THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS
;v
THE
CONSTRUCTION OF
MILL DAMS
COMPRISING ALSO
THE BUILDING OF RACE AND RESERVOIK EMBANKMENTS AND
HEAD GATES, THE MEASUREMENT OF STREAMS,
GAUGING OF WATER SUPPLY, &0.
Illustrated by numerous Full-Page Plates.
SPRINGFIELD, OHIO:
James Leffel & Co.,
AUTHORS AND PUBLISHERS.
1874.
UBRARY
Entered According to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by
JAMES LEFFEL & CO.,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C.
PREFACE.
PREFACE.
A considerable portion of the matter contained in this
work has appeared in a serial form in the monthly issues of
Leffel's Illustrated Milling and Mechanical News, but has
been carefully revised and corrected for republication in
this form ; while the remaining chapters and illustrations
are entirely new, being now printed for the first time.
While the series of articles on this subject was in progress
in the monthly journal referred to, the degree of interest
with which it was received by the milling public was
indicated by frequent requests from all parts of the country
for files of the paper containing the complete series. The
number and the urgent character of these applications,
with most of which the publishers were unable to comply,
the earlier editions of the paper being soon exhausted,
suggested the expediency of publishing the series entire,
in a form which would admit of fully supplying both the
present and future demand. It may also be said, in further
justification of this course, that in view of all the circum-
stances of the case and the amount of labor and outlay
required in the preparation of these articles with the illus-
trations accompanying them, it seemed desirable that the
results attained should be put in more permanent shape
than it is possible to give them in a periodical publication.
The collection of materials for this work occupied a period
of over three years, and the facts embodied in it were
gathered from all sections of our country, so that for Amer-
ican readers at least we may venture to hope that it will
not be found wanting in comprehensiveness and variety.
4 PREFACE.
Abstract and technical features, it will be observed, have
been uniformly avoided, our object being to make this
volume useful in the highest possible degree to every per-
son owning water power or interested in any way in its
utilization. To this end we have chosen the presentation
of the subjects discussed in this volume in the most direct
and practical form ; and whatever may be its deficiencies
in other respects, we trust that by minuteness of detail
and distinctness of description it may be rendered service-
able to the class of readers to whose favor it is respectfully
commended.
JAMES LEFFEL & CO.
Springfield, Ohio.
CONTENTS.
CONTENTS.
Introduction, - 7
Material and Form of Dams, ---.._ 9, 12
A Beaver Dam, -- 16
Log Dam for Soft or Sandy Bottoms, - . . _ 21
A Safe and Economical Dam, - 26
Hollow Frame Dam, __-..-. 32
Rip-Rap Dam, 39
Crib Dam, - - 45
Dam for Rock Bottom, -__-.-_ 51
Pile Dam, .--._-_.- 57
The Housatonic Dam at Birmingham, Connecticut, - - 62
Plank Crib Dam, ---.--.. 7I
The Moline Dam, 78
Boulder Wing Dam, -__-.._ 34
Brush, Stone and Gravel Dam, ----._ 89
Curved Plank Dam for Rock Bottom, _ _ •. . j)4
Construction of Dam Between Coffers, . - . - 100
Stone Dam near Frankfort, Kentucky, _ . . . 106
An Iron Dam, - 111
Pile and Boulder Dams, -- 116
Stone Dams, -._- 121
Dam at Lawrence, Kansas, (3 plates) _ . _ - 126, 131, 136
Dam on the Tassoo River, Hindostan, _ . - . I43
Lock and Dam at Henry, Illinois, 148
Crib Dam with Plank Covering, ------ l.~>7
Plank Dam at Gilboa, Ohio, 162
6 CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Frame Dam at Clifton, Ohio, Ifjg
Timber Dam at New Hartford, Connecticut, (2 plates), - 175, 179
Log Dam for Narrow Streams, -----. 184
Frame Dam on Mad Kiver, - 191
Dam at Osborn City, Kansas, .-.._, 19 j
Stone and Timber Dam, 202
Dam for Quicksand Bottom, 208
Overhung Apron Dams, --.-... 214 273
Stone Dam with Plank Covering, ------ 219
Timber Dam at South Hadley Falls, Massachusetts, - - 224
Stone Apron Dam, -.--___. 228
Pile and Frame Dam, ----_.. 233
Pile and Brush Dam, --.--.._ 240
Log and Plank Dam, --- 245
Frame Dam with Sheet Piling, ...... 252
Double Crib Dam— Trestle Dam, - - - _ . 9-g
Light Frame Dam, -------- 9^2
Dam for Rock and Sand Bottom, 269
Race and Reservoir Embankments, . _ . . . 276 281
Head- Gates lor Races and Canals, - - - . . 091
Gauging the Supply to Water Wheels, 297
Weir Dam— Measurement of Water, - . . . ^q^
To Measure Water More Accurately, 3q8
Measurement pf Large Open Streams, - , , , 311
INTRODUCTION.
INTRODUCTION
The household proverb that '' Fire is a good servant, but
a bad master," is true in an almost equal degree of water,
its opposing element. Under the intelligent control of man,
the power of water is one of the chief instrumentalities in
promoting human comfort and spreading the blessings of
civilization. The uses to which it may be turned are so
various, and the products for the manufacture of which it
is a serviceable agent are of such manifold forms and min-
ister to so many wants of our nature, that the country
which is possessed of abundant water power is looked upon
as especially favored by Providence. But this invaluable
servant, if once it bursts over the bounds which have been
set for its action, becomes a destructive scourge, laying
waste the very fields whose tillage it had made profitable
and bringing to poverty, in an hour as it were, a whole
community, whom until then it had sustained in prosperous
industry. More than one such instance occurs in our own
memory and doubtless in that of every reader, where an
insignificant stream along whose banks thousands of men,
women and children have earned for years a secure liveli-
hood, has risen in its might and swept away with its swollen
torrent all the fruits of those years of labor, often not
sparing even the life of the laborer himself, and in a single
day inflicting damage which a generation may not see
repaired.
As the first step in the improvement of a water power is
the construction of the dam, so the first consideration in
that work is strength and durability. While the builder
of a mill is bound to consult economy in the means he
g INTRODUCTIOII.
employs in obtaining a sufficient fall for the purposes of bis
business, and diverting from its natural channel that por-
tion of the stream which is to be made directly available,
the economy which does not provide a sure resistance to
sudden floods is very apt to prove the worst form of ex-
travagance in the end. The tremendous power which a
stream acquires in time of high water is seldom properly
estimated when it is seen moving tranquilly within its
usual bounds. When the day of disaster comes, the trifling
neglect which brought it on is regretted, but too late for
remedy. Our object in the present volume is to ofi'er a few
suggestions which may be of practical value to our readers,
in regard to the methods by which a dam may be economi-
cally built and yet be of efl'ectual service and the greatest
attainable durability. The power of water being by far
the cheapest motive power which can be applied to manu-
facturing purposes, it is important to inquire how it may be
employed with the least expense, without sacrifice of
strength and utility.
We may perhaps safely venture the assertion that in this
volume is presented a larger number and greater variety of
dams of different styles, materials and methods of con-
struction than can be found illustrated in like manner in
any other work upon the subject; for although a vitally
important branch of the business of milling, it has generally
been suff'ered to pass with comparatively slight attention.
The building of the mill itself, the application of the mo-
tive power and the con-struction of the machinery for its
transmission, are matters upon which innumerable author-
ities may be consulted ; but for the erection of the dam,
which may be justly regarded as the very foundation of the
enterprise, the mill-owner has been left in a great measure
to his own devices, aided by such conflicting counsels as he
can obtain from his neighbors and his mill-wright. It has
been our aim to supply in some degree this manifest
deficiency in the literature of the milling business, and to
present the results of a somewhat extended experience and
observation in a form which will render them of service to
others who are seeking information on this subject.
The Construction of Mill Dams.
CHAPTER I.
MATERIAL AND FORM OF DAMS.
The weirs or dams thrown across the beds of rivers have
been constructed in a great variety of shapes and of different
materials, some of them too costly for general use in a coun-
try where small mills are chiefly needed. In cases where
the supply of water is large and a high fall is not demanded,
a temporary dam composed of boulder stones is sometimes
thrown across the stream in a diagonal or slanting direction,
and of length considerably greater than its breadth. The
water is thus partly forced into the conduit or race above the
dam, and the remainder passes over the surface of the dam
in a shallow sheet. Being hastily and cheaply built, a dam
of this kind may be repaired without much outlay, but the
inconvenience of doing this after every heavy rise of the
stream is a material drawback on its value.
In contrast with this comparatively rude species of dam
are those of more solid structure, substantially built of stone,
and stretched across the river in the form of a bow, the curve
being against the current — the middle of the dam, in other
words, being higher up the stream than the two ends. A
dam of this sort, if provided with massive stone abutments,
presents a firm resistance to the onset of a flood, and will
stand any test ordinarily experienced. It may be made with
10 MATERIAL AND FORM OF DAMS.
a gentle slope from the crest both up and down the stream ;
or with a steep descent on each side, making its walls almost
perpendicular ; or again with either a steep or sloping front
on the upper side and on the lower a curved apron, the wall
rounding downward from the top like the lower half of the
letter 0, by which arrangement the fall is made gradual and
its force abated.
In a stream of moderate size, a form of weir has sometimes
been adopted resembling the letter Y, with the apex or point
directed up-stream. If built upon piles, with a frame of tim-
ber forming an inclined plane upon the face of the dam, and
filled up with gravel surmounted by a mass of boulder stones
well packed in, the dam will be nearly impenetrable by
water. The position of the two arms of the V distributes
the force of the water in passing over, and as the currents
descending from either side tend toward the centre of the
stream, the banks are less liable to be washed away. If tim-
ber is abundant, the frame, instead of having a uniform
slope downward on the face of the dam, may be made in a
series of steps like a wide stairway, breaking the water into
cascades. The piles for such a dam may be placed at right
angles with the current, stayed and covered with plank, and
made watertight with sheet piling supported by foot piles.
Constructed in other respects like the one last described, a
dam of this kind will possess great durability and admit of
no leakage.
An undue accumulation of water above the dam may be
remedied by a channel and sluice gate in one of the side
walls, by which the surplus water may be drawn off before
reaching the crest of the dam. A self-adjusting dam of heavy
planks strongly framed together is sometimes stretched
across the stream, connected by hinges to the crest of the
permanent dam, and held in an upright position by weights
passing over wheels on the abutments. In case of a flood
the weights give way partially to the increased pressure and
the auxiliary dam is let down toward a horizontal posiiton,
allowing the water to pass unobstructed. In place of an
appendage of this kind, movable flash boards are often used,
being held in place by pins and other supports along the
MATJlRiAL AKD FORM OF 1)AMS. 11
brink of the dam, and tightly fitted to each other. In time
of low water, the flash boards are of important service in
obtaining sufiicient head. When the stream rises, the boards
are removed (though the supports may often remain) and
the crest of the main dam being below high water mark, the
surplus water escapes freely.
In the following chapters the varieties of dams more prac-
tically adapted to the wants of mill-owners in our own coun-
try will be mainly considered — including log and frame
dams, embankments, crib-work, and their various combina-
tions. We accompany each chapter (with the exception of
the 1st and 2d) with a full-page engraving, in order to
present to the reader more clearly the suggestions we desire
to off"er. The methods of construction above described are
chiefly useful for large establishments and corporations,
with whom the matter of expense is not a vital considera-
tion. Our next inquiry will be how the same practical re-
liability may be obtained, on a smaller scale and with the
most moderate outlay.
12 MATERIAL AND FORM OF DAMS.
CHAPTER II.
MATERIAL AND FORM OF T>AM^.— Continued.
In many localities where stone is not readily obtained —
which is the case in a large portion of the Western States —
frame dams are the cheapest substitute, and if properly
constructed serve their purpose in the most satisfactory
manner. If the stream has a firm and level bottom, the
frames, which are made in a triangular shape, resembling a
harrow, may be placed directly on the bed of the river,
without any intervening foundation. The narrow end or
apex is of course laid up the stream, and the frames placed
in a line extending from bank to bank, with a space of three
or four feet between them. The upper side being then
planked the whole length of the dam, an inclined plane is
presented to the current on the up stream side, and if the
frames are substantially built the pressure of the water will
be firmly resisted.
On a soft or irregular bottom, where a heavier foundation
is required, the following plan is the most economical, and
requires comparatively little labor. Three tiers of timbers
running parallel to each other across the stream are placed
at the foundation of the dam, one tier at the lower side, one
at the upper side, and the third midway between them.
Posts are then framed into the lower and middle tiers of
timbers, those on the lower tier being of a hight nearly
equal to the top of the rafters at the crest of the dam, and
the top of those in the middle tier being in range with the
former and the foot of the rafters. Two upper tiers of tim-
bers are framed upon the posts thus erected, and the raft-
ers, which should be slightly notched at the point where
they rest upon the timbers, are thus firmly supported at the
head and foot and in the middle ; and the planking being
well fastened to them, a strong and serviceable dam is the
MATERIAL AND FORM OF DAMS. 13
result, with but moderate outlay either of money or labor.
The best form of dam, whatever be the material of
which it is constructed, is that resembling a bow, with the
arch up-stream, as described in Chapter I; but this method
of construction is seldom followed in frame and log dams,
the straight line calling for much less labor and care, as well
as less material, the distance being of course less than
when a curve is made.
A clieap and substantial dam may be made, where timber
is abundant, by laying a foundation of logs of considerable
size, which are placed lengthwise of the stream and close
together, forming a sort of corduroy road, extending from
bank to bank. If the bottom is soft, tlie logs should be
carefully fitted down and adapted to the inequalities of the
bed, and if placed as deep as possible they will be less lia-
ble to decay by exi)osure in time of low water. The breast-
work of the dam is built near the up-stream side of this
foundation, the logs extending from under it down-stream,
and serving as an apron to receive the waste water as it
comes over. The rafters and coverings of the dam form an
inclined plane on the up-stream side, and extend over Ihe
upper ends of the logs, protecting the foundation from be-
ing undermined by the water working beneath it.
In a region well timbered, and where the stream has a
rock or other solid bottom, a log dam of the following de-
scription has advantages in point of cheapness, strength
and durability. A series of large logs are placed in line,
one at the end of another, at the down-stream face of tlie
dam, the loose rubbish being carefully cleaned out, and hol-
low places filled with short logs to support the main founda-
tion firmly. The logs used for the foundation tier should be
as long and large as can conveniently be procured. A se-
ries of short logs are then laid upon this tier, with their butt
ends resting on the foundation logs and their top ends on
the bed of the river, pointing up stream, the distance be-
tween them being six or eight feet. Upon these a second
tier of long logs is placed, parallel with the foundation tier,
but a little farther up stream. A second set of ties is laid
with the butt ends on the second tier of logs and the top
14 MATERIAL AI^D FORM OF DAMS.
ends on the ground beside the first set. This second set of
ties being a trifle shorter than the first, room is left to place
a log of moderate size across the ends of the first ties. This
will serve as a support for skids upon which to roll up the
third tier of large logs. The logs should be notched where
they cross and the ends resting on the ground firmly secured
in order to impart the necessary strength to tlie whole
structure. If properly built, the front of the dam will rise
considerably faster than the rear, and will at the same time
incline up stream, so that its form will resemble a portion
of an arch, the foot of the ties being the center and the
breast of the dam the circumference. Beside the series of
large logs in front, a second and even a third series of
smaller size, running parallel with it across the stream, may
be placed in the angles formed by the ties, which should be
notched where they cross the logs ; and the three series of
logs should range in hight so that the covering of the dam
will form an inclined plane — not too steep for the length of
the incline, or the whole fabric may slide down stream when
the pressure of the water is brought to bear. Either logs
or rafters may be used in constructing the covering. If the
former, they should be close together, and chinked with
moss, pounded cedar bark,*or other suitable riiaterial. If
rafters are used, they may be placed about three feet apart
and planked crossways, the thickest planks being used at
the bottom and at the crest of the dam.
Many other varieties of dams remain to be more fully
noticed in the succeeding chapters of this work — as every
section of country calls for new adaptions of the material
and shape of the structure to the peculiar surface, soil and
resources of the region. As a matter which may interest
the reader, we give, before closing this chapter, a brief ac-
count of the method in which a broken dam in the western
part of Indiana was repaired some time since, after repeated
unsuccessful attempts. The dam referred to was built of
logs, brushwood, &c., and the bed of the stream was a
treacherous quicksand— perhaps the most difficult kind of
bottom upon which to obtain a secure foundation. The
breach was nearly in the center of the dam, and not less
MATERIAL AND FORM OF DAMS. 1 5
than forty feet wide ; and the deep and swift current which
rushed through it defied every efi"ort to gain a point of sup-
port from which to work. Various expedients were tried,
even to throwing huge boulders into the stream, which were
carried along by the force of the water and rendered of no
avail. Several millwrights and engineers coasted in skiffs
about the place for two or three days, looking for some base
of operations, but entirely without success. At length one
of them, having pushed his explorations along the banks a
mile or more up stream, discovered a huge tree, with an ex-
traordinary breadth of branches, near the water and lean-
ing toward it in such a way as to suggest that it might pos-
sibly be launched into the stream. Other trees near it were
felled and leaned against standing trees so as to serve as a
kind of skids, and by dint of two or three days' patient toil,
in which the use of windlasses was found necessary, the
tree was at last guided down the stream butt foremost, and
lodged in the gap at the broken dam. The expedient proved
completely successful, for although a mighty cracking and
splintering of boughs ensued, the stout branches held fast
on the sides of the dam, and a beginning was thus made
from which the necessary repairs were effected with com-
parative ease.
16 A BKAVER DA3r.
CHAPTER III.
A BEAVER DAM.
We depart in this chapter from the line of discussion pre-
viously laid out so far as to substitute, in our illustration, a
dam constructed under the guidance of instinct for one in
which human reason and the rules of mechanical science
are the directing agencies. The art of dam-building as prac-
tised by beavers may be said to possess novelty rather than
intrinsic value to the mechanical reader, and we offer the
accompanying view of it as matter of interest and amuse-
ment to such readers, affording a perhaps not unpleasing
variety, in connection with the strictly practical details to
which our previous as well as our succeeding chapters are
confined. It may be said, indeed, that an examination of
the science of constructing mill dams, intended to cover as
nearly as possible all the principal branches and phases of
the question, would be grossly incomplete if we failed to
take notice of the fact that this most useful art has a plain
foundation in nature and was practised, in what approaches
very closely to an intelligent method, by other animals than
man, long before civilization had built its first mill and set
its first rude water-wheel in motion. The ingenuity of these
untaught workmen furnishes, moreover, a striking argument
in favor of the theory, of late a very popular one, that man-
kind are not a wholly distinct order of beings, but possess a
comjnon origin, however remote it may be, with what is con-
ventionally termed the brute creation. This is a matter,
however, into which the purpose of the present work
does not permit us to enter; especially as it leads to no
definite conclusions, but launches the inquirer on a vast field
of speculative controversy with no apparent prospect of use-
ful results.
The American Beaver, a specimen of whose skilled labor
A BEAVER DAM. 19
is shown in our engraving, is remarkable as being the only
quadruped known to naturalists whose fore parts resemble
those of a land animal, while their hind parts are adapted to
aquatic habits, having membranes between the toes. The
beavers begin to congregate for theix season's work in June
or July, on the shores of a lake or river where they design
making their abode. They gather from all directions, to the
number usually of two or three hundred. They frequently
establish themselves in the standing waters of a lake or
pond, if of sufficient depth, and in this case no dam is re-
quired ; but a running stream gives them the advantage of
a current by which to transport their supply of wood, which
they invariably cut at points farther up the stream than the
locality of the dam, being thus enabled to float it down.
They use chiefly the trunks and branches of small birch,
mulberry, willow or poplar trees, beginning the work of cut-
ting timber early in the summer. The building of the dam
and houses is not generally commenced until some time in
August, being finished just as the cold weather sets in.
The trees are cut so as to fall into the water if possible,
although small shrubs at some distance from the stream are
dragged to the bank and launched. The strength of the
beaver's teeth and the industry he displays are strikingly
shown by the size of the trees, reaching sometimes twelve
and even eighteen inches diameter, which he cuts down;
and this in such numbers and with such regularity that his
clearing might easily be mistaken for that of an enterprising
settler or backwoodsman.
More surprising still than their sagacity in floating their
materials to the proper place is the intelligence shown by
the beavers in adapting the shape of their dam to the
character of the stream. If the current is gentle, the dam
is built nearly straight across ; if it flows swiftly, a curved
dam is made, arching up-stream. The trees, branches, &c
are simply allowed to rest upon the bottom, and mud and
stones mixed in, to which the stream itself makes constant
additions. The dam thus acquires great solidity and strength,
and in some instances the willow or birch trees take root, so
that a sort of hedge is at length formed. An old dam which
20 A BEAVER BAM.
has been often repaired is found to possess remarkable
power of resisting the current and the broken ice driven
against it.
The main object of the dam is to produce sufficient depth
of water to cover the entrances to the beavers' houses, thus
enabling them, in the winter season, to pass in and out under
the ice. The houses are built of the same material as the
dams and are very strongly constructed. Each lodge usually
contains four old beavers and six or eight young ones, though
double this number are sometimes found in a single dwell-
ing.
LOG DAM FOR SOFT OR SANDY BOTTOMS. 21
CHAPTER IV.
LOG DAM FOR SOFT OR SANDY BOTTOMS.
In a country where timber is abundant, a log dam is the
most economical, affording, if properly built, an ample de-
gree of strength and durability at comparatively small cost
aside from the labor involved. This is of course a consider-
able item, but as the work can be performed by ordinary
laborers chiefly, it is of a less costly nature in proportion to
its amount than the construction of a frame dam or the
building of a solid stone wall, requiring the services of a
carpenter and a stone-mason.
We give with this chapter an illustration showing with
some minuteness the construction of a log-dam which may
be relied upon to resist almost any conceivable pressure
from the current, and which is in very little danger of be-
ing undermined. It is adapted, moreover, to river beds
which are of too yielding a character to afi'ord a solid found-
ation for a stone dam. Our engraving reproduces in all its
essential features a drawing lately made in our office for
the construction of a dam in the State of Texas. It is adapt-
ed to all localities where timber is not too costly, and espe-
cially to streams which have soft and sandy bottoms. In
the engraving the dam is shown as if cut into at the middle
of the stream, the further half being represented, with the
crib or pen built into the opposite bank.
The dam here represented may be literally described as a
" brush and timber dam," though it comes under the gen-
eral head of log-dams, the main portion of its structure
being of that character, while saplings of any size may be
used in making it compact, and brush, clay and boulder
stone for filling on the up-stream side. The process of con-
structing this dam is essentially as follows : Cut trees of
eight or ten inches in diameter, lopping off the limbs on
22 LOG DAM FOR SOFT OR SANDY BOTTOMS.
what will be the top and bottom sides, when the logs are
placed in position. Start the first layer (forming the found-
ation and front of the apron of the dam, and projecting
down stream as shown at the extreme left of the cut) plac-
ing the logs side by side with the tops up stream, the lower
or butt-ends being about fifty feet below the point where
the dam is to be raised. Having completed this, fall back
about twenty-five feet and place a second layer of logs side
by side as before, the limbs being carefully lopped off" on
the under and top sides. Having now two layers or courses
of logs reaching from side to side of the stream, start a
third layer twenty feet back of the second, and carry it
across the stream in the same manner as the others. The
fourth course, five feet back of the third, completes the se-
ries of successive and overlapping tiers of logs constituting
the foundation of the dam and forming the apron. With
this last course, you begin raising the dam, using for the
purpose trees and saplings of any convenient size, and all
the while filling in compactly, especially toward the up-
stream extremity of the dam, with brush and clay. If boul-
der stones are readily accessible they should be thrown in
along with the clay.
The successive courses of logs should now be laid on in
such a way that the face of the dam will present a steep
slope, the crest being about two feet farther up-stream than
the point at which the dam rests upon the apron. At nearly
every course it is well to lay binders lengthwise across the
stream, pinning them to the largest logs beneath them. The
ends of these binders, which may be three or four inches in
diameter, are shown in the cut. They should be placed from
two to four feet back of the face of the dam. Having
reached the crest of the dam, a top binder is pinned on as
solidly as possible, a pin being driven wherever there is
a chance for it to hold. If convenient, two or even three
binders may be employed, in which case they should be
firmly secured to each other and to the upper tier of logs.
The dam should be filled in on the surface, from the crest
back to the extreme up-stream tips of the trees, with fine
brush and clay. For this purpose, trestle work may be built
LOG DAM FOR SOFT OR SANDY BOTTOMS. 25
out over the stream and planks laid on to serve as a track
on which to wheel the dirt out upon the dam. Throughout
the whole work, care should be taken to lop the branches
from the top and bottom sides of the trees, and the butts of
the trees should invariably be laid down stream. The dam
should be made in the form of a semi-circle or half-moon,
arching up-stream.
To secure the ends of the dam, a log-pen should be built
at each bank, (one of which is shown in the cut,) extending
back into the bank as far as it can conveniently be carried.
Each pen should be chinked from the inside and filled with
clay ; or if stone is plenty it may be used instead of clay for
filling the pens, which will not then require to be chinked.
If clay is used it should be packed in as tightly as possible
to prevent it from working out.
It has been found that a dam of this kind will settle about
eighteen inches the first year, for which due calculation and
allowance should be made. After that time, it will remain
nearly stationary. It is cheaper, in a favorable locality, than
a frame dam, and has an important advantage in the fact
that it will hardly ever wash out. It is almost impossible to
build on a quicksand bottom a frame dam that will stay in,
as the experience of many mill-owners has shown. The use
of piling cannot be recommended, as the water forms small
whirlpools around the piles, and will in time wash out the
earth clear to their bottoms.
It should be remarked that in building a dam of this kind,
unless the stream is nearly dry, it will be well to leave a
passage through which the water may escape while the
building is going on. This need not usually be done until
the apron is completed, and perhaps one or two courses of
the upright part of the dam laid on ; but after that it will
be expedient to leave a space or channel near the middle of
the dam for the water to pass through until the rest of the
dam is finished, when the gap may be closed up.
A SAFE AND ECONOMICAL DAM.
CHAPTER V.
A SAFE AND ECONOMICAL DAM.
Although the material and method of construction of a
dam should generally be determined by the character of
the stream and its bed and the supply of timber or stone
to be found in the vicinity, there are many cases in which
the natural resources of the country are not specially
abundant in either respect, and the most economical method
is the best, whether the dam be of logs, frame-work, or
stone. It is understood, of course, that strength is under
all circumstances the first consideration, and there is no
true economy in a plan in which it is not so regarded. The
cost of rebuilding or repairing a dam will usually be sever-
al times greater than the additional outlay which would
have been required to make it proof, in the first place,
against sudden floods and the action of frost, floating ice
and driftwood.
We give in connection with this chapter an illustration
representing a style of dam which can be confidently rec-
ommended for its durability, and which involves no excess-
ive outlay either of money or labor. It has some points of
resemblance to the log dam described in our last chapter,
but the dam referred to is particularly suited to a region
where timber is abundant, while the one here shown does
not require so ample a supply of that material. The abut-
ments of this dam, it will also be observed, are built of
stone, instead of crib-work as in the former case. Crib-
work, however, can be substituted if more convenient ; or
if stone is used, cap-rock or rubble will answer the pur-
pose, if compactly laid and filled in with earth solidly in the
rear, nearly as well as more costly building stone.
The construction of this dam is shown very thoroughly in
A SAI'E Aln) ECONOMICAL DAM. 27
the cut, and only a brief explanation is necessary. Its qual-
ities of firmness, compactness and durability adapt it to
any sort of bottom, whether it be sand, soft mud, gravel or
rock ; and in either of these cases it would take a more vio-
lent pressure than most dams are subjected to, to move it
from its foundation. The first step in the process of build-
ing it is to la^^ the foundation logs A A, which extend
across the stream, being spliced if necessary, to obtain the
requisite length. They should be imbedded in ditches
crossing the stream transversely, and of sufficient depth to
bring the upper surface of the logs nearly on a level with
the bed of the stream. One of these logs is laid at the foot
of the apron, another at the point where the dam is to be
raised, and the third, fourth and fifth farther up stream, as
shown in the cut, the distances between them being six or
eight feet. The ends of these logs should project some dis-
tance from the sides of the dam into the bank or under the
abutment. The weight of the abutment resting upon them
will have the efi'ect to hold the dam in its place and pre-
vent it from being lifted or moved forward by the force of
the current.
The second series of logs, B B, are laid across the first
course, lengthwise of the stream, and about six feet apart,
the butt ends resting upon the lower log of the first
course. The dam is then raised at the second log of the
foundation, which is six or eight feet from the front log, the
intervening space being occupied by the apron of the dam.
A log of considerable size is laid down directly above the
foundation log, and notched to the logs B B wherever they
cross. A smaller log may be laid in like manner above the
third foundation log, and also at the fourth if desired ; as
these cross-logs or binders, which should be put in with
considerable regularity, especially at the face of the dam
and near it (as shown at D D) will serve to support and
hold together the whole fabric. The alternate courses of
logs having been carried up to the height of about five feet
at th-e face of the dam (which should be nearly perpendicu-
lar) and sloping back gradually as shown in the cut, the
crossing of the logs will form cribs or chambers, as at C,
S§ A SAt'E AiTD ECOKOMIOAL DAM.
which are to be filled with stone or gravel. Stone is to be
preferred if conveniently at hand, but gravel answers the
purpose nearly as well. The binders on the top of the dam,
crossing the stream, are to be firmly fastened to the logs
upon which they rest — those at the crest of the dam and at
the lower edge of the planking being secured by bolts,
which pass through all the successive logs, below them to
the very foundation of the dam. Except at these points it
will be sufficient to fasten the binders with long pins to the
logs beneath them. The planking E already referred to ex-
tends from the crest of the dam about twelve feet toward
the up-stream end, and serves to protect the front of the
structure from damage by ice or driftwood. The spaces at
H, at the rear of the dam, below the planking, should be
filled with stone or gravel.
The abutments F (only one of which is here shown, as
our engraving comprises but half of the dam, giving a
front, top, and sectional view) are built, as already stated,
upon the ends of the foundation logs projecting from the
sides of the dam, aiding thereby to hold the structure in its
place. The abutment represented in the cut is of solid ma-
sonry, good building stone being the material employed ;
but it may be more cheaply constructed, either of rough
stone or crib work, as described in the introduction of this
chapter.
The apron of this dam should be planked between the pro-
jecting logs, as shown at G, the planks extending back under
the first transverse log which begins the face of the dam.
It will be manifest from the nature of its construction that
no part of this dam can be moved from its place without the
entire fabric going with it. The diff*erent portions being
firmly connected and secured to each other, the structure
must go out bodily or not at all. The great breadth of the
dam at its base is one of its strongest advantages, prevent-
ing it from being undermined by the current — a danger
which constantly threatens a dam with a narrow foundation,
let it be ever so strongly built. It is also to be observed
that the amount of timber required in building by this plan
is very moderate, being much less than is often used in
A SAFE AND ECONOMICAL DAM. 31
dams which do not possess nearly so much actual strength
as is here afforded. As a practical example of the reliable
character of this dam, we may here remark that one of the
publishers of this work, having had two costly dams of cut
stone carried away from the same site by high water, finally
built one according to the plan here described, at a total
cost of $700, and has found it perfectly safe, the floods of
four successive years, some of them extremely violent,
having failed to carry away any part of it, or inflict any
material damage. Neither of the two stone dams which
preceded it stood over eighteen months, the bottom being
of the sandy and treacherous nature to which a great part
of the difficulty involved in the science of dam-building is
to be attributed.
32 A HOLLOW FRAME DAM.
CHAPTER VI.
A HOLLOW FRAME DAM.
Having treated at some length on the subject of log-dams,
especially for soft or sandy bottoms, and with particular
reference to the means at command in a region moderately
well timbered, we present in this chapter an illustration of
a hollow frame dam which we can safely recommend for a
country where economy in timber is necessary. It offers
an equal degree of security with the log dams previously
described, at the same time requiring far less material in its
construction. A good, reliable dam, in fact, can hardly be
built with a more economical use of timber than is shown
by the plan here given. Our artist has presented very
clearly the peculiarities of construction, leaving it nec-
essary to supply little more than the figures, dimensions
&c., to give the reader a clear idea of the design. The dam
here represented is built upon a solid rock bottom, but with
slight modifications is adapted to streams with a soft or san-
dy bed, as hereafter explained.
The first step in the construction of this dam is to lay the
foundation blocks A A, each of which is a stick of timber
ten inches square and about four feet in length. Three
rows of these blocks are to be laid across the stream, one at
the face of the dam, one at the up-stream extremity, and
another midway between them. The distance between the
centers both ways — across the stream and from one row to
another — is eight feet, giving three blocks or bearings to
each bent of the frame- work. Three additional blocks are
placed in the front row and twelve in the rear row to re-
ceive the bolts by which the dam is fastened to the rock.
Upon these blocks are now laid the mud-sills B B, which
form the immediate foundation of the dam, consisting of
logs about sixteen inches in diameter, hewn on the upper
A HOLLOW FRAME DAM. 66
and under sides so as to give a thickness in that direction
of thirteen inches. These are laid across the bed of the
stream in three tiers, one for each row of blocks. Where
joints occur, a two-feet splice should be made, and the two
ends firmly pinned together. The end of the front sill at
each bank should project into the abutment about fifteen
inches ; while that of the second or middle sill projects an
equal distance just behind the up stream wall of the abut-
ment, the center of which is near the front sill, bringing
part of the abutment against and the other part below the
dam. The front sill has three bolts passing through it, one
at each splice, an extra block being placed underneath as
already stated. The up-stream sill has twelve bolts, under
each of which is a block, in addition to the blocks on which
the bents of the frame-work are to rest. The bolts should
be If inches in diameter. Each one of them passes through
the sill and block down into the rock, which it penetrates
about three and a half feet, making the total length of the
bolt five and a half feet. The bolt is made after the hole
has been drilled, the necessary length being ascertained
by careful measurement. A " stoved head " as it is called,
is given to the bolt, and a washer placed underneath the
head, which is drawn tightly down by the tapered shape of
the head. In order to prevent any possibility of the bolt
working loose, the lower end is split five or six inches up,
and an iron wedge inserted. When the bolt is driven down,
the wedge, coming in contact with the rock, is driven up,
and spreading the point, holds the bolt firmly in its place.
Fine wet sand afterward put in will make it perfectly tight
and solid, being as eff'ective for this purpose as lead or ce-
ment.
In drilling the hole in the rock, an ordinary stone drill
slightly smaller than the hole to be made, is employed, and
is put down through the sill and block, which are previously
bored and placed in position.
The bents of which the framework of the dam is con-
structed, and which come next in order, are built throughout
of timbers ten inches square — the same size of material
being used in the lower horizontal pieces C 0, the uprights
34 A HOLLOW PKAME DAM.
D D, and the upper pieces E E, which form the slope of the
dam. The length of the lower timbers is sixteen feet, and
that of the upper timbers the same, the effect of which is to
give the face of the dam a slight inclination up stream. The
lower timbers are framed into each sill, a gain being cut two
inches deep, and the timbers secured with a dove-tail key-
driven to the side of each bent. The upright posts connect-
ing the upper and lower timbers of the bent have a length
of two feet three inches in the clear at the face of the dam,
and half that length at the middle sill ; and they are to be
mortised into the upper and lower timbers in the same man-
ner as in the framing of a house. The bents are the same
distance apart between centers as the blocks under the sills
— eight feet, and the distance from the front to the middle
upright is the same. The upper and lower timbers of each
bent are hewn obliquely or beveled at the up-stream end
so as to fit snugly together and give a combined thickness
at the extremity equal to one piece.
The last step in the building of the frame is placing the
ties F upon the top of the structure, extending transversely
across the stream in the same direction as the sills. There
are five series of these ties, one over each sill and one be-
tween. They should consist of timbers 4 by T inches and lie
on the narrower side. Each tie is let into the upper or in-
clined timber of the frame wherever it crosses, the depth of
the gain being one and a half inches, giving the tie five and a
half inches thickness above the frame. The gain is cut into
the frame at right angles with the upper timber, the ties
being thus slanted slightly upstream and presenting a level
surface for the planking. The forward tie is let into the
frame piece about four inches from the end, in order to give
sufficient strength to the gain to prevent it from breaking
out.
The whole upper surface of the frame is now planked
over. The planking, which is strongly spiked to the ties?
should be one and a half inches thick, and the wider the
better, as the fewer the number of joints, the more secure
from leakage will be the covering of the dam. A greater
thickness of plank than that given will increase the liability
A HOLLOW FRAME DAM. 37
to rot, as the wood is wet on one side and dry on the other.
The abutments, as already stated, extend but half way
from the face to the up-stream end of the dam. To protect
the exposed portion of the sides, the dam is enclosed with
stout upright planking from the middle sill to the upstream
end, the ends of the planks resting on the rock bottom. In
like manner, the rear of the dam is closed with sheet piling
extending from bank to bank, closely matched and of suffi-
cient hight to meet the planks which cover the top of the
dam, the lower ends of which are footed by the piling,
which extends to their upper side and is flush with the sur-
face of the dam.
The abutment is built of timbers fifteen to eighteen
inches in diameter and is eleven feet square. The logs are
hewed on one side to give a face to the abutment. The
first or foundation timbers are laid in the same direction as
the sills of the dam, transversely to the stream, the lower
one about three feet below the face of the dam, and the up-
per one just below the middle sill, which it touches and
helps to hold in i^osition. The first cross piece on the side
toward the dam is laid over and across the end of the front
mud-sill, which extends beneath it, as already stated, about
fifteen inches into the interior of the crib. The up-stream
end of the cross-piece reaches to the middle sill of the dam.
The timbers of the crib are notched and saddled where they
rest upon each other, and the structure is thus firmly held
together. The ends of the first two ties on the surface of
the dam extend to the crib, and the third tie passes directly
behind it in the same manner as the center sill below. The
crib is filled up with rough stone or coarse gravel, and cov-
ered with upright planking on the upper side and on the
side against the dam. A joist, I, two by ten inches, is
spiked against the crib along the top of the dam from its
crest to the up-stream corner of the crib.
The dam here shown is ninety-three feet long and its
total hight from the rock bottom to the surface of the plank-
ing is six and one-half feet. There are eleven bents in the
complete dam, only half of which is shown in our engrav-
ing. The dam here represented was built by Messrs. Book-
88 A HOLLOW FRAME DAM.
waiter & Olaypool of Attica, Ind., to furnish power for a large
iand very complete flouring-mill just erected by them, in
'which three Letfel Double Turbines were placed, with all
other necessary machinery, lurnished by the same establish-
ment. The design of the dam-, which was drawn in the office of
James Leifel & Co., can be adapted with some alterations to
a stream having a soft instead of a rock bottom. For that
purpose, it would be necessary to lay a foundation of two
and one-half inch plank, instead of the blocks, for the sills
to rest upon. These planks should be laid lengthwise of the
stream, and project ten or twelve feet below and an equal
distance above the dam, making a total distance of about
forty feet. As it is difficult to obtain planks of this length,
the foundation may be laid in two sections, the planks in
each having a length of twenty feet. About midway between
the breast and the* up stream end of the dam, where, if the
planks are twenty feet long, a joint will occur, a wide sill
should be placed beneath them, upon which the ends of the
planks can be firmly spiked. At the down-stream end of
the planks, constituting the edge of the apron, a light sill or
binder should be placed underneath — not to support, but
rather to hold together the planks. At the up-stream end,
the planks will be simply imbedded in the soil, and the
planking at this point, and the whole back ol the dam, cov-
ered with gravel, sand and dirt. A layer of brush at the
bottom of this covering will make it hold all the more
firmlv to the bed of the stream.
A RIP-KAP DAM. 39
CHAPTER VII.
A KIP-RAP DAM.
The conditions of cheapness in the construction of a dam
are changed by every change of locality. In one section,
where material of a suitable kind may be comparatively
abundant, while labor is scarce and commands high wages,
economy is consulted by making the work of building as short
and simple as possible, even if the material used is not the
cheapest which could be found. In another district, or under
different circumstances, workmen may be easily obtained
at a very moderate rate, and the mill-owner may in this
case save money by putting an extra proportion of labor in-
stead of expensive material into his dam. Our engraving
herewith given illustrates a kind of dam wholly distinct
from any which we have before presented. In some por-
tions of the country it would be difficult to find stone
enough for its construction at any price — and it is not in-
tended, of course, for the demands of such 1 calities. In
other sections, the earth and stone of which it is composed
would cost almost literally nothing, and it has the further
advantage of requiring no skilled labor in putting it up,
except in building the chute and waste gate, and in the lay-
ing out and general superintendence of the work.
The construction of a " rip-rap dam," which is the term
commonly applied to a dam of the description here shown,
is begun by throwing an embankment of earth across the
stream (space being left in the middle of the stream for
the waste- way or chute) carrying it up to a hight of about
eight feet in the center and sloping it as shown in the cut,
quite steeply on the down-stream and more gradually on
the up-stream side. The dam here illustrated has an ex-
tent between the foot of the up-stream and that of the
d6wn-stream slope, of from thirty to forty feet, and from
40 A RIP-RAP DAM.
one bank of the stream to the other of a little over seventy
feet. Of the latter distance, twelve feet in the middle of
the stream is occupied by the chute (in which the waste-
gate is placed as hereafter described) leaving a distance of
thirty feet on each side, froni the frame-work of the chute
to the bank. It is not intended, of course, that the water
should at any time flow over a dam of this sort, the escape
of surplus water being provided for by the chute. The two
slopes of the embankment do not meet at the top in such a
way as to form a sharp ridge or crest, but the summit is
leveled off so as to give a nearly flat surface about four
feet in width, extending the whole length of the dam irom
each bank until it reaches the chute.
In constructing the embankment, the framework of tlie
chute is to be set in position and strongly planked on the
interior side, where the water is to pass, before the earth is
filled in at that point — except that a All about two feet in
depth is made on which the floor of the chute is to rest.
This floor is laid upon a frame of heavy sills and cross-tim-
bers, the planks of which it is composed extending length-
wise of the stream, and projecting at the down-stream end
some eighteen inches beyond the face of the dam, in order
that the current of water, as it issues from the chute, may
be carried beyond and clear of the embankment beneath.
The tendency of the water to wash away the foundation of
the dam is thus avoided. This is an important point, as the
result of neglect in this particular will be the speedy under-
mining of the chute and caving in of the wall of earth and
rock on either side.
The earth-work having been completed, the dam is now to
be "rip-rapped" from end to end. This process consists in lay-
ing two courses of stone, one above the other — ordinary cob-
ble-stones being a suitable material for the purpose — over the
whole surface of the embankment. The stones are placed on
their edges, in the manner in which a gutter is paved, and laid
as compactly together as possible, so as to give the entire
dam a strong and durable face on both slopes and along the
crest. The united depth of the two courses of stone
will be about twenty inches. If three instead of two courts
A RIP-RAP DAM. 4^
are laid, additional strength will be gained, and the dam
will be all the more secure from the effects of any accidental
inroad of water. The rip-rapping should not be confined to
the dam itself, but extend along the banks on both sides of
the stream, a short distance above and below the dam, as
shown in the cut. This will prevent the banks from being
worn away or washed out, and protect the dam from injury,
to which it would otherwise be constantly liable.
The up-stream slope of the dam is covered with earth from
the base about two feet upward, reaching to the floor of the
chute.
Our engraving rei)re8ents, in addition to the dam, the in-
let and part of the channel of the mill-race, on the further
bank of the stream. The corners of the banks at the point
where the water enters the race should be rip-rapped in the
same manner as the dam, to secure them from being washed
away and caved in by the continual action of the current.
The exact distance to which the sides of the race at this
point should be covered with stone will be determined by
the shape of the bank, character of the soil, swiftness and
force of the current, and other considerations which vary in
different localities. The matter will be easily regulated by
the exercise of a fair degree of judgment; but in general it
is best to err, if at all, on the safe side. A little extra pre-
caution, resulting in perfect security, is better than a falling
short which may lead to damage and destruction in time of
flood.
The construction of the chute and waste-gate is a matter
in which, of course, some measure of skill in the carpenter's
and millwright^s trade will be in demand. The heavy tim-
bers required are the sills and cross-timbers of the floor,
the upright posts, the inclined or slanting beams which fol-
low the direction of the slope of the dam up and down
stream, and the timbers connecting them at the top, which
will be as long as the crest of the dam is wide. The posts
are mortised into the sills below and into the beams above,
and their lengths are so arranged as to give the proper slant
to the inclined beams, parallel with the face of the dam.
For the construction and operating of the gate, a number
44 A RiP-RAP DAM.
of methods are in use. A very simple arrangement is that
in which the gate is raised and lowered by the use of a lever
inserted into holes in the standard to which the gate is at-
tached. A chain and windlass may also be used, the man-
ner of their application being so obvious as to require no
minute description. Still another form of gate is found
very useful, in which the gate is made in sections, each sec-
tion swinging on a horizontal axle resting on journals near
the bottom of the gate, so that it can be let down like the
tail-board of a cart when desired, and raised with equal
ease whenever necessary. The division of the gate into
sections, or as it were' into several narrow gates, each acting
independently of the other, is found expedient on account
of the great force it would be necessary to apply to raise
and lower the entire gate in the manner described. The
gates fall in the up-stream direction, their own weight as-
sisting the process when they are lowered, and the force of
the current helping to raise them — sometimes more power-
fully than is desired — when the chute is to be closed.
In future chapters of this work, descriptions and illustra-
tions will be given of one or more varieties of head gates,
which with some modification might be applied to a case of
the kind above described.
A CRIB DAM. 45
CHAPTER VIII.
A CRIB DAM.
We present in this chapter an illustration of a dam
peculiarly adapted to streams which have a comparatively
narrow channel, with a high bank on each side — although
the latter condition is not indispensable, as any deficiency
in this respect, if the shape of the country is not extremely
unfavorable, can be made up by constructing an artificial
levee or embankment. The structure of this dam is of the
nature of crib-work throughout, logs being the material
used in every part, although stone, gravel, clay and brush
are employed in filling at various points, as hereafter de-
scribed.
The dimensions of the dam shown in the cut are nearly as
follows : length of span, fifty feet, the logs in each of the
two sections being about thirty feet long, giving ample mar-
gin for notching at each end ; cribs on each side twenty feet
square, the logs of which they are built from twenty-two to
twenty-five feet long and the hight of the cribs from twenty-
five to thirty feet. The dam itself is twenty-five feet high,
the cribs being carried up three or four logs above the top
of the dam.
In building a dam of this description, the whole struct-
ure, including both the cribs and the V shaped connection
between them, are begun and carried up together. The
apron, however, is first put down, consisting of a layer of
logs placed closely side by side from bank to bank, with
the butt ends down stream, and the limbs lopped off" up to
the point where the dam is to rest upon the apron. Above
this, the limbs may be left oil the trunks, as they extend into
the earth which is filled in above the dam. The front of
the apron should extend three or four feet forward of the
cribs, as shown in the cut. The logs used in building the
46 A CRJB DAM.
apron, and also the cribs and the dam itself, should be, if
possible, at least one foot in diameter, in order to give the
proper degree of weight, strength and solidity to the fabric.
Having completed the apron, the next step is to lay the
foundation of the wings and central portion of the dam.
The first log of the crib on each side should be firmly
pinned to the apron ; or the foundation of the crib may be
laid two or three feet deeper than the apron, in which case
it will not be necessary to fasten them together. The cribs
are each to be set into the bank, which will thus enclose
them on three sides, as appears in our illustration. Thus
situated, it is scarcely within the bounds of possibility for
the cribs to be moved from their position ; and if their con-
nection with the dam is made firm and secure, the strength
of the fabric, aided by the peculiar shape which it presents
to the current on the up-stream side, will resist almost any
conceivable pressure of water.
In building up the cribs and the dam, the logs are to be
notched and saddled wherever they meet^ — that is, at the
four corners of each crib, at the points where the timbers
of the dam enter the crib, and at the middle of the dam
where the two sides of the angle or V intersect. This an-
gle is of course pointed up-stream, the proper distance from
the centre or place of intersection to the down-stream edge
of the apron being about twenty feet. The pressure of the
current upon the harrow-shaped structure thus presented to
it will of course tend to spread the two wings or cribs apart;
but if the latter are well grounded, filled and supported,
and the logs in every part of the dam carefully notched
upon each other, the force of the current will have no per-
ceptible effect.
Binders are to be inserted in each half of the dam as the
work progresses, one for every second course of logs being
sufficient, although one for each course is still more effect-
ual. Small trees or saplings may be used for this purpose
with the limbs and brush left on, the butts resting between
the logs of the dam and the tops forming a part of the fill-
ing on the up-stream side. In the engraving, the ends of
these binders may be seen between the courses of logs
A CRIB DAM. 49
forming the V, the tops of course being covered up and in-
visible.
The cribs are to be filled with stone and gravel, and if
these materials are scarce, a moderate proportion of clay
may also be introduced. The up-stream side of the V is to
be covered with upright planking, which will extend from
the top log down to the apron. Planks ten inches wide and
two inches thick are suitable for this purpose, and they
should be placed close together and either pinned or spiked
to the logs, as convenience may dictate. The planking is
cut away at the points where the binders occur, sufficiently
to admit the ends of the binders, which rest upon the hori-
zontal logs and are notched to them as already described.
The filling on the up stream side, against the planking,
completes the building of the dam. For this purpose, any
convenient material may be used, whether stone, gravel, clay
or brush, or all together. The filling should slope gradually
from the crest of the dam, extending up stream a distance
of not less than twenty-five feet, in order that all risk of the
washing or undermining of the dam may be avoided.
If the banks of the stream are too low to enclose the cribs
to a sufficient hight to make them secure in their position?
an artificial embankment must be constructed, covering
three sides of the crib and extending from the stream unti
it reaches ground of the same hight as the top of the dam-
This embankment should be made wide and substantial, and
compactly built of stone or earth. It is important that the
material should be of such a nature that the water will not
penetrate it, as the destruction or serious injury of the dam
may occur in consequence of a very small outlet. The main
force of the stream is brought to bear, of course, upon the
dam itself; but in time of high water there will be more or
less pressure upon the levee, which should accordingly be
made as secure as circumstances will allow.
Our illustration shows, also, the entrance of the race above
the dam, on the left bank of the stream.
The dam above described is adapted to any sort of river-
bed, whether it be rock, sand or clay. The shape of the
banks is a more material point than the nature of the bot-
6
50 A CRIB DAM.
torn, especially if it is desired to raise the dam to a hight
equal to that shown in our engraving.
DAM FOR ROCK BOTTOM. 51
CHAPTER IX.
DAM FOR ROOK BOTTOM.
Under favorable circumstances and with plenty of mate-
rial of the right kind conveniently at hand, a dam may be
built of a character which will do excellent service and
withstand the most sweeping freshets, without requiring
the exercise of much mechanical skill on the part of the
builder. Among this class are several of the dams already
illustrated in this work ; such, for example, as the log dams
shown in our fourth and fifth, and the rip-rap dam in our
seventh chapter, all of which might be constructed, with
the exception, perhaps, of the chute in the rip-rap dam,
with such means and experience in the carpenter's or mill-
wright's trade as are possessed by nearly every mill-owner
of average capacity. It often happens, however, that a
moderate amount of skill in the use of carpenter's tools
and in the putting together of frame-work will enable the
builder of a dam to accomplish his object with far less ma-
terial than he would otherwise be compelled to use, thus
reducing very greatly the cost of the undertaking. His
head and hands, in other words, will save his pocket, if he
is so fortunate as to know how to use them with due effect.
For this reason, it is of prime importance to every owner of
a water power which is to be utilized by the erection of a
dam, to be able to economize and turn to the best possible
account the means which nature has placed at his disposal.
Our illustration herewith given presents a description of
dam specially adapted to streams which have a solid rock
bottom. It is entirely different from any which we have
laid before our readers in preceding chapters, and de-
pends for its strength and security mainly upon the thor-
oughness with which it is put together. With proper care
62 1)AM FOR ROCK BOTTOM.
in this regard, intelligently exercised, it may be relied upon
as a perfectly safe and permanent structure ; this fact hav-
ing been proved by as severe tests as are generally exper-
ienced in the way of sudden and violent floods.
The general construction of this dam is plainly shown in
our engraving. The posts A A are supported by the braces
B B, and have the horizontal timbers D D gained into them,
the upright planking being nailed to the horizontal timbers
on the up-stream side. The posts A A should be sixteen
inches square, and in the dam here shown are eight feet long
above the rock, in addition to which they should extend Irom
twenty-two to twenty-eight inches into the rock, thus giv-
ing them a firm foundation and foot-hold. The braces should
be twelve inches square, and a 2^ inch shoulder should be
made in the post to receive their upper ends, which are
beveled to fit the notch in the post. Each brace is secured
with a thin key at the top where it encounters the post, and
a piece of 1^ inch plank is inserted at the foot of the brace
between the end of the brace and the rock. The brace is
let into the rock ten inches, the end being left square, and
resting in an angular hole or notch ten inches deep and
fourteen inches wide.
The horizontal timbers are six by ten inches square, and
the gains cut in the posts, in which they are placed, are 2^
inches deep. They may be fas-tened either by spiking or
keying until the upright planking is nailed on. This plank-
ing should be two inches thick, and the upper ends of the
planks should project one or two inches above the upper
horizontal timber or tie. The lower ends should be care-
fully shaped to fit the uneven surface of the rock with which
they come in contact, so that the escape of water beneath
them may be prevented as thoroughly as possible.
The upper part of each post is beveled in the down-stream
direction to enable the water to run off freely, and also to
prevent it from going down the grain of the wood and thus
causing it to decay.
The holes for the posts are drilled in the rock in dovetail
shape on the upper side. The end of the post is cut to fit
this dovetail, a shoulder being made on that side two inches
DAM FOR ROCK BOTTOM. 66
deep. For the admission of the post it will be necessary, of
course, to make the hole somewhat larger than the end of
the post. For the purpose of securing the post firmly in its
place, a long, wide key, about 2| inches thick, is inserted on
the lower*side of the post, holding it snugly and strongly
against the dovetail side of the hole. This key should be so
made as to fit the full depth of the hole against the rock on
the lower side. It is of vital importance that the dovetail
should be made on the up stream side. Experience has
shown in the most striking manner the necessity of this ar-
rangement. A dam in one instance within our knowledge
was built on the general plan here described, but the dove-
tail and key placed in contrary order to that here given —
the dovetail being on the down-stream side and the key put
in on the up-stream side. This dam went out when a flood
came upon it, the keys, which perhaps were not fitted with
sufficient accuracy, working loose so that the posts lifted
out. When re-built in the same manner, except that the
dovetail was placed on the upper and the keys on the lower
side, the dam stood firm, resisting up to the present time
every freshet that has occurred.
The length of span of the dam here illustrated is about
sixty feet, the distance between the posts being twelve feet.
On the up-stream side of the dam a fill should be made
against the planking, extending up from the rock four or
five feet and sloping off* gradually. For this fill coarse
gravel or small stones may be first used, immediately against
the bottom of the planks, finer material being afterward
thrown in.
For the upright planking, it is well to use seasoned and
green planks alternately. If all are seasoned, they are lia-
ble to swell in such a manner as to burst them off" of the
ties. If all are green, exposure to the air will cause them
to shrink and leave wide cracks. The planks should be
champered or half-beveled on the up-stream edge (the
down-stream edges being brought together perfectly close)
in order to catch the loose earth which may drift against
them.
, On the left of our engraving is the race H, and an eleva-
66 DAM FOR ROCK BOTTOM.
ted wing of the dam, the post G being about five feet high-
er than those in the main portion of the dam. The cap E
extends into the rock on that side of the stream and is
there firmly secured. The planking F is nailed to this cap
below ; and in this wing of the dam is the head-gate, which
does not appear in the cut, but the position of which is
clearly indicated.
A PILE DAM. 57
CHAPTER X.
A PILE DAM.
The dam which we illustrate in this chapter is adapted to
a mud bottom or to any kind of river-bed which will afford
a firm foothold for piles, and into which they can be driven
to the necessary depth. The first step in the process is the
preparation of the piles, which should be of oak if conve-
nient, ten or twelve inches in diameter, and from twelve to
twenty feet in length, according to the hight it is intended
to give the dam, the nature of the bottom, and consequent-
ly the depth to which it is necessary to drive the piles. The
taper at the lower end should begin two or two-and-one-
half feet from the point. In using the pile-driver in setting
the piles it Avill be found that the iorce of the successive
blows will after a time have the efi*ect to split the pile at
or near the top; and to prevent this a ring should be placed
over the top of the post. This ring is made of bar iron
three-fourths of an inch thick and from two and a half to
three inches wide, the ends where they meet to form the cir-
cle being welded as strongly as possible. It is also expedi-
ent to champer or bevel the inside of the ring so that it
will go on with the wider opening downwards, the object
being to make the ring compress the top of the pile in such
a manner that when it is desired to remove the ring it will
come ofi" easily. Care must be taken not to champer it at
too great an angle, or the post will act upon it like a
wedge and the ring will burst before the driving is comple-
ted. As this accident is liable to happen in spite of every
precaution that can be taken, it is well to have several
rings made before beginning the work, so that while one is
taken away for repair another may be used and the driving
go on without interruption.
For a dam like the one here illustrated, the piles are
driven eight or nine feet into the ground, leaving from six
58 A mle dam.
to eight feet above for hight of dam ; but where the'bottom
is sound and firm the posts need not go in to so great a
depth. There are three rows of piles shown in our engrav-
ing, the two front rows, A and B, being close together, but
alternating so as to " break joints," and the second and
third rows, B and C, being far enough apart to admit a hor-
izontal layer of logs E E between them. A dam may be
built with but two or even only one row of piling, and possess
suificient strength for any ordinary test. If only one row
is planted, logs and brush should be piled up behind it on
the up-stream side so as to make the dam tight and break
the immediate pressure of the current. The liorizontal logs
E E should be of about the same diameter as the piles; and
between them, at intervals, are inserted the butt ends of
the binders G G, which are logs or poles from thirty to forty
feet in length, extending from the piles up stream and be-
ing covered with the filling. The upper horizontal log E is
pinned, as will be seen in the cut, to the end of the binder
belcw it; and this should be done at frequent i)oints along
the whole extent of the span.
The apron H has a foundation of heavy sills D D, for which
large logs should be selected, laid transversely across the
stream, and spliced and firmly pinned where two ends meet.
Cross logs F F are laid upon these, extending up-stream be-
tween the piles, and having a length of from ten to fifteen
feet, or whatever may be necessary to prevent the water, as
it comes over the dam, from striking beyond the ax)ron and
washing out the river bed. The planks H are laid parallel
with the cross-logs F and firmly spiked to the sills D D.
The crib I is a hollow square comjDosed of piles driven
down in the same manner as those of the dam, but of greater
length above the bed of the stream, making the top of the
crib from two to four feet higher than the dam, according to
the hight and nature of the bank. These piles, as will be
seen, are placed close together; and the dam should meet
the crib at a point a little farther up-stream than the center
of the crib. At K is shown the water-line when the dam is
full to the crest; and at L is indicated the filling, for which
gravel, dirt and stones may be used, the slope extending
A f»tLE BAM. 61
from the crest of the dam thirty or forty feet up-stream.
The same material is used for the filling of the cribs or abut-
ments, of which but one is shown in our engraving, which
represents the dam as if cut in two, lengthwise of the
stream.
It is of special importance that the dam should be made
as nearly water-tight as possible in every part. For this
purpose stones may be used in filling the holes, the size
SI
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Z
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?^ 5'
B'
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i
(7 in i!!;
/ / / /
i^
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^if^'li,lflir
STONE DAM J^EAR FRANKFORT, KY. 109
Size and built up in the manner above described, and
the back orjup-stream side is composed of loose flat stones
laid up without much regularity, the work being finished by
filling with earth and small stones, making a tolerably
gradual slope on the up-stream side and giving the dam a
wide and substantial base. The face of the dam, composed
of the solid tier of masonry, inclines slightly up-stream,
varying but a foot or two from a perpendicular.
The length of the dam here shown is about 300 feet be-
tween the towers. Its width at the base is 8 feet and at the
top 5 feet, and its hight about 12 feet. The towers are each
IT feet high, 18 feet square at the base, and 12 feet square
at the top. The number of courses of stone in the main
dam is six, the stones being, as already stated, two feet
thick.
From the tower at the right of the picture a wing or con-
tinuation of the dam runs out, keeping the same general
direction as the dam itself, its purpose being to keep the
earth from washing out, the bank being common soil and
very low on this side of the stream. On the other side the
bank is of sufficient hight to require no protection of this
kind. The dimensions of the wing wall are less than those
of the main dam, as it has much less pressure to resist.
From the same tower with which the wing wall connects, a
side wall of somewhat greater width and hight extends up
the stream, along the bank to the entrance of the race, pro-
tecting the bank from being overflowed or worn away by
the stream. A similar wall also extends a short distance
above the race, and both sides of the race are in like man-
ner strengthened against the action of the water, their walls
being somewhat lower than those along the banks of the
stream. At the entrance of the race are placed head-gates,
which are not represented in our engraving.
A tablet on the face of one of the towers bears the name
of the owner of the dam, date of construction, &g.
Our illustration gives a view of the dam by which the
power is furnished for the extensive flouring mill of Mr.
Geo. B. Macklin, four miles from the city of Frankfort, Ky.
The course of the stream at this point is such (making what
110 STONE DAM NEAR FRANKFORT, KY.
may be called a "horse-shoe" bend) that by running the
race from 200 to 300 yards a fall of 21 feet is obtained. The
firm of James Leffel & Co. have put in three of their im-
proved Double Turbine wheels in this mill, from which fact
an idea may be formed of the amount of business it is de-
signed to maintain, and which fully justifies the thorough
and durable manner in which the dam has been constructed.
The dam was completed about four years since, and is one
of the most substantial structures of the kind to be found
in the West or South.
,\N IRON DAM. Ill
CHAPTER XIX.
AN IRON DAM.
Iron is now so common a material for building, and enters
so largely into the construction of edifices of every class,
that it would be a matter of surprise if it did not prove
adaptable as well to the erection of dams. It possesses the
advantages of great strength in small compass and of being
more conveniently handled than the cumbrous materials
required in building many other classes of dams. We
illustrate in this chapter the first dam in our whole series
thus far of which iron has formed a part otherwise than in
the shape of bolts or spikes. We do not now present it as
possessing practical merit superior to that of many other
dams already represented, but rather as an interesting
novelty, and an example of what may be done in the erec-
tion of a substantial and reliable dam, with iron as the
almost exclusive material.
The dam shown in our engraving is particularly suited to
a rock bottom, or can be placed on a solid earth bottom by
putting under it a substantial foundation of timbers. It
consists, as to its general construction, of upright sections
or panels of boiler or cast-iron, built in zig-zag or " worm "
fashion, after the style of the "Virginia fence," and sup-
ported at each bank by stone towers. The hight of the
panels is six feet, in the dam here represented, and the hor-
izontal length of each the same, so that the distance be-
tween the extreme ends of the two panels forming an angle
will be ten or eleven feet, the width of the " worm " being
three feet. The total length, therefore, of the dam shown
in our cut is about 120 feet. Its course across the stream is
straight, there being no advantage gained, in a dam of this
112 AN IRON BAM.
construction, by giving it the arch or curve formation which
has been shown in previous chapters.
The panels, as alreaiy staled, may be made either of
boiler-iron or cast-iron. If of boiler-iron, each panel is com-
posed of two plates of equal size, lapped and riveted to-
gether. If of cast-iron, three plates are used in each panel,
filleted together and ribbed on the back. The panels in this
case should be about one inch thick. The posts to which
the panels are bolted may be of either cast or wrought iron,
and are shaped to suit the angle made by the corners. They
should be about one inch thick, and contain recesses to re-
ceive the ends of the plates. At the bottom of the post is
a flange or foot-pad, through which the bolts are driven by
which the post is secured to the rock.
The braces supporting the posts are of wrought iron.
They are bolted to the posts on the down-stream side, and
have a cast flange at bottom through which they are bolted
to the rock in the same manner as the posts. The brace
should meet the post within six or eight inches of the top
of the latter.
The stone towers shown in the cut at the extremities of
the dam are about 12 feet high, 12 to 14 feet square at the
base, and 10 to 12 feet square at the top. The relative
dimensions and manner of construction of the walls en-
closing the race will be sufficiently understood from an ex-
amination of the cut. The race is provided at its entrance
with a head gate of the usual description, made in two
parts for convenience of operation.
If a protection is required for the dam, on account of ice
or driftwood passing over, a timber may be laid lengthwise
along the top of the dam, and rafters placed against it,
which when sheeted over will form a sort of inclined apron
The ice or other substances calculated to injure the dam if
allowed to pass over with a perpendicular fall, will thus be
safely conveyed away on a gradual slope. As the " worm "
of the dam is three feet wide, as already stated, three tim-
bers instead of one aiay belaid along the top, placed snugly
side by side and constituliai^ a still more reliable covering.
This portion of the work may be varied in many ways, ac-
14
Aif IROK DAM. Il5
cording to the judgment or preference of the builder of the
dam, and will of course depend greatly upon the peculiar
circumstances of the case, the nature of the stream and the
country, and the materials most readily at command. In
many localities, the dam itself may be all that is required,
no covering or shield being necessary if it is subject only
to the pressure and spill of water.
It should also be remarked that this is but one of a great
diversity of iron dams which it would be practicable to con-
struct, and any one of which would doubtless be equally
serviceable with this. In fact, if iron is the sole or chief
material employed, it may be put up in any shape or on any
system the buildei may select, it being in this respect more
adaptable to circumstances than any other material. Stone
can only be used for laying in a wall, filling cribs, or rip-
rapping an embankment; and logs and timbers are subject
to a variety of limitations arising principally from the fact
that they possess the necessary strength only when in con-
siderable bulk. With iron, on the other hand, the maximum
of strength may be attained with the minimum of dimen,
sions. It affords more liberty in the selection of plans and
mode of construction than the more bulky substances which
are generally used, and which, it must be admitted, have
undeniable advantages on the S( ore of cheapness and the
ease with which they can often be turned to account with-
out the employment of skilled laborer expensive manufac-
turing processes.
116 PILE Aim BOULDER DAMS.
CHAPTER XX.
PILE AND BOULDER DAMS.
A point of vital importance in the construction of a dam
is to provide against the effects of the overflow, which has
a constant tendency to undermine the foundation of the dam
by gradually washing out or wearing away the bed of the
stream at the point where it strikes. This is in fact one of
the chief difficulties to be taken into account in building a
dam, and it is at this point, perhaps, as I'requently as any
other which can be named, that they prove to be defective.
The working of the water in the manner described is often
so gradual and insidious that its effect is unobserved until
made apparent by the giving way of the foundation at one
or more points, and this very probably at a season of high
water, when even an attempt to repair the mischief is
scarcely possible and is apt, if made, to prove ineffectual.
The location of the breach, moreover, being at the very
base of the dam, where the weight of the structure and the
piessure of the water bearing upon it is chiefly felt, renders
the task of making good a defect of this kind after it has
thus betrayed itself an exceedingly arduous one. In many
instances it has been found impossible to perform the work
successfully, and the loss and entire rebuilding of the dam
has proved the necessary consequence of the neglect to
make it in the first place secure against this particular dan-
ger. In this matter, as in a thousand others,experience has
repeatedly shown that an ounce of prevention is worth a
pound of cure. A due regard beforehand for the known
conditions of the case and the well understood action of
water in flowing over a dam will save many hundreds of
dollars in subsequent repairs and rebuilding, as well as in
PILE AND BOULDER DAMS. 119
the incidental losses which attend a breakdown of this
kind.
The methods of construction adopted to prevent this de-
structive action of the water are various, and some of them
have already been illustrated in this volume. In some
cases the horizontal apron projecting from the foot of the
dam down stream is found sufficient; while in others an
apron is made forming a gradual inclined plane from the
crest of the dam to a point some distance down stream,
thus permitting the water to escape in a swift current in-
stead of a heavy perpendicular fall. This is an excellent
method of breaking its force, provided the inclined plane
is itself strongly constructed with a firm foundation and
with no liability to leakage.
We illustrate in the engraving here presented two forms
of construction for a dam by which the prevention of injury
by underwash is effectually attained. A glance at either
of the two figures in the cut will show that there is scarcely
any possibility of the water wearing either downward in
the bed of the stream or backward under the foundations.
Both th'»se methods of construction partake of the nature
of the inclined plane, it being so modified in the second as
to constitute a series of steps by which the force of the
water is broken and it is carried in successive easy stages
from the top to the bottom. The strength of the materials
used and of the method in which they are employed will
also be observed. In Figure 1 an open frame of timber is
represented, into which are inserted large boulder stones,
forming a compact mass of boulder sheeting resting on
gravel, and nearly impervious to water. The timbers here
used should be large, say a foot square, and firmly pinned
together. The hight of the dam in Figure 1 is about eight
feet, and the bents, each consisting, as shown, of the three
uprights, the inclined rafter and the intermediate brace,
should be placed at intervals of six or eight feet along the
face of the dam. A stringer is bolted to the top of the
second upright, under the rafter, as shown in the cut, and
one end of the brace is let into this stringer, the other end
being pinned to the highest upright. At the top of this
120 PILE AND BOULDER DAMS.
upright, also, will be seen a heavy stringer bolted on each
side in such a way as to form a level surface at the crest of
the dam and protect the structure at that point. In addition
to the brace shown in the engraving others may be put in
in a similar manner, giving additional strength to the frame-
work.
In Figure 2, the same principle of construction will be
observed, with modifications suited to a region where tim-
ber is plentiful. This structure is composed of piles driven
at right angles with the direction of the stream and placed
in rows, properly stayed and covered with planking firmly
nailed to the horizontal and vertical timbers. If it is de-
sired to have the structure perfectly water-tight, a line of
sheet piling may be driven in, in the line of the dam across
the whole breadth of the stream, and this being again sup-
ported by foot piles and stays at diflerent distances, a tight
and very durable dam is the result. The water falls in
cascades over the series of steps, and any injurious elfect
on the foundations is prevented. The method in which the
horizontal timbers are pinned to the uprights and the
stringers bolted to the top of each upright will be readily
understood by a glance at the cut. The timbers in this
dam need not be so large as in Figure 1, six or eight inches
square being amply sufficient. The bents in this, as in the
other dam, may be put in at intervals of six or eight feet.
The construction of both these dams, aside from the
framework, is very simple, and presents a safe and substan-
tial resistance to the pressure of the water. The rip-rap of
the embankment on the upper side may be carried farther,
if desired, than is shown in the cut; and the proportions
and extent of the layers of boulders may be varied in any
direction according to the judgment of the builder and the
circumstances of the case.
STONE DAMS. 121
CHAPTER XXI.
STONE DAMS.
Whatever may be said in favor of other descriptions of
dams, whether they be frame, crib, log, pile, earth, brush or
iron dams, it must still be admitted that stone is on many
accounts the most suitable material for a barrier against the
pressure of water, and the one which will naturally be se-
lected where the circumstances do not make it too costly, or
where the object in view cannot be as effectually accom-
plished by more convenient methods. Stone possesses more
of the qualities which are valuable in a dam than any other
substance. Its weight, though it renders the work of build-
ing more arduous, is a source of strength when it is once in
position, such as can hardly be given to any other material ;
it is subject to neither rot nor rust, and unless undermined
or caved, in consequence of the weakness of some other
part of the structure, it is not liable to yield to any of the
ordinary forces which a dam is intended to resist. When prop-
erly guarded from the gradual inroads of the water through
apertures or crevices, or in the form of underwash by which
the foundations are sapped, a stone dam is an immovable
bulwark and will withstand the heaviest freshets, saving in
the long run, in many cases, by the avoidance of any outlay
for repairs, many times the difference between its cost and
that of cheaper but less reliable structures.
We illustrate in this chapter two different forms of a stone
dam, both of which have the attributes of strength and per-
manency, the choice between them depending on the char-
acter of the stream and the means of the builder. Figure 1
is a sectional view of a dam constructed in England by the
celebrated engineer Smeaton. It has, as will be seen, a
long inclined slope on each side, above and below, and the
15
122 STONE DAMS.
extent of base in proportion to the hight is such as to con
tribute immensely to the stability of the dam. At the crest
of the dam and inclined downward, will be observed the
ends of two courses of flag stones, which are so laid as to
break joints, footed ux3on grooved sheet piling with bearing
piles and stringer, and supported by a thick and wide layer
of " rubble " or small boulders underneath the flags. Live
moss is packed between the flag stones to prevent the silt
being driven through. At the foot of the dam is another
row of sheet piling, similarly supported, and protected by
a fir plank at top from the action of the water. Over the
layei* of rubble is placed a row of regular stones, laid end-
wise and leaning, so as to be perfectly secure from derange-
ments by floods. In the up-stream direction from the crest
of the dam is also placed a layer of rubble with a tier of flat
stones above it and at the up stream end of the dam is
a single course of large flags reaching from the surface to
the base of the dam and held down by a filling of small
stones. A dam of this kind is adapted to a stream having
a soft bottom either of loam or clay; but if there is a sandy
bottom the piles must be driven to such depth as will give
them a firm hold, and special care must be taken to guard
against underwash at the foot or down-stream extremity of
the dam.
In Figure 2 is shown a dam built upon a somewhat dif-
ferent principle, composed of solid masonry instead of rub-
ble and flags, and having a curved or concave apron instead
of a gradual slope on the down-stream side. On the up-
stream side the construction is very similar to that of the
dam in Figure 1, except that stones of more regular shape
are used; and in all parts of this dam reliance is placed up-
on heavy and compact stonework instead of piling. The
water has at first a nearly perpendicular fall, but is carried
away in such a manner by the curve of the apron as to en-
tirely lose the direction which would give it an injurious
eff*ect upon the foundation. The construction of this dam
throughout is so distinctly shown by thesectiona*l view here
given that it requires no further explanation.
An English writer on the subject of the construction of
AU A* LAWRElfCE, KANSAS. 13d
described, are laid down to complete the foundation, and
each succeeding course is drawn five feet up the river, as
will be seen by the appearance of the butts of the trees in
the cut. As each course or platform, or part of a platform,
is sunk, it is thoroughly weighted, and all interstices in the
brush or between the trunks are carefully filled with rubble,
so as to form a solid concrete. The frame consists of eight
platforms of timber, composed of two main sills 12 by 14
inches, laid flatwise, halved together where the ends join,
and bolted with drift bolts of inch iron. The main sills are
held in place by means of cross-ties 8 by 8 inches, the ends
of which are dovetailed into the sills. The ties are put in
at intervals of eight feet, and spiked to the sills with | inch
drift bolts. The first platform, forming the base of the dam,
is twenty-four feet wide from out to out, and is gained into
the upper platform of trees so as to receive a uniform and
level beiring, and each succeeding course is thoroughly se-
cured with iron bolts to the course below, receding on each
side one foot. The breasts of the dam are thus given a
slope of 45 degrees, and the top is finished with a level sur-
face eight feet in width. An open platform twelve feet in
width is also firmly attached to the* lower sill of the upper
slope of the dam, which practically makes the base of the
structure thirty-six feet in width. As each platform is laid
and adjusted, it is carefully filled with rubble rock of large
size, all interstices being packed with spawls so as to form
a solid body.
The frame being completed and filled with rock as above
described, the outer corners of the sills are trimmed off* so
as to present a bearing surface of four inches, and the whole
is covered with plank 2^ inches in thickness, placed in line
with the current of the stream, and firmly spiked on with
six-inch boat spikes. The dam having been built and com-
pleted in sections, as each section is planked over, a protec-
tion is placed on the up-stream side, extending thirty feet
up the river, having a thickness of fully four feet on the open
pilatlorm, and extending at least half way to the top of the
dam on the ujjper slope. This protection is composed of
large stones, all the interstices being filled with spawls.
liO DAM AT LAWRENCE, KANSAS.
After a row of tongued and grooved sheet piling has been
driven at the lower ends of the tree foundation, a large
amount of rubble rock is placed upon the lower ends of the
logs and in the bed of the river below. The plan contem-
plates the use of 10,000 yards of rubble stone, which is be-
ing quarried out of the south bank of the river, immediately
below the dam.
The head gateway and canal on the north side, which are
represented in the engraving, rest on ten rows of piling
driven closely together, up and down the river. The piles^
after being sawed off two feet below low water mark, are
capped by timbers 10 by 16 inches, laid flatwise, upon which
is laid a close floor of ten-inch timbers; and this timber
floor is covered with a floor of three-inch planks, laid in
line with the stream and firmly spiked down with six-inch
boat-spikes. On this platform the masonry is laid, each pier
resting on three rows of piling driven twenty-tive feet to
the bed rock. Sheet piling is driven to the clay, from the
bank in front of the head gates, and along the base of the
inside pier to the lower end of the tree foundation, thence
under the canal to the river bank, and along the bank out-
side of the round piling, to prevent any washing of the bank
by the discharge of the water from the water wheels. Sheet
piling is also driven along the lower ends of the tree founda-
tion to the intersection of the rock bottom.
The canal below the tree foundation is constructed the
same as immediately below the head-gates, excepting that
the sand and gravel is washed out from among the piling
to a depth of about five feet, and then riprapped thoroughly
with stone to prevent any further washing. Water wheels
may be located on either side of this canal by merely cut-
ting a hole in the floor to receive the tube of the wheel, and
the water is discharged under the canal into the channel ol"
the river below the dam. The outside or bank walls below
the piers are six feet thick at the base, battered on the out-
side to three feet on top, are eighteen feet high above low
water, and will serve as a foundation for buildings their en-
tire length, as power can be taken at any point along the
canals. The piers in which the headgates are placed are
DAM AT LAWRENCE, KANSAS. 141
six feet thick, without batter on either side, by eighteen
feet in hight. The inside or river walls are six feet thick
without batter ; and, as already stated, are nine feet high,
being only two feet higher than the dam, and thus serving
in time of flood as an overfall for the water.
The head-gate piers or walls on the south side of the
stream are similar in construction to those above described,
except that they have a foundation of solid rock instead of
resting upon piles. The floor of the south canal is also the
same in general construction as that of the north canal, ex-
cept as regards the foundation, the posts or piers supporting
it being placed on the excavated rock bottom of the canal.
The manner in which the water is discharged from the
wheels has been fully illustrated, archways being provided
for its escape from the south canal, while from the north
canal here shown it has free passage outward both at the
lower end and at the side, between the piles by which the
flooring is supported.
The great work which has been thus minutely described
and illustrated in three consecutive chapters is expected to
reach its completion in the coming autumn (1873). We
have already acknowledged our indebtedness for material
for our account to Mr. Orlando Darling, the enterprising
contractor, undei- whose immediate supervision the work is
carried on, and by addressing whom at Lawrence, Kansas,
any particulars which we have omitted to give, or informa-
tion in regard to the leasing of power, can be obtained
Lawrence is at present a flourishing city of some 12,000 in-
habitants, and has been built up to its present proportions
chiefly by the excellent trade, which by its central location
in a country of unsurpassed fertility, aided by its ample
railroad facilities, it has been able to command. It may be
for this reason that its people have hitherto been content to
allow its magnificent water power to remain so long unim-
proved ; but they have now resolved to make their town the
manufacturing center of Kansas. Railroads already run
out from the place in six diff'erent directions, and two more
are being built into the city. The wool of California and
New Mexico and the cotton from the Red River bottoms and
lis hAU At LAWRENCD, KANSAS.
Northern Texas pass through Lawrence on their way to an
eastern market, to be manufactured and returned, laden
meanwhile with numerous profits and transportation charges.
Nowhere, it is said, can black walnut lumber for furniture
be bought cheaper than at Lawrence ; and timber for agri-
cultural implements can be obtained at moderate prices.
Paper materials are abundant and cheap ; yet for hundreds
of miles no paper-mill is found. Few points, therefore, offer
more attractive inducements to manufacturing enterprise
than the beautiful and thriving city of Lawrence.
PAM ON THE TASSOQ RIVBR, HINDOSTAN. 143
CHAPTER XXV.
DAM ON THE TASSOO RIVER, HINDOSTAN.
The utilization of water power for manufacturing pur-
poses is the ordinary, in fact the almost universal object of
the construction of a dam ; and it has been with reference
to this leading purpose that our illustrations thus far have
been designed. There are, however, other useful ends for
which a substantial and durable dam is sometimes requisite ;
and among these is the provision of the necessary supply of
water for the daily use of the inhabitants of a large city.
Structures of this kind and for the object indicated are to
be found in various localities in our own country; but the
one we have chosen for our present illustration belongs to
a remote quarter of the globe and is the work of a foreign
nationality ; and it may possess the greater interest to many
of our readers from the fact of its distance and novelty, as
well as its great magnitude and the special necessity which
it is to meet — that of furnishing to the people of Bombay,
one of the largest cities of Hindostan, an abundant and un-
failing supply of water.
The city and island of Bombay, which have nearly 800,000
inhabitants, are supplied with water from Vehar, an artificial
lake in the hills of the neighboring island of Salsette. The
Vehar reservoir, which was constructed by the Government
of Bombay about thirteen years ago, passed into the hands
of the municipality of Bombay in 1863. It is nearly sixteen
miles from Bombay Cathedral and has hitherto amply sup-
plied the wants of the island ; but the rainfall of 1871 being
very small, the lake, at the end of the "monsoon,-' (the
periodical wind which blows half the year in one direction
and the other half in the opposite, and which in the Indian
Ocean blows from the southwest from April to October,
144 DAM ON THE TASSOO RIVER, HINDOSTAN.
bringing heavy rains, after which it changes to the north-
east for the rest of the year) was nearly ten feet lower than
usual. Attention was thus drawn to the possibility of a
short rainfall in the ensuing year, 1872, from which a
deficiency of water would result, with all its consequent
evils. To prevent so great a calamity it was decided by the
municipality to make a new lake at Toolsi, to supplement
Vehar. The valley of Toolsi is 112 ft. above the top of the
Vehar lake, and is divided from it by only a slight ridge of
hills. Hitherto the waters flowing from the hills into the
Toolsi valley have found their exit by the river Tassoo, the
eource of which is at the end of the valley opposite to the
ridge dividing it from Yehar, whence it flows past Kennery
to the sea. By damming up the source of the Tassoo, the
water is impounded in the Toolsi valley, and by tunnelling
through the ridge between Toolsi and Vehar, a passage is
made for it into the latter lake. Of course, the supply of
water into Yehar from Toolsi can be controlled, and, if not
wanted, can be kept impounded in Toolsi lake till it is re-
quired, any surplus flowing over the dam across the Tassoo,
and escaping by the old route. The view given in our illus-
tration is of the dam across the Tassoo, as it now appears,
30 ft. high, with the water overflowing. This view shows
but a very small portion of the intended lake, the greater
part of which lies behind the low ridge stretching across
the picture. It is intended to raise the dam to a height of
71 ft. The lake, which is but an auxiliary supply, has an
area of 300 acres of water, containing 1,451,000,000 gallons
(besides as much of the available rainfall of Toolsi as can
be turned into and stored in the Yehar lake.) All this
water, except a few gallons, can be made, by opening the
penstock in the tunnel in the ridge dividing Toolsi from
Yehar, to flow into the latter lake, and thence through the
main to Bombay. Yehar, when full, covers an area of about
1,400 acres, and has 2,550 acres of gathering ground, and
contains 10,650,000,000 gallons, giving a daily supply of 10
gallons a head, and Toolsi will increase it by 4| gallons per
head. This additional cheap water supply, which will
probably last Bombay for twenty or thirty years, is expected
18
Bii
DAM ON THE TASSOO RIVER, HiJfDOSTAN. 147
to cost only four lacs of rupees, a sum equal to about $220,-
000 in United States currency.
The construction of the dam is not shown in detail in our
engraving, but a sufficient portion of the structure is visible
to give a very clear idea of the plan upon which it is built.
The main feature of the work is the broad and solid wall of
masonry, of which most of the lower or down stream face
is shown. The up-stream face of this wall is covered and
protected by strong piers of timber, between which are up-
right planks, closely fitted and strongly secured; the top of
this part of the dam being finished with horizontal stretchers
extending between the piers. Midway of the stream a
space is provided for the overflow of the surplus water,
which afterwards falls over the stone work of the dam into
the chasm below. On the upstream side of the timber face
of the dam is a filling of stone and gravel sufficient to pro-
tect the timbers and the foundation from undermining or
leakage.
These extensive and admirably constructed works wore
designed and carried out by Mr. Kienzi Walton, an associate
member of the Institute of Civil Engineers, who is the act-
ing executive engineer of the municipality of Bombay.
148 LOCK AJiiD 1)AM AT HENRY, ILL.
CHAPTER XXVI.
LOCK AND DAM AT HENRY, ILL.
We have described in preceding chapters the construction
of dams for the utilization of water power, for the measure-
ment of streams, and ior the provision of a supply of water
for the use of the inhabitants of a populous city. We now
give illustrations and a general descriptive sketch ol" a dam,
the object of which is to improve the navigation of one of
our Western rivers and afford, eventually, a channel of traffic
between the lakes and the Gulf of Mexico, which will be of
immense value to the people of our great grain growing
States. The most urgent need of the agricultural popula
tion of the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys is cheap transporta-
tion for their products, by which the value of their wheat
and corn shall not be wholly absorbed by the charges paid
in getting it to a good market. As the case stands, the
railroads do not afford this indispensable means of convey-
ance at a reasonable cost ; and without discussing the ques-
tion where the fault, if any exists, is to be found, we may
safely say that no greater blessing could be bestowed upon
the people of the West than direct communication by water
with the great centres of commerce.
With a view to securing this most desirable end, the State
of Illinois has undertaken to improve the Illinois river so as
to make it navigable for the largest class of steamers that
traverse the Mississippi river at all navigable seasons of the
year, from the mouth of the Illinois uptoLasalle, the point
where the Illinois and Michigan canal enters, 100 miles
southwest from Chicago. The distance thus comprised is
230 miles. The improvement is to be made by the construe
tion of locks and dams, lorming a slack water navigation.
The locks are to be 350 feet long between the gates, and 75
feet wide, and the dams are to .be raised so as to make a
LOCK AND DAM AT HENRY, ILL. 151
uniform depth of 7 feet of water for the entire distance at
all seasons. At present, during low water, there is less
than three feet of water on many of the bars in the river,
and on one only 16 inches.
For the entire improvement, from Lasalle to the mouth of
the Illinois river, five locks and dams will be required, the
total cost of which is estimated at $2,200,000, being less than
$10,000 per mile for the 230 miles comprised in the work;
and this certainly appears a moderate expenditure for the
facilities of transportation which will be secured. One lock
and dam was finished some time since, at a cost of $400,000.
This is the work illustrated in our engravings, its location
being at the town of Henry, 28 miles below Lasalle and 32
above Peoria, the second largest city in the State. The lock
is on the north side of the centre of the river. The dam
connects with an outside protection wall, about 100 feet
above the upper gates, and a short distance above the
bridge erected not long since at this point; and joins the
south bank midway between the bridge and the mouth of
Sandy Creek.
The two smaller engravings of the three which we here
present, give front and sectional views of the dam, the top
of one end of which may also be seen at the right of the
larger cut. The dam is built of timber cribs filled with
loose stones. It is 35 feet wide, 11 feet high, and 540 feet
long, and is raised 6 feet above low-water mark. On the
upper side of the crib-work sheet-piling is driven into the
bed of the river to a depth of about 5 feet, and on the lower
side piles 12 inches square are driven close together, 10 feet
into the bottom of the river. Twenty feet of the width of
the dam has a coping of timber, sloping up-stream, 8 inches
thick at one end and 4 inches at the other. There are two
drops (;f 3 feet each on the lower side, with solid timber
aprons twelve inches thick, and 7^ and 8| feet width on
which the water falls. Below the lower apron and the
square piles, stone and brush are extended 20 feet on the river
bed, and above the dam for 50 feet it is filled in with brush
and gravel, tapering over on to the upper slope of the tim-
ber coping. The dam is securely bolted at every crossing of
152
LOCK AND DAM AT HENRY, ILL.
timber, and there were used in its construction more than
20,000 lbs. of wrought-iron bolts, generally | inches square
and 14 to 22 inches long.
In our illustrations. Fig. 2 gives a sectional view of the
dam, showing distinctly all the parts as above described. In
Fig. 3 is given a front view of the dam, such as would be
obtained by standing midway in the stream below the dam
and looking up-stream. By comparison of the two figures,
the different parts will be readily identified.
The lock is built entirely in the bed of the river. In com-
mencing the work, an area of a little over seven acres was
Fig. 2.
inclosed by a coffer-dam substantially built of piles with
cap timbers, and of sheet piling driven outside from 6 to 10
feet into the bed of the river, and protected with gravel on
the outside of the piling from the bottom of the river, with
a suitable outside slope. The water, which averaged only 4
feet in depth over the whole area at low water, was removed
by a rotary clam-shell pump, with an iron delivery pipe ^
inches in diameter, and driven by a 15 horse-power steam-
engine. The area of pit to be excavated for the foundation
of the lock was 485 by 115 feet, and averaged 6 feet deep,
requiring the removal of 13,000 cubic yards of earth. After
the excavation was made,'';3,200 bearing piles of hard wood,
from 12 to 25 feet long and 12 inches in diameter at the large
end, were driven over the bottom. On these piles eleven
rows of square timbers, 12 by 12 inches, were placed
longitudinally, each row extending 477 feet, and secured to
LOCK AND DAM AT HENRY, ILL. 153
the piles with bolts 22 inches long and | in. square. On these
timbers cross timbers 12 inches square were placed 6 inches
apart, covering two thirds of the whole area, and bolted to
the piles and the longitudinal timbers at every crossing with
bolts I in. square. All the spaces from the top of the cross
timbers to 3 inches below the bottom of the longitudinal
timbers — a depth of 27 inches — were filled with concrete.
The whole of this foundation was covered with 2^ inch
planking secured to the timbers.
On this substantial foundation the side walls of the lock
were commenced, extending 476 feet on each side, with a
mitre sill wall under the upper gates, and a breast wall at
the head uniting with both side walls, which are 73 feet
apart at foundations through the lock chamber. For 176
feet from the head of the lock the walls are 30 feet high, and
for the remaining 300 feet 24 feet high ; the upper end of the
lock being 6 feet higher than the lower end, on account of
the extreme depth of the water in time of floods. The main
walls of the lock, where the hight is 30 feet, are llffeet
thick, while those 24 feet high are lOf feet thick at the foun-
dation. The breast wall is from 7 to 8 feet thick and 7 feet,
8 inches high. The mitre sill wall is of the same hight, and
from 10 to 15 feet thick; and in this wall are eight arched
culverts 5^ feet wide and 3^ feet high, through which water
is admitted into the lock. Below the lower gates the main
walls extend 20 feet, with wing walls 40 feet long on both
sides, flaring 10 feet each at the lower end. The water is dis-
charged from the lock through semi-circular arched culverts
5 feet wide, with abutments 6 feet high, and connected at
the top with an arch of 2^ feet radius. The masonry is com-
posed of magnesium limestone and is very substantially put
up, laid in the best quality of hydraulic cement mortar;
and amounts in all to 10,328 cubic yards. The entrance to
the lock is formed by heavy rubble walls extending up from
the head of the lock on each side. On the north or shore
side it turns with a curve towards the shore, and joins a
slope wall protection to a guard bank, which extends 350
feet to connect the lock bank with the shore. On the south,
or river side, this wall extends 100 feet, flaring out from the
19
154
LOCK AND DAM AT HENRY, ILL.
line of lock walls ; then, forming a circular pier-head of 8
feet radius, it extends down parallel with the lock walls
(the faces of the two walls being 50 feet apart at bottom)
to 100 feet below the end of the lock, where it forms a pier-
head similar to the one at the upper end, and returns to
join the wing wall of the lock. The entire length of this
wall is 900 feet on the river side, forming the abutment to
the dam and the river protection to the lock. It is from 20
to 29 feet high, 7 to 8 feet thick at bottom, and 3 feet thick
on the top, with a stone coping 9 inches thick. At the foot
of the lock, on the shore side, is a similar wall extending
down 50 feet and then curving towards the shore. This
\ss^\:uivt»xs
Fig. 3.
wall is but 15 feet high. The rubble walls are all on a
foundation of piles, timber and planking, there being 860
piles, from 12 to 19 feet long. There are 5,560 cubic yards
of rubble wall, of which 5,300 cubic yards are laid in hy-
draulic cement, and 250 cubic yards are laid dry.
The filling between the outermost or river wall and the
wall of the lock with its wing extension, is not shown in
our engraving, the space being represented as if hollow,
thus showing the interior or bank side of the wall, as it
appeared before the filling was put in.
The lock-gates are of massive proportions, 24 feet high
and 43 feet wide, each gate containing over 20,000 feet,
board measure, of the best white oak timber, and 27,000 lbs.
of wrought and cast iron (including the anchor irons by
which the gate is secured to the lock walls) weighing over
LOCK AI^D DAM AT HEl!TRY, ILL. 155
60 tons, and costing, with the hanging fixtures, $4,000 each.
The mechanism for operating the gates and for admitting
and discharging the water is all of the strongest and most
complete description, and the balance of the gates is so
perfect that, ponderous as they are, two men can open or
close them in four minutes with ease. The lock can be
filled or discharged in three minutes, moving at its maximum
lift 172,000 cubic feet of water. A single boat can be locked
through in about fifteen minutes, a fleet requiring more
time, as the boats have to be got into position in the lock.
The capacity of the lock is equal to 12 canal boats at one
timo, of the size of those on the Erie or the Illinois and
Michigan Canal.
This extensive work was completed Jan. 11, 18T2. It was
prosecuted under the official charge of Messrs. Joseph
Utley, Virgil Hickax and Robert Milne, canal commis-
sioners, the designing and construction being the work of
Daniel C. Jenne, chief engineer, assisted by Geo. A. Kee-
fer, John S. Butler and Chas. 0. Upham ; and the details
were faithfully carried out by the contractor, William
Johnson. The stone was obtained from the Semont and
Joliet magnesium limestone quarries, the oak and pine
timber from Michigan, and the other timber and piles from
the immediate vicinity of the work.
By the building of this lock and dam, 60 miles of good
navigation, is added to the Illinois and Michigan Canal. It
is intended eventually to extend this work to Chicago, by
improving the river in a similar manner 60 miles to Joliet,
and enlarging the Illinois & Michigan canal to the Chicago
river for 86 miles. It is estimated that this will cost over
$16,000,000, but the money will be well invested in an
enterprise so vastly beneficial to the people of the west and
southwest, giving to them, as it will, direct communication
I'rom Chicago by large steamers to New Orleans and to all
points on the Mississippi river and its chief tributaries. A
total of 1,500 miles of navigation will thus be secured,
and :i cheap channel of commerce opened for an almost
boundless agricultural region, which needs for its complete
development only the means of transporting its products at
156 LOCK AND DAM AT HENRY, ILL.
small cost to the distant points where a remunerative market
awaits them.
CRIB DAM WITH PLANK COVERING 15T
CHAPTER XXVII.
CRIB DAM WITH PLANK COVERING.
Crib-work, when properly constructed, with suitable fill-
ing and secure fastening of the timbers where they cross,
IS as reliable an arrangement for a dam as any that can be
mentioned. It of course requires the use of a considerable
amount of timber, there being, from the nature of the
structure, no chance to economize in this respect ; but as
crib-work can be put up in a thorough manner with the
employment of but very little skilled labor, the saving in this
point is often much greater than the reduction in cost of
material would be by adopting any other plan. Moreover,
even in a country not heavily timbered, there is apt to be
in the vicinity of a water-course a sufficient amount of such
timber as will answer for crib-work, with a little manage-
ment; and the builder need not therefore, in most cases,
resort to an unsatisfactory style of construction, or pay
high wages to expert professional workmen, unless an
unusual scarcity of timber prevents him from adopting such
a method as is described in the present chapter.
The plan of dam here illustrated is suited to compara-
tively narrow streams, not exceeding 100 feet in width,
and where not over 10 feet head of water is to be afforded.
The material used is timber, brush and loose rock, with an
admixture of fine or coarse gravel or coarse sand and dirt.
The crib is a contmuous one, from bank to bank, the tim-
bers crossing the stream being spliced together where
required. At intervals of 8 or 10 feet timbers are placed
crosswise of the dam, in the directio'n of the stream, their
purpose being to bind the frame together. They are firmly
secured to the longitudinal timbers with either pins or
spikes. They diminish in length from the base to the top
168 CRIB DAM WITH PLANK COVERING.
of the dam, as the up-stream and down-stream sides of the
dam have each a slope which brings them nearly together
at the top. The filling may be of brush and clay, though
gravel is preferable to clay under all ordinary circumstances.
In this case, as the dam is intended to be as nearly water
tight as may be, the clay will serve very well to give weight
and solidity to the crib-work. For the purpose of exclud-
ing the water, the dam is covered tightly with plank on
both sides and on the top ; and an apron of planks, supported
on logs, is also placed in front of the dam down stream.
For abutments, square cribs are built, of the same general
nature as the dam, but of somewhat greater width and
hight. The cribs should be filled with stone and gravel,
and thus made as heavy and substantial as possible. It is
an excellent plan, also, to give the dam a curve up stream,
as shown in several preceding chapters, its strength being
thus considerably increased.
The dam in our engraving is supposed to rest on a hard
bottom ; but should the bed of the river be soft, it would
only be necessary to put down in the first place a founda-
tion of logs, laid close together, lengthwise of the stream,
and projecting beyond the base of the dam down-stream.
Should leaks occur in the plank covering of the dam, it
may be made tight by stirring saw-dust or fine tanbark into
the water above the dam. A small leak at the bottom may
be stopped by crowding straw or fine brush into the hole
and covering it with earth. The exact locality of such a
leak may be found by stirring a little saw-dust into the
water near the bed of the stream and observing where the
current carries it through. For a larger leak, the best plan
is to put in first a stone nearly large enough to fill the hole,
following it with smaller stones and finally gravel and loam.
This has the advantage of being more durable than the straw
filling, which will rot in time.
Although relating to a different style of construction from
that above described, we may venture to add in this connec-
tion the following letter on the subject here treated of,
received some time since by the publishers of this work :
Editor Leffel News : My model of a dam is a common
CRIB DAM WITH PLANK COVERING. 161
barn roof placed across the stream ; the eaves — the upper
one especially — sunk to a solid foundation, the peak or ridge
extending level from bank to bank across the creek. Or the
half of the roof down the creek may be omitted, and let the
surplus water drop perpendicular on an apron. (I adopt the
roof as an illustration as being so easily understood, the
bearers being in place of the rafters, and the planking in
place of the roof boarding.) The bearers should be sup-
ported by plates running across the stream, except at the
foot, where they should be beveled and rest on the bed of
the creek. The plates may rest on stone walls, log cribs, or
posts standing on mud-sills that have been well bedded and
in the direction of the stream. The strength of timber and
distance apart must be in proportion to the height of the
dam. There are dams near here in rapid streams, the
foundations of which have been in for over one hundred
years. WM. C. CRAWFORD.
MiLFORD, Pike Co., Penn.
We think a sloping face on the downstream side of the
dam, with an apron to carry the water fairly away, is pref-
erable to allowing the water to drop perpendicularly on
the apron. It is at the foot of the dam, in front, that
undermining, wearing and washing out very frequently
occur, by eddies and reacting currents of water. If the
water comes down in a sloping directiion to the apron, as
in the dam which we illustrate, or as in the "roof" con-
struction suggested by our correspondent, the danger re-
ferred to is almost entirely removed.
20
162 PLANK DAM AT GILBOA, OHIO.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
PLANK DAM AT GILBOA, OHIO.
In the dam which we illustrate in this chapter, a combi-
nation is presented of the plank construction with stone and
dirt, or gravel, for the interior filling, the latter giving the
dam its requisite weight and solidity. In the Plank Dam
illustrated in Chapter XVI, only a single tier of plank was
laid, the main reliance for sustaining the pressure of the
water being the curve of the dam up-stream, and no filling,
even, being required, except a little on the upper side of
the dam to keep it tight. The dam thus built, however, was
suitable only for a rock bottom. A nearer approach to the
construction here shown was that of the dam described in
Chapter XII, in which two tiers of plank are erected ; but
the manor of laying them is materially different from that
here represented, as in this instance the wide base and nar-
row top, or the pyramid construction, so to speak, add very
greatly to the firmness of the structure, rendering it hardly
possible for any direct pressure to force it from its foundation*
Our engraving does not represent a merely theoretical
style of construction, but is a view of a dam in process of
erection for supplying the power to a Leff'el wheel running
the grist and saw mill of A. D. McClure, Esq., located on
Blanchard River, in the town of Gilboa, Putnam Co., Ohio.
The stream at this point is 250 feet wide and has a rock
bottom. The perpendicular hight of the dam is six feet
It is shown in the cut as if cut across in the direction of the
stream, showing the* ends of each tier of plank, the cross-
ties connecting them, and the filling between the tiers.
The planks used in the construction are 10 inches wide, 2^
inches thick, and of any convenient length; care being
taken in laying them up to break joints. The cross-ties
extending from one tier to the other are planks of the same
r'M
iilliiiiiiiil!!iii%iiiiiiii.
PLANK DAM AT 6ILB0A, OHIO. 165
thickness as those in the two walls, but may vary in width,
while their length is of course determined by the distance
between the tiers. They are put in at every 8 or 10 feet, or
thereabout, ol" the length of the dam, their ends coming
out between the ends of two planks which meet in the tier,
and flush with the outer face of the dam. Their thickness
being the same as that of the other planks, a close joint is
hus made and the dam remains tight.
The planks in each tier are so laid as to fall back two
inches at each successive course or layer, a continuous
slope thus being given to the face of the dam, at an angle of
about forty-five degrees. This falling back does not begin,
however, on the up-stream side, until about half the hight
of the dam has been reached, the first three feet of this tier
being perpendicular. The slope then commences and con-
tinues at the same angle as the down-stream face, each
layer of planks falling back two inches, until the crest is
reached, where the top layers of each tier are placed side
by side, as shown in the cut. It may be well to surmount
these with a single plank as a cap or cover, so that there
will be no open joint along the crest of the dam. Built in
this manner, the entire width of the base of the dam, from
out to out, will be about ten feet, of which six feet or more
will be on the down-stream side of a point directly under
the crest of the dam, the continuous slope being on that
side.
For fastening the planks either pins or spikes may be
used, but pins are preferable, ks, being of wood, they admit
of the planks being readily sawed out when repairs are
required. The planks in the down-stream tier are of oak,
while in the up-stream tier sycamore and elm are used below
water, and oak above. Sheeting, or even round poles, may
be put on the top of the dam on the up-stream side, if
desired, to guard it from ice and driftwood. The whole
upper side of the dam, indeed, may be covered with cement
to make it perfectly tight. Mr. McOlure, who is erecting
the dam here described, proposes to build without putting
on either the cement or the sheeting, but will add them
afterward if found expedient. Still another additional
166 l>LANk DAM A* GILBOA, OHIO.
means of protecting the up-stream tier of the dam is to
build a wall directly against and of the same hight as the
perpendicular portion of that tier, which in the dam under
consideration is the first three feet of the tier. This may be
done if stone is abundant and easily obtained in the locality
where the dam is built, but the necessity for it is not suf-
ficiently urgent to warrant any heavy outlay, such as would
be required if the stone were to be brought a considerable
distance.
The dam built by Mr. McClure is abutted at one end
against the stone wall of the mill ; the other end extending
into a square crib about ten feet high and built of the same
material — 2 or 2i inch planks — and in the same manner in
all essential respects as the dam itself. It is about twelve
feet square, and filled with stone. The crib in our engraving
is shown as projecting considerably beyond the base of the
dam, as we regard it very desirable that a crib should extend
two or three feet beyond the dam on both the up-stream and
down-stream sides, li' the dam, therefore, has a width of
ten feet at the base, as in the case here described, we would
give the crib a width of at least fourteen feet, thus allowing
a projection of two feet beyond the dam in both directions.
Care should be taken to make the dam as tight as possible
on both sides, avoiding any cracks or gaping joints in the
tiers of plank or at the points where the ends of the
cross-ties occur. The filling between the tiers, in Mr.
McOlure's dam, is stone and dirt. Gravel, either fine or
coarse, may be used instead ; or stones of irregular size,
from boulders down to small cobble-stones, mixed with loam
and a moderate amount of clay — the more stone and the less
clay, the better. We have shown in our engraving a filling
of stones, earth and brush against the up-stream side of
the dam. If sheeting, cement, or a breast work of stone is
put on this side of the dam as above suggested, the filling
will not require to be so heavy or so carefully put in as
would be necessary if the dam were in no other way
protected.
The construction thus fully described is intended for
streams having a rock bottom. If the bottom is soft, a
PLANK DAM AT GILBOA, OHIO. 167
foundation must first be laid, for which purpose logs placed
close together, side by side, lengthwise of the stream, con-
stitute the most reliable material. They should be long
enough to project beyond the base of the dam both up and
down the stream, but especially down-stream, in which
direction they should extend far enough to form an apron
to the dam ; and this apron may be covered with plank to
render it still more secure against the undermining action
of the water. It will be observed, however, that the con-
tinuous slope of the down-stream face of the dam has a
very advantageous effect in preventing the reacting, eddy-
ing and undermining tendency of the water, thus making
it much less destructive to the apron and foundation of the
dam. The filling or other protection for the up-stream side
and upper slope of the dam would be substantially the same
for this as for the dam on rock bottom.
168 FRAME DAM AT CUFTON, OHIO,
CHAPTER XXIX.
FKAME DAM AT CLIFTON, OHIO.
A description of a dam actually erected and in use is of
more value than any theoretical plan of construction can
well be. not only because it has been proved by greater or
less leu^^lh of service to be adapted to its purpose, but also
because the difficulties to be overcome, and the demands of
the situation in every particular, are realized and can be
pointed out, whereas in a proposed method which has never
been verified in practice, many of these important details
are liable to be overlooked. We illustrate in this chapter a
dam which has been for some time in use, located on the
Little Miami river, near the village of Clifton, in Greene
County, Ohio. The course of the Little Miami in the region
of Olifton,as many tourists from distant States are well
aware, is remarkable for the picturesque scenery which it
presents. The towering cliffs, deep gorges and shadowy
ravines which have made this locality a favorite resort of
pleasure-seekers for many years, fall short of actual gran-
deur and sublimity only when compared with the bolder
natural features of the Eastern or far Western portions of
the continent. In the absence of mountain ranges, which
are necessary tr the display of such bights and depths as
are sufficient to strike a travelled observer with awe, this
charming spot is as well entitled to be called a Switzerland
in miniature as any thing which Ohio or the prairie States
can boast.
At the point where the dam here illustrated is built, the
stream has a much wider bed than immediately above or
below, so that the length of the dam is about 100 feet. The
bottom is solid rock, and the cliffs on either side rise to a
hight of 70 or 80 feet. A rock against which the dam abuts
on the right bank is itself nearly 40 feet high.
The foundation of the dam consists of six sills, 10 by 14
21
FRAME DAM A* CLIFTON, OHIO. iTl
inches, crossing the stream, and placed from 6 to 8 feet
apart, being somewhatnearer together under the apron than
beneath the main structure of the dam. The ends of the
sills are mortised into the rock at each bank, the sill farthest
up-stream being also imbedded in the rock for its entire
length. Across these sills are laid timbers 10 by 14 inches
and about 40 feet long, the distance between centers being
about 6 feet. They are secured to the lower or foundation
sills by li inch barbed iron bolts, 2 feet long. Both these
courses or layers of logs are squared on the top and bottom.
The two center sills running lengthwise of the stream, and
situated at the angle of the dam, are bolted together.
The breast of the dam is raised at the fourth foundation
sill, counting from the up stream side. The upright posts
constituting the front of the dam are 12 inches square, about
15 feet long, and have an inclination from perpendicular of
nearly 3 feet up-stream. The posts at the center or angle
of the dam, like the two upper sills at that point, are set
close together and bolted to each other. The whole num-
ber of posts is the same as the number of upper sills, and
they are placed the same distance apart, each post resting
on a sill, into which its lower end is mortised. Upon the
top of the posts, crossing the stream, is a' cap timber 12 by
14 inches. This cap timber is in four pieces, each 25 feet
long, spliced where they connect, and mortised into the
rock at each bank. The upper ends of the upright posts
are mortised into the cap-timber.
The rafters composing the up-stream slope of the dam are
10 inches square and some 25 feet long, and equal in num-
ber to the posts — each rafter, with its corresponding post
and the interior braces, constituting a '' bent.'' The rafters
are mortised into the cap-timber, and between them are
short cross-timbers or ties, 10 inches square, mortised into
the sides of the rafters, and flush with their upper surface.
The same description of ties are placed between the up-
right posts. The purpose of these ties is to give firmness
to the frame, and prevent any tendency of the bents to
sway or spread to or from each other. There are three of
these ties between each pair of rafters and two between
172 f-llAME ©AM At CLIFTON, OttlO.
posts, SO that each bent is connected with the next by five
ties, the distance between the ties being from 6 to 8 feet.
The foot of each rafter rests upon one of the upper sills,
and a bolt is driven through the rafter and upper sill to the
foundation sill of the dam.
This slope of the dam is covered with two coats or courses
of 2-inch oak planks, jointed in the usual manner, the first
course being laid crosswise of the stream, and the second
or top course lengthwise, in the same direction as the raf-
ters. The planks are secured by spikes, and the top course
footed at the lower ends of the planks against a sill running
across the stream the whole length of the dam.
In the interior of the bents are braces 10 inches square.
Fig. 2.
mortised into the posts, sills and rafters, in the manner and
position indicated in Fig. 2 of our engravings.
The apron is constructed by placing transverse or cross
sills upon the longitudinal or upper sills of the dam, these
cross sills being three in number and about 6 feet apart.
Upon these sills are laid timbers of the same size, length-
wise of the stream, hewed on two sides and laid close
together. These logs, forming the apron, are 17 feet long.
At their upper ends, where they meet the breast of the
dam, a cross-timber is laid on, running the whole length of
the dam, and beveled on its front so as to leave its top only
2 inches wide. The cap-timber at the top of the posts also
projects 2 inches, and the 2-inch planks constituting the
face of the dam, which are spiked in an upright position
PRAME DAM At CLlPtOlJ, OHtO. 173
upon the posts and cross-ties, make with the 2-inch projec-
tions at their top and bottom, against which they rest, a
continuous smooth face to the dam, giving the water an
unbroken and even fall.
All the sills, rafters and ties composing the frame work
of the dam are of white oak, secured by iron bolts.
The interior of the crib-work composing the apron is filled
comi^actly with stone. The interior of the dam is also filled
with stone, about half-way to the top ; and against the up-
stream slope of the dam is a filling of gravel and clay,
extending from some fifteen feet above the dam to a point
half-way up the slope, thus covering the entire lower part
of the planking.
The ground plan of the dam is such that it makes an
angle with the apex up-stream, instead of the arch or curve
often used. The angle is but a moderate one, the center of
the dam being but about 4 feet farther up-stream than the
ends, while the entire length, as already stated, is about 100
feet. As will be seen by the dimensions already given, the
base of the dam, inclusive of the apron, has a total length
of about 40 feet.
Near the center of the dam is a waste-way regulated by a
sliding gate on the upper side of the dam. The door of the
waste-way is indicated in the cut near the base of the dam
close to the center posts.
The hight of the dam from the apron up to the crest is
about 14 feet, the 15 feet posts having a slight inclination
as already stated. The hight from the rock bottom to the
top of the dam is 17 feet or thereabouts, the top of the
apron being 3 feet or more above the rock.
The water enters the forebay behind the large rock on
the right bank of the stream, and only a portion of the
forebay, consequently, is shown in our engraving. The race
passes through an opening in the rocks, and the frame-
work of the head-gates is mortised at both ends into the
solid rock.
This dam was built nearly three years since by Messrs.
King & Hagar, at that time proprietors of the Clifton Paper
Mills, now carried on by Col. David King. A general view
174
FRAME DAM AT CLIFTON, OHIO.
of the dam is given in our principal engraving, and in Fig.
2 is represented a cross-section, showing the upright post,
rafter and braces constituting a bent, the two courses of
plank on the up stream slope, the end of the timber against
which the upper course is footed, the upright planking on
the face of the dam, the ends of the cap-timber above and
the beveled timber below, and also the ends or sides of the
various sills composing the foundation and the crib-work of
the apron.
As the region in which this dam is situated is visited
every year by large numbers of tourists, many of our
readers may already have examined the structure above
described, or may have opportunities of doing so in future.
At a favorable season of the year, a more attractive spot
can hardly be found, though there are many of wider
reputation and more favored by the patronage of the wealthy
and fashionable.
TIMBER DAM AT NEW HARTFORD, CONN. 175
CHAPTER XXX.
TIMBER DAM AT NEW HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT.
The durability of the dam which we illustrate in this
chapter has been proved by a period of service dating back
farther than the birth of many of our readers. It was built
in 1847, and has therefore stood over 26 years, requiring in
all that time but little repair or alteration. It belongs to
the Greenwoods Company, of New Hartford, Conn., and
extends across the Farmington river at that place.
The dam, as will be seen by our engraving, is built of
timber, no other material being used except that required
for filling' or staying the structure, and for the abutments
as will be hereafter described. The timbers used are from
9 to 12 inches in thickness, the first or foundation tier being
laid crosswise, the second tier lengthwise of the stream ;
and this arrangement is continued throughout, the alternate
layers crossing each other until the work is brought to the
desired hight. When complete, it has the form of a pyra-
mid, the sides presenting an angle of 27 degrees with the
horizontal line or bed of the stream. This angle of the
sides gives the base such ample width in proportion to the
hight that, taking this in connection with the pyramidal
form, the dam has a degree of solidity and strength in its
very shape which ensures its durability.
The timbers are fastened, at each point where they cross,
with a spike of |-inch round iron, 20 inclies long. The water
side is covered with planking of 3-inch oak and chestnut,
jointed, and put on with 7-inch cut spikes. The timbers
running lengthwise of the .stream are placed 6 feet from
center to center, the ends coming out flush with the face
and back of the dam. The timbers running crosswise of
the stream are so placed as to give from two to three feet
I'T^ TIMBER DAM AT NEW HARTFORD, CONN.
in the clear; and all the spaces -ire filled with stones, from
the foundation up to the cap-log.
On the lower or down-stream side of the apron, piles are
driven and securely fastened to the lower mud sill, on which
the apron partially rests. The apron is composed of tim-
bers 12 inches thick, placed close together. In order to
attach the apron firmly to the main structure of the dam,
the following plan is adopted : once in every six feet of the
apron a timber longer than the others is put in, extending
up-stream under the dam a distance of 25 or 30 feet, while
the other apron-timbers run only 2 or 3 feet under the first
timber of the dam proper. By this means, without putting
more timber into the apron than is absolutely required, it
is nevertheless held so firmly to the main structure of the
dam that no danger of separation exists.
The entire length of the ^^rollway" is 232 feet. The
hight of the dam, from the bottom of the mud-sills to the
top of the cap-log, is 21 feet. The width at the bottom,
from the foot of the dam to the up-stream side, is 68 feet ;
and the apron projects 14 feet beyond the foot of the dam.
The river bottom at this point consists of cobble-stones,
gravel and quicksand. The banks are gravel and sand.
The gravel is of the kind known as " washed," it being
devoid of all the fine admixture which renders a bank
tight against water. On the upper side of the dam is a
filling of gravel to within 4 or 5 feet of the cap-log. It is
not uncommon for the stream to rise to such a hight as to
give six feet of water on the cap-log ; and a depth of even
10 feet at that point has been known, but is of rare occur-
rence. The capacity of the river at this place is stated at
14,525,000 cubic feet of water every 24 hours during an
ordinary drouth.
Our present illustration gives a perspective view of the
exterior of the dam, showing also one of the abutments,
which are of solid masonry, and pyramid-shaped, like the
dam itself. In our next chapter we shall give a sectional
view, showing more clearly the interior structure of the
dam, with some additional particulars required to complete
the description.
TIMBER DAM AT NEW HARTFORD, CONN. 179
CHAPTER XXXI.
TIMBER DAM (Continued,)
In our last chapter we gave a perspective view and gen-
eral description of the dam of the Greenwoods Company at
New Hartford, Conn., comprising the dimensions of the
dam, the material used, size of timbers, and the manner in
which they are put together and secured. We now present
a sectional view of the same dam, from which the arrange-
ment of the timbers will be still more clearly perceived.
In this engraving, also, a full view is given of several
portions not shown in the perspective cut, such as the apron
in front, composed of twelve-inch timbers placed close
together; the piles driven on the down stream side of the
apron, and fastened to the lower mud-sill, extending into
the bed of the stream to a depth of 15 feet ; and the form
of the abutment, the face or front portion of which also rests
upon piles. Our present engraving shows but a small part of
the dam, the entire length of which, as already stated, is 232
feet. In the yiew it is represented as if cut transversely,
in the direction of the stream, showing the internal frame-
work, but not the filling of stones in the interior, or that of
gravel in the upper side of the dam.
The strength and stability afforded by the pyramidal
shape of the dam will be readily seen in this illustration,
the only real source of danger being from the washing out
of the gravel, especially on the lower side of the dam,
which is liable to occur at a time of very high water. This
difficulty did in fact present itself in the case of the dam
here described, during a very heavy flood some fifteen years
ago. The water acted with such effect at the lower side of
the apron that a considerable quantity of gravel was washed
away ; to remedy which the proprietors built cribs of poles
ISO TIMBER DAM AT NEW HARTFORD, CONI^.
and logs, and filled them with large rocks, weighing two to
three tons. These cribs were then sunk to the bottom, and
the whole chained to the piles at the foot of the apron ;
since which time no trouble from washing out has been
experienced.
About three years ago, some repairs of the dam were
found necessary, and nine or ten feet of the top was taken
off, the timbers having become rotten. The cause of the
rotting was ascertained to be that the dam, when originally
built, was planked tight on the lower side as well as on the
water side, leaving no avenue of escape for the hot steam
which gathered inside the dam in hot weather. The face of
the dam being to the south, the heat of the sun had a pow-
erful effect in generating this steam in the interior, with
the injurious results to the timbers above indicated. All
the planking on the lower side was therefore removed, and
for the last three years, consequently, this side has been in
the condition shown in our engraving in the last chapter.
It is proposed to raise the dam six feet in the course of
next summer, making with the present hight of 21 feet a
total hight from bottom of mud-sill to top of cap-log, of 27
feet. It has already been mentioned that the stream fre-
quently rises to such an extent as to give six feet of water,
and in rare instances even ten feet, on the cap-log of the
dam as it now stands. The increase of hight will therefore
afford the means of a corrosponding addition to the amount
of power held in store, the present structure being hardly
in due proportion to the capacity of the stream. Our en-
graving shows the wall as already raised. The dam or
" rollway " will be raised by placing at every 6 feet of the
length of the dam a frame or trestle resting, as it were,
astride of the crest of the dam and very firmly secured on
both the upper and lower slopes of the present structure.
The water side of this additional framework will be covered
tightly with 3-inch jointed plank. Upon the lower side will
be placed 3-inch planks, 2 incTies apart, the object of this
arrangement being to ventilate the interior and give free
escape to the hot steam generated as already described.
It is believed by the proprietors of this dam that it will
183
compare favorably with any other structure of the kind in
the country as regards the quantity of water held in reserve
by it, for the amount of money invested. It certainly
possesses great merit in the plan of construction, and has
been found to possess, in practice as well as theory, the
prime essentials of a good dam, — strength and durability.
184 LOG DAM FOR NARROW STREAMS,
CHAPTER XXXII.
LOG DAM FOR NARROW STREAMS.
The description and illustration which we present in this
chapter were elicited by an inquiry on the subject of Mill
Dams published in Leffel's Illustrated Mechanical News for
February, 1873. In order to present more clearly the sug-
gestions embodied in the ensuing article, we first reprint in
full from the Mechanical News the inquiry alluded to, (and
also the comments editorially made upon it) as follows:
'' Messrs. James Ldffel & Co. :— I desire to build a mill-
dam a(?ross a hollow about 60 feet wide. Will have a slate
rock foundation all the way across, and the hight of dam will
be 15 feet. I have two plans for building the dam. The
first is to dovetail posts in the rock about four feet apart,
straight across the hollow, and nail two-inch planks to the
posts, setting the posts 12 inches in the rock, and having
them 15 feet high.
My second plan (I think the best) is the following: Get
me a sill 14 by 14 and lay on the rock across the hollow, and
then put iron stirrups across the sill about 5 feet apart,
placing the ends of the stirrups about 1^ feet deep in the
rock and running Babbitt metal in the hr.les around the
stirrups. Then place my posts about four feet apart, letting
them about one foot deep into the sills, and having a brace
running from top of post down stream, lower end on a sill.
Stone is too scarce to build a stone dim. The stream of
water is only from a large spring (no creek) only 100 yards
from the dam. The water, when running on mill, is about
6 inches deep in a fore-bay 3 feet wide, afi'ording enough
water to run a set of 30 inch wool cards and a grist-mill?
rocks 30 inches in diameter.
The fact is this : we want to build a good dam, without a
great expense. I would say that the hollow is wider between
r
d
>
>
H
PI
>
LOd^ DAM FOR NARROW STREAMS. 187
the spring and dam than it is at the point we wish to put
the dam.
I desire you to answer this in the next number of the
News. Tell us which is the best plan, and if you can let us
have a better plan, please give it in your paper. You may
put me down as a permanent subscriber. Enclosed find
money. Trusting you will comply with my request, I am
Fraternally yours W. H. W-
Flyntville, Tenn."
" [We do not agree with our correspondent in thinking
his second plan the best, but should give the preference to
his first, provided certain important amendments are made
to it. The posts should be let into the rock a depth of at
least two and one-half feet, and three would be still better;
and they should have one or if possible two series of braces
if the dam is to be 15 feet high. The general plan of the dam,
as we would build it, is similar to that described in our issue
for November, 1871, except that the posts in this case should
be nearer together than in the dam illustrated. The reason
for this is, first, that the hight of the dam is much greater,
and second, that slate rock is peculiarly liable to wear away
under the influence of either sun, air, frost or falling water.
We shall be glad to hear from other correspondents in re-
gard to W. H. W.'s inquiry. Ed. Leffel News.] "
In a subsequent issue of the Mechanical News appeared
a communication from another correspondent, in Wabash,
Ind., over the initials " R. S.," giving a full description of a
dam which he has found by practical experience specially
adapted to narrow streams such as are here referred to. He
also furnished a pencil sketch of a dam of this character of
which he is a joint proprietor, located on Treaty Creek,
Wabash Co., Ind. ; and from the sketch thus supplied we
have produced the engraving here presented.
Referring to the plans submitted by "W. H. W.," the
Wabash correspondent remarks : " I do not like either of
them ; and as the editor stated that he ' would be glad to
hear from other correspondents in regard to these inquiries,'
1 will, as an old hand at building mills and dams, suggest
1S8 LOG DAM FOR NARROW STREAMS.
my plan of building dams across narrow streams, or ' hol-
lows 60 feet wide' as he says his is. The motto of B.
Franklin has ever been mine, viz.: ' What is worth doing
at all is worth doing well.' Even should my plan cost a
little more at first than his, it will be the cheapest in the
end.
" Here it is. If the banks are stone, and have no natural
jut or projection sufficient to abut the ends of the dam
against, and are not too hard to cut, cut a groove in the
stone embankments where the ends of the dam are wanted,
about 12 inches wide, and a few inches deep, from the bot-
tom up, and as high as the dam is to be built. Take round
logs and face two sides straight and nice, large enough to
measure a foot thick when faced. Cut the logs long enough
for two lengths to make the dam. Square the end that is
to go in the groove at the abutment, or shape it to fit. Lay
the log not at right angles across the ravine, but put the
ends which meet in the middle nine or ten feet up stream
above a straight line, so as to form the dam that much in
the shape of a horse shoe, or rather in the form of two
panels of rail fence with the lock up stream ; then halve
together the ends which meet, putting the faces of the logs
together as the dam is raised so as to hold the filling of
gravel or dirt. Continue to so notch the logs together in
the middle until the dam is the desired hight, filling up at
the same time with gravel and stone if plenty; if not, dirt
will do, provided the logs fit well enough to hold it. Thus
we see, to build a dam in this way supersedes the necessity
of any posts or braces, for it braces itself. And the harder
the pressure of water and filling above, the tighter it will
press the ends of the dam against the abutments, so that it
can neither push out, wash round the ends, nor wash or un-
dermine if stone bottom, and the bottom log well fitted*
This plan supersedes, also, the necessity of cutting any
post-holes or mortices in the bottom of the stream, or of
bolting down the bottom log to keep the dam from pushing
down stream."
" If not stone bluff's, then of course, abutments of either
good stone or timber must be made, projecting into the
LOG DAM FOR NARROW STREAMS. 1S9
banks. They should be notched up as the dam is raised,
and all well filled as it goes up."
"If the bottom is slate, or any material that will not stand
the force of water pouring over for many years, it should be
leveled a sufficient distance up and down the stream, clear
across, to receive a log apron. Face the logs on three sides,
putting the square edge down. Cut them 16 feet long, and
cut a gain on the top of each one 6 feet from the end that
lies up stream, 4 or 5 inches deep, to lay the bottom log of
the dam in, thus letting the apron extend about 10 feet be-
low the dam, and 5 above. The apron logs notched in this
way and the dam built on them, and they fitted up together,
will prevent the bottom from wearing as long as they last.
And having them 12 inches thick (which they should be for
15 feet fall) they will last, if water is kept over them, many
years, for they cannot wash out put in in this way, nor raise
at the lower end in case of a flood of water rising over them
below the dam."
" This plan of building dams is not only applicable to W.
H. W.'s ' hollow,' but to all streams that are not too wide
for two logs to span in a bracing way. And it makes no
difference how high the dam is built, it cannot push out if
the logs are stout enough not to bend edgewise and come
out like a spring-pole."
" We, of the firm of Small & Son, have a log dam 1.5 feet
high, about 60 feet whole length, built precisely as I have
directed, and it has been in use some twenty-seven or
twenty-eight years, and not a log amiss yet; though the top
is getting a little tender, and wants a new top-log. Ours
are stone bluff's and solid limestone bottom, all the apron it
needs. Our filling is mainly shelly limestone with some
gravel and dirt ; not even sheeted on top, but would be the
better of it, for the stone and gravel washes off" some.''
" I give a rough sketch of our dam, which is so simple
that any ten-year-old boy of common mother wit can see
into the philosophy of its strength and durability."
'' In 1846 I helped put a log dam across the Missisinewa
River, nearly 200 feet long. In 1854, 1 think, I put in, or
rather spliced the same kind of a dam on Deer Creek, to
190 LOG DAM FOB NARROW STREAMS.
run a saw and grist mill. And about 1858 or '59, 1 put a log
dam in to run two 4 feet burrs; all in Grant county, Ind.
Not one of these dams has gone out yet, unless they went
this winter. Though these dams were all straight, the
breast is logs, and a log laid in the stream a few feet above,
with dove-tail ties in it and the breast logs, as they were
notched up, all tied to the single log above, filled with
stone and gravel, then sheeted with 2 inch plank, and
graveled on the upper end of the sheeting; and with good
abutments and aprons, I consider the log dam the cheapest
yet"
FRAME PAM ON MAD RIVER. 191
CHAPTER XXXIII.
FRAME DAM ON MAD RIVER.
We add in this chapter another illustration and description
of a dam which has the advantage, over a merely theoretical
plan, of being verified by actual construction, so that every
detail has been worked out and may be relied on as prac-
tical, and duly adapted to the circumstances of the case.
The dam here represented is built across Mad River, in
Clarke County, Ohio, and is 165 feet long. The stream at this
point has a mud and clay bottom, upon which is a coating
of sand and gravel, washed down from above. The founda-
tion of the dam consists of sills 30 feet long, hewed flat on
the top and bottom to a thickness of ten inches, and laid
lengthwise of the stream, about 8 feet apart. Upon the top
of these sills, at their up-stream ends, and running across
the stream, is bolted a timber 8 inches square, 16-inch
bolts being used to secure it to the sills. The breast of the.
dam is raised to a hight of 30 inches above the apron, and
is made by first laying a timber, 5 by 14 inches in size,
across the stream on the foundation sills. On the top of
this 5 by 14 inch sill are eight tiers of joists 3 by 10 inches,
which are laid flatwise upon each other and spiked together
with 6-inch iron nails. The face of the dam, composed of
these joists, is battered or inclined up stream 5 inches. At
a point five feet up-stream from the cross-sill on which the
joists rest is laid across the stream, and bolted to the
foundation sills, a timber 8 inches square. From this sill to
the top of the breast- work of joists, or crest of the dam, are
laid rafters 6 by 8 inches, 6 feet long, and 3 feet apart from
centre to centre. The cut required at the upper extremity
of each rafter to give it a secure hold upon the breast of the
dam, is made about 3 inches from the end of the rafter,
which therefore projects that distance in front of the tier of
192 FRAME DAM ON MAD RIVER.
joists, and by this means the rafters are, so to speak, hooked
over the crest of the dam. The depth of the cut is about
half the thickness of the rafter, and the width 10 inches,
the same as that of the joists. The rafters are pinned to
the crest of the dam, and also to the sill at their lower ends?
with wood pins 1| inches in diameter.
For the covering of the dam there are laid, crosswise of
the stream upon the rafters, 2| inch planks, which are fas-
tened to the rafters with 6-inch nails. From the foot of the
rafters, also, to the up-stream end of the foundation-sills, a
covering is laid consisting of planks 2 inches thick, running
cross-wise of the stream and nailed to the foundation-sills.
Upon the plank covering of the mud-sills, and extending
some distance up the covering of the rafters, is a filling of
gravel about 2 feet in depth; and the space under the
rafters, from the mud-sills up to the plank covering, is also
filled with sand and gravel.
The apron of the dam is made by laying three sills across
the sfe-eam, resting on the foundation sills, and secured to
them with 16-inch bolts. Upon these cross sills and the
projecting edge of the 5 by 14 inch sill under the breast of
the dam, are spiked planks 2i inches thick, 12 feet
long, and running lengthwise of the stream, as indicated in
the engravings. At the down-stream end of these planks^
against the side of the apron-sill and the ends of the
foundation or mud sills, are driven spiles 3 by 6 inches,
reaching to a depth of five feet. The same is done at the
up stream end of the dam, where the extremities of the
mud-sills and the side of the cross-sill at that point rest in
like manner against the spiles. The spiles at both the up-
stream and down-stream extremities of the dam, are placed
close together, forming a continuous sheet across the
stream.
The abutments of the dam are of solid masonry, laid up
with cement, and are 21 feet in length of face, 5^ feet in
hight, and 6 feet thick. In addition to this are the wings?
each 10 feet long, and of the same hight as the face wall
The tops of the abutments are at about the same level as
the earth banks of the stream. They rest on the foundation
24
FRAME DAM ON MAD RIVER.
195
sills of the dam, three of which are under the abutment.
The filling of the space enclosed by the face and wing walls
is entirely of gravel and sand.
E. B. Harvey, of Miami county, is the builder of this dam,
which is located near Enon, Clarke County, Ohio, and is
owned by Martin Snyder. It
supplies the power to run a
flouring mill, propelled by Lef-
fel Double Turbine water-
wheels.
Our large engraving gives a
perspective view of the dam,
showing both the abutments
and also a portion of the race,
with the head-gates, three in
number. In the smaller illus-
tration is presented a sectional
view, showing a foundation sill fr;
lengthwise of the stream ; the ?
end of the cross-sill at the up- ^
stream extremity of the dam,
and also of the cross-sill at the
foot of the rafters, the one on
which the breast-work rests,
and the three sills of the apron ;
the ends of the eight tiers or
layers of joists, and of the
planks covering the rafters and
the up-stream portion of the
mud-sills ; the side of one rafter,
showing the cut at one end for
the foot-sill and at the other end
for the crest of the dam ; the plank covering of the apron,
the spiles at the upper and lower extremities of the dam,
and the line of the gravel filling. By the clearness with
which every detail is shown in this cut the whole construc-
tion of the dam will be accurately understood.
We may here state that for the purpose of keeping the
water from interfering with the work upon the dam, a cofi'er
196 FRAME DAM Oif MAD RIVEft.
was built at a point 5 or 6 feet up stream from the upper
ends of the foundation sills, extending from one bank nearly
across the stream, and thus protecting one-half of the dam
while the building was going on. To protect in like manner
the other half of the dam while in process of construction,
it was only necessary to remove the upper part of the coffer
above the finished part of the dam, letting the water flow
over both coffer and dam on that side of the stream ; the
material thus taken off being used to extend the remaining
part of the coffer to the opposite bank, and a barrier being
also built from the coffer to the inner or midstream end of
the finished half of the dam, keeping the water from that
part of the dam on which work was still in progress.
[Since the foregoing was put in type, we have received
information that the work upon this dam, just as it was ap-
proaching completion, was interrupted in the following
manner. The dam on one side of the stream having been
finished, and work on the remainder being in progress un-
der the protection of a cofier, a channel was cut from the
head race through the bank behind and around the finished
abutment, to carry off the water. A flood occurring, the
swollen stream poured through this channel and caused
great damage to the abutment and the completed portion
of the dam. We presume that parties on the spot were best
qualified to judge as to the course proper to be pursued;
but from what data we possess, we are inclined to believe
that by first putting in a head-gate at the race, and allow-
ing the water to pass over the completed portion of the dam,
the disaster might have been avoided.]
Dam at osborn cMy, kai^saS. 197
CHAPTER XXXIV.
DAM AT OSBORN CITY, KANSAS.
The dam herewith illustrated is constructed on the same
principle, in many respects, as several which have already
been described ; but the plan here shown will be found in
some localities to possess advantages in point of simplicity
and strength which will justify its adoption by the mill-
owner. It cannot be accurately classified as regards the
kind of material employed, as stone, logs, sawed timbers,
boards, rock, gravel, sand and hay are used in its construc-
tion, their proportions and arrangement being such as to
afford, without very heavy outlay, a satisfactory degree of
firmness and durability. Our engraving gives a perspective
view of the dam built by Messrs. David Milne & Son, at
Osborn City, Osborn Co., Kansas, furnishing power by which
their saw-mill and grist-mill are run. The width of the
river at this point is 64 feet, and its bottom consists of a
layer of sand about 3 feet in depth, resting on a bed of
solid slate and shale. In preparing for the erection of the
dam, the first step was to scrape the sand away until the
solid bottom was reached. The mud-sills were then put
down, consisting of logs from 14 to 18 inches in diameter,
and from 20 to 28 feet long, their direction being lengthwise
of the stream. Brush was also put in to aid in making the
sills as firm and solid in their positions as possible. In
scraping away the sand, a hollow of considerable depth was
of course made ; and after the sills were put down, the sand
washed over the mud-sills, which thus became imbedded in
sand and brush, and have thus far shown no indications of
giving way. The distance between the sills is about 6 feet
from center to center.
It should be stated, before proceeding further, that the
198
KANSAS.
body of the dam is supported at each end by wing walls, as
shown in the cut, these walls being 3 feet in thickness and
built solidly along the face of each bank for a considerable
distance both above and below the dam.
After laying the mud-sills, as described, the next stage of
the work is the erection of the crib, which is composed of
sawed timbers, and rests upon the sills, extending from
bank to bank, and forming, as will be seen in the engraving,
an obtuse angle with the vertex up-stream. The width of
this crib is five feet and its hight 8^ feet. The timbers run-
ning across the stream are 6 by 6 inches, while the cross
pieces are 4 by 6 inches, placed flatwise, from 5 to Y feet
aparl , and spiked to the main or longitudinal timbers, which
are therefore 4 inches apart, one above the other. These
4-inch spaces are covered by nailing boards upon them, thus
rendering the up-stream and down-stream walls of the crib
sufl&ciently tight for all practical purposes. The 6 by 6 inch
timbers are pinnod together with 2-inch oak pins, 16 inches
long. In the engraving, the dam is shown with a part of
the filling on the down-stream face cut out, giving a view
of a portion of the crib in the interior. The main or
longitudinal timbers, the ends of the cross-timbers, and one
of the foundation sills, are thus shown, and also the level
top of the crib, 5 feet wide, forming the crest of the dam.
The ends of the foundation sills are likewise seen, project-
ing down-stream from under the filling. Each end of the
crib, at the point where it joins the wing wall, is let into
the wall for a depth of 3 or 4 inches, giving it a firm and
solid bearing, and rendering it, in connection with the
angular direction of the two halves of the dam, abundantly
strong in its position, so far as regards any direct pressure
from the water above.
The filling of the inside of the crib consists of broken
rock, gravel and hay, arranged in the following manner :
a layer of rock, finely broken, is first put down, having a
depth of 10 inches ; a coat of gravel is then put on, leveling
up the surface of the rock ; then follows a layer of hay,
then another layer of rock, and so on with alternate coats
of rock, gravel and hay up to the top of the crib. The rock
k I $ i^
1^ "i
DAM AT OSBORN CITY, KANSAS. 201
used is a kind of flint found in the vicinity, and very heavy.
Above the crib is a filling of broken rock, gravel, hay and
sand. The width of this fill at the base is 12 feet, sloping
to the top of the crib. Below the crib, on the down-stream
face of the dam, is a fill of rock and brush, sloping to the
top of the crib, and the whole dam has thus the shape of
the roof of a house. The crib is located a^ a point on the
mud-sills about two-thirds of the distance from their down-
stream to their up-stream extremities, and the front of the
crib is just above the projecting corner or vertex of the
angle formed by each of the wing walls. These distances
and proportions are distinctly shown in the engraving.
This dam has been doing service for some time, and as
yet has shown no signs of settling, or of deficiency in any
respect.
We are of opinion that the plan of dam above described,
which is an excellent one in most respects, would be still
further improved by bolting the mud-sills in a few places to
the rock bottom. If they were surrounded and covered by
a good depth of mud, this would be less important. A mix-
ture of sand, in liberal proportions, with the gravel in the
crib, to pack and tighten the whole mass, would also be
useful ; although this point is very well provided for by the
board covering on the side of the crib, especially if a con-
siderable amount of fine sand and gravel is thrown against
it. As for the use of hay, either in the crib or above it, we
have small faith in its utility, as it will rot out after a time
and require refilling. There is, in fact, nothing better than
heavy gravel and sand for all kinds of filling about dams,
head-gates, races, &c. — and nothing poorer than clay.
Of the light rocks and brush forming the inclined apron
below the dam, a considerable portion will wash away in
case of a flood; but if there are also plenty of heavy
boulders, these will maintain their position, and no material
damage will be done.
26
202 STONE AND TIMBER DAM,
CHAPTER XXXV.
STONE AND TIMBER DAM.
In the present chapter we describe and illustrate a stone
and timber dam which was erected in 1873 by the owner,
Hamilton B. Lawton, at East Brunswick, Rensselaer Co.,
N. Y. Its method and material of construction are such as
to adapt it to a region where stone is abundant, as this, with
a moderate amount of timber, is the article principally used
in its erection. This dam is built on a rock and " hard-pan "
bottom. Its length is 150 feet, and its hight 22 feet, from
the level of the water to the top of the upper plate. The
base of the dam, measured on a horizontal line from the up-
stream to the down-stream extremity, is 23 feet in extent,
being nearly the same as the hight; and the up-stream side
of the dam, therefore, slopes at an angle of 45 degrees.
This form of construction gives the necessary degree of sta-
bility, and also affords ample room for filling in between the
rafters with rocks and small stones, thereby rendering the
mud-sill and plate very secure in their position.
Our principal engraving shows the face of the dam and
abutments, the upper and lower plate and the posts being
the only timbers visible. In the smaller cut is given a com-
plete representation of the framework, in which A is the
upper plate and E the mud-sill at the up stream extremity
of the dam. The rafters B are fastened to the plate and sill
with strong spikes. It will be observed that midway of the
rafter B is a timber D, parallel with the plate and mud-sill ;
and that to this middle plate are attached short rafters C,
alternating with the main rafters and having their lower
ends secured to the up-stream mud-sill in like manner with
the main rafters. The purpose of these short rafters is to
STONE AND TIMBER DAM. 205
give a more firm support to the plank covering of the dam
at this point, where the pressure of the water is heaviest.
The main rafters, reaching from the up-stream mud-sill
(which is bolted to large rocks) to the upper or cap plate of
the dam, may consist of timbers unhewn except on their
upper faces, where they should be made flat to admit of the
laying of the planks, and give an even surface to the water
side.
The main timbers of which this frame is composed are 12
by 14 inches. The bottom plate or sill F lies upon a series
of rocks arranged, as indicated in our first illustration, so as
to form an apron to receive the overfall of water and pre-
FiG. 2.
vent the washing, wearing and undermining of the base of
the dam. The posts G are framed into the upper and lower
plates as shown in both the cuts, and serve to support the
upper plate, in case the wall should settle in course of time,
as it is liable to do to a very small extent.
The ends of the dam, on each side of the frame-work, are
compactly built up with rocks and small stones in the rear,
and in front square rocks are carefully laid up to present a
smooth front and a permanent wall ; thus allowing the tim-
ber work to be taken out and renewed, should it be necessary
at any future period.
The filling in the interior of the framework, as already
mentioned, is composed of rocks of irregular size, from
heavy boulders down to cobble-stones ; and the dam is
206 STONE AKD TIMBER DAM.
covered with planking in the same manner, substantially,
as described in lormer chapters relating to dams of this
general nature.
The builder of this dam is confident that it will last a life-
time, and that very little expense will be required in repair-
ing the wood-work. The other portions of the structure
should of course demand no outlay whatever after having
been once completed.
As an appropriate addition to the account above given, we
may here describe briefly another dam of very similar nature
to the one already shown, although in quite another section
of the country. The dam to which we now refer is built
across the Des Flaines river at Joliet, 111. It is the lowest
dam down the river in the city, there being two State dams
above it; and is owned by Messrs. Wm. Adam & Co. of the
" City Mills." The bottom of the river at this point is lime-
stone. The dam has an extent across the stream of 160 feet.
Its lace is composed of masonry, with the addition of a
mud-sill and cap-sill, the whole corresponding almost pre-
cisely with the lace of the dam already described, except
that there are no upright posts connecting the upper and
lower sills.
The mud-sills, which cross the stream, are 12 by 14 inches
being of the same size as those in the other dam. The first
mud-sill, at the face of the dam, is laid on the rock, which
is leveled ofl' as smoothly as possible to receive it; and 40
feet up-stream from this is placed another 12 by 14 inch sill,
parallel with it, the two being bound together with timbers
6 by 8 inches, running lengthwise of the stream, and placed
at intervals of 12 feet for the whole width of the stream.
Around the first mud-sill a stone wall is laid in water-lime,
and on the foundation composed of this wall and sill the
face of the dam is built, consisting of solid masonry, 30
inches in thickness. On the top of this wall is placed the
12 by 14 inch cap-sill. This cap-sill or plate is kept in its
place by means of binders 6 by 8 inches, which extend from
the plate to the up-stream mud-sill. These binders are fas-
tened to the timbers which tie the two mud-sills together
(as already described) by iron rods, and are also supported
STONE AND TIMBER DAM. 207
by posts to give them the necessary stability. Furthermore,
across these binders, which run lengthwise of the stream,
smaller timbers, 4 by 6 inches, are framed, parallel with the
face of the dam, to keep the binders from spreading apart.
All the timber work in this dam is dovetailed where
cross-timbers are met; and in fastening the framework to-
gether, ten kegs of 8-inch spikes were used, from which it
will be seen that it is not likely to become separated by any
strain it is liable to undergo.
Back of the face of the dam a layer of clay was filled in,
clear up to the face of the cap-sill ; back of this, brush, rub-
ble stone and gravel were put in ; and on top of this was
spread a coat of clay. A covering of two inch planks was
then put on, the whole length of the dam, for a distance of
20 feet from the crest toward the up-stream extremity, com-
prising, in other words, the upper half of the up-stream
slope, next to the face of the dam. Finally, a covering of
gravel was spread over the entire up-stream slope, with the
exception of about six feet along the cap-sill.
The banks of the stream are faced with a wall of masonry,
connecting with each end of the dam and forming the abut-
ments. There is certainly no lack of strength and solidity
in the dam, and its manner of construction and selection of
material appear to be, for the region in which it is located,
of a very judicious character. If we were to take any ex-
ception whatever, it would relate to the use of clay as one
of the materials for filling, our own experience and observa-
tion having convinced us that it is less reliable for this pur-
pose than any other substance used, whether it be gravel,
loam, sand or brush. Undoubtedly, in the case here de-
scribed, the other sources of strength and compactness in
the structure of the dam will preclude any danger of in-
jurious results from the presence of the clay ; and when
thus protected by better material, it may answer as well as
any to a limited extent; but in cases where it is expected to
resist of itself the inroads of the water, we should not re-
gard its use as safe or profitable.
DAM FOR QUICKSAND BOTTOM,
CHAPTER XXXVI.
DAM FOE QUICKSAND BOTTOM.
In the issue of Leffel's Illustrated Mechanical News for
November, 1873, appeared the following inquiry from a
Kansas correspondent, over the initials " D. P. " : ^' How can
a dam be put in with 10 feet of sand or quicksand at the
bottom?" In this inquiry is presented one of the most
formidable di^culties with which the builder of a dam has
to contend ; and he is therefore fortunate if the nature of .
the river-bed on which he is to place his foundation is not
of the character described in the question above stated.
The trouble is not so much in devising a theoretical plan to
meet the conditions of the case as in the lack of due con-
sideration, in many cases, on the part of the builder, re-
sulting in insufficient provision for the peculiar dangers to
which the structure will be exposed. There is no case, in
the prosecution of enterprises of this kind, where deliberate
forethought, and careful study of all the circumstances and
necessities of the situation, are more essential to ultimate
success, than in the one which we have now in view. For
this reason, it is especially desirable that the teachings of
experience, rather than of mere theory, however plausible,
should be consulted for the guidance of the builder ; and
we will not pause, therefore, to discuss on abstract grounds,
the principles which should be followed in a case of this
nature, but proceed at once to describe a dam in the erec-
tion of which the obstacles referred to were encountered,
and which has shown by its permanence that it possesses all
the necessary elements of durability.
Our engraving gives a general view of the dam to which
we allude, viz.: the "Hydraulic Dam" across the Tippe-
canoe Kiver at Monticello, White Co., Ind., which was built
BAM FOR QUICKSAND BOTTOM. 211
in the year 1849, under the direction of Mr. E. A. Magee, for
the Hydraulic Co., of that place.
This dam rests upon a quicksand foundation, and the
banks of the stream on each side are also of sand. The
length of the dam between the abutments is 340 feet, its
width from up-stream to down-stream extremity (exclusive
of the apron in front) is 24 feet, and its hight 5^ feet. The
abutments, only one of which is shown in the engraving^
are each 30 feet long, 12 feet high and 12 feet wide, and are
composed of timber and rock as hereafter described. The
foundation of the dam, part of which constitutes the apron,
is laid as follows : commencing with the down-stream tier
of the apron, the lower extremity of which is 18 feet from
the down-stream edge of the main portion of the dam,
poles or small trees from six to eight inches in diameter at
the butt and from 40 to 50 feet in length, with all the brush
left on at their upper ends, are laid lengthwise of the stream
as close together as possible, and rock enough placed on
them to hold them to their position. A second tier of the
same kind is then laid, the ends of the trees being six feet
back of those in the first tier ; and a third tier follows in
like manner, falling back from the second tier six feet as
before.
Six feet up-stream from the ends or butts of this last tier
of trees is commenced the base of the dam itself, which is
thus already provided with a secure foundation, composed
of the upper portions of the three tiers. As the entire dis-
tance from the up-stream extremity of the 24 ft. dam to the
down-stream edge of the 18 ft. apron is but 42 feet, and as
the trees in the three foundation tiers are 40 to 50 feet long,
their upper portions will of course extend under the whole
base of the dam. The weight of the dam serves to hold
them securely in place, and they in turn give the dam a hold
upon the bed of the stream of such breadth and strength
that it is practically immovable.
For the first course at the base of the main dam, seven
sills or stringers are laid, cross-wise of the stream, the one
farthest down stream being, as stated, six feet from the ends
of the uppermost tier of trees in the apron. The ends of
212 DAM FOR QUICKSAND BOTTOM.
these sills are seen in our engraving. They are 14 by 16
inches in size, and their distance apart, between centers, is
4 feet, dividing the width of the whole base into 6 equal
parts. They are lapped on each otherwhere two ends meet,
and fastened together with two-inch pins. Their upper
sides are counter-hewed to receive the cross-timbers, which
are put in at intervals of 10 feet for the whole length of the
dam. These cross-timbers, whose direction is of course
lengthwise of the stream, are 12 inches square, and those
in the first course are 24 feet long, being equal to the width
of the base of the dam. They are counter-hewed and let
down evenly on top of the first course of stringers or sills.
The second course of stringers, which are five in number,
are 12 inches square, and counter-hewed on top like the
first or bottom course, upon which they rest solidly, making,
with the cross timbers, a "water-joint." Next comes the
second course of cross-timbers, 12 inches square and counter-
hewed, but shorter than the preceding course, the width of
the dam being less as it approaches the top; then -the third,
fourth and fifth courses of stringers, alternating with the
third, fourth and fifth courses of cross-timbers, all of which
are 12 inches square, and counter-hewed so as to form the
" water joint" by their contact wherever they cross. The
fifth or last of the courses of stringers consists of a single
timber 12 inches square, laid solidly on the center tier as
shown in the engraving. The outsides of the outer
stringers, and the ends of the cross-timbers, are beveled so
as to present a smooth and even inclined face, which is
planked on both the up-stream and down-stream slopes of
the dam, as shown in the cut. The planks used are 2^ inches
thick, and are fastened to the timbers with 6-inch spikes.
By the crossing of the sills and transverse timbers in the
frame, with water-joints as above described, a large number
of cribs are formed ; and these are filled with rock up to the
comb of the dam.
The abutments, the dimensions of which have already
been stated, are composed of timbers 12 inches square,
counter-hewed and laid solidly one upon the other. They
are lapped at the ends and pinned with two-inch pins.
DAM FOR QUICKSAND BOTTOM. 213
Through the interior of the crib thus formed extend two
courses of ties as shown in the cut, dividing it into three
smaller cribs, all of which are filled with rock to the top.
Outside of the abutment, both up and down the stream, for
a distance of three feet, the bank is excavated, and the sand
thus taken out is replaced with fine gravel and clay and
sand puddle. On the side and end next to the water above
the dam, sheet piling is driven, and the abutment is planked
up and down with 2-inch planks. On the upper side of the
dam and on the brush of the tree-tops projecting above, a
coating of gravel two or three feet thick is placed.
It will be observed that this dam by its construction forms
an angle across the river, with the point or vertex up-stream,
thus giving it to some extent the elements of strength per-
taining to the arch, but requiring less care in the framing
than if a regular curve was made across the stream. It
should be here stated that the engraving is in some respects
an imperfect one, as it does not .show the planking on the
abutment ; and in the cross section of the dam in the front
of the picture, the shape and arrangement of the counter-
hewed sills and cross-timbers are not accurately represented.
The cut is, however, sufficiently correct to enable the
reader, aided by the minute description we have given, to
form a clear idea of the manner in which the work is done.
In building this dam, 15,000 feet of hewed timber, 26,000
feet of plank, and 1,575 poles or trees were used. The total
cost at that time (1849) was about $4,500, but would be
greater now, as labor and materials are both more costly
than 25 years ago. The durability of the structure, with its
broad base and the pyramidal form of the main dam, are
sufficiently manifest, the strength of the abutments and the
weight of the filling both in abutments and in the cribs of
the dam, being such as to give abundant stability, in spite
of the unfavorable nature of the river-bed. The fact that
the dam has stood for over 24 years, and that the main body
of it is still perfectly good, is conclusive testimony on this
point. For a period of 15 years it required no repairs; but
afterward the abutments above the water were rebuilt, and
some repairs have recently been made on the dam itself-
214 OVERHUNG APRON DAMS.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
OVERHUNG APRON DAMS.
Dams of several different kinds, adapted to streams having
a hard bottom, have been illustrated and described in pre-
ceding chapters of this work ; and as the one of which we
now propose to speak does not dilfer greatly from some al-
ready shown as regards the material used and the general
principle of construction, we have given only an outline sec-
tional view of it, which will, however, present with sufficient
clearness all the novel features contained in it. The apron,
in fact, is the only point in which there is any radical de-
parture from the system laid down in former chapters. In
this respect, the dam here shown is quite peculiar; but as
it has stood the test of practical service for a number of
years, we must conclude that for the locality and the kind
of foundation on which it is built, it is a reliable structure^
at least under any but the most extraordinary circum-
stances.
This dam was built in 1867, Mr. C. Goodnow of East Sulli-
van, N. H., with other parties, performing or supenntending
the work. Its hight is 13 feet, and its length about 60 feet
across the bed of the stream, at the point where the founda-
tion timbers lie ; while, measuring on the cap or top of the
dam, the distance is 80 feet. One end of the dam rests
against a ledge, while at the other end is a steep gravel
bank.
In the cut, (Fig. 1) A A represent the foundation -sills
extending across the stream, which consist of whole trunks
of trees, some 24 inches in diameter at the butt. These
sills are made flat on their upper surface to receive the
OVERHUNG APRON DAMS. 216
cross-sills B, which are 12 inches square and locked on the
top of the sills A, as shown in the cut, the gains being two
inches in depth. The spaces between the sills are filled
with rocks. The rafters are 28 feet in length, 12 inches
in diameter at the lower end, and 10 inches at the upper
end. They are notched upon the up-stream sill A, and at
the other end upon the cap-timber F. The posts D are 10
inches in diameter, with a 3-inch tenon at each end, one be-
ing inserted in the cap-timber F, and the other in the cross-
sill B, which runs lengthwise of the stream and resting on
Fig. 1.
the foundation-sills A. The length of the posts D is suffi-
cient to give the dam, at the crest, a hight of 13 feet, as al-
ready stated. The distance between the rafters is 4 feet,
from center to center.
The manner in which the apron is framed is plainly indi-
cated, and will attract the particular attention of the reader.
The sills B project down-stream beyond the front founda-
tion-sill A far enough to receive the posts E, which incline
somewhat down-stream from the front of the dam. At the
upper end of the posts E they are framed into the cap- tim-
ber G, from which short timbers extend to the top of the
cap F, meeting there the upper ends of the rafters. The
projection thus formed, which we have called the apron,
216
OVERHUNG APRON DAMS.
(although it bears but little resemblance to that portion of
the dams hitherto described) serves to carry off the water
from the dam, the overflow in floods being frequently 20 to
30 inches deep on the crest. Of course, on any other than
a rock or very hard gravel bottom, an apron of the usual
kind, and of considerable extent down-stream from the base
of the dam, would be required to prevent washing and un-
dermining; but there appears to have been no necessity for
it in this case, as the builder of the dam states that it has
Fig. 2.
withstood all the floods which have occurred in the period —
reaching nearly seven years — which has elapsed since its
erection.
It should be further stated that the rafters of this dam are
covered with planks 2^ inches thick, which are secured to
the rafters with 5-inch spikes. The total amount of lumber
used in building the dam was 25,000 feet.
Another dam, strongly resembling this in its method of
construction and in the kind of apron attached, but of a
still simpler form in many respects, is in use at Millbrook,
Dutchess Co., N. Y. We give in Fig. 2 a representation of
the manner in which it is built, from which it will be seen
OVERHUNG APRON DAMS. 217
that nothing more simple or economical in the way of frame-
work can well be devised. The particulars in regard to this
dam are furnished to us by Mr. V. Anson of Millbrook, who
states that the stream on which it is built has a rock bottom
and sides, the river bed being quite steeply inclined, as in-
dicated in the cut. No mud-sills are laid, and no timbers
are required to rest the braces or studs A A upon, as they
are footed directly into steps or notches in the rock. The
distance between these studs is 5 or 6 feet, or whatever
space may be adapted to the hight it is desired to give the
dam. In framing the studs into the rafter B, the builder of
this dam states that he found it much better not to make
long tenons, secured with pins, as the timber would give
out in and around the tenons. He therefore made them
quite short, just enough in fact to keep them firmly in their
places, and omitted the pins ; and the results were entirely
satisfactory.
The studs A and the rafter B constitute (aside from the
apron) one bent of the dam; and these bents are placed
side by side in a direct line across the stream, with intervals
of 2 or 3 feet between them. Having been set perfectly
plumb and properly stayed, they are covered with planks
two-inch pine being considered sufficient for this purpose
At the foot of each rafter, up-stream, an iron rod C, li
inches in diameter and 2 feet long, passes through the
rafter and into the rock for a considerable distance. It is
manifest from the position of the rafter and direction of the
rod that the pressure of the water from above the dam will
tend to keep the rod in its place rather than to withdraw
or loosen it ; and it will have a like eifect to preserve the
foothold of the studs in the notches cut for them in the rock
bottom.
The cut shows very clearly the construction of the apron,
the timber D having a slight incline from the horizontal,
and being halved on to the end of the rafter and secured
by pins or otherwise ; while near its outer extremity it is
supported by the brace E. One end of this brace is tenoned
into the timber D and the other into the stud A, as shown.
It will be observed that the stud A at the front of the dam
27
218 OVERHUNG APRON DAMS.
is not parallel with the others, but is drawn in at the foot —
the object being to avoid the fall of water from the apron
upon the foot of the studs, which would in time loosen them
and weaken the entire structure.
The studs and rafters are \'2 inches square, and the tim-
bers of which the apron is made 4 or 5 inches square. It is
unnecessary to remark that while this form of dam may be
entirely reliable on a rock bottom, with banks of the same
character, and other circumstances of a favorable descrip-
tion, it would be impossible to give it the requisite strength
and firmness, on the majority of streams, without mud-sills,
and also an apron at the front of the foundation, such as
we have illustrated in former chapters.
STONE DAM WITH PLANK COVERING. 219
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
STONE DAM WITH PLANK COVERING.
It will be perceived on a very superficial examination of
the dam illustrated in the present chapter that it is of an
extremely substantial nature, and presents no weak point
in any part of its structure to lead to a destructive inroad
of the current. The plan of the particular dam shown in
our en^^raving is taken from drawings furnished us by Messrs.
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Frank A. Gilbert,; ?«"'<=«• Equal Owners, | ^; ^gY,*"/;!;,:
MANSFIELD MILLSTONE DRESSER.
-OWNED AND MANUFACTURED BY —
GILBERT. OGDEN &l CO., Mansfield, Ohio.
We claim the MANSFIELD MILLSTONE DRESSER to be the best and
most complete machine ever invented for cracking and facing a Millstone.
i^We use the common hand pick — grinding pick without removing it from
the head — it makes a perfectly clean track in a right line.
NEW REVISED EDITION. Entirely rewritten bj- the ablest writers on
every subject Printed from new type, and illustrated with Several Thousand
Engravings and Maps. This work is sold to Subscribers only. It will be com-
pleted in sixteen large octavo volumes, each containing about 800 pages.
PniCT.TER You. :— Extra Clofh, $5. Library Leather, %^. Half Turkey Morocco, V%.
Half liusHia, extra gilt, |8. Full Morocco, antique. Gilt edget, $10. Full Russia, $10.
First-class Canvassing Agents Wanted. Address the Publishers,
D. APPLETON k CO., 549 & ool Broadway, New York.
Illustrated Milling and Mechanical News
Exclusively Devoted to Milling and Mechanical Topics.
Handsomely Printed, Profusely Illustrated, Full of Practical Information.
Millers say " They cannot do without it. "
C^ONLY FIFTY CENTS A YEAR..^
For sample copy (sent free) or for advertising rates, address the publishers.
JAMES LEFFEL & Co.. SpRrsoFiELD. Ohio.
32t
STEPHENS PATENT
COMBINATION RULE.
It is a 12-inch Rule, a SQUARE, LEVEL, SLOPE LEVEL, PLUMB,
BEVEL, T-SQUARE, dtc, &c.
The Blade gives the Degeee of Angles, and also the pitch to the foot.
CARPENTERS, JOINERS, SHIP-BUILDERS, i:)RAUGHTSMEN, EN-
GINEERS, SURVEYORS, PLUMBERS and MINERS find it very useful.
It is beautifully made and accurately graduated, and warranted in every
particular.
"By the use of one of these a builder, mason, carpenter or other worknuu, can
always have in his pocket the most valuable of his apparatus used in construction,
combined in a portable, useful, and cheap form " -From the Scientific American.
We are extensive manufacturers of
BOX-AA^OOD and IVORY RULES,
And would not hazard our reputation by advertising a mechanic's tool which
is not just what we represent.
Send for Book of Explanation and Terms.
STEPHENS & GO., Riverton,
fLitchfield Co.,) Conn.
BELT'S PATENT SHEET IRON
ROOFING.
CHEAPEST and BEST IRON ROOFING MADE
This roofing having received, by practical test, the unqualified indornement.
and approbation of all who have used it, for its ease and simpUcity of appli-
cation, by any ordinary mechanic or laboring man, embracing an extent of
territory in its adoption almost imparalleled in the history of any Metal Roof
ever placed before the pubUc. Combining in its superiority of merit and
worth, CHEAPNESS and durability, with all the desired qualities of a
FIRE, ^VATER AND WIND-PROOF ROOFING,
Resisting and withstanding perfectly harmless, its test in the frigid regions of
Minnesota and Northern Michigan, the windy passes of the Rocky Mountains,
the torrid /one of Southern Texas, and many seaboard States, East and South,
and in every Western State, between Lake Huron and the Gulf of Mexico,
making an array of practical and testimonial merit, that must carry confidence
and conviction to the minds of aU, as to its superiority and worth. Highly
commending itself to the attention and examination of all interested, and de-
siring a superior roofing. For circulars, references and other information
Address
W. S. BELT, Patentee and Manufacturer,
Nos. 56 & 58 E. Thibd St., CINCINNATI, O-
328
Bookwalter Engine.
LOOK AT THESE PBICES
— MANUFACTURED BY-
JAMES LEFFEL & CO., Springfield, Ohio.
LKFPEL^S DOUBLE TURBINE WATliR WHEEL. 329
James Leffel's Improved Double Turbine
W^ater Wheel.
There is perhaps no surer evidence of practical merit than
success long established and widely extended, and based
upon repeated trial upon the most exacting conditions. An
invention of but little real utility may obtain a temporary
reputation by means of shrewd management in bringing it
before the public ; but its deficiencies will inevitably come
to light, and a final verdict will be pronounced upon it in
accordance with the facts. Cases in point are of almost
daily occurrence, in which a transient popularity is gained
by a device which will not endure the test of experience,
and which speedily disappears from the market. It is
therefore hardly too much to say that the fact that some
seven thousand of the James Lefi'el Double Turbine water
wheel are now in successful operation, under heads varying
from 1^ to 240 feet, and that the demand for them is larger
to-day than at any previous period, constitutes the strongest
possible evidence that it is what it is claimed to be by its
inventor and manufacturers — the most perfect water wheel
ever off'ered for sale.
HOW THE WHEEL HAS BEEN BROUGHT TO PERFECTION.
No machine, however simple, durable and perfect in
appearance, will in every respect prove satisfactory, when
first put into operation ; many parts will require perhaps a
change of form, strengthening, or may be an entirely
difi'erent arrangement, upon application to the work to be
performed, and a trial of two or three years. In fact it
requires years of diligent study and practical experience,
41
JAMES LEFFEL'S
Improved Double Turbine Water Wheel
leffel's double turbine water wheel. 331
particularly with a water wheel, to so perfect all of its
parts, as to make it successful under all circumstances, even
though it be sound and practical in principle ; of course
many of them never can, by any amount of labor or
attempted improvement, be made to operate all species of
machinery, and must always remain but little better than
worthless. To the general principle first stated, the Leffel
Double Turbine has perhaps been no exception ; during its
introduction for the first four or five years, many of them
were, no doubt, imperfect and not so durably made, as all
newly introduced machinery is necessarily. Yet it has been
our constant aim and design, to study and know its faults,
which so large an experience with it would enable us to
discover, and to the proper remedies and improvements we
have directed our attention with the most gratifying results.
A number of parts have been strengthened, others changed,
and some added, all of which we could point out and de-
scribe, stating the object, purpose, &c., if we thought it
desirable. Among the most noticeable modifications and
additions made, (some of which are patented) are the im-
proved link for operating the gates ; the process for lining
the iron plates with brass or any anti-corrosive metal (ap-
plied only when specially ordered) ; the combmation of
the toothed segment with the gate-arm in such a manner that
the segment can be removed when the teeth become worn,
and a new one supplied ; the spherical iron penstock ; and
the improved method of casting solidly in one piece both
wheels, by means of which the edge of the diaphragm can
be made much thinner and yet stronger, assisting also to
separate more perfectly the due proportion of water to
each wheel. Half the buckets being made of good boiler
iron, and the fillets retaining them being improved both in
form and strength, it is impossible to break or tear out any
of them ; as a result of which, out of the last 4,000 wheels
put into operation not one has lost a single bucket. One
set of buckets can easily be bolted or riveted to the wheel
flange, if it were considered advisable. All such buckets
are, however, liable to frequent derangement, by working
loose and striking the inside of casing and end of guides
often dropping entirely loose and breaking others; subject-
ing the parties to the expense and inconvenience of taking
the wheel from the casing to replace the broken ones. We
prefer and recommend only those cast solidly into the
wheel, thus enabling them to withstand the shock of blocks,
stones and other rubbish to which they are so often sub-
jected, and avoiding also the annoyance of removing the
wheel from casing. Practically, the wheel itself is perfect.
In fact the durability of the entire wheel and casing is such
that the entire amount of repairs called for at all the
shops of the firm, per annum, is covered by a sum so
extremely small, in view of the fact that about 7,000 wheels
are in operation, as to be scarcely worth estimate. The
firm have within the last two years so arranged and syste-
matized the process of manufacture that if any part is
accidentally broken it can at once be duplicated, another
being supplied by express on receipt of the necessary
information. In short, the Leffel Improved Double Turbine
has kept pace, from its first introduction, with the most
advanced developments of mechanical science ; and for any
purpose for which the power of water is employed, it may
be safely guaranteed as having no equal in utility, economy
and durability.
DOUBLE WHEELS.
An idea exists to a considerable extent, that water wheels
may be so constructed, with two or more sets of buckets,
in such a manner that each set of buckets may form a
separate wheel, and that the water maybe received first by
one set of buckets, or one wheel, and after passing from
the first, then to operate on a second arrangement of buckets^
or wheel, and so on with as many sets or wheels as there
may be, or until the last one is passed or operated upon ;
thus in their opinion, obtaining a much greater percentage
of the power of water, than is ordinarily utilized by the
use of well constructed wheels of other kinds. , In fact a
much greater power is often claimed for them than can
possibly exist in the quantity of water used. Again, there
is another class of wheels claiming to be double wheels,
leffel's double turbine water wheel. 333
which are in reality and principle, but single wheels ; their
builders believing by such representation that the reputa-
tion and popularity of our wheel, (so celebrated for its
truly double character) may thus directly benefit them.
A single wheel, either a central or vertical discharge wheel,
is commonly used, with a partition through the middle of
the tier of buckets, thus only dividing the wheel, without
in the least changing the action of the water on the buckets
on either side of the partition or division, and without any
modification of the principle of construction.
The Lefi'el Double Turbine should not be confounded
with either of these classes of wheels, as it is constructed,
and acts, upon entirely and essentially difi"erent principles,
which are peculiarly characteristic of it as a water wheel.
There is in it a combination of two independent sets and
kinds of buckets, one a vertical, the other a central dis-
charge, each entirely different in its principle of action
upon the water, yet each wheel or series of buckets receiv-
ing its water from the same set of guides at the same
time ; but the water is acted upon but once, since half of
the water admitted by the guides passes to one wheel, and
the other half of the water to the other wheel ; the water
leaving both wheels or sets of buckets at the same time and
as quickly as possible. These two sets of buckets are so
combined as to make really but one wheel ; that is both are
cast in one piece and placed upon the same shaft. By this
arrangement there is admitted the greatest possible volume
of water, consistent with its economical use, to a wheel of
any given size, and at the same time the greatest area for
the escape of water is secured. The surface in the wheel
is thus reduced to minimum as compared with the quantity
of water used, avoiding a very material loss by friction,
which otherwise seriously diminishes the working power of
a wheel. The value of this arrangement will be fully ap-
preciated by those who who understand the practical effect
of the frictional surface in a water wheel.
JAMES LEFFEL & CO.
Springfield, Ohio.
334 leffel's improved patent globe casino.
Leffel's Improved Patent Globe Casing,
The plate on page 335 represents our New and Improved
Patent Globe cast iron Penstock, or Casing, which we are
making, and in which many of our wheels are now placed.
The form being that of a Globe or Sphere, it at once secures
the greatest strength, with the least weight, and at the
same time affords the largest space for the water to circu-
late above and around the wheel ; while it also admits of
the smallest exterior dimensions, and therefore occupies
less space, than any other form or shape that can be
adopted. As none of the parts are subject to wear or
breakage, it never requires replacing, and of course its
durability is beyond question.
It is, as the plate represents, two hemispheres bolted
together, thus enabling it to be easily taken apart, if at any
time it should become necessary. There is a movable cap
or cover, 0, bolted on the top of the casing, which can at
any time be removed, (when the head of water is not
standing in the case) and the wheel lifted bodily out of the
casing, the opening in the top of same being amply large
for that purpose, though it is seldom necessary to remove
the wheel from any cause. There are two large man-holes
on the sides, also a hand-hole B on the top cover, through
which any obstruction can be removed, that may by care-
lessness or accident get into the casing ; through these holes
the wheel can also at any time be examined. On the top
of cap C is bolted firmly a bridge-tree, carrying a good,
broad oil bearing, for the support of the upper end of the
water wheel shaft, to which a clutch coupling D is at-
tached, immediately above said bridge-tree. In the cover
or cap are arranged neat, snug and tight stuflSng boxes
through which the gate rod. A, and water wheel shafts
pass, and by which any water is prevented from discharg-
ing ; they are supplied with tightening bolts by which they
LEFFEL'S IMPROVED
PATENT GLOBE CASING
LEE'FEL^S IMPROVED PATfeNT GLOBE CASING.
can be tightened down, should the packing at any time
become worn or loose. In fact, the whole affair, when well
set and arranged, is perfectly water tight, not leaking a
drop, and could be located upon a floor near to any of the
machinery if desired.
They cannot be frozen up, since the iron is thick, and the
circulation of water always sufficient to prevent freezing.
A short tube or cylinder is attached to the bottom, which is
intended to be slightly submerged under standing tail
water ; it has a flange with its face turned and with bolt
holes, to which an iron draft tube can be attached, and by
a little care a perfectly air-tight joint can be made ; in cases
where such draft tube is used of course the entire casing
can be set higher, and sometimes in a more convenient
location.
We cannot say too much in praise of this casing, particu-
larly for high falls ; being made strong and water tight it
will always remain so. It has been fully tried and tested
under almost every circumstance, and has proven in the
highest degree satisfactory ; some of them are under heads
from 80 to 240 feet, and stand the tremendous pressure
admirably. In fact almost all of our small wheels up to 20
inches diameter are now ordered by our customers to be
encased in this manner, such has been the satisfaction they
have given. Of course it is not absolutely necessary to
use it, except in particular instances, where a want of space
or other circumstances would prevent the erection or use
of a wood flume or box in which to place the wheel; but at
any time and under almost any condition it is preferable
and makes a number one arrangement, especially in any
case whatsoever where the power is taken off' below the
level of head water. But its greatest convenience is in
locating wheels under mills, and in other difficult places,
where posts, foundations, walls, &c., cannot be removed ;
such difficulties being obviated by the compactness of its
form, and the ease with which it can be connected to the
head water by a pipe of suitable size.
JAMES LEFFEL & CO.
Springfield, Ohio.
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
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Leffel. J.J
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PHYSICAL
SCiENCES
LIBRARY
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LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS
169447
3 1175 00660 2836
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW
BOOKS REQUESTED BY ANOTHER BORROWER
ARE SUBJECT TO RECALL AFTER ONE WEEK.
RENEWED BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO
IMMEDIATE RECALL
O
JUN 1 1990 C
RECEIVED
LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS
Book Slip-Series 458
DEPARTMENT BOOK CARD
I69hli7
Leffel. J>^
Hajn.q^
& C0»
Construction of mill
TCgliO
Ih
PHYSICAL
SCIENCES
LIBRARY
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
* DAVIS
169447
3 1175 00660 2836