m 3i f , HOW TO ATTRACT AND HOLD AN AUDIENCE A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE NATURE, PREPARATION, AND DELIVERY OF PUBLIC DISCOURSE BY J. BERG ESENWEIN, A.M., Lrr.D. PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE PENNSYLVANIA MILITARY COLLEGE HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-6-12-13-14 COOPER INSTITUTE NEW YORK CITY COPYRIGHT, 1902, BY J. BERG ESENWEIN. GENERAL TO MY STUDENTS WHO MORE THAN ALL OTHERS HAVE BEEN MY INSTRUCTORS * THIS VOLUME IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED 97524 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE FOREWORD xiii PART I THE THEORY OF SPOKEN DISCOURSE CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF PUBLIC SPEECH 1. Thought .......... 3 2. Emotion 4 3. Will 4 CHAPTER II T- THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 1. Description 6 (a) Viewpoint 7 \b) Outline 7 (c) Pruning 7 (d) Characterization 7 (e) Order . * 7 (/") Summary 7 2. Narration 8 (a) Preview 8 () Subordination of Details 8 (c) Application 8 (d) Movement 8 3. Exposition 9 (a) Definition 9 (b) Classification 9 (c) Division 9 (d) Generalization 9 Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE 4. Argumentation 10 BUILDING UP AN ARGUMENT (a) Getting at Facts 1 1 (1) By Intuition 12 (2) By Observation 12 (3) By Testimony 12 (4) By Authority 12 (b) Drawing Conclusions from Facts Induction . 12 (1) Cause to Effect 12 (2) Effect to Cause 13 (3) Circumstantial Evidence . . . -13 (4) From Experience 15 (5) From Analogy . . . . . 15 (c) Inferring Facts from General Principles Deduc- tion 16 (1) The Syllogism 16 (2) The Syllogism contracted . . . .17 (3) The Syllogism enlarged 18 (4) The Syllogism in Series . . . . 19 (d) Joint Inductive-Deductive Method . . . .21 BREAKING DOWN AN ARGUMENT (a) Simple Rebuttal 22 (b) Affirmative Reasoning 22 (c) Elimination of Untenable Grounds .... 22 (1) Reducing to an Absurdity . . . .22 (2) Dilemma 23 (3) Elimination 24 (d) Detection of Fallacies 25 (1) False Conclusion 25 (2) Ambiguity 26 (3) Begging the Question 27 (4) Reasoning in a Circle ..... 27 (5) Imperfect Enumeration ..... 28 TABLE OF CONTENTS vil PAGE 5. Persuasion 28 (a) Address to the Intellect 29 (b) Appeal to the Emotions 29 (c) Appeal to the Will 32 6. Summary 33 CHAPTER III THE KINDS OF PUBLIC DISCOURSE 1 . Impromptu Speeches 34 2. Extemporaneous Addresses 35 3. Declamations 35 4. Orations 36 CHAPTER IV THE KINDS OF ORATORY 1. Forensic 40 2. Deliberative 40 3. Sacred 41 4. Demonstrative . . . . . . . . .41 (a) Occasional . 42 (1) Anniversary 42 (2) Dedicatory 42 (3) Commemorative 42 (b) Eulogy and Invective 42 (c) Popular 43 CHAPTER V ELOQUENCE 44 PART II PREPARATION OF THE DISCOURSE CHAPTER VI ORIGINALITY 1. The Test of Originality 51 2. The Sources of Originality 53 (a) Observation of Nature 53 (b) Consecutive Thinking 55 (c) Companionship with Great Thoughts . . 56 (d) Individuality 56 Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER VII THE SUBJECT PAGE 1. What is Due the Occasion 58 2. What is Due the Subject 59 3. What is Due the Speaker 60 CHAPTER VIII THE TITLE 1 . An Attractive Title 62 2. A Truthful Title 63 3. A Descriptive Title 63 CHAPTER IX THE MATERIALS 1 . Relation to the Subject 65 2. Subordination to Subject 67 3. Organization around the Subject 68 (a) Reflection 68 (b) Observation 68 (c) Reading 68 4. Management of Notes 69 CHAPTER X THE WRITING 1. The Working Outline 72 2. The First Writing 74 3. The Final Revision 75 CHAPTER XI THE GRAND DIVISIONS OF THE DISCOURSE 1 . The Introduction 76 2. The Statement 79 3. The Discussion 81 4. TJte Peroration 81 5. The Entire Discourse 84 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix CHAPTER XII How TO ACQUIRE AN ORATORICAL VOCABULARY PAGE 1 . Study of Oratorical Models 86 2. The Dictionary Habit 86 3. Synonyms and Antonyms ....... 87 4. Conversations on Words 90 5. Translating Languages 91 6. Study of Etymologv 91 7. Broad Usage 91 CHAPTER XIII STYLE IN PUBLIC DISCOURSE 1. Personality 93 2. Freedom 97 3 . Determining Conditions 99 CHAPTER XIV DIGEST OF RHETORICAL RULES 1. Diction loo (a) Pure Words 100 (b) Proper Words 100 (c) Precise Words 101 2. Sentences 101 Kinds 101 3. Essential Properties of Style 102 (a) Grammatical Correctness 102 (b) Clearness 102 (*) Unity ... 103 4. Special Properties of Style 104 (a) Emphasis 104 (b) Force 104 (c) Harmony 105 (d) Vitality 105 (e) Figures of Speech 105 5. Variety of Expression How secured . . . .106 6. The Thought Divisions 107 7. The Whole Discourse . . . .108 X TABLE OF CONTENTS PART III PREPARATION OF THE SPEAKER CHAPTER XV MENTAL PREPARATION FAGS 1 . Gripping the Discourse 112 2. Conserving Energy 114 CHAPTER XVI PREPARATION FOR EXPRESSION BY VOICE 1. Hygiene 118 2. Breathing. 118 3. Elements of Expression . . . .. . . .118 (a) Quality 118 () Force 118 (c) Pitch 119 (d) Time 120 (e) Pause 121 (f) Emphasis 121 (g) Control 121 4. Pronunciation 122 (a) Articulation 124 (b) Accentuation 126 (c) Enunciation .127 CHAPTER XVII PREPARATION FOR EXPRESSION BY ACTION 1. Carriage 131 2. The Head and Face 132 3. Gesture . . 133 CHAPTER XVIII PREPARATION BY DRILL 1. General Suggestions 139 2. The Will in Rehearsal 140 3. Self-Criticism I4 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi PART IV DELIVERY PAGE CHAPTER XIX HELPS AND HINDRANCES IN THE AUDIENCE 149 CHAPTER XX FACING THE AUDIENCE 1. Just before Speaking 154 2. The First Moments of Delivery 155 3. The Course of Delivery 157 4. Ending the Discourse 160 CHAPTER XXI Do's AND DoNVs FOR DISCOURSE . 162 APPENDICES APPENDIX A 171 Outlines of Orations. APPENDIX B 186 Model Orations for Analysis and for Declamation. APPENDIX C 24^ One Hundred Subjects for Orations, with Brief Hints for ^ Treatment. APPENDIX D 259 One Hundred Subjects for Orations. INDEX 263 FOREWORD THIS treatise aims to be suggestive, not exhaustive; practical, not theoretical ; popular, not technical. With all this, it is believed that nothing essential to the public speaker in his effort to attract and hold an audience has been omitted or slighted. Fifteen years of experi- ence have persuaded the author that, since compara- tively few speakers have had opportunity to take a course in public speaking, such hints and helps as are here offered may find a welcome. The methods of the elocutionary manual have been discarded. Common- sense is a better substitute. The expositions and expla- nations are designed to be plain and straight-forward, assisting the speaker to find the way to the hearts of his audience. The clearly marked divisions of the volume should add materially to its value as a text-book. The horta- tory style here and there adopted is neither unusual nor unwarranted. The pupil as well as the teacher often needs a tonic. While its class-room use has been kept in mind, it is hoped that instructors will see the value XIV FOREWORD of placing in the hand of the pupil a brief, lucid manual which will greatly lighten the burden of personal drill. The instructor will augment its value by indicating to the pupil such passages as he should study unassisted. It is believed that the Appendices will add greatly to the suggestive and pedagogical value of the treatise. J. B. E. PENNSYLVANIA MILITARY COLLEGE, CHESTER, PENNSYLVANIA, January 5, 1902. PART I THE THEORY OF SPOKEN DISCOURSE Thought once awakened does not again slumber. CARLYLE, Heroes and Hero Worship. If, then, a comprehensive definition of an orator were to be given, I would say that the speaker who justly claims this respect- able name is he who, upon all subjects, shall be able to deliver his sentiments with accuracy, clearness, grace, and fluency, accom- panied with a certain dignity of action. By an orator I meant one who treated every subject which he wished to discuss, with a force and splendor of language that commanded admiration ; one whose faculties comprehended all the treasures of knowledge which can enrich or inspire eloquence. Though this seems impracticable to us, ... yet still it must be allowed to be within the compass of actual attainment. CICERO, De Oratore. HOW TO ATTRACT AND HOLD AN AUDIENCE PART I THE THEORY OF SPOKEN DISCOURSE CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF PUBLIC SPEECH Thoughts that breathe and words that burn. GRAY, Progress of Poesy. Men speak to communicate ideas. All speech seeks to convey to the hearer a mental picture of that which is in the mind of the speaker thought is alike its foundation and its completed result. Thus it is evident that public speech, whether intended to arouse, pacify, please, amuse, convince, or instruct, is always i. A Thought Instrument As such it must always be viewed in the light of the laws of thought. It is of primary importance, then, for us to examine the thought of every public discourse, since that is its chief characteristic. A full discussion of this part of our subject would involve the science 3 4 THE NATURE OF PUBLIC SPEECH and art of reasoning, called Logic; while to Rhetoric belongs the thorough treatment of the literary forms in which discourse is cast. 1 A second element of public speech is 2. Emotion Thought is colored by emotion, yet we must not con- fuse the one with the other. For example, a speaker purposes to denounce a public malefactor. The material which makes up the charges, and the facts adduced to support them, constitute the thought of the address ; but the indignation, the passionate invective or appeal, of the speaker, communicated by him to his audience, indicate the emotion. How serious, then, is the impor- tance of harmonizing your feeling with your thought when speaking before an audience, and this as much for the purpose of restraining undue excitement as in order to prevent a dull and monotonous presentation of the thought. A third, though less apparent, element of public speech is 3. The Will Various other names have been given to this element, but the last analysis shows all these to mean the same thing. The will it is that gives personality and con- vincing power to the address. Without it " thoughts " will not "breathe," and "words" will not "burn." 1 See pp. 100-108. THE NATURE OF PUBLIC SPEECH 5 Unless the will cooperate with both thought and feel- ing, the audience will master the speaker instead of the speaker his audience. The former is failure; the latter, success. In a large sense, speech is the man. Given a mes- sage, personality makes the speaker, 1 not one, not two, but all of these phases of his three-fold individuality must come into play before the speaker can transform spectators into auditors. The mastery of self in thought, in feeling, and in will is essential to mastering an audience ; and your business before an audience, after having first made your subject- matter a vital part of yourself, is to throw all the weight of your thought, feeling, and will upon your hearers, so as to reproduce in them your own state of mind. And this is true whether your theme be comic or tragic, per- suasive or argumentative, descriptive or didactic. Never for one moment accept any other standard than that public speech rises in public respect and is truly success- ful in direct proportion as it reproduces in his hearers the spirit of the speaker. Think this deeply into your consciousness. 1 See p. 93. CHAPTER II THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE She hath prosperous art When she will play with reason and discourse, And well she can persuade. SHAKESPEARE, Measure for Measure, Act I. Scene 2. Rhetoricians recognize five forms of discourse, 1 whether spoken or written : Description, 2 Narration, Exposition, Argumentation, 3 and Persuasion. The last two are sometimes regarded s one. While these titles are rdally definitive, a somewhat closer examination into their nature and scope is neces- sary. 4 I . Description "Description is the portrayal of concrete objects, material or spiritual, by means of language," says Genung. Each word of this admirably explicit defini- tion is significant, and separately is worthy of the student's notice. 1 For full discussion see Working Principles of Rhetoric, Genung, pp. 475-662. 2 See Highways of Literature, Pryde, pp. 152, 153. 3 See Principles of Argumentation, Baker. * Some practical hints on the rhetorical use of the Forms of Discourse are offered in Chapter XIV. 6 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE In order to accurate, vivid, and attractive description, six things are necessary. (a) Establish a point of view and maintain it. Do this so consistently that your hearers must understand and adopt your attitude toward the object or idea de- scribed. This may be compared to establishing a scale of inches to miles in map drawing. (b) Briefly and comprehensively outline the whole scene before describing it in detail. A vivid initial survey will give tone and spirit to the entire portrayal. (c) Relentlessly cut out all ideas and words not neces- sary to produce the effect you desire. Details in a mental picture either help or hinder. Be sure they do not hinder, for they cannot be passively present in any discourse. (d) Give vivid prominence to important characteristics. -That is, to those things which give an object its indi- viduality, and so distinguish it from all different objects. Learn a lesson from the poster-artist. (e) Follow a natural, logical, and climactic order in description. One feature introduced out of its order will distort the picture you are painting for your audi- ence. Hold things in proportion. (f ) Make a powerful and effective summary in present- ing the general view at the close of the portrayal. First and final impressions remain the longest. The mind may be trained to take in the characteristic points of a subject, so as to view in a single scene, action, experi- ence, or character, a unified impression of the whole. 8 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE It is necessary to gain this " bird's-eye view" before you can select fitting words wherewith to portray your subject effectively. In other words, a clear and sharply outlined picture of what you wish to describe must be in your mind's eye before you can transfer it to your auditors. This clear, unified mental picture often suggests a striking epithet or a figure of speech, and hence effec- tive speakers often employ epithets and figures in de- scription. 2. Narration The recounting of the particulars of an event, or of a series of events, in the order of occurrence, is called narration. Sometimes this order is changed with the purpose of making a more powerful impression upon the hearer. Narration is closely related to description, each frequently being made auxiliary to the other. (a) Be sure you see the end from the beginning. This is fundamental to all narration. (b) Subordinate the minor to the major points of inter- est. (c) Keep the application of the narration in mind. Particularly must this be observed if the narrative is used as an illustration, else the story may defeat its own end by absorbing all the interest, leaving the motive for its introduction uncertain. (d) Narration must preserve its forward movement at all hazards. Digressions are fatal. Narration deals THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 9 with events, and when these lag, failing to follow each other with variety, interest, and surprise, or when the "point" is revealed too soon, a dispiriting anti-climax results and the hearer loses interest. 3. Exposition This may be defined as the clear and simple setting forth of what a thing really is. It does not deal with reasons or with arguments, but confines itself to inquir- ies as to what things mean, as to how they differ from other things, and as to questions of fact. For the purposes of this treatise it is enough to note the four lines along which exposition may proceed. (a) By definition, exposition attempts so to outline a subject as to distinguish it from all objects not bear- ing the same name. This process of discrimination, of showing just how the subject of definition differs from other subjects with which it might be confused, is fun- damental to effective discourse. (b) By classification, exposition seeks to place the subject in the class, order, genus, and species in which it belongs. This process is synthetic. (c) By division, which is classification reversed, exposi- tion so divides the subject as to bring clearly to view its parts, severally as well as in relation. This process is analytic. (d) By generalization, exposition attempts to make a broad, general statement of the subject so as to present it in a single view. IO THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE When illustration by example is used according to the laws of narration, it becomes an efficient aid to exposi- tion. It should be remembered that illustration is not argument, though argument often appeals to examples to support its contention. To master the process of exposition is to become a clear thinker. "I know, when you do not ask me," 1 replied a gentleman upon being requested to define a highly complex idea. Now some ideas defy explicit definition ; but no mind should take refuge behind such exceptions, for where definition fails, other forms suc- ceed. Sometimes we feel confident that we have per- fect mastery of an idea, but when the time comes to express it, the clearness becomes a haze. Exposition, then, is the test of clear understanding. To speak effectively you must be able to see your subject clearly and comprehensively, and to make your audieace see it as you do. It is the basis of all sound argumentation. 4. Argumentation This we define as the process of producing pure con- viction. For the accomplishment of this end argumen- tation proceeds according to the laws of Logic defined by McCosh as " the science of the laws of discursive thought " ; 2 and by Whately as "the science, and also the art, of reasoning." 3 1 Working Principles of Rhetoric, Genung, p. 561. 2 Logic, p. I. 3 Logic, p. I. THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE II The very name " logic " has to many an awful sound they covet its power, but are frightened by its sup- posed intricacies. In point of fact, nothing is simpler than common-sense reasoning. A host of hair-splitting processes and learned terms are doubtless valuable to the specialist ; but for the orator's purpose and let it be remembered that for his uses alone these thoughts are presented an acquaintance with a few simple forms of reasoning is all that is necessary. The logic of common sense " is modest, plain, and unsophisticated. It sees with everybody's eyes, and hears with every- body's ears. It has no capricious distinctions, no per- plexities, and no mysteries. It never equivocates, and never trifles. Its language is always intelligible. It is known by clearness of speech and singleness of purpose." 1 There are two main ways of handling argumentation : first, building up an argument; second, tearing down an argument. BUILDING UP AN ARGUMENT (a) Getting at facts. This process of investigation is closely allied to exposition, upon which, as we have just seen, argumentation depends for its clearness and its accuracy. There are four ways of getting at the facts necessary to an argument. 1 Public Speaking and Debate, Holyoake, p. 15. 12 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE (1) By intuition. For example, you intuitively know that you are yourself, and not somebody else. It needs neither observation, testimony, nor argument to con- vince you of this ; it is one of the earliest facts of your consciousness. (2) By personal observation or investigation. (3) By the testimony of trustworthy witnesses. (4) By appeal to competent authorities. (b) Drawing conclusions from facts. This process is called induction. By it facts are not only gathered, but also put together in such a manner as to produce in the mind a belief concerningjthose facts. The methods of induction employed by Dr. A. Conan Doyle's inimitable Sherlock Holmes are capital examples of this style of reasoning. Holmes always secured as many well- attested facts as he could, then inferred other probable facts, and from them all constructed a working theory. To this theory (the logicians would call it an hypothe- sis) he clung until the discovery of additional data proved or disproved the correctness of his supposition. This idea of forming an hypothesis, a shrewd guess, a working theory, is at the basis of all induction. Bear in mind that an earnest inquirer is always ask- ing the meaning of things about him. How may he draw conclusions, or infer explanations, from the facts he possesses ? There are several simple ways. (i) He may argue from a known cause to its probable effect. This method the logicians call arguing a priori. For THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 13 instance, when a prosecuting attorney clearly proves that there existed in the mind of a man charged with murder, a motive sufficiently strong to induce him to commit the crime, a strong inference against the ac- cused has been established. (2) He may argue from a known effect back to its probable cause. This process the logicians term arguing a posteriori. For example, an orator who wishes to prove that the liquor traffic is an evil may simply point to its effects. The argument a posteriori judges a tree by its fruits. Genung has thus summarized the legal tests for these two forms of induction : " Concerning any argument involving cause and ef- fect, three facts must be established, by way of test, before it can be regarded as conclusive. It must be shown : That an actual cause exists ; That it is sufficient to produce the effect contemplated ; That opposing circumstances or probabilities are not sufficient to hinder its working." 1 (3) He may draw a conclusion to which circumstances strongly point. When surroundings strongly indicate a fact, and yet there is no positive corroborative testimony, such indica- tions are called circumstantial evidence. It is plain that indications cannot compare with posi- 1 Working Principles of Rhetoric, Genung, p. 610. 14 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE tive facts as weighty evidence ; but when the signs are many and pointed, the argument becomes powerful. As an instance, the circumstances point to Sir Philip Francis as the probable author of The Letters ofjunius, but the evidence is not strong enough to establish his alleged authorship as a fact. The prosecuting attorney uses circumstances to argue a conclusion in the following manner, whether he puts it in such definite form or not : The murderer frequently carries blood stains on his clothes ; The accused has such stains upon his clothes ; Inference : The accused is the murderer. The murderer must have been in the neighborhood at the time of the murder ; The accused was seen in the neighborhood both before and after the time of the murder; Inference : The accused is the murderer. The murderer must have walked through red clay to reach the barn where the victim was murdered ; The accused had lumps of red clay upon his boots ; Inference : The accused is the murderer. Examples might be multiplied indefinitely. It is sufficient to observe that when inferences of this kind are supported by others, the result is called cumulative evidence, and may produce moral certainty, even when no direct testimony can be secured. THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 1$ (4) He may forecast a future happening, or justify a course of conduct, from past experiences. As an example take the statement that those who have taken foolish risks have generally met disaster. The irresistible inference is against taking foolish risks. This kind of induction is most frequently used in urging moral considerations and in exhorting to certain courses of conduct. One of its forms is known to logicians as argument a fortiori. Thomas Jefferson used it thus effectively : " Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the government of himself. Can he, then, be trusted with the goverment of others ? " Other excellent examples are to be found in several of Christ's sermons. " If a son shall ask bread of any of you that is a father, will he give him a stone ? Or if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give him a serpent? Or if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion ? If ye then, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your children, how much more shall your heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to them that ask him ? " 1 " If then God so clothe the grass which is to-day in the field, and to-morrow is cast into the oven ; how much more will he clothe you, O ye of little faith ? " 2 (5) He may argue from analogy. That is, he may draw a parallel between two facts or sets of facts, and argue that because there are admitted points of 1 St. Luke xi. 11-13. 2 St - Luke xii - 28< 1 6 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE likeness, other similarities probably exist. Analogy can never produce certainty ; but at best only probability. Even that probability is destroyed when things not alike are assumed to be similar. A fine example of its most discriminating use is Professor Henry Drum- mond's treatise, Natural Law in the Spiritual World. The whole course of argument is from analogy. Modern thinkers agree that the chief value of analogy is for purposes of illustration. (c) Inferring facts from general principles. This process, known as deduction, is the exact opposite of inductive argument. Induction, as we have seen, con- siders separate facts, unites them, and draws from them a conclusion or general principle. Deduction begins with a general, admitted truth and infers from it the facts upon which the truth, the principle, depends. We also saw that a working theory or hypothesis is the basis of induction ; but the basis of all deductive reasoning is (i) the syllogism. It is more simple than might be inferred from the statement that it cannot be satisfactorily defined in few words. We may, however, discover its character by examining its structure. SYLLOGISM MAJOR PREMISE : All men must die. MINOR PREMISE : John is a man. CONCLUSION : Therefore, John must die. It will be seen at once that the major premise makes a general statement which it declares to be a truth THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE \J covering all cases "All men must die." The minor premise makes a particular statement " John is a man " which covers one case plainly included in the general class of the major premise "All men." Since what is affirmed of a class is true of every mem- ber of that class, the conclusion follows, "John must die." It is evident that the mind seldom reasons thus form- ally and consciously. Yet this is "the inner frame- work of every argument that is founded on a general truth." In everyday language the orator might express the syllogism in this contracted form : " Since all men must die, it is evident that John can look forward to no different fate." Now it is self-evident that "John is a man," so the orator would omit stating this as a minor premise. When either the major or the minor premise is so self-evident that one of them may be omitted, the contracted form (as above) is called the (2) syllogism in enthymeme. This is peculiarly the argument of the orator. Jesus Christ, who spoke " as never man spake," frequently employed this contracted syllogistic form. The Beatitudes, recorded in the fifth chapter of St. Matthew, are beautiful examples. Expand the declaration, " Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy," and you have this syllogism : MAJOR PREMISE : They who obtain mercy are blessed. ' A MINOR PREMISE : The merciful obtain mercy. ^ CONCLUSION : Therefore, the merciful are blessed. fy 1 8 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE Care must be exercised in constructing the syllogism in enthymeme. The danger lies in assuming that the omitted premise is self-evident, often it is obvious to only the speaker, and thus the argument is to the hearer no argument at all. 1 Clearly, it is most important that the premises should be strictly true if we wish the conclusion to be sound. Many orators recognize this by first publicly demonstrat- ing the truth of either one or both of their premises before asserting the conclusion. This is called the (3) syllogism in enlargement. It may extend through one paragraph or through many. Sometimes it is made the framework for an entire discourse. Any absurdity may be proven by admitting a false premise as true. Take, for example, Shakespeare's famous line : MAJOR PREMISE: " All that glitters is not gold." 2 MINOR PREMISE: Gold glitters. CONCLUSION : Therefore gold is not gold... If the dramatist had said : Not all that glitters is gold, the major premise would have been correct, and no false conclusion could have been drawn therefrom. 1 The specimens of inductive argument given on pp. 14, 15, differ from the contracted syllogism (the syllogism in enthymeme) in the fact that the reason given as the basis of the induction is not a ground of proof, but a mere indication ; in the syllogism the premise is part of the proof of the conclusion. See Logic, McCosh, pp. 161-163 ; Logic, John Stuart Mill, Book III. Chapter 8. 2 Merchant of Venice, Act II. Scene 6. THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE IQ Sometimes the orator will expand the syllogism into a chain, called sorites. A. The prisoner deliberately administered arsenic to the man who died. B. He who deliberately administers poison with fatal results is guilty of murder in the first degree. C. He who is guilty of murder in the first degree should be executed. D. He who is executed should be executed privately. E. Therefore, the prisoner should be executed privately. It is evident that this chain is a contraction of the following four syllogisms : FIRST SYLLOGISM MAJOR PREMISE (understood): He who administers arsenic admin- isters poison. MINOR PREMISE (A above): The prisoner administered arsenic to the man who died. CONCLUSION : Therefore, the prisoner administered poison to the man who died. SECOND SYLLOGISM MAJOR PREMISE (B above) : He who deliberately administers poison with fatal results is guilty of murder in the first degree. MINOR PREMISE (A above, and conclusion of first syllogism): The prisoner deliberately administered arsenic poison to the man who died. CONCLUSION : Therefore, the prisoner is guilty of murder in the first degree. THIRD SYLLOGISM MAJOR PREMISE (C above): He who is guilty of murder in the first degree should be executed. MINOR PREMISE (conclusion of second syllogism): The prisoner is guilty of murder in the first degree. CONCLUSION : Therefore, the prisoner should be executed. 2O THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE FOURTH SYLLOGISM MAJOR PREMISE (D above): He who is executed should be exe- cuted privately. MINOR PREMISE (conclusion of third syllogism) : The prisoner should be executed. CONCLUSION (E above) : Therefore, the prisoner should be executed privately. A playful contracted example of sorites " is seen when the Thracians let loose a fox on a frozen river to try the ice. Reynard put his ear down and seemed to say, ' Whatever makes a noise moves; what moves is not frozen hard ; that which is not hard is liquid ; liquid will bend under weight ; therefore, if I perceive close to my ear the sound of water, it is not frozen, and the ice is too weak to bear me.' " l The Thracians followed the reasoning of the fox, and did not attempt to cross on the ice. Of course some of Reynard's premises must not be pressed too far. To enter into all the possible variations of the syllo- gism is the work of Particular Logic, and would be useless to the general student. 2 1 Art of Extempore Speaking, Bautain, p. 301. 2 For those who would make further study of the syllogism the follow- ing rules are given: I. In a syllogism there should be only three terms. 2. Of these three only one can be the middle term. 3. One premise must be affirmative. 4. The conclusion must be negative if either premise is negative. 5. To prove a negative, one of the premises must be negative. Summary of Regulating Principles : I. Terms which agree with the same thing agree with each other; and when only one of two terms agrees with a third term, the two terms disagree with each other. II. " Whatever is affirmed of a class may be affirmed of all the members of that class," and " Whatever is denied of a class may be denied of all the members of that class." THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 21 (d) The joint inductive and deductive method. It is enough to say here that no reasoner should confine him- self to a single logical method. Let him learn to use all methods with equal accuracy and facility. BREAKING DOWN AN ARGUMENT The orator frequently finds himself set in opposition to another speaker whose arguments he must either surpass or refute. How to do the one no instruction can tell him ; the process of refutation, however, may be definitely studied. Sometimes, but not always, will it suffice simply to present truth and depend upon its force to demolish the opposite position. Often more aggres- sive measures are needed. Comparatively few hearers who are actively against you can be won over to be your partisans ; much of your effort must be to cause men to get off the fence, and stay off, on your side. Now and then, however, the orator's victory will depend upon winning over a stubbornly adverse auditor. It is related of the great advocate, Rufus Choate, that: " In one jury address of five hours, he hurled his oratorical artillery for three of them at the hard-headed foreman, upon whom all his bolts seemed to be spent in vain. At last the iron countenance relaxed, the strong eyes moistened, and Choate was once more master of the situation." 1 There are four ways to break down an argument, whether it has been definitely stated by an opponent, or 1 Oratory and Orators, Matthews, p. 372. 22 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE you suspect it to exist in the minds of those you wish to convince. All of these methods should be employed, but which of them shall predominate will depend upon your object. (a) The orator may employ simple rebuttal, and meet fact with fact, argument with argument. (b) He may ojfer no arguments in rebuttal, but, dis- regarding the opposite view, simply depend upon the power of Jiis own affirmative reasoning. (c) He may show that no position other than his own can be reasonably held. This third result may be attained by : (i) Reducing the alternative proposition to an ab- surdity (reductio ad absurdum). The speaker proceeds by supposing, for the sake of his argument, that the opposite of his reasoning is cor- rect. This supposition is then followed out logically, until it becomes evident that the assumed position is absurd. There is room here for the play of a biting wit, but the reasoner's position must be well taken if he would not be retorted upon in kind. Example : A man is charged with having written a treasonous article. The defense admits, for the sake of the argument, that the sentiments are treasonous, but shows that every one of them is contained in the Declaration of Independence and in the Constitution of the United States, this is sufficient to prove the ab- surdity of the charge. THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 23 (2) Offering either horn of a dilemma. This method divides the opposite ground into the only two possible positions, and then confutes each by convinc- ing argument. The result is that the reasoner's position is the only one left, and therefore must be adopted. A familiar example is the following : The Roman soldiers declared that while they were sleeping the Dis- ciples came and stole Christ's body from the tomb. Now the soldiers were either asleep or awake. If they were asleep, were they competent to testify that the body was stolen ? Sleeping sentinels deserve death. If they were awake, why did they not oppose the theft ? They made no outcry. Therefore, the testimony of the soldiers is false, and Christ is risen from the dead. There is great danger of false reasoning in employing the dilemma. " If the dilemma is accurate in form, the conclusion follows, and the only way of meeting it is by showing that the alternatives in the premises are not exhaustive that there may be another supposition." 1 The well-known dilemma in Don Quixote is based upon false reasoning. In brief it is this : At one end of a bridge stood a courthouse, at the other a gallows. Every one who sought to cross the bridge was made to answer two questions, under oath, Where are you going? What is your object in going there? If he swore truly, he was permitted to go free. If he swore falsely, he was to be hanged on the gallows at the other end of the bridge. 1 Logic, McCosh, p. 150. 24 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE Now a man came to the courthouse and made oath that he was going to the other end of the bridge, and that his object in going was that he might be hanged. The honest Sancho Panza was in a dilemma : if he hanged the man, he must hang him for telling the truth ; if he made him go free, the man would deserve death for false swearing. A false dilemma may be answered by another. " An Athenian mother said to her son, ' Do not engage in public affairs ; for if you do what is just, men will hate you, and if you do what is unjust, the gods will hate you/ This the son rebutted by the following retort : ' I ought to enter into public affairs; for if I do what is unjust, men will love me, and if I do what is just, the gods will love me.' ' (3) Logical elimination is the third method. This form of reasoning states " all the possible aspects of the question, then proceeds to eliminate, one by one, until only the one tenable aspect is left." l The " Unjust Steward" 2 reasoned by logical elimina- tion when he was called to give an account of his stewardship : " Then said the unjust steward within himself, What shall I do ? for my lord taketh away from me the stewardship : I cannot dig ; to beg I am ashamed. I am resolved what to do," etc. But he failed, as many weak reasoners do, to enumerate all the possible courses of action. 1 Working Principles of Rhetoric, Genung, p. 625. 2 St. Luke xvi. 1-8. THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 25 The fourth method of destructive argument remains : (d) He may point out a fallacy in the opposite position. A fallacy is any error which makes reasoning unsound and inconclusive. A fallacious conclusion is also called a fallacy. Whately includes the idea of deception in his defini- tion when he says that it is " any unsound mode of argu- ing, which appears to demand our conviction, and to be de- cisive of the question in hand, when in fairness it is not." The orator must be as quick to discern weakness in his own reasoning as in that of others. Stupendous issues have gone wrong because of a single undetected fallacy ! An elaborate structure of argument will totter to its fall if its foundation is proven to be fallacious. A keen mind may avoid or detect a fallacy without possessing a knowledge of formal logic. The list of possible fallacies is long and intricate, but only a few fundamental errors in reasoning need here be noted. (i) A false conclusion is sometimes drawn from true premises. Logicians call this a non sequitur it does not follow; the premise will not warrant the conclusion; as: MAJOR PREMISE : All men are animals. MINOR PREMISE : A four-footed animal is not a man. CONCLUSION : Therefore, a four-footed animal is not an animal. Though no one could dispute the truth of the premises, still they are not logically related, and the conclusion does not follow. The true conclusion is Therefore, not all animals are men. 26 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE Again : MAJOR PREMISE : All free men love liberty. MINOR PREMISE : These men are not free. CONCLUSION : Therefore, these men do not love liberty. The fallacy lies in presuming that only free men love liberty; the conclusion is not sustained by the premises. (2) Words are sometimes used in double senses. This ambiguity is very specious at times, and can be met by those only who are well acquainted with syno- nyms. For example, note the double use of the idea careless in the following syllogism : MAJOR PREMISE : All men who have no cares are happy. MINOR PREMISE : Slovenly men are careless. CONCLUSION : Therefore, slovenly men are happy. MAJOR PREMISE : All cold is expelled by fire. MINOR PREMISE : This man has caught cold. CONCLUSION : Therefore, his cold can be expelled by fire. Sometimes this fallacy is ridiculed and exposed by an absurd illustration, based upon a pun, as : MAJOR PREMISE : A missionary is one sent. MINOR PREMISE : The usual missionary contribution is one cent. CONCLUSION : Therefore, the usual missionary contribution is a missionary. Or the absurdity may be extended to a chain of puns, as : A sheet of ruled paper is an ink-lined plane. An inclined plane is a slope up. A slow pup is a lazy dog. Therefore, a lazy dog is a sheet of ruled paper. This also humorously illustrates the fallacy of substi- tution of terms, in which one term is deceptively substi- THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 2/ tuted for another until the argument is thus speciously led away from its true conclusion. (3) Begging the question is the most common of all fallacies. The logicians term it petitio principii. It consists in offering as proof, the very fact you propose to prove, thus evading the necessity of offering proof. For ex- ample : Macaulay's History of England is an authentic history, because it contains an accurate account of the events of English history. We know that this account is accurate because it is contained in so authentic a his- tory as Macaulay's. One of Moliere's comedies contains a playful example when it is said that opium produces sleep because of its soporific qualities. (4) When this begging or evading of the question is pushed farther, so as to reason in a circle, it is called the vicious circle. It may be illustrated thus: PROPOSITION : Men ought not to steal : A. Because it is wrong. B. It is wrong because it is contrary to the Moral Law. C. It is contrary to the Moral Law because it is forbidden in the Holy Scriptures. D. It is forbidden in the Holy Scriptures because it is contrary to God's will. A. It is contrary to God's will because it is wrong. The more extended the circle, and the more involved the statement, the more difficult it is to detect this kind of fallacy. 28 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE (5) Imperfect enumeration is also very common. It consists in drawing a conclusion without taking into account all the facts, as, it might be stated that all iso- lated inland bodies of water are fresh. In proof, every such lake or sea might be mentioned, except the Cas- pian Sea and the Dead Sea, which are salt, and there- fore break down the assertion. Insufficient enumeration is a common error of the untrained mind. Indeed, good natural reasoners are few, for it is generally true that education is necessary to protect the mind from error. ^ Persuasion Persuasion is the art of moving to action by means of entreaty, reason, or emotional appeal. Persuasion is a broader term than Argumentation. The latter addresses itself purely to the intellect ; persuasion goes farther, and usually employs argument merely as the basis of an emotional appeal with which it hopes to move the will to action. Sometimes, however, all ad- dress to reason is discarded, and a purely emotional appeal is made, likewise with intent to bring about action. Persuasion may even go so far as to disregard truth, and strive to carry the citadel of the will by assault, marshaling prejudice, imagination, and emo- tion to accomplish the result. When both forms of discourse are skillfully united, each effectively comple- ments the other, and jointly they constitute the most formidable weapon of the orator. Nor is the use of persuasion a confession of weakness upon the part of THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 2Q argumentation ; it is rather a recognition of the quali- ties of human nature factors never to be disregarded by him who would attract and hold an audience. If argument challenges the respect of those who hear, persuasion adds the human touch to cold reason, turns the marble to warm life, and transfuses respect with sympathy. Persuasion has three aspects : (a) The address to the intellect. This has been sufficiently outlined under Argumentation. (b) The appeal to the emotions. It is no disrespect to the general audience to say that hearers respond much more readily to emotional than to intellectual ap- peals. Indeed, in all mankind the emotions are the springs of action. The public speaker is therefore not slow to see the importance of understanding the nature and the management of this powerful force. 1 But it is with the orator's influence upon the feelings, not with their psychological nature, that we have here to do, so that a few practical observations will be sufficient. (i) The orator himself must feel before he can arouse the emotion of others. 2 Powerful emotion gives birth to eloquence. It is related of Croesus 3 that his only living son was dumb. When Cyrus captured Sardis, a soldier, not recognizing Croesus, was about to give the 1 An admirable discussion of the Emotions will be found in Gordy's Psychology, in loco. 2 See p. 4. 3 Ancient History, Rollin, Book IV. Chap. I. Art. I. 3O THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE king a blow upon the head. The emotion of fear and love for his father so wrought upon the young prince that he " broke the string of his tongue, and cried out, ' Soldier, spare the life of Croesus ! ' ' Thus, back of all emotional appeal stand the two forces, real emotion in the speaker, 1 and his own personality. 2 (2) The natural feelings of the audience must be set to work. That is, no new emotions can be imparted to them ; but " Persuasion implies that some course of con- duct shall be so described or expressed as to coincide or be identified with the active impulses of the individ- uals addressed, and thereby command their adoption of it by the force of their own natural dispositions." 3 To this end the orator must know his audience. 4 Antony knew "what chords to strike in a mob"; Brutus did not. Handing to Guildenstern a musical instrument, Ham- let requests him to play upon it. The courtier pro- tests that he cannot, whereupon Hamlet complains: " Why, look you now, how unworthy a thing you make of me. You would play upon me ; you would seem to know my stops ; you would pluck out the heart of my mystery ; you would sound me from my lowest note to the top of my compass : and there is much music, excellent voice, in this little organ ; yet cannot you make it speak. 'Sblood, do you think I am easier to be played on than a pipe ? Call me what 1 See p. 157. 2 See p. 93. 8 The Senses and the Intellect, Bain, p. 542. 4 See p. 149. I THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 31 instrument you will, though you fret me, you cannot play upon me." l Guildenstern's task was not an easy one, and he failed of his purpose; .yet this is just the work cut out for the persuasive orator. In his essay on Eloquence, Emerson expresses much the same idea : " Him we call an artist who shall play on an assem- bly of men as a master on the keys of a piano, who, seeing the people furious, shall soften and compose them, shall draw them, when he will, to laughter and to tears. Bring him to his audience, and, be they who they may, coarse or refined, pleased or displeased, sulky or savage, with their opinions in the keeping of a confessor or with their opinions in their bank safes, he will have them pleased and humored as he chooses; and they shall carry and execute what he bids them/' (3) The causes of feeling must be presented. "We should feel grateful," is in no sense an appeal to feel- ings; the vivid presentation of the causes of gratitude is such an appeal. Love and hate, gratitude and re- venge, generosity and cupidity, admiration and con- tempt, pathos and humor, sublimity and beauty, cannot be called forth, in either the speaker or his audience, by mere will power. However, they can be evoked by the will calling up a picture of the causes which lead to particular emotions. To be told that such and such scenes are sublime will not arouse the sense of sublim- ity in an audience ; but painting a lofty and glowing 1 Hamlet, Act III. Scene 2. 32 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE word-picture, dealing with vast, powerful, and impres- sive objects, will arouse that feeling. The lovable, hateful, admirable, humorous, beautiful, or whatever, characteristics of an object should be set forth in all their native colors, and then you may trust to causes to produce effects. But do not fail to guide the causes. The converse of this proposition is equally true : to get rid of an emotion it is idle to say, " You must not feel thus," but another and stronger emotion should be relied upon to displace the first. The best way to dis- pel the anger of an audience is to give them something more absorbing, pleasing, humorous, to think about. (c) The appeal to the will is, as we have seen, made through the emotions or through the intellect and the emotions jointly. To arouse emotions for their own sake may impart a certain pleasing titillation, and is often the sole object in some sorts of demonstrative oratory, but such an end is entirely foreign to persua- sion. Here the great end is so to guide thought and feeling, jointly or singly, as to secure action. The skillful persuasive orator will take advantage of every sigh, tear, chuckle, and guffaw in his audience to cause them to adopt his view and act upon it. Antony was not content to read Caesar's will, exhibit Caesar's man- tle, dwell upon Caesar's virtues; he did not leave off working upon the mob until he saw that their own base passions would lead them on to deeds of furious ven- geance against the conspirators, and until with one voice they cried : THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 33 "Revenge! About! Seek! Burn! Fire! Kill! Slay ! Let not a traitor live ! " l Then, well satisfied with his work, Antony solilo- quizes : " Now let it work. Mischief, thou art afoot. Take thou what course thou wilt." 2 This rousing to action, unworthy though it often may be, is the hall-mark of pure oratory. The speech that leads men up to the gate of endeavor and cannot move them to press through its portals, is a failure, if action has been its object. Name the preachers, the political orators, and the agitators, whose names are on men's lips, and you will find that they are the orators who know the art of moving men to abandon their pampered sins and their cherished causes in order to adopt the life and thought the orator has urged. 6. Summary It has been already intimated that all five of these forms of discourse may be used in public speech, but it must not be forgotten that they are seldom to be used singly, they may be combined and even modified to suit your special end. The tone, the temper, the spirit of theme, orator, and occasion must determine which form of discourse shall dominate. The great danger is of failure to keep one form so evidently predominant that the hearer must recognize the use of the others as merely auxiliary. 1 Julius Casar, Act III. Scene 2. 2 Ibid. CHAPTER III THE KINDS OF PUBLIC DISCOURSE I take it to be a principal rule of life not to be too much addicted to any one thing. TERENCE. All kinds of public discourse may be included under four heads: Impromptu Speeches, Extemporaneous Ad- dresses, Declamations, and Orations. I . Impromptu Speeches Such are addresses delivered without preparation. The ability to think on one's feet is a gift, or attainment, at once to be coveted and to be feared. Bismarck used to call it "the fatal gift of eloquence," referring to the fact that those who possess this ability are strongly tempted to neglect preparation, and so to substitute an array of words for real thought. There are occasions, however, when an impromptu speech is most opportune; but rarely, if ever, can the need of the hour be met ex- cept by one who has previously patiently trained him- self in the fundamentals of prepared address. He may seem to be spinning the magic web of eloquence from the "thin, invisible air," but in reality he is drawing from the carefully husbanded resources of past thought 34 THE KINDS OF PUBLIC DISCOURSE 35 and reading, and only the occasion was needed to weave the material into effective form. As a rule, impromptu speakers are inexact in thought and in expression, freely indulging in glittering nothings, and in " epigrams made at the expense of truth." The successful few, who really speak ably "on the wing of occasion," have learned to do so through the discipline of prepared address. 2. Extemporaneous Addresses The word extemporaneous has changed its meaning. It is now used to designate any production, such as a sermon, address, or argument, which has been care- fully thought out before delivery, and yet not committed entirely, if even in part, to writing. The speaker may refer to briefs or notes during the delivery of the ad- dress. It is well to cultivate the art of speaking without notes, for the results benefit to the memory, direct- ness and force of presentation, and general impression upon the audience fully compensate for the added labor of preparation involved. 3. Declamations This kind of public effort may be defined as a selec- tion of prose or poetry, recited in public from memory. Some writers distinguish as declamations only such se- lections as are either political or forensic, designating all descriptive and poetic material as recitations. Ora- 36 THE KINDS OF PUBLIC DISCOURSE tions pronounced by others than their writers are really declamations, and all speaking in the drama is either declamatory or recitative. 4. Orations An oration is a formally prepared and dignified dis- course, delivered upon a special occasion, upon a subject of personal import to the hearer, and appeals primarily to the emotions. Two points of this definition require emphasis, both here and in succeeding sections. (a) The truth of the oration is of personal import to the hearer. Failing of this, the discourse becomes a mere speech, moving no life-interests and impelling to no action. Therefore the personal aim and tone deter- mine its subject, matter, and style. (b) Since it is personal, oratory, appeals primarily to the emotions. To be sure, it speaks also to the intellect, and the greater number of orations design to move the will; but it is in its appeal to the emotions that the oration seeks to reach the volition, so that herein also oratory essentially differs from mere public speech. Many have deemed this emotional appeal to be so important that they have narrowed oratory down to such public speech as has for its end persuasion. Thus Aristotle conceived oratory to be "the faculty of finding all the means of persuasion on any subject." Important a part as persuasion admittedly plays in the great majority of orations, the philosopher's dictum is THE KINDS OF PUBLIC DISCOURSE 37 not a definition, for many orations employ no persuasive means whatsoever. It will be seen, then, that we must carefully adhere to our definition when considering the oration. Whether the form adopted by the orator is that of extempora- neous discourse or of the carefully written and com- mitted production, the distinctions just noted must be held in mind. The public patiently endures many spoken essays and disquisitions masquerading as ora- tions, which lack the essential characteristics of oratory. Especially is this true of college platform efforts. The distinction between the address to the intellect and the appeal to the emotions may be illustrated as follows : "A reasoner," Professor Genung says, "who is en- deavoring to demonstrate that the planet Mars is inhabited is indeed handling an intricate argumentative problem ; he is seeking to find a truth, or at least a balance of probability; but if he solves the problem ever so clearly, the answer cannot in the smallest degree appeal to the hearer's will." It may challenge his interest and excite his thought, but it bears no personal relation to him and cannot arouse a single emotion. Compare with this a notable episode in Daniel Web- ster's career, graphically described by Dr. Chauncey A. Goodrich. In the celebrated "Dartmouth College Case," after Mr. Webster had exhaustively expounded the law governing private corporations, he ended with the 38 THE KINDS OF PUBLIC DISCOURSE following peroration, "the most remarkable ever deliv- ered in a purely civil suit involving no personal rights'* : "This, sir, is my case. It is the case, not merely of that humble institution, it is the case of every college in the land. It is more. It is the case of every eleemosynary institution throughout our coun- try of all those great charities formed by the piety of our ancestors, to alleviate human misery, and scatter blessings along the pathway of life. It is more ! It is, in some sense, the case of every man among us who has property of which he may be stripped, for the question is simply this : Shall our State legislatures be allowed to take that which is not their own, to turn it from its original use, and apply it to such ends or purposes as they in their discretion shall see fit ? " Sir, you may destroy this little institution ; it is weak ; it is in your hands ! I know it is one of the lesser lights in the literary horizon of our country. You may put it out. But, if you do so, you must carry through your work ! You must extinguish, one after another, all those greater lights of science, which, for more than a century, have thrown their radiance over our land ! "It is, sir, as I have said, a small college, and yet there are those who love it." "Here," continues the narrator, "the feelings, which he had thus far succeeded in keeping down, broke forth. His lips quivered ; his firm cheeks trembled with emotion; his eyes filled with tears, his voice THE KINDS OF PUBLIC DISCOURSE 39 choked, and he seemed struggling to the utmost simply to gain that mastery over himself which might save him from an unmanly burst of feeling. I will not attempt to give you the few broken words of tender- ness in which he went on to speak of his attachment to the college. The whole seemed to be mingled throughout with the recollections of father, mother, brother, and all the privations and trials through which he had made his way into life. Every one saw that it was wholly unpremeditated, a pressure on his heart, which sought relief in words and tears. "The court-room during these two or three minutes presented an extraordinary spectacle. Chief Justice Marshall, with his tall and gaunt figure bent over, as if to catch the slightest whisper, the deep furrows of his cheek expanded with emotion, and his eyes suffused with tears ; Mr. Justice Washington at his side, with his small and emaciated frame, and countenance more like marble than I ever saw on any other human being, leaning forward with an eager, troubled look ; and the remainder of the court, at the two extremities, pressing, as it were, toward a single point, while the audience below wrapping themselves round in closer folds beneath the bench, to catch each look and every movement of the speaker. If a painter could give us the scene on canvas, those forms and countenances, and Daniel Webster as he stood there in the midst, it would be one of the most touching things in the history of eloquence." CHAPTER IV THE KINDS OF ORATORY Oratory may be symbolized by a warrior's eye, flashing from under a philosophers brow. HARE, Guesses at Truth. Since the days of Aristotle thinkers have generally divided orations into three classes. To these the advent of Christianity and the apostolic propaganda have added a fourth, that of the pulpit. I. Forensic, or Legal, Oratory Webster's plea in the " Dartmouth College Case " is an example of this kind of oratory. It proposes as its end the obtaining and the protecting of personal, corpo- rate, or civil rights. The Greeks and Romans brought this style of oratory to a high degree of perfection, introducing, however, much material which to-day would be ruled out in any court of law. Modern na- tions have also given forensics much attention, but with the growth of the body of law this type of oratory has decidedly declined. Forensic oratory is of two kinds, addresses to judges and addresses to juries. 2. Deliberative, or Political, Oratory An excellent example is Burke's Speech on Concili- ation with the American Colonies. Any speech ad- 40 THE KINDS OF ORATORY 41 dressed to a number of deliberators with the object of inducing them to decide for or against the question at issue is termed forensic. The type dates from remote antiquity, and literature has preserved to us many bril- liant specimens. To-day the deliberative orator has abundant oppor- tunity for the display of his powers, not alone in the many assemblies where questions are mooted and de- cided, but before audiences gathered to consider im- portant questions of varied sorts. Deliberative oratory deals with personal questions, only as they affect the interests of a body of individuals. 3. Sacred, or Pulpit, Oratory Beecher's sermon on Sowing and Reaping is a well-known example. The importance of pulpit ora- tory is greater than that of any other type, alike because of the number of those who are influenced by its power, and from the nature of the issues involved. Pulpit ora- tory is generally personal, the abstruse theological spec- ulations of a century ago having given place to the more practical sermons of to-day. 4. Demonstrative, or Occasional, Oratory This is the most widely inclusive of all types. It may propose for itself any one of a number of ends as will presently appear. Forensic, deliberative, and pulpit orators seek to in- 42 THE KINDS OF ORATORY fluence the intellect and emotions so as to move the will. This is not necessarily the case in demonstrative oratory. It seeks to impress a truth rather than to impel to action; to please thought and feeling, rather than to arouse motive ; to make just and fitting observa- tions, rather than to convince the judgment. An ex- amination of the several kinds of demonstrative orations will serve, better than definition, to make this difference apparent. The most frequent type is the (a) Occasional, under which are included orations delivered upon special occasions, as (i) anniversary (as Chauncey M. Depew's oration on the One Hundredth Anniversary of the Inauguration of President George Washington); (2) dedi- catory (as Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech) ; and (3) commemorative (as Daniel Webster's oration on the lives of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson). (b) Eulogy and Invective, as kinds of demonstrative oratory, must be considered as but a single form. The terms are in themselves sufficiently definitive. When the speaker both eulogizes the admirable qualities, and denounces the faults, of a character, striving to present a just balance of criticism, the discourse is called an appreciation, meaning an estimate. In his Modern American Oratory, R. C. Ring wait observes that two methods of handling personal sub- jects are commonly adopted : " The first method, once much followed, is what may be called the biographical method. A life is treated chronologically. From the THE KINDS OF ORATORY 43 early years to the end the eulogist follows with minute- ness the career of the subject, reserving only a brief space before the conclusion for observations and reflec- tions." (Compare Edward Everett's eulogy of Lafay- ette.) The second method is the one employed by most speakers, because it is more likely to prove suggestive to the speaker and interesting to the audience. Instead of giving a chronological narrative, " an effort is made to single out and set forth clearly what the subject of the eulogy accomplished in his life ; what he stood for ; what influence he exerted ; and what is likely to be his place in history." The advantages of this latter method are obvious. (c) Popular Oratory may serve as a general term under which to group all remaining styles of demon- strative orations. Popular lectures, addresses before societies and schools on special occasions, school and college orations, and after-dinner oratory should be classified under this general head. There is here so much room for individual taste, and there are so maay limitations arising from the nature of the occasion,* that special comment would be valueless. The observations presented in Part II. will be found to bear more par- ticularly upon Demonstrative and upon Pulpit Oratory. CHAPTER V ELOQUENCE List his discourse of war, and you shall hear A fearful battle rendered you in music. SHAKESPEARE, Henry V. Act I. Scene i. Sometimes the orator rises to the " vehement sim- plicity " of eloquence. Emerson said that eloquence is " a taking sovereign possession of the audience " ; Lyman Beecher described it as "logic on fire"; and De Quincey wrote, " By eloquence we understand the outflow of powerful feelings upon occasions fitted to excite them." But this apotheosis of soul-communi- cation can neither be taught nor exactly defined we must approach it by exposition, precept, and example. Thus Daniel Webster has characterized it : " When public bodies are to be addressed on momen- tous occasions, when great interests are at stake, and strong passions excited, nothing is valuable in speech farther than as it is connected with high intellectual and moral endowments. Clearness, force, and earnest- ness are the qualities which produce conviction. True eloquence, indeed, does not consist in speech. It can- not be brought from far. Labor and learning may toil for it, but they will toil in vain. Words and phrases 44 ELOQUENCE 45 may be marshaled in every way, but they cannot com- pass it It must exist in the man, in the subject, and in the occasion. Affected passion, intense expression, the pomp of declamation, all may aspire to it; they cannot reach it. It comes, if it comes at all, like the outbreaking of a fountain from the earth, or the bursting forth of volcanic fires, with spontaneous, original, native force. The graces taught in the schools, the costly ornaments and studied contrivances of speech, shock and disgust men, when their own lives, and the fate of their wives, their children, and their country, hang on the decision of the hour. Then words have lost their power, rhetoric is vain, and all elaborate oratory contemptible. Even genius itself then feels rebuked and subdued, as in the presence of higher qualities. Then patriotism is eloquent ; then self-devotion is elo- quent. The clear conception, outrunning the deduc- tions of logic, the high purpose, the firm resolve, the dauntless spirit, speaking on the tongue, beaming from the eye, informing every feature, and urging the whole man onward, right onward to his object, this, this is eloquence ; or, rather, it is something greater and higher than all eloquence, it is action, noble, sublime, god- like action." Thus we see that a high and noble attitude of mind is inseparable from true eloquence, and therefore this rare excellence is found oftenest in one who feeds his nature upon lofty truth and expends his life in unselfish service. Eloquence is born of just such a sensitive 46 ELOQUENCE spirit, powerfully wrought upon by an unusual thought, feeling, event, or occasion. It is important to observe that eloquence is not purely subjective; it needs the responsive listener. No orator, how rare soever his gifts, can rise to eloquence unless he and his audience come to sympathize. Their thoughts and feelings must fuse. Not only must the orator win his hearers to his thought, feeling, and will, but he must be responsive to their influence as well. It is this mutual inspiration, at once so elusive and so essen- tial, which creates that remarkable combination of art, gift, and environment that we call eloquence. Macaulay records of Pitt that "the lofty and spirit- stirring eloquence which had made him supreme in the House of Commons, often fell dead in the House of Lords." Later we shall see that, though eloquence cannot be taught, the orator may do much to bring about the conditions, both in himself and in his audi- ence, which make eloquence possible. PART II PREPARATION OF THE DISCOURSE Prepared on every side. MOTTO OF THE IRISH EARL OF CAVAN. In literary as in all other art, structure is all-important, felt, or painfully missed, everywhere that architectural conception of work, which foresees the end in the beginning and never loses sight of it, and in every part is conscious of all the rest, till the last sen- tence does but, with undiminished vigor, unfold and justify the first a condition of literary art, which ... I shall call the neces- sity of mind in style. WALTER PATER. PART II PREPARATION OF THE DISCOURSE Only when the speaker understands the nature of public speech, is conversant with the literary forms in which it may be cast, and has determined upon the kind of speech or oratory he will attempt, only then can he intelligently approach the work of specific prepa- ration. The orator having thoroughly mastered these fundamental ideas, briefly outlined in the preceding chapters, the work of preparation is likely to proceed much more rapidly and effectively. It should scarcely be necessary to dwell upon the importance of preparation, yet the prevalence of ill- considered addresses and the presumptuous reliance placed by many in the ability (?) to improvise, prove that too many speakers either prepare badly or prepare not at all. Plutarch assures us that Demosthenes gave closest attention to preparation. From this some unthinking persons inferred that he was not a great orator. " Pytheas, in particular, told him that all his arguments smelled of the lamp. Demosthenes retorted sharply upon him : ' Yes, indeed, but your lamp and mine, my friend, are not conscious to the same labors/ To others 49 5