and our M. officinalis, Desr., and An- 
 thoxanthum odoratum, L. Its presence in the latter gives 
 the fragrance to new-mown hay, and in the seeds of 
 FENUGREEK (Trigonella F<xnum-gr<zcum> L.) it causes 
 their use to improve the appearance of inferior hay. 
 
 With these introductory remarks a few notes may 
 be added, taking the oils in systematic order. 
 
 MAGNOLIACE^E. 
 
 Michelia Ckampaca, L., yields an oil, which, with 
 that of Cananga odorata, Hook. fil. and Thorn., and 
 that of the Cocoa-nut, is said to constitute the famous 
 MACASSAR OIL.* 
 
 ANONACE^:. 
 
 Cananga odorata, Hook. fil. and Thorn., ILANG- 
 1LANG, a popular perfume, reached Europe first in 
 16644 
 
 * Guibourt, ' Histoire Naturelle des Drogues,' iii (1850), p. 
 
 675- 
 
 T 'Flora indica,' i, 130 ; Wiggers and Husemann, 'Jahresb 
 d. Pharmac.' (1867), p. 422. 
 
OILS AND OIL-SEEDS, ETC. 133 
 
 PAP AVERAGES. 
 
 Papaver somniferum, L., MAW-SEED OIL, being 
 very drying, is used by artists, or to adulterate Olive 
 oil. 
 
 CRUCIFERjE. 
 
 Brassica campestris, var. oleifera, DC., RAPE or 
 COLZA, yields from its seeds an oil still largely used 
 for lamps and lubricating, though mineral oil has to 
 a great extent superseded it. It is imported from 
 France and Germany. 
 
 B.juncea, Hook. 61. and Thorn., already alluded to 
 (p. 63, S2ipra], is extensively cultivated throughout 
 India, and in other warm countries. Its seeds yield 
 20 per cent, of fixed oil, used in Russia instead of 
 olive oil. 
 
 BIXACE^. 
 
 Gynocardia odorata, R. Br., CHAULMUGRA, already 
 mentioned. 
 
 GUTTIFER^E. 
 
 Garcinia indica, Choisy, from its seeds yields Ko- 
 KUM BUTTER, recommended for ointments, etc. 
 
 Calophyllum inophyllum, L., NDILO OIL, of Fiji, 
 BITTER OIL, of India. Already referred to. Used 
 for soap. 
 
 DIPTEROCARPACE^E. 
 
 Vateria indica, L., PlNEY RESIN, INDIAN COPAL, 
 or WHITE DAMMAR, prized for candle-making, from 
 its pleasant smell, was not in use in 1851 * 
 
 * Prof. E. Solly in Society of Arts Lectures on the 1851 
 Exhibition. 
 
134 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 MALVACR*. 
 
 Gossypiuni) spp. COTTON-SEED OIL, though now 
 one of the most important, has only been prepared 
 since 1852, mainly from Egyptian cotton. 800,000 
 tons of seed (of which one quarter comes to England), 
 yielding 120,000 tons of oil and 250,000 tons of the 
 valuable oil-cake, are, it is estimated, manufactured 
 annually. It is used for soap, lubricating oils and 
 adulterating olive oil. 
 
 LINAGES. 
 
 Linum usitatissimum, L., LlNSEEU, of which 
 2 A33> 1 3 2 quarters were imported in 1882, mainly as 
 seed, from Russia and India, is the chief oil employed 
 in painting (see p. 81, si.iprd). 
 
 GERAiNIACE^E. 
 
 Pelargonium capitatum, Ait., is cultivated round the 
 Mediterranean for its essential oil, known as OIL OF 
 GERANIUM, which is used to adulterate Attar of 
 Roses;* but that obtained from Andropogon Schcen- 
 anthus, L., is known by the same name, and used for 
 the same purpose. 
 
 AURANTIACE.E. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the essential 
 OILS OF LEMON (Citrus Limonum, Risso, unripe fruit), 
 BERGAMOT (C. Bergamia, var. vulgaris, Risso and Poi- 
 teau, unripe fruit), NEROLI, or ORANGE FLOWER (C. 
 vulgaris, Risso, flowers), PETIT GRAIN or ORANGE 
 LEAF (C. vulgaris, Risso, leaves and shoots), ORANGE 
 
 * * Pharm. Journ.,' ix (1852), p. 325 ; 'Kew Museum Guide/ 
 p- 24. 
 
OILS AND OIL-SEEDS, ETC. 135 
 
 PEEL (C. vulgaris, Risso, unripe fruit), and CEDRAT 
 (C. medica, Risso, fruit).* 
 
 SIMARUBE^:. 
 
 Irvingia Barteri, Hook, fil., DlKA, already men- 
 tioned (p. 60, supra), is used in soap and candle mak- 
 ing. Containing myristine and laurine, it yields a 
 very hard soap.f 
 
 MELIACE.E. 
 
 Carapa guianensis, Aubl., CARAPA or CRAB OIL, 
 is said to be identical with C.guineensis, Juss., of West 
 Africa, and is allied to C. molluccensis, L. It is one of 
 the seeds known as Bitter Kola, and is used locally 
 for rheumatism, but in Europe for soap, since 18514 It 
 is said to act as a preservative to wood. 
 
 ANACARDIACE^E. 
 
 Rhus succedanea, L., and R. vernicifera, DC., the 
 LACQUER TREES of Japan, yield JAPANESE WAX, 
 used for candle-making, from their fruits, now avail- 
 able to our commerce from the opening of Japanese 
 ports. 
 
 MORINGACE^:. 
 
 Moringa pterygosperma, Gaert, and M. aptera, 
 Gaert., yield BEN OIL, or OIL OF BEN, used as 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 106-16 ; Bentley and Trimen, i, pi. 
 50, 52, 53, 54- 
 
 t J. Attfield, 'Pharm. Journ.,' ii (1862), pp. 445-7; H. W. 
 Batchelor, ibid.) xi (1880), p. 43. 
 
 % Prof. Solly, op. cit. ; Smith, * Domestic Botany,' p. 462. 
 
 Hikorokuro Yoshida in * Forestry and Forest Products,' 
 Edinburgh, 1884. 
 
136 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 salad oil in the West Indies, where it is cultivated, as 
 a watchmaker's lubricant, and for hair oil.* 
 
 LEGUMINOS^E. 
 
 Psoralca corylifolia, L., BAWCHAN seeds of India, 
 have been imported for oil-crushing. 
 
 Arachis hypogcea, L., GROUND-NUT, already men- 
 tioned (p. 39, supra], is the staple of the Marseilles 
 soap-industry, the better qualities being substituted 
 for olive. Three and a half million pounds are 
 annually imported into France. 
 
 ROSACEyE. 
 
 ALMOND OIL, the glyceride of oleic acid, C 18 H 34 O 2 , 
 extracted as a fixed oil, by pressure, to the extent of 
 about 45 per cent., from BITTER ALMONDS (Amyg- 
 dalus communis, L., var. amara, DC.), or over 50 per 
 cent, from SWEET ALMONDS (var. dulcis, DC.), and 
 the essential BITTER ALMOND OIL, C 7 HO, distilled 
 from the residual cake, have been before mentioned 
 (p. 59, supra}. 
 
 ATTAR or OTTO OF ROSES, is a mixture of a liquid 
 containing oxygen with an odourless solid hydro- 
 carbon or stearoptene. It is obtained by distillation 
 from the petals chiefly of Rosa Damascena, Miller, a 
 variety of R. gallica, L., cultivated mainly on the 
 lower slopes of the Balkans, in Eastern Roumelia, 
 where about 4,000 lb., valued at ^"60,000, is annually 
 produced. Little of that produced in South France, 
 Tunis, Persia, or India reaches England, and Turkish 
 
 * Smith, op. tit., p. 462 ; ' Encyclop. Brit.,' sub voce ' Oils '; 
 'Pharm. Journ.,' v (1845), p. 58. 
 
OILS AND OILSEEDS, ETC. 137 
 
 Attar is largely adulterated with the Indian * Gera- 
 nium Oil/ obtained from Andropogon Schcenanthus, 
 L.* 
 
 MYRTACE^:. 
 
 Eucalyptus amygdalina, Lab., oleosa, F. von Muell., 
 sideroxylon, A. Cunn., goniocalyx, F. von Muell., globu- 
 lus, Lab., corymbosa, Sm., obliqua, L'Herit., fissilis, 
 odorata, Behr., rostrata, Schlecht., longifolia, Link, and 
 Otto, viminaliS) Lab., dtimosa, A. Cunn., and citriodora, 
 Hook., all yield oils, which have been prepared by 
 Mr. J. Bosisto, of Richmond, Victoria, some of which 
 were known in 1851. 
 
 E. Staigeriana, F. von Muell., contains in its leaves 
 2 to 3 per cent, or 1,200 oz. to the ton, of an oil 
 closely similar to Oil of Verbena (Andropogon 
 citratus, DC.). 
 
 E. hcemastoma, Sm., yields one intermediate between 
 Geranium and Peppermint, and it, and other Queens- 
 land species, seem well suited for scenting soaps. f 
 
 Pimento, acris, Wight., BAY-BERRY OIL, is used in 
 the United States to flavour Bay Rum. 
 
 Bertholletia excelsa, H. B., the BRAZIL-NUT, yields 
 the oil known as CASTANHA OIL, in Brazil, used by 
 artists and watchmakers. Spoiled seeds are used for 
 soap-making in Europe. 
 
 CAJEPUT OIL, used medicinally, which is distilled 
 from the leaves of Melaleuca leucadendron, L., var. 
 minor, has been before mentioned. 
 
 * ( Pharmacographia/ p. 233 ; Bentley and Trimen, ii, pi. 105. 
 t * Pharm. Journ./ xvii (1886) ; Christy, ' New Commercial 
 Plants,' No. 9, p. 14. 
 
138 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 OIL OF CLOVES, distilled to the extent of 1 6 to 1 8 
 per cent, from CLOVES, Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunb. 
 (see pp. 66 and 94, supra), is extensively used by soap- 
 makers and perfumers. 
 
 Sufficient reference has already been made to the 
 volatile oil of DAMIANA (p. 95, supra}, in the order 
 TURNERACE^E, and to those of CARAWAY, FENNEL, 
 DILL, CORIANDER, and CUMIN (pp. 96, 97), among 
 the UMBELLIFER^E. 
 
 COMPOSITE. 
 
 Liatris odoratissima, Willd., DEER'S TONGUE, or 
 WILD VANILLA, has leaves used in perfumery in 
 North America.* 
 
 Guizotia abyssinica, Cass., NIGER or RAMTIL 
 seeds, came into the English market about 1851. It 
 is a native of Tropical Africa, but is cultivated in 
 India and Germany. It is used in Europe for soap 
 and lubricating oil.f 
 
 Helianthus annuus, L., the SUNFLOWER, contains in 
 its fruits a valuable oil, equal to Nut or Olive Oils, 
 which is considerably used in Russia, and those of Car- 
 thamus tinctorius, L., SAFFLOWER, yield the KOOSUM 
 OIL of India, and are used in soap-making. 
 
 ERICACEAE. 
 
 Gaultheria procumbens, L., of North-west America, 
 contains in its leaves the volatile OIL OF WiNTER- 
 GREEN. 
 
 * Bentley, ' Pharm. Journ.,' v (1874-5), PP- 4 8 9, 793- 
 t ' Encyclop. Brit.,' vol. xvii, p. 746, sub voce ' Oils,' by 
 J. Paton. 
 
OILS AND OIL-SEEDS, ETC. 139 
 
 SABOTAGED. 
 
 Argania Sideroxylon, R. and S., of Morocco, yields 
 from its kernels an oil, known as ARGAN OIL, resem- 
 bling Olive Oil.* 
 
 Bassia latifolia, Roxb., the MAHWA, besides its 
 saccharine flowers, yields 33 per cent, of a butter from 
 its seeds, used in India as food, and now imported for 
 soap and candle making. It was not in commerce in 
 i85i.f It is said to equal Cocoa-nut Oil. 
 
 B. Parkii, G. Don. ^ Butyrospermum, Kotschy) 
 yields from its kernels SHEA BUTTER, of which from 
 300 to 500 tons are exported annually from Sierra 
 Leone, for soap-making. In the manufacture, from 
 5 to 75 P er cent, of a hydrocarbon, ' Gutta Shea/ is 
 extracted. This, also, is a recent introduction. % 
 
 OLEACE^:. 
 
 Olea etiropcea, L., the OLIVE, long naturalized all 
 round the Mediterranean, before mentioned (p. 60, 
 supra], yields from its ripe fruits nearly 70 per cent, 
 of the valuable non-drying OLIVE OIL. 23,450 tuns, 
 of 252 gallons each, were imported in 1882. The 
 finest, or ' Lucca Oil,' from Lucca, Florence, Leghorn 
 and Genoa, is used in salads ; the less pure kinds, 
 with soda, form Castile soap, and are used in dressing 
 woollen, and for lubricating machinery. 
 
 * D. Hay, ' Pharm. Journ./ ix (1878), p. 262, and ibid.,* 
 (1879), p. 127. 
 
 f Prof. Solly, op. tit. ; ' Encyclop. Brit./ loc. tit. 
 
 J ' Kew Museum Guide,' and op. sup. tit. ; Smith, ' Domes- 
 tic Botany,' p. 317. 
 
 ' Pharmacographia,' p. 374 ; Bentley and Trimen, iii., pi. 
 172. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
140 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 PEDALINE.E. 
 
 Sesamum indicum, DC, SESAME, TIL SEED or 
 GlNGELLY OIL, is the Oil of India, and is used in- 
 stead of, or as an adulterant of, Olive Oil, being itself 
 adulterated with Ground-nut Oil. It is used here for 
 soap-making ; but is chiefly crushed at Trieste and 
 Marseilles. It contains 76 per cent, of Oleine, with 
 stearic, palmitic and myristic acids.* 
 
 LABIATE. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the volatile 
 oils and their contained camphors or stearoptenes of 
 LAVENDER (Lavandula vem> DC.), SPIKE (L. Spica, 
 DC.), MINT (Mentha viridis, L.), PEPPERMINT (M. 
 piperita, Sm.), JAPAN PEPPERMINT (M. arvensis, L.), 
 PENNYROYAL (M. Pulegium, L.), THYME (Thymus 
 vulgaris, L.), and ROSEMARY (Rosmarinus officinalis, 
 L.), which are used chiefly in perfumery. 
 
 Lallemantia iberica, Fisch. and Mey., one to three 
 feet high, yields 2,500 seeds containing a pure oil 
 suitable for food. It is cultivated in Syria, Persia, 
 and South Russia.f 
 
 Pogostemon Patchouli, Pell., PATCHOULI, an essen- 
 tial oil, the perfume of which characterizes Indian 
 shawls. J 
 
 Perilla ocimoides, L., of Japan, yields from its seeds 
 the YEGOMA oil used for Japanese leather-paper. 
 
 * Spon's * Encyclop. Indust. Arts ;' 'Pharmacographia,' p. 425 ; 
 Bentley and Trimen, iii, pi. 198. 
 
 f Christy, * New Commercial Plants,' No. 3, p. 14. 
 
 j 'Pharm. Journ.,' iv (1844), p. 80; vi (1847), p. 432 ; viii 
 (1849), p. 574 ; ix (1850), p. 282 ; iv (1873), P- 3^2 ; xi (1880), 
 pp. 409, 813. 
 
 ' Kew Museum Guide,' p. 105. 
 
OILS AND OIL-SEEDS, ETC. 141 
 
 MYRISTICE^. 
 
 Myristica. Various species contain a good deal of 
 a solid fat in their seeds, with more or less of the 
 volatile oil of nutmeg. The following are imported : 
 M. angolensis, Welw., 72 per cent, of oil ; no smell. 
 M. fatua, Sw., of Borneo, * LONG ' or ' WILD ' NUT- 
 MEGS. M. fragrans, Houtt., of the Moluccas, the 
 COMMON NUTMEG. M. sebifera, Sw., of Northern 
 South America, VlROLA, yields 26 per cent, of 
 AMERICAN NUTMEG OIL, used on the Continent for 
 soap and candles. M. surinamensis, Rob., CUAGO 
 nuts of the West Indies, imported in 1881, contain 
 65 per cent, of fat.* 
 
 The essential OILS OF CINNAMON (Cinnamomum 
 zeylanictim, Breyn.), CASSIA (C. Cassia, Bl.), and SAS- 
 SAFRAS (Sassafras officinale, Nees), have already been 
 referred to (see p. 113, supra). 
 
 Persea gratissima, Gaert., the AVOCADO PEAR, of 
 Tropical America, has an edible berry which yields an 
 oil suitable for soap-making or lighting purposes. 
 
 Laurus nobilis, L., the BAY, contains an aromatic 
 oil, for which its leaves are employed in cookery ; 
 whilst a perfume is also obtained from that of the 
 berries. f 
 
 EUPHORBIACE^:. 
 
 Aleurites triloba, Forst. ( = A. moluccana, Willd. ?), 
 of Fiji, etc., yields the CANDLE-NUT, COUNTRY 
 
 * Christy, No. 8, p. 26, with descriptions of other species and 
 engravings of the seeds. 
 
 f Bentley and Trimen, iii, pi. 221. 
 
142 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 WALNUT, KUKUI, KAKUNA or KEKUNE OIL, ex- 
 ported from the Sandwich Isles, mainly to San 
 Francisco. It is said to be equal to Rape Oil. It 
 was imported from Fiji to the value of 3,040 in 1877. 
 
 Stillingia sebifera, Michaux, the CHINESE 
 TALLOW-TREE, the seeds of which are coated with 
 a fat mainly consisting of palmitin, now forms a 
 regular import for soap and candle making.* 
 
 Reference has already been made to the medicinal 
 CROTON OIL, obtained from Croton Tiglium, L., and 
 to CASTOR OIL, from Ricinus communis, L., the in- 
 ferior qualities of which are used for soap-making. 
 That of the PHYSIC NUT (Jatropha Curcas, L.), a 
 native of Tropical America, introduced into most 
 tropical countries, is purgative, but has been imported 
 for lighting and cloth-dressing, as SEED OiL.f 
 
 JUGLANDACE.E. 
 
 Juglans regia, L., the WALNUT, yields an edible 
 oil, which, when expressed with heat, is a valuable 
 drying oil. Similar oil is obtained from J. cinerea^ L., 
 the BUTTER-NUT, of the United States (see p. 58, 
 supra}. 
 
 MYRICACE^E. 
 
 Myrica cerifera, L., the BAYBERRY or WAX-M YRTL 
 of North America, M. cordifolia, L., of South Africa, 
 and other species, secrete a wax on their berries, used 
 in candle-making. 
 
 * ' Encyclop. Brit./ loc. tit. 
 
 j* Archer, * Popular Economic Botany,' p. 265. 
 
OILS AND OIL-SEEDS, ETC. 143 
 
 CORYLACE^:. 
 
 Corylus Avellana, L., the HAZEL, yields the valu- 
 able sweet oil already mentioned (p. 58, supra}. 
 
 QUERCINE.E. 
 
 Fagus sylvatica, L., the BEECH, yields an oil from 
 its ' mast/ or nut, which is used in France for food and 
 for lighting. 
 
 PALMACE^E. 
 
 Copernicia cerifera, Mart., the WAX PALM of Brazil, 
 secretes wax on its foliage, which is imported for 
 candle-making. 
 
 Cocos nucifera, L., yields from its albumen the 
 COCOA-NUT or COPRA OIL, of which 244,399 cwt. 
 were imported for our soap and candle factories in 
 1884. It contains lauro-stearic, oleic, palmitic, my- 
 ristic, and other acids, and yields a clear oil suitable 
 for lamps. 
 
 Elais guineensis, L., yields PALM OIL from its meso- 
 carp, and PALM-KERNEL OIL from its seed, the resi- 
 due forming a useful cattle-food cake. Of 1,004,419 
 cwt. of Palm Oil imported in 1886, 925,000 cwt. 
 came from West Africa, about half of that amount 
 from British territory.* 
 
 GR AMINES. 
 
 Though it is unnecessary to refer again here to the 
 essential oils upon which such substances as Carda- 
 * * Pharm. Journ.' iv (1873), P- 53*, and viii (1877), P- 68. 
 
144 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 moms, Galangale and Calamus depend for their phar- 
 maceutic value, mention ought, perhaps, to be again 
 made of the Grass oils, perfumed volatile oils, dis- 
 tilled from fresh plants. 
 
 Andropogon Nardus, L., yields ClTRONELLA OIL, 
 used in scenting Honey Soap.* 
 
 A. citratus, DC, LEMON GRASS, yields OIL OF 
 VERBENA or LEMON. This was figured in Wallich's 
 * Plant. Asiat. Rar.' (t. 280) as A. Schcenanthus. 
 
 A. Schcenanthus,- L., non Wallich ( = A. Martini, 
 Roxb., A. Pachnodes, Trinius, A. Calamus-aromaticus, 
 Royle) yields the RuSA OIL, OIL OF GINGER GRASS, 
 or OIL OF GERANIUM, used to adulterate Attar of 
 Roses. 
 
 CONIFERS. 
 
 The hydrocarbon OILS OF SAVIN ( Juniper us Sabina, 
 L.), JUNIPER (/. communis, L.), SPRUCE or HEMLOCK 
 (Tsuga Canadensis, Carr.), and TURPENTINE (Pinus 
 sylvestris, L., P. Pinaster, Sol., P. Laricio, Poir., P. 
 longifolia, Lambert, of the Himalayas, P. Tada, L., 
 and P. austmlis, Michx., Abies pectinata, DC., and 
 Larix europ&a, DC.), have been already sufficiently 
 referred to (see pp. 124, 125, supra}. 
 
 PART IV. GUMS, RESINS, OLEO-RESINS, 
 AND INSPISSATED SAPS. 
 
 As in external form, so in internal and chemical con- 
 stitution, the variety of Nature and the minuteness 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iv, pi. 297 ; ' Pharmacographia,' p. 
 660. 
 
GUMS, RESINS, OLEO-RESINS, ETC. 145 
 
 of the graduations which she presents to our notice 
 tax to the uttermost our powers of classification. 
 This is well illustrated in the series of substances at 
 present under consideration, for which no one com- 
 prehensive name, nor any entirely satisfactory scheme 
 of classification, has as yet been suggested. The 
 names ' Gum ' and ' Balsam ' have been very loosely 
 employed in the past, and there is, in fact, an in- 
 sensible gradation from the limpid essential oils to 
 the solid resins. The essential oil known as Attar of 
 Rose is itself solid at ordinary temperatures, and re- 
 ference has already been made to the solid stearop- 
 tenes present in varying proportions in many others 
 of that series. When the resin is so incompletely 
 dissolved in the essential oil as to form a viscous 
 body, it is termed an oleo-resin, and it has been pro- 
 posed to confine the term * balsam ' to those fragrant 
 substances that contain cinnamic, or some analogous 
 acid, in addition to the volatile oil and resin of which 
 the turpentines alone consist. ' Gums,' properly so 
 called, are exudations from plants, soluble in water, at 
 least in part, forming with it a mucilage insoluble in 
 alcohol of 60 per cent, convertible by sulphuric acid 
 into dextrine, and with nitric acid yielding mucic and 
 oxalic acids. They are quite amorphous, being neither 
 organized like starch, nor crystallizable like sugar. 
 Resins, on the other hand, are insoluble in water, but 
 mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether, or 
 heated fatty oils; non-crystalline, incapable of subli- 
 mation, burning with a bright but smoky flame, con- 
 taining little oxygen and no nitrogen. A typical 
 resin is a pale yellow, transparent solid, with a glass- 
 
 10 
 
146 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 like fracture and little or no smell or taste. The 
 term ' Gum-resin' is a correct designation for various 
 inspissated plant-saps which contain both gum and 
 resin. 
 
 These definitions necessarily exclude that distinct 
 class of substances derived from the latex of plants, 
 and apparently present to some extent in all plants, 
 the caoutchoucs, or, more conveniently, ' Rubbers.' 
 These are insoluble in water, alcohol, or unconcen- 
 trated acid, and are essentially hydro-carbons, pro- 
 bably mixtures of two or more, together with an 
 oxidized substance. The introduction of Gutta 
 Percha in 1844, which will always redound to the 
 credit of the Society of Arts, and the discovery that 
 it, too, like Caoutchouc, might be made to unite 
 chemically with sulphur, thus becoming ' vulcanized ' 
 a discovery only made in the case of the other 
 substance a few years previously are among the 
 most revolutionary events in the history of commerce. 
 
 It will be convenient to deal first with the true 
 Gums, then with the Resins, oleo-resins and gum- 
 resins, and, lastly, with the Caoutchoucs and Guttas. 
 The chief gum-yielding plants are the following : 
 
 MIMOSE^E. 
 
 Acacia. Various species, of which more will be 
 said, yielding the ARABIC, SENEGAL, and WATTLE- 
 GUMS, and part of the INDIAN TRAGACANTH or 
 KUTEERA. 
 
 Prosopis dulcis, Kunth., and other species, such as 
 P. pubescens, Benth., of Mexico and Texas, and 
 
GUMS, RESINS, OLEO-RESINS, ETC. 147 
 
 P. juliflora, DC, of Jamaica, yielding the valuable 
 GUM MEZQUITE, now coming into use.* 
 Parkia, spp. 
 
 PAPILIONACE^E. 
 
 Astragalus gummifer, Labil., and other species of 
 south-west Asia, yielding the true TRAGACANTHf or 
 GUM DRAGON. 
 
 DRUPACE^L 
 
 Prunus and Amygdalus> spp., yield CHERRY GUM, 
 which is not used commercially. 
 
 BIXACE.E. 
 
 Cochlospermum Gossypium, DC., of India, the main 
 source of KUTEERA. 
 
 ANACARDIACE^E. 
 
 Anacardium occidentale, L., CADJII. 
 
 Spondias mangifera^ Pers., HOG-GUM. 
 
 Rhus Metopitim, L. 
 
 Odina Wodier, Roxb., GlNG, KUNNEE, SHIMPTEU, 
 MOOI. Growing in Travancore and the Coromandel 
 Coast, and used in dyeing, cloth-printing, and Indian 
 ink, worth ios. to 305. per cwt. ; but containing a 
 large percentage of insoluble matter, so, perhaps, only 
 useful here to adulterate other gums. Nevertheless, 
 as Dr. George Watt says :J * The gums of India have 
 
 * ' Pharm. Journ.,' vi (1875), p. 942. 
 
 f P. J. Giraud, ibid.^ 1878, No. 405; ' Pharmacographia,' 
 p. 152. 
 
 % ' Catalogue of Indian Exhibits : Colonial and Indian Ex- 
 hibition,' p. 137. Yet in 1886 we imported 33,581 cwt. of 
 ' unenumerated gums' from India, th'ice as much as from 
 Turkey. 
 
 10 2 
 
148 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 been entirely overlooked, and the result is that not 
 a single Indian gum is to-day of any commercial 
 value.' 
 
 AURANTIACE^E. 
 
 Feronia elephantum, Corn, WOOD-APPLE GUM, of 
 South-west India. Cheap and useful. 
 
 <&gle Marmelos, Corr., said to yield * a good 
 arable.' 
 
 MELIACE^E. 
 Melia Azedarach, L. 
 
 BOMBACE/E. 
 
 Bombax Malabaricum, DC., etc., MUCHERUS. 
 Adansonia digitata, L. 
 
 STERCULIACKfi. 
 
 Sterculia urens, Roxb., etc., of India, and 5. traga- 
 cantha, Lindl., etc., of tropical Africa. KUTEERA or 
 AFRICAN TRAGACANTH. 
 
 CACTACE^E. 
 Cactus and Opuntia, spp. 
 
 MORINGACE.E. 
 
 Moringa pterygosperma, Gaertn., a red gum, used in 
 Indian medicine. 
 
 BROMELIACE^E. 
 
 Puya, spp. CHAGUAL, from S. lago de Chili, re- 
 sembles Gum Arabic, 75 per cent, soluble. It has 
 only recently been introduced. 
 
GUMS, RESINS, OLEO-RESINS, ETC. 149 
 
 PALMACE.E. 
 Cocos nucifera, L. 
 
 Of these, the only group calling for further remarks 
 are the Acacia-gums. The chief gum-yielding species 
 are the following : 
 
 A. Senegal, Willd. ( A. verek, G. and P.), yielding 
 most of the best GUM ARABIC, PICKED TURKEY, 
 WHITE SENAAR, or GUM SENEGAL, the best from 
 Kordofan ; that from Senegal coming vid Bordeaux. 
 
 A. stenocarpa, Hochst. j SUAKIM or TALCA 
 
 A. Segal, Del., var. Fistula] GUM. 
 
 A. gummifera, Willd., MOROCCO, MOGADOR, or 
 BROWN BARBARY, according to Messrs. Hooker 
 and Ball. 
 
 A. horrida, Willd., CAPE. 
 
 A. arabica, Willd., BABUL or EAST INDIAN GUM 
 ARABIC, from Africa, but coming vid Aden and 
 Bombay. 
 
 A. Catechu, Willd., KHEIR. 
 
 A. pycnantha, Benth., GOLDEN WATTLE, of 
 Australia. 
 
 A. dealbata, Link., SILVER WATTLE, of Australia. 
 
 A. decurrens, Willd., BLACK or GREEN WATTLE. 
 
 A. homalophylla, A. Cunn., and perhaps other species. 
 
 CARAMANIA or BASSORA GUM, also known as HOG 
 TRAGACANTH, and containing only one per cent, of 
 soluble gum, is said to be derived from a Prunus or 
 Amygdalus. 
 
 Following an anonymous writer in the ' Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica/ vol. xx., we may subdivide the 
 Resins as follows : 
 
 i. COPALLINE or VARNISH RESINS, the purest, in- 
 
150 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 eluding AFRICAN COPAL, or GUM ANIME,* that of 
 ZANZIBAR (Bombay), from Trachylobium Horneman- 
 ianum, Hayne, as shown by Sir John Kirk ; that of 
 WEST AFRICA, from Guibortia copallifera, Bennett ; 
 that of SIBERIA, according to Mr. E. M. Holmes, from 
 a species of Idea; MEXICAN COPAL, JUTAHY-SEEA, 
 from Hymen&a Courbaril, L.,etc.; BRAZILIAN COPAL, 
 from Hymencea and Trachylobium martianum, Hayne ; 
 PINEY RESIN, or WHITE DAMMAR, or INDIAN COPAL, 
 from Vateria indica, L., and V. acuminata, Hayne, the 
 latter of Ceylon ; SAL DAMMAR, from Shorea robusta, 
 Gaertn., etc. ; DAMMAR, from Hopea robusta, Roxb., 
 etc. ; BLACK DAMMAR, from Canarium strictum, Roxb., 
 of Malabar; MASTIC, from Pistacia Lentiscus, L, and 
 BOMBAY MASTIC, from P. cabulica, Stocks, and P. 
 Khinjuk, Stocks ; LAC, produced by the punctures of 
 Schleichera trijuga, Willd., Butea frondosa, Roxb., 
 Ficus religiosa^ L., and many other trees rich in gum, 
 resin or saponaceous juice, by Coccus Lacca^ ; EAST 
 INDIAN DAMMAR (Dammar a orientalis, Lamb.); KAURI 
 or COWDIE GUM or RESIN (D. australis, Lamb.), of 
 New Zealandj ; produced also by D. ovata, Moore, 
 and D. Cookii ; D. lanceolata, Vieill., of New Caledonia, 
 D. robusta, C. Moore, of Queensland. It is also found 
 fossil. Selected, it is worth from 1155. to2OOs. per 
 cwt. It is, as is all Dammar, an introduction dating 
 mainly from 1851 ; but 5,500 tons were imported in 
 1880. D. vitiensis, Seem., yields FIJIAN COPAL. 
 SANDARAC, from Callitris quadrivalvis , Vent., of 
 
 * O. Crease, 'Pharm. Journ./ vii (1847), p. 15. 
 f J. E. O'Conor, ' Lac,' Calcutta, 1876. 
 J ' Pharm. Journ.,' xi (1881), p. 939. 
 
GUMS, RESINS, OLEO-RESINS, ETC. 151 
 
 Algeria, and C. verrucosa, R. Br., robusta, R. Br., and 
 cupressiformis, Vent, of Australia ; and DRAGON'S 
 BLOOD (Dcemonorops Draco \ Mart.).* 
 
 2. SOFT or OLEO-RESINS, including MANILA ELEMI 
 (Canarium commune, L.) ; MEXICAN ELEMI (Amyris 
 elemifera, Royle), introduced about 1850; BRAZILIAN 
 ELEMI (Idea Idcariba, DC, etc.) ; EAST INDIAN 
 TACAMAHAC, produced by Calophyllum inophyllum, 
 L., C. Calaba, L., Idea Tacamahaca, H., B., and K, ; 
 AMERICAN, by Elaphrium tomentosum, Jacq., and 
 Populus balsamifera, L. ; WOOD OIL or GURJUN 
 BALSAM, from Dipterocarpus alatus, Roxb., and D. 
 turbinatus, Gaertn., of Burma, etc.; CHIAN TURPEN- 
 TINE (Pistacia Terebinthus, L.) ; TURPENTINE, Com- 
 mon FRANKINCENSE and THUS, from the various 
 Conifer ce, and CANADA BALSAM (Abies balsamea, Mill.). 
 
 3. FRAGRANT OLEO-RESINS and GUM-RESINS, 
 including MYRRH (Balsamodendron Myrrha^ Nees) ; 
 BDELLIUM or GOOGUL (B. Roxburghii, Arn., or B. 
 Mukul, Hook.f) ; BALM OF GILEAD or MECCA BALSAM 
 (B. Opobalsamum, Kunth, or B. Berry t) ; OLIBANUM 
 or FRANKINCENSE (Boswellia Carteri, Birdw.) ; BEN- 
 ZOIN (Sty rax Benzoin, Dry.) ; STORAX (Styrax offi- 
 dnale, L.), no longer obtainable ; LIQUID STORAX 
 (Liquidambar orientalis, Mill.); BALSAM OF PERU 
 (Myroxylon Pereirce, Klotzsch) and of TOLU (M. 
 Toluiferum, H. B. K.) and LABDANUM (Cistus creticus, 
 L., var. labdaniferus}. 
 
 4. FETID GUM-RESINS, including AMMONIACUM 
 (Dorema Ammoniacum, Don); AsAFGETiDA (Ferula 
 
 * * Pharmacographia/ p. 609. 
 t Journ. of Botany, 1849. 
 
152 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Narthex> Boiss., and F. Scorodosma, Benth.) ; GAL- 
 BAN UM (F. galbaniflua, Boiss. and Buh., and F. 
 rubricaulis, Boiss.) ; OPOPONAX (Opoponax Chironium, 
 Koch), and SAGAPENUM (Ferula sp.). (See pp. 96, 97.) 
 
 5. MEDICINAL RESINS, including GAMBOGE, GUAIA- 
 CUM, EUPHORBIUM and COPAIBA ; to which may be 
 added DlKA MALI, from Gardenia hicida, Roxb. ; and 
 
 6. EXTRACT RESINS, including SCAMMONY, JALAP, 
 
 PODOPHYLLUM, CHURRUS (from Hemp) and CUBEBS. 
 
 The Natural Orders yielding these resins are : 
 
 LEGUMINOS^E: Myrospermum> Copaifera, Trachy- 
 lobium, Hymencea. 
 
 ANACARDIACE^E : Pistacia, Rhus. 
 
 AMYRIDACE.E : Boswellia, Iczca, Bursera, Cana- 
 rium, Amyris, Balsamodendron, Elaphrium. 
 
 ZYGOPHYLLACE.E : Guaiacum. 
 
 EUPHORBIACE^ : Euphorbia. 
 
 DIPTEROCARPACE.E : Vateria, S/wrea, Hopea, Dry- 
 obalanops, Dipterocarpus^ Vatica. 
 
 GUTTIFER^E : Garcinia, Calophyllum. 
 
 ClSTACE^ : Cistus. 
 
 UMBELLIFER^E : Ferula, Opoponax^ Dorema. 
 
 RUBIACE^E : Gardenia. 
 
 CONVOLVULACE^E : Convolvulus, Ipomcea. 
 
 STYRACACE^:: Styrax. 
 
 HORACES : Fie us. 
 
 ALTINGIACE^: : Liquidambar. 
 
 LILIACE^E: Xanthorrhcea, yielding Gum Acaroides, 
 Botany Bay or Black-boy Resin, first introduced about 
 1850.* 
 
 * P. L. Simmonds, 'American Journ. of Pharm.,' 1857, p. 226 ; 
 1866, p. 465- 
 
GUMS, RESINS, OLEO-RESINS, ETC. 153 
 
 PALMACE^E : Damonorops. 
 
 CONIFERS : Abies, Pinus, Dammara, Callitris. 
 
 In this classification no place has been found for 
 the CAMPHORS, which are, as has been pointed out, 
 the stearoptenes of essential oils rather than true 
 resins. Of CAMPHOR there are, commercially speak- 
 ing, three kinds : 
 
 (i.) COMMON or LAUREL CAMPHOR, from Camphora 
 officinarum, Nees. ( = Laurus, or Cinnamonium, Cam- 
 phord), of China and Japan, grown mainly in Formosa, 
 which, since 1868, has been free to European trade. 
 
 (ii.) BORNEO or MALAY CAMPHOR or KAPUR 
 BARUS, shipped from Barus, sometimes called BAM- 
 BOO CAMPHOR, from its mode of packing, from 
 species of Dryobalanops. 
 
 (iii.) NGAI CAMPHOR, of China, unknown in 
 Europe, though 3,000 worth is annually exported 
 from Canton. It is derived from Blumea grandis, DC., 
 a tall weed of the Tenasserim provinces, and from B. 
 balsamifera, DC., and is used in the ink-manufacture.* 
 
 Though INDIA-RUBBER and other forms of CAOUT- 
 CHOUC have long been known, the Caoutchouc trade 
 may truly be said to be that of the last quarter of a 
 century. For in 1830 we only imported 464 cwt., in 
 1840, 6,640 cwt, in 1850, 7,616 cwt., but in 1870, 
 152,118 cwt., and in 1886, 194,748 cwt. Nearly half 
 of this last amount, which is exclusive of GUTTA 
 PERCHA, came from Brazil, the Gold Coast and 
 Bombay contributing the next largest amounts. The 
 enormous extension of the trade between 1850 and 
 
 * Bentley and Trimen, iii, pi. 222, ' Pharmacographia,' pp. 458- 
 466. 
 
154 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 1870 was no doubt owing to the general adoption of 
 the process of vulcanizing. Until the introduction, a 
 few years ago, of the remarkably cheap and protean 
 material known as CELLULOID, the useful, and even 
 necessary, appliances to which Rubber or Vulcanite 
 alone was applicable seemed practically infinite. 
 Naturally the Tropics, where alone the trees seem 
 to produce the abundant latex required, have been 
 ransacked for new Rubber-yielding species. These 
 seem to grow mainly between the isotherms of 70 F., 
 where the annual rainfall is about 90 inches. The chief 
 kinds in commerce are American : Para, Carthagena 
 (from New Granada), Ceara ; West Indian: Guaya- 
 quil, from Ecuador, Pernambuco, Maranham, Nicar- 
 agua, Honduras, and Guatemala; Asiatic: Singapore, 
 Assam, Penang, Java, Siam and Borneo; and African: 
 Madagascar and West Coast. Of these, the PARA, 
 or CAHOUT-CHOU,from the Amazon valley, is the most 
 valuable. It is the produce of Hevea guianensis, Aub., 
 brasiliensis, Mull. Arg., Spruceana, Mull. Arg., /#&'- 
 folia, Mull. Arg., rigidifolia, Mull. Arg., and discolor, 
 Mull. Arg. CEARA RUBBER is derived from Manihot 
 Glaziovii, Muell. Arg. ; that of Pernambuco from 
 Hancornia speciosa, Gomes, the MANGABEIRA RUBBER- 
 TREE. The WEST INDIAN RUBBER comes from the 
 mainland, and is the produce (as is that of Carthagena, 
 Guayaquil, Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala, 
 known as the 'Ule group') of Castilloa elastica, Cerv., 
 and C. Markhamiana, Collins, the latter discovered 
 in 1872. The caoutchoucs of Assam or Sylhet, and 
 probably Singapore, are derived from Ficus elastica, 
 Roxb., F. laccifera, Roxb., and F. hispida, Roxb., and 
 
GUMS, RESINS, OLEO-RESINS, ETC. 155 
 
 that of Borneo, GUTTA SUSSU, from Willughbeia 
 (=Urceola) elastica, discovered in 1864. GUTTA 
 SlNGGARIP, of Malaysia, comes from W. firma, Bl., 
 and Leuconotis eugenifolius, A. DC. also contributes to 
 the rubber of Borneo and Perak. African rubber is 
 mainly procured from species of Landolphia, which, 
 with those of other rubber-yielding genera, have been 
 much elucidated by the researches of Mr. W. T. T. 
 Dyer, Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. Z. florida, 
 Benth., furnishes MBUNGU RUBBER from the East 
 Coast, occurring also on the West ; L. Kirkii, Dyer 
 (MATERE RUBBER), and L. Petersiana, Dyer, from the 
 East Coast, and L. owariensis, Beauv., from Central 
 and West Africa, being the chief remaining species. 
 L.florida occurs in Angola, and L. Heudelotiim Senegal. 
 Ficus Brasii, R. Br., also yields rubber at Sierra Leone. 
 Various species of Vahea, V. Madagascar iensis, VoA- 
 HR or VOA-CANJA, V. Comorensis, VoA-HiN^, V. 
 gummifera, etc., contribute the rubber of the Mozam- 
 bique coast, Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, 
 second only in quality to that of Para. In 1875 Mr. 
 Robert Cross, who assisted so materially in the intro- 
 duction of Cinchona into India, obtained plants of 
 Castilloa elastica, and in 1876 some of Hevea bra- 
 siliensis for Ceylon and India, where there is every 
 prospect of their cultivation succeeding. 
 
 GUTTA PERCHA is obtained from various Sapota- 
 ceous plants in the Malay Archipelago, its name being 
 perhaps more correctly GUTTA TABAN, Percha being 
 the name of an island where it is obtained. In 1822, 
 Dr. William Montgomerie noticed the substance in 
 use at Singapore, and, being again stationed there in 
 
1 56 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 1842, sent home specimens and gave a lecture on the 
 subject before the Society of Arts, whose gold medal 
 he received. The trees from which it is obtained 
 range from 6 or 10 N. to 10 S. lat, and from 100 
 to 120 E. long., and, being more easily so used, have 
 been felled in great numbers since 1845, ten trees 
 only yielding about 130 Ib. of gutta. This was the 
 amount sent over in 1844. In 1857, 4^ million Ib., 
 in 1876, 10 million, and in 1882 over 8 million Ib. 
 were imported, whilst the slackening of the supply has 
 already considerably enhanced the price. In 1881, 
 G. E. C. Beauvisage, published, at Paris, his ' Origines 
 Botaniques de la Gutta Percha,' in which he refers to 
 Dichopsis Gutta, Benth., the * taban ' of the Rion Archi- 
 pelago, 'percha/ 'derian,' ' dadu,' 'seroja,' * tambaga,' 
 and * balam,' to Isonandra macrophylla, De Vriese, the 
 second quality, ' putih/ to /. Motley ana, De Vriese, 
 the inferior * kotian,' and those of various other kinds 
 from the Banka Islands to other species of Isonandra. 
 The latest botanical account of the plants yielding 
 Gutta Percha, however, is that of Burck.* He states 
 that Palaquium Gutta, Burck. ( = Dichopsis} no longer 
 exists in a wild state, that most exported now being 
 * taban simpor/ PayenaMaingayi, while the best quality 
 is ' taban marah/ Palaquium oblongifolium, Burck. He 
 re-describes all the forms, and suggests as suitable 
 P. Borneense, Burck, P. Treiibii, Burck, P. Treubiiv&r. 
 parvifolium, Burck, and Payena Leerii, Burck, to which 
 may be added { Gutta jelutong,' Dyera laxiflora, Hook, 
 fil., from Selangor.f 
 
 * Ann. du jard. hot. Buitenzorg, v (1886), p. i. ' Pharm 
 Journ., 3 xvii (1886). f ' Kew Report,' 1881. 
 
DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS. 157 
 
 Among substitutes for Gutta Percha, the most 
 important is BALATA (Mimusops globosa^ Gaertn.), 
 introduced from British Guiana in 1859.* Another 
 likely to prove valuable is PAUCONTEE (Bassia ellip- 
 tica, Dalz.), from the West Coast of India,t whilst 
 MUDAR (Calotropis gigantea, R. Br.), Euphorbia Catti- 
 mandoo, Elliott, and other species of the same genus, 
 from the same country, will no doubt become 
 important. 
 
 PART V. DYES AND TANNING 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 IN no class of vegetable products has chemistry so 
 largely superseded the compounds prepared by 
 Nature, as it has in the case of those used in dyeing 
 and tanning. The invention of the great and ever- 
 lengthening series of aniline colours, and the prepara- 
 tion, in 1869, of Alizarine, the colouring-matter of 
 Madder, by synthesis, and now, again, the introduction 
 of the chrome-process in tanning, have had a most 
 striking, and, in some respects, not altogether a satis- 
 factory effect. Dr. George Watt, for instance, saysj 
 that ' these cheap colours have not only depraved the 
 tastes of the people, but have demoralized their 
 indigenous industries ;' much less Safflower, Lac. 
 Indigo and Cochineal being exported now than ten 
 years ago, whilst even Manjit, Saffron, and Myro- 
 
 * G. S. Jenman, ' Timehri,' iv, p. 219. 
 f Hugh Cleghorn, ' Paucontee,' Madras, 1858, 410. 
 t ' Catalogue of Indian Exhibits : Colonial and Indian Exhi- 
 bition,' p. 148. 
 
158 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 balans are imported from Persia, France, and Ceylon 
 respectively, instead of being produced at home. The 
 knowledge of indigenous dyes possessed by the people 
 is threatened, and turmeric, possibly from its use for 
 other purposes, is ' the only dye-stuff which seems to 
 have prospered, in spite of the introduction of aniline 
 colours/ In Europe and the Levant, artificial 
 alizarine has almost extinguished the cultivation of 
 Madder ; but, nevertheless, some new dyes of 
 botanical interest have been introduced during the 
 last half-century, whilst the general extension of trade, 
 consequent on the mere growth of our population, has 
 led not only to increased importation of the astringent 
 substances used both in dyeing and tanning, but also 
 to the introduction of novel substances for these 
 purposes. Among the former (new dyes) the most 
 interesting are the Indian MANJIT or MUNJEET 
 (Rubia cordifolia, L.), which is, however, but rarely 
 brought over, 525 tons arriving in 1850, but none in 
 1851 or 1852 ; the CHINESE GREEN INDIGO or Lo- 
 KAO, from the barks of Rhamnus chlorophorus , Dev., 
 and R. utilis> Dev., which, Mr. W. B. Hemsley states, 
 are identical with R. tinctorius, W. K., and R. dahurictis, 
 Pall., respectively, which has been superseded by the 
 less permanent aniline dyes, though much praised as 
 a novelty thirty years ago ;* and TOKIO PURPLE, the 
 Japanese Lithospermum erythrorhizon, which may 
 prove of use for colouring oils. Indigo and Orchil 
 have been prepared chemically, but not as yet in com- 
 mercial quantities. 
 
 As a tanning material, English Oak-bark stood 
 * Persoz., 'Comptes Rendus,' xxxv, 558. 
 
DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS. 159 
 
 almost alone ; but while the consumption of this 
 material has rather diminished, other substances have 
 been imported in continuously increased quantities. 
 One of the latest full accounts of these is that given 
 by Mr. Thomas Christy, 'New Commercial Plants 
 and Drugs/ No. 5 (1882), in which he classifies them 
 as barks, fruits, galls, leaves, roots, and extracts. 
 
 MIMOSA-BARK, or WATTLE, derived from Acacia 
 mollissima, Willd., decurrens, VJ'&\&., pycnantha, Benth., 
 and dealbata, Link., has been an article of import from 
 Australia and Tasmania for many years. The last- 
 mentioned is very inferior ; A. decurrens, var. mollis 
 ( = A. mollissima> Willd.), is the best. An extract, or 
 catechu, is prepared from the latter. A. retinodes, 
 Schlecht., is also valuable, as is also the BABUL BARK 
 (Acacia arabica, Willd.) of India, which is as yet hardly 
 known in England. 
 
 MANGROVE BARK (Rhizophora Mangle, L.) gives a 
 bad colour and quality to the leather if used alone, 
 but might prove useful if mixed with other materials. 
 
 RED QUEBRACHO (Loxopterygium Lorentzti, Griseb.) 
 is a hard wood from the River Plate, recently intro- 
 duced, difficult to use from its great density. Other 
 Quebrachos, viz., 'bianco ' (Aspidpsperma Quebracho), 
 'flojo' (lodina rkombifolia, Hook and Arn.), and ' tipa' 
 (Machcerium fertile, or Tipuana speciosa, Benth.), are 
 also used in South America, and 200 tons were im- 
 ported in 1880, at 4 IDS. per ton. 
 
 BALSAMOCARPON, the fruit-pod of Ccesalpinia brevi- 
 
 folia> the ALGARROBO of Chili, was introduced in 
 
 1876 ; but probably two or more species of Prosopis 
 
 are included under this name or ALGAROBILLA, P. 
 
160 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 pallida, Kunth, being * Algarobilla negro,' and P. 
 Algarobo being 'Algarobilla bianco.' 50 tons were 
 imported in 1880, 1 60 in 1881 (H. R. Proctor, ' Text- 
 book of Tanning/ p. 23). 
 
 Divi-Divi, the pods of Ccesalpinia coriaria, Willd., 
 of Central America, has been longer in general use.* 
 
 BETEL-NUT (Areca Catechu, L.) is recommended 
 by Mr. Christy. 
 
 MYROBALANS were only introduced about 1840, 
 but we now import seven or eight thousand tons from 
 India annually. The four varieties are the Chebulic 
 (Terminalia C/iebula, Retz.), Citrine (T. citrina, Roxb.), 
 Beleric or Bastard ( T. belerica, Roxb.), and the Emblic 
 (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.). They yield valuable 
 black and yellow dyes. 
 
 VALONIA, the 'cups' of Quercus ALgilops, L., together 
 with 'Cameta' and 'Cametina,' its young acorns, have 
 long been imported from the Levant. In addition to 
 the long-known galls of Q. infectoria, Oliv., in 1 847 the 
 first importations were made of those produced by 
 Aphis chinensis on Rhus succedanea, L., and R. semialata, 
 Murray, of Northern India, China, and Japan, known 
 as ' Wu-pu-tze ' or Chinese or Japanese galls, of which 
 we imported, mainly for exportation, in 1880, 51,083 
 cwt. at 503. to 703. per cwt. They yield 70 per cent, 
 of tannin. 
 
 Mr. Christy also recommends the Galls of 
 Tamarix. 
 
 SUMACH, the leaves and twigs of Rhus Coriaria, L., 
 R. typhina, L., and (Venetian) R. Cotinus, L., is an 
 old and valued material. 
 
 * * Pharm. Journ.,' v (1846), p. 443. 
 
DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS. 161 
 
 CANAIGRE is the root of the Texan Dock (Rumex 
 hymenosepalus, Torrey), recommended by Mr. Christy. 
 
 MIMOSA EXTRACT was sent from Australia as 
 early as 1823, but dropped out of notice till recently. 
 In 1 880 we imported 682,296 worth of various Bark- 
 extracts. 
 
 TERRA JAPONICA or GAMBIR, extract of Uncaria 
 gambir, Roxb., and U. acida^ "Hunt., of Singapore, of 
 which 3,234 cwt. were imported in 1830, we received 
 to the extent of over 23,000 tons in 1875. 
 
 HEMLOCK EXTRACT, from Tsuga Canadensis, Carr., 
 was first patented in 1864. 190,000 dollars' worth 
 was made in 1881, 305,000 dollars' worth in 1883. 
 
 CHESTNUT EXTRACT, from C&staneasativa^^.Jnas 
 been recently imported from the Continent ; and one 
 of the latest introductions, a result of the Edinburgh 
 Forestry Exhibition of 1884, is the bark of the Sal of 
 India (Shorea robusta, Gaertn.), which yields 32 per 
 cent, of tannin.* 
 
 KlNOS are too costly for tanning : EAST INDIAN is 
 obtained from the wood of Pterocarpus marsupium, 
 Roxb. ; AFRICAN from that of P. erinaceus, Poiret ; 
 BENGAL, PULAS, or DHAK, from Bute a frondosa, 
 Roxb. ; WEST INDIAN from Coccoloba uvifera, Jacq., 
 and AUSTRALIAN from Eucalyptus resinifera, Sm., etc. 
 
 Among dye-stuffs that have long been in use are 
 the following : 
 
 LOGWOOD (Hcematoxylon campccJiianum, L.), a Legu- 
 minous tree, native of Central America, introduced 
 into Jamaica in 1815, of which the heart-wood is 
 employed as a red or black dye. Its price varies 
 
 * ' Leather,' July, 1886. 
 
 1 1 
 
162 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 from $ to nearly 10 per ton, and we import from 
 40,000 to 60,000 tons annually.* 
 
 Ccesalpinia echinata, Lam., BRESIL DE ST. MARTHA, 
 an allied tree, yields NICARAGUA, LIMA, or PEACH 
 WOOD ; C. brasiliensis, L., now almost extinct, yields 
 HRAZILETTO-WOOD ; C. Sappan^., SAPPAN, or BUK- 
 KUM-WOOD, and its roots, YELLOW-WOOD or SAPPAN 
 ROOT ; C. Crista, L., possibly BRAZIL-WOOD ; Baphia 
 nitida, Afzelius, of West Africa, CAM-WOOD or BAR- 
 WOOD ; and Pterocarpus santalinus, L. fil., and Aden- 
 anthera pavonina, L., both large Indian leguminous 
 trees, yield RED SANDAL or RED SANDERS WOOD. 
 All these Leguminosae, except Yellow-wood, are used 
 as red dyes.f 
 
 FUSTIC or OLD FUSTIC, a fine yellow dye, is the 
 wood of a large West Indian tree of the order Moracese, 
 Madura tinctoria, Nutt, whilst the smaller branches 
 of the Anacardiaceous VENETIAN SUMACH, Rhus 
 Cotinus, L., are known as ZANTE FUSTIC or YOUNG 
 FUSTIC. 
 
 MADDER, the root of Rubia tinctorum, L., a British 
 plant, still considerably grown in France, and its 
 Indian ally, MUNJIT, R. cordifolia, L., have been 
 already referred to. 
 
 CHAY ROOT, Oldenlandia umbellata, L., a native 
 of Java and Coromandel, and the INDIAN MULBERRY 
 root, Morinda citrifolia, L., and other species possibly, 
 also belonging to the Rubiacece, are used in India as 
 red dyes, the latter, especially, for red cotton turbans. 
 
 TURMERIC, the rhizome of Curcuma longa> L., has 
 
 * ' Pharmacographia,' p. 186. Bentley and Trimen, ii, p. 86. 
 f Archer, ' Popular Economic Botany,' pp. 203-207. 
 
DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS. 163 
 
 been already referred to (p. 63, supra) as employed in 
 curry-powder, and no longer used as a dye. 
 
 SAFFLOWER, the dried inflorescences of the Com- 
 posite Carthamus tinctorius, L., cultivated in China, 
 India and Southern Europe, is largely consumed in 
 the manufacture of rouge. 
 
 SAFFRON, the stigmas of Crocus sativus, L., already 
 mentioned, not yielding a permanent yellow, is now 
 but little used as a dye. 
 
 YELLOW, or PERSIAN BERRIES, the unripe fruits of 
 the South European Rhamnus infectorius, L,, are im- 
 ported mainly from Smyrna, to the extent of about 
 450 tons annually. The inferior French ones are 
 known as AVIGNON BERRIES. 
 
 ORCHELLA WEED consists of several species of the 
 lichen Roccella ; R. tinctoria, DC., collected in South 
 America, Morocco, the Canary, Cape Verd, Azores, 
 Madeira and Sardinian islands, R. fuciformis, Ach., 
 collected in Madagascar, Angola, Madeira, and South 
 America, and other species. The red or blue liquid 
 ammoniacal extracts are known as ORCHIL or 
 ARCHIL, the dry powder as CUDBEAR, and the alka- 
 line solid preparation, made chiefly in Holland, as 
 LITMUS. The latter is well known as a test for acids 
 and alkalies.* 
 
 ARNATTO, the red pulp which covers the seeds of 
 the South American Bixa Orellaiia, L., is used as an 
 orange or yellow dye for silks, and for staining Dutch 
 cheese. 
 
 ALKANET ROOT, Ankanna tinctoria, Tausch., cul- 
 tivated chiefly in Southern Europe, and imported on 
 
 * Bentley ard Trimen, iv, p 1 . 301. 
 
 II 2 
 
164 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 a small scale, is a Boraginaceous plant, used as a red 
 stain for furniture in imitation of rosewood, and, as is 
 also DRAGON'S BLOOD, which was referred to among 
 the resins (p. 119, supra), for giving a crimson colour 
 to oils. 
 
 QUERCITRON, the bark of the North American 
 Quercus tinctoria, L., though useful for tanning, is, 
 with us, mainly employed as a yellow dye. 
 
 INDIGO, though obtained by chemical synthesis, is 
 likely for some time to be mainly produced from the 
 Leguminous Indigofera tinctoria, L., /. Anil, L., /. 
 ccerulea, Roxb., natives of India, as a precipitate ob- 
 tained by soaking the plant in water. We imported 
 4,774 tons of this dye in 1882, as against 3,524 tons 
 in 1851. From it laundress's 'blue' is prepared. 
 
 GAMBOGE, though a valuable Water-colour, and 
 used also in colouring lacquer varnish, is not a true 
 dye. The best Pipe Gamboge, from Siam, is the 
 gum-resin of Garcinia Hanburii, Hook. fil. ; that of 
 Ceylon, of G. Morella, Desr. ; and that of Southern 
 India, of other species. 
 
 PART VI. FIBRES AND PAPER- 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 As in oils, gums, resins, rubbers, and tanning mate- 
 rials, so in fibres, the rapidly increasing population of 
 the civilized world and the extended needs of our 
 advancing refinement of life would alone account for 
 the necessity of a search for new material to be carried 
 further afield. Textile fabrics and cordage have for 
 
FIBRES AND PAPER-MATERIALS. 165 
 
 ages created a constant demand upon the supply of 
 fibrous material in the Vegetable Kingdom ; but to 
 these two other channels for the consumption of that 
 material have been added in modern times. There is 
 a constant and considerable demand for certain stalks 
 and fibres of vegetable origin for the manufacture of 
 various kinds of brooms and brushes, and vastly 
 more important there is now an enormous demand 
 for fibrous material, either fresh, or in the form of 
 rags, for the manufacture of paper. As many fibres 
 are thus used both for textiles and for paper- 
 maki-ng, it will be inconvenient to enumerate them 
 entirely separately. It may be premised that vege- 
 table fibres fall practically under three categories as 
 to their origin. They are either hairs from the seeds, 
 consisting of unaltered cellulose, or they are the ligni- 
 fied bast-fibres or inner bark mostly of Dicotyledons, 
 or, lastly, they may be the entire fibre-vascular bundles 
 of Monocotyledons. With the exception of cotton, 
 derived from the seeds of various species of Gossy- 
 pitim, the first class are unimportant, having no 
 staple, and being, accordingly, only used for stuffing 
 cushions, etc., and that, as a rule, only locally. 
 
 In volume ix. of the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica ' 
 (1879) Mr. James Paton gives a very complete table, 
 compiled from Dr. H. Miiller's Pflanzenfaser in Hof- 
 mann's 'Bericht uberdieEntwickelungder chemischen 
 Industrie.' This enumerates the source, locality, and 
 principal uses of all vegetable fibres hitherto em- 
 ployed for textiles and cordage, etc., to any consider- 
 able extent. It includes (pp. cit., p. 132) 20 fibres 
 of the first of the above-mentioned three classes, 43 
 
1 66 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 of the second, and 23 of the third ; many of these, 
 however, are only used locally, or have not, at all 
 events, ever been articles of English home commerce. 
 Nevertheless, so rapid has been the advance in this 
 industry that several fibres not included in this list 
 are now in use, and considerable influence in the in- 
 troduction of wood-pulp as a paper-material and of 
 various new fibres must fairly be ascribed to such 
 exhibitions as the Edinburgh Forestry Exhibition of 
 1884, and the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 
 1886. 
 
 In 1837 Sunn-hemp, China-grass, and Rhea and 
 Pineapple fibre were not in use in this country ; 
 whilst the Jute industry at Dundee was on a some- 
 what tentative scale. In 1851 the fibres just men- 
 tioned had been recently introduced, and those of 
 Marsdenia tenacissima, Wight and Arn., the ' Jetee ' 
 or' Rajmahal bow-string hemp,' of Calotropis gigantea, 
 Br., and C. procera, R. Br., the * Yercum ' or ' Mudar,' 
 of Sanseviera zeylanica, Willd., the ' Moorghae ' or 
 ' Marool,' and of Hibiscus, were recommended. 
 
 Again, in 1851 Paper was made entirely from rags 
 or straw, whilst in 1875 we imported, as against 52,500 
 tons of rags and pulp, 141,900 tons of Alpha, or so- 
 called Esparto Grass. This latter amount rose the 
 following year to 150,000 tons, and by 1880 to 200,000. 
 In 1877, among materials employed in this manufac- 
 ture, Professor Archer enumerates* rags, straw, alpha, 
 gunny-bags (jute), and experimentally Chamcerops 
 kumilis, L v Agave, Musa textilis (Manila hemp), Phor- 
 mium tenax, Forst. (New Zealand flax), Broussonetia, 
 
 * Bevan's ' Manufacturing Industries.' 
 
FIBRES AND PAPER-MATERIALS, 167 
 
 Bamboo, Hop-bines, Peat, Bracken and Sawdust. 
 Wood was then scarcely in use here, though employed 
 in Sweden and Belgium. 
 
 For a detailed history of paper -materials, with 
 especial reference to wood-pulp, reference may be 
 made to ' Forestry and Forest-products ' (Edinburgh, 
 1884). It shows that our Patent Office teems with 
 specifications for making paper from all kinds of 
 material, few of which have succeeded. In 1852 
 Mr. Thomas Routledge introduced the Spanish fibre 
 Alfa, but its general adoption arose from the threatened 
 scarcity of rags during the cotton famine of the Ameri- 
 can War, which followed immediately upon the repeal 
 of the paper-duty. This fibre cannot apparently be 
 delivered here for less than 4 73. per ton, so that 
 since 1880, and especially since 1884, the year of the 
 Edinburgh Exhibition, it is being almost completely 
 superseded by wood. Almost any wood can be used ; 
 but Aspen and other Poplars, Alder, Spruce and Pine 
 seem the most suitable, either from quality or quantity 
 available. There may be a future demand for many 
 cheap fibres, or for more expensive ones, if they can 
 first be used for textiles, for ( bagasse ' or refuse cane, 
 or for sugar-cane refuse ; but wood seems likely to 
 take the lead as a paper-material for many years to 
 come. Meanwhile the applications of paper, long so 
 varied in Japan, are greatly extending with us. At 
 Cleobury-Mortimer, Shropshire, coach-panels and 
 tram-wheels and black 'patent leather' is made 
 from it, whilst at Willesden it is water-proofed by 
 means of cupro-ammonium for roofing-purposes.* 
 
 * ' Paper Trade Review,' May 2yd> 1884. 
 
168 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 For cordage, at the present time, in addition to the 
 longer-known fibres, hemp, jute, Manila hemp, Sunn 
 hemp, and New Zealand flax, the four following 
 fibres are commonly employed. 
 
 MEXICAN GRASS, from Agave americana, L., and 
 other species, shipped from Tehuantepec, of which 
 19,000 cwt. have been imported. 
 
 SlLK GRASS, Agave vivipara, L. 
 
 PITA, Bromelia Karatas, L., of Mexico, and GRASS 
 or SlSAL HEMP, Agave sisalana, Engelm., from Yuca- 
 tan, which is now grown in Jamaica, and in London 
 is worth from 5 to 10 less than Manila hemp. 
 
 The following alphabetical list* refers only to the 
 remaining more important fibres used for textiles, 
 cordage, or paper: 
 
 Adansonia digitata, L., BAOBAB, from Angola, in 
 use for paper, 9 to 15 a ton. 
 
 Agave ainericana, L., PITA, mixed with Manila 
 hemp for cordage, matting, and the best papers, *j 
 to ;io a ton less than Manila hemp. 
 
 Ananas sativus, Mill., PINEAPPLE, from China, 
 Malacca, Java, Philippines, Mauritius, etc., for good 
 strong paper. 
 
 Areca catechu, L., spathe suggested for paper. 
 
 Arenga saccharifera, Labill., GOMUTI PALM. Ra- 
 menta, or VEGETABLE BRISTLES, suggested as a 
 covering for telegraph cables. 
 
 Attaleafunifera, Mart., BAHIA PlASSAVA. Ramenta 
 worth 15 to 2$ a ton for brush-making or cord- 
 age, and we import the bulk of the 5,000 tons annu- 
 ally exported. f 
 
 * Mainly from Spon's 'Encyclopaedia of Industrial Arts.' 
 f ' Pharm. Journ.,' ix (1850), p. 431. 
 
FIBRES A AD PAPER-MATERIALS. 169 
 
 Bambusa arundinacea, L., and B. vulgaris, Wendl., 
 yielding 5 to 10 tons of dry young shoots per acre ; 
 recommended by Mr. Routledge for paper. 
 
 Bcehmeria nivea, Hook, and Arn., B. Puya, Hook., 
 of Nepal, and perhaps other species, CHINA GRASS, 
 ORTIE DE CHINE, RAMIE, RHEA, capable of being 
 grown in the climate of Cornwall, a substitute for 
 cotton, the best flax, wool, silk, Pita, Manila hemp, 
 or Phonnium. Too dear for paper. 
 
 Broussonetia pnpyrifera, Vent., and B. Kcempferi, 
 Sieb., PAPER MULBERRY, used in Japan for paper, 
 and a little of it here in the best plate-paper ; but 
 costing 30 a ton.* 
 
 Calotropis gigantea, Br., YERCUM or MUDAR ; re- 
 commended for paper. 
 
 Cannabis sativa, L., HEMP, a native of Northern 
 India and temperate Asia, cultivated for centuries in 
 warm and temperate regions, is mainly used for 
 cordage. It is imported mostly from Russia, but 
 also from India, Italy, etc. 
 
 Gary ota ttrens, L., KlTTOOL or INDIAN GUT. The 
 ramenta have been imported since 1860 from Colombo, 
 at 3jd. to lod. a pound, for brushes. 
 
 Cocos nucifera, L., the COCOA-NUT, from the meso- 
 carp, or fibrous husk, of the fruit of which is obtained 
 the valuable fibre known as CoiR, used for cordage in 
 India, and imported in enormous quantities for mat- 
 ting from Ceylon, Bombay, etc. 
 
 Corchorus capsularis, L., and C. olitoritts, L., JUTE, 
 
 was manufactured tentatively in the last century at 
 
 Abingdon, and between 1825 and 1840 at Dundee. 
 
 From the latter date it has formed the staple industry 
 
 * R. H. Collyer, ' Rheea Fibre,' Calcutta, 1880, 8vo. 
 
1 70 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 of that town and of Arbroath, which are now, how- 
 ever, seriously rivalled by Dunkirk and Calcutta. In 
 1851 we imported 21,000 tons ; in 1866, 81,300 tons ; 
 in 1873, 231,245 tons; declining in 1875 to 170,830 
 tons, but rising again to 232,032 tons, valued at from 
 i 1 to 22 a ton, of which, consequently, only the 
 waste is available for paper.* 
 
 Crotalaria juncea^ L., the SUNN HEMP of India, 
 a Leguminous annual, extensively cultivated through- 
 out the country. 
 
 Daphne papyracea, Wall., the NlPAL PAPER-SHRUB, 
 suitable for plate-paper. 
 
 Gossypium herbaceutn, L., G. arbor eum, L., and G. 
 barbadense, L., Malvaceous plants, have on the outer 
 surface or testa of their seeds the unicellular hairs, 
 composed almost entirely of cellulose (C 6 H 10 O 5 ), 
 known as COTTON. G. herbaceum, L., was a native of 
 India. It has very hairy leaves, divided into three, five, 
 or rarely seven lobes, and flouers yellow with a purple 
 centre, or rarely wholly yellow, white or purple. G. 
 arboreum, L., a native of Tropical Africa, has thick, 
 glossy, deeply five or seven lobed leaves, and purple 
 flowers, often with a yellow centre. G. barbadense, 
 L., apparently the ancestral type of all the cottons 
 cultivated in America at the time of its discovery, 
 has almost smooth, three to five lobed leaves with 
 heart-shaped base, and yellow - flowers with a 
 crimson spot. All three species are now cultivated 
 in India, Egypt, and America, and there are numerous 
 hybrids and varieties. Sanskrit records carry back 
 the use of cotton to 800 B.C., and it may have been 
 
 * ' Pharm. Journ.,' ix (1850), p. 545. 
 
FIBRES AND PAPER-MATERIALS. 171 
 
 equally long known in Egypt, Nineveh, and Peru. 
 In 1886 we retained for consumption and manufac- 
 ture 671 026 tons of cotton, or more than 40 Ib. per 
 head of the population, and we exported cotton yarn 
 to the value of nearly 1 1 J millions sterling, and cotton 
 manufactures valued at over 57 millions sterling. The 
 refuse seeds yield a good oil-cake for cattle.* 
 
 Hibiscus esculentus, L., and H. cannabinus, L. ; 
 recommended. 
 
 Leopoldinia Piassaba, Wallace. Para Piassaba, of 
 which the ramenta are used for brushes, and fetch 
 25 to 45 per ton. 
 
 Linuni usitatissimwn, L., FLAX, already mentioned 
 (pp. 8 1 and 133, supra), for the valuable oil obtained 
 from its seeds, was cultivated for fibre in prehistoric 
 times, as evidenced by remains in the Swiss lake- 
 dwellings, and has been grown for ages in Egypt. 
 It will grow equally in very warm and in far colder 
 climates ; and though we import more than half our 
 supply from Russia, flax is one of the staple crops of 
 Ireland. We import nearly 100,000 tons of Flax and 
 Tow, or CODILLA OF FLAX, the rough or broken fibres 
 or combings, while we export linen yarn and manu- 
 factures to the value of over six millions sterling. 
 Being a true bast or lignified fibre, flax is far stronger 
 than cotton, and linen rags are still one of our chief 
 paper-materials.t 
 
 Macrochloa tenacissima, Kunth. (=Stipa), the entire 
 
 * J. Forbes Royle, ' On the Culture and Commerce of Cotton,' 
 1851 ; Archer, 'Popular Economic Botany,' pp. 170-181 ; ' Cata- 
 ogue of Indian Exhibits : Colonial and Indian Exhibition/ 
 pp. 124-126. 
 
 f ' Pharmacographia,' p. 91; Archer, 'Popular Economic 
 Botany,' p. 148. 
 
172 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 source of Alfa or Esparto, which is not derived from 
 Lygeum spartum, L. It was introduced in 1856 by Mr. 
 Thomas Routledge, and sells at 6 to 10 per ton.* 
 
 Musa textilis, Nees, Manila hemp, of which we im- 
 ported 407,000 cwt. in 1880, mainly for cordage, and 
 worth from 20 to 70 per ton. 
 
 Phormtum tenax, Forst, introduced from New 
 Zealand in 1822, and unsuccessfully planted in Ireland, 
 but now grown successfully in the Orkney Islands. 
 The demand exceeds the supply, and though there are 
 several varieties or qualities of the fibre, better rope 
 can be made from it even than from Musatextilis, and 
 it sells at from 17 to 22 per ton, the refuse only 
 being used for paper, t 
 
 Sida rhombifolia, L. (retusa), Queensland Hemp, 
 which grows like a weed, and is suitable for paper, but 
 costs 30 per ton. 
 
 Tilia europaa, L., the LINDEN or LlME, a British 
 tree, belonging to the same Natural Order as the Jute, 
 has an abundant, tough and flexible inner bark or 
 BAST; largely imported from Russia as RUSSIA 
 MATTING. 
 
 Tillandsia usneoides^ L., Spanish Moss or Vegetable 
 Horsehair, shipped from New Orleans, mainly for 
 stuffing. 
 
 Mr. Christy has recently recommended]: the fibre 
 of Musa Ensele, Gmel., of Abyssinia, which was re- 
 discovered by Mr. Plowden in 1853. In that year also 
 the source of the interesting Rice-paper of China was 
 ascertained as Fatsia papyrifera, Decaisne. 
 
 * L. Bastide, ' L'Alfa,' Oran, 1877, 8vo. 
 
 f W. Gibbs, 'New Zealand Flax,' London, 1865, 8vo. 
 
 % ' New Commercial Plants,' No. 9, p. 25. 
 
TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 173 
 
 At the time of the Crimean War various substi- 
 tutes were introduced for the Russian Linden Bast, so 
 largely used by gardeners and florists. Among these 
 were CUBA BAST, from Paritium elatum, G. Don., and 
 RAFFIA, the epidermis of the leaves of Raphia Ruffia, 
 Martius, a Palm of Madagascar, reaching us, via 
 Mauritius, in strips, J to f in. wide, and also from R. 
 tadigera, Martius, of Brazil, worth 40 or 50 a ton. 
 The former is now disused. 
 
 Among materials used in the manufacture of 
 brushes, besides the ' ramenta,' or fibres from the 
 petioles of various Palms, to which allusion has 
 already been made, we may mention two : BRUSH- 
 GRASS or ' Chiendent,' the wiry rhizomes of Chryso- 
 pogon Gryllus, Trin., a native of the South of Europe ; 
 and BROOM-CORN, or * Brush/ the dried rachides of 
 the panicles of the species of Sorghum cultivated 
 at Schenectady, Montgomery, and elsewhere in the 
 United States, from 1843, especially by the Shaker 
 communities.* 
 
 PART VII. TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 
 
 THE greatly increased use of iron has by no means 
 diminished the demand for wood for purposes of 
 domestic architecture, though it has undoubtedly 
 done so in the case of that required for ship-building. 
 At the same time, the natural growth of population 
 and increase of houses and ordinary expansion of the 
 trades employing wood have caused a greatly in- 
 
 * P. L. Simmonds, ' Common Products of the Vegetable 
 Kingdom ' (1854), and Spon's 'Encyc. Indust. Arts,' p. 543. 
 
174 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 creased demand, especially for the soft woods of the 
 Baltic and of Canada. The increase of mining has 
 caused the home supply of pit-props to fall far short 
 of the demand ; whilst whole tracts of forest in 
 Sweden are now annually cleared by the require- 
 ments of the wooden match-manufacture alone. 
 
 Recklessness in the past had in 1875 reduced the 
 valuable forests of Box-wood in Mingrelia to the 
 verge of extinction, and the costliness of the wood 
 has caused, in spite of the competition of other 
 methods of engraving, an anxious search for some 
 efficient substitute. Dividing woods into those re- 
 quired for this purpose, those used for walking-sticks, 
 etc., those used for ornamental purposes, veneering 
 and furniture, and those mainly employed as timber 
 in works of construction, we may first transcribe the 
 list of about 25 proposed substitutes for Box, given 
 in a valuable paper contributed to the * Journal of the 
 Society of Arts/ in 1886, by Mr. John R. Jackson, the 
 able Curator of the Kew Museums. 
 
 PITTOSPORE^E. 
 
 Pittosporum imdulatum, Vent., Australia, where it 
 is know as ' Box.' Introduced experimentally in 1862, 
 but inferior. 
 
 P. bicolor, Hook., New South Wales and Tasmania : 
 superior to the former. 
 
 Bursaria spinosa, Cav. : equal to inferior Box, but 
 Bblunts tools ; the OX-TREE of Tasmania. 
 
 MELIACE.E. 
 
 Swietenia mahagoni, L. : only suited for coarse 
 work. 
 
TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 175 
 
 IL1CINEJB. 
 
 Ilex Opaca, L., North America : useful for turning, 
 but inferior to Cornusflorida, L., for engraving. 
 
 CELASTRINE.E. 
 
 Elceodendron australe, Vent., of Australia : used 
 there for coarse work. 
 
 Euonymus Sieboldianus, Blume, PAI'CHA, of China : 
 introduced in 1878, very useful, though inferior to 
 Box, Pear, and Hawthorn. 
 
 SAPINDACE^E. 
 
 Acer saccharinum, L. : much used for cabinet-making 
 and furniture, but not found suitable by engravers. 
 
 LEGUMINOS.E. 
 
 Brya ebenus, A. DC., GREEN EBONY of Jamaica, or 
 COCUS WOOD : used for flul.es, etc. ; equal to bad 
 Box. 
 
 ROSACES. 
 
 Pyrns communis, L. : used for carving and calico- 
 printers' blocks, but inferior to Hawthorn. 
 
 Amelanchier Sieboldianns, L., SERVICE TREE of 
 America : recommended for trial. 
 
 Cratcegus Oxyacantha, L., HAWTHORN : next best to 
 box of any known wood, but probably difficult to 
 obtain of any large size. 
 
 MYRTACE.E. 
 
 Eugenia procera, Poir., of the West Indies: suited for 
 coarse engraving. 
 
 CORNACE^. 
 
 Cornus florida, L., AMERICAN DOGWOOD or AMERI- 
 CAN Box : abundant, but only used for coarser en- 
 graving. 
 
1 76 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 ERICACEAE. 
 
 Rhododendron maximum, L.,7?. californicum, Hook., 
 and Kalmia latifolia, L., have all been strongly re- 
 commended in America. 
 
 EPACRIDACE^E. 
 
 Monotoca elliptica, R. Br., of Australia : found 
 unsuitable. 
 
 EBENACE.E. 
 
 Diospyros texana : small, but nearly equal to the best 
 box. 
 
 D. virginiana, L. : used for shuttles. 
 
 D. ebenum, Koenig : nearly equal to Box. 
 
 APOCYNACE^:. 
 
 Hunteria zeylanica, Gaertn.: used in Ceylon, and 
 useful, if sufficiently abundant. 
 
 BIGNONIACE/E. 
 
 Tecoma pentaphylla, DC, of Brazil and the West 
 Indies: the most 'likely successor to Box,' called 
 WEST INDIAN BOX-TREE. 
 
 BUXINE^E. 
 
 Buxus Macowanii, Hook, fil., the CAPE Box, is 
 now considerably used, and closely resembles B. 
 sempervirens. It is not, however, plentiful in South 
 Africa. 
 
 CORYLACE^. 
 
 Carpinus Betulus, L., the HORNBEAM, and Ostrya 
 virginica, Willd., have been recommended. 
 
TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 177 
 
 Our knowledge of the botanical sources of the 
 bamboos, canes, and sticks used at the present day 
 for walking-sticks, umbrella-handles, etc., is most 
 imperfect. Such as it is, it has been ably sum- 
 marized by Mr. J. R. Jackson.* Only twenty years 
 ago our imports, to supplement home-grown oak, ash, 
 blackthorn and holly, consisted almost exclusively of 
 bamboos and of Partridge and Tonquin canes. We 
 now import more than fifty different species, from 
 Singapore, China, the West Indies, Algeria, and the 
 Continent of Europe, twenty-nine million sticks coming 
 annually from the East, three million from Europe, 
 and two million from Algiers, the total import being 
 valued at .300,000. Among exceptional structures 
 used for these purposes are the JERSEY CABBAGE, a 
 tall variety of Brassica oleracea, L., produced by 
 stripping off the lower leaves, light but weak; the 
 so-called 'THISTLE,' the stems of the MULLEIN 
 (Verbascum T/iapsus, L.), a British plant ; the TEAZLE, 
 the fasciated and consequently twisted stalks of the 
 FULLER'S TEAZLE (Dipsacus fullonum, Mill.), im- 
 ported in large numbers from the South of France, 
 but having no strength ; and the triangular midribs 
 of the leaves of the DATE-PALM (Phoenix dactylifera, 
 L.), imported from Algiers. Those most commonly 
 cut out of the solid log are OAK (Quercus Robur, L.) 
 home-grown; CEYLON or MACASSAR EBONY (Dios- 
 pyros Ebenum, Kcenig) ; and the PALMYRA PALM 
 (Borassus flabelliformis, L.), of India. Those most 
 commonly grown in England are ASP, or APSE 
 (Populus tremula, L.), valued for ligthness; Asil 
 
 * 'Journ. Soc. Arts,' 1888. 
 
 , 12 
 
i ?8 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 (Fraxinus excelsior, L.) ; BlRCH (Betula alba, L.) ; 
 BLACKTHORN (Pr units spinosa, L.), also imported 
 from Ireland ; CRAB (Pyrus Mains, L.) ; FURZE 
 (Ulex europceus, L.) ; HOLLY (Ilex Aquifolium, L.), 
 much used for driving- whips ; HORNBEAM (Carpinus 
 Betulus, L.); MAPLE (Acer campestre, L.) ; MOUN- 
 TAIN ASH (Pyrus Aucuparia, L.) ; OAK and WHITE- 
 THORN (CratcEgus Oxyacantha, L.). Among those 
 imported from the Continent are CHERRY (Prunus 
 Cerasus, L.), from Austria and Hungary, especially 
 for pipe-stems ; CHESTNUT (Castanea sativa, Sep.), 
 from France; CORK OAK (Quercus Stiber, L.), from 
 Spain ; DOGWOOD (Cornus sanguinea, L. ; TEAZLE, 
 GUELDER ROSE, or BALKAN ROSE ( Viburnum 
 Opulus, L.), from the Balkans ; HAZEL (Corylus 
 Avellana, L.) ; and MEDLAR (Pyrus gennanica, L.) r 
 from France. From Algeria we get the CAROB, or 
 CARONBIER (Ceratonia Siliqua, L.) ; the CORK OAK, 
 DATE PALM, EUCALYPTUS (Eucalyptus Globulus, Lab.), 
 specially cultivated for this purpose ; MYRTLE, pos- 
 sibly Myrtus communis, L. ; NAN A CANES (Arundo 
 Donax, L.) ; OLIVE (Olea europcea, L.) ; ORANGE 
 (Citrus, spp.) ; BLACK ORANGE, a curious trade name 
 for the Broom (Cytisus scoparius, Link.) ; and POME- 
 GRANATE (Punica Granatum, L.) ; besides the BAY- 
 TREE, or LAURIER THYN, some species of Eugenia. 
 From the East Indies we get numerous RATTAN 
 (Calamus, spp.) and TONQUIN (Arundinaria, spp.) 
 CANES, BAMBOOS, species of Bambusa and Arundi- 
 naria ; from China, the so-called CAROLINA REED, 
 also an Arundinaria from the same country, the most 
 valuable MALACCA CANE (Calamus scipionum, Lour.> 
 
TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 179 
 
 the PALMYRA PALM, the undetermined PARTRIDGE 
 CANE of China, the PENANG LAWYER (Licuala 
 acutifida. Mart.), the RAJAH CANE (Eugeissonia minor, 
 Beccari) of Borneo, the WHANGEE BAMBOO (Phyllo- 
 stachys nigra, Sieb. and Zucc.) of Japan, and EBONY 
 from Ceylon. BOXWOOD, obtained from Persia, is 
 used for sticks as well as for engraving. From Aus- 
 tralia we have the LOYA CANES (Calamus australis 
 Mart.), the MiDGEN (Kentia monostachya, F. von 
 Muell.), a palm, and the scented MYALL (Acacia 
 homalophylla^ A. Cunn.), used for pipes. From the 
 West Indies, the BEEF-WOOD of Cuba, probably 
 Ardisia coccinea ; the BRIAR (Zanthoxylum Clava- 
 Herculis, L.), the little-used CEDAR (Juniperus vir- 
 giniana, L.), the COFFEE (Coffea arabica, L.), the 
 FLOWERED EBONY, or Cocus (Brya Ebenus, A.DC.), 
 the PARTRIDGE-WOOD (Andira inermis, Kunth.), the 
 PIMENTO of Jamaica (Pimento, officinalis> Lindl.), and 
 various doubtful woods, such as BLACK FORK, and 
 GRU-GRU, a palm. The valued LANCE- WOOD, used 
 for shafts, fishing-rods, bows, etc., at once strong and 
 elastic, is Duguetia quitarensis, Benth., of Guiana ; the 
 SNAKE-WOOD, also known as LETTER-WOOD or 
 LEOPARD-WOOD, is Brosimum Aubletii, Pcepp. ; and 
 the BRAZILIAN OAK, or CEYLON VINE, imported 
 from Bahia, is quite undetermined. 
 
 As with canes, so with ornamental and even long- 
 known timber-woods, many kinds are very imperfectly 
 known to botanists, being sent down to the coast with- 
 out flowers, leaves, or even bark to aid in their deter- 
 mination. The most important woods used for furni- 
 ture, veneering, and other ornamental purposes are : 
 
 12 2 
 
i8o THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 OAK (Quercus Robur, L.), largely grown in England, 
 and also imported, that from Riga being the best, 
 owing to the 'figuring' produced by its medullary 
 rays. It is used in veneering.* The WHITE OAK 
 (Q. alba, L.) of North America is less valuable. 
 
 PITCH FINE (Pinus australis, Michx.), imported 
 from Darien, Savannah, etc., is, next to oak, the 
 wood that enters most largely into church, school, 
 and house fittings, the better specimens being used 
 in cabinet-work. 
 
 MAHOGANY (Swietenia Mahagoni, L.), first imported 
 from Honduras about 1725, but now mainly obtained 
 from Cuba, under the name of SPANISH MAHOGANY, 
 has long been a favourite furniture wood, and is much 
 used in veneers. It is also imported from Tabasco 
 and other parts of Mexico. 
 
 BEECH (Fagus sylvatica, L.), besides being consider- 
 ably grown, especially for seats of chairs, is also largely 
 imported, mainly from Hamburg and, in a manufac- 
 tured state, from Vienna, where it is used in bent- 
 wood furniture. It can be readily stained. 
 
 BlRCH (Betula alba, L.) is more used on the Con- 
 tinent than with us, but increasing quantities are 
 imported from the Baltic to our manufacturing dis- 
 tricts. The AMERICAN or QUEBEC BIRCH (B. lenta, 
 L.) is more used as a furniture wood, and when 
 ' figured ' or * curled ' is cut into veneers. It is now 
 largely imported in planks. 
 
 WALNUT (Juglans regia, L.) was much in demand 
 at the beginning of the century for gun-stocks, for 
 which the Italian-grown wood is still largely used. 
 
 * Thomas Laslett, 'Timber and Timber Trees,' 1875, p. 96. 
 
TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 181 
 
 It is also imported from the Black Sea and from 
 France, English-grown wood being pale, coarse, and 
 inferior. Burrs or excrescences frequently occur on 
 the trees, which yield mottled wood much valued for 
 veneers for pianos and other furniture. AMERICAN 
 WALNUT (/. nigra, L.), a more durable but more 
 monotonous and duller wood, is now more used than 
 /. regia for cabinet-work. 
 
 ASH (F raxinus excelsior , L.),much used in carriage- 
 building, is now also largely superseded for coach- 
 panels, cabinet-drawers, and furniture by the AMERI- 
 CAN, QUEBEC, or WHITE ASH (F. americana, L.). 
 
 BIRD'S-EYE MAPLE (Acer saccharinum, Wang.), a 
 spotted variety, is considerably imported as veneers 
 from the New England States. BOG MAPLE is the 
 same wood turned pale blue from being buried in 
 peat. 
 
 SATIN-WOOD (Chloroxylon Swietenia, DC.), imported 
 from Nassau, in the Bahamas, is one of our most 
 beautiful but scarcest furniture-woods. 
 
 CUBA, HONDURAS, or MEXICAN CEDAR (Cedrela 
 odorata, L.) is not a coniferous tree. It is used for 
 cigar-boxes and the interior of natural history cabi- 
 nets, its odour being obnoxious to insects. 
 
 PENCIL CEDAR, the similarly-coloured woods of 
 Juniperus virginiana, L., and J. bermudiana, L. are 
 now only used for lead-pencils. 
 
 ELM (Ulmus campestris, With., and U. montana, 
 Sm.), once used for linen-chests, is now little employed 
 save for coffins. Its burrs are, however, very orna- 
 mental. 
 
 HOLLY (Ilex Aquifolium, L.) is used for inlaying, 
 
182 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 especially for ' bands ' and ' strings ' and in Tunbridge 
 ware ; and, since it takes stains readily, it is also used 
 for imitating ebony. 
 
 SYCAMORE (Acer Pseudo-platanus, L.), known as 
 4 Plane 3 in Scotland, is a white wood, considerably 
 employed in turnery, for bread-platters, butter-moulds, 
 etc. ; but the true PLANE (Platanus occidentalis, L.) of 
 America, there known as BUTTON-WOOD, LACE- 
 WOOD, or HONEYSUCKLE-WOOD, is prettily figured, 
 and is coming into use for furniture and veneering. 
 
 POPLAR, WHITE, YELLOW, or VIRGINIAN POPLAR, 
 WHITEWOOD, or CANARY WHITEWOOD, are com- 
 mercial names for the wood of the TULIP - TREE 
 (Liriodendron tulipifera, L.) of the United States, 
 now coming into extensive use in carriage-building, 
 cabinet-making, and shop-fitting. 
 
 SWISS PINE is similarly the trade name for the 
 wood of the SILVER FIR (Abies pectinata, DC.) ; the 
 most sonorous of woods, which is imported from the 
 Continent for the bellies of violins and the sounding- 
 boards of pianos. 
 
 The Colonial and Indian Exhibition has called 
 attention to various useful woods of this class, such 
 as Cedrela Toona, Roxb., the TOON of India, THIT- 
 KADO of Burma, MOULMEIN CEDAR, or INDIAN 
 MAHOGANY of commerce ; PORCUPINE-WOOD, that 
 of the COCOANUT PALM (Cocos nucifera, L.) used in 
 inlaying; INDIAN ROSEWOOD (Dalbergia latifolia, 
 Roxb.) ; and especially Pterocarpus indicus, Willd., 
 the PADOUK, ANDAMAN REDWOOD, or BURMESE 
 ROSEWOOD, a handsome dark-red wood among Indian 
 timbers ; the MlRABOO (Afzelia palembanicd]^ RASSAK 
 
TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 183 
 
 (Vatica Rassack), and other species botanically unde- 
 termined, such as BlLLlAN and COMPASS from Borneo, 
 TRINCOMALEE WOOD (Berrya Ammomilla, Roxb.) 
 from Ceylon, the STINKWOOD (Ocotea bullata, Nees), 
 and other valuable timbers from Cape Colony ; the 
 SANTA MARIA (Calophyllum Calaba, Jacq.) and AN- 
 GELIN (Andira inermis, Kunth) of the West Indies, 
 and many others. There are still, however, unfortu- 
 nately, many of these which are not botanically deter- 
 mined. Such are the valuable AMBOYNA WOOD 
 from the Malay Archipelago, probably a species of 
 Pterocarpus, also known as KlABOOCA WOOD, the 
 various species of Dalbergia, and other genera from 
 both East and West, known as ROSEWOODS, and to a 
 less extent the EBONIES and SANDALWOODS. 
 
 Diospyros Embryopteris, Pers., of India, and D. Ebe- 
 num, Keen., of Ceylon, yield the true EBONY. D. 
 qucesita^hw., is the CALAMANDER WOOD ; but other 
 species, such as D. melanoxylon, Roxb., from India, and 
 from Tropical Africa, produce similar valuable woods. 
 
 Santalum album L. is the SANDAL-WOOD of India, 
 \ Freycinetianutn, Gaudich. and S . paniculatum, Hook, 
 and Arn. that of the Sandwich Islands, S. Yast, 
 Seem., that of Fiji, S. austro-caledoniciim, Vieill., 
 of New Caledonia, and 5. spicatum, A.DC. ( = 
 Fusanus) of West Australia. 
 
 As to timbers used for construction, we have infor- 
 mation in the papers by the veteran technologist, Mr. 
 P. L, Simmonds, in the 'Nautical Magazine' for 1874 
 and 1875, and in the late Mr. Thomas Laslett's 
 masterly work, 'Timber and Timber-trees' (1875). 
 Mr. W. Stevenson has reprinted from the ' Timber 
 
184 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Trades Journal ' (1888) a valuable series of articles on 
 1 The Trees of Commerce ;' and the present writer, in 
 addition to the mention of the uses of the species 
 grown in England in 'Familiar Trees ' (Cassell and 
 Co., 1885-88), has compiled a list of the chief timbers 
 of the world, arranged geographically, with their 
 scientific and vernacular names, under the title of 
 1 Economic Forestry' ('Transactions of the Scottish 
 Arboricultural Society,' vol. xi., pp. 382-480, 1887). 
 Of these many of the chief have been already men- 
 tioned under the two preceding classes, with the 
 exception of the Conifers. 
 
 Pinus sylvestris, L., under the names of DANTZIC 
 or RIGA FIR, REDWOOD, RED or YELLOW DEAL, is, 
 perhaps, imported in larger quantities than any other 
 wood. That from the White Sea and St. Petersburg, 
 and that shipped from Gefle and Soderhamn in 
 Sweden, is of fine quality ; but the bulk of that 
 imported comes from Dantzic and Riga. The timber 
 of old native Scots Firs in the North of Scotland is 
 beautifully figured, and has been much used for panel- 
 ling at Balmoral. The uses of this wood are infinite 
 masts, deck-planks, and beams in ship-building, 
 railway-sleepers, wood-paving, scaffolding, rafters, and 
 flooring, are among the chief. 
 
 P. resinosa, Aiton, the RED or RESINOUS 'PlNE of 
 commerce, a native of Canada and the United States, 
 is used in our dockyards, but not imported in large 
 quantities. 
 
 P. mitis, Michaux, the AMERICAN SOFT or YELLOW 
 PlNE, or NEW YORK PlNE of commerce, largely used 
 in American dockyards, is also sparingly imported 
 into England. 
 
TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 185 
 
 P. Strobus, L., the AMERICAN WHITE PINE of 
 commerce, the YELLOW PlNE of our dockyards, the 
 WEYMOUTH PINE of botanists, introduced by Lord 
 Weymouth at Longleat in the last century, is more 
 used in America than any other pine, especially in 
 house -building. In England it is imported from 
 Quebec, and used for masts and spars, carriage- 
 building, cabinet -making, and house -building, for 
 which it is unrivalled. ". 
 
 P. australis, Michaux, the PITCH PlNE, a native of 
 the Southern United States, is the most extensively 
 imported of American timbers. It is used for masts, 
 spars, beams, pit- props, wood-paving, wainscot, and as 
 already mentioned (p. 180 supra), furniture, and fur- 
 nishes most of the pitch and turpentine of the world. 
 
 P. Pinaster, Solander (P. maritima, Poiret), the 
 CLUSTER PINE of Southern France, is imported to 
 Cardiff for mining timber. 
 
 Picea excelsa, Link., the NORWAY SPRUCE or 
 WHITEWOOD, is extensively imported, the largest 
 timber coming from Riga, Memel, and Dantzic, the 
 best from St. Petersburg and Archangel. Whole 
 trees are used for scaffold-poles, ladders, and small 
 masts ; the whiteness of the wood causes it to be 
 used for kitchen tables and flooring; its cheapness, for 
 packing- cases 'and firewood; and it is also used for 
 paper-pulp. 
 
 P. alba, Link., and P. nigra, Link., and Tsuga 
 canadensis, Carriere, the WHITE, BLACK, and HEM- 
 LOCK SPRUCES of North America, are largely im- 
 ported from New Brunswick and the rest of Canada, 
 especially for carpenters' work.. 
 
 Larix europcea, DC., the LARCH, is exceptionally 
 
i86 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 durable, and is used on the Continent for water-pipes, 
 casks, beams, and cabinet-work ; and in England for 
 hop-poles, fencing, pit-props, tramway-sleepers, and 
 wheelwrights' work. Affording a rapid return to 
 capital, even on poor mountain-land, no tree is now 
 so extensively planted in Britain. 
 
 Pseudotsuga Douglasii^ Carriere, the OREGON PlNE, 
 or DOUGLAS or NOOTKA FIR, abundant in North- 
 west America, furnishes fine, straight, and durable 
 timber, valuable for spars, but, from occasional want 
 of cohesion between the annual layers, not so good 
 for topmasts as Dantzic or Kauri Pine. The flagstaff 
 at Kew, of this wood, is 159 feet long. Though 
 more rapid in its growth, and probably, therefore, less 
 durable in Scotland than in Oregon, this species 
 seems in many respects more valuable than Larch. 
 
 Dammara australis, Lambert, the KAURI or COWDIE 
 PlNE of New Zealand, largely used there and in 
 Australia, is for size, lightness, elasticity, strength, 
 and durability unrivalled, whether for masts or decks. 
 It also yields abundance of the valuable Kauri gum 
 or resin. 
 
 In 1851 the eight timbers classed Ai for ship- 
 building at Lloyd's were OAK (Quercus Robur, L.), 
 LIVE OAK (Q. virens, Ait.), AFRICAN OAK (Swictenia 
 senegalensis Desv.), TEAK, SAL, GREEN HEART, MORA, 
 and IRON-BARK, of which GREENHEART (Nee- 
 tandra Rodi&i, Schomb.) and MORA (Mora excelsa, 
 Benth.), had then been but recently introduced 
 from British Guiana ; whilst IRON-BARK (Eucalyptus 
 resiniftra, Sm.) was only added to the list during 
 the Exhibition. 
 
TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 187 
 
 Quercus virens, Aiton, the AMERICAN LIVE OAK, 
 an evergreen, growing near the coast, especially in 
 Florida, yields small and crooked timbers, dark- 
 coloured, hard, tough, heavy, with a twisted grain, 
 and stronger than any other oak. It is largely used 
 in American dockyards, and for mallets and cogs. 
 
 Swietenia senegalensis, Desv., AFRICAN OAK, TEAK 
 or MAHOGANY, a dark-red, very hard, strong, fine- 
 grained wood, is imported from Sierra Leone, and 
 used for keels, beams, etc. 
 
 Tectona grandis, L. fil., the TEAK, a native of 
 Southern India, Burmah, and Siam, thriving best 
 with an annual rainfall of from 50 to 120 inches, is a 
 lofty tree, frequently 100 feet high, and six to ten feet 
 in circumference. The wood is moderately hard and 
 strong, almost indestructible under ordinary circum- 
 stances, and contains a resinous oil which resists 
 insects, water, and rust, for which reason it is the best 
 wood known for backing armour-plates in ironclads. 
 The Teak forests of Burmah extend from near the 
 exporting ports of Rangoon and Moulmein to the 
 Shan States and the Chinese frontier. The wood is 
 largely used in India, and about 42,000 loads annually 
 imported into Great Britain.* 
 
 Shorea robusta, Gaertn., the SAL, is the most- 
 used timber of Northern India brown, hard, and 
 durable. 
 
 Nectandra Rodicei, Schomb. the GREEN HEART, 
 dark green or black, remarkably strong and durable, 
 resisting the white ant and the boring Limnoria 
 
 * See W. T. Oldrieve and John C. Kemp in * Forestry and 
 Forest Products,' pp. 321-406. 
 
1 88 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 terebrans, is largely used in our dockyards for keels, 
 beams, etc., as also is 
 
 Mora excelsa, Benth., MORA, which reaches a height 
 of 150 feet, yielding timber twelve to twenty inches 
 square and thirty-five feet long. Its wood is a hand- 
 some chestnut-brown, beautifully figured. 
 
 Eucalyptus resinifera, Sm., and no doubt other 
 species of this magnificent Australian genus, have been 
 imported as IRONWOOD, a deep-red, straight-grained, 
 very hard and heavy wood, useful for the same pur- 
 poses as the two last-mentioned species. 
 
 Among numerous proposed teak substitutes we can 
 only mention the TEWART (Eucalyptus goniocalyx, F. 
 von Muell.) of West Australia ; the CHOW or MENK- 
 ABANG PENANG (Casuarina equisetifolia, L. fil.) and 
 MlRABOO (Afzelia palembamca, Baker) of Borneo ; 
 the MERANTI (Hopea Meranti) and BINTANGORE or 
 POON (Calophyllum Inophyllum, L.) of the Straits 
 Settlements ; the PYNKADO (Xylia dolabriformis, 
 Benth.), THINGAN (Hopea odorata, Roxb.), NAN-TA- 
 ROOP (Altingia excelsa, Noronha), and PADOUK 
 (Pterocarpus indicus, Willd.) of Burmah ; the JARUL 
 (Lagerstrcemia Flosregincz, Retz.), CHAMPA (Michelia 
 Champaca, L.), and SlSSOO (Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxb.) 
 of India ; and the ANGELIQUE or ANGELIN, (Andira 
 inermis, Kunth.) of Guiana. 
 
 Since 1851, though for furniture purposes American 
 WALNUT, ASH, MAPLE, TULIP-TREE or WHITEWOOD, 
 and the beautiful REDWOOD of California (Sequoia 
 semper vir ens, Endl.), have been largely used, atten- 
 tion has been mainly attracted for ship-building pur- 
 poses by the SABICU (Lysiloma Sabicu, Benth.) of 
 
TIMBER AND OTHER WOODS. 189 
 
 Cuba, of which the Exhibition stairs were made ; by 
 the HUON PTNE (Dacrydium Franklinii, Hook, fil.), 
 and various other fine woods of Tasmania ; by the 
 TOTARA (Podocarpus Totara, A. Cunn.), KAURI PlNE, 
 and other excellent woods with astringent barks in 
 New Zealand ; and, more recently, by the enormous 
 and abundant JARRAH of West Australia (Eucalyptus 
 marginata, Sm.), which rivals Spanish Mahogany in 
 beauty, and by the other members of that remark- 
 able genus. 
 
 Our limits do not permit reference to the many 
 beautiful Conifers and shrubs with which our gardens 
 have been enriched. 
 
 PART VIII. AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 
 
 IN addition to the cereals, pulses, and other plants 
 used for human food, and the locally -cultivated 
 medicinal plants, the chief agricultural crops are 
 those species required as food for cattle. Of these, 
 Oats, Rye, Peas, Field-Beans, Maize, and Turnips 
 have been already mentioned. (See Part I.) It 
 remains to say a few words as to Swedes, Mangold- 
 Wurzel, Kohl-Rabi, Grasses, Clovers, and other fodder- 
 plants. 
 
 The SWEDE (Brassica campestris, L., van Napo- 
 brassica, DC.), or Swedish Turnip, is a most valuable 
 food for sheep, yielding far heavier crops than the 
 common Turnip, the introduction of which, in the 
 seventeenth century, effected a revolution in our agri- 
 culture. Swedes flourish in the moist summers of 
 
IQO THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 the North of Britain, but suffer much from the 
 attacks of the Turnip Beetle. 
 
 MAN GOLD- WURZEL (Beta vulgaris, L., van Cycld), 
 of nearly equal feeding value, yielding heavier crops, 
 and not liable to the attacks of the Turnip Beetle, is 
 adapted for hot and dry conditions where the Turnip 
 will not flourish, as on the light soils of our southern 
 counties. 
 
 KOHL-RABI is a variety of the Cabbage (Brassica 
 oleracea, L.), in which the base of the stem is enlarged 
 into a green turnip-like mass bearing the sheathing 
 bases of the leaves. Sheep and cattle are fond of it. 
 
 There is in Britain a very large acreage of natural 
 meadow-land, and careful studies have been made by 
 Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, Buckman, Sutton, and 
 others as to the most valuable hay-yielding grasses 
 which this meadow-land yields, either with or without 
 irrigation. These studies have furnished suggestions 
 as to the most suitable species to sow for the forma- 
 tion of permanent pasture, or for alternate husbandry. 
 Among these are the following grasses : RYE-GRASS 
 (Lolium perenne, L.), and its variety, ITALIAN 
 RYE-GRASS (L. perenne, var. italicum), especially for 
 hay, COCK'S-FOOT GRASS (Dactylis glomerata, L.), 
 TIMOTHY or CAT'S-TAIL GRASS (Phleum pratense, L.), 
 especially for heavy or peaty land, Anthoxanthtim 
 odoratum, L., especially for hay, Poa pratensis, L., 
 for dry, sandy soils, P. nemoralis, L., var. sempervirens, 
 and P. trivialis, L., for permanent pasture ; and the 
 FESCUES, Festuca duriuscula, L., F. elatior, L., and 
 F. pratensis, Hudson, for permanent pasture, and 
 F. rubra, L., on sandy soils. Besides these the 
 
AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 191 
 
 following Leguminous plants are recommended for 
 sowing : SAINFOIN (Onobrychis sativa, Lam.), especi- 
 ally on dry calcareous soil, WHITE or DUTCH 
 CLOVER (Trifolium repens, L.), RED CLOVER (T. 
 pratense, L.), and its perennial variety, ALSIKE 
 CLOVER (T. hybridum y L.), introduced during the 
 present century, and YELLOW CLOVER, BLACK 
 MEDICK or NONSUCH (Medicago lupulina, L.). BUR- 
 NET (Poterium Sanguisorba, L.), a Rosaceous plant, 
 on calcareous soils, MILFOIL (Achillea Millefolium, 
 L.), a Composite, PARSLEY (Petroselinum sativuin, 
 Hoffm.), an Umbellifer, and the RIBWORTS (Plantago 
 lanceolata, L., and on calcareous soil P. media, L.), 
 are recommended in addition for sheep pastures, 
 and the CHICORY (Cichorium Intybus, L.) for cattle. 
 CRIMSON CLOVER or TRIFOLIUM (Trifolium incar- 
 natum, L.) is a valuable forage plant, and makes good 
 hay; and the large RED CLOVER ( T. pratense, L., var. 
 sativum\ either alone or with Italian Rye-grass, is 
 one of the chief fodders used for stall-fed cattle. The 
 VETCH (Vicia sativa, L.) has long been a favourite 
 crop on all soils ; but the LUCERNE (Medicago sativa, 
 L.), requiring a light soil and dry subsoil, is less 
 generally used. The young shoots of the GORSE, 
 WHIN, or FURZE (Ulex europceus, L.), a spinous hardy 
 plant, flourishing even on shingle or the poorest soil, 
 when chopped and bruised, is a useful winter food for 
 sheep, horses, and cattle. 
 
 When the price of corn, inflated by our prolonged 
 wars, had unduly extended the 'margin of cultivation/ 
 a few years of bad harvest stimulated the popular 
 outcry for the abolition of the Corn-laws, and English 
 
192 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 agriculture, naturally conservative in its methods, has 
 never been able to bear up against the flood of foreign 
 corn that has poured in upon us in a stream of con- 
 stantly increasing proportions since the commence- 
 ment of Free Trade. But little has been done, 
 however, to endeavour by the introduction of new 
 crops to meet this difficulty. The most notable 
 changes that have taken place are those which have 
 accompanied the growth of cattle and dairy-farming, 
 and the increased use of oil-cakes and other feeding- 
 stuffs, and of artificial fertilizers. These lie outside 
 our province ; but the introduction of sewage-farming 
 has been accompanied by the cultivation of the 
 ITALIAN RYE-GRASS (Lolium italicum, Braun.), which 
 has achieved a great success. Reference has already 
 been made to the utility of MAIZE and SORGHUM as 
 fodder-plants; and in 1842 Sir Joseph Hooker intro- 
 duced the TUSSACK-GRASS (Dactylis ccespitosa, Forst.,) 
 of the Falkland Islands, of which cattle are very fond, 
 and which has been successfully established in the 
 Hebrides. The most generally useful, however, of 
 new fodder-plants has probably been the PRICKLY 
 CAUCASIAN COMFREY (Symphytum peregrinum, 
 Ledeb.) ; and this and other similar plants have had 
 their value greatly enhanced by the adoption during 
 the last few years of the process of ensilage. 
 
 PART IX. MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. 
 
 THOUGH our survey has been necessarily a cursory 
 one, the system adopted has left various substances 
 
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. 193 
 
 unnoticed, which could not conveniently be classified 
 in any of the divisions adopted, and for the same 
 reasons they can hardly be classed among themselves. 
 
 CORK, which is practically entirely the produce of 
 Quercus Suber, L., the CORK OAK, a native of Southern 
 Europe, is imported to the extent of several thousand 
 tons annually, in spite of its extreme lightness. It 
 comes mainly from Spain, and is employed not 
 merely for corks for bottles and bungs for casks, 
 but for boot-soles, hat-linings, life-buoys, and various 
 other purposes. Of late years the VIRGIN CORK, or 
 first crop taken off trees ten to fifteen years old, 
 which is furrowed longitudinally, has been imported 
 to ornament ferneries, and for similar purposes. The 
 subsequent removal of the cork every few years, care 
 being taken not to cut the cork-cambium, or growing- 
 layer, does not affect the vitality of the tree, though 
 probably rendering its timber less dense. 
 
 AMADOU or, GERMAN TINDER, consists of slices of 
 the fungi Polyporus fomentarius, Fries, and P. ignia- 
 rius, Fries, beaten out with mallets, and used as a 
 styptic in surgery, for warm underclothing, or, when 
 mixed with saltpetre, as tinder. 
 
 DUTCH RUSHES, though imported to a small 
 extent from Holland, are the stems of a British 
 plant Equisetmn hyeniale, L., one of the HORSETAILS, 
 a group allied to the Ferns. Its furrowed stem is so 
 full of silica as to serve to polish wood or metal. It 
 is now mainly superseded by sand, glass, and emery- 
 papers. 
 
 The manufacture of bougies and knife-handles 
 from the stalks of the seaweed Laminaria, the use of 
 
 13 
 
194 THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 SHOLA-PITH, derived from the Indian dUsckyomene 
 aspera, L., for hats, and that of the fibro-vascular 
 skeleton of the gourd Luffa cegyptiaca, DC, as a bath- 
 towel, are among the more anomalous products. The 
 various INSECT-POWDERS derived from the powdered 
 flowers of Pyrethmm, the use of Quillaia bark as a 
 hair-wash, and of BAY-RUM for the same purpose, 
 could not strictly be classed under Materia Medica ; 
 nor could those extensive industries, the manufacture 
 of acids, such as acetic and oxalic acids from saw- 
 dust ; pyrogallic, gallic, and tannic acids from galls; or 
 valerianic acid from potato-spirit. 
 
 The long-practised use of the heads of the TEAZLE 
 (Dipsacus fullonum^ L.) to raise a pile on cloth is in- 
 teresting as a case in which art has failed to supersede 
 a natural product. The cultivated form, with a cylin- 
 drical head, may be derived from the wild species in 
 which the head is ovate. The flower-head is covered 
 with recurved, elastic, hooked scales. Rows of these 
 heads in a frame form part of the gig-mill, or dress- 
 ing-machine, metallic teazles not having proved satis- 
 factory. 
 
 The importation of the VEGETABLE IVORY, or 
 COROZO-NUT (Phytelephas macrocarpa, Hook.), and 
 the COQUILLA-NUT (Attalea funifera, Mart.) for 
 buttons, umbrella - handles, etc., has, since 1843, 
 largely increased, but is likely to be seriously 
 affected, as may various other industries, by what 
 is undoubtedly the most remarkable of these 
 miscellaneous vegetable products of the last half- 
 century, Celluloid. CELLULOID, or PYROXYLINE, 
 is vegetable fibre, cotton rags, paper-waste, or 
 
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. 195 
 
 weeds, treated with nitric and sulphuric acids, made 
 plastic with various solvents, especially camphor and 
 castor or linseed oil, and then moulded or dyed in 
 imitation of ivory, tortoise-shell, amber, malachite, 
 coral, or parchment, into artificial teeth or gums, 
 shirt-collars, billiard-balls, or what not ; more durable 
 than ivory, cheaper and more durable than caoutchouc, 
 and, unlike vulcanite, free from sulphur. Though 
 mainly made in the United States, it was invented in 
 England by Mr. A. Parkes in 1885. 
 
 Truly, though the introduction of a new resin or 
 fibre, or the invention of a simpler process of manu- 
 facture, may not subtend so large a visual angle in 
 the minds of the unthinking as the storming of a 
 citadel or the bombardment of a fleet, when we con- 
 sider the many strides which our civilization and its 
 attendant comforts have made even during one half- 
 century, owing to the careful observations and skilful 
 application of such men as those to whose names we 
 have had occasion to refer, we must admit that 
 
 ' Peace hath her victories 
 No less renowned than war.' 
 
 132 
 
SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 PHANEROGAMIA 
 
 ANGIOSPEkMIA. 
 DlCOTYLEDONES. 
 
 Ranunculacece. 
 
 Hydrastis canadensis, L., 74 
 Helleborus niger, L., 74 
 Coptis Teeta, Wallich, 74 
 C. trifolia, Salisbury, 74 
 Delphinium Staphisagria, L., 74 
 Aconitum ferox, Wallich, 74, 75 
 A. Napellus, L., 74, 75 
 Cimicifuga racemosa, Elliott, 75 
 Xanthorhiza apiifolia, Willde- 
 now, 75 
 
 Magnoliacece . 
 
 Magnolia Yulan, Desf., 75 
 Liriodendron tulipifera, L., 75, 182 
 Michelia Champaca, L., 132, 188 
 Drimys Winteri, Forster, 75 
 Illicium anisatum, Loureiro, 65, 75 
 I. Griffithii, Hooker fil.and Thom- 
 son, 65 
 
 I. majus, Hock. fil. and Thorn., 65 
 I. religiosum, Sieb. and Zucc., 65 
 I. floridanum, Ellis, 65 
 I. parviflorum, Michaux, 65 
 
 Anonacece. 
 
 Cananga odorata, Hook. fil. and 
 
 Thorn., 132 
 Duguetia quitarensis,Bentham,i79 
 
 MenispermacecE. 
 
 Chondrodendron tomentosum, 
 
 Ruiz and Pavon, 76 
 Cissampelos Pereira, L., 76 
 Jateorhiza palmata, Miers, 76 
 Anamirta Cocculus, Wight and 
 
 Arnott, 76 
 
 Tinospora cordifolia, Miers ( = 
 Cocculus cordifolius, DC.), 76 
 
 Berberidecz. 
 
 Berberis Darwinii, 14 
 B. aristata, DC., 76 
 B. Lycium, Royle, 76 
 B. asiatica, Roxburgh, 76 
 Podophyllum peltatum, L., 77 
 Caulophyllum thalictroides, Mi- 
 chaux, 77 
 Jeffersonia diphylla, Persoon, 77 
 
 SarraceniacecB. 
 
 Sarracenia purpurea, L., 77 
 
 Papaveracece. 
 
 Chelidonium majus, L., 78 
 Sanguinaria canadensis, L., 77 
 Papaver somniferum, L., 16, 77, 
 
 129, 131, 133 . 
 P. Rhceas, L., 78 
 
 Cruciferff. 
 
 Brassica oleracea, L., 45, 177, 190 
 B. campestris, L., var. oleifera, 
 
 DC, 129, 131, 133 
 B. campestris, L., var. Rapa, L., 
 
 40, 42 
 B. campestris, L., var. Napo- 
 
 brassica, DC., 189 
 B. juncea, Hook. fil. and Thorn., 
 
 63, 129, 133 
 B. nigra, Koch, 63, 78 
 B. alba, Hook. fil. and Thorn., 47, 
 
 63,78 
 
 Raphanus sativus, L., 43 
 Crambe maritima, L., 46 
 Lepidium sativum, L., 47 
 Nasturtium ofncinale, L., 47 
 Cochlearia Armoracia, L., 64 
 Camelina sativa, Crantz ( = My- 
 
 agrum sativum, L.), 129 
 
SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 197 
 
 Capparidece. 
 
 Capparis spinosa, L., 21, 64 
 Moringacece. 
 
 Moringa pterygosperma, Gaertn., 
 
 129, 135, 148 
 Resedacece. 
 
 Reseda lutea, L., 78 
 
 R. Luteola, L., 78 
 Cistinece. 
 
 Cistus creticus, L., var. labdani- 
 
 ferus, 151, 152 
 ViolariecB. 
 
 lonidium Ipecacuanha, Vent., loo 
 Canellacece. 
 
 Canella alba, Murray, 78 
 Bixinece. 
 
 Bixa frellana, L., 163 
 
 Cochlosperrnum Gossypium, DC., 
 147 
 
 Gynocardia odorata, R. Brown, 
 
 79, 133 
 Pittosporece. 
 
 Pittosporum undulatum, Vente- 
 nat, 174 
 
 P. bicolor, Hooker, 174 
 
 Bursaria spinosa, Cavanilles, 174 
 Polygalea. 
 
 Polygala Senega, L., 79 
 
 Krameria Ixina, L. ( = K. tomen- 
 tosa, St. Hilaire), 79 
 
 K. triandra, Ruiz and Pavon, 79 
 Portitlacece. 
 
 Claytonia virginica, L., 44 
 Tamariscinece. 
 
 Tamarix, 160 
 Guttifera. 
 
 Garcinia Kola, Heckel, 71 
 
 G. Hanburii, Hook, fil., 79, 164 
 
 G. indica, Choisy, 80, 130, 133 
 
 G. Morella, Desr., 164 
 
 Calophyllum inophyllum, L., 80, 
 133, 151, 188 
 
 C. Calaba, L., 151, 183 
 Camelliacea:. 
 
 Caryocar nuciferum, L., 59 
 
 C. tomentosum, Willdenow, 59 
 
 Thea viridis, L., 69 
 Dipterocarpea. 
 
 Dryobalanops aromatica, Gaertn, 
 
 80, 153 
 
 Hopea robusta, Roxburgh, 150 
 
 Dipterocarpecz (continued] : 
 H. Meranti, 188 
 Dipterocarpus alatus, Roxburgh, 
 
 80, 151 
 
 D. turbinatus, Gaertn, 80, 151 
 Vateria indica, L., 130, 133, 150 
 V. acuminata, Hayne, 150 
 Vatica Rassack, 183 
 Shorea robusta, Gaertn, 150, 161, 
 187 
 
 Malvacea. 
 
 Althaea officinalis, L., 80 
 Paritium elatum, G. Don., 173 
 Hibiscus escalentus, L. (=Abel- 
 moschus esculentus, Guill. and 
 Perr.), 48, 171 
 H. cannabinus, L., 166, 171 
 Gossypium, 129, 131, 134, 165 
 G. herbaceum, L., 170 
 G. arboreum, L. , 170 
 G. barbadense, L., 170 
 Sida rhombifolia, L., 172 
 Adansonia cligitata, L., 148, 168 
 
 SterculiaceiE. 
 
 Sterculia acuminata, Beauvois ( = 
 Cola acuminata, R. Brown), 
 70,81 
 
 S. cordifolia, Cavanilles, 71 
 S. urens, Roxburgh, 148 
 S. tragacantha, Lindley, 148 
 Theobroma Cacao, L., 69, 81, 
 130, 131 
 
 Tihacece. 
 
 Tilia europsea, L., 172 
 Corchorus capsularis, L., 169 
 C. olitorius, L., 169 
 Berrya Ammonilla, Roxburgh, 183 
 
 Linece. 
 
 Linum usitatissimum, L., 12, 8l, 
 129, 131, 134, 171 
 
 Erythroxylea. 
 
 Erythroxylon Coca, Lamarck, 81 
 
 Zygophyllete. 
 
 Guaiacum officinale, L., 81 
 G. sanctum, L., 81 
 
 Geraniacetz. 
 
 Geranium maculatum, L., 82 
 Pelargonium capitatum, Aiton, 134 
 
 Troptzolece. 
 Tropaeolum majus, L., 64 
 
I 9 8 
 
 SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 Rutacea. 
 
 Galipea Cusparia, St. Hilaire, 82 
 Ticorea febrifuga, St. Hilaire, 82 
 Zanthoxylum fraxineum, Willde- 
 
 now, 82 
 
 Z. caribaeum, Lamarck, 82 
 Z. Perrotetii, DC, 82 
 Z. Clava-Herculis, L,, 179 
 Pilocarpus pennatifolius, Lemaire, 
 
 82 
 
 Ptelea trifoliata, L., 83 
 Toddalia aculeata, Persoon, 83 
 Barosma, 82 
 Aurantiacece. 
 
 Citrus vulgaris, Risso ( = C. Auran- 
 
 tium, var. amara, L. = C. Biga- 
 
 radia, Duhamel), 53, 83, 134, 
 
 135 
 . Li 
 
 C. Limonum, Risso ( -C. medica, 
 var. Limonum, Brand.), 23, 53, 
 67, 83, 134 
 
 C. medica, Risso, 53, 84, 135 
 
 C. medica, var. acida, Brand., 53, 
 
 C. decumana, L., 53, 
 
 C. Bergamia, var. vulgaris, Risso, 
 
 83, 134. 
 
 C. Aurantium, Risso, 22, 23, 53, 
 
 61, 67,83, 178 
 
 C. japonica, Hooker films, 57 
 ^Egle Marmelos, Corr., 84, 148 
 Feronia elephantum, Corr., 148 
 Simarubea. 
 . Picroena excelsa, Lindley ( = 
 
 Quassia excelsa, Swartz = Sima- 
 
 ruba excelsa, DC.), 84 
 Simaba Cedron, Planchon, 84 
 Quassia amara, L., 84 
 Irvingia Barteri, Hooker filius, 60, 
 
 130, 131, 135 
 
 Burseracece. 
 
 Boswellia Garten, Birdwood, 84, 
 
 I5i 
 
 B. Bhau-Dajiana, Birdwood, 84 
 B. Frereana, Birdwood, 85 
 B. serrata, Roxburgh, 85 
 B. glabra, Roxburgh, 85 
 Balsamodendron Myrrha, Nees, 
 
 85, 151 
 
 B. Opobalsamum, Kunth, 85, 151 
 B. Kafal, Kunth, 85 
 B.'Mukul, Hooker, 85, 151 
 
 Burseracece (continued} : 
 
 B. Playfairii, Hooker filius, 85 
 B. Roxburghii, Arnott, 151 
 
 B. Berryi, 151 
 
 Canarium commune, L., 85, 151 
 Amyris elemifera, Royle, 151 
 Elaphrium tomentosum, Jacquin, 
 
 I5i 
 
 Icica heptaphylla, Aublet, 85 
 I. Caranna, H.B.K., 85 
 I. Icicariba, DC., 151 
 I. Tacamahaca, H.B.K., 151 
 Meliacece. 
 
 Melia indica, Brandis ( M. 
 
 Azadirachta, L.), 86 
 M. Azedarach, L., 148 
 Carapa guianensis, Aub., 130, 135 
 
 C. guineensis, Jussieu ( = S\vie- 
 tenia febrifuga, Willdenow), 86 
 
 Swietenia senegalensis, Desv., 85, 
 
 186, 187 
 
 S. Mahagoni, L., 174, 180 
 Cedrela odorata, L., 181 
 C. Toona, Roxburgh, 182 
 Chloroxylon Swietenia, DC., 181 
 Ilicinete. 
 
 Ilex Aquifolium, L., 69, 72, 178, 
 
 181 
 I. paraguayensis, St. Hilaire, 69, 
 
 71 
 
 I. opaca, L., 175 
 Celastrinece. 
 
 Ekeodendron australe, Vent, 175 
 Euonymus Sieboldianus, Blume, 
 
 175 
 
 Rhamnece. 
 
 Zizyphus sinensis. Lam., 57 
 Rhamnus catharticus, L., 86 
 R. infectorius, L., 86, 163 
 R. Purshianus, DC., 86 
 R. tinctorius, W. R. ( = R. chlo- 
 
 rophorus, Dev.), 158 
 R. dahuricus, Pall. ( = R. utilis, 
 Dev.), 158 
 
 Ampelidea:. 
 
 Vitis vinifera, L., 12, 52 
 
 Sapindacea. 
 
 Paullinia sorbilis, Martius, 71 
 Schleichera trijuga, Willdenow, 
 
 15 
 
 Nephelium Litchi, Camb., 56 
 
SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 199 
 
 Sapindacecz (continued] : 
 N. Longana, Camb., 56 
 Acer pseudo-Platanus, L., 182 
 A. campestre, L., 178 
 A. saccharinum, L., 36, 175, 181 
 A. pensylvanicum, L., 36 
 A. Negundo, L., 36 
 A. dasycarpum, Willdenow, 36 
 
 Terebinthacecs ( Anacardiacece) . 
 Rhus Coriaria, L., 160 
 R. typhina, L., 160 
 R. Cotinus, L., 160, 162 
 R. succedanea, L., 130, 135, 160 
 R. semialata, Murray, 160 
 R. Metopium, L., 147 
 R. vernicifera, DC, 135 
 Pistacia vera, L., 60 
 P. Lentiscus, L., 86, 150 
 P. Terebinthus, L., 86, 151 
 P. cabulica, Stocks, 150 
 P. Khinjuk, Stocks, 150 
 Comocladia integrifolia, Jacquin, 
 
 86 
 
 Mangifera indica, L., 56 
 Anacardium occidentale, L., 21, 
 
 60, 147 
 
 Odina Wodier, Roxburgh, 147 
 Spondias mangifera, Persoon, 147 
 
 Connaracece. 
 
 Cnestis glabra, Lamarck, 87 
 
 Leguminosce. 
 
 Mimosece. 
 
 Parkia, spp., 147 
 
 Adenanthera pavonina, L., 162 
 
 Prosopis dulcis, Kunth, 146 
 
 P. pubescens, Bentham, 146 
 
 P. juliflora, DC., 147 
 
 P. pallida, 160 
 
 P. Algarobo, 160 
 
 Mimosa, spp., 161 
 
 Xylia dolabriformis, Bentham, 188 
 
 Acacia Senegal, Willdenow ( = A. 
 
 Verek, G. and P.), 149 
 A. stenocarpa, Hochstetter, 149 
 A. Segal, Del., var. Fistula, 149 
 A. gummifera, 149 
 A. horrida, Willdenow, 149 
 A. arabica, Willdenow, 149, 159 
 A. Catechu, Willdenow, 149 
 A. pycnantha, Bentham, 149, 159 
 A. dealbata, Link., 149, 159 
 
 Mimosea (continued) : 
 
 A. decurrens, Willdenow, 149, 159 
 
 A. homalophylla, A. Cunning- 
 ham, 149, 179 
 
 A. mollissima, Willd. ( = A. de- 
 currens, var. mollis), 159 
 
 A. retinodes, Schlect, 159 
 Ccesalpiniecr. 
 
 Caesalpinia Bonducella, Roxburgh, 
 90 
 
 C. Bonduc., Roxb., 90 
 
 C. brevifolia, 159 
 
 C. echinata, Lamarck, 162 
 
 C. brasiliensis, L., 162 
 
 C. Sappan, L., 162 
 
 C. Crista, L., 162 
 
 C. coriaria, Willdenow, 160 
 
 Haematoxylon Campechianum, L., 
 90, 161 
 
 Cassia occidentalis, L., 72, 91 
 
 C. acutifolia, Delile, 90 
 
 C. angustifolia, Vahl. , 90 
 
 C. marilandica, L., 90 
 
 C. Fistula, L., 91 
 
 Ceratonia Siliqua, L., 57, 178 
 
 Afzelia palembanica, Baker, 182, 
 1 88 
 
 Tamarindus indica, L. , 56, 91 
 
 Hymensea Courbaril, L., 150 
 
 Copaifera Lansdorffi, Desf., 91 
 
 C. officinalis, L., 91 
 
 C. Martii, Hayne, 91 
 
 C. guianensis, Desf., 91 
 
 Hardwickia pinnata, Roxburgh, 91 
 
 Erythrophlaeum guineense, Don., 
 
 91 
 
 Papilionacece. 
 
 Brya Ebenus, A.DC., 175 
 Crotalaria juncea, L., 166, 170 
 Cytisus scoparius, Link., 87, 178 
 C. Laburnum, L., 87 
 Ulex europaeus, L., 87, 178, 191 
 Trigonella Fcenum-grsecum, L., 
 
 87, 132 
 
 Medicago lupulina, L., 191 
 M. sativa, L., 191 
 Melilotus caerulea, Desr., 132 
 M. officinalis, Desr., 132 
 Trifolium repens, L., 191 
 T. pratense, L., 191 
 T. pratense, var. sativum, 191 
 
200 
 
 SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 Papilionacece (continued} : 
 T. hybridum, L., 191 
 T. incarnatum, L., 191 
 Indigofera tinctoria, L., 164 
 I. Anil, L., 164 
 I. caerulea, Roxburgh, 164 
 Glycyrrhiza glabra, L., 87 
 Physostigma venenosum, Balfour, 
 
 oo 
 00 
 
 P. cylindrospermum, Holmes, 89 
 Astragalus gummifer, Labil., 87, 
 
 147 
 
 Vicia sativa, L., 191 
 Arachis hypogcea, L., 39, 88, 129, 
 
 yEschyomene aspera, L., 194 
 Onobrychis sativa, Lamarck, 191 
 Mucuna pruriens, DC., 88 
 Psoralea corylifolia, L., 136 
 Lens esculenta, Moench, 38, 39 
 Pisum sativum, L., 12, 38 
 Faba vulgaris, Moench, 12, 38 
 Cicer arietinum, L., 39 
 Phaseolus vulgaris, L., 38, 39 
 P. multiflorus, Willdenow, 38, 39 
 Piscidia Erythrina, L., 89 
 Erythrina corallodendron, L., 88 
 Abrus precatorius, L., 88 
 Butea frondosa, Roxburgh, 89, 
 
 150, 161 
 
 Pterocarpus Marsupium, Rox- 
 burgh, 89, 161 
 P. erinaceus, Poiret, 89, 161 
 P. santalinus, L. fil., 162 
 P. indicus, Willdenow, 182, 1 88 
 Baphia nitida, Afzelius, 162 
 Mora excelsa, Bentham, 186, 188 
 Lysiloma Sabicu, Bentham, 188 
 Dalbergia latifolia, Roxburgh, 182 
 D. Sissoo, Roxburgh, 188 
 Andira inermis, Kunth., 89, 183 
 
 188 
 
 A. Araroba, Aguiar, 89 
 Dipteryx odorata, Willd. ( = Cou 
 marouna odorata, Aublet), 132 
 Myroxylon Toluifera, H.B.K., 89 
 
 131* J5 1 
 
 M. Pereirse, Klotzsch ( = Myio 
 spermum Pereirse, Royle), 90 
 131, 151 
 
 Rosacece. 
 
 omacece. 
 Pyrus Malus, L., 12, 23, 50, 61, 
 
 178 
 
 P. communis, L., 51, 6l, 175 
 P. Aucuparia, L., 178 
 P. torminalis, Ehrhart, 51 
 Cydonia vulgaris, Persoon, 51, 93 
 Amelanchier Sieboldianus, L., 175 
 CratsgusOxyacantha,L.,i75, 178 
 Mespilus germanica, L., 51, 178 
 Eriobotrya japonica, Lindley, 57 
 Rosa gallica, L., 93, 136 
 R. centifolia, L., 93 
 R. damascena, Miller, 93, 136 
 Poterium Sanguisorba, L., 191 
 Rubus fruticosus, L., 54 
 R. Idseus, L., 55 
 Fragaria vesca, L., 54 
 Amygdalus communis, L. : 
 var. dulcis, DC., 59, 92, 129, 
 
 var. arnara, DC, 59, 62, 67, 92, 
 
 129, 131, 136 
 A. persica, L., 23, 52 
 A. persica, var. laevis, 52 
 Prunus armeniaca, L., 23, 52 
 P. spinosa, L., 178 
 P. domestica, L., 12, 51, 62 
 P. serotina, Ehrhart, 92 
 P. Cerasus, L., 52, 178 
 P. Lauro-cerasus, L., 92 
 Hagenia abyssinica, Willdenow, 
 
 92 
 Quillaia, spp., 194 
 
 Ribesiacecz. 
 
 Ribes rubrum, L., 52, 55, 6 1 
 R. nigrum, L., 52, 55, 61 
 R. Grossularia, L., 55, 61 
 
 Hamamelidece. 
 
 Hamamelis virginiana, L., 93 
 Altingia excelsa, Noronha, 188 
 Liquidambar orientalis, Miller, 93, 
 151, 152 
 
 Rhizophoretz. 
 
 Rhizophora Mangle, L., 159 
 
 Combretacece. 
 
 Terminalia Chebula, Retz, 160 
 T. citrina, 160 
 T. belerica, Roxburgh, 160 
 
SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 201 
 
 Myrtacea. 
 
 Melaleuca Leucadendron, L., var. 
 
 minor, 94, 137 
 Eucalyptus globulus, Labil., 93, 
 
 137, 178 
 
 E. amygdalina, Labil., 137 
 E. oleosa, F. von Mueller, 137 
 E. sideroxylon, A. Cunningham, 
 
 137 
 
 E. goniocalyx, F. von Mueller, 
 
 137 
 
 E. corymbosa, Smith, 137 
 
 E. obliqua, L'Heritier, 137 
 
 E. fissilis, 137 
 
 E. odorata, Behr., 137 
 
 E. rostrata, Schlecht., 137 
 
 E. longifolia, Link, and Otto, 137 
 
 E. viminalis, Labil., 137 
 
 E. dumosa, A. Cunningham, 137 
 
 E. Staigeriana, F. von Mueller, 
 
 137 
 
 E. hsemastoma, Smith, 137 
 E. resinifera, Smith, 161, 186, 188 
 E. marginata, Smith, 189 
 Psidium Guajava, L., 56 
 Myrtus communis, L , 178 
 Pimenta acris, Wight, 66, 137 
 P. officinalis, Lindley ( = Myrtus 
 
 Pimenta, L. = Eugenia Pimenta, 
 
 DC.), 66, 94 
 Eugenia, sp., 178 
 E. caryophyllata, Thunberg ( = 
 
 Caryophyllus aromaticus, L.), 
 
 21, 62, 66, 94, 138 
 E. procera, Poiret, 175 
 Bertholletia excelsa, Humboldt 
 
 and Bonpland, 58, 59, 129, 131, 
 
 137 
 
 Lecythis Zabucajo, Aublet, 59 
 L. Ollaria, L., 59 
 Syzygium Jambolana, DC., 93 
 
 Lythrariece. 
 
 Lagerstrsemia Fios-reginae, Retz., 
 
 1 88 
 Punica Granatum, L., 54, 94, 178 
 
 Turneracece. 
 Turnera diffusa, Willdenow, 95, 
 
 138 
 var. aphrodisiaca, 95, 138 
 
 Passiflorece. 
 
 Passiflora quadrangularis, L., 56 
 
 P. maliformis, L., 56 
 
 Carica Papaya, L., 95 
 Cucurbit acea. 
 
 Luffa segyptiaca, DC, 194 
 
 Cucumis sativa, L., 48 
 
 C. Melo, L., 54 
 
 Citrullus vulgaris, Schrader, 54. 
 
 C. Colocynthis, Schrader, 94 
 
 Ecballium Elaterium, A. Richard, 
 
 94 
 
 Cucurbita ovifera, L., 48 
 C. maxima, Duch.,48 
 Sechium edule, Sw., 48 
 
 Cactece. 
 
 Opuntia Ficus-indica, Webb., 57, 
 148 
 
 Tetragoniea. 
 
 Teiragonia expansa, Willdenow, 
 46 
 
 Umbel lifer a. 
 
 Hydrocotyle asiatica, L., 95 
 Conium maculaturn, L., 95 
 Arracacia esculenta, DC., 44 
 Apium graveolens, L., 46 
 Carum Carui, L., 66, 96, 138 
 
 C. copticum, Bentham ( = C. 
 Ajowan, Bentham and Hooker 
 nlius=^Ammi copticum, L. = 
 Ptychotis Ajowan, DC.), 96, in 
 
 Pimpinella Anisum, L., 65, 96 
 Sium Sisarum, L., 43 
 Chaerophyllum bulbosum, L. , 43 
 Fceniculum capillaceum, Gilib.,64, 
 
 65, 96, 138 
 
 CEnanthe crocata, L., 95 
 Angelica Archangelica, E., 62, 66 
 Ferula Sumbul, Hooker films, 96 
 F. Narthex, Boissier, 96, 152 
 F. Scorodosma, Bentham, 96, 152 
 F. persica, Willdenow, 97 
 F. Szowitsiana, DC., 97 
 F. galbaniflua, Boissier and Buhse, 
 
 97, 152 
 
 F. rubricaulis, Boissier, 97, 152 
 F. Schair, Borszc, 97 
 F. tingitana, L., 97 
 Dorema Ammoniacum, Don., 97, 
 
 I5i 
 
 D. Aucheri, Boissier, 97 
 
202 
 
 SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 Umbelliferce (contimied} : 
 Anethum graveolens, L., 65, 97 
 
 138 
 
 Pastinaca saliva, L., 40, 42 
 Opopanax Chironium, Koch., 97 
 
 152 
 Coriandrum sativum, L., 66, 97, 
 
 138 
 Cuminum Cyminum, L., 65, 97, 
 
 138 
 
 Daucus Carota, L., 40, 42 
 Petroselinum sativum, Hoffm. ( = 
 
 Apium Petroselinum, L.), 64, 
 
 191 
 Araliacece. 
 
 Fatsia papyrifera, Decaisne, 172 
 Cornea. 
 
 Cornus florida, L., 175 
 C. sanguinea, L., 178 
 Caprifoliacece. 
 
 Sambucus nigra, L., 55, 61 
 Viburnum Opulus, L., 178 
 Rubiacea;. 
 
 Sarcocephalus esculentus, Afzelius, 
 
 98 < 
 Uncaria Gambir, Roxburgh, 97, 
 
 161 
 
 U. acida, Hunt., 161 
 Cinchona officinalis, L., 99 
 C. Calisaya, Weddell, 99 
 
 var. Ledgeriana, Moens, 99 
 C. succirubra, Pavon, 99 
 Remijta Purdieana, Willdenow, 
 
 loo 
 
 R. pedunculata, Trian., 100 
 Oldenlandia umbellata, L., 162 
 Gardenia, sp., 152 
 CofFea arabica, L., 70 
 C. liberica, Bull and Hiern., 70 
 Morinda citrifolia, L., 98, 162 
 Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, A. 
 
 Richard, 100 
 Rubia tinctorum, L., 162 
 R. cordifolia, L., 157, 158, 162 
 Asperula odorata, L., 132 
 Valerianece. 
 
 Valeriana officinalis, L., 100 
 Dipsacece. 
 
 Dipsacus fullonum, Miller, 177, 
 
 194 
 
 Composite. 
 
 Eupatorium aromaticum, L., 132 
 E. glutinosum, Lamarck, 132 
 Mikania Guaco, Humboldt and 
 
 Bonpland, 102 
 Liatris odoratissima, Willdenow, 
 
 138 
 Blumea grandis, DC., 153 
 
 B. balsamifera, DC., 153 
 Inula Helenium, L., 63, 100 
 Parthenium hysterophorus, L., 102 
 Siegesbeckia orientalis, L., 102 
 Helianthus tuberosus, L., 40, 41 
 H. annuus, L., 129, 138 
 Achillea Millefolium, L., 191 
 Anthemis nobilis, L., 101 
 Pyrethrum, spp., 194 
 
 Madia sativa, Willdenow, 129, 
 
 '3i 
 
 Anacyclus Pyrethrum, DC., 101 
 A. officinarum, Hayne, 101 
 Artemisia pontica, L., 63 
 A. pauciflora, Weber, 101 
 A. vulgaris, L., 101 
 A. Dracunculus, L., 64 
 Arnica montana, L., 101 
 Cynara Scolymus, L., 22, 46 
 
 C. Cardunculus, L., 46 
 Carthamus tinctorius, L., 129, 131, 
 
 138, 157, 163 
 
 Cichorium Intybus, L., 47, 191 
 
 C. Endivia, L., 47 
 
 Taraxacum officinale, Wiggers, 47 
 
 Lactuca sativa, L., 47, 102 
 
 L. altissima, Bieb., 102 
 
 L. Scariola, L., 102 
 
 L. virosa, L., 102 
 
 Tragopogon porrifolius, L., 43 
 
 Scorzonera hispanica, L., 43 
 
 Guizotia abyssinica, Cass., 129, 
 
 138 
 Campanulacece, 
 
 Campanula Rapunculus, L., 43 
 Lobeliacea. 
 
 Lobelia inflata, L., 102 
 Ericaceae. 
 
 Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Spren- 
 gel, 103 
 
 Gualtheria procumbens, L., 131, 
 138 
 
 Rhododendron maximum, L., 176 
 
SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 203 
 
 Ericaceiz (continued] : 
 
 R. californicum, Hooker, 176 
 Kalmia latifblia, L., 176 
 Oxycoccus palustrls, Persoon, 56 
 
 0. macrocarpus, Persoon, 56 
 Epacridacea. 
 
 Monotoca elliptica, R. Brown, 176 
 Primulacece. 
 
 Primula veris, L., 61 
 Myrsinta* 
 
 Ardisia coccinea, 179 
 Safetaceag. 
 
 Bassia latifolia, Roxburgh, 21, 62, 
 
 13, 131, 139 
 
 B. Parkii, G. Don., 130, 131, 139 
 B. elliptica, Dalziel, 157 
 Mimusops globosa, Gaertner, 157 
 Isonandra macrophylla, De Vriese, 
 
 156 
 
 1. Motleyana, De Vriese, 156 
 Argania Sideroxylon, R. and S., 
 
 139 
 
 Dichopsis Gutta, Bentham, 156 
 Palaquium Gutta, Burck, 156 
 P. oblongifolium, Burck, 156 
 P. Borneense, Burck, 156 
 P. Treubii, Burck, 156 
 
 var. parvifolium, Burck., 156 
 Payena Leerii, Burck, 156 
 P. Maringayi, 156 
 Dyera laxiflora, Hooker films, 
 
 156 
 Ebenacece. 
 
 Diospyros Embryopteris, Persoon, 
 
 103, 183 
 D. Ebenum, Koenig, 176, 177, 
 
 183 
 
 D. quaesita, Thwaites, 183 
 D. melanoxylon, Roxburgh, 183 
 D. virginiana, L., 176 
 D. texana, 176 
 Styracea. 
 
 Sty rax Benzoin, Dryander, 103, 
 
 151 
 
 S. offtcinale, L., 131, 151, 152 
 Oleacete. 
 Olea europsea, L., 60, 103, 129, 
 
 131, 139, 178 
 
 Fraxinus excelsior, L., 178, 181 
 F. americana, L., 181 
 F. Ornus, L., 103 
 
 Apocynacea. 
 
 Hancornia speciosa, Gomes, 154 
 Vahea Madagascariensis, 155 
 V. Comorensis, 155 
 V. gummifera, 155 
 Carissa xilopicron, Thouars, 103 
 Hunteria zeylanica, Gaertner, 176 
 Gelsemium nitidum, Michaux, 104 
 Strophanthus hispidus, DC., 164 
 S. Kombe, Oliver, 104 
 Aspidosperma Quebracho, 104, 
 
 159 
 
 Willughbeia elastica, 155 
 W. firma, Blume, 155 
 Landolphia florida, Bentham, 155 
 L. Kirkii, Dyer, 155 
 L. Petersiana, Dyer, 155 
 L. owariensis, Beauv., 155 
 L. Heudelotii, 155 
 Alstonia scholaris, R. Brown, 104 
 A. constricta, F. von Mueller, 
 
 104 
 Geissospermum Vellosii, Allen, 
 
 103 
 Holarrhena antidysenterica, Wal- 
 
 lich, 104 
 Leuconotis eugenifolius, A. DC., 
 
 155 
 AsclepiaJecs. 
 
 Hemidesmus indicus, R. Brown, 
 
 104 
 Calotropis gigantea, R. Brown, 
 
 105, 157, 1 66, 169 
 C. procera, R. Brown, 105, 166 
 Tylophora asthmatica, Wight and 
 
 Arnott, 105 
 Marsdenia tenacissima, Wight and 
 
 Arnott, 1 66 
 
 Loganiacetz. 
 
 Spigelia anthelmintica, 105 
 S. marilandica, L., 105 
 Strychnos toxifera, Schomburgk, 
 
 105 
 
 S. cogens, Bentham, 105 
 S. Schomburgkii, Klot., 105 
 S. Nux-vomica, L., 105 
 S. Ignatii, Bergius, 105 
 
 Gentianacece. 
 Gentiana lutea, L., 106 
 Ophelia Chirata, Grisebach, 106 
 
204 
 
 SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 Convolvulacecz. 
 
 Pharbitis Nil, Choisy, 106 
 
 Ipomsea Batatas, Lamarck, 40, 41 
 
 I. chrysorhiza, Hooker filius, 41 
 
 I. Purga, Hayne, 106 
 
 I. simulans, Hanbury, 107 
 
 I. orizabensis, Ledanois, 107 
 
 Convolvulus Scammonia, L., 106 
 
 Borraginecc. 
 
 Symphytum peregrinum, Ledeb., 
 
 192 
 
 Lithospermum erythrorhizon, 158 
 Ankanna tinctoria, Tausch., 163 
 
 Cordiacece. 
 
 Cordia Boissieri, DC., 106 
 
 Solanacece. 
 
 Fabiana imbricata, Ruiz and 
 
 Pavon, 109 
 
 Nicotiana Tabacum, L., 12, 108 
 N. rustica, L., 12, 108 
 Datura Stramonium, L., 107 
 D. Tatula, L., 107 
 D. fastuosa, JL, 107 
 D. alba, Nees, 107 
 Hyoscyamus niger, L., 108 
 Lycopersicum esculentum, Miller, 
 
 25. 47 
 
 Atropa Belladonna, L., 107 
 Capsicum fastigiatum, Blume, 64, 
 
 107 
 
 C. annuum, L., 64, 107 
 Solanum paniculatum, L., 107 
 S. Dulcamara, L., 197 
 S. tuberosum, L., 22, 26, 29, 40, 
 
 62 
 
 S. Maglia, Schlect., 43 
 Duboisia Hopwoodi, F. von 
 
 Mueller, 109 
 ScropJiTilariacece. 
 
 Digitalis purpurea, L., 109 
 Verbascum Thapsus, L., 177 
 Bignoniacece, 
 
 Tecoma pentaphylla, DC., 176 
 Acanthacea. 
 Andrographis paniculata, Nees, 
 
 109 
 
 Hygrophila spinosa, Vel., 109 
 Sesamea. 
 
 Sesamum indicum, DC., 109, 140 
 S. orientale, DC., 129 
 
 Verbenacea. 
 
 Premna taitensis, Schauer, 121 
 Tectona grandis, L. fil., 186, 187 
 Labiates. 
 
 Ocimum Basilicum, L., 64 
 Orthosiphon stamineus, Bentham, 
 
 in 
 
 Lavandula vera, DC., no, 140 
 L. Spica, DC., ill, 140 
 L. Stcechas, L., in 
 Pogostemon Patchouli, Pell., 131, 
 
 140 
 
 Perilla ocimoides, L., 140 
 Lallemantia iberica, Fisch, and 
 
 Mey., 140 
 
 Mentha arvensis, DC., 140 
 M. arvensis, DC. : 
 
 var. piperascens, no 
 
 var. glabrata, no 
 M. piperita, Smith, 67, no, 140 
 M. viridis, L., 64, no, 140 
 M. Pulegium, L., no, 140 
 Origanum Marjorana, L., 65 
 Thymus vulgaris, L., 64, 96, in, 
 
 140 
 
 Satureja, L., 65 
 Salvia officinalis, L., 64 
 Rosmarinus officinalis, L., in, 
 
 140 
 
 Monarda punctata, L., 96 
 Marrubium vulgare, L., ill 
 Plantaginecz. 
 
 Plantago clecumbens, Forsk., 1 1 1 
 P. lanceolata, L., 191 
 P. media, L., 191 
 Polygonacece. 
 
 Coccoloba uvifera, Jacquin, 161 
 Fagopyrum esculentum, 33 
 Rheum officinale, Baillon, 16, 
 
 112 
 
 R. Rhaponticum, L., 56, 61, 112 
 R. palmatum, L., 112 
 Rumex scutatus, L., 47 
 R. hymenosepalus, Torrey, 161 
 Chenopodiacece. 
 
 Beta maritima, Willdenow, var. 
 altissima ( = B. alba, DC.), 16, 
 
 36 
 
 B. rubra, DC., 40, 42 
 B. vulgaris, L., 45 
 
 var. Cycla, 190 
 
SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 205 
 
 Chenopodiacea. (contimied) : 
 
 Chenopodium auricomum, Lind- 
 
 ley, 46 
 
 Atriplex hortensis, L., 45 
 Spinacia oleracea, L., 45 
 
 MonimiacecB. 
 
 Atherosperma moschata, Labil, 
 
 112 
 
 Peumus Boldus, Molin, 112 
 Myristicea. 
 
 Myristica fragrans, Houttuyn, 66, 
 
 112, 141 
 
 M. moschata, Thunberg, 130, 131 
 
 M. Ocuba, 130 
 
 M. angolensis, Welwitsch, 141 
 
 M. fatua, Sw., 141 
 
 M. sebifera., Sw., 141 
 
 M. surinamensis, Rob., 141 
 Laterinta. 
 
 Cinnamomum zey!anicum,Breyne, 
 67, 113, 141 
 
 C. Cassia, Blume, 67, 113, 141 
 
 C. Camphora, Fr. Nees and 
 Ebermaier ( = Laurus Cam- 
 phora, L. = Camphora offici- 
 narum, Nees), 113, 153 
 
 C. iners, Reinw., 113 
 
 Persea gratissima, Gaertner, 141 
 Nectandra Rodisei, Schomburgk, 
 
 114, 1 86, 187 
 Sassafras officinale, .Nees ( = 
 
 Laurus Sassafras, L.), 113, 141 
 Laurus nobilis, L., 141 
 Ocotea Pichurim, H. B. K. (= 
 
 Nectandra Puchury, Nees), 68 
 O. bullata, Nees, 183 
 Thymel(zace<z. 
 Daphne Mezereum, L., 114 
 
 D. papyracea, Wallich, 170 
 Urticea, 
 
 Urtica dioica, L., 46 
 
 Bcehmeria nivea, Hooker and 
 
 Arnott, 169 
 B. Puya, Hooker, 169 
 Morece. 
 
 Morus nigra, L., 55 
 
 Ficus Carica, L., 12, 21, 55, 56, 
 
 72 
 
 F. elastica, Roxburgh, 154 
 F. laccifera, Roxburgh, 154 
 F. hispida, Roxburgh, 154 
 
 Morece {continued} : 
 F. religiosa, L., 150 
 Dorstenia Contrajerva, L., 117 
 Maclura tinctoria, Nuttall, 162 
 Broussonetia papyrifera, Vent., 
 
 1 66, 169 
 
 B. Ksempferi, Sieb., 166, 169 
 Galactodendron utile, 130 
 Brosimum Aubletii, Pceppig, 179 
 
 Cannabinece. 
 Cannabis sativa, L., 12, 114, 129, 
 
 131, 169 
 
 Humulus Lupulus, L., 46, 61, 
 "5, 167 
 
 Ulmacea. 
 
 Ulmus fulva, Michaux, 115 
 U. campestris, Withering, 181 
 U. montana, Smith, 181 
 
 Betulacea:. 
 
 Betulalenta, L., 118, 180 
 
 B. alba, L., 178, 180 
 Platanea. 
 
 Platanus occidentals, L., 182 
 Myricetz. 
 
 Myrica Nagi, Thunberg, 57 
 
 M. cerifera, L., 130, 131, 142 
 
 M. cordifolia, L., 142 
 Castiarinece. 
 
 Casuarina equisetifolia, L. fil., 188 
 Salicinea. 
 
 Salix Russelliana, Smith, 118 
 
 S. alba, L., 118 
 
 S. Caprea, L., 118 
 
 S. fragilis, L., 118 
 
 S. pentandra, L., 118 
 
 S. purpurea, L., 118 
 
 Populus balsamifera, L., 151 
 
 P. tremula, L., 177 
 Euphorbiacecz. 
 
 Croton Tiglium, L., 116, 129, 142 
 
 C. niveus, Jacquin ( = C. Pseudo- 
 China, Schlecht.), 116. 
 
 C. Eluteria, Bennett, 115 
 Hevea guianensis, Aublet, 154 
 H. brasiliensis, Miill. Arg., 154 
 H. Spruceana, Miill. Arg., 154 
 H. paucifolia, Miill. Arg., 154 
 H. rigidifolia, Miill. Arg., 154 
 H. discolor, Miill. Arg., 154 
 Aleurites triloba, Forst., 129, 131, 
 141 
 
206 
 
 SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 Etiphorbiaceiz {continued} : 
 
 Mallotus philippinensis, Miill. 
 Arg. ( = Rottlera tinctoria, Rox- 
 burgh), 116 
 
 Ricinus communis, L., 116, 129, 
 142 
 
 Manihot utilissima, Pohl., 29, 30 
 
 M. Aipi, Pohl., 30 
 
 Stillingia sebifera, Michaux, 130, 
 142 
 
 Euphorbia resinifera, Berg., 115 
 
 E. pilulifera, L., 115 
 
 E. Drummondii, Boissier, 115 
 
 E. Cattimandoo, Elliott, 157 
 
 Emblica officinalis, 160 
 Buxinea. 
 
 Buxus sempervirens, L., 174, 179 
 
 B. Maccowanii, Oliver, 176 
 A ristoloch iacece. 
 
 Aristolochia serpentaria, L., 118 
 A. reticulata, Nuttall, 118 
 JuglandacecE. 
 
 Juglans regia, L., 58, 129, 142, 180 
 J. cinerea, Michaux, 58, 142 
 J. nigra, L., 181 
 Carya alba, Nuttall, 58 
 
 C. tomentosa, Nuttall, 58 
 C. olivEeformis, Nuttall, 58 
 C. porcina, Nuttall, 58 
 
 Cupuliferce. 
 
 Quercus Robur, L., 118, 177, 178, 
 
 1 80, 1 86 
 
 Q. alba, L., 180 
 Q. virens, Aiton, 186, 187 
 Q. Suber, L., 178, 193 
 Q. ./Egilops, L., 1 60 
 Q. infectoria, Oliver, Il8, 160 
 Q. tinctoria, L., 164 
 Castanea vulgaris, Lamarck ( = 
 
 C. vesca, Gaertner = C. sativa, 
 
 Scop.), 59, 178 
 Fagus sylvatica, L., 143, 180 
 Corylacea. 
 
 Carpinus Betulus, L., 176, 178 
 Ostrya virginica, Willdenow, 176 
 Corylus Avellana, L., 57, 143, 
 
 178 
 
 C. Colurna, L., 58 
 Santalacea. 
 
 Santalum album, L., 118 
 
 S. Freycinetianum, Gaudin, 118 
 
 Santalacefs (continued) : 
 
 S. pyrularium, A. Gray, 118 
 S. Yasi, Seemann, 118 
 S. Austro-caledonicum, Vieill, 118 
 Fusanus acuminatus, R. Brown, 
 
 119 
 Piperace<z. 
 
 Piper nigrum, L., 63 
 
 P. longum, L., 64 
 
 P. officinarum, C. DC., 64 
 
 P. Betle, L., 64 
 
 P. methysticum, Forst., 64, 117 
 
 P. angustifolium, Ruiz and Pavon 
 
 (=Artanthe elongata, Miquel), 
 
 117 
 
 P. aduncum, L., 117 
 P. Cubeba, L. fil. ( = Cubeba 
 
 officinalis, Miquel), 117 
 
 MONOCOTYLEDONES. 
 
 Naiadacece. 
 
 Elodea canadensis, Rich., 123 
 Cannacea!. 
 
 Canna indica, L., 29 
 C. sp., 63 
 
 Maranta arundinacea, L., 29, 30 
 Zingiberacece . 
 
 Elettaria Cardamomum, Maton, 
 
 67, 119 
 Zingiber officinale, Roscoe, 61, 65, 
 
 119 
 Alpinia officinarum $ Hance, 65, 
 
 119 
 
 Amomum Melegueta, Roscoe, 119 
 Curcuma angustifolia, Roxburgh, 
 
 29 
 
 C. longa, L., 63, 162 
 Mtisacece. 
 Musa sapientum, L., 12, 23, 24, 
 
 54 
 
 M. paradisiaca, L., 24, 54 
 M. textilis, Nees, 166, 172 
 M. Ensete, Gmelin, 172 
 Bromeliacece. 
 
 Bromelia Ananas, L. ( = Ananas 
 
 sativus, Miller), 23, 55,62, 166, 
 
 1 68 
 
 B. Karatas, L., 168 
 Puya, spp., 148 
 Tillandsia usneoides, L., 172 
 
SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 207 
 
 Orch idacecz. 
 
 Vanilla planifolia, Andrews, 68 
 Angrsecum fragrans, Reichenbach 
 
 fil., 132 
 
 Orchis militaris, L., 132 
 O. Simia, Lamarck, 132 
 O. fusca, Jacquin, 132 
 
 0. ustulata, L., 132 
 Taccacece. 
 
 Tacca pinnatifida, L. fil., 29 
 Iridacece. 
 
 Iris Germanica, L., 120 
 
 1. pallida, Lamarck, 1 20 
 I. Florentina, L., 120 
 
 Crocus sativus, L., 21, I2O, 157, 
 
 163 
 A maryllidacea. 
 
 Agave americana, L., 168 
 A. vivipara, L., 168 
 A. sisalana, Engelmann, 168 
 Dioscoretz. 
 
 Dioscorea saliva, L., 40, 41 
 D. alata, L., 40, 41 
 D. Batatas, L., 40, 41 
 Palmacea. 
 
 Areca Catechu, L., 120, 160, 168 
 Arenga saccharifera, Labill ( 
 
 Saguerus saccharifera, Blume), 
 
 30, 37, 1 68 
 Kentia monostachya, F. von 
 
 Mueller, 179 
 Ceroxylon andicola, Humboldt 
 
 and Bonpland, 130 
 Caryota urens, L., 30, 37, 169 
 Calamus scipionum, Loureiro, 178 
 C. australis, Martius, 179 
 Daemonorops Draco, Martius, 120, 
 
 151, 153, 164 
 
 Metroxylon Rumphii, Martius, 30 
 M. laeve, Martius, 30 
 M. filare, Martius, 30 
 Mauritia flexuosa, L. fil., 30 
 Borassus flabelliformis, L., 37, 
 
 177 
 
 Corypha umbraculifera, L., 30 
 C. Gebanga, Bl., 30 
 Copernicia cerifera, Martius, 130, 
 
 H3 
 
 Raphia flabelliformis, L., 30 
 R. Ruffia, Martius, 173 
 R. tsedigera, Martius, 173 
 
 Palmacea (contintted] : 
 
 Licuala acutifida, Martius, 179 
 Chamaerops humilis, L., 166 
 Phoenix dactylifera, L., 12, 53, 
 
 72, 177, 178 
 
 P. farinifera, Roxburgh, 30 
 P. sylvestris, Roxburgh, 37 
 Cocos nucifera, L., 37, 59, 60, 
 
 130, 143, 149, 169, 182 
 Gulielma speciosa, Martius, 30 
 Elais guineensis, L., 130, 143 
 Attalea funifera, Martius, 168, 
 
 194 
 Leopoldinia Piassaba, Wallace, 
 
 171 
 Eugeissonia minor, Beccari, 179 
 
 Phytelephasiece. 
 
 Phytelephas macrocarpa, Hooker, 
 194 
 
 Nipacete. 
 
 Nipa fruticans, Thunberg, 37 
 
 TypJiacece. 
 Typha, 21 
 
 Aroidece. 
 
 Rhaphidophora vitiensis, Schott., 
 
 121 
 
 Acorus Calamus, L,, 121 
 Liliacea. 
 
 Phormium tenax, Forster, 15, 166, 
 
 172 
 Sanseviera zeylanica, Willdenow, 
 
 1 66 
 
 Aloe vulgaris, Lamarck, 121 
 A. succotrina, Lamarck, 121 
 A. spicata, L. fil., 121 
 Urginea Scilla, Steinheil ( U. 
 
 maritima, Baker = Scilla mari- 
 
 tima, L.), 121 
 Allium Cepa, L., 40, 42 
 A. Porrum, L., 46 
 A. sativum, L., 64 
 A. ascalonicum, Willdenow, 64 
 A. Schoenoprasum, L., 64 
 Melanthacea. 
 
 Veratrum album, L., 122 
 
 V. viride, Aiton, 122 
 
 Asagrsea officinalis, Lindley ( = 
 
 Schcenocaulon, A. Gray = Saba- 
 
 dilla), 122 
 Colchicum autumnale, L., 122 
 
208 
 
 SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 Smilacece. 
 
 Smilax officinalis, H. B. K., 123 
 S. medica, Schlecht. and Cham., 
 
 123 
 Asparagea. 
 
 Asparagus officinalis, L., 25, 46 
 Xerotidea. 
 
 Xanthorrhoea arborea, R. Brown, 
 
 122, 152 
 X. quadrangulata, F. von Mueller, 
 
 122, 152 
 Graminece. 
 Andropogon Nardus, L., 123, 
 
 144 
 A. citratus, DC. ( = A. Schcenan- 
 
 thus, Wallich), 124, 130, 144 
 A. Schcenanthus, L. ( = A. Cala- 
 
 mus-aromaticus, Royle), 124, 
 
 130 
 
 A. muricatus, Retz., 130 
 Saccharum officinarum, L. 35, 62 
 Sorghum saccharatum, Willde- 
 
 now, 37, 173 
 S. caffrorum, 37 
 S. vulgare, P., 31, 33, 173 
 Panicum miliaceum, L., 33 
 P. italicum, L., 33 
 Zizanki aquatica, L., 35 
 Oryza sativa, L., 28, 29, 31, 34, 
 
 62 
 Anthoxanthum odoratum, L., 132, 
 
 190 
 
 Lygeum spartum, L., 172 
 Zea Mays, L., 12, 15, 25, 29, 31, 
 
 34, 62 
 
 Phleum pratense, L., 190 
 Macrochloa tenacissima, Kunth, 
 
 166, 171 
 
 Arundo Donax, L., 178 
 Avena sativa, L., 12, 28, 31, 33 
 Poa pratensis, L., 190 
 P. nemoralis, L., var. semper- 
 
 virens, 190 
 P. trfvialis, L., 190 
 Glyceria fluitans, R. Brown, 34 
 Dactylis glomerata, L., 190 
 D. caespitosa, Forst., 192 
 Arundinaria, spp., 178 
 Festuca duriuscula, L., 190 
 F. elatior, L., 190 
 F. pratensis, Hudson, 190 
 
 Graminece {continued} : 
 F. rubra, L., 190 
 Bambusa, spp., 178 
 B. arundinacea, L., 169 
 B. vulgaris, Wendl., 169 
 Lolium perenne, L., 190 
 L. italicum, Braun., 15, 190, 192 
 Triticum hybernum, L., 12, 22, 
 
 31 
 
 T. aestivum, L., 12, 22, 31 
 Hordeum distichum, L., 12, 31, 
 
 32 
 
 H. hexastichum, L., 12, 31, 32 
 Secale cereale, L., 31, 33 
 Chrysopogon Gryllus, Trin., 173 
 Phyllostachys nigra, Sieb. and 
 
 Zucc.. 179 
 GYMNOSPERMIA. 
 Conifers. 
 Dammara orientalis, Lambert, 
 
 ISO 
 D. australis, Lambert, 150, 1 86, 
 
 189 
 
 D. ovata, Moore, 150 
 D. Cookii, 150 
 D. lanceolata, Vieill, 150 
 D. robusta, C. Moore, 150 
 D. vitiensis, Seemann, 150 
 Pinus sylvestris, L., 125, 144, 184 
 P. Pinaster, Solander ap. Aiton 
 
 (=P. maritima, Poiret), 125, 
 
 144, 185 
 
 P. Laricio, Poiret, 125, 144 
 P. australis, Michaux, 125, 144, 
 
 1 80, 185 
 
 P. Tseda, L., 125, 144 
 P. longifolia, Lambert, 144 
 P. resinosa, Aiton, 184 
 P. mitis, Michaux, 184 
 P. Strobus, L., 185 
 Larix europaea, DC., 124, 144, 
 
 1 86 
 Picea excelsa, Link ( = Finns 
 
 Abies, L. = Abies excelsa, DC.), 
 
 124, 185 
 
 P. alba, Link, 185 
 P. nigra, Link, 185 
 Abies balsamea, Miller, 124, 151 
 A. pectinata, DC. ( = Pinus Abies, 
 
 Du Roi-^P. Picea, L.), 125, 
 
 144, 182 
 
SYNOPTICAL INDEX. 
 
 209 
 
 Comfer< {continued} : 
 
 Tsuga Canadensis, Carriere, 124, 
 
 144, 161, 185 
 Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carriere, 
 
 1 86 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens, End., 188 
 Dacrydium Franklinii, Hook, fil., 
 
 189 
 
 Podocarpus Totara, A. Cunning- 
 ham, 189 
 
 Callitris quadrivalvis, Vent., 150 
 C. verrucosa, R. Brown, 151 
 C. robusta, R. Brown, 151 
 C. cupressiformis, Vent., 151 
 Junipcrus communis, L., 62, 124, 
 
 144 
 
 J. Sabina, L., 124, 144 
 J. virginiana, L., 179, 181 
 J. bermudiana, L., 181 
 
 PTERIDOPHYTA. 
 
 FILICIN^E. 
 
 Aspidium Filix-mas, Swartz, 125 
 Pteris aquilina, L., 167 
 
 EQUISETIN^;. 
 
 Equisetum hyemale, L., 193 
 
 THALLOPHYTA. 
 
 FUNGI. 
 
 Gastromycelcs. 
 
 Lycoperdon giganteum, Batsch, 
 49 
 
 Hyinenomycetes. 
 
 Lactarius deliciosus, Fries, 49 
 Marasmius oreades, Fries, 49 
 Agaricus campestris, L., 49 
 A. arvensis, Schaeff, 49 
 A. muscarius, L., 125 
 Cantharellus cibarius, Fries, 49 
 
 Hymenomycetes {continued} : 
 
 Polyporus fomentarius, Fries, 193 
 P. igniarius, Fries, 193 
 Boletus edulis, Bull., 49 
 
 Lichenes . 
 
 Cetraria Islandica, Acharius, 126 
 Roccella tinctoria, DC., 163 
 R. fuciformis, Acharius, 163 
 
 Discomycetes. 
 
 Morchella esculenta, Pers., 49 
 
 Pyrenomycetes. 
 
 Claviceps purpurea, Tulasne, 33, 
 126 
 
 Tuberace<z. 
 
 Tuber cibarium, Sibthorp, 49 
 T. aestivum, Vitt., 49 
 
 Saccharomyceles. 
 
 Saccharomyces cerevisise, Rees, 
 61 
 
 ALG;E. 
 
 Floridece. 
 
 Porphyra laciniata, Agardh, 50 
 P. purpurea, Agardh, 50 
 Chondrus crispus, Lyngbye, 49, 
 
 127 
 Rhodymenia palmata, Greville, 
 
 50 
 
 Sphaerococcuslichenoides, Agardh, 
 50, 127 
 
 Melanophycea. 
 
 Fucus vesiculosus, L., 127 
 Laminaria digitata, Lx., 50, 193 
 L. saccharina, Lx., 50, 193 
 Alaria esculenta, Greville, 50 
 
 Confervacece. 
 
 Ulva Lactuca, L., 50 
 U. latissima, L., 50 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 The names in italics are those of genera mentioned for their uses. The 
 last number after each refers to the Synoptical Index, where the useful 
 species will be found enumerated. 
 
 AbelinoscJnis, 48, 197 
 Abies, 124, 182, 208 
 Abrus, 88, 200 
 Absinthe, 63 
 Acacia, 149, 159, 179, 199 
 
 ,, Gums, 149 
 
 Acer, 36, 175, 178, 181, 182, 199 
 AcJiillea, 191, 201 
 Aconitine, 74 
 Aconittini, 74, 196 
 Acorns, 121, 207 
 Adansonia, 1 68, 197 
 ^Egle, 84, 197 
 ^.scJiyoinene, 194, 200 
 African Mahogany, 187 
 Oak, 1 86, 187 
 
 ,, Peach-root, 98 
 
 ,, Teak, 187 
 Afzdia, 182, 188, 199 
 Agaricns, 125, 209 
 Agave, 1 68, 207 
 Ajovvan, 96 
 
 Alcoholic Food-adjuncts, 6l 
 Alfa Grass, 17, 167 
 Algarrobo, 159 
 Algiers, Sticks from, 177 
 Alkanet-root, 163 
 Alliiiui, 42, 46, 64, 207 
 Allspice, 66 
 Almond, 59, 92 
 
 ,, Oil, 62, 92, 129, 136 
 Aloe, 121, 207 
 Alpinia, 65, 119, 206 
 Alsike Clover, 191 
 Alstonia, 104, 203 
 Altluca, 80, 197 
 Altingia, 188, 200 
 Alum-root, 82 
 
 Amadou, 193 
 
 Amboyna-wood, 183 
 
 Amelancliier, 175, 200 
 
 American Ash, 181, 188 
 Birch, 1 80 
 Live Oak, 187 
 Pine, Soft, 184 
 ,, White, 185 
 Yellow, 184 
 Walnut, 181, 188 
 
 Ainnii, in, 20 1 
 
 Ainojimiu, 67, 119, 206 
 
 Amygdahis, 52, 59, 92, 129, 200 
 
 Amyris, 151, 198 
 
 Anacahuite-wood, 106 
 
 Anacardiinn, 21, 60, 199 
 
 Anacychts, 101, 202 
 
 Anamirta, 76, 196 
 
 Ananas, 168, 206 
 
 Andaman Redwood, 182 
 
 Andira, 89, 179, 183, 1 88, 200 
 
 Andrographis, 109, 204 
 
 Andropogon, 123, 134, 144, 208 
 
 Anethol, 96 
 
 AnetJnim, 65, 97, 202 
 
 Angelica, 62, 66, 201 
 
 Angelin, 183, 1 88 
 
 Angelique, 183, 188 
 
 Angostura-bark, 82 
 
 Aniline Colours, 157 
 
 Anise, 65, 96 
 
 Ankanna, 163, 204 
 
 Antheniis, 101, 202 
 
 AnthoxantJnnn, 132, 190, 208 
 
 Apiiuii, 46, 64, 20 1 
 
 Apple, 12, 50 
 
 ,, Imports of, 23 
 
 Apricot, 52 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 211 
 
 Apricots, Imports of, 23 
 
 Apse, 177 
 
 Arachis, 39, 88, 136, 200 
 
 Araroba, 89 
 
 Arctostaphylos, 103, 202 
 
 Ardisia, 179, 203 
 
 Areca, 1 20, 1 60, 1 68, 207 
 ,, Nut, 1 20 
 
 Arenga, 30, 207 
 
 Argania, 139, 203 
 
 Aristolochia, 1 1 8, 206 
 
 Arnatto, 163 
 
 Arnica, 101, 202 
 
 Arracacia, 44, 201 
 
 Arracacha, 44 
 
 Arrowroot, 29 
 
 ,, Imports of, 29 
 
 ,, Plants producing, 29 
 
 Artemisia, 63, 64, 101, 202 
 
 Artichoke, 22, 25, 41, 42 
 
 Arundinaria, 178, 208 
 
 Asafoetida, 96, 151 
 
 Ash, 177, 181, 188 
 ,, Flowering, 103 
 
 Asp, 177 
 
 Asparagus, 25, 46, 208 
 
 Asperula, 132, 202 
 
 Aspidiiim, 125, 209 
 
 Aspidosperma, 104, 159, 203 
 
 Asthma Herb, 115 
 
 Astragalus, 87, 147, 200 
 
 Atherosperma, 112, 205 
 
 Atriplex, 45, 205 
 
 Atropa, 107, 204 
 
 Atropine, 107 
 
 Attalea, 168, 194, 207 
 
 Australian Asthma Herb, 115 
 ,, Sassafras, 112 
 
 Avena, 12, 33, 208 
 
 BABUL-BARK, 159 
 Bael Fruit, 84 
 Bahia Piassava, 168 
 Balderlochs, 50 
 Balkan Rose, 178 
 Balsam of Copaiba, 91 
 ,, Gilead, 151 
 ,, Peru, 90, 151 
 Balsamocarpon, 159 
 Balsamodendron, 5, 198 
 
 Bamboo, 177, 178, 179 
 Bambusa, 169, 178, 208 
 Banana, 12, 24, 54 
 
 ,, Imports of, 23 
 Baobab, 168 
 Baphia, 162, 200 
 Barcelona Nuts, 58 
 Barley, Imports of, 33 
 
 Pearl, 33 
 
 ,, Scotch, 33 
 
 ,, Varieties of, 32 
 Barleys, 12 
 Barosma, 82, 198 
 Basil, 64 
 
 Bassia, 21, 62, 130, 139, 203 
 Bast, Cuba, 173 . 
 Bastard Cedar, 86 
 Bay berry, 142 
 Bay Rum, 66, 137, 194 
 Bay-tree, 178 
 Bdellium, 85 
 Beans, 12, 38, 39, 189 
 Bearberry, 103 
 Bebeeru, 1 14 
 Beech, 143, 180 
 Beef- wood, 179 
 Beetroot, 40, 42 
 Ben Oil, 135 
 Berberine, 98 
 Berberis, 76, 196 
 Bere, 33 
 
 Berry a, 183, 197 
 Berlholletia, 58, 129, 137, 201 
 Beta, 16, 36, 42, 190, 204 
 Betel-nuts, 120, 160 
 Bethnal Green Museum, 26 
 Betula, 1 1 8, 178, 205 
 Bhang, 114 
 
 Bi gg> 33 
 Billian, 183 
 Bintagore, 188 
 Birch, 178, 180 
 
 ,, American, 1 80 
 
 ,, Quebec, 180 
 Birdseye Maple, 181 
 Bitter Almond, 59, 136 
 
 , Oil, 135 
 Bittersweet, 107 
 Bixa. 163, 197 
 Blackberry, 54 
 Black Cohosh, 75 
 
 142 
 
212 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Black Currant, 55 
 
 ,, Fork, 179 
 
 iMedick, 191 
 
 ,, Orange, 178 
 Blackthorn, 177, 178 
 Bladder- wrack, 127 
 Blood root, 77 
 Blue Cohosh, 77 
 Bhimea, 153, 202 
 Bochmeria, 169, 205 
 Bois Piquante, 82 
 Boldo, 112 
 Borassits, 177, 207 
 lioswellia, 84, 198 
 Botanical Gardens, by whom 
 
 founded, 10 
 Botanical Gardens, when founded, 
 
 10 
 
 Botanists, Eminent, 9-15 
 Botany, Economic, previous to 1837, 
 
 9-13 
 
 Botany, Economic, since 1837, 13-21 
 Boxwood, 179 
 
 ,, Substitutes for, 174 
 Brassica, 42, 45, 63, 78, 129, 133, 
 
 177, 189, 190, 196 
 Bread-stuffs, 28-35 
 Briar, 179 
 Brazil-nuts, 58, 137 
 Brazilian Oak, 179 
 Bromelia> 55, 206 
 Broom, 178 
 
 ,, Corn, 173 
 Brosiinuni) 179, 205 
 Broussonetia, 169, 205 
 Brush Grass, 173 
 
 Brya* I75 *79 199 
 
 Buchu-leaves, 82 
 Buckthorn, 86 
 Buckwheat, 33 
 Burmese Rosewood, 182 
 Burnet, 191 
 Biirsaria, 174, 197 
 Biitea, 89, 150, 161, 200 
 Butter-nut, 58, 142 
 Button-wood, 182 
 Buxtis, 176, 206 
 
 CABBAGE, 45 
 
 Jersey, 177 
 
 Cabbage, Varieties of, 45, 177, 190 
 Casalpinia, 90, 159, 1 60, 162, 199 
 Caffeine, 27 
 Cailcedra, 85 
 Cajeput-oil, 94, 137 
 Calamander-wood, 183 
 Calamus, 178, 207 
 Calophyllum t 80, 133, i$i, 183, 
 
 1 88, 197 
 
 Calotropisj 105, 157, 166, 169, 203 
 Calumba-root, 76 
 Camelina, 129, 196 
 Campamda, 43, 202 
 Camphor, Borneo, 80, 113, 153 
 ,, Laurel, 113, 153 
 ,, Sumatra, 80 
 Canada Balsam, 124, 151 
 Canaigre, 161 
 Cananga, 132, 196 
 Canarium, 85) 15*1 *9% 
 Canary Whitewood, 182 
 Canella, 78, 197 
 Canes, 177, 178, 179 
 
 Sugar, 35 
 Canna, 29, 63, 206 
 Cannabis, 12, 114, 129, 169, 205 
 Caoutchouc, 17, 153 
 
 ,, Varieties of, 154 
 
 Caper, 21, 64 
 Capparis, 21, 64, 197 
 Capsicum, 64, 107, 204 
 Capsicums, 107 
 Carana, 85 
 Carapa, 135, 198 
 Caraway, 66, 96 
 Cardamoms, 66, 97 
 Cardoon, 46 
 Carica, 95, 201 
 Carissa, 103, 203 
 Carob Beans, 57, 178 
 Carolina Jessamine-root, 104 
 
 Reed, 178 
 Caroubier, 178 
 Carpinns, 176, 206 
 Carraigeen, 49 
 Carth&muS) 163, 202 
 Carum, 66, 96, 201 
 Carya, 58, 206 
 Caryocar, 59, 197 
 Caryophyllus, 21, 66, 201 
 Caryota, 30, 169, 207 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 213 
 
 Cascara Sagracla, 86 
 
 Cascarilla-bark, 116 
 
 Cashew-nut, 21, 60 
 
 Cassareep, 30 
 
 Cassava, 30 
 
 Cassia-bark, etc., 67, 72, 90, 91, 
 
 ,, Lignea, 113 
 Castanea, 59, 178, 206 
 Castanhas, 58 
 Castor Oil, 116, 129, 142 
 Casitarzna, 188, 205 
 Cat's-tail Grass, 190 
 Caucasian Comfrey, 192 
 Caulophylhim, 77, 196 
 Cayenne Pepper, 64 
 Cedar, 179, 181, 182 
 Cedrela, 181, 182, 198 
 Cedron, 84 
 
 Celandine, Greater, 78 
 Celery, 46 
 Celluloid, 154, 194 
 Cemiostoma, 70 
 Cephaelis, 100, 202 
 Ceratonia^ 57, 178, 199 
 Cereals, 31 
 Cetraria, 126, 209 
 Ceylon Ebony, 177 
 
 ,, Vine, 179 
 Chamomile, 101 
 Champa, 188 
 Chantarelle, 49 
 Charas, 115 
 
 Chaulmugra Oil, 79, 133 
 Chayote, 48 
 Chay-root, 162 
 Chelidonium, 78, 196 
 Chenopodium, 46, 205 
 Chelsea Gardens, 10 
 Cherry, 52, 92, 178 
 ,, Laurel, 92 
 Chestnut, 59, 161, 178 
 Chick-peas, 39 
 Chicory, 47, 191 
 Chillies, 64 
 China-grass, 166, 169 
 
 ,, Turpentine, 86 
 Chinchona, 17 
 Chinese Passion-fruits, 57 
 Chiretta, 106 
 Chives, 64 
 Chloroxylon, 181, 198 
 
 Choco, 48 
 
 Cheer ophylhun, 43, 2OI 
 Choiidrodendron, 76, 196 
 Chondrus, 49, 209 
 Chow, 1 88 
 Christmas Rose, 74 
 Chrysarobin, 89 
 Cicer, 39, 200 
 Cichoriuni) 47, 191, 2O2 
 Cimicifitga, 75, 196 
 Cinchona, 99, 202 
 Cinchonea, 20 
 Cinchona, 98 
 
 ,, Varieties of, 99 
 Cinnamomwn+&i) 113, 153,205 
 Cinnamon, 67, 113 
 
 ,, Bark, 78 
 Cissampelos, 76, 196 
 Cistus, 151, 152, 197 
 Citron, 53 
 
 Citrullus, 54, 94, 201 
 Citrus, 53, 57, 83, 178, 198 
 Claytonia, 44, 197 
 Claviceps, 33, 126, 209 
 Clover, 25, 189, 191 
 Cloves, 21, 66, 94, 138 
 Cluster Pine, 185 
 Lnestis, 87, 199 
 Cob-nut?, 57 
 Coca, 8 1 
 Cocaine, 8l 
 Cochlearia, 64, 196 
 Cochlospenmun, 147, 197 
 CocculuS) 76, 196 
 Cocculus, 76 
 Cock's-foot Grass, 190 
 Cocoa-nut, 59, 143, 169, 182 
 Cocos, 59, 143, 149, 169, 182, 207 
 Cocus-wood, 175, 179 
 Cfusalpinia, 90, 159, 160, 162, 199 
 Coffea, 70, 179, 202 
 Coffee, 69, 179 
 Coker-nut, 59 
 Cola, 70 
 
 Colchicum, 122, 207 
 Colocynth, 94 
 Comfrey, 192 
 Comodadia, 86, 199 
 Compass, 183 
 Coniferce, 20, 208 
 Coniferin, 68 
 
214 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Conium, 95, 201 
 
 Contrayerva-root, 117 
 
 Convolvuhis, 1 06, 204 
 
 Copaiba, Balsam of, 91 
 
 Copaifera, 91, 199 
 
 Copal, 133, 150 
 
 Copalchi Bark, 116 
 
 Copaline, or Varnish Resins, 149 
 
 Coptis, 74, 196 
 
 Coquilla-nut, 194 
 
 CorehoruS) 169, 197 
 
 Cordia* 1 06, 204 
 
 Coriander, 66, 97 
 
 Coriandrum % 66, 97, 202 
 
 Cork, 193 
 
 ,, Oak, 178, 193 
 Corn-flotlr, 25, 31 
 
 ,, Starch, 31 
 Conms, 175, 178, 202 
 Corozo-nut, 194 
 Cotton, J2, 170 
 Coumarouna, 132, 200 
 Cowhage, 88 
 Cowdie Pine, 186 
 Corylus, 57, 58, 143, 178, 206 
 Corypha, 30, 207 
 Crab, 178 
 Crambe, 46, 196 
 Cranberries, 56 
 Crat&gus, 175, 178, 200 
 Cress, 47 
 
 Crocus, 21, 1 20, 163, 207 
 Crocus, Autumnal, 122 
 Crotalaria, 170, 199 
 Croton, 115, 205 
 Croton Oil, no, 129, 142 
 Cruciferse, 196 
 Cuba Cedar, 181 
 Cubeba, 117, 206 
 Cubebs, 117 
 Cucumber, 48 
 
 ,, Squirting, 94 
 
 Cttumis t 48, 54, 201 
 Cticurbita, 48, 2CI 
 Cudbear, 163 
 Cumin, 65, 97 
 Cuminum, 65, 97, 202 
 Cuprea-bark, 100 
 Curcuma^ 29, 63, 162, 206 
 Currants, 52 
 
 Black, 55 
 
 Currants, White, 55 
 Cydonia, 51, 93, 200 
 Cynara, 22, 42, 46, 202 
 Cytisine, 87 
 Cytisus, 87, 178, 199 
 
 Dacrydiiini, 189, 209 
 Dactylis, 190, 192, 208 
 Dalbergia, 183, 1 88, 200 
 Damiana, 95, 138 
 Dammar, 133, 150 
 Dammara, 1 86, 208 
 Dandelion, 47, 101 
 Daphne, 114, 170, 205 
 Date, 53 
 
 Coffee, 72 
 
 ,, Palm, 12, 177, 178 
 Datttra. 107, 204 
 Daturine, 108 
 Daucus, 40, 202 
 Deadly Nightshade, 107 
 Delphinium, 74, 196 
 Demerara Pink-root, 105 
 Dextrine, 29 
 Dhak, 89 
 
 Dichopsis, 156, 203 
 Digitalis, 109, 204 
 Dika-bark, 104 
 
 ,, Bread, 60 
 Dill, 65, 97 
 Dioscorea, 40, 41, 207 
 Diospyros, 103, 176, 177, 183, 203 
 Dipsacus, 177, 194, 202 
 Dipterocarpus, 80, 197 
 Dipteryx, 132, 200 
 Divi-divi,, 160 
 Dcemonorops, 120, 151, 207 
 Dogwood, 178 
 
 ,, American, 175 
 ,, White, 89 
 Dorema, 97, 151, 201 
 Dorstenia, 117, 205 
 Douglas Fir, 186 
 Doundake, 98 
 Dragon's Blood, 121, 164 
 Drimys, 75, 196 
 Druinine, 115 
 Dryobalanops, 80, 197 
 Duboisia, 109, 204 
 Duguetia, 179, 196 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 215 
 
 Dulse, 50 
 Durra, 33 
 Dutch Clover, 191 
 ,, Rushes, 193 
 Dyera, 156, 203 
 
 EBONY, 175, 177, 179, 183 
 
 Ecballiuui, 94, 20 1 
 
 Elais, 143, 207 
 
 Elaterium, 94 
 
 Elder, 55 
 
 Elecampane, 100 
 
 Elemi, Manilla, etc., 85, 151 
 
 Elettaria, 67, 119, 206 
 
 Elm, 181 
 
 Elodea, 123, 206 
 
 Elfeodendron, 175, 198 
 
 Endive, 47 
 
 Eqtiisetum, 193, 209 
 
 Ergot of Rye, 33, 126 
 
 Eriobotrya, 57 200 
 
 Erythrina, 88, 200 
 
 Erythrophlceum, 91, 199 
 
 Erythroxylon, 81, 197 
 
 Esparto Grass, 17 
 
 Eucalyptus, 89, 93, 130, 137, 178, 
 
 187, 1 88, 189, 201 
 Eugeissonia, 179, 207 
 Eugenia, 66, 94, 139, 175, 178, 2OI 
 Etionymus, 175, 198 
 Eupatorium, 132, 202 
 Euphorbia, 115, 206 
 Euphorbiaceoe, 20, 205 
 Exhibitions, 16 
 
 Faba, 12, 38, 200 
 Fabiana, 109, 204 
 Fabianine, 109 
 Fagopyrum, 33, 204 
 Fats, Vegetable, 130 
 Fatsia, 173, 202 
 Fennel, 64, 96 
 Fenugreek, 87, 132 
 Feronia, 148, 198 
 Ferula, 96, 152, 201 
 Fescues, 190 
 Festuca, 190, 208 
 Fibres, 164 
 Fie us, 12, 21, 55, 205 
 Fig, 12, 21, 55 
 
 Filbert, 57, 58 
 Fir, 125, 184, 1 86 
 Flax, 12, 81. 171 
 
 ,, New Zealand, 15 
 Flowering Ash, 103 
 Fly Agaric, 125 
 Fcenicnhim, 64, 9^> 201 
 Food Adjuncts, 27 
 
 ,, Imports of, 27 
 Foxglove, 109 
 Fragaria, 54, 200 
 Frankincense, 84, 151 
 Fraxinus, 103, 178, 181, 203 
 Free Trade, Results of, 16 
 Friar's Balsam, 103 
 Fruits as Vegetables, 47 
 
 ,, Imports of, 22, 23, 50 
 Fucus, 127, 209 
 Fuller's Teazle, 177, 194 
 Fungi as Food, 48 
 
 ,, Varieties of, 49 
 Furze, 178, 191 
 F^lsan^ls, 119, 183, 206 
 Fustic, 162 
 
 GALANGALL, 120 
 Galipea, 82, 198 
 Galls, 118 
 Gambier, 98 
 Gamboge, 79, 164 
 Gardnia, 71, 79, 164, 197 
 Gardenia, 152* 202 
 Garlic, 64 
 Gaub, 103 
 
 Geissospermum, 103, 203 
 Gelsemium, 104, 203 
 Gentiana, 106, 203 
 Gentianaceoe, 20, 203 
 Gentian-root, 106 
 Geranium, 82, 179 
 Gerard's Physic Garden, 9 
 German Pellitory, 101 
 
 Tinder, 193 
 Gingely, no, 140 
 Ginger, 119 
 Glucose, 26, 28 
 Glyceria, 34, 208 
 Glycyrrhiza, 87, 200 
 Glycyrrhizin, 88 
 Goa Powder, 89 
 
216 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Golden Seal, 74 
 
 Gold Thread, 74 
 
 Gomuti Palm, 168 
 
 Googul, 85 
 
 Gorse, 191 
 
 Gossypium, 12, 170, 197 
 
 Grains of Paradise, 67, 119 
 
 Gram, 39 
 
 Granadillas, 56 
 
 Grape, 12, 52 
 
 ,, Imports of, 52 
 Grasses, Varieties of, 31, 190 
 Grass-gum Trees, 122 
 Greenheart, 114, 186, 187 
 Ground-nuts, 39 
 Gru-gru, 179 
 Guaco, 1 02 
 Guaiacum, 8 1, 197 
 Giialtheria, 131, 138, 2O2 
 Guarana-bread, 71 
 Guava, 56 
 Guaza, 114 
 Guelder Rose, 178 
 Gnlielma, 30, 207 
 Guinea Corn, 33 
 Guizotia, 129, 132, 203 
 Gulancha, 76 
 Gum Ammoniacum, 97 
 
 Arabic, 146, 149 
 
 Benjamin, 103 
 
 Benzoin, 103 
 
 Euphorbium, 115 
 
 Galbanum, 97 
 
 Mesquite, 147 
 
 Olibanum, 84 
 
 Sagapenum, 97 
 
 Tragacanth, 87, 147 
 Gums, True, 146 
 Gurjun Balsam, 80 
 Guru-nut, 70 
 
 Gutta-percha, 17, 146, 153, 155 
 Gynocardia, 79, 133, 197 
 
 Hagenia, 92, 200 
 Hamamelis, 93, 200 
 Hampton Court Garden, lo 
 Hancornia, 154, 203 
 Hardwickia, 91, 199 
 Haricots, 38 
 Hashish, 114 
 
 Hawthorn, 175 
 Hazel, 178 
 
 ,, Nuts, 57 
 Helianthus, 138, 202 
 Hellebore, White, 122 
 HelleboruS) 74, 196 
 HemidesmiiS) 104, 203 
 Hemileia, 69 
 Hemlock, 95 
 
 ,, Extract, 161 
 ,, Spruce, 124, I 5 
 Hemp, 12, 114, 169, 170 
 Henbane, 108 
 Hibiscus, 48, 171, 197 
 Hickory-nuts, 58 
 Hatmatoxylon, 90, 161, 199 
 Hog-nuts, 58 
 
 ,, Tragacanth, 149 
 Holarrhena, 10^, 203 
 Holly, 72, 177, 178, 1 8 1 
 Honduras Cedar, 181 
 Honeysuckle-wood, 182 
 Hop, 46, 61, 115 
 Hopea, 1 88, 197 
 Hordeum, 12, 33 
 Horehound, in 
 Hornbeam, 176, 178 
 Horse- Radish, 64 
 Horsetails, 193 
 Htimtilus, 61, 115, 205 
 Himteria, 176, 203 
 Huon Pine, 189 
 Hydrastis, 74, 196 
 Hydrocotyle, 95, 201 
 Hygrophila, 109, 204 
 
 Hyoscyamus, 108, 204 
 
 ICELAND Moss, 126 
 
 Idea, 85, 198 
 
 Ilang-ilang, 132 
 
 Ilex, 71, 72, 175, 178, 181 
 
 Illicium^ 65, 75, 196 
 
 Indian Cup, 77 
 Corn, 12 
 Mahogany, 182 
 Poke, 122 
 Rosewood, 182 
 Sarsaparilla, 104 
 
 Indiarubber, 153 
 
 198 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 217 
 
 Indigo, 164 
 
 Indigofera, 164, 200 
 
 Insect-powder, 194 
 
 Imtla, 63, 100, 202 
 
 lodina, 159 
 
 lonidiitm, 100, 197 
 
 Ipecacuanha, 100, 105 
 
 Ipoma'a, 41, 1 06, 107, 204 
 
 Iris, 120, 207 
 
 Irish Moss, 49 
 
 Iron-bark, 186, 187 
 
 Iron -wood, 188 
 
 Irvingia, 60, 135, 198 
 
 Isonandra, 156, 203 
 
 Ispaghul, in 
 
 Italian Rye-grass, 15, 190, 192 
 
 ,, Paste, 33 
 Ivory, Vegetable, 195 
 
 JALAP, 106 
 
 Jalapine, 106 
 
 Japanese Medlars, 57 
 
 Jar rah, 189 
 
 Jarul, 188 
 
 fateorrhiza, 76, 196 
 
 Jeffersonia, 77, 196 
 
 Jequiritine, 88 
 
 Jerusalem Artichokes, 41 
 
 fuglans, 58, 129, 142, 1 80, 181, 206 
 
 Juniper, 144 
 
 Juniperus, 62, 124, 144, 179, 181, 
 
 209 
 
 Jurubeba, 107 
 Jute, 169 
 
 KALADANA RESIX, 106 
 Kaluiia, 176, 203 
 Kamala, 116 
 Kariyat, 109 
 Kauri Pine, 1 86, 189 
 Kava-root, 117 
 Kentia, 179, 207 
 Kew Gardens, 10 
 ,, Museum, 20 
 Kiabooca-wood, 183 
 Kino, 89, 161 
 Kittool, 169 
 Kohl-rabi, 190 
 Kokum Butter, 80, 133 
 
 Kola-nuts, 70 
 Koso, 93 
 
 Rrameria, 79, 197 
 Kumquats, 57 
 Kuteera, 147 
 
 LABIATE, 20, 204 
 Laburnine, 87 
 Lace wood, 182 
 Lacquer-trees, 135 
 Lactucarium, 102 
 Lachtca, 47, 102, 202 
 LagerstratniOi 188, 201 
 Laininaria, 194, 209 
 Lancewood, 179 
 Landolphia, 155, 203 
 Larch, 124, 186 
 Larix, 124, 144, 1 86, 208 
 Laurier Thya, 178 
 Launts, 113, 153, 205 
 Lavandtila, no, 140, 204 
 Lavender, no, 140 
 Lavers, Varieties of, 50 
 Lecythis, 59, 2OI 
 Leek, 46 
 Lemon, 53, 134 
 
 ,, Grass, 144 
 Lemons, Imports of, 23 
 Lens, 38, 39, 200 
 Lentils, 38 
 Leopard- wood, 179 
 Lcopoldinia, 171, 207 
 Lepidium, 47, 190 
 Letterwood, 179 
 Lettuce, 47 
 Leuconotis, 155* 2 3 
 Liatris, 138, 202 
 Licttala, 179, 207 
 Lignum Vitas, 81 
 Lime, 172 
 
 Sweet, 53 
 Limnoria terebrans, 188 
 Linden, 172 
 
 Linum, 12, 8r, 134, 171, 197 
 Linseed, 81, 134 
 Liquidambar, 93, 200 
 Liquorice, 87 
 Liriodendron, 75, 182, 196 
 Litchis, 56 
 Lithospermum, 158, 204 
 
218 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Litmus, 163 
 Live Oak, 186, 187 
 Lobelia, 1 02, 202 
 Logwood, 90, 161 
 Lolium, 15, 190, 192, 208 
 Longans, 56 
 Loquats, 57 
 Lotos, 53 
 
 Lojcopterygium, 159 
 Loya Cane, 179 
 Lucerne, 25, 191 
 Luff a, 194, 201 
 l.ycopersicum, 47, 204 
 J.ysiloina, 188, 200 
 
 MACARONI, 32 
 
 Mace, 66 
 
 Macassar Ebony, 177 
 Oil, 132 
 
 Mac/icerium, 159 
 
 Macrochloa, 171, 208 
 
 Madder, 158, 162 
 
 Mahogany, 180, 182, 187 
 
 Mahwa, 21, 139 
 
 Magnolia. 75, 196 
 
 Maiden Plum, 86 
 
 Maize, 12, 15, 25, 31, 24, 34 
 Cultivation of, 25 
 Import of, 25, 34 
 in United States, 26 
 Preparations of, 25 
 Starch, 31 
 
 Maizena, 25 
 
 Malabar Cardamom, 119 
 
 Malacca Cane, 178 
 
 Mallottis, 1 1 6, 206 
 
 Malvaceae, 20, 197 
 
 Mangifera, 56, 199 
 
 Mango, 56 
 
 Mangold-wurzel, 190 
 
 Mangrove-bark, 159 
 
 Manna, 103 
 
 ,, Croup, 34 
 
 Manjit, 158, 162 
 
 Manihot, 29, 30, 206 
 
 Manila Hemp, 172 
 
 Manois Remedy, 104 
 
 Maple, 178, 181, 188 
 Sugar, 35 
 
 Maranta, 29, 206 
 
 Margosa, 86 
 
 Marjoram, 65 
 
 Marrulmim, ill, 204 
 
 Marsdenia, 1 66, 203 
 
 Marsh Mallow, 80 
 
 Mastic, 86 
 
 Mate, 71 
 
 Materia Medica, Literature of, 72, 73 
 
 Matico, 117 
 
 Mauritia, 30, 207 
 
 Maw-seed, 78, 133 
 
 Medica go, 191, 199 
 
 Medick, 191 
 
 Medlar, 51, 178 
 
 Melaleiica, 94, 137, 201 
 
 Melia, 86, 198 
 
 Melilotus, 132, 199 
 
 Melons, Water, 54 
 
 Menkabang, 188 
 
 Mentha, 64, 67, no, 140, 204 
 
 Menthol, uo 
 
 Meranti, 1 88 
 
 Mespilus, 51, 200 
 
 Metroxylon, 30, 207 
 
 Mexican Cedar, 181 
 
 ,, Grass, 168 
 Mezereon, 114 
 Michclia, 1 88, 196 
 Midgen, 179 
 Mikania, 102, 202 
 Milfoil, 191 
 Millet, Turkish, 33 
 Mimosa, 161, 199 
 
 ,, Bark, 159 
 
 ,, Extract, 161 
 Mimusops, 157, 203 
 Mint, 64, 1 10, 140 
 Miraboo, i82 $ 188 
 Mochara Chicory, 72 
 Monkey-nuts, 39 
 Moiiotoca, 176, 203 
 Mora, 1 86, 188, 200 
 Morel, 49 
 
 Morinda, 98, 162, 2O2 
 Moringa, 129, 135, 148, 197 
 Mort aux Rats, 87 
 Mortis, 55, 205 
 Moss, Ceylon, 50 
 
 ,, Irish, 49 
 Mosses, 127 
 Mother Cloves, 66 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 219 
 
 Moulmein Cedar, 182 
 Mountain Ash, 178 
 Mucherus, 148 
 l\Iucuna, 88, 200 
 Mudar, 105, 157, 169 
 Mugwort, 101 
 Mulberry, 55 
 
 ,, Indian, 162 
 Mullein, 177 
 Munjeet, 158, 162 
 Musa, 12, 24, 54, 1 66, 172, 206 
 Muscarine, 125 
 Mushroom, 25, 49 
 Musquash, 44 
 Mustard, 47, 63, 78 
 Myagrum, 129, 197 
 Myall, 179 
 
 Myristica, 66, 112, 141, 205 
 Myrobalans, 160 
 
 Myrospermum, 90, 131, 151, 2OO 
 Atyroxylon, 89, 131, 151, 200 
 Myrrh, 85 
 Myrtits, 66, 178, 201 
 
 NAN A CANES, 178 
 
 Nanta-roop, 188 
 
 Nasturtium, 47, 196 
 
 Nasturtium, Garden, 64 
 
 Natal Arrowroot, 30 
 
 Nclilo, 80, 133 
 
 Nectandra, 114, 1 86, 187, 205 
 
 Negro Coffee, 72, 91 
 
 Nepheliutn, 56, 198 
 
 Nettle, 46 
 
 New Grenada Rhatany, 79 
 ,, York Pine, 184 
 ,, Zealand Flax, 15 
 
 Nicker Nuts, 90 
 
 Nicotiana, 12, 108, 204 
 
 Nicotine, 27 
 
 Niger Seed, 138 
 
 Nightshade, 107 
 
 Nim, 86 
 
 Nonsuch, 191 
 
 Nootka Fir, 186 
 
 Norway Spruce, 185 
 
 Nutmegs, 66, 112, 141 
 
 OAK, 118, 177, 178, 1 80, 186 
 
 Oak, African, 187 
 
 Live, 187 
 Oats, 12, 31, 33 
 Otimtim 64, 204 
 Ocotea, 68, 133, 205 
 Odina, 147, 199 
 (Enanthe, 95, 201 
 Oil of Bay, 66, 137 
 Olive, 103, 129 
 ,, Peppermint, no 
 ,, Spike, in 
 Oils, 124 
 
 ,, Drying, 129 
 
 ,, Essential, 130 
 
 ,, Non-drying, 129 
 Okra, 48 
 Okro, 48 
 
 Oldenlandia, 162, 2O2 
 <9/ra, 60, 103, 129, 139, 178, 203 
 Olive, 60, 139, 178 
 
 Oil, 103, 120 
 Onobrychis, 191, 200 
 Ophelia, 106, 203 
 Opium Poppy, 16, 77 
 Opoponax, 97, 132 
 Opoponax, 97, 202 
 Opuntia, 57, 148, 201 
 Orange, 53, 83, 178 
 ,, Black, 178 
 Oranges, Imports of, 23 
 Orchella Weed, 163 
 Orchil, 163 
 Orchis, 132 
 Ordeal Bean, 88 
 Oregon Pine, 186 
 Origanum, 65, 204 
 Orizaba-root, 107 
 Orris-root, 120 
 Orthosiphon, III, 204 
 Oryza, 31, 34, 208 
 Oswego, 25 
 
 Oxford Physic Garden, 10 
 Oxtree, 174 
 Oxycoccus, 56, 203 
 
 PADOUK, 182, 188 
 Palaquium, 156, 203 
 Palm, Date, 177 
 ,, Oil, 131, 143 
 Palmyra, 177, 179 
 
220 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Palm-sugar, 37 
 
 Panic urn, 33, 208 
 
 Papaver, 1 6, 77, 129, 196 
 
 Papaw, 95 
 
 Paper Materials, 164 
 
 Pareira, 76 
 
 Par ilium, 173, 197 
 
 Park i a, 147, 199 
 
 Parsley, 64, 191 
 
 Parsnip, 40, 42 
 
 ,, Cheveril, 43 
 Parthenine, 102 
 Parthenium, 102, 202 
 Partridge Cane, 179 
 
 ,, Wood, 179 
 Passiflora, 56, 201 
 Pastinaca, 40, 202 
 Patchouli, 140 
 Paullinia, 71, 198 
 Payena, 156, 203 
 Peach, 52 
 
 Peaches, Imports of, 23 
 Pear, 51 
 Peas, 12, 38 
 Peccan-nuts, 58 
 Pelargonium, 134, 197 
 Pellit'ory, 101 
 Penang Lawyer, 179 
 Pencil Cedar, 181 
 Pennyroyal, no, 140 
 Pepper, 63, 64 
 Peppermint, no, 140 
 Perilla, 140, 204 
 Pernambuco Jaborandi, 83 
 Peruvian Bark, 98 
 Pctroselinum, 191, 202 
 Peumus, 112, 205 
 Pharbitis, 1 06, 204 
 Phaseolus, 39, 200 
 Phleum, 190, 208 
 Physostigma, 88, 200 
 Phoenix, 12, 30, 37, 53, 177, 207 
 Phormium, 15, 172, 207 
 Phyllostachys, 179, 208 
 Physic Gardens, 9, IO 
 
 Nut, 142 
 Phytelephas, 194, 207 
 Pice a, 185, 208 
 Pier ana, 84, 198 
 Pilocarpus, 82, 198 
 Pimenta, 94, 179, 2OI 
 
 Pimento, 66, 94, 179 
 Fimpinella, 65, 96, 201 
 Pine-apple, 55, 168 
 
 ,, Imports of, 23 
 
 Pines, 125, 180, 184, 185, 186 
 Pimis, 125, 144, 184, 185, 208 
 Piper, 63, 117, 206 
 Piscidia, 89, 200 
 Pis facia, 60, 86, 199 
 Pistachio-nut, 60 
 Pisum, 12, 38, 200 
 Pita, 168 
 Pitch, 124 
 
 Pine, 1 80, 185 
 Pittas porum, 174, 197 
 Pituri, 109 
 Plane, 182 
 
 Plantado Passado, 24 
 Plant ago, III, 191, 204 
 Plantain, 24, 54 
 Platanus, 182, 205 
 Plums, 12 
 
 ,, Varieties of, 51 
 Poa, 190, 208 
 Poon, 80, 1 88 
 Podocarpus, 189, 209 
 Podophyllin, 77 
 Podophyllum, 77, 196 
 Pogostemon, 140, 204 
 Poly gala, 79, 197 
 Polygonacea:, 33, 204 
 Polypous, 193, 209 
 Pomalo, 53 
 
 Pomegranate, 54, 94, 178 
 Pommes d'Or, 56 
 Pond's Extract, 93 
 Poplar, 182 
 Poppy-opium, 77 
 Poptilus, 177, 205 
 Porcupine-wood, 182 
 Potato, 24, 40 
 
 Disease of, 40 
 
 Import of, 22 
 
 Introduction of, 40 
 
 Spirit, 62 
 
 Sweet, 41 
 Poterium, 191, 200 
 Premna, 121, 204 
 Primula, 61, 203 
 Prosopis, 146, 147, 1 60, 199 
 Prumis, 12, 51, 52, 92, 178, 200 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 221 
 
 Psidium, 56, 2OI 
 
 Pse^ldots^lga, 1 86, 209 
 
 Psoralea, 136, 200 
 
 Ptelea, 83, 198 
 
 Pterccarpns, 89, 182, 183, 1 88, 2CO 
 
 Ptychotis, 96, 201 
 
 Puccoon, 77 
 
 Pulse ; 38 
 
 Punica, 54, 94, 178, 201 
 
 Purging Cassia, 91 
 
 Pynkado, 1 88 
 
 Pyrethrum, 194, 2O2 
 
 Pyroxyline, 194 
 
 jyrus, 12, 50, 51, 175, 178, 200 
 
 Quassia, 84, 198 
 Quassia, 84 
 Quebec Ash, 181 
 
 Birch, 180 
 
 Quebracho, Red, 159 
 Queensland P'ever Bark, 104 
 Quercitron, 164 
 Querctts, 118, 160, 164, 177, 180, 
 
 1 86, 187, 193, 206 
 Quillaia, 194, 200 
 Quince, 51, 93 
 Quinine, 17, 98 
 
 RADISH, 43 
 Rajah Cane, 179 
 Rampion, 43 
 Ranunculaceae, 20, 196 
 Rape-seed, 133 
 RapJiamos, 43, 196 
 Raphia, 30, 173, 207 
 Raspberry, 55 
 Rassack, 182 
 Redwood, 182, 184, 188 
 Reed, Carolina, 178 
 
 ,, Maces, 21 
 Remijia, 100, 202 
 Reseda, 78, 197 
 Resins, 149, 153 
 Revalenta, 39 
 Rhamnus, 86, 163, 198 
 Rhaphidophora, 1 2 1, 207 
 Rhea Fibre, 166 
 Rheum, 16, 56, 112 
 Rliizophora, 159, 200 
 
 Rhododendron, 176, 202 
 Rhubarb, 16, 56, 112 
 Rhus, 135, 160, 199 
 Ribes, 55, 200 
 Ribwort, 191 
 Rice, 25, 34 
 
 ,, Canadian, 34 
 
 ,, Import of, 34 
 
 Starch, 31 
 Ricinus, 1 1 6, 206 
 Riga Fir, 184 
 Roccella, 163, 209 
 Rohun, 86 
 Rosa, 93, 136, 200 
 Rosemary, ill, 140 
 Roses, Attar of, 92, 136 
 Rosewood, 182, 183 
 Rosmarinus, III, 140, 204 
 Rubia, 162, 202 
 Rubus, 54, 55, 200 
 R^unex, 47, 161, 204 
 Rushes, Dutch, 193 
 Rusot, 76 
 Rye, 33 
 
 ,, Ergot on, 33 
 
 ,, Grass, 190, 192 
 
 SABADILLA, 122 
 Sabicu, 1 88 
 
 Saccharomyces, 6l, 209 
 Sacchamm Officinarum, 35, 208 
 Safflower, 138, 163 
 Saffron, 120, 122, 163 
 
 ,, Crocus, 21 
 Sage, 64 
 Sago, 30 
 
 ,, Import of, 31 
 Sainfoin, 191 
 Sal, 186, 187 
 Salicine, 118 
 Salicylic Acid, 118 
 Salix, 1 1 8, 205 
 Salsafy, 43 
 Salvia, 64, 204 
 Sambuctis, 55, 2O2 
 Sandal- wood, 118, 183 
 Sanguinaria, 77, 196 
 Santalum, 118, 183, 206 
 Santa Maria, 183 
 Santonica, 101 
 
222 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Sap-green, 86 
 Sapucaia-nut, 59 
 tarcocephalus, 98, 202 
 Sarracenia, 77, 196 
 Sarsaparilla, 123 
 Sassafras, 113 
 Sassafras, 113, 205 
 Sassy-bark, 91 
 Satin-wood, 181 
 Salureja, 65, 204 
 Savanilla, 79 
 Savin, 124, 144 
 Savory, 65 
 Savoys, 45 
 ^chleichera, 150, 198 
 Scorzonera, 43, 2O2 
 Sea-kale, 46 
 Seaweeds, 49, 50 
 Seca/e, 33, 208 
 Sechinm, 48, 201 
 Sedge, Sweet, 121 
 Seed Oil, 142 
 Semola, 31 
 Semolina, 31 
 Senega Root, 79 
 Senegal, 146 
 Senna, 90 
 Sequoia, 1 88, 209 
 Service-berries, 51 
 Tree, 175 
 
 Sesame Oil, 110, 140 
 Sesamum, 109, 204 
 Shaddock, 53 
 Shallots, 64 
 Shea Butter, 139 
 Shola-pith, 194 
 Chorea, 187, 197 
 Shrub Trefoil, 83 
 Sida, 172, 197 
 Siegesbeckia, 102, 2O2 
 Silk Grass, 168 
 Silver Fir, 182 
 Simaba, 84, 198 
 Simartiba, 84, 198 
 Simariwecc, 20, 198 
 Sissoo, 1 88 
 Smm, 43, 201 
 Slippery Elm, 115 
 Sloane's, Sir Hans, Collection, 9 
 Sloke, 50 
 Smilax, 123, 208 
 
 Snake-root, 118 
 
 Snake-wood, 179 
 
 Snuff, 108 
 
 Solanum, 40, 43, 107, 204 
 
 Solanaceae, 20, 204 
 
 Sorghum, 33, 37, 208 
 
 Sorghum Sugar, 36, 37 
 
 Sorrel, 47 
 
 Sowari-nut, 59 
 
 Soymida, 86 
 
 Spanish Moss, 172 
 
 Sparteine, 87 
 
 Spigelia, 105, 203 
 
 Spinach, 25, 45 
 
 Spinacia, 45, 205 
 
 Spirits, 61, 62 
 
 Spogel, in 
 
 Spondia$ % 147, 199 
 
 Spruce, 124, 185 
 
 Squills, 121 
 
 St. Ignatius Lean, 105 
 
 Star-anise, 65, 75 
 
 Starch, 28 
 
 ,, Edible Varieties, 29 
 
 Stavesacre, 74 
 
 Sterciilia, 70, 197 
 
 Stillingi a, 130, 142, 206 
 
 Stinkwood, 183 
 
 Storax, 93, 151 
 
 Strawberry, 54 
 
 Strophantkus, 104, 203 
 
 Strychnine, 105 
 
 Strychnos, 105, 203 
 
 Styrax, 103, 131, 151, 152, 203 
 
 Sugar, Consumption of, 37 
 Beet, White, 16, 36 
 ,, ,, Introduction of, 36 
 
 Sugars, 35 
 
 ,, Varieties of, 35 
 
 Sumach, 160, 162 
 
 Sumbul, 96 
 
 Sunflower, 138 
 
 Swede, 189 
 
 Sweet Almond, 59 
 
 Swietenia, 85, 174, I So, 186, 187, 198 
 
 Sycamore, 182 
 
 Symphytum, 192, 204 
 
 Syzygtum, 93, 20 1 
 
 Tacca, 29, 207 
 Tamarind, 56, 91 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 223 
 
 Tantar Indus, $6, 91, 199 
 
 Tampico Jalap, 107 
 Tangle, 50 
 Tapioca, 30 
 
 ,, Import of, 30 
 Taraxacum, 47, IOI, 202 
 Tarragon, 64 
 Tea, 69 
 
 ,, Plant, Introduction to India, 17 
 Teak, 1 86, 187 
 Teazle, 177, 178, 194 
 Tecoina, 176, 204 
 Terminalia, 1 60, 2OO 
 Terra Japonica, 161 
 Tetragonia, 46, 20 1 
 Tevvart, 1 88 
 Thea, 69, 140, 197 
 Tiieobroma, 69, 130, 197 
 Theobromine, 27 
 Thingan, 188 
 Thistle, 177 
 Thitkado, 182 
 Thorn apple, 107 
 Thyme, 64, III 
 Thymelaceae, 20, 205 
 Thymol, 96 
 
 7 hynnts, 64, 96, III, 140, 204 
 Ticorca, 82, 198 
 Tilia, 172, 197 
 Tiliacese, 20, 198 
 Tillandsia, 172, 206 
 Tinospora, 76, 196 
 
 Tipuana, 159 
 Tobacco, 12, 1 08 
 ,, Indian, 102 
 
 Toddalia, 83, 198 
 Toddy Palms, 37 
 Tolu, Balsam of, 89, 151 
 Tomato, 25, 47 
 Tonga, 121 
 Tonquin Bean, 133 
 Cane, 178 
 Toon, 182 
 Toothache Shrub, 82 
 
 Totara, 189 
 
 Tragopogon, 43, 2O2 
 
 Tri folium, 191, 199 
 
 Tr i gone I la, 87, 132, 199 
 
 Trincomalee Wood, 183 
 
 Triticum, 12, 208 
 , 64, 197 
 
 z, 124, 161, 185, 209 
 "ruffle, 49 
 tiber, 49, 209 
 'ulip-tree, 182, 188 
 'urkey Nuts, 58 
 'urmeric, 63, 162 
 "urnera, 95, 201 
 'urnip, 40, 42 
 
 'urpentine, 124, 125, 144, 151 
 'ussack Grass, 192 
 fylophora, 105, 203 
 Typha, 21, 207 
 
 Ulex, 87, 178, 191, 199 
 Jiexine, 87 
 Ulmus, 115, 181, 205 
 Ulva, 50, 209 
 Umbrella-handles, 177 
 Uncaria, 97, 161, 202 
 Urginea, 121, 207 
 Urtica, 46, 205 
 LJrticaceae, 20, 205 
 
 Vahea, 155, 203 
 Valeriana, 100, 202 
 Valonia, 1 60 
 Vanilla, 67 
 Vanilla, 68, 207 
 Vatica, 183, 197 
 Valeria, 130, 133, 150, 197 
 Vegetable Ethiops, 127 
 
 Ivory, 194 
 
 ,, Marrow, 48 
 
 Technology, Literature 
 of, 1 8, 19 
 
 Venice Turpentine, 124 
 Veratrum, 122, 207 
 Verbascum, 177 
 Vetch, 191 
 Viburnum, 178, 202 
 Vicia, 191, 200 
 Vine, Ceylon, 179 
 Virginian Poplar, 182 
 
 Snake- root, 118 
 Vitis, 12, 52, 198 
 
 WALKING-STICK, 177 
 Walnut, 1 80, 181, 188 
 
224 
 
 GENERAL INDEX, 
 
 Walnuts, 58, 142 
 
 Wanika Arrow Poison, 104 
 
 Warburg's Drops, 114 
 
 Wars, 116 
 
 Water Ash, 83 
 Cress, 47 
 Melons, 54 
 
 Waxes, Vegetable, 131 
 
 W T hangee Bamboo, 179 
 
 Wheat, Forms of, 12, 24, 31 
 Home Production of, 3: 
 Imports of, 22, 32 
 Preparations from, 32 
 Price of, 22 
 
 Whin, 191 
 
 White Quebracho Bark, 104 
 Spruce, 185 
 Wood, 182, 185, 1 88 
 Bark, 79 
 
 Wilhihbeia> 155, 203 
 
 Wine-making Materials, 61 
 
 Wintergreen Oil, 138 
 
 Winter's Bark, 75 
 
 Wood-apple Gum, 148 
 Oil, 80, 151 
 Ruff, Sweet, 132 
 
 Woody Nightshade, 107 
 Wormseed, 101 
 Wormwood, 101 
 Wourali Poison, 105 
 
 Xanthorhiza, 75, 196 
 Xanthorrhea, 122, 208 
 Xylia, 1 88, 199 
 
 YAMS, 40, 41 
 Yegoma Oil, 140 
 Yellow Berries, 163 
 
 Cavalier, 82 
 
 Clover, 191 
 
 Deal, 184 
 
 Pine, 184, 185 
 
 Poplar, 182 
 
 Puccoon, 74 
 Yerba de Mate, 71 
 Y ere urn, 169 
 
 Zanthoxyhun, 82, 179, 198 
 Zea^ 12, 15, 31, 208 
 Zingiber, 65, 119, 206 
 Zizania, 35, 208 
 Zizyphus, 57, 198 
 
 THE END. 
 
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