UC-NRLF B 3 AT? 17E \- t * J 1 ^^^ W./\ I C- ^\ / AGRIO. LIBRARY C ^ THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA \ PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID i THE FARMER'S FRIEND: A EECOED OF EECENT DISCOVERIES, IMPROVEMENTS, AND PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS IN AGEICULTUEE. " We intend to pull at every latcli-striiig that we find outside the door or gate, and study the physiology of tiu-nips, hay-ricks, cabbages, hops, &c. ; and of all kinds of cattle, sheep, and swine." — Elihu Bubritt, Letter on his visit to England. LONDON: SMITH, ELDER AND CO., 65, CORNHILL 1847. London : Printed by Stt.wart and Mijkray, Old Bailey. r^3 AGRIC. LIBRARY ADVERTISEMENT. Should the present volume meet witli sufficient encou- ragement, it is intended to constitute " The Parmer's Friend '' a periodical Eecord of Improvements in Agri- culture, by publishing a hoK-yeai-ly volume of similar character. Any suggestions towards increasing the utility of this ATork, that may be offered by gentlemen favourable to its design and object, will be acceptable, and receive due consideration by the Editor, to whom communications will be forwarded by the Pubhshers. 65, Cornhill, March 1847. ERRATA. Page 129, headline, for Draining Running Sands, read Principles of Draining. At end of Article 33, insert " Farmer's ^Magazine." At end of Articles 42 and 44, insert " Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society." Page 209, line 31, for graze it, read graze thera. Page 287 , line 4, for out, read our. PEEFACE. But few words of introduction con be necessary for tliis unpretending book. As regards its plan, it has no claim •whatever to originality. Similar works, on other subjects than agricultm-e, have been published, and have been found useful in theu- respective departments; some, in- deed, very extensively so. This volume is permitted to go forth into the world -^nth tlie hope that it also may estabhsh for itself a character of substantial usefulness; and, should that hope seem to be reahzed, it is in- tended to publish a similar volume every haK year, so as to concentrate in a convenient form for reference, as much as possible of the varied and valuable information dispersed through a six months^ series of our different agricidtural jom-nals. A glance at the contents of the several chapters of this volume, will serve to show how important are the subjects contained in it ; and the mere names of many of the talented and experienced authors of the different articles will be a passport to the confidence of the agri- TI PREFACE. cultural community. The most studious aud iutelligeut farmers,, if actively engaged in agriculture, could rarely devote the time required for such a collection of infor- mation as is here offered to them, even were the expense of purchasing several journals of no consideration. And yet there is scarcely a single number of our ably con- ducted agricultural periodicals -nhich docs not contain some matter of interest or practical utility not to be found elsewhere. The brilliant development of agriculture, which, witliin the last, comparatively, few years, has been steadily ad- vancing from a state of vague and almost hopelessly unprogressive empiricism to the rank and dignity of a- science, lias, by increasing the amount of intellectual energy apphed to it, also greatly augmented the sum of the published results of all that application : and already the task of comparing, sifting, condensiiig, seems to have become useful and necessary. This task it is attempted, in a very Kmited measure, and merely as an experimental essay, to perform in the following pages. Should it be considered that too many extracts relating to the same class of subjects have been introduced in some parts of this work, it is hoped that, on reflection, the error, if such it be, may be regarded as one on the safe side. Into many minds it is very difficult to gain admission for impor- tant practical truths, wliich, therefore, need to be presented in all varieties of form. It requnes a reiterated succession of blows to drive a nail weU home into tough heart-of-oak. Cobbett clearly understood tliis when he kept his powerful PREFACE. Til logic incessantly at work upon any opinion which he desired to force into the public mind. Amongst the manifold imperfections incidental to a first volume, one omission may demand a special expla- nation. In a -work, which it is desired to make, as strictly as possible, a record of practical suggestions and well-estabhshed principles, it has been deemed pre- matm*e to introduce extracts from the many interesting and elaborate dissertations and notices which have appeared on the subject of the Potato Disease. The theory has yet to be constructed which shall compre- hend and account for all the phenomena of that singular vegetable calamity. In the mean time, a patient accumu- lation of facts bearing upon the subject is the work to be done; and the Rej^ort of the Highland and Agri^ culhiral Society of Scotland on the Potato Disease, presents an instryctive example of the kind of investi- gation that is needed. Extensive, however, as has been the field of this inquiry, and carefully as it appears to have been searched, the Rejjort declares that "no satis- factory explanation of the predisposing causes of this destructive disease has yet been given; and that, of the theories promulgated on the subject, none seems calcu- lated to lead to a practical conclusion." ^ To the Editors of the several Journals who have so kindly and liberally permitted the Editor of tliis Book to avail himself of their respective pubhcations, he begs ' See Transaction.1 of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot land.— October 184G. Vm PREFACE. to offer liis cordial and grateful acknowledgments. He hopes that the value of the extracts -wliich he has made may induce many to have recourse to the original sources for the information A^'liich, in this work they can^ for the most part^ only have in a fragmentary form; and that thus^ at leasts he may have helped to advance the great cause of agricultural improvement; a cause^ the promotion of which is daily becoming a subject more momentous and vital. London, March 1847. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. ON LIVE STOCK. Page Art. 1. — On the Properties of a good Short- Horn. B}' Mr. Wright 1 2.— On Rearing Cattle. By Mr. Wood . . . . G 3. — On the Breeding, Rearing, and Feeding of Cattle. By- Mr. Ridley 12 4. — On Soiling and Shed-feeding. By ^Ir. Bravexder . IG 5. — On Stall-feeding. By the Editor of the Farmer's Almanac 1 7 6.— On Box-feeding Cattle. By Mr. Glover . . . 21 7. — On Stall-feeding Cows. By Mr. Blacker . . .27 8. — On Cow-feeding, advantages of Rape in. By Mr. Blacker 30 9. — On Shed-feeding Sheep, experiment. By Mr. Woods . 33 10. — Economy of Shed-feeding Sheep. By the Editor of the Agricultural Gazette .34 11.— On Cattle Sheds and Folds 35 12. — On the Use of Prepared Food in feeding Cattle. By Pro- fessor Johnston .39 13. — On the Feeding of Stock with Prepared Food. By Mr. Marshall ........ 47 14. — Facts with regard to Sheep — their Food, and the Manure produced by them. By the Editor of the Farmer's Almanac ......... 54 15. — On Steaming Food for Pigs. By Mr. Fennell . . 56 16. — On Fattening Pigs. By Mr. Steel . . . .57 17. — Mr. Barnes' Management of Pigs. Report of the Maid- stone Farmers' Club ....... 59 18.— Transit of Live Stock ... .. 60 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER II. ON IMPLEMENTS. Page Art. 19. — Thrashing Machine, account of — with the application and advantages of water-power. By Mr. Sullivan . 61 20. — Liquid Manure Cart. By Mr. Morice . . . .68 21. — Tank for Liquid Manure, estimate for . . . .70 22. — On the Advantages of One-Horse Carts over Waggons. By Mr. Love ib. CHAPTER III. ON DRAINING. Art. 23. — The Elkington System of Draining. By Mr. Sullivan 72 24. — The Deanstone System : its development. By Mr. Smith 73 25. — On Thorough-Draining. By Mr. Smith of Deanstone . 76 26.— On Draining. By Mr. Parkes 80 27.— On Thorough-Draining. By Mr. Grey of Dilston . 98 28.— On Deep-Draining. By Mr. Mechi . . . .106 29. — On Draining in Aberdeenshire. By Mr. Sullivan . 110 30. — On Draining Running Sands. By Mr. Linton . .123 31. — Principles of Draining. By Mr. Hewitt Davis . . 127 32.— On the Cost of Drainage. By Mr. Parkes . . .130 CHAPTER IV. ON MANURES. Art. 33. — On the Principles of Artificial Manuring. By Baron Von LlEBIG 132 34. — On the Composition and Use of Artificial Manures. By Professor Johnston . ...... 146 35. — On the Rationale of certain Manures employed in Agii- culture. By Professor Daubeny .... 150 36. — On the Theory and practical use of Lime. By Mr. J. Towers 159 37. — On Lime : its application to newly-broken-up land. By the Editor of the Agricultural Gazette . . . 163 38. — On the Use of Superphosphate of Lime, produced from Acid and Bones, for Manure. By Mr. W. C. Spooner 164 CONTENTS. XI Page 39. — On Manures, whose chief Fertilizing Substance is the Phosphate of Lime. By the Editor of the Farmer's Almanac . . . . . . . . .180 40. — On Specific Manures. By Mr. Alex. J. Main . . 183 41. — On Specific Manures — continued effects of. By Mr. A. F. Gardner 190 42. — On Specific Manures — continued effects of. By Mr. Alex. Murray 191 43. — On Guano, and its comparative merits. By Professor Johnston ........ 192 44._On Guano — its effects on Cabbages. By Mr. A. F. Gardner ........ 197 45.— On Charcoal, as a Fertilizer. By Mr. Cuthbert W. Johnston ib. 40. — On the Composition and Agricultural value of Kelp. By John F. Hodges, M.D 200 47.— On Manuring for Hops. By Mr. J. C. Nesbit . . 203 48. — On Farm-yard Manure — how and when most beneficially applied. Darlington Farmer's Club .... 206 49.— On Liquid Manure. By INIr. W. C. Jolly . . .208 50. — On Liquid Manure — the mode and expense of applying it. By Mr. Chadwick 210 51. — On the relative value of Manures. By Mr. Karkeek . 212 CHAPTER V. ON CULTIVATION AND CROPS. Art. 52. — Principles of Farming. By Mr. Hewitt Davis . . 218 53. — On his own System of Farming. By the Rev. A. Hux- TABLB ......... 220 54. — On Liberal Manuring and Deep Cultivation. By Mr. Mechi 228 55. — Improvements in Clay-Lands. By Mr. Dodds . . 230 56. — On Measure-work. By Mr. Raynbird . . . 234 57. — On Measure-work 256 58. — Calculations of Plough-work done. .... 259 59. — On turning Grass-land into Arable. By Mr. Bravender 259 60. — On breaking up Grass-land . . • . . 270 61. — On Dressing Grass-land. By Mr. Smith . . . 272 62. — On the Cultivation of the Red Clover, and the causes of its failure. By Mr. McTurk 275 03. — On the Scarlet Tveioil {Trifo Hum incarnainm.) By Mr. Foaker ......... 287 Xil CONTENTS. Pfiee 64. — On White Mustard, By Mr. Cooke Burroughes . 289 65.— On the Russian Bean. By Mr. Hewitt Davis . . 292 66. — On Harvesting Carrots. By the Editor of the Agricul- tural Gazette 293 67. — On Preserving the Swedish Turnip. By Mr. Allix . 295 68. — On the Cultivation of Wheat. By the Editor of the Agricultural Gazette 29G 69. — On Premature Decay in WHieat. By Mr. Hewitt Davis 298 70. — On the Cultivation and Management of Flax. By Mr. Glover 299 71. — On the Cultivation and Management of Flax. By the Editor of the Farmer's Almanac .... 303 72. — On Growing Flax on Leas. By Mr. Rowlandson . 305 73. — On Flax — its value as a stock-feeding and remunerative crop. By Mr. Dixon . . . . . .307 74._On the Tussac Grass. By Captain Moody, R.E. . . 313 75. — On the best Time for Hay-Harvest. By Mr. O. Whistle- craft 317 76. — Natural Indications of Barrenness and Fertility of Soils. By the Editor of the Farmer's Almanac . . . 319 CHAPTER VI. MISCELLANEOUS. Art. 77. — On Keeping Farm Accounts. By the Editor of the Agricultural Gazette . 323 INDEX 329 THE FARMER'S FRIEND. CHAPTER I. ON LIVE STOCK. Art. I.— on THE PROPERTIES OF A GOOD SHORT-HORN. By Mr. Johx "Wright. In attempting- to describe the properties wliicli a good sliort-liorn ought to possess, the difficulty woukl be lessened if they were all of one age and of one size; the relative pro- portions of each part might then be defined with precision and accuracy, so that, by applying- the scale, the defects of symmetry would be immediately discovered: without such a test, we are left to form our own opinion from experience and observation of such animals as have met with general appro- bation. In handling a beast, we proceed to put the hand on those parts usually called points, commencing at the rump, thence to the hip, loin, rib, crop, shoidder, neck-vein, fore-breast, back-breast, flank, twist, and udder or cod. Describing- these several points so as to be carried into practice has always been found a most difficult undertaking, and for ever must remain so ; it would be in vain, therefore, to suppose that these observations will be more successful. The rump-bone, when the benst is in a lean state, should be about two inches off, and the upper part of it level or even with the under side of the tail. When the rump-bone lies near to the tail, it shows the smallest quantity of fot laid on that part ; but the general dislike to this is proved by the name of " Tom Fool's Fat" being- given to it. When narrow in this part, there is always a want of substance and lean flesh between that and the hip, and a part between them where the fat of the two points cloes not join together ; B 2 ON SHORT-HORN CATTLE. whereas, -vvlien tlie rump is fartliest from tlie tail, the fat is continued from it to the hip. The distance from the hip and rump shouhl he long- and full of lean flesh ; the hips shoidd he wide, especiall}' those of a female, Avhich should he wider in proportion than those of the male. The shape of the hip is diliicult to descrihe, hut should he something- like a round- pointed triang-le, with one end hang-ing" downwards, and on putting" the fing-ers on to the centre a hollow will he found. The loin should be flat and wide ; and when lean, two knobs, or pens, should be felt, which, when fot, will be the base of two ribs, called false ribs, which connect the hip and rib tog-ether in mass. The part commonly called " the space," from the hip to the rib, is g-enerally recommended to be short ; still it must be borne in mind that the beef on this part is of more value than any other ; and if the loin be flat and wide, and the rib hig-h and round, no ill effects will pro- ceed from a moderate length of space, and it unquestion- ably g-ives that leng'th and g-randeur to the character of an animal which is very desirable : it is the want of a wide loin, and round rib, and not the leng-th of space, that causes g-ut. The rib should come well out of the back, and be broad, round, and deep. (It has been taug-ht that the top of the back and underneath the belly should form two parallel lines, but there are few g-raziers who do not know the value of a deep body, more especially in a Hig-hland Scot.) On putting- the fing-ers and thumb on each side of the rib, and drawing- them tog-ether, the skin should be thick, pliant, and mellow, and the hand be filled with long- soft hair; and the feel underneath should be smooth and pleasant. The sensa- tion derived from a fine touch is delig-htfid to an amateur breeder, but cannot be defined : few thing-s denote a g-ood hard}'' constitution more than a thick soft skin, full of long- hair. Putting- the fing-er and thumb on each side of the rib as above described, is called " handling-" in the North, but in the Midland and Southern counties it is g-enerally called '' Cjuality." Whether that term had its orig-in at Smithfield we need not inquire, but certain it is that Mr. Charles Colling" knew of no such word as applicable to inclination to fatten. "Quality" is frequently used to denote firmness of flesh, and sometimes it is misapplied, as in hardness of flesh, but seldom used to signify inclination to fatten : the mistake in this particular has done much harm to many herds of short- horns. Let handling- and quality g'o tog-ether in a fat animal, and a g-ood-bred short-horn will have n'axi/ beef, under a ON SHORT-HORX CATTLE. 3 loose, pliant hide, full of soft long- liair ; but in a poor beast, " handling'" is the only test to discern the inclination to fatten. Handling" is the most important subject we have to consider : it is the grand characteristic of a short-horn. Of what value would an animal be, possessed of perfect sym- metry, if he could not be made fat without extraordinary keep i* It has been said above, that it was Mr. Charles Colling's fine touch in this particular that enabled him to bring- the Ketton short-horns to their unrivalled state of excellence : its importance has led me to dwell upon it at some length ; but it is impossible to describe the kindly feel which is conve3^ed to the senses by tlie liandVing of a first- rate shorn-horn ; yet tlie knowledge of it is absolutely neces- sary for a breeder to possess before he can bring- his herd to any hig-h state of excellence. The next point of considera- tion is the crop, in the shape of which, width of the back and roundness of the rib, but in a less degree, should be continued forward so as to leave no hollow behind the shoulders. The shoulder on the outside should have a roll of fat from the lower to the upper part of it ; the nearer to the top, the more closely it connects the crop and the collar in front of the shoulder together. In the anatomy of the shoulder, modern breeders have made great improvement on the Ketton short-horns by correcting the defect in the knuckle or shoulder- point, and by laying- the toj) of the shoulder more snugly into the crop, and thereby filling- up the hollow behind it. This is an important improvement, but it may be questioned whether the g'reat attention that has been paid to this has not been attended by the neglect of some other more valuable parts, for we no)r seldom find those long hind quarters so peculiar to the Ketton short- horns. Shoulders should be rather wide at the top ; that is, they should not lie close to, nor be quite so hig-h as, the withers; for when they are narrow at the top, and too oblique in shape, they never cover with fat over tliem pro- perh", and the neck of such animals is often too low. Mr. Mason, of Chilton, whose attention was first drawn to this point, with his wonted skill succeeded to admiration : the j^rominent breasts and oblique shoulders of his beasts, on a side view, were perfect; but the shoulders were close and narrow at the top, and did not load with fat. The first evidence of this, of notoriety, was in the beautiful cow Gaudy (whose picture is to be seen in the first volume of the B 2 ON SHORT-HORN CATTLE. " Herd-book"), wlio, -when slaiiglitered, was harely covered in this point, altlioiig'h very fat in all other points. The neck and head are not handling- points ; but I will brietly notice them before I turn to the lower part of the bodv : the neck should be thick, and tapering- towards the head ; a thin neck is strong- evidence of a want of flesh and substance in other parts. There are various opinions on the shape of the head : some prefer it to be long- and lean, whilst others approve of its being- thick and short ; but to be broad across the eyes, tapering- considerably below them to the nostrils, which should be capacious, with a cream or flesli coloured muzzle, will be nearly correct ; althoug-h it is but rig-ht to state that there are many well-bred short-horns with dark muzzles. This has been considered by many to be a recent introduction, throug-h some inferior cross ; but, Avithout denying- that, let it not be forg-otten that some of the early short-horns were not entirely free from it, althoug-h not very common; but the sire of Foljambe could not boast of much delicacy there. The horn has often been called a non-essential, and in some respects that may be true ; yet it must be admitted that a small moist white or yellowish horn, coming- well oif the head with a g'raceful circle and with a downward tendency at the end in a female, and an inclination ixpwards in an ox, contributes much to the cha- racter and appearance of an animal, and denotes a feeding- propensity. The eye has had its fashion at different periods: at one time the eye hig-h and outstanding- from the head, and at another time the sleepy eye sunk into the head; but these extremes have merg-ed into the medium of a full, clear, and jn-ominent eye, with a placid look. The neck-vein forms a collar in front of the shoidder, extending- from the upper part of it down to the breast end, connecting- the fat on the shoidder with the fat on the breast, thereby promoting- a uniform covering- of fat throug-hout every part of a beast, commencing- at the rump, and proceeding- along- the back to the hip, loin, rib, crop, shoulder, and breast, without patch, or any one part having- excess of fat beyond that of its neig-h- bour. The breast should come prominently out from between the fore leg-s, and extend down to about two or three inches of the knee-joint, and its width should never be lost sight of. An animal with a w'tde hach and a n-ule breast cannot fail to have substance, fore flanks, wide fore leg's, and other indica- tions of a strong- and vig-orous constitution. A wide and fat breast should extend itself throug-h the fore lea's towards the ox SIIORT-IIORN CATTLE. O Tiddev in rolls of fat. The Hank slioukl be full and easily found by the unbent fini^'ei's, without having- to lift up the iiank or'^close the iing-ers to find the fat : it should drop into the fing-ers, as it Avere. The buttock is a part that is not handled as a fat point, but should not pass entirely im- noticed, althoug-h in the best-bred short-horns there is little occasion for caution against the black flesh in this part, which some other animals have ; but a Avant of lean flesh is as g-reat an evil as an excess of it: it is necessary, therefore, that there should be great fulness nearly as low as opposite the flank, tapering from thence to the hock: this fulness should be on the inside as well as on the outside of the thig'h, and g-ive a full twist, lining- the division between the hams with a continuous roll of fat to the nest point under the belly. Hitherto my observations have been confined to feeding- jjropensities only, without any regard to the dairy. It is notorious, and much to their detriment, that many of the most superior short-horns do not possess that cpuility in an eminent degree. The annual loss to the breeder on each cow is very considerable, when we see that of two cows con- suming- an equal cpumtity of food, one g-ives six gallons of milk per day, and the other gives two only, this loss in milk will require much gain in beef to compensate for it. Cows for the dairy require to be of the same shape, and possessed of the same feeding- propensities as have been attempted to be described above, with the addition of a well-shaped udder. When in full milk, the udder should be capacious and flesh- coloured, vv'ith paps standing- square and at a distance from each other, the hind part to appear as if it proceeded from the twist : and it is the fore |)a}is that g-ive most milk : the milk-veins under the belly should be large and full. There is no test to determine beforeh-and Avhether a cow will g'ive g-ood milk or bad, but it is at all times very essenti-al to rear bulls out of cows that are descended from a tribe of good milkers. Having- g-iven a g-ener-al outline of all the points of a g-ood short-horn, there is still the outward contour and character deserving- of notice. On viewing- an animal, all the points described above are brought to our sight at once, and we can almost determine upon their merits at sig-ht, without the more unerring test of the fing-ers. The placid looks, the graceful head, neck, and horns, the straight top, the promi- nent breast, the snug-laid shoulders, the Avide back and hips. 6 ON THE REARING OF CATTLE. the round ribs, tlie fine long- quarters, tlie flowing- silvery- Lair, the clean limbs, and great substance — all present them- selves simultaneously, and g-ive an impression that langiiag-e cannot define. An artist, on looking- at a painting-, can instantly discern whether it is a highly-finished picture; but if called upon to describe its merits, he would, I presume, be at a loss for lang-uage to convey his feeling-s and judg-ment to an inexperienced person; and there is the same hig-li finish in a g-ood short-horn, attended with the same diffi- culty of explanation. . Experience is universally allowed to be the best teacher ; though, if we are left to our own expe- rience alone, it will recpiire a lifetime of no short duration to become a proficient. Journal of the R.A.S.E., vol. vii. part 1. RomeJy, May 6, 1846. Art. II.— on THE REARING OF CATTLE. By Mr. C. W. Wood, of Woodhouse. [This formed the subject of a paper read by Mr. Wood, at the June Quarterly Meeting of the Loughborough Agricultural Association. Mr. Wood confined himself strictly to the subject, not of breeding or of fatten- ing, but of rearing stock ; treating it under the following heads : — 1. The Constitution and Economy of Agricultural Cattle. 2. The State and Condition in which they exist. 3. Their Food and General Manage- ment.] In the consideration of the substances which compose the animal frame and their qualities, a key may be found to many secrets in the g-eneral management of young- cattle, particularly as reg-ards their habits and their food. Science points out to us a framework of bones (the principal ing-re- dients of which are phosphorus, lime, &c.), to g-ive form, uprightness, stability, and strength to the machine ; next an attachment of muscle (composed chiefly of fibrin or g-luten), to g-ive motion and activity to the body; and lastly, a respi- ratory and circulating- apparatus, to supply heat, nourish- ment, and life to the whole, in order to resist the force of the chemical powers from without. Seeing-, therefore, that we have a mixed machine to deal with, it is self-evident that \ ON THE REARING OF CATTLE. 7 mixed or combined means are needed to carry out the first intentions of nature, and without which life could not exist. We must have, first, starch or sugar, to supply carbon for res})iration ; second, fat or oil, to keep up the fat which exists, more or less, in the bodies of all animals ; third, gluten or fibrin, to supply muscle and cartilage; fourth, earthy phosphates, for the supply of bones ; and fifth, saline sub- stances, sulphates and chlorides, to replace what is daily rejected in the excretions. The second proposition recpiires to be clearly defined, viz., the state or condition of animals. We find this to be three- fold, each of which requires our anxious attention. We have, first, a foetal state, or one in connection with the mother, which exists before birth; secondly, a state of growth or development, which comprehends the period of birth to maturity ; and thirdly, the state of the full-grown animal. We have no control over the condition of the foetal animal, except through the medium of the mother, the general management of which I shall speak of presently. Of the second condition, nature must be closely observed, and carefully imitated, in order that the third or ultimate condition may be healthy, full-grown, and useful — the great object of the farmer, to repay him for all his expense, anxiety, and toil. It is a very false economy to stint the allowance of food, to a young animal. New milk, or the flour of all legai- minous plants, such as beans, peas, lintels, &c., which con- tain casein, and an infusion of oil-cake to promote fat, seems nearly to approximate to the composition of ordinary milk, skimmed milk being destitute of the principal ingredient re- quired by nature for the support of respiration. This, in addition to warmth and cleanliness, will always keep the vital powers predominant over the chemical — the cardinal point in the rearing of cattle. I now come to my third proposition, viz. " their food and general management" — and a more important and profitable subject cannot engage your attention. It must be considered in detail. I will begin, therefore, as I proposed, with the foetal condition of the animal, and take a calf as a general example. It, like all other animals, is supjiorted and nou- rished by the blood circulating from the mother through its own body, from the moment of its earliest formation up to the time of its birth — which blood contains, ready formed, all the various substances which are necessary for its forma- b ON THE RIZARING OF CATTLE. tion. In addition, therefore, to all that is necessary for its own sustenance and existence, the cow forms a new and complete animal ; it also secretes food for this new animal, which is to sustain and increase it for a considerable time after its birth; for the milk, like the blood, is the most perfect food, and contains every substance of which the body is built. When sucking- is at an end, should we not imitate nature, a sure and unerring- g-uide to philosophic truth ? Any animal — whether cow, horse, sheep, or pig- — having- its own existence to support (I Avill add, in ag'ricultural lan- §-uag-e, ''in g-ood condition"), a new animal to form, and one also to feed, is, to say the least of it, in a most important and interesting- condition. Is such an animal to be sent to feed upon a scanty pasture, to be turned into a wet and miserable farm-yard, or kept upon straw, and an occasional turnip, until she is little better than a bag- of bones ; and then, forsooth, to expect a, fine healthy offspring-, with an abundance of milk for its sustenance ? And if such brilliant expectations are not realized, the fault is to be laid upon the poor beast, — ". She is not a good milker ;" or to the land, — ^' It will not do for rearing-, or for dairy purposes ;" in sliort, ■upon anything- rather than upon their own stupid, ignorant, and thoughtless minds. Breeding- stock, gentlemen, cannot he kept too well ; thev' are, in truth, feeding- stock to others, and oug'ht to have the best a farm affords; the best pastures in the summer, with cabbage, and common turnips in the autumn; Swedes, sweet straw, oil -cake, and hay in the winter; and in the spring-, after calving-, some mang-el- wurzel, steamed potatoes, and hay, until the grass time ag-ain. To nourish the young- animal in the womb af its mother, an additional quantity of food must be g-iven, and this cpian- tity must be increased as the state of pregnancy advances; and the kind of additional food must readily supply the materials of the g-rowing- bones and muscles of the iwtus, and contain a larg-er fpiantity of starch or sugar, also, than the mother in her ordinary state would require. This is required by the circumstance that the mother must now breathe for herself and her young- — the cjuantity of blood is increased, more oxyg-en is taken in by the lung's, and conse- ijuently more carbonic acid is g-iven oft". A certain pro- portion of bone and muscle also must be supplied to the young' animal by the food g-iven to the mother, or the bones and muscles of the mother herself will be laid luider contri- ON THE REARING OF CATTLE. "9 tiition to supply it ; tliis must be effected by the quantity of phosphates, giuten, fi1)i'in, or casein, which are given in the food with wliich the mother is fed. An animal thus kept, VN-ill be in the most profitable con- dition to rear its young- ; and bear in mind, that as the calf grows rapidly, the food it requires increases daily with its bulk, and the demands upon the mother every day become g-reater. At this period, therefore, the cow must obtain larger supplies of food to sustain herself, and to produce a sufficient quantity of milk for her calf If, then, adequate supplies are not given, a portion is daily taken from her own substance, which causes her to be lean and feeble, and her young stinted and puny in its growth. What has been said reo-ardin"- the food given to the cow, will be more or less effective in promoting the growth oi the young animal fed solely on milk ; when richer in curd, it will promote more muscle; wlien richer in phosphates, more bone ; and in butter, more fat. Milk is a perfect food for a growing animal ; nothing is wanted in it ; the mother selects all the ingredients of this perfect food from the sub- stances which are mingled in her stomach from the food she eats ; she changes them chemically in such a degree as to present them to the young animal in a state in which it can most easily, and with least labour, employ them for sustain- ing its body, and all this at a given and appointed moment of time. In due time, the young animal begins to feed for itself; and then the mother improves in condition. Warmth, exercise, and good food are all that is then required, always bearing in mind that, as nature prepares the food for young- animals in a state in which they can most easily digest it, so we should prepare by boiling or steaming all dry food and roots for the same purpose. In the growing animal the food has a double function to perform — it must sustain and it must increase the body ; hence, Avhatever tends to decrease the sustaining quantity (and cold, exercise, and uneasiness do so) will tend in an equal degree to lessen the value of a given weight of food in adding to the weight of the animal's body. To the pregnant and to the milking cow the same remarks apply. The custona of allowing- young cattle to remain during the whole Avinter in straw-yards, exposed to all the variations of weather, cannot be too loudly con- demned ; oil-cake, it is true, which is sometimes given in large quantities, makes some small amends by the supply of carbon to the system ; but if a warm, dry, and clean shed was 10 ON THE REARING OF CATTLE. substituted, witli turnips instead of cake, the condition and qualit}^ of the animal would he very much improved, and a considerable saving- of expense be effected, to say nothing- of the improvement in the manure. All veg-etables contain, ready formed (v^-'hich they extract from thefood on which they live), the substances of which the parts of animals are composed. The animal conse- quently draws, ready formed, the materials of its own body from the vegetable food it eats. The starch, sugar, and g-um in vegetables are to supply carbon for respiration. Carnivorous animals obtain it from the fat of the food; starving animals from the fat of their own bodies; and young animals, which live upon milk, by the milk sugar it contains. In the young animal we find an excess of life ; it has to increase as well as sustain itself. In the full-grown animal we find the daily waste of substance which is carried out of the body in the excretions, made up by the gluten, phosphates, and the saline substances in its food, and a balance kept up between the powers of life and the bodily structure it simply has to sustain itself. In the old animal, when life is diminished, we observe a proportionate decrease of bodily substance. It is interesting and wonderful, when we thus trace the existence of the bodily structure of all animals ready formed in the vegetable — Vv-hich property in vegetables is formed during their growth — is derived from sources purely gaseous and inorganic, by chemical, mechanical, and physical opera- tions. It is the duty of the practical farmer to adopt these methods for improving the soil ; but this forms no part of my subject. Sheep. — The additional value to your flock, by this mode of management, and especially in giving them some dry food, such as hay or corn, before lambing is ver}' great. It gives firmness of fibre, and adds greater vigour to life, a greater activity to the vital powers, by which alone it is capable of resisting disease, and of arriving at an early maturity. The improvement of the fleece, by such a course, will be fifty per cent. The old breed were kept from two years to two years and a half old before sold, and rarely ex- ceeded 10 lb. or 15 lb. a quarter. It is true, breed has much to do with this question; but in sheep of the same breed, kept in different ways, a difference of twenty -five per cent, may be frequently observed. To insure a healthy offspring-. ON THE REARIJN'G OF CATTLE. 11 a good fleece of wool, and of sound staple, sheep require to be kept well, in the spring- months particularly. Pitjs. — Pig's ought never to lose the fat or condition they receive from the mother, which is easily kept up by milk, peas, or beans, and all of which contain flesh. A small quantity of oil-cake, once or twice a day, in addition to tur- nips, mangel-wurzel, or any vegetable food ; fed in this way, many months are saved in time, and you have the advantage of summer feeding, which, on account of the warmth, is by far the best period of the year for this purpose. Horses. — I need only say that where great muscular development is required, as in the case of race-horses which run for the two-year-old stakes, they are corned very high as soon as they can eat it ; and it is astonishing to see the strength and activity resulting from such a plan. Early maturity is very profltable here. Give your yearlings plenty of oats and beans, with steamed potatoes during the winter, and you gain a complete year in time, besides the incrensed value you put upon the animal : and in the smnmer feed them upon r3'e, dills, or clover, the best possible food for horses. The sooner they are broken the better; their tempers become quieter, and they thrive more. I wish to mention here the great value of salt to all young animals ; it destroys bots and worms, it promotes digestion, and assists the secretion of healthy bile, the medium through which respiration is supported; this, however, should be given in moderate quantities. Having now spoken upon the general management of the various kinds of cattle usually reared by the farmer, I shall conclude with a few remarks upon their food ; and I deem you Avill not consider this out of place. The amount of food either for man or beast which a given acre will produce depends considerably upon the kind of crops which is raised. Thus, a crop of thirty bushels of wheat will yield only about 1400 lb. of fine flour, while a crop of six tons of potatoes will give about 4400 lb. of an agreeable, dry, and meally food. It is said, on the authority of the Board of Agriculture, that a crop of clover, tares, rape, or potatoes, cabbage, or turnips, will furnish at least three times as much food for cattle, as an equal breadth of pasture-grass of medium quality. This, how- ever, being but a hint, I will at once give you a table of the nutritive qualities of the various sorts of food now in com- mon use. It is selected with some care from the various 12 ON THE BREEDING, REARING, tables published, and lias direct reference to the subject before us, on account of the proportions of gluten, starch, and oil which each article contains. In the root crops I place first carrots; second, mangel- wurzel ; third, Swedes ; fourth, potatoes ; fifth, cabbage ; sixth, common turnips. In the green crops — first, dills j second, r^-e; third, clover ; and fourth, grass. In the corn crops — first, beans ; second, peas ; third, lin- tels; fourth, wheat; fifth, barley and Indian corn; sixth, oats ; seventh, rye ; eighth, buckwheat. In the straw crops — first, pea-straw, which is nearly equal to hay ; second, oat and barley straw ; fourth, wheat-straw ; fifth, rA^e-straw ; and sixth, bean-straw. Thi'ee pounds of oil-cake are equal to aboi;t ten pounds of hay. British Farmer's Magazine, Oct. 184G. Art. III.— on THE BREEDING, REARING, AND FEEDING OF CATTLE, WITH A VIEW TO EARLY MATURITY, AS PRACTISKD BY THE WRITER FOR UPWARDS OF TWENTY YEARS. By George Lowes Ridley, Esa., Banks Hall, near Barnsley. If experience in any particular branch of business is to be gained from a length of servitude, I may fairly be allowed to claim to myself that privilege ; and it is for the benefit of the younger branches of my brother farmers, that I attempt to make knowaa to them my system of rearing and feeding my own stock, not with any view of showing up my manage- ment as superior to that of many other breeders more fortu- nate than myself. Firstly, I must strongly impress on all farmers whose farms are adapted to the rearing of stock, that their first great object should be to possess themselves of a good and AND FEEDING OF CATTLE. 13 useful lot of cows — g'ood "well- formed sliort-liorns (not too liig'li-bved), witli plenty of substance, g-ood sound consti- tution, plenty of soft hair, and of g'ood quality ; above all, g-ood milkers, as tlie number of calves reared will depend much upon the cpiantity of milk produced. The next most important object is a first-rate bull, whose substance, consti- tution, and Cjuality must, if possible, excel that of 3'our cows; for it is now an admitted and well-authenticated fact, that the sire has more to do with the progeny than the dam, and that, as "like begets like," so you ought to be the more careful in selecting a good sire, with a good frame and great inclination to fatten. And I would strongly urge upon the breeder whose yearly cast of stock is an object to him, never to use a bull from his own herd, but, if possible, to procure a yearling from some well-known stock when need requires. Secondly, I should recommend, where a herd of from eight to twelve cows are kept, that not less than three or four should drop their calves in the latter part of November or beginning of December. Calves are, with proper care, easily brought through the winter, and with less milk, it being supposed that you have by you a supply of hay, cakes, and turnips ; the latter of which they are soon taught to eat, if cut into small slices, and put into their mouths to suck, two or three days running, b}^ their attendant; this, with the addition of one or two poiinds of cake per day, and plenty of good seed hay, will quickly bring them forward to do without luilk. And here I will take the liberty of im- pressing upon the breeders of stock the absolute necessity of proper ventilation and cleanliness in their calf pens, which ought all to be boarded with slabs, and raised about ten or twelve inches from the ground, either leaving a space of an inch and a half between each slab, or perforating the slabs with a number of holes to allow their water to pass otT into a gutter or drain, which will not only keep the pens dry, but prevent all unpleasant smells. Each pen should be lai-ge enough to contain two milk calves, with a larger one to remove them to as they get older, and are taken off milk ; each pen should be furnished with a small rack and troug'h, and a place to fix in either a piece of chalk or rock-salt for the calves to lick, which will add very materially to their general health. With three or four cows, you will easily rear six or eight calves through the winter, which 3'ou Avould be able to put to grass nearly as good as yearlings ; and as you can 14 ON THE BREEDING, REAPJNG, quit 3'onr fat stock in the spring- oi- first cast, you will be able to remove the oldest calves into the feeding- sheds, where thev will have more room, and be better prepared for turn- ing"^into pasture at the proper time. As it will be necessary to purchase calves to make up your cast of stock, I have g-enerally made a bargain with some of my neighbours or cottagers, who dispose of their calves, to send cows that I approve of to my bull, and taking the calf, if I like it, at a fixed price, two da3^s after it is dropped, which I have found a ready way of making- up my number of calves. I should strongly recommend to all breeders not to attempt to rear more calves than is required for a regular yearly cast of stock ; it is more profitable to do a given number well, than a great number badly, to say nothing of the great liability to disease of the poor half-starved animal. Thirdl}", Your next lot of cows should begin to drop their calves about the end of February, none later than May-day (and those last always your first calf heifers). Calves dropped about this time require more milk and more atten- tion to get them through winter than the older calves, and are mucli more siibject to local complaints; as also, from their size, they spoil the uniformity of your cast of stock. Your summer calves should have new milk at least four weeks, if not six ; and the milk should be given three times in the day, as it is better and more natural to give six quarts at three [times than twice ; the calves thrive better and keep their forms better, and are not so liable to get what is termed " pot-bellied." When it is not convenient to have milk from the cows in the middle of the day, I should recommend the morning's milk to be given, with a little warm water added, to give it the proper heat, for the calves under six weeks old ; the older ones will do with a little old milk at mid-day. The writer has foimd it a very good plan, when milk was scarce, to boil linseed for the older calves, and give this in their new milk when it is found necessary to increase their quantity ; by this plan you have a greater quantity of new milk at your disposal for the younger calves. After my calves get past their sixth week, their new milk is gradually decreased, and the qiiantity made up of old milk, until the new is taken off" them entirely, and their food is then linseed and old milk till they are twelve weeks old ; they are then gradually weaned with a drink of milk and water, and a pound of cake allowed twice a day (if thought necessary), with a good, well-sheltered pasture and AND FEEDING OF CATTLE. 15 a plentifol supply of water, and, if possible, a shed to retire into at pleasure, which will protect them from both sun and rain. The linseed is best prepared by steeping- in cold water from morning- to nig-lit, and from nig-ht to morning- ; and when put upon the fire, not to boil more than twenty minutes, thereby retaining- more of the essential oil, a g-reat part of which is too frequently evaporated in steam by an excess of boiling-, thereby rendering- the food less nutritious. V/hen your cows are put to g-rass in the spring-, they will improve in their milk, so as to enable you to allow your last dropped calves a plentiful supply of milk thrice in the day, by which means you must try to g-et them up to the older calves both in size and condition (and this may be done by continuing- their new milk two or three weeks long-er, or, if butter is an object, by giving-, after they are six weeks old, half new milk for a few weeks) ; for nothing- adds so much to the beauty of a young- stock, as to have them well matched both in size -and condition. After your calves are weaned, they must be forced forward with the best keep you can aiford them, such as clover fog-, old land fog-, or young- seeds ; but care should be taken that they never g-o upon clovers after rain, or when there is dew upon them ; for at such times they are liable to g-et hoven, or, if not, the effect of too much damp luxuriant food taken upon the stomach is more than likel}^ to produce other com- plaints, and none sooner than that fatal one known as black quarter. About the middle or end of October, they shoidd be brought into a shed at nig-hts, or, if the weather be cold, taken in for winter ; they should then be supplied regularly with good seed hay, and Swede turnips, cut, with one or two pounds of cake each per day, and a plentiful supply of litter, never forgetting that cleanliness is half meat. Choose the warmest and best sheltered sheds for 3'our young stock, as they are most liable to take cold ; in the following- spring they will go out fi-esh to a good pasture ; and, if fortunate, •will come up in October good rough beef, and then be put on full turnips, with oat straw and a few pounds of cake per day ; about the following- March or April, your first lot of winter calves will be fit for the butcher, being then two years and four or five months old. Your next lot of spring- calves must then be pushed forward, and by the end of May will also be fit for the butcher (they being- about two years and four months old), and may either be sold or put to grass 16 ON SOILING AND SHED-FEEDING. a few weeks, as deemed advisable, according- to tlie tlien state of the markets. In conclusion, the writer beg's to state that xmder this system of manag'ement he has sold his cast-off stock for from IG/. to 21/., their jjrice being- ])artly reg-ulated by a g-reater or less number of steers, as well as the price of beef at the time of the selling- of the stock. Farmer's Magazine, January, 1847. : Art. IV.— on SOILING AND SHED-FEEDING. By John Bravender, F.G.S., Surveyor, Ciren-cester. Shed-feeding sheep, stall-feeding- cattle, and soiling-, are practices which will g-radually force themselves on the farmer's notice. It is also more profitable to keep working- horses and oxen in yards on clover, vetches, and sainfoin ; and were the plan to be g-enerally adopted, all the land on which they have hitherto been g-razing- would be better broken up. Those lands are, g-enerally speaking-, not of the best cpudity, and for that, among-st other reasons, would answer better under the ploug-h than in pasture. It may be so said of dairy cows, but that cannot be realized until we shall have advanced some steps further in ag-ricultural science, and are enabled to make g-ood butter and cheese from seed pasture, vetches, sainfoin, clover, and roots. If we could accomplish this, cows mig-lit be soiled in yards, and supplied with food from the arable land, which would be the means of creating- a vast amount of additional em- ployment for the labourer, independent of the breaking- up of their former pastures. Nearly all the lands occupied by dairy farming" mig-ht then be broken up, without fear of a scarcity of cheese, butter, or milk. Should the time ever arrive when even half of the land thus occupied can be spared to be converted into arable, Ave sh-all increase our produce of food for man and beast to an amazing- extent, and there would not be found a man, who is willing- and able to ON STALL FEEDING. 17 work, out of employment : and wliat is more, the labourer ■n-oukl obtain fair wag-es for liis services, in consequence of the removal from the market of his brethren, who liave hitherto been driven to the necessity of underbidding- him, and who have been involuntarily running- a race with him to obtain employment. Jour, of the R. A. S, E. vol. vii. part 1. Art. v.— on STALL-FEEDING. By the Editor of Farmer's Almanac. This is the month (October) when stall-feeding- is very com- monly commenced. Here, ag-ain, it is g-ratifying- to find how well the observations of the practical farmer and those of the man of science illustrate each other. The first point, says Mr. G. DobitOji is to have a g-ood sort of animal to beg-in upon. Ts^ever buy a coarse half-bred beast because you may fancy it is cheap ; note its points — its temper ; do not re- gard merely the heaviest; ahviiys, therefore, select the beasts before purchasing-, rather than agree to g-ive a certain price per head to pick where you like from the drove; attend to quality more than form. Tie up in October. In the feeding", the great points to be attended to are, cleanli- ness, warmth, quiet, and good and regular feeding. When fat, sell them to butchers at home if you can ; estimate the weight and value of your bullocks the day before any one is coming to buy them, and after letting the butcher handle and examine them well, let them out into a yard for him to see ; they will always show better than when tied up. According to Mr. Hillyard, beasts should increase in the 1st month 04 lbs., in the second SO lbs., in the last fortnight 48 lbs., in the ten weeks 192 lbs. In some experiments by Mr. J. H. Leigh," Avith thirty beasts, each daily fed as fol- lows (to this was added, March 10, either 2 lbs. per head of hay, valued at Qd. per Aveek, or about an equal value of Indian corn, bean-meal, crushed wheat, or sugar) : * Jour. Roy. Ay. Soc. vol. vi. p. 74. ^ Ibid. p. 237. 18 ON STALL FEEDING. 4 lbs. of oil-cake, at 0/. per ton 4 ,, of bean-meal, 7d. 10 ,, of cut oat straw, 2s. Gf?. per cwt. 20 ,, of turnips or beet, at 20,v. per ton "Weekly cost each s. d. 2 (i 2 4 1 ^h 1 3 8,' These thirty Leasts being' weighed, were found to have gained from — February 5 to February 17 — 12 days 2124 lbs. ,, 17 to ,, 24 — 7 days 1531 ,, ,, 24 to March 3— 7 days 103G ,, March 3 to „ 10— 7 days 811 ,, ,, 10 to „ 17— 7 days G48 ,, 17 to ,, 24— 7 days G03 ,, ,, 24 to ,, 31 — 7 days 554 ,, ,, 31 to April 7 — 7 days 539 ,, April 7 to ,, 14 — 7 days 527 ,, ,, 14 to ,, 21 — 7 days 566 ,, Total 9111 It forms, as Mv. Karkeek remarks,^ a curious and instruc- tive subject for the feeder to ascertain the respective flesliing- and fattening- properties contained in the produce of an acre of the diflerent crops commonly used in the rearing- and fattening- of stock. In the following- table the proportions of g-luten, &c., ^vill indicate the Heshing- ])roperties, and the starch, S:c., the fattening- properties — AN ACHE or — Gluten, Albu- men, &c. lb. Starch, Gum, Sue:av, & Fat. lb. Wafer, lb. Carrots, or 25 tons Turnips, or 30 tons Potatoes, or 12 tons 1120 800 600 480 450 380 290 40 36 28 5800 6700 3330 2790 672 845 1168 940 970 646 47600 56950 20250 752 256 208 336 450 324 252 Beans, or 25 bushels Peas, or 25 bushels Oats, or 50 bushels Wheat straw, or 3000 lb Oat straw, or 2700 lb Barley straw, or 2100 lb ' Jcur, Eou. A(/. Soc, vol. iv. p. 263. ON STALL-FEEDIXG. 19 The milk of finimals contains the same ingredients in vary- ing- proportions ; these are — ^ Casein or curd 4"5 Butter 3-1 Milk sugar 4'8 Saline matter O'a Water 8;-0 It is very important to know how much v^ater each kind of food contains. The following table, drawn iip by Dr. Playfair, exhibits the amount of dry organic matter contained in various kinds of food : — Ass. Goat. JLv:e. 1-8 . . 4-1 . . 4-5 0-1 . , 3-3 . . 4-2 G-1 . . 5-3 . . 5-0 0-3 . . 0-G . . 0-7 91-7 . . 8G-7 . . 85-6 Water. Organic Matter. Ashes. 100 lb. of oatmeal cent: -in 9 1b 89 lb. 2 1b. ,, of bran ,, 14 81 5 ,, peas ,, ,, beans ,, IG 14 801 82^ 3J- 31 ,, barleymeal ,, lentils 15i IG 82i 81 2 3 ,, linseed cake ,, IG 17 761 75^ 7i n ,, vrlieat-straw ,, 18 79 3 ,, oats ,, 18 79 3 ,, turnips „ ,, Swede turnips ,, , , mangel-wurzel , , 89 85 89 10 14 10 ,, white carrot ,, 87 12 ,, potatoes ,, ,, red beet ,, 72 89 27 10 Warmth is an equivalent for food; food, therefore, may be economised by protecting cattle from the cold. The observations of Dr. Lyon Playfair- on the food of animals, will be read with the highest interest by the prac- tical farmer. Ho remarks, " All vegetable food has been found to contain a peculiar sidjstance — gluten, or albumen, which is precisely identical, in chemical composition, v/ith the albumen obtained from the white of an egg. This substance, invariably present in all nutritious food, is quite identical with the flesh and blood of animals. B}- identity in composition, is not meant a mere similarity, but an absolute identity." In support of this conclusion, let the f;armer compare the result of the chemical examination of 100 parts of each of these varieties : — ' Johnston's El. Aff. Cliom., p. 243. '^ Jour. Roy. A(j. Soc, vol. iv. p. 215. 20 ON STALL- FEEDING. Carbon Hydrogen .... Nitrogen .... Oxygen Gluten from flour. Boussingault. Casein from peas. Scherer. Albumen from eggs. Jones. Ox blood. Play fair. Ox flesh. Playfair. 54-2 7-5 13-9 24-4 54-138 7-15G 15-672 23-034 55-000 7-073 15-920 22-007 54-35 7-50 15-76 22-39 54-12 7-89 15-67 22-32 Thus we are led to tlie startling- conclusion that plants contain within them the flesh of animals ready formed, and that the only duty of animals subsisting- upon them is to give this flesh a place and form in their organism. In the following- table, by Professor Johnston, the propor- tions of starch, g"um, and sug'ar, will give a roug-li approxi- mation as to the per-centag-e of fat or tallow which the food is capable of yielding-; whilst the giuten, albumen, and casein Avill g-ive a correct indication of its flesh-forming- power : — 100 parts of— Field beans . Peas Barley Oats Meadow hay Clover hay . Potatoes . . . Carrots . . . Turnips . . . Oat straw . Wheat straw Husk or Starch, Gluten, Water. woody [;um,&; albumen, Fatty Saline fibre. sugar. & casein. matter. matter. 16-0 10-0 40-0 28-0 2-0 3-0 13-0 8-0 50-0 24-6 2-8 2-8 15-0 15-0 60-0 12-0 2-5 2-0 16-0 20-0 50-0 14-5 5-6 3-5 14-0 30-0 40-0 7-1 2- to 5- 5- to 10- 14-0 25-0 40-0 9-3 3-0 9-0 75-0 5-0 12-0 2-25 0-3 0-8 to 1- 85-0 3-0 10-0 2-0 0-4 1-0 85-0 3-0 10-0 1-2 — 0-8 to 1- 12-0 45-0 35-0 1-3 0-8 6-0 12- to 15- 50-0 30-0 1-3 0-5 5-0 Farmer's AlmanacJc, 1846. ON BOX-FEEDING CATTLE. 23. Art. VL— on BOX-FEEDING CATTLE. By Mr. Glover. [The following is extracted from a very instructive paper by Mr, Glover, lately read before the Newcastle Farmers' Club, of wliich he is Honorary Secretary,] It is almost impossible for am' one wlio lias not seen and paid attention to the subject, to form a correct estimate of the advantage of box-feeding- cattle. The plan is extremely simple and feasible, Avhicli is one of its g-reatest recom- mendations. The advantag-e of feeding- cattle in boxes con- sists in tlie absence of all waste of food; wliich in a 3'ard it is impossible to prevent. It alJbrds the opportunity of placing- before .the animal an equal portion of food, which cannot be the case in a yard where cattle are indiscriminately mixed. It allows each animal to eat at its leisure, ruminate unmo- lested, and take its rest undisturbed. In yards where there are a number of cattle, the master cattle consume the choicest part of the food ; they drive the weak ones about, and allow them little rest. Hence the g-reat inequality observable in the condition of yard-fed cattle compared to those fed in boxes ; and hence the astonishment so often expressed by farmers that after their fattest cattle have been sent to mar- ket, the remainder thrive rapidly. It is then perceived that those cattle which appeared the least prone to fatten would perhaps have been the most forward in condition, had they been separated from others. In fact, the system of feeding' cattle in boxes can be regiilated to the g-reatest nicety ; while that in the yards must ever remain slovenly^ wasteful, and imperfect. I shall now proceed to g-ive you a description of the boxes, according- to the plan of Mr. Warnes. We will su])pose that you wish to erect ten boxes, for which you will require a space of 90 feet long-, and 12^ wide ; then let a line be drawn from one end to the other, S^ feet wide, from the side most convenient for the passag-e. Next, let the mould, to the depth of a foot, be excavated from the other part, and thrown on the side intended for the front, and spread to the thick- ness of a foot deep. This will g-ive 2 feet from the bottom of the boxes to the surface. A wall of brick-work, 4 inches wide and 2 feet high, is next to be built round the inside of 22 ON BOX-FEEDIXG CATTLE. tlie part excavated, and intersected at distances of 8^ feet. At eacli angle tlie brick-work should be 9 or 12 inches square, which will both support the posts and afford strength and durability. Upon the Avail a sill of wood is next to be placed ; for which purpose large poles, either square or split, are adopted. The foundation being now complete, posts (3 feet long, and the necessary sills and ties, may be })laced upon it. Across the ties the most ordinary poles may be laid to support a roof composed of the trimmings from hedges and ditches, and completed with a thatch of straw or rushes. Two gates must be added to each box ; one of which moves on hinges, and the other to be secured at the top and bottom sills of the building, so as to be taken down at pleasure. Presuming that we have taken advantage of a barn, or other walls or iarm premises, the external part is finished; the internal has merely to be parted off with a few poles between each box, and the passage separated by the cribs, which are to move up and down between the interior posts, which are placed upon the angles of each box, and support the roof on the passage side. Such boxes as I have described, where advantage can be taken of an unoccupied Avail (which ought to be from G to 8 feet in height), may be erected for 'SOs. each. These boxes are 8|- feet square. From Avhat I have seen, I think that they Avould be too small for our large short-horns; they should be from 9 to 10 feet square. I Avould not recommend them to be made larger than 10 feet, for if so the manure Avill not get properly trodden down. Good strong substantial boxes, back Avail 8 feet high, interior 10 feet square, and with slated roofj can be erected in this neighbourhood for 3/. 15*'. Each box acts as a small tank, the Avhole of the urine being- taken up by the straw, or other absorbents ; such as saAvdust, dry mould, &c. If cattle are ])roperly littered in this Avay, the manure Avill only rise about o inches in a Aveek, it be- comes comq)ressed into a hard compacted mass, turning out about 5 or 6 cubic yards of manure, tAVO loads of Avliieh being equal to three made any other way by cattle. I shall now proceed to describe the different things that are required for making the " cattle compound." The only apparatus required for carrying out the system is a linseed- crusher, an iron cauldron, a hand-cup, a stirrer, one or two hogsheads, two or three pails, and a wooden rammer. The probable cost Avill be about 12/. Large cauldrons are found inconvenient for stirring Avhere compounds are made AA-ith ON BOX-FEEDING CATTLE- 23 the meal of peas, beans, &c. The size most preferable are those to contain from 30 to 40 g-allons. The stirrer is an. iron spoon fastened to a shaft of wood 4 feet long. The rammer is 3 feet long", about 5 inches scpiare at the bottom^ and 2^ inches at the top, throug-h which a pin 14 inches long- is passed, for the convenience of being- raised with both hands. The compounds are made as follows : — Upon every" six pails (a pail is supposed to contain six g-allons) of boiling- w^ater, one of line crushed linseed is sprinkled by the hand of one person, while another rajjidly stirs it roimd. In five minutes, the mucilag-e being- formed, a half hog-sheadis placed close to the cauldron, and one bushel of turnips or tops and cut straw are put in. Two or three hand-cupfuls of the mucilage are then poured upon it and stirred. Another bushel of the cut turnips, chaff, &c. is next added, and two or three cups of the jelly as before, all of which is expeditiously stirred and Avorked together with the stirrer and the rammer. It is pressed down as firmly as the nature of the mixture will allow witlx the rammer, which completes the first layer. Another bushel of the cut straw, chaff', etc. is thrown into the tub, the mucilage poured upon it as before, and so on imtil the cauldron is emptied. The contents of the tub are, lastly, smoothed over with a trowel, covered down, and in two or three hours the straw, having absorbed the mucilao-e, will also, with the turnips, have become partially cooked. The compound is then usually given to the cattle, but some- times allowed to remain till cold. The cattle, however, prefer it warm; but whether hot or cold, they devour it with avidity. Either potatoes, carrots, turnips, or mano-el- wurzel, boiled and incorporated with linseed meal, form a compound upon which cattle fatten with great rapidity. To make it, nothing- more is required than to fill the cauldron wdth washed potatoes, or carrots, etc. sliced. Supposing the cauldron would contain eight or nine pails of water, let only (jne be added. In a few minutes the water will boil, and the steam will speedily cook the roots, then a convenient portion should be put into the half hogshead, with a little linseed meal, and smashed with the rammer. The remainder must be prepared in the same way. As the mass increases in the tub, it should be pressed firmly down, in order that it may retain the heat as long as possible. In the spring- and summer months, germinated barley may be made into a compound with great advantage, mixed ■with linseed, cut clover, grass, or lucerne ; cattle eat it with. 24 ON BOX-FEEDING CATTLE. great avidity, and thrive fast upon it. The process is simple — let some barley he steeped about two days, and the water drained off. After the radical or root has gTown to nearly a quarter of an inch in length, it must be well bruised by the crushing- mill, and as mvich as possible forced into some boiling- mucilag-e, containing- the same quantity of linseed, but a fourth less of water than would have been prepared for dry barley. Care must be taken lest the sprouts are suffered to g-row beyond the prescribed length, or the quality will be materially injured; therefore it will be necessary to destroy their growth, by passing the barley through the crushing mill. It may then be used at pleasure. In August, when I was at Trimingham, Mr. Warnes was using wheat for his compound, as he found it was more profitable to feed his cattle upon it than to sell it at the price then offered. The wheat was steeped for twenty-four hours, then taken out of the steep, and allowed to sprout, which it did in two or three days; it was then put through the crushing mill. Thi-ee pails of wheat were put into the boiling caiddron, containing seven pails of water, it was well stirred, and one pail of crushed linseed was sprinkled into the cauldron ; a layer of cut clover, chaff', &c., was put into the half hogs- head, two or three of the hand-cupfuls of the boiling mu- cilage was then poured upon the cut clover, &c., it was then well stirred and rammed down, and the same was repeated imtil the cauldron was emptied. To lay down any general rule for making the compound would be to destroy one of the great advantages of the system; provide yourselves from the resources of your farms, with whatever is neces- sary to form cattle compound. The superiority of the cattle compound to foreign oil-cake is explained by the fact that the one, at the best, is merely the refuse of linseed ; while the other is made of the seed itself. The real fattening pro- perties of the compound is in the linseed ; and that in order to produce a greater or less effect it is only necessary to regulate the quantit}- of that important ingredient. Wheat, oats, barley, straw, or bean stalks, may be used either with or without turnips, according to circumstances; nothing* more being- required than fibrous matter to act as a vehicle for conveying the linseed to the stomach of the animal, and for reconvejdng to the mouth for rumination. The following compound may be used with great advan- tage for feeding sheep : — Let a quantity of linseed be re- ON BOX-FEEDING CATTLE. J-J diiced to fine meal, and barley to tlie thickness of a wafer, by the crushing- mill. Put 18 g-allons of water into the cauldron, and as soon as it boils, not before, stir in i?l lb. of linseed meal ; continue to stir it for about five minutes, then let 63 lb. of crushed barley be sprinkled by the hand of one person upon the boiling- mucilag-e, while another rapidly stirs and crams it in. After the whole has been carefully incorporated, which will not occupy more than five or ten minutes, cover it down, and then throw open the fur- nace door ; should there be much fire put it out. The mass will continue to simmer, from the heat of the cauldron, till the barley has absorbed the mucilag'e, when the kernels will have resumed nearly their original shape, and may justly be compared to little oil-cakes, which, when cold, will be de- voured with g'reat avidity. I have no doubt some of you will be apt to say, oh ! but there is a g-reat deal of labour attending- all this. I will now show you the profit attend- ing- the labour. A lot of twelve beasts were equally divided by Mr. Postle, six were fed on oil-cake, and six on Mr. Warnes's compound. The account of their food was kept with scrupulous accuracy for nearly six months. The fol- lowing- were the results : — £ s. d. Expense of oil cake 21 14 9 Expense of compound . . . . 19 G IJ Balance in favour of compound . . [£2 8 7 J Dead weight. Loose fat. Hides. St. lb. St. lb. St. lb. Six cattle fed on compound . . . 432 7 55 9 39 6 Six ditto oU cake 387 12 51 7 37 11 Difference of weight in favour of compound 44 9 4 2 19 £ s. d. So that we have in favour of the cattle compound upon the six beasts — 44 st. 9 lb. at Gs. - 20-09 Carbonate of soda 7'22 ,, magnesia 008 Phosphate of lime and magnesia, with a trace of phosphate of iron 0"12 Silica, with trace of oxide of iron 0"18^ Farmer's Almanac, 1847. Art. XV.— steamed FOOD FOR PIGS. Quoted by Mr. Fennell. In Wade's British History it is stated, that a g-entleman in Norfolk put six pigs, of nearly equal weight, on the same food and litter for seven weeks. Three of the lot were kept as clean as possible with a curry-comb and brush, and were found to consume, in seven weeks, fewer peas by five bushels than the other three, yet weighed more when killed by two stones and four pounds, on the average : a strong' argument in favour of keeping' -^i^s person ally clean. ON FATTENING PIGS. '57 From Mr. Boswell's experiments, we learn that, during* an equal space of time, the increase in the live weig-ht of five pig's fed on steam-boiled food Avas 4 cwt. 2 qr. 7 lb., at an expense of 61. Ids. 4:d. ; while the increase in the live weig'ht of five pigs fed on raw food, was only 2 cwt. 2 qr. 21 lb., at an expense of 6/. 8.^. 6d. : a result highly favourable to the practice of feeding* swine on steamed food. Journal of Agriculture, July 1846. Art. XVI.— on FATTENING PIGS. By Mr. J. Steel. \^As quoted by J. H. Fennell, Author of^'A Natural History of British Quadrupeds."'} In fattening' pig's, I have always found a mixture of barley and peasmeal, moistened with milk in sufficient quantity to make it of a drinkable nature, to be the best ; the pigs must be rung- to make them lie quiet ; the sty should be Avann and airy, and the sun not suffered to scorch their backs, as thin-skinned white pigs are bhstered by it, which not only renders them of an unsightly appearance, but retards their thriving'. They should be protected from exposure to cold winds, cold rains, sleet, and snow, — a subject not sufficiently attended to on many farms, where they are allowed to lie in heaps, shivering with the cold, in which case it is utterly impossible that they can thrive. On the other hand, when they are kept constantly in a close, pestilential atmosphere, their constitution becomes undermined, they look very deli- cate and sickly, like consumptive subjects, and never arrive at any size or weight for their age. These extremes must be carefully avoided, and the sty should have an open-barred door, permitting' a current of fresh air to incessantly set in and purity the place, conducing- to the animals acquiring- a vig'orous habit, and a doubly increased size. Too much cleanliness cannot be observed ; for nothing tends more to their well-doing- than dr}' feet, a dry bed, and sweet air. It is true that in summer they wallow in the mud, to get a coat to shield them from the sun and files; but this only proves that they require protection from excessive heat and 58 ON FATTENING PIGS. tlie teasing- of flies, and all who wish their pig-s to thrive will provide shelter. Pigs intended to fatten shoidd never be allowed to run about, as no food they can get by prowling- about will compensate for the loss of flesh sustained by the continual state of motion. In a form it may be very Avell to have some running about to pick up dropped oflal ; but where the pigs are regularly fed with a sufficient supply, it is a thriftless plan to waste by exercise the flesh that by a state of rest would make a good return for the food con- sumed and the expense of attendance. The strong- food above mentioned is chiefly recommended to fatten hogs to a larger size, but does not exactly suit quarter porkers ; it is too heating-, and produces pimples which g-ive a diseased appearance ; therefore, for quarter pork, use either fine middlings with milk or pure water, or reduce the streng-th of the barley or peasmeal by adding- an equal quantity of pollard ; wash or pot liquor is impalatable to pig-s during- the process of fattening- on meal. If, from chang-e of weather or other causes, my pigs get costive and are ofl" their food, I supply them with a little green food, according- to, the season of the year, as a few cabbage-leaves, lettuces, or potato-tops, or with potatoes and mangel-wurzel ; if, on the other hand, they are purged, I have a sod dug from the roadside and given them ; or, which I sometimes think is better, I let them into a yard whez-e there are cinders, mould, brick, and chalk rubbish. I think very little of garden-stuff as a means of keeping a pig- in a g-ood growing- condition ; it is no help further than satisfying- occasionally the cravings of hunger ; sows will do on it, or on grass, if there can be added daily a feed or two from the wash-tub. Sows, during- the time of gestation, shoidd have their diet restricted to articles that will not produce obesity ; for sows, as well as cows, are apt to be attacked with what is called the milk-fever ; and, besides, unwieldy sows have not that command over their movements that sows with a less proportion of flesh have, and are very likely to crush many of their young ones. For the first fortnight, the sow should be fed in such a manner as to leave off with a g-ood appetite, and no better or more forcing- food be given than, fine pollard or coarse middling-s ; but as soon as all fever has disappeared, and the pigs can take the milk as fast as the sow can su])ply it, the finest middlings or oatmeal, or some- times boiled rice, when it can be procured at about 8s. or 8s. 6(L a cwt., may be given three times a day. My little PIGS. m pigs are cut wlien five or six weeks old ; but my sows, if intended for quarter pork, are not spayed, as this operation botli throws them back and disfigiu-es them. Many people recommend a spayed sow for the ])oor, but I always recom- mend a barrow pig", as gTowing- to a larger size than the spayed sow pig-, and in being- far superior meat to an old spayed sow. In choosing- a pig-, look out for one with a wide open chest, well filled up from the ears to the tail, small-toed, and with meat in the fore-arm dowTi to the knee, and in the ham down to the hock; a fine and short tail, with a small spread of hairs at the end. Let the breed be more inclined to make flesh than fat, and fine in the g-rain ; and the preference should be given to a breed famed for broad backs and small entrails, for large-belhed pigs do not pull down the scale. ^ Journal of Agriculture, July 1846. Art. XVII.— P I G S. From Report of the Deputation of the Maidstone Farmers' Club. Mr. Barnes's pigs form, as far as the deputation know, a iinique feature in fai-m management. He has some young- ones which were very promising; and some eight or ten splendid animals fattening in the bay of a barn. The greater number of these pigs, however, amounting to 300 in number, have liberty to go where they please ; in and about the orchards, meadows, yards, &c. excepting- at dinner and supper time. This fact speaks highly for the state of Mr. Barnes's gates and fences, and the diligence of his swine- herd. Mr. Barnes makes these animals dress one of his meadows somewhat in the manner of folding. The pigman takes a sack of peas on his back, and drops them in a small train along the ground as he walks, for the pigs to pick up, making a wider circle day by day, till the pigs have been over the whole gTound. Agricultural Gazette, Sept. 5, 1846. ' For further information on Fattening Swine, see the Journal of Agri- culture for September 1839. 60 TRANSIT OF LIVE STOCK. Art. XVIII.— transit OF LIVE STOCK. [From Jour. Stat. Soc, vol. ix. ji. 113.] On an average, three fat bullocks Aveigli one ton. On the road, a fat bullock travels on the average fifteen miles in one day, costing per day 1^. or three farthings per mile. About five and a half lean bullocks weigh one ton ; these travel from fifteen to twenty miles per day, — say seventeen miles, — cost- ing, on an average of seasons, 3-^. 6d. per 100 miles — say a halfpenny per mile. On an average, there are four or- dinary horses to a ton ; travelling on the road from fourteen to twenty miles per day, — say on an average seventeen miles, — costing per day 4.s. ; or say, per mile, 2'9d. Twenty fat sheep weigh on an average a ton : on a road, they travel about eleven miles per day, costing say, per score (this differs, however, very materially according to season and locality), 6d. ; or, per mile, about a halfpenny. Sixteen pigs, on an average, weigh a ton : they travel on the common road, about twenty-one miles a day, costing, per score, about 9d. J or, per mile per score, three farthings. Farmer's Almanac, 1847. CHAPTER II. ON IMPLEMENTS. Art. XIX.— ON THE THRASHING-MACHINE. By Mr. Sullivan. [In a series of valuable ' ' Remarks on the Agriculture of Aberdeen- shire," published in the Farmer's Magazine, there occurs the following account of the thrashing-machine, and of the instruments worked in con- nection with it ; with incidental illustrations of the great economy and convenience of water as an impelling power, a resource which is still, for the most part, very grieTOUsly neglected.] In 1799, a macliine, propelled by water-power, was erected in the parish of Kintore, in this county, for 31 Z., including* the dam and water-course, which thrashed at the expeditious rate of fourteen quarters per hour. This is stated on the best authority — the aged owner of the machine in question. It is proper to add, that it was reckoned a three-horse power. The feeding rollers were 3 feet in length ; the drum was 3 feet in diameter, and made eight revolutions for one of the water-wheel, which was 8 feet 8 inches in diameter, and the iloats 8 inches in width by 1 foot 4 inches in length. It was what is technically designated an imdershot wheel. ^ Few of the thrashing-machines now erected at double the cost and of double the power of the one just referred to will thrash so much as fourteen quarters of oats per hoiu". In ' There are three sorts of water-wheels, commonly known as the overshot, the undershot, and the breast wheel. The first derives its name from the water coming in contact with and passing over the upjier part of the wheel ; the second, from the water, after impinging on the floats, flowing under- neath ; and the third, from the water striking at a point in the circum- ference of the wheel intermediate between the former. 62 ON THE THRASHING-MACHINE. fact, the quantity ordinarily thrashed by a two-horse power machine does not exceed three quarters per liour. A ma- chine requiring" a motive force of three horses, commonly thrashes from live to eight quarters ; and a four-horse power is expected to thrash, on an averag'e, about ten quarters per hour; but it may frequently accomplish twelve, and even fourteen quarters. It may not be amiss to insert in this place, the dimensions of the principal parts of a thrashing- machine of the latter power, which was recently erected for a gentleman in this county, and is allowed to be of the most approved construction. The impelling- ag-ent is water ; the diameter of the wheel is 11 feet; and the buckets are 3 feet 4 inches in width. The feeding' rollers are 3^ feet in length; the diameter of the drum is 3 feet 2 inches ; and that of the shaker is 5| feet. A winnowing- apparatus, driven by Barker's centrifug-al wheel, is attached to the thrashing-- machine. Being; furnished with two "hoppei-s," it can be emploj'ed in dressing" g-rain either simultaneously with the thrashing', or when the machine is not in operation. The cost of erecting- the whole machinery was 58/. The average rate of thrashing is twelve quarters per hour ; and the quan- tity of water necessary to accomplish this work varies from IGOO to 2000 cubic feet for every quarter, according to the quality of the corn and the length of the straw. The thrashing-machines employed in this county vary very much in size and power, ^ in consecjuence of the great diversity that exists in the size of farms. A four-horse- power machine is commonly used on farms ranging from 150 to 300 acres, a three-horse-power on those varying from 80 to 150 acres, and a two-horse-power on the smaller class of farms from 25 to 80 acres. A machine requiring- only the ])ower of one horse to propel it, is sometimes resorted to on small possessions of about 20 acres. The grain-crop on lioldings under the last - mentioned size is most generally thrashed by the flail; and the cottagers perform this o])era- tion in the winter mornings by the light of the lamp, or diu-ing inclement weather, when out-of-door labour is sus- pended. It is supposed that the thrashing-machines at present employed in Aberdeenshire are impelled by an ' A simple rule for ascertaining the power of a water-impelled tlirasliing- raachine is to cube the radius of the wheel, multiply the square-root of this by the area of the transverse section of the water where it impinges on the wheel, and divide the product by 0^ : the quotient is the horse-power to which the wheel is equivalent. ON THE THRASHING-MACHINE. 63 agg'regate force of at least 8000 horses : but, owing- to the great extent of the county, tliis is a point which it is very difficult correctly to ascertain. The motive powers employed in this county for the pur- pose of impelling thrashing-machines are water and horses. The former, as being not only the most economical, but likewise the most effective agent, is, of course, invariably preferred, and used wherever an adequate supply of it can conveniently be procured ; and as the many hills and dales Avith which the sm-face of the county is diversified give rise to numerous rivulets, water -impelled machines are very general throughout Aberdeenshire. The superiority of this power over horses (irrespective of its gTeater economy) con- sists in imparting a more uniform motion to the machinery and in enabling the farmer to thrash and prepare his corn for market or other purposes in all states of the weather, when a sufficiency of water is available. Horse and water power are occasionally employed in conjunction, which, in some situations, is found a very usefid arrangement. During* the droughty months of summer, the former is put in requi- sition either by itself or as an auxiliary to the latter, though at other seasons the supply of water may be quite adequate to impel the whole machinery. In order to convey some idea of the comparative advantages of the three modes of propulsion referred to, viz. by horse -power, water-power, and both conjointly, a great mimber of farms of different sizes have been selected ; and the actual power of the thrashing-machine employed on each having been ascer- tained, it has been found that on those farms on which animals alone constitute the motive force, one-horse power is required for every twenty-four acres on an average ; but that where water alone is emplo3^ed, one-horse power is found to be sufficient for thirty-three acres; while on those on ■R-hich both agents are used in conjunction when necessary, the same power is quite adeqvuite for every thirty-fuur acre* of arable land. The steam-engine has recently been resorted to by a few farmers in tliis county for impelling the thrashing-machine ; but, for several reasons, this all-powerful agent is by no means likely to be either much or very profitabl}^ applied to farm purposes in Aberdeenshire. In the first place, it is more expensive than either horse or water power. As no coal is found in the county, the cost of fuel would amount to a considerable sum per annum in the internal parts, not 64 ON THE THRASHING-MACHINE. to mention tlie original cost of an engine and its appur- tenances. And, in the second place, this being- more a grazing- than a corn-growing- district, the qixantity of grain annually g-rown on individual farms, of even the larg-est extent, would hardly warrant the erection of a steam-driven thrashing--machine. This ag-ent, being' vastly superior to horse-power, is g-enerally preferred and employed in localities (such as the Lothians and Berwickshire) abounding- with extensive farms, where coal is abundant and cheap, and where a very larg-e quantity of grain has annually to be thrashed and prepared for market; but in Aberdeenshire neither of these conditions can be said to exist. The steam- en^ne is, of course, both inaccessible to, and unnecessary for, small farmei-s ; and to use it with economy, even on larg-e possessions, it is requisite to continue the operation of thrashing- throughout a whole day at a time ; which in g'eneral is neither convenient nor necessary in this part of the country. Thei*e are at present, I understand, no more than five thrashing--niachines in Aberdeenshire impelled bj steam. The expense of thrashing- and dressing' gTain per quarter varies according- to the nature of the motive force employed, the power of the machine, the quality of the crop, and other obvious circumstances. Water, where it can be procured in sufficient quantity for the purpose, constitutes by far the most convenient and economical impelling ag-ent. A most im- portant advantage attending- the employment of water-driven machines is, that by them the greater proportion of the crop may be, and in Aberdeenshire g-enerally is, thrashed and dressed in the winter mornings, before the labours of the field could be commenced. The common practice is this : — A part of the barn having- been previously filled with sheaf- corn from the stack, the thrashing- is prosecuted for an hour or more every morning;, beginning- about five o'clock, and leaving- off at break of day; the servants then breakfast, groom their horses, and begin the ordinary out-of-door busi- ness of the farm. The adoption of this arrangement obviates the necessity of stopjnng the ploughs during the usual hours of labour for the purpose of thrashing- — an advantage which it is impossible to secure when horse-power is employed. In order to illustrate the actual and relative expense of thrashing and dressing- grain in Aberdeenshire by the dif- ferent methods usually practised, I shall here introduce separate statements of the cost of the process by water, ON THE THRASHING-MACHINE. 65 liorses, raid the flail, on an arable farm of "2Q0 acres, culti- vated according- to the six-conrse rotation of cropping-, and producing' annually about 440 qrs. of g'rain. In the sub- joined calculations, we take the wag-es at the usual winter rates in Aberdeensliire, viz., a man at 1.;t by Mr. Smith. [In a brief but interesting sketcb, in tlie Farmer's Magazine, o{ the career of this distinguisiied promoter of agricultural improvement, there is an account of the gradual development of his views of draining — the subject with which his name is so inseparably connected.] He had turned his attention at a ver}^ early period to the subject of land-draining, having seen a great deal of money so far fruitlessly expended in deep cross drains, intended 5*4 THE DEANSTONE SYSTEM cliieflv for carrying* off luider-water. Furrow-draining* with turf had been introduced into the flat clay lands of Stirling*- shire and the west of Perthshire, about the year 1806 or 1807, and Mr. Smith had, after he went to reside in Perth- shire, opportunities of studying- its effect, and the mode of action in draining oif the water. He perceived that it was the water that fell upon the surface in the shape of rain which •was carried oif by these drains ; and it then occurred to him that the same system of draining- applied to the lands of the up-country would have the eifect of carrying- off the surface water, which so g-enerally stagnates, especially in cold clay soils, and which is, in fact, the cause of their being cold and tenacious in wet weather, and hard and imworkuble in sea- sons of drought. Not having any land in his possession at this period (after ineffectual efforts to prevail upon others fully to carry out his views), in the year 1823, he was enabled to test their soundness on his own farm of Dean- stone, consisting- of 189 acres; to which he afterwards added about 25 acres more, and upon this he proceeded to realize his plans of thorough-draining and deep working", desiring- to attain a system of garden-culture over the whole farm. The land consisted chiefly of the drifted debris of the old red sandstone, and of various texture ; some parts of the subsoil consisting of hard compact soil with stones, and some, in the hollows, of sandy clay composed of the soil which had been washed for ages from the hig-her parts of the ground ; the whole was very much interspersed with large boulder-stones, some of them very near the surface. The active soil was in general very thin, in many places not exceeding- four inches. Much of the surface was studded with rushes and other water plants, whilst the drier knolls were covered with furze, heath, and broom. After much consideration, he resolved to carry one uniform mode of drainage over the whole surface of the farm. He fixed upon thirty inches as the best depth to ensure at once efficiency and economy. He Jaid parallel lines of drains at twenty-one feet apart over the whole surface of each field, without regard to the apparent wet or dry condition of the soil ; and he carried those parallel drains as near as possible in the direction of the steepest descent, as being best fitted for carrying ofF the water quickly. Of com\se he provided proper out-falls for the main receiving- drains. Having* abundance of stones — partly on the surface, partly in the subsoil, and partly in old s"tone fences — which he resolved OF DRAINING. 75 to remove, lie arrang'ed to preserve tlie permealjility of the drains with tlie smaller stones, or stones broken to tlie size of a turkey's egg". The drains he had cut narrow at the bottom, not exceeding* four inches in width, in order to con- fine the current of the water to a narrow channel, thereby ensuring" the removal of any casual deposit. He filled up the drain to the depth of twelve inches with stones, leaving* eig'hteen inches from thence to the surface for the working* of the ploug'h. He very soon discovered the propriety of closely covering* over the stones to prevent the water leaving* any direct access, which he accomplished by using- a very thin turf, closing" in the whole drain, and over this he caused the stiftest soil he could find to be tramped firmly down. This mode of placing- the drains proved very successful, and effected a thoroug'h and imiform dryness over the whole surface. He had not proceeded far in deep ploughing-, when he discovered the necessity of having" a powerlul in- strument to stir up the subsoil, and remove the stones which everj^where obstructed the ploug-h. This g-ave rise to the invention of the sidjsoil ploug-h, which was desig-ned to stir up the subsoil without bring-ing- it to the surface, or to mix in any m-aterial deg-ree with the active soil, as he found that sterile subsoil injured the productiveness of the active soil when mixed with it, before having- been exposed to the action of the air for some years. Mr. Smith proceeded in applying- this system over his whole farm, and the yearly results of the crops proved the correctness of his theory, and his farm soon became the attraction of enterprising- and intellig-ent ag-riculturists. He had still g-reat diificulty in. persuading- his neig-hbours to make trial of his system to any extent; and it was not till they had seen the result of successive crops that they followed his example ; even then they made their trials on a small scale. Farmer's Magazine, Sept. 1846. 76 ON THOROUGH-DRAINING. Art. XXV.— ON THOROUGH-DRAINING. By Mr. Smith of Deanstone. [A lecture delivered at the meeting of the Highland Agricultural Society at Inverness.] Mr. Smith commenced by saying-, that the subject of lecture to-nig'lit was tlie important one of tlioroug'b-draining-, and other matters connected with it ; and he woukl endeavour to g-ive a practical explanation of his views in as few words as possible. The advantag'es arising- from draining- the soil were many. On well-drained land there were many more days in the year on which the farmer can ploug-h and harrow than on other land. When he did plough and harrow, the operations were much more easy and efficacious, and thoroug-h harrowing- and ploug'hing- of g-ood land was of more advantag-e than an equal amount of labour expended under less favour- able circumstances. Manure, likewise, had much more effect when the land was well drained than if it were put into a wet soil. With a dry soil they had more warmth, and when the sun shone it encourag-ed the plants to g-row ; whereas sunshine was rather hurtful for a time to wet land. They knew well it was the practice in hot countries to put a wet cloth i-ound a bottle of wine for the purpose of cooling' it by the evaporation of the moisture, and the same effect took ])lace on land, althoug-h not so perceptibly. It was a ver}^ strang-e thing- that ag-riculturists had so long- known the advantages of thoroug-h-draining-, and that it was not more appreciated. A g-reat deal had been done in this country for sixty years, in attempts to dry the soil, but these attempts had been chiefly confined to the removal of water which arises in springs below the soil. That was accom- plished by the cutting- of deep drains around the margin of the fields, which had the effect of removing- at least part of the water from extremely wet and marshy places, but had very little effect in rendering- the surface sufficiently dry for the purposes of complete cultivation. It was not xmtil a later period that attention was g-iven to the water which fell on the surface. When rain fell upon land composed of stiff clay, it must either run off or be evaporated. Mr. Smith then, by the use of diag-rams, explained the mode in which the rain fell upon the g-round, and percolated throug-h the ON THOROUGH-DRAINING. ?7 soil. He alluded to the practice, wliicli lie said had existed from time immemorial, of throwing" the land into ridg-es and furrows, and showed that, by the soil being" washed from the tops of the ridg-es into the furrows, the higher parts of the field produced comparatively Httle crop — the best particles of which the land was composed being- carried oti' into the furrows, and then into some adjoining- stream. Whenever they saw a large river running brown after a fall of rain, they mig-lit be sure that the best part of the soil was being- carried away, never to be recovered, until, in the course of time, it might be thrown up from the bottom of the sea and form land such as their carses ; but it was lost irrecoverably to the present g-eneration. It was of great importance, therefore, to lay hold of that part of the soil, and not to allow it to be washed away. In thoroug-h-drained land, no drop of water should run on the surface in any direction, but should penetrate into the ground where it fell. By the aid of diag-rams, representing- a section of the ground, with stone and tile drains in it, the lecturer then explained the manner in which the rain percolated throug-h the active soil, then into the parts of the soil not in use, but which had been stirred by the subsoil plough, and then along- the surface of the subsoil, which had never been mechanically moved, into the drains. He next explained, by the same means, the action of the atmosphere upon the soil in thoroug-h-drained land, in producing- cracks or fissures, so that water easily found its way into the channels prepared for carrying' it off the g-round. Wherever the land was drained, it was ne- cessary that the hig-h ridg-es should be done away with, and the land laid down perfectly level. Some people had an idea that water, when it fell, immediately beg-an to find its •way to the drains through the earth in the straig-ht direc- tion ; but there was nothing- which drew it in any way but g-ravitation ; and its natural action, therefore, was to descend as straig-ht as it could g-o. When rain fell with g-reat force, if it were allowed to run along- the surface, as it did on un- drained land, it carried away the whole of the fine soil ; but, in consecjuence of this system of draining-, the whole of that valuable matter was left by the water in the soil itself. The water began to clear near the surface, and before it reached the point where it found its way into the drain, it was per- fectly pure. No better proof could be given of the effective- ness of draining, than to see the water coming from the drains perfectly clear, which was generally the case. As 78 ox THOROUGH-DRAINING. regards the deptli of drains, tliere was a just medium, in order to give them most effectually the power of drawing* the moisture from the superincumbent soil, and rendering- it completely dry ; and of allowing- the atmosphere to operate freely in producing- that effect. Were this not attended to, and the drains made too deep, the water would remain long-er in the soil than would be either necessary or useful. He then explained the utility of having- frequent drains, and showed that a g-iven quantity of rain would take far more than double the time to find its way to the drains, if they were placed at double the distance from each other. He thoug'ht, from all the experience which he had had, that drains should be from about eig-hteen to twenty-five feet apart, according- to the kind of soil which required to be drained. He then showed, at some leng-th, the superiority of the system of laying- out drains in parallel lines from the top to the bottom of the field, or in the direction in which the ridg-es were formed, to laying- them out across the ridg-es or diagonally. He likewise showed the advantage of making them at equal distances, and recommended that every farmer should have a map of his drained fields ; in which case, in the event of an}' of his drains being- choked up, he would at once see where the drains had been put. He did not approve, where ridges were i-etained, of drainsbeing formed in the fur- rows, and was of opinion that the tops of the ridges was a much better situation. When cutting- drains, it was of importance to make them as narrow as possible to receive the water, as more stones were necessary to fill the drains when they were made wider, and were more apt to give way. It was found that from twelve to thirteen inches at the top, in which a man would easily work, was the most convenient width ; and from three and a half to four inches at the bottom, would do for a stone drain, and equally well for tile. It was of great consequence to have them so cut when tile was to be used, that it would be easily put in ; for when there was any difficidty in that respect, the individual placing it put his foot upon it and probably broke the tile. It was of impor- tance to have them easy, therefore ; but, at the same time, not to cut more than was absolutely necessary. With re- gard to the use of tiles or stones in the formation of drains, he had no doubt but a stone drain, if properly executed, was an imperishable drain. Tiles were more liable to accident, and might be insufficie tly burned; and they would not very well distinguish by the eye when this was the case^ ON THOROUGH-DRAINIXG. 79 and a bad tile destroyed tlie whole drain. But there were situations in which stones were not to be had, and it then became a matter of necessity to use the tile. He then discussed the question of the size of the tube of the tile to be used, and g-are it as his opinion that the bore shoidd never be less than one and a half to two inches. The tile and sole were very good, but it was more expensive than the sing-le tube. With regard to tlie stones, they should be broken to about the size of an eg'g- ; and upon many lands they would g-et a sufficient quantity of stones to do the whole of their drainag-e. They woxdd be required, however, to be freed of earth. When he first recommended broken stones for the bottoms of drains, he considered that twelve inches of them woidd be necessary ; but on farther con- sideration of the subject, and from the experience which he had had, he was quite satisfied that a g-reat deal fewer stones would serve the purpose, if properly executed. He found that from six to eight inches of stones, well broken, were quite sufficient to maintain the drain open. But one of the most important points in regard to the formation of drains was, to secure them well above, so that the water might g-et into them free of sludge. Many people com- plained of this, and straw and other similar substances were put in, which, being perishable substances, quickly decayed, and assisted to destroy the drain. Turf, in his opinion, was infinitely preferable, which should be covered with four or five inches of the stiffest clay they could get. He wanted no water to get directly into the drain. He next referred to the propriety of ploughing down the ridges, after the soil was properly drained ; but recommended that this should not be done too rapidly, by which the higher parts would be rendered sterile. He next referred to the construction of main drains, and illustrated his observations by reference to a diagTani. He then entered upon the subject of turf-drain- ing in peat land, of which he had had some experience lately, and exhibited the various implements used for that purpose. The operation consisted of cutting out at once, by a par- ticular process, from twenty-five to thirty inches of the turf, and laying it to one side of the drain. A portion of the peat was then cut by a narrower spade, and laid upon the opposite side of the drain. After this, another cutting, still narrower, was thrown out, and then the peat and the turf — with the exception of the lust portion — were put back pre- cisely where they were taken out. Some people thought 80 ON DRAINING. the surface-turf tlie best tp be put in first; but tbe peat being" indestructible, and not liable to be acted upon by the atmosphere or the water, was much superior for that pur- pose. Another great advantage of this mode of improving* the land was, that peat land could be completely drained for 11. an acre, which was cheaper than he had ever known land drained before. Agricultural Gazette, Sept. 19, 18-16. Art. XXVI.— on DRAINING. By Josiah Parkes, Esa., Consulting Engineer to the Royal Agricultural Society. [The followrag abridged account is from a valuable paper read by Mr. Parkes before the R. A. Society at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Mr. Parkes is well known as a warm and talented advocate for deep draining. In his in- troductory remarks, he quotes the work of Captain Walter Bligh, of which a third edition was published in 1G52 — no slight proof, at tliat period, of the popularity of the book — in wliich the advantages and theory of deep drainage are enforced and explained witli remarkable clearness and pre- cision. Mr. Parkes justly gives credit to the sagacity of Bligh for drawing attention to the very imjiortant practical difference between the transient effect of rain, and the constant action of stagnant bottom-water, in main- taining land in a wet condition.] It is this subterranean water, as it may be not improperly termed, to which excessive and injurious wetness is attri- butable ; and if such water be not removed and kept down at a depth exceeding the power of capillary attraction to elevate it too near the surface, no drainage can be efficient. It is this force, combined with the absorbent power of the earths, wliich chiefly maintain those soils in a suiEciently moist state for vegetative perfection, on digging into which, we do not discover any free water within several feet of the surface. The effect of rain is to thoroughly moisten such soil, gravity carrying down below the excess, or that portion which the soil cannot absorb or retain. Evaporation takes place from the surface of the land, and as each atom of moisttu'e is taken up into the atmosphere, its place is supplied by another atom communicated by the contact of the particles of soil, the more superficial acting on the deeper particles like so many pumps to elevate the water ON DRAINING. 81 and supply the loss. In this way tlie deep ricli loams to wliicli I have before adverted as so rare and so coveted, are maintained in a nearly constant condition of moisture, suit- able to tlie necessities of plants. It may and does, tlioug'li rarely, lia])pen, that even such soils, during- long-continued droughts, sufter, — that is, become too dry ; but the attentive observer will notice a very beautiful and powerful provision of nature to prevent excessive dryness. During- the nig-ht, evaporation from the surface of soil commonly ceases, to commence ag-aiu when the rays of the sun imping-e upou it ; but capillary action is constant, and of equal intensity, both by nig'ht and by day ; so that we have, on the averag-e, twelve hours per diem of the sun's influence to produce evaporation, and twenty -four hours of capillary action to supply the loss from below, and maintain a tolerably uni- form hyg-rometric or moist condition of the active soil. It is, I believe, consistent with the universal opinion, that drained lands do not burn nor suiFer from droug-ht so soon, or so much, as those soils which are wet at all periods of the year except during- the hottest months. This pheno- menon is explained by the fact of a retentive soil swollen by water contracting- so much, by the loss of its water, that it is almost inaccessible to air, from which to obtain mois- ture. After drainag-e, the mechanical texture of such soils becomes g-radually chang-ed; pulverization takes place in the subsoil in a manner precisely similar to the chang-e we see produced in fresh turned-up soil well exposed to the atmosphere ; such chang-e of texture in the mass belovv^ is doubtless slower than in the superficial soil, but it is equally certain to occur. Perhaps no more striking- illustration of the g-reat im- portance of securing- free ing-ress to air, and free eg-ress to water, in the mass of the soil, can be given than that which is derived from the fact, that by allowing land to rest without cropping it — in short, by fallowing it — fertility is renewed, and this effect is ])roduced solely by supplies furnished from the inexhaustible magazine of the atmosphere. The atmo- sphere is our cheapest, it is a boundless storehouse of manure : then why not let it freely and deeply into our soil ? The earnestness with which I appeal to the landed proprietary of Britain to drain more deeply, and abandon the ofttimes abortive, and at all times incomplete, system of shallow drains, is derived from the indications of experience ; and to those well informed of the superior economy and efficiency a 82 ON DRAINING. of the deeper system, it is painful to behold the sums of mone}^ daily buried in the soil with such good intentions*, but with comparatively so little useful effect. In respect, however, of the depth at which drains may, with a certainty of action, be placed in a soil, I pretend to assign no rule ; for there cannot, in my opinion, be a more crude or mistaken idea, than that one rule of depth is applicable with equal efficiency to soils of all kinds : the same remark applies in reo'ard to assi^-nin"- any common rule of distance between drains, which may be greater or less according- to the depth of the drains, and the texture of the particular soil. It must be self-evident that water will flow through a gravel, or a sand, or a loam, with less obstruction to its passage than through a clay, and easier through one clay than through another containing different proportions of silica and alu- mina. There are also many other properties of soil to which the drainer has to pay attention in determining depth and distance, such as tightness or compactness, imiformity, or intermixture of soils of a different texture in the line of his drains in the same field, &c. &c. All these circumstances will affect both his practice and the cost of the work. It consists witli my own practice at the present time, that drains are being executed at depths of from four to six feet deep, according to soil and outfall, and at distances varying- from twenty to sixty-six feet; complete efficiency being the end studied, and the proof of such efficiency being that, after a due period given for bringing about drainage action in soils unused to it, the water should not stand higher, or much higher, in a hole dug in the middle between a pair of drains than the level of those drains. The cost of drainage is in like manner affected by the texture of soils, their stoniness, &c. ; and rates of work are being paid, var^'ing from Sd. to even Is. 6d. per rod (5|- yards), causing the cost of drainage per acre to vary from 1?/. to even 5/. per acre, according to circumstances. ^^.^The following instance is adduced by j^Ir. Parkes of the necessity of ascertaining the nature of the soil to be drained : — • A grass-field at Strathfield-Saye was found very wet, and it was thought that no drainage deeper than about 2 feet would have any effect upon it, as drains in other parts, which had been made 3 feet G inches deep, had not effected much more good than the shallower ones. It was also thought that the mass of clay beneath would be found almost impervious to water, as cracks had only opened in hot seasons to about 15 ON DRAINING. 83 inclies deep. However, we had tlie turf and mould borne oft' a space of about 6 feet square and 22 inches deep, when a bed of yellow plastic clay appeared. Into this bed, which was soft and easily worked by the hand, a hole was sunk. But a very slig'ht quantity of water oozed into the hole until we reached about 4 feet 3 inches, when the hole rapidly filled with water. It was still clay, but evidently of a more porous nature, and there a mass of free water resided. It was apparent that the cause of the upper clay and surface soil being- so wet, in defiance of the shallow drains, was now discovered, for as the upper clay reposed on what, relatively, may be called a pillar of water below, the capillary force, always in action, continually sucked iqi this water, and sup- plied the incumbent soil with a perpetual excess of fluid. The shallow drains might have done their duty in removing* the water of rain — the surface water — but they could in nowise affect the liberation of the bottom water. An experi- mental drain was then made, 5 feet in depth, and 350 yards long-, laid with Ig -inch-bore pipes. Clay was puddled in over this line of pipes up to 2 feet G inches from the surface, and another line of similar pijies was then laid, so that we had a shallow and deep drain in the same trench, the object being- to measure the relative discharg-es of water from each ; and the lower drain was puddled over, to prevent as much as possible the top water from mixing- with the bottom. The result was, that the bottom drain discharged, from the commencement, a stream averag'ing- one g-allon per minute during- seventy-six days, being- equal to nearly 5 tons every twenty-four hours. The run then rapidly diminished, and speedily came to drop only. A second 5-feet-deep drain had been made 36 feet distant, so as to insulate a space of land on one side of the experimental drain, and it will be found that, taking- the length of 300 yards, with a breadth of 12 yards, as aftbrding- water to the bottom drain (6 yards on each side of it), no less than an area of 4200 square yards of water, 5i inches deep, had been removed by this one drain. The upper line of pipes answered to rain, and re- moved it ; but the observers do not think that an_y, or much, of this water has reached the lower drain. The land is now reported to me as g"iving- Avay in cracks to a g-reater depth than formerly, so that an eiiicient drainage may be ulti- mately expected. The following- is an analysis of the clays in question, taken at 22 inches and 4 feet 6 inches deep, re- spectivel}', beneath the surface, by Mr. Phillijis. G 2 84 ON DRAINING. Clay at ' Clay at 22 inches 4 feet 6"iiiclies per cent. per cent. Silica 59-0 72-9 Alumina 23-5 13-4 Peroxide of iron 8-1 6*6 Carbonate of lime 1 -0 0*8 Water, with a little carbonaceous matter, ~i slight traces of magnesia, and sulphate [- 8'4 5'5 of lime and loss -i Carbonate of magnesia 0*0 9"8 100-0 100-0 This is only one out of the numerous examples which I could cite of the lower clay of a field being- more porous than that nearer the surface. Beds of gravel, sand, or mixed earth, also, often prevail under superficial clay, at depths not too great to allow drainage to be made at dis- tances considerably wider than if the drains were laid in the clay, effecting- thereby the removal of the subterranean water, permitting the descent of rain water, and causing a less out- la}'' of money. The capillary force, or micculcncy of soils, varies greatly, and is often very noticeable. It has occurred to me, in digging test-holes previous to drainage, to find the water standing in them not nearer the surface than 3 feet, yet the surface soil has been so wet that water would drop from it on squeezing with the hands. This exhibition would determine me to bleed such soils to the depth of 5 feet at least, and such drainage has been accompanied with com- plete success. Although I am not a practical farmer, I think that I may ver}^ confidently recommend to farmers the laying land absolutely flat after efficient drainage. It is the practice of many good agriculturists in the stiffest clays, who con- sider that even a crease left on the surface is injurious to drainage. Cavses of obstruction to Drarnarje. — Mr. Parkes describes certain causes of obstruction to subterranean drains, with, which, although fortunatel}^ few and limited in their extent, every drainer should be acquainted, and ])repared to obviate the inconvenience they might occasion. The first and most extensive evil of this kind to which he refers, is the deposit of a substance of an unctuous sticky natiu-e, in drains laid in soils containing much ferruginous matter. Some portions of Sir liobert Peel's estates at Drayton Manor were muck ox DRAINING. 85 infested by this substance, wliich manifested itself in masses of red deposit at the mouths of the drains, and on ditch banks. Althong-h Mr. Parkes was not aware of there being- much experience in favour of small pipes in such soils, he retained his confidence in pipes as preferable to all other conduits, from the compression of the run of water into the smallest required volume, and therefore as more likely to prevent deposits from occurring' or accumulating- than larg-er conduits. He was acquainted with a solitary case in which pipes of an inch bore had been used, and continued to act well for several years without obstruction in a bog-gy soil charged with iron, thoug-h the ditches into which the pipes, always running- fiill bore, discharg-ed their water, require clearing- once or twice a year to keep them open. To in- crease the efficiency of the small pipe, he proposed laying- them with collars, which would fiu-ther help to cover and diminish the size of the crevice between each pair of pipes, and close it against the entrance of solid matter. After devoting- a week to the examin-ation of the old drains, he found many of them stopped up with a mixture of earth and iron deposit : some of these drains were composed of the common horse-shoe tiles, laid without soles, and others with soles. The drains throug-h which water was continually running- were chiefly open, having- g-reat quantities of the deposit at their mouths, and one drain formed of six-inch pipes, con- veying- much water, exhibited the iron copiously as a preci- pitate when the line was broken and a pipe removed, which' exposed the water to the atmosphere ; cess-pools communi- cating- with the atmosphere at top, and into which some drains entered, were also lined with deposit. I examined, he adds, several drains serving- as mains, and particularly at their point of junction with minor drains, and I found one of these drains about six feet in depth, and very well con- structed, to be nearly closed with what appeared to be a pure specimen of the deposit, having- the red colour of pe- roxide of iron, and of a pasty texture. This particular mass of deposit had occurred at the jimction of a branch with the main, about thirty or fort}'" yards fi-om the hig-her end or orig'in of each drain, and where the run of water would necessarily be g-reatly less than as it approached the outfall j and I have found at Drayton INIanor, and many other places where ferruginous matter abounds, that stoppage from its deposit is much more frequent towards the higher than 86 ON DRAINING. nearer the outfall end of a line of drain ; and for the very obvious reason, that the flow of water there is greatly less both in quantity and velocity, and consequently of less force, than it is as it approaches the end of its course. This specimen was analyzed by Mr. Richard Phillips, of the Geological Museum, Craig"'s Court, London. Mr. Phillips at once told me it was peroxide of iron, but I wished it to be analyzed that I mig'ht know whether, and to what extent, the iron was pure or incorporated with other matter. The following- is Mr. Phillips's report of its nature and of the manner of its production : — " 3Iuseum of Geology, 13th Dec. 1845. " I have submitted the deposit occurring in the drainmg-pipes to analysis, and I find it to consist of, after drying, — Silica and alumina, witli a trace of lime .... 49'2 Peroxide of iron 27"8 Organic matter 23'0 100-0 " The large amount of peroxide of iron showTi in the above 'analysis, appears to me to be in consequence of the iron existing originally in a lower state of oxidation, in which state it has been dissolved by carbonic acid, and formed by the decay of organic matter in the soil, and then carried away by the drainage water ; when, by subsequent exposure to atmospheric air, it has been converted into insoluble peroxide. The other ingredients in the deposit would appear to have been carried down me- chanically, in consequence of their existing in a very minute state of division." It thus appeared from the analysis that only 27*8 per cent. of the deposit consisted of iron, and that the remainder, nearly three-fourths of the whole, consisted of foreig-n matter. This analysis powerfully fortified my hopes that the drains I was making- mig-ht remain permanently open, if their me- chanical structure were such as to admit water only, and no other earthy matters than such as mig-ht be chemically dis- solved, in which case it was apparent that I should reduce the enemy to be contended with by nearly three-fourths of his streng-th, and direct ag-ainst him, for expulsion, a more concentrated stream of water, by reason of the smaller di- mensions of the conduit. Between November last and the present time, some miles of drains have beeTi executed in the soils referred to, abounding- with bog- iron-ore, locally called " pox-stone," the same as I have met with in North Devon under the name of " black-ram," and in Somerset under the title of "iron-mould." In other parts it is called by its proper name. It occurs in masses, both larg-e and small. ON DRAINING. 87 sometimes in beds. It is intensely liaril, and interferes much with Loth the economy and despatch of dig'ging- the drains. It is the protoxide of iron of the chemists, and furnishes, by its fine dissemination in the soil, the matter dissolved by means of carbonic acid in. the water which enters the drains, becoming' peroxide in the manner described by Mr. Phillips. The term iron, or rust of iron, would convey to the mind an idea that this ferruginous matter was heavy, and would Cjuickly settle; but when it is considered that all substances chemically dissolved in water and precipitated, are infinitely fine, each atom is, in a practical sense, light, and easy of re- moval ; and, in reality, this substance is seen to issue from the mouths of drains in the form of light, flocculent, floating' little masses, which settle Avhen the water is quiet, or are easily brought to rest by stones, grasses, &c.; and this has actually g-iven rise to a notion with some people, that it Avas a vegetable substance, and grew in drains. Up to the present time, not a trace of this ferruginous matter is to be discovered at the outfall of any one of the pipe-drains laid at Drayton Manor; there is not even a stain of its presence visible on the ends of any of those pipes which discharge into open ditches, and where it might be expected to exhibit itself; nor have I yet observed any deposit of the substance in the ditches ; so that the result is very encouraging. The time, however, has been too short to permit us to indulge in absolute certainty as to their per- manent action; yet I may mention one or two circumstances as confirmatory of the fact that earthy matter does not enter the pipes, and that therefore nothing has to be dealt with hut the iron. There is no appearance of any sand or other earthy bodies having accompanied the water of drainage, which is brilliantly clear; and in one field where I had the opportunity of continuing a line of pipes through the field into a head of water which I could stop out, or allow to flow through the drain 290 yards long, at will, no sand was washed out by it, thus giving proof that none had entered the drain with the water of drainage. I do not feel to be thoroughly or sufficiently acquainted with the phenomena attending this drainage, ibr although my previous confidence in the non-transmission of earthy matter by the collared pipes has been strengthened, as well as the expectation that the flow of water in the confined channel would sweep out any fine rust of iron which might be deposited therein, I do not yet, hovv'ever, understand the absence of the appearance OO ON DRAINING. of iron deposit at the outfalls of these drains. Time and observation, assisted by an analysis of the issuing- waters, which has alread}' been commenced, and the drawing- the attention of chemists g'snerally to the subject, may, I hope, by enabling us to detect causes, teach us how to improve effects. The subsoil g-enerally in Drayton Manor Park con- sists of g'ravel intermixed with fine and very heavy sand alternating- with, or broken in places by, a marly clay very retentive of water. It contained much water, our test holes standing" full in the winter, or within eig'hteen inches of the surface throughout. It was chiefly by the pickaxe that the trenches had to be opened, spades being- of little use in the g-ravels. The sides fell in and closed so much that it was difficult, and in some parts impossible, to keep an entire line of drain open before the pipes were oblig-ed to be laid, so that the worst parts had to be done by instalments, the pipes being' laid and covered up as the work proceeded ; for, if not so done, the spewing- sand was forced up from the bottom and throug-h the sides by the pressure of water. All was secure, however, when- the collared pipes were laid and covered in. One drain, about 105 yards long", was laid in a quicksand, by iising' inch pipes completely sheathed in another larger pipe, and no packing- or cover was employed. This drain, which is about six feet deep, has never exhibited, at its outfall, a g-rain of sand • the water is beautifully pel- lucid, and has maintained a discharg-e, varying' however, with rain or droug-ht, of about two g-allons per minute. I conceive this method of sheathing- pipes to be capable of forming- a permanent drain throug-h any species of quicksand or loose soil ; packing- may be a useful and even necessary adjunct in certain very fluid and fine media, but when a drain thus formed is carefully laid and filled in, my belief is that it will resist the entrance of all matter, except water. To use the apt expression of one of my workmen, " nothing- else can g-et in when the water sig-hs into the drain so quietly." A second cause of obstruction to drains described by Mr. Parkes, is the entrance into them of the roots of trees and plants. Probably no species of close under-drain yet con- structed can be considered to be absolutely safe from roots, if laid within the rang-e of their travels; and how far these often extend from the parent tree is well known to every ag-ricul- turist. The minutest orifice siiffices to afford them entrance. Yet they seem capricious in their invasion. Mr. Parkes has ON DRAINING. OV^ seen drains wliicli have continued perfectly free in tlieir action for years adjoining- fences and plantations, wliilst a drain at a g-reater distance lias been choked by roots. In the two or three cases observed by him, he found that a single thread-like root alone had entered, and then worked its way up against the run of the water, increasing into a hairy mass, something- like the brush of a fox, and growing in length sometimes to several yards, imtil it closed the drain as completely as if it had been stopped full of clay. In situations Avhere drains must be laid near to trees, he ad- vises the keeping- as far off as circumstances permit, and the providing each row of pipes, if joining a main, with a cess-pool at their junction, in order that the discharge may be visible and examined occasionally, which would soon de- tect u stoppage if it occurred. But, he continues, it will be wise in all cases, if people will have hedge-row trees, that the drainer so plan his operations as to keep as wide of them and fences as possible ; but better still, to get trees felled wherever they occasion a feeling of doubt as to their affecting the permanency of the drainage, or cause it, in respect of the direction or depth of the drains, to be other than complete. If trees, as in parks, are in the way of drains, I advise the sheathing of the pipes on approaching' within twenty yards, and I frequently diverge from the line and pass round the tree to regain the true line of drainage. Stoppag-es in drains may also be occasioned, although of very rare occurrence, by roots of plants. Mr. Parkes relates the following- case as one of warning-, and as calculated to rouse to vigilance of observation. A boggy piece of ground, very wet and spongy, had been sown with turnips. The drains were found in many places completely stopped with very fine roots in October. It Avas difficult, indeed impossi- ble, to pronounce from what plant these roots proceeded. Mr. Parkes sent specimens of them to Professors Lindley and Daubeny, who were imable to decide upon the parent plant, to which, unfortunately, the roots had not been traced when the pipes were taken up. The drains were shallow, Bot exceeding- 2 feet 6 inches deep anywhere. The boggy soil contained many sorts of weeds, as crowfoot, coltsfoot, rushes, and docks, of which there was abundant evidence when he was on the spot some weeks afterwards. The pipea contained much eartli, which had g'ot into them with the roots ; and it appeared that several of the pipes were almost 90 ON DRAINING. stopped with soil alone ; but it was also true tliat others, into which the roots had worked, were free of earth. From all the evidence that Mr. Parkes could collect on the spot, he was disposed to attribute the stoppage bj roots to bad laying- of the pipes by the farmer, and insufficient depth of drain in a very foul piece of land. He laid a drain dee})ly in the same soil, with pipes collar-jointed, and other drains, to test any difference in future action and phenomena. Natvral aids to Dimnagc. — Besides the porosity of soils, by which they receive and part with water more or less readily according- to their openness or retentiveness, there are other adjuncts or means auxiliary to its reception and discharg-e. It has not occiu-red to me to excavate many claj^-soils for drains, in which there are not perceptible what experienced and observant drainers aptly call water-veins. The clay is divided, as it were, into plates, masses opening- or parting- from each other like the leaves of a book, between which, thin as the vein is, an evident passag-e of water has taken place. These parting-s may have been originally occa- sioned by vertical cracks from the surface, which have never entirely closed again, and so served to conduct away some of the rain water to more porous and absorbent strata. It is a matter of fact, that in all clays in which these water veins occur in the g-reatest number, I have found drainag-e to be effected the most speedily, and I practically use the per- ception of their presence as some guide to the distance at which I determine to place the drains from each other. But the most active and potent of the drainer's auxiliaries is the common mining- earth or dew worm. The earliest written notice which I have seen of the utility of the earth- worm in drainag-e is to be found in Mr. Beart's article on draining-,^ in every word of whose remarks I concur. Earth- worms love moist but not wet soils ; they will bore down to, but not into water; they multiply rapidly in land after drainage, and prefer a deeply dried soil. On examining- with Mr. Thomas Hammond, of Penshurst, Kent, part of a field which he had deeply drained, after long- previous shallow drainage, we found that the worms had greatly increased in number, and that their bores descended quite to the level of the pipes. Many worm-bores are large enough to receive the little finger, and it is possible that one worm lias several bores for his family and refuge holes from ' Journal, vol. iv. p. 212. ON DRAINING. 91 rain. I have very recently found worms twisted up into knots, and bertlied in a nidus formed by the side of the ver- tical bore, and in communication with it by a lateral hole about an inch long-, forming- in appearance a comfortable retreat. My valued and much lamented friend, Mr. Henry Hand- ley, informed me of a piece of land near the sea, in Lincoln- shire, over which the sea had broken, and killed all the worms — the field remained sterile imtil the worms again inhabited it. He also showed me a piece of pasture land near to his house, in which worms were in such numbers that he thought their casts interfered too much with its produce, which induced him to have it rolled at night in order to destroy the worms. The result was that the fer- tility of the field greatly declined, nor was it restored until they had recruited their numbers, which was aided by col- lecting- and transporting- multitudes of worms from other fields. The g-reat depth into which worms will bore, and from which they push up fine fertile soil, and cast it on the sur- face, has been admirably traced by Mr. C. Darwin, of Down, Kent, who has shown that, in a few years, they have actually elevated the surface of fields by a layer of fine mould several inches thick, thus adding- to the pabulum of grasses. His experiments were made at Mr. Wedg-wood's, of Etruria, and are recorded in the " Gardener's Chronicle," of April 6, 1844. Mr. Darwin's researches are entitled to the strictest credibility. Here are some specimens of warp soil now undergoing- drainage by me on an estate of Mr. William Marshall's, M.P., near Patrington, fourteen miles east of Hull, and opposite the well-known tract of land, reclaimed likewise from the Humber, called Sunk Island. When first examining this soil for drainage, I was struck with the astonishing- number of fine vertical holes penetrating the warp to its full depth, in some places 8 to 10 feet. These holes were evidently not the work of earth-worms, being in a much smaller bore, and worms abound in that soil, and were at "work in their own fashion, though no other living creature was discernible. Very many of these minute holes seem to be fully appropriated by the fine roots of plants which descend into them, and thus find easy access to moisture and air. On further investig-ating into the origin of this net-work of holes, it was traceable beyond a doubt to the existence 92 ox DRAINIXG. and activity of niyriads of small marine animals, having' numerous leg's, and minute eel-like looking fisli working- in tlie mud of recent deposition. The tidal stream from the Humber, which is conducted upon the warping- grounds, and let out again with the retiring tide after the deposition of its solid matter, does not destroy the life of these creatures, nor close their cylindrical habitations. On the retirement of the water they are to be seen ceaselessly occupied in work- ing up and down their holes fiirther to maintain and ela- borate them against the next invasion. The death of these amphibious animals no doubt occurs when the process of warping terminates, and the soil solidifies, but their holes remain entire, and open from top to bottom of the mass, serving to admit air and moisture, and to pass the water of rain in finely divided streamlets to the drains, and the earth- worm finally establishes himself in a soil easily penetrated and most congenial to his mining habits. In the field of warp first begun to be drained on this estate, I have set out the drains at about 50 feet asunder, their depth varying from 4 to 6 feet, as outfall permits ; but it is probable, as experience is gained of the draining faculty, that we may see fit to diminish the number of drains, and so increase their distance from each other in these soils. The alumina of the Humber warp is very fine, and very retentive of mois- ture. Water appeared at 18 inches below the surface after a month of powerful evaporation and drought, in May and June of this year, and copious streams were discharged from the deep drains. In its original state of wetness, but iinder circumstances of drought, this soil cracks widely and deeply like the stiifer clays, so that it seems to possess every facility for the most complete drainage, whilst its facidty for absorb- ing moisture from the air, and by capillary attraction from below, are of the highest order, which must vastly aid in conferring upon it the fertility well known to attach to warp lands. But the quality of warp varies greatly, according- as the deposit takes place in ditferent parts of the same stream, and at greater or less distance from the warping river's mouth. I cannot perhaps mention a more remarkable instance of the difference in the properties of warp, than what occurs at Bridgewater, in Somerset. The river Parrot is famed for the almost evergreen fatness of the pasturage bordering its banks, lands which were formed originally, it may be pre- sumed, when that river was an estuary of the sea far inland. ' ON DRAINING. 93 Its deposit immediately in the neig-liLourliood of Bridg-e- water has occasioned a great manufacture of very superior bricks and earthenware ; and there is one article of almost ■universal domestic use, called the bath-brick, for cleaning- knives, &c., made at IBridgewater only ; and it is singular that the sludge or mud I'rom which these bricks are made is collected from the river Parrot's banks, within about a mile above and a mile below the town of Bridgewater. The banks of those particular two miles of the river alone afford the precipitate fit for the manufacture of the bath- brick. The deposit formed, whether more inland or more ' seaward, is found to be unfitted for the purpose. So, in the warped lands formed from the water of the Humber, whether passed immediately from that river, the Ouse, or the Trent, great difference in the quality of the deposit and the fertility of the soil in respect of the proportions of clay, sand, and salt is discernible and well known. Great difterence also exists as to the necessity of draining- warped lands, arising from the depth of warp, the character of the subsoil on which the warp is run, and the particular composition of the warp itself in its proportions of clay and sand. Near to the mouth of the Humber, it strikes me that there is a much larger proportion of aliuuina (clay) deposited, in respect of silica (sand), than about Goole, Thorn, and other warping- districts. There is no doubt, also, much more common salt in the composition the nearer to the Humber mouth. The quantity of salt in wliich the wheat plant will flourish is curiously illustrated in the warp soils about Patrington, and Avould be scarcely credited unless seen. The whole surface of a larg-e reclaimed warp-piece on Mr. Marshall's estate was planted with whe-at for the first time in the autumn of 1844. "When I saw it in the autumn of 1845, the surface of the gTound was crystallized all over with salt, evi- dencing the enormous cjuantity which the mass of the bed must have contained ; yet fr-om this first crop, the tenant told me lie had thrashed out twenty-four bushels per acre. The order of culture there, after warping, is to leave the land to the occupancy of what is called the sheep g-rass, which naturally skins it for three years, when that begins to die oft'. It is then ploughed up, and sown with rape allowed to g-o to seed. This plant is considered to remove the very injurious excess of salt, and great crops of it are obtained. Wheat follows, and after that any other crop to the farmer's lildng-, 94 ON DRAINING, ■\vitliout reg-ard to systematic rotation, may be produced, and ■vvitliout the aid of manure, for many years. But the -whole of this land is much too wet; it is too salt; and its powers will not be appreciable until after deep and complete under-draining-. It appears, however, that the lands Avarped at a greater distance from the mouth of the river, must be skilfully treated in respect of imder-drainage. A complete power of deep under-drainag-e should be estab- lished, to withdraw the water, and keep it down low beneath the surface when injurious, whilst there should be provided means of sustaining- vvater nearer to the surface and to the roots of plants, when imder the influence of such a dry season as was experienced in 1844. In many of these warped lands means exist to fulfil this end, as water is raised out of the ditches by machinery when in excess, and the height of water in the ditches is maintain- able by drawing- it from the high land drains. A farmer, i-esiding- near to Hatfield Chase, informed me that he con- sidered he saved crops of the value of 1500/. in 1844 (when it will be remembered we had fourteen Aveeks of hot sun, without a drop of rain), by his command of water to charge Lis ditches. The warped lands are very commonly divided into fields of 10 acres, being squares of 220 yards, surrounded by open ditches, and it is considered that the water is tho- roughly drawn out of the soil to the level maintained in the ditches ; but this I much doubt, and am satisfied from my observation of these flat warped lands, both in wet and dry weather, that they would be astonishingly benefited by a system combining both sub-drainag-e and sub-irrigation ; but it is possible that the farmer may have reason for not drain- ing this soil more deeply or more completely, unless means are pi'ovided for sub-irrigation in droughty seasons. There has been rather recently introduced by some drainers a practice of making what they term air-drains, with the view of providing for a ventilation of the soil, and also for promoting, as they think, a freer flow of water from drains. As regards the latter point, it is quite certain that such air- drains mxist be superfluous and unnecessary. The fact of ■water entering subterranean drains at all is quite decisive as to the imiversal presence of air in soil, and no one has shown or has attempted to show, so far as I know, its insufliciency. Water could no more issue from a drain laid in the earth, than it could flow from a tight barrel, if air did not press on the surface of the liquid within it. Every one knows how ON DRAINING. 95 small 0, vent-liole at the top of a cask suffices to enable us to withdraw a great stream from it at the bottom, and every one knows that the bulk of liquid discharg'ed in a given time is in quantity precisely equal to the volume of air which enters in the same time. The fact of rain-water sinking- tlirough the soil is demonstrative of the permeability of that soil to air, as ever}^ drop of water which falls from the heavens must first displace an equal volume of air before it can enter the soil ; the water would remain on the surface, and never sink, if, by reason of its superior g-ravity, it did not push aside the air in its descent, which it does until it meets with some subterranean level where the earth is satu- rated with the fluid, and the rain-water then comes to rest, having- disturbed and displaced air throug-hout its Avhole downward course. And by this action we are led to observe one beautiful provision of nature for renewing- the constituent air of the soil, and I regard it as an argument in favour of deep, as compared with shallow drainage, that a greater bulk of earth is thereby filled Avith air, and with frequently renewed air. There are other equally beautifid processes incessantly active to maintain a full supply, and fresh supplies of air in the soil. The continual change of temperature in the soil, and in the atmosphere reposing upon it, has its effect ; but probably the most potent cause is the unceasing- appropria- tion by plants, or manures, or soil, of some one or other of the three gases of which the atmosphere is composed. A renewal of the particular atmospheric gas consumed, whether it be oxygen, nitrogen, or carbonic acid, must be nearly con- sentaneous with its use, and is effected by the well-known principle of the diffusion of gases, and without which neither phmts nor animals could live. I have spoken of cess-pools as usefid and convenient breaks in lines of drains, particidarly in the long- run of a main, or where several lines of drains converge from two or more directions in one common central point to an outfall. The use of the cesspool in drainage is an old English practice ; I have found it in several counties, both north, south, and midland : it is usually constructed in brick. The specimens now exhibited are made of large earthenware pipes nine inches in diameter, with a flat tile or foot on which to place them in the soil. This plan will be found advantageous and cheap, as the foremnn drainer may fix his cess-pools without needinij- bricks and mortar and a bricklaver. The holes for 06 ON DRAINING. tlie receivmg--pipes are burnt in tliese cess-pools of tne proper dimensions, and the hole for tlie discliarging or outfall-pipe is made a little lower tlian the holes of the receiving-pipes, so that a drip or fall from the former takes place, and the run of water from each pipe is observable. I have converted these cess-pools to another use, viz., that of enabhng- us to introduce water into the body of the earth, and apply it to what I have before termed sub-irrigation. All the drains of a flat field may be made to issue from a cess-pool, into which water from a higher level may be conducted. A cess-pool of the same kind is also to be fixed at the outfall end of that field, into which all the drains are conducted. Now, by stopping up the outfall-pipe, and letting water into the infall cess-pool, it is clear that all the pipes ramifying through a field will become filled with water, and that they will dis- seminate it gradually throughout the entire mass of earth above the level of the drain-pipes, and to any desirable height, as you will observe from the specimens before you, that an outlet-pipe can be formed in the discharging cess-pool at any required distance below the surface of the soil, or at the surface. In this manner water may be given to the roots of plants. I refer more particularly to the grasses ; and when enough is given, the whole of the water may be removed at will, and a perfect drainage be established. The introduction of these cess-pools with pipes also enables us to fill the higher parts of a field with water, which, suddenly liberated, will scour out the lower drains, and prove their condition of openness. The cess-pool is also useful when placed close to an outfall into a stream or ditch, in which the water backs up with floods. It may then be furnished with a pipe and valve, here shown, which closes against the rising' of the outfall water, and opens as the flood water falls, letting out the drainage water. B}^ these simple means, the sedimentary flood water is prevented from entering the drain-pipes, which remain filled with the clear water of drainage. In case of need, the receiving and discharging* pipes may be luted into the cess-pools with Jeflery's marine glue 5 but, in most cases, a ramming- round with clay will suffice for the purpose, absolute tightness being rarely necessai'y. These cess-pools, with the various pipes now exhibited, have been made for me by Mr. J. M. Hoskison, of Wilnecote, near Fazeley, Staffordshire. They are admirable specimens of manufacture for truth and smoothness. ON DRAINING. 9^. It will be observed tliat I have not introduced to your notice any otlier kind of drain-tile tlian pipes, and because I consider them to have the preference over every other de- scription of drain-tiles, and for the following- reasons : — 1st, Because the pipe is an entire conduit in itself, stronger than any other form, and cajjable of being- centred and connected by collars, or of having- one pipe sheathed within another. 2nd, Because the pi})e requires less substance of material for a g-iveu streng-th than any other form into which clay can be put. 3rd, Because the c-arriage is lighter both to the field, and in the field ; a g-reat convenience and economy to the farmer and the drainer. 4th, Because, from their form, when properly laid in the soil, pipes are subject to less derang-ement from external pressure, or the entrance of earth or vermin, than other forms of drain-tile heretofore in use. Much has been said and written about the porousness of pipes as an useful property. I do not see any reason to suppose that the ]Mpe possesses anj^ g-reater or less deg-ree of absorbent power than other porous or ung-lazed earthenware, most of which are more or less porous to water. When properly tested under a pressure of four feet of soil, I have foimd the absorbent power of various pipes, formed of various clays, equal to the passing- of about 3-7, ^tli part of the quan- tity of water which enters the conduit through the crevice existing- between each pair of jiipes. Hj so much this pro- perty is useful, and I do consider that it assists in drying- and g'iving- firmness to the soil in immediate contact with the conduit. Mr. Parkes exhibited some draining- tools, which lie re- commended — " They are the result of much care and trial in comparison with others, and of cost to myself and the maker, Mr. Lyndon, of Birmingham;" and concluded his instructive lecture by observing- that in clays, and other clean-cutting" and firm-bottomed soils, he did not find collars to be at all necessary, but considered them to be essential in all sandy, loose, and soft strata. Journal of the R. A. S. F., vol. vii. j^art 1, 1S4G. H 98 THOROUGH-DRAINING. Art. XXYII.— THOROUGH-DRAINING. By Mr. Grey, Presidext of the Hexham Farmer's Club. [An Address to the Club, June 9, 1846.] After some preliminnry remarks, Mr. Grey went on to say, — So much of the land in this county lies on a retentive sub- soil, causing- in it a great degTee of humidity and coldness, that the portion which is natui-ally so dry and open as not to be improved by draining, is the exception to the general rule. To obtain good crops from such land is always a matter of uncertainty. A wet spring delays the sowing to a late period ; or if the weather be tempting for sowing, and storms of rain or snow should interrupt the operation — as was the case this year — such land has small chance to recover the injury it sustains during' the remainder of the season. But admitting the seed-time to be good, and the crop to a certain period to be flourishing, a fortnight of wet and cold weather any time diu'ing the summer cuts down the fair prospect, and leaves a thin and unproductive crop for the harvest. Such was the case, many of you will remem- ber, in the high and cold districts of this county four or five years ago ; up to the end of June the crop was most promis- ing* ; a succession of heavy rains then came on ; the ground was saturated with wet; the corn became yellow, and by degrees thinner and thinner, till, ere harvest, the crop con- sisted more of thistles and weeds than grain. Against such contingencies thorough -draining is the only seciu'ity; by means of it an earlier seed-time, as well as an earlier harvest, , is obtained ; the average produce of the land is greatly increased, in many cases it is doubled; and the expense of, working it is immensely lessened. Every one accustomed to cultivate heavy and undrained soils knows the injury which his fallow sustains by one ploughing before it is suffi- ciently dry, or by a heavy fall of rain directly after plough- ing, and how much labour is required to recover it from that injm-y, if it can be done at all, during that season. When, then, I hear tenants remark upon the expense of bringing- tiles to drain a field, I tell them to think of the future labour which the dryness, and conserpient friability of tlie soil after draining, will save them — more, perhaps, in one year of fallow than all the carting- of tiles, with the certainty of a THOROUGH-DRAINING. Utl Diiicli better crop to boot. So far I bave alluded to corn crops, but in our days tbe root crops bave g-rown into an importance almost g-reater tban tbose of corn, especially on soils of inferior fpiality. It becomes, tben, a great desidera- tum to substitute turnips for naked fallows in all possible cases; and tbis, tborougb-draining enables us in a gTeat measure to do. I have seen a field wbicli, previous to draining, never was thought capable of growing turnips, produce a crop the year after being drained which was sold, for eating- on the land, at GI. per acre; and the produce of the barley crop in the succeeding year was double of what it had ever been known to grow before ; thus returning- the entix-e cost of draining- in those two seasons. But on land less unfavourable, and on which tiu-nips have hitherto been culti- vated, though at great risk from wet seasons, the advantage of draining is found in its easier and earlier cultivation, in the greater certainty of its produce, the ease and com- paratively small injury which attends the removal of the crop from the field, and the increased benefit derived both, by the land and stock if consumed on the ground. Every one knows how much better sheep thrive on dry than damp land, and how much less waste of food is occasioned. But it is not to tillage lands only that the benefit of drain- ing is confined. I know a rough ox pasture for which an allowance for draining was made by the landlord, biit which did not finish the job, and a part is left yet undone by the tenant. The part which was first drained comes earlier, and affords a full bite to cattle three or four weeks sooner than the other, and is, besides, so much sweeter and more nutri- tious that they are constantly upon it, and never upon the other till necessity compels them. By abstracting the •water, the coarse and aquatic plants are destroyed, and again succeeded by grasses of finer quality and earlier growth, by which means the value of the pasture is much increased. The beneficial effects of rain in promoting vegetation are - too well known, and too obvious to require remark : every shower conveys a })ortion of ammonia from the atmosphere to the earth, and communicates a fertilizing- property. It is only when the land is saturated with it, and when, instead of passing through, it remains in it till abstracted by evapo- ration, that it becomes pernicious. The most intense cold is produced by a process of evaporation ; and if water, falling upon land with a retentive subsoil, is left to be removed by that means, which in winter is very slow, the earth is H 2 100 THOROUGH-DRAINING. starved, and the plants it contains frequently perisli, or, as is the case with wheat, lose their hold, and are thrown out by frost. By draining- thoroughly we make the rain our friend and not our enemy, we take all the benefit and avoid the injur}'. It is not, however, only during- winter that superabundant moisture in the land is pernicious, its effects are equally injurious in the drox^g'ht of summer: we see the strong- soils, which in winter were saturated with water, in the droug'ht of summer become hard, impervious, and un- manag-eable, cracked it may be with large fissures, but baked tog-ether so as to exclude all the beneficial infiuences of the atmosphere. The same efiTect is produced in hard frost : let any man attempt to push his walking'-stick into such land at such a time, and he finds it bound in a coat of iron, while that which had been rendered dry and friable by draining- is still loose and pervious. One obvious efiect of water lodging* in the soil, is the exclusion of air; but as the water is drawn off by draining-, the air immediately takes its place, and, in- termixing- with the particles of the soil, communicates to it that divisibility and mellowness to which farmers g'ive the term of " friability." It is from the admission of atmo- spheric air to a g-reater depth, charg-ed as it always is with some deg-ree of moisture, that dry and loamy land is found to resist drought better than wet and adhesive clays. [Mr. Grey then went into a curious and interesting- dissertation on the principle of atmospheric pressure, showing- its effects on all external objects, its tendency to insinuate air into the g-round and occupy the place of water, and even aid in expelling- it; and illustrated its effects as needful to the human Itody, by relating- a circumstance which occurred to the celebrated travellers Humboldt and Bonpland, who, when taking- observations at a great elevation on the Cordillera Mountains, found the air so rarefied as to make breathing- painful, and at leng-th to cause the blood to flow from their eyes and ears, the external pressure being- no long-er equal to counteract the internal impetus of the heart. Apolo- g'izing- for the dig-ression, Mr. Grey proceeded]. Having- said thus much on the utility of draining-, allow me now to make some remarks upon the mode of carrying- it into effect. The first thing-, and that is of essential importance in setting- out drains, is to secure a clear outfall for the water which is to be discharg-ed from them. I have seen much injury and loss sus- tained by allowing- the drainage of a field to be emptied into an open ditch with little declivity, Avhile by neglig-ence in allow- TIIOROUGII-DRAINIXG. 101 ing- g-rass and weeds to obstruct its course, tlie ends of the drains were sanded up and rendered useless; it is much safer to incur the expense of conveying- the water in a covered drain till a clear outlet can be found for it. Another thing- to be especially avoided, is the laying- of tile-drains throug-h a hedg-e, that they may be emptied into a ditch on the opposite side. The roots of trees have a g-reat tendency to insinuate themselves into the cavity of drains, and to run along- them to a great extent — the root of the ash is espe- cially pernicious in this way. I have seen drains Avhich had been run across a hedge-row with ash-trees in it, which stopped running-, and on taking- up the tiles they were found to be filled with the roots of the trees, which were g-rown over with a hairy-looking- vegetable substance, re- sembling- a badger's tail, and had entirely stopped the circulation of water, and spoiled the drains for a consider- able distance from the fence. But I Avould not only avoid placing- drains in a hedg-e, I would also keep them in general, and as much as possible, otf the headlands in tillage fields. It is, I see, a common practice to run the carry-drain along- the headland; my objection to that is, that the headland is travelled upon by corn-carts and dung--carts, and is turned upon in ploug-hing-, so that drains are in much g-reater dang-er of being- broken in or disturbed, or so pressed into hollows that sand may filter into them, than when 1-aid across the ends of the ridges two or three yards above the headland furrow. I would also recommend, in draining-, that the drains of every field be laid down upon a plan when finished, so that no diificulty may afterwards be found, in case of stoppag-e or inefficiency, in g'oing- directly to the spot. Then, with reg'ard to the depths of drains — a subject of much dis- cussion and controversy — I am of opinion, and that opinion has not been formed without much observation, thnt we have wasted a g-ood deal of money and g-reat many tiles by laying- them too near the surface. The tendency of water is downward; and the nearer its downward course ap- proaches to the perpendicular, the quicker will be its escape. It follows, then, that it will find its way more cpiickly to a drain of three or four feet deep than two. And, in fact, in the case of drains only twenty inches or two feet deep and twenty feet apart, the water from the middle of the interval must have a course so nearly horizontal as to be very slow in its prog-ress, and to expose the land to wetness for a con- siderable time. The theory of deep drains is this, that by 102 THOROUGH-DRAINING. abstracting" the water and admitting- air instead, the soil, hut especially the clay, contracts to the depth at which the water is drawn off, and, in contracting", many small fissures or veins are formed, which serve as channels for the water to reach the bottom of the drain. To leave theory, however, as we are all jiractical people here, I will tell you what I have myself seen : a field had been drained at the depth of two feet from one side to the other, still it did not produce the effect of drying" the land so quickly as had been expected: the owner h-ad a few drains cut here and there at a depth of four feet : after a heavy rain, I, along- with others, went to examine the field : we found a small run of muddy water from some of the shallow drains, but a copious one of clear water from all the deeper ones, showing- that, in its descent to them, it had not robbed the soil of any of its finest parts, as was the case in the shallow drains, and that it was escaping- much faster from the land. You will find it also recorded, from most authentic information, in the Journals of the Ag-ricultu)-al Society, that the water drawn from an acre of land in an hour, drained at a depth of four feet, was one-third more than from another adjoining- acre with two- feet drains, and that the run began sooner, after the fall of rain, in the deeper drains, and of course also ceased sooner, than in the shallow ones. M}^ own opinion is, that in hardly an}' case should tiles be laid at a less depth than three feet, but that in many cases four feet would be preferable. The expense should be estimated more by the efficiency of the operation than the outlay of money; but, even in respect of expense, the balance is in favoiu" of the deeper draining- ; for, if drains three feet deep and thirty feet apart ai-e more efficacious than those of two feet deep and twenty feet aj)art, the former comes cheaper by the acre, as there is only one foot more of soil to remove in the deeper drains than in the shallower, against which is to be set the saving- in the pur- chase and carting- of one-third of the tiles. It is, of course, impossible that one rule can be applicable to all situations. Much must be left, in every case, to the kind of subsoil which is met with : in some })laces seams of sand are found intersecting- beds of clay, and then probably one deep drain may lay a whole acre dry better than many shallow ones would. There is one description of subsoil common in this county, in which I think it may be advisable to make the drains frequent and shallow, rather than deep and more distant, because it is so firm and hard, that I believe no THOROUGH-DRAINING. 103 cracking- or contraction v/ill take place in it, so as to allow water to descend. ; on wliicli account tlie best way, probably, is just to dig' throug-h tlie soil, and lay the tile into a groove cut in the subsoil. This subsoil we call " moorband ;" in other parts it is called " pan," and is a concretion of g-ravel and clay with oxide of iron, so hard that it is scarcely pos- sible to break it up.' One thing- I have omitted to remark, and that is, that in making- drains it is desirable that they should be done, as much as may be, in the spi-ing- or in dry weather. When bottomed out, care being- always taken to lay the tiles or pipes level, and directly opposite each other, let them be covered just so much with clay, taken from the bottom of the drain, as to keep them safe, and then leave the drains open for as long- a time as may be convenient for working- the land, because the volume of air which in this way has access to the drain is so much greater than that which can pass throug-h the tile or pipe, tliat the contraction of the soil or clay takes place more rapidly, and the drains come so much sooner into full action. Then, as to the tile or pipe which it is advisable to use : for a long- time we iised tiles of unnecessary size, and in many situations those tiles could not be used with safety without soles, which became very expensive. Of late years pipes have been substituted for tiles, and are, I think, in ever}- respect deserving- a pre- ference ; I prefer them because they are safer against stop- page, stronger, more durable, and more economical. The circular shape is that which in all sewers and carries of water is found to be le-ast liable to be stopped up, because the current is always deei)est and strongest in the centre, into which every substance that comes must fall and be carried ofl"; whereas a Hat bottom admits of deposits and accumula- tions which the shallow current cannot always remove. Pipes are less apt to be sanded up- on this account than tiles, in Hat ground ; and on steep hill sides they are safer, as, when once fixed, the current cannot displace or undermine ' Analysis of Moorland. From Flodden Field. 120 From Milfield Plain, Parts. rarts Oxide of iron . . 34 Oxide of iron . . 43 Silex . 74 Silex . 64 Alumina (clay) . . G Alumina . . H Water and loss . . G Water and loss . . 5 120 104 THOROUGH-DRAINING, tliem. They are stronger of necessity, by the equal pressure upon the circle, which any one may prove for himself. I lately broke several tiles with my hands at a tile-kiln, while I stood and jumped upon pipes of the same clay without effect ; and they are more economical, because they are cheaper to purchase, and a cart carries a much greater number. It is objected to pipes that they may roll aside when laid in the drain, and the end of one may not be exactly opposite the end of the next; but then it maybe objected that careless workmen may spoil any job ; and, un- questionably, all kinds of draining require attention and nicety in the execution. Admitting this as an objection, how- ever, I think it is fully obviated by the land of pipe now made at Whittonstall and at other places in this district, which, while it preserves the circular form for the water, is attached to a Hat bottom, which keeps its place in the drain as steadily as anything of the kind can do — a specimen of which I expected to have found here, but it has not made its way into the room. Such pipes, of various bores, can be made at from 16.s'. to 20.>;. a thousand. I think, gentlemen, I have now noticed most of the points which are important in connection with this highly interest- ing sulject — a subject which is now occupying much capital and giving employment to a midtitude of hands in the agri- cultural districts, and which is destined, 1 believe, to render the produce of our soil much more certain than heretofore, and greatly to increase its average annual amount. There is yet one thing in connection with draining, and especially when it is accompanied by subsoil-ploughing, which perhaps you will allow me to advert to, and that is the depth to which plants will send their roots in search of nourishment, if not impeded by impervious subsoils, and by water, which is pernicious to them. I recollect to have seen in Bamburgh Castle some stalks of wheat which Avere placed there, I believe, by the late Lord Barrington, whose roots had pene- trated to xqiwards of eight feet below the surface of the ground ; they had been got, I think, by breaking in the edge of a quarry, near which the wheat was growing, and which had found means to penetrate its open soil. The extent to which the fern pushes its roots, far exceeding the height of its stem, may have been remarked by most of you on a steep bank, or by the side of a brook; we find the roots of trees, too, pushing oxitwards into the soil, to the great obstruction of the ])lough, as far as their tops rise into the air. If^ then, THOROUGH-DRAINING. 105 this be tlie natural tendency of plants, tliere can be no doubt that, in proportion as we draw oft" the stagnant water by deep-draining-, and make the land permeable to atmospheric influence, and accessible to the roots of plants, in the like proportion shall we increase its productive powers ; while, by lessening- the evaporation, and ridding the earth of noxious vapours, we shall contribute materially to the warmth, dryness, and salubrity of our atmosphere. I now beg to thank you, gentlemen, for the very attentive hearing with which you have favoured me, in an address which may have appeared to you rather desultory ; and if any one has objections to make to my statements, or explanations to ask for, I shall be most ready to attend to him. A question was asked by Mr. Stei)henson as to the size of pipes which Mr. Grey deemed sufficient to contain the water from drains thirty to thirty-three feet apart. Mr. Grey : — I consider pipes of one inch diameter gene- rally sufficient ; more, indeed, than ever will be filled. Look at the quantity of water vented by a lead pipe of much smaller dimensions in your stable-yard. But it is an object to admit air, as well as to convey water, and therefore I am not strenuous for very small pipes : that is more a question of economy. If your drains are, say 300 yards long, begin with one-inch pipes for 100 yards, then take one inch and a quarter, and so go on increasing as you approach the outlet ; and your carry-drain may be made of a single large pipe, or of three smaller ones, two side by side, and one -above them, which makes a safe and excellent main drain ; the top pipe, however, being seldom needed. IMr. Smith inquired if Mr. Grey woidd recommend to put small stones over the pipes, or straw, or any other substance. Mr. Grey said the object was to draw the water, not along the surface and down into the top of the drain, but by a downward fall through the soil into the bottom of the drain, when it would insinuate itself into the joints of the tiles or pipes ; he therefore considered that the firmest stuft" was best for the top of the pipe. He disliked to see straw carried out for that purpose, because it robbed the fold-yard and the dung-heap, and did, as he thought, no good. He had had occasion to drain a good deal of thin moorish land, where it was necessary to cut through a sharp yellow sand : he had laid heather, which is a very imperishable article, on the tiles in that case, to prevent the sand from being washed into them. 106 ON DEEP-DRAINIJSrO. Another question was then asked as to tlie direction in wliich drains oug-ht to be laid, whether directly upwards or in a slanting- direction. Mr. Grey replied, that he considered all drains oug-ht to be laid perpendicularly and at right ang-les to the incline ; for in that way the strata, as they crop out, are cut through, and the water they contain is immediately discharged into the drains ; whereas, in the old way of laying- the drains obliquely, they frequently ran along- in beds of clay, drying- only a yard or two in their immediate vicinity, but without abstracting- the water which was proving- injurious to the land. Farmer's Magazine, September 1846. Art. XXVIIL— on DEEP-DRAINING. By Mr. Mechi. Gentlemen, on the subject of draining- I have had a great deal to combat with — a g'reat ditference of opinion, and a g-reat deal of prejudice, amounting-, in some instances, to a disbelief of facts. I have had gentlemen who, upon seeing- me cut the drains, and upon observing- the opposite drains running-, have said, " You will never make me believe the water can g-et throug-h this strong- soil." That is a very curious remark, but it has been made more than once. I don't think that you here would do so. I am sure you would not; but, gentlemen, deep-drainage must be the basis of agricultural improvement. If earth be the food of plants, the more you give them of it, the better they grow. It is a mistaken notion to suppose that the roots go down but a short distance ; we have constant evidence that they will go down many feet, but not into undrained heavy cold subsoil. When roots come to stagnant water, or if heavy rains come, they are absolutely turned up like fish- hooks to avoid it. They have instinct, if they have not common sense. They search for food wherever they can. find it, and I am quite sure, from the result of my practice, that deep-drainage has made a diiference in one field of a quarter of wheat and a load of straw per acre in the past very dry season. I have two fields which some of you, gen- tlemen, saw last year, that were growing wheat this. One ON DEEP-DRAINING. 107 was drained with tlie mole-plougli 18 inches, and well manured; the otlier was drained 5 feet with 1-inch pipes, 33 feet apart, a very strong- brick clay. The wheat in one case was nearly 6 feet hig-h ; in the other it was little more than 4 feet. The diiference in the quantity of corn was what I have stated — one quarter per acre and a load of straw. The shallow-drained field looked the best all the Avinter; having- had the most manure. I said to my m-an, " This is only temporary ; it Avill g-o to Halstead fair in the month of May." — "No," he said, "sir, this is the wheat for me;" and everybody said, " That was the wheat for them." When May came, the shallow-drained turned oiit yellow naturally enoug-h, for the roots wanted to g-o down, they wanted to move, but they refuse to do that which neither you nor I would do — they refused to g-o down into stag- nant air and stagnant water. What was the result i* The wheat in the other field having the advantage of deep- drainage, became the better crop of the two. Which is the cheapest drainage 't The deep drainage. It is cheaper than, the shallow. I drained my clays actually 33 feet apart, 5 feet deep, with 1-inch pipes ; the cost of this was 3Z. 2*'. Qd. per acre. I have reason to believe that the interest this will pay will amount to at least 60 or 60 per cent, on the invest- meiit annually. Well, gentlemen, then I ask should it not be done ? I believe some of you saw the drainage last year, and I am happy to say that every drain runs freely — that the water all passes through tlie land, except in the particular case of a very heavy shower — for the pipes run like pumps. What is drainage to do 1 To carry off the water we see ? That is a very small part of its oper-ation. Water Ave have always considered our enemy; an abundance of water has always been considei-ed our enemy on heavy land. Now I am prepared to prove that water is the very best fi-iend we have ; and that if our land be thoroughly and deeply drained, we never can have too much of it excei)t at harvest. I am prepared to prove — and it is well known by chemists — tliat water is the richest manure we have. We know practically that irrigation is coveted by everybody for their meadows, and that it is exceedingly beneficial. What are the rains from heaven but the best of irrigation, providing we allow them to perforate the soil. They come down charged with ammonia, carbonic acid, and other g;ases, and disuniting- the subsoil, descend and form new chemical combinations. And there is another most particular use in the descent of water 108 ON DEEP-DRAINING. throiig'li the soil, and tliat is, that it is the only cai-rier of heat downwards. Nothing- can 3'ou g-et to carry heat downwards excepting- water. It robs the air of its heat, the topsoil of its heat, and warms the subsoil. Tliat is one of the most important operations of water. In summer the surface of the g-round is often 136 degrees, the subsoil at the depth of 4 feet is about 46 degrees. But the water fall- ing- on well-drained land passes down to the drains, leaving- behind it the heat it contained. That is a well-known scientific fact ; and we all know, the warmer our subsoil is the better our crops g-row. Well, then, g-entlemen, what a sin and what a folly it is to make water-furi-ows open fiuTows on the top to carry it away, instead of making- drains below — furrows which not only carry away the heavenly rains, but a g-reat deal of the soluble parts of our manure that lie near the top. I know^ perfectly well that, on undrained land, if you ])ut a top-dressing- of soot, and there happens to come in the course of the day a very heavy " shot" of rain, as it is called, you have the mortification to find next morning- that soot travelling- down your ditches rather faster than you like to see it. But if the land be thoroug-lily drained and porous like a spong-e, the particles of manure find their way down ; the roots g-o in search of this manure, and up they bring- it by capillary attraction. We all know that veg-etation has great capillary power. We know it by the great trees. You observe a dry season ; wherever you see a large tree in a field he drains the moisture around from the roots of his weaker neighbours, the corn. The consequence is, that your returns in the present season are not near so large as they proved to be the 3'ear before. Gentlemen, the subject of draining- is a vital one to agriculture, and I have laboured hard to satisfy the minds of agriculturists, and to remove their prejudices. I have done 33 acres myself, 6 feet deep ; it answers perfectly ; and I therefore recommend you to do the same. I think, last year, some of you pro- mised me you would try half an acre. I consider you are bound by your own interest, and by the interest you feel in this Society, to make the trial. I should state that the 5-feet drains are opened only 18 inches wide on the sur- face, and that there is no particular difficulty in reaching a dej)th of 5 feet with only an 18-inch opening at the top. The cost of that is, in honest clay, where no pickaxes are to be used, Gd. per rod workmen's labour. I have opened some drains in a field recently called a light sandy ON DEEP-DRAINING. 109 field. I knew from the appearance of tlie crops tliat there Avas something- wrong- below. It was in vain I was told that it was a hot dry Held ; I knew it was a cold wet one. I began my drains and got down as far as four feet. Every- thing- was dry. " There was no water," the man said. Very well, we got down another foot, and at the depth of five feet np spouted a beautiful spring, which is now running-, and which will run no doubt for the next century. I cut another drain ; in the last foot there was another spring*. Now, if I had left oif at four feet, where would be the spring- rising- up by capillary attraction, and not showing itself ex- cept in the case of bad crops? It is different from top- water draining- so called. But you will find very often that in cutting- 5-feet drains for top-waters, you will bleed many springs that have been your enemies unknown for years. While speaking- of draining, we will now allude to bog-- draining. I have had some experience in that, and I will communicate it, because it may be useful to many gentle- men here who, I can say, in passing- by, have land of a boggy nature — rushes growing- on the top of a rich soil, but •wet. Now, the only way to g-et rid of that water, is g-enerally to cut into the hill above that sort of land. But mind, five feet are not enough here. You must go down at least eight or nine feet. You must make a hole first nine feet deep ; and the chance is when you have made it, in the course of that or the following- day, you will find the water rise in it xmtil it stands within one or two feet of the sur- face. You will then have to make three or four such holes at various points, where it is proved from the appearance of vegetation that there is water. These holes will also most likely fill. Well, gentlemen, now we want to get rid of that water. To do this, you must cut a drain in the hill above these holes and below their level. And when you find that the water flows into your drains and that the holes do not hold any more water, you may then conclude safely that you have done the business as it ought to be. Gentlemen, there is some difficulty in laying- pipes in these boihng- sands, which they very often are. The only way to do it in diffi- cult cases, is to have a skeleton arch, or some such protec- tion ; then lay a yard of ])ipes ; put some straw in first, and then load them with earth to keep them from being- forced Out of their position by the water; then put fresh pipes down of similar length; go on making them secure, and 110 ON DRAINING. thus, at tlie successive stages, placing- liay or straw nnder- neatli and earth above, I think you will render your work so durable that you need not trouble yourselves about it for many years to come. Boggy soil is like sponge — it has an extraordinary tendency to draw up and to hold water. You will find that shallow drainage in boggy ground is like shallow drainage in sponge — the water will not leave the sponge to pass into the drain, but will remain in the sponge by capillary attraction. You find if you put a drain into a hog at 10 or 11 feet depth, when the water has left that bog and you have covered it, as you ought to do, with heavy earth, you will find that the drain, instead of being 10 feet from the surface, will probably be at only 6 feet. The bog dries as a sponge dries. A dry sponge is always more shrunken and smaller than a wet one. That takes place in boggy ground and in strong clays, but only in a smaller de- gree, because it is the expansion of particles by stagnant water which gives that tenacity to clay we so often see. "When you remove the water from the clay by a deep 5- feet drain, you will find not only that the roots take pos- session of the soil, but that the worms will go down and bore ten thousand little holes, which will serve as pipes for the water to the top. They are looking to the lower clay, as if they were aware of the change of air and water. The result is that stiff land, instead of being like brick loam or putty, breaks up like a piece of shortcake. That is the case with mine now. Agricultural Gazette. Art. XXIX.— on DRAINING. [Abridged from " Remarks on the Agriculture of Aberdeenshire."] By Mr. Sullivan. Draining is carried on during every season of the year, and at all stages of the rotation ; but the winter and early spring months are those in which the operation is most generally accomplished. Drains are occasionally executed while the land is in stubble, and also, in some instances, after the removal of the turnip-crop from the ground, just ON DRAINING. Ill previous to ploughing- it up for tlie sowing- of grain. It is, however, during- the period iu which a field is in grass, and immediately before breaking- it up for oats, that most farmers in this cp;arter prefer to drain it, for the following-, among" other reasons ; viz. that the stones emplo3'ed in filling- are then carted to the drains with less difficulty and labour to the horses, and less injury to the land; and that they can he broken and filled in more cleanly and expeditiously than •when the ground is soft and loose on the surface; besides, when the field is in grass at the time of draining, suitable turf can very conveniently be obtained for covering- the stones previously to putting- in the earth. 3Iain Drains. — In beginning to drain a field or piece of land, the situation, direction, and dimensions of the main drains or leaders first demand the careful consideration of the farmer. Their number and position are of course regu- lated in a great degree by the nature of the surface ; and their dimensions are determined chiefly by the extent of land whence they are intended to receive water, the degree of wetness, and other obvious circumstances. They are invariably made several inches deeper than the small or parallel drains, for the purpose of affording the water a sufficient fall from the latter, and thereby preventing the accumulation of sediment at the junction of the drains with their leader, which, it is obvious, would soon render them partially inoperative. Main di-ains, constructed in the man- ner to be presently described, are generally fi-om 3 to 3^ feet in depth, from 15 to 18 inches in width at the bottom, and a proportionate breadth -at the top. The depth just mentioned is considered quite sufficient for main drains, when the branch ones that fall into them are only from 30 to 33 inches deep; but, of course, the depth of the former must be increased in proportion to that of the latter. It is hardly necessary to state that the main-drains are always opened before the cutting of the smaller ones that are to be led into them is commenced, but that the latter are generally filled in before the former, the propriety and object of which must be known to every reader. The following is the usual mode of constructing- main drains : — ■ After the cutting and filling of the whole of the smaller drains are completed, and it has been observed that a suffi- cient and uniform fall is secured for the water, both into and from the main drain, a low wall is built with flat stones at each side of the bottom of the latter ; openings being, of 112 ON DRAINING. course; left at the proper places for the parallel drains t enter. Their heiglit is commonly 9 inches, the distance apart about 7 inches ; and they are surmounted by strong" flag'-stones or '^ covers," any interstices between which are carefully filled up with small stones, to prevent the entrance of earthy matters. There is thus formed a con- duit, or "eye," as it is here designated, of 7 inches in width by 9 in height, which is capable of voiding- a con- siderable body of water. When the subsoil is composed of sand, or is in any degTee soft, the bottom of the main-drain is generally paved with round stones, previous to the for- mation of the little side walls of the conduit, with the view of insuring the permanency of the work. Indeed, many intel- lig'ent agriculturists are of opinion that whatever may be the texture of the subsoil, the bottom of all mains should be so paved, as, however firm and secure it may be at the time, there is some reason to apprehend that the continual abrasion of the water would eventually undermine the sides, or other- wise endang-er the safety of the drain. No doubt the cost is thereby increased ; but, in the opinion of many skilful drainers, it is an exceedingly false economy to construct main drains in an imperfect or insecure manner, for the sake of saving a trifle of the expense. Efficiency and durability are the great points to be aimed at in their formation ; and the judicious farmer will not hesitate to incur a little addi- tional expense, in order to secure these desirable qualities ; especially when aided, as he always should be, by his land- lord. There are various other sorts of main drains besides that just described ; but, as neither of them is so much approved of as it, it is deemed unnecessary to occupy valuable space with any further remarks on this part of our subject. Common Drains. — The parallel or common drains are in- variably made in the direction of the greatest ascent or slope of the gTound, except where it is considered the declivity is so great that the velocity required by the water in descend- ing, Avould be likely to produce an injurious effect ; in which case it is supposed by some to be necessary to direct them with a slight inclination across the slope, in order to diminish the force of the current of water in the drain. But it is, perhaps, needless to observe that such situations rarely stand in need of thorough-draining-, at least not in such a degree as the low and almost flat g-rounds, which it is the farmer's fijt'st care to relieve of redundant moisture. ON DRAINING. 113 The infermls at wliicli the drains are placed in the field, vary from 17 to 30 feet, according' to the texture of the soil and subsoil. In the division of Buchan, which con- tains a greater pro])ortion of clay than any other part of the county, it is in many cases found necessary, for ejecting' complete and efficient drainag'e, to have them so close to each other as 17 or 18 feet. When the ridges are 17 feet in width, it is the common practice to form a di'ain. in each of the inter-furrows. In the other divisions of the coimty, however, the soil is not in general of a very adhesive character, and drains from 20 to 30 feet apart are found quite adequate to effect the object in view. They are often, but not invariably, made in the furrows; the proper direction and distance asunder being objects of greater importance. Dimensions. — The dimensions of furrow-drains are in a g'reat degree regulated by the kind of material intended to be employed in filling-, and also by the manner of forming" the channel for the passage of water. Stones are almost exclusively used for this purpose throughout Aberdeenshire ; and there are two methods of putting them into the drains. Many farmers, agreeably to the Deanstone plan, break the stones to a small size, like those used in repairing the public roads ; and put them promiscuously in to a certain depth. Several others, however, are of opinion that each drain should be furnished with an " eye " or open conduit in the bottom, similar to, but of smaller dimensions than, that of the main drains already described. Each of these modes of filling', and the cases in which the last -mentioned one becomes preferable to the other, shall be adverted to in a subsequent part of this paper. When it is intended to form an " eye," or opening in the bottom of the drain of 3 inches in width by 4 in height, which are the usual dimensions, the drain requires to be about 18 inches wide at the top, and 12 at the bottom ; but when broken stones are to be used, without a conduit in the bottom, the drains are formed so narrow as Larely to afford room for the labourers to work with free- dom. In this case, the width at the top is generally 15 inches, and that of the bottom 5. Much difi'erence of opinion exists among farmers in reg'ard to the most proper depth of drains. There seems, however, to be a general and an increasing disposition to practise somewhat deeper draining than has hitherto been considered necessary or advisable. The usual depth of furrow-drains at I 114 ON DRAINING. present is 32 inches ; xintil very recently, a deptli of 30 inclies was the most common and the most generally ap- proved of in Aberdeensliire ; but the opinion is fast gain- ing- gTound among- intelligent agriculturists, that by cutting- the drains from to 12 inches deeper, their efficiencv in drying- the soil would be very materially augmented; and that, therefore, the distance between them may be pro- portionably increased. When the subsoil-ploiig-h is intended to be afterwards used, the minimum depth to Avhich stone- drains are cut is 32 inches below the surface of the ground. Both these important operations — viz., draining- and sub- soiling — are deemed, by many ex})erienced farmers in this district, to be necessary accompaniments to each other ; for, when either is left undone, the maximum advantage cannot be derived from the accomplishment of the other.^ Cutthuj. — Tliis part of the process of draining- is very commonl}' peribrmed by contract with one or more skilful workmen, at a stipulated rate of wag-es ])er hundred A'ards : these men being- res])onsible for the work of the labourers employed by them. The filling- in — especially when stones are employed, as it demands the g-reatest care and attention in its performance — is usually conducted under the imme- diate superintendence of the farmer or his steward, by the regular farm-servants, or labourers hired by the day, who, having- no interest in hunying- over the operation, are more likely to execute it in a perfect and substantial manner than men engaged at piece-work. With regard to the mode of opening- the drains, the farmers in general are particularly solicitous that the drains, besides being- of the s])ecilied dimensions, shall be straight and even along- the bottom, that a sufficient and uniform fall be secured for the water, and that the sides be regularly and similarly sloped. Previous to the filling--in being- com- menced, or the contractor being- paid for the cutting-, all the drains are individually inspected by the farmer or his steward, in order to be satisfied that all parts of the work have been correctly executed, agreeably to the previous arrangement. Most of the landlords (all of whom in Aberdeenshire defray ' Any farmer engaged in draining, may readily and fully convince himself, should he be sceptical, of the advantage of deep over shallow drains, by getting one cut some six or eight inches deeper than the rest, and observing, after the first heavy rain, or previous to its occurrence, if the ground happen to be very wet at the time, which draws the largest quan- tity of water. ON DRAINING. 115 a considerable proportion of the expense of draining-) have a man specially for the purpose of examining- the drains in course of formation on their respective estates, and seeing- that the}^ are constructed in a correct and substantial man- ner. It is, perhaps, needless to observe in this place, that in every case the opening- of the drains is commenced at the lower, and the filling' at the higher level, in order that any water which may happen to be present ma}^ thus be per- mitted to escape, which not only insures a dry footing- for the labourers, but also serves to indicate any defects in the work already accomplished. Should the land about to be drained be in g-rass at the time, the work is usually beg'un by stretching- a line in the proper direction, and marking- oif with a spade the breadth of the drain at the top. The surface sods are then dug- oxxt, and placed on one side ; and in some instances they are cut with care, in order that they may subsequently be available for covering- the stones before returning- the earth. The tools employed in draining- are, two different sizes of spades, a pickaxe, a footpick, and a narrow shovel or scoop for throwing- out the loose earth from the bottom of the drain. The footpick, or '' tramp-pick," as it is likewise termed, is a most effective instrument for breaking- up the indurated subsoil, through which the spade alone could not easily be made to penetrate, as also for loosening- any stones that may be met with. Sto}>e-Dmins. — The stones employed in draining- are pro- cured from two sources, viz., the surface of the g-round, and the quarry. The small round stones annually g-athered off the g-i-ass-fields, as well as those broug-ht to the surface by the action of the tillage implements while preparing- the land for g-reen crops, are carted into heaps at convenient situations, with the intention of being- subsequently employed (if necessary) in draining-. The fields, in most parts of the county, contain a g-reat number of such stones, and they are considered to be peculiarly well adapted for draining- ; they also constitute an economic material, since it is necessary, or proper at all events, to collect and remove them off the ground ; and they require little breaking- preparatory to being put into the drains. Mr. Sullivan adverts to an objection to filling- drains w-ith stones broken to nearly the size of road metal, particularly in lands abounding- in ferruginous matter, the deposit from w^hich, sooner or later, completely obstructs the passag-e of I 2 116 ON DRAINING. water, rendeinng" tlie drain ])ei'fectly useless. This subject ■will be found treated of" in a previous article (p. 84) bj Mr. Parkes, who has indicated, as we believe, the only mode by which, in the present state of our knowledge, this very serious inconvenience can be obviated. It is with muc'li deference that we observe, that we do not believe that the plan recommended by our talented author will be found effectual. He recommends that each drain should be fur- nished with a securely-formed " eye," or open conduit, in the bottom, which will afford a channel for the free passage of water, and not be '^ very liable to be rendered inoperative by the accumulation of deposit." ProiM'r s'lze of Stones for Dratn'uitj. — Many consider that it would be imprudent to reduce the stones to a smaller size than 4| or 4 inches in diameter, from an apprehension that the water would not make its way with sufficient celerity throug'h those of less dimensions. Others, however, break them so as to jiass freely throug'h a ring- 3| inches in diameter, and there are not a few who prefer them so small that the largest in the heaps may pass through a 3-iuch ring. The propriety of using stones of a small size is every year becoming more and more generally recognised in prac- tice ; and, as the size is diminished, the quantity put into the drain is also lessened. On one estate, the proprietor of which defrays the whole of the expense of di-aining, except the carriage of the material i;sed for filling, the drains were^ in 1844, filled with 1-5 inches in de})th of stones, broken so as to pass through a ring 4 inches in diameter; in 1845, all that were mnde were filled with 12 inches in depth of 3-inck stones ; and the regulation since the beginning of the current year is, that only 9 inches in depth of stones, broken so small as to pass freely through a S^-inch ring, shall be used. The drains, it may be jiroper to mention, are 32 inches in depth, 14 inches in width at the top, and 5 at the bottom. I may here observe that Mr. Smith considers 4 or 5 inches of broken stones to be quite sufficient. The stones are most generally laid down in cart-loads at proper intervals along the sides of the drains, either prior to the cutting being commenced, or while it is being performed. It is found advantageous, ])articularly during winter, to have the stones on the spot previous to cutting the drains, as it is desirable to fill them in immediately after being opened, in order to guard against the falling-in of any portion of the sides, which not unfrequently happens during wet weather. ON DRAINING. 117 or after fi-ost, and occasions mncli additional labour. Many farmers, prefer, liowever, to g-et the stones broken at the quarry in lai-g-e heaps, or bens, whence they are carted t j the drains when rerpiired ; and this is unquestionably the more judicious practice. The small stones that have, from time to time been g-athered oti' the fields, are commonly broken to the required size at the heaps into which they had at first been formed. In both these cases the broken stones are carted to the drains as required, and shovelled into them from the carts, care being" taken not to break down any of the soil from the sides, or to allow any earthy matters to g-et in among" the stones. Mr. Sullivan describes an apparatus, which he says some of the Aberdeenshire farmers have found usefid, for the double purpose of expediting- the operation of filling- the drains with broken stones, and of freeing- the stones from all earthy matter. For this, we must refer to the essay. The stones, after Ijeing- made uniform on the surface, which is very easily effected when the mode of filling- just described is adopted, are covered with turf of about 2 inches in thick- ness, cut from the contiguous surface, if the field is in g-rass at the time. Sometimes the first or top sods are reserved for this piu'pose. Heath, straw, and similar matters are also occasionally used when the land is in stubble or tillag-e. The covering- of the stones with turf is a part of the process on which much attention is bestowed, as considerable damage may ensue to the drain from having- it imperfectly performed. In the construction of the other description of drain — namel}^, that furnished with an '' eye," or square conduit — much care and attention must also be exercised. The eye is formed in nearlv the same manner as the conduit of main drains already described ; stones of suitable size are placed at both sides of the bottom, npon which others are laid across the drain, thus forming- an opening-, the ordinary dimensions of which are 3 inches in width by 4 in heig-lit. In order to render this a substantial mode of draining-, the side stones — or "cheeks," as they are designated — must be all of the same heig'ht, and be firmly laid upon the bottom, as the sub- sequent disjdacement of any of them w^ould obstruct the passag'e of tlie water. The labourers accustomed to con- struct this kind of drain perform the work in a secure and expeditious manner. After the eye has been formed in the bottom of the drain, .5 or 6 inches in depth of broken stones are commonly, but not always, placed above the covers, and 118 ON DRAINING. these are ag-ain covered witli turf, straw, or otlier suitable material. Kot a few of the farmers still adhere to the old practice, when retiirning" the earth thrown out in excavating- the drain, of placing- the loose surface-soil next the covered stones, and keeping- the more tenacious suhsoil near the top. This is done with the view of facilitating- the descent of rain- water into the drains; but many intelligent drainers are now opposed to the practice, and deny its ])ropriet3'', as they deem it essential to the efficiency and durability of the drains to guard against the direct entrance of water from the top. It is considered preferable to force all the water to find its way into the drains by percolation through the sidjsoil; for, if permitted to enter through the loose earth above the stones, it must necessarily carry along- with it a greater or less quantity of the soil, which Avill be deposited in the drain. The most approved practice, thei-efore, and that which is becoming- g-eneral, is, after the stones or other materials used ibr filling- have been properly covered with turf, to have a portion of the most tenacious of the subsoil well trampled with the feet, or beaten down with a wooden instrument adapted for the purpose. This consolidated stratum is com- monly 2 inches in thickness. The remainder of the earth is then put in, sometimes with the ploug-h, but g-enerall}'^ by the spade ; and a few turns of the harrows complete the process. Tiirf-Drcdns. — In reclaiming- some bog-g-y lands in the district of Buchan, several drains were formed with sods cut from the surface, and which have continued in efficient operation during- a period of thirty years. B}" this means, and at a comparatively trifling- expense, several hundred acres of peat-moss have been completely and efi-ectually dried, and, by liming- and judicious tillag-e, have been broug-ht into ])rofitable cultivation. Sod or turf drains are resorted to with advantag-e in many quarters. Wood-Drains. — In some districts where stones are scarce and wood cheap, the thinning-s of plantations — larch and Scotch firs — are employed for filling- the drains; and the manner in which this is effected is cleai-ly and carefidly described by Mr. Sullivan. The wood used for this ])urpose consists of the thinning-s of plantations, i. c. the small trees commonly converted into pahng-. Larch is preferable, on account of its g-reater durability ; but Scotch fir being- the cheapest and most abundant kind in this quarter, is g-enerally ON DRAINING. 119 used. The drains to be filled with wood ar6 usually 32 inches in depth, 18 inches wide at the top, and about 6 inches at the bottom. It is essential to the efficiency and. durability of wooden drains, that the sides be formed with a proper and regular slope from top to bottom. The small trees — or " spars," as they are desig-nated — are prepared for being" put into the drain, in the following- manner : A portion of the butt or thick end of each is sawn olf for placing- trans- versely in the drain, about inches above the bottom ; the breadth of the drain at this part ma}^ be assumed at 9 inches, in which case the leng-th of the cross-bars will require to be about 15 inches, so as to have 3 inches resting- on each side. They are g-enerally about 4 inches in diameter, and are placed in the drains at intervals of 4 feet a{)art; they are forced firmly into their proper position by a few blows of a heavy mallet, the workman taking- care that they are all in the same plane or letel. Any earth loosened from the sides in striking- down the bars is, of course, thrown out as the work is proceeded with. After the butt-ends of the trees (which are divested of their branches in the wood) are severed, and placed transversely in the drains in the manner just described, tlie remainder of them are laid longitudinally above the bars, three being- commonly placed side by side, and covered with the branches and twig-s, or with turf^ Jheath, &c., previous to putting- in the earth cast out in open- ing- the drains. It is obvious that this method of draining- can be adopted with advantage only in situations where timbei* is convenient and cheap, and when the subsoil is sufficiently cohesive to atlbrd a proper supi)ort to the transverse bars of wood ; bence it is inadmissible in the case of bog-g-y lands. The putting- in of the wood is accomplished in a very ex- peditious manner: two persons saw olf the butts, and another places them in their proper })osition in the drain, after which the long-itudinal spars are laid on as closely as ])ossible, with the top and butt-ends altei-natelv in the same direction, so as to make them fit the better. There is tlnis formed beneath the wood a channel for the passag-e of water, of about 6 inches in width and the same in depth. The cost of this mode of draining- obviously depends much on the price of the wood emi)loyed. In most parts of this country, the spars used for the purpose are obtainable at from l.*f. to l.s\ 0^/. ]ier dozen ; and it requires four dozen, averag-ing- 20 feet in length, to do a hundred yards of drain. Drains thus constructed have been known to last for a very long- period • 120 ox DRAINING. on one farm the writer hns been assured that drains formed of wood, in the manner just described, have been in perfect ojtei-ation for more than thirty years. Gravel-Dra'uts. — Coarse g-ravel is sometimes employed W'ith much advantag'e in filling' drains in bog's and swampy situations, where stones would sink into the soft and yielding* bottom. A friend of the writer's drained several acres of mossy or spong'y land, about six years ag'o, with coarse gravel, carted during' frosty weather from a river in the neighbourhood; and the drains so filled are still in efficient o]:eration. They were formed of considerable width, and filled nearly to the surface with the gravel ; and the field in question was thereby rendered perfectly dry, and capable of be:no- tilled in the same manner as the rest of the farm. The cost was very trining. This material, when it can be con- veniently procured, may also be used in draining short pieces of w"et land at the bottom of fields ; but it is unfit for a long length of drain, or where any considerable current of water is expected. Ed'pcnse and Profit of Dm'imng. — Mr. Sullivan gives the details of the expense of thorough-draining a field of 12 acres; we pass these over to arrive at the conclusion, in which he compares the expense and the profit of the ope- ration. The entire expense of draining and subsoil ploughing this 12-acre field has amounted to no less a sum than 96/. 35. \d., or 8/. 0-*;. SJ^r/. per acre. After undergoing the usual course of tillage in summer fallowing, the land got a top-dressing- of lime, and street- dung from Aberdeen, and was sown with Avheat in the autumn of 1884. It is worthy of remark that this was the firet time wheat was ever attempted to be grown in the field in question. The utility of draining* cannot be better illus- trated than by a comparison of the crops raised in this field prior and subsequent to the execution of that improvement. Sidjjoined is a statement of the actual produce and value of the crops from 1829 to 1833, inclusive : — £ s. d. 1829, turnips, a miserable crop, barely worth 2/. per acre .. 24 ]830,oats, 3Iqr.7bush. (2qr 5ibush. perac.),at25*.perqr. 39 16 IQS- 1831, firstyear'sgrass(depastured), valued at27* 6f7. per acre IG 10 1832, second year's grass (depastured), valued at 1/. per acre 12 1833, oats, 24qr. 7bush.(2qr.072bush.perac.), at356'.perqr. 43 10 1\ Value of crops on twelve acres for the five years preceding the drainage ^£'135 17 6 ON DRAINING, 121 The following- are tlie returns of the crops from 1835 to 1839, inchisive :— £ s. d. 1835, wheat, 49 qr. 1 bush. (4 cjr. Oj bush, per acre) at 50*. per qr 122 16 3 1836, first year's grass (depastured), valued at 47*'. &d. per acre 28 10 1837, second year's grass (depastui'ed), valued at 32*. per acre 19 4 1838, oats, 57 qr. 1 bush. (4 qr. 6^ bush, per acre), at 25.V. per qr ". 71 8 li 1839, turnips, valued at 5/. 13*. per acre 67 16 Value of the crops for the five years succeeding the drainage ^309 14 4^ Value of the crops for the five years preceding the drainage 135 17 6 Increase in value of produce of twelve acres in six years . . ^^173 16 lOj Cost of draining and subsoil-f)loughing 96 3 1 Gain in course of six years ^"'77 13 9^ One year's rent, and the expense of the fallowing- and manuring-, sliould, perhaps, 1)6 deducted from this sum ; but still it will be seen that the cost of draining- and subsoil- ploug'hing- the field referred to has been soon and most amply repaid ; besides, that, while the productiveness of the soil has been g-reatly increased, the expense of cultivating- it has been considerably diminished. A farmer who had put down, in 1844, 1,761 yards, or 1 mile of main drains, and 14,895 yards, or 8-40 miles of small drains, at a cost (for cutting- and filling-) of from 1(1.';. to 23.?. for the former, and from 10.s\ to 12>s. for the latter, per him- dred yards, exclusive of carriages, and in 1845 nearly the same extent, states that the improvement in the land conse- quent on its drainage has been both immediate and very marked. The crops of every description, and more particu- larly turnips, have been considerably augmented in quantity and improved in quality, wdiile the groimd may now be ploughed or otherwise tilled in all states of the weather, excei)t during- hard frost. The value of the grass has also been greatly enhanced, the pasturage being- more abundant, and the herbage more nutritious. He is of opinion that the cost of thorough-drainag-e is in most cases repaid in five or six years. Mr. James Porter, the intellig-ent overseer of Logie-Elphin- stone, the home-firm of Sir Robert D. H. Elphinstone, Ijart., made an experiment last year, with a view to ascertain the 122 ON DRAINING. influence of draining- on the first crop. The soil is naturally very poor, being- a thin yellowish clay, resting- on a subsoil of hard g-ravel and clay. The whole of the field, except half an aci-e, was thorouo-h-drained with broken stones in the autumn of 1844, at a cost of 4/. per acre, exclusive of car- riag-es. For the purpose of comparison, another half acre Vi^as measured off" adjoining- the undrained portion. The field was sown with Kildrummy oats on the 2Cth of March 1845, and the crop was reaped between the 14th and 21st of September. The following- is a tabular statement of the result : — Plots. 1 . Drained . . 2. Undrained Increase per } half acre J Market- able oats on the lialf acre. "So 3 "^ a. Second quality of oats on the half acre. '' p. Shil- loeks or inferior grain. Whole produce of the half acre, exclusive of sliil- locks. Weisht of straw. qr. b. pk. 2 2 1 5 1 lb. 41 391 qr. b. pk. lb. 3 3 38 2 1 37i lb. 89 69 qr. b. pk. 2 5 3 1 7 2 cwt. qr. 15 1 12 4 3 1 1 2 1 20 6 1 3 1 It thus appears, that even on the first crop after draining- there was an increase of above li qr. of g-rain, and 6g cwt. of straw per acre, the value of which g'oes far to repay the expense of the operation. Mr. Walker, Wester-Fintray, has drained extensively for some years past. All his drains are provided with open conduits, or " eyes," as the land abounds with ferrug-inous matter, and the cost varies from 4/. to 61. 5.s\ per acre, according- to circumstances. The most beneficial results have accrued from di-ainag-e on both his farms ; one of the fields which was recently drained was last year in turnips, and the produce was valued at G/. per imperial acre. When the same field was previously under this crop, it was barely worth 3/. per acre. In the low-lying parts of Aberdeenshire, the expense of draining- is not unfrecpiently repaid b}^ the increased produce of the first three crops g-rown after the operation has been executed ; but in g-eneral it is not expected to be fully returned until two courses of crops have been raised. There are some soils so naturally sterile as not entirely to repay ON DRAINING RUNNING SANDS. 123 the cost of tliorougli-draining- during- tlie currency of a nineteen years' lease, if the increase of produce he alone taken into consideration ; hut several other advantag-es are also derivahle from efficient drainag-e, to which, however, it is xumecessary to advert in this place. Farmer's Magazine, Nov. 184G. Art. XXX.— on THE BEST METHOD OF DRAINING RUNNING SANDS. By Mr. Likton. [This is the subject of a Prize Essay, in which the mode of procedure in the particular circumstances is well and fully described. The writer gives an account of the results of twelve years' experience.] During that period I have heen engaged in draining- a g-reat variety of soils, hut especially the running- sand ; the greatest part of which had heen previously drained, hut on account of the shallowness of the drains, which were not more than from 12 to 18 inches deep, their having- been covered with perishable materials, and not having- bottoms, which allowed the moles to do g-reat mischief by their sub- terraneous burrowing-, had become entirely choked up, and consetpiently useless. The land in question has a very lig-ht g-rey, sandy surface. The subsoil is white sand, which varies in depth from 12 inches to 6 feet, beneath which lies, of a considerable thick- ness, a bed of marly clay. To attempt here to fix any stated depth at which drains should he laid is in my opinion absurd, as that is a question which can only be determined by ascertaining- the de])th at Avhich the water lodges ; which may be known by dig-g-ing- holes in different parts of the field previous to commencing- the work, and as soon as the stratum wdiich contains the water is cut throug-h, it will at once be seen by both sand and water g-ushing- into the opening", and undermining- the earth around it. For the most part, when mv drains are cut to the depth of about 18 inches, a small stratum of the quick running- sand and water is found, and at about 18 or 20 inches deeper one containing- a much larg-er quantity of water is cut into, which is about 3 inches 124 ON THE BEST METHOD OF in thickness; beneath it lies the marly clay upon which we g-enerally lay the tiles. But it sometimes happens that on the hig-her parts of the field the clay referred to cannot be reached, on account of the increased thickness of the sand. Still when this is the case, the sand beneath the stratum of water, on account of its elevation, is of a firmer and drier kind, upon which we can with confidence place the tiles, never having- found them to fail when a rapid descent was avoided. To reach the clay in every place is not practicable. The average depth of the drains is about 3^ feet. The manner in which the work is done is as follows : — The first object is to ascertain the depth at which the bottom water lodges. If deep, and the earth very porous, the drains are set out much farther apart than when it lies near the surface. Thus they are varied in their distance from each other in proportion as the water lies deep or otherwise ; that is to say, when we can cut to a depth of 4 feet in that which is entirely porous, the drains are set 15 yards apart, and when we find the water to lie as deep as 6 feet, their re- lative distance is 20 yards. But when the clay lies near the surface, being only about 12 inches beneath it in some instances, they are set out only 8 yards apart. Having ascertained the proper depth and relative distances of the drains, the outlet is next attended to, a point which is frequently too slightly regarded, and consequently often proves injurious, and sometimes entirely ruinous to the whole work. When this is accomplished, the drains are set out as above. The land, which is ver}^ undidating, is cut to a cer- tain level depth throughout, so as to give a gradual and proper descent towards the outlet, and so deep as to only require two draws or spits to be taken out afterwards. The earth at the top being thus removed, the level is then used (as, from the porousness of the land, no water by which the descent might be taken runs so near the surface), and the greatest care is taken at this stage of the work to have all thoroughly true, and the descent given that is required, as the finishing depth and the fall are ruled by the top level- ling, before the two spits referred to are taken out. To cut the drains deeper before using the level, would be to render the use of it almost impracticable. All is now ready for completing the work, tiles and bot- toms being laid by the side of the drain, and three men engaged in the work; two of the most experienced to cut the drain to its proper depth, the one following- the other in DRAINING RUNNING SANDS. 125 as short a space as possible, and tlie third immediately fol- lowing- with the bottoms and covering-. The main drains are laid either with large-sized tiles and bottoms, or with two common ones, one upon the other, the lower one being* reversed, and the u])per placed upon its edges half the length of the tile backward, that the ends of the upper and lower tiles may not come together, which Avill break the joinings throughout the whole drain. If the latter plan be adopted, the minor drains are laid level with the edges of the reversed tile ; if the former, about 2 inches descent is given at the entrance of the main drain. All rapid falls are particularly avoided, or the drain will wash away in spite of all precaution, especially where a strong- run of water occurs. Where a fall of one in a hundred cannot be avoided, it is necessary to beat clay into the bottom of the drain under the soles. In setting out the minor drains, the distance of each is regulated, as already pointed out, accord- ing- to the openness of the land and the depth of the water. All long- runs are also avoided, the length being no more than from 3 to 5 chains. I need scarcely say that the whole of the laud is thrown level, so that there is neither ridge nor fiuTow to regard. We shall now consider the most important and critical part of the work, which is the taking out of the bottom spit, and the laying of the tiles and bottoms ; but most of all, the ■ securing- of the tiles from admitting the quick running- sand. The two men who cut the drain to its proper depth, work as near to each other as possible, and the tile-layer cpiite up to the latter, or the drain woidd be immediately closed up by the sand running- in from the sides, which would also let down the mass from the surface. In other words, when the first man has got a few feet from the end of the drain, the second commences taking- out the bottom spit, and as soon as he has made way for the laying- of three or four tiles, it is immediately done by the tile-layer; first laying the bottoms quite close to each other, and upon them the tiles, leaving- as little crevice as possible, and immediately covering- them with about 4 inches of the most tenacious soil that can be procured. Clay would be used, but on account of its being- in large hard lumps, it cannot be made to bed sufficiently close to keep out the sand. Here I must notice, that it is essentially necessary that the drains be cut 3 or 4 inches wider at the bottom than the width of the tile, so as to admit this strong- soil down the sides to the very bottom. 126 ON THE BEST METHOD OF Much miscliief is done by tlie sand getting* in at the bottom part of the joinings of the tiles. Other materials have been used for keei)ing- out the sand, but with bad el51ect. I ])refer clay to anything- else when it can be g'ot sufficiently loose and malleable, so as to bed quite close and firm, and leave no crevice. Straw and all perishable materials are particularly avoided. When the season is wet (althoug-h, from manj^ considera- tions, a dry one should be chosen if possible), and when the drain is deep, great difficulty is found in keeping- the sides from falling- in before the tiles and first covering- can be deposited. I have frequently found it necessary to fix planks to the falling- sides, supported by cross-staj's, to prevent accident, and keep the drain open until the work be completed. After the clay or strong- soil is well trodden in and thrust down the sides of the tiles with a common spade, the sand thrown out in making- the drain is then filled in, and is firmly heat down by treading-, and sometimes by running- a broad- wheeled cart u})on it, in which is put a sufficient weight, in order that the covering- of the drain may become as firm as any other part of the field. This is done to prevent the water from descending- or finding a channel to the tile in that direction, or it would be almost impossible to keep out the sand. Sufficient has been said by diffisrent authors, especially in those Essays which are published in the Royal Agricultural Joiu'nal, as to the proper and natural course of the water — how it does and ought to enter the drain — without my entering at all into that part of the science of draining. On account of the quantity of labour required in forming the drains, varying according as the land is wet and imdu- lating, and again, the desideratum being rather permanent and well-executed work, than a large amount of it, I have had the work done, for the most part, b^^ the day rather than by the piece. Notwithstanding, I have occasionally stipii- hited for the cutting of the two bottom spits, which together sink the drain about thirt}'- inches, at the rate of S^d. per 7 yards. The tools required are the common spade, shovel, draining-tool, and what is called the swan-necked scoop for cleaning out the bottom of the drain. The pipe-tiles having- been of late introduced into this neighbourhood, I have commenced using them. The drains are cut, and every other part of the work ])erformed in the DRAIXIXG RUNNIXG SANDS. 127 same way as when tlie common tiles are used. But on account of the land having- been but recently drained by them, my observations are not sufficiently matured to justify me in saying' that they are in all respects equally good with the common tiles. I lind it sometimes diificult to get them to fit close enough to each other, the ends not being quite straight, and some of them curved in the middle ; therefore, it is necessary to apply clay to most of the joinings. Of these running sands I have drained about 500 acres, and when the plan which has been stated here at large was adopted, which has generally been the case, the average cost per acre was about 5/. 5.*?. ; that is to say, 1000 tiles, at 26.s. per thousand ; 3000 bottoms, at lis. per thousand ; cutting", 1/. lO.y. ; and incidental expenses, 3s. : total, 5/. os. I shall now conclude these remarks by stating the result of these operations in draining-, which indeed must be con- sidered in conjunction with marling. The land in question was an enclosure of barren heath, and had been considered, and really was, previous to being- drained and marled, worth- less. It has now become profitable tillage-land, and is advantgeously cultivated under the four-course system. But to attempt such a work witliout carrying out the two great parts of agricultural improvement which these soils invariably require, namelv, draining- and marling-, is, I think, superficial and unwise, and is always attended with dis- appointment and loss. Journal of the R. A. S. E., vol. vii. part i. Art. XXXI.— the PRINCIPLES OF DRAINING. By Mr. Hewitt Davis. Experience had long- shown to me the important difference between drains of 2^ and 4 feet in depth. Man}- 3'ears before Mr. Parkes had written on the subject, and so satisfactorily removed all doubts by his conclusive reasonings and experi- ments, I had found out that the deepest drains were the cheapest, most durable, and far more efl'ectual in all soils : hence in all my practice I have long- since abandoned put- ting- in any in arable land at less than 4 feet. I have re- 128 THE PRINCIPLES OF DRAINING. peatedly liad to redraia land that liad been previously" drained at shallow depths, and seen that the deeper drains run first, tlie long-est, and discharg'ed the g-reatest volume, and removed the cold damp from the surface, which the shallower had failed to do. The practice of shallow drain- ing- has arisen from the erroneous impression prevailing- that their use is to take the surface water, and not to permit it to first soak down, whereas no rain water should pass off the ground, but all should be encourag-ed to g'o throug-h it, and which, with proper tillag-e and drainage, it will do. Drains are intended to prevent the return of water upwards, and not to admit water from above. That draining- is so little understood is hardly to be wondered at, when Ave consider that until Mr. Parkes's attention was directed to it, the practice had been g-enerally confined to tenant farmers, and the advantag-es derived from extended experience and science were unknown. I confess, until I had read Mr. Parkes's essay on " The Temperature of Soils as affected by Drainag-e," I was at a loss to g-ive satisfactory explanations for my practice, althoug'h I had come to the same conclusion that reading- his works will, I think, at once bring- every one. To his works I v/ould refer all who are about to drain, for it is a lamentable fact that by far the g-reater portion of the money spent in draining- is comparatively lost, and as yet few are aware of the full benefit to be g-ained. One of the most important benefits to be derived from drainage is a higher temperature in the spring of the surface-soil — a benefit of extreme im])ortance in our climate, but which is not fully attained by drains of less than 4 feet deep, and scarcely felt at all when only 2^ feet. If rain passes through the soil to the depth of 4 feet, the temperature of the soil, by the passage of the water, is considerably raised; whilst on the contrary, if drained only 2|- feet down, the water from below is soaked upwards to the surface by ca- ])illary attraction, and will be continually passing- off by evaporation — this rise of water, and the effect of evapora- tion producing extreme cold in the spring, appears too often imknown. I have drained all descriptions of soil, and as yet have never seen occasion to drain arable land less than 4 feet in depth, nor at distances less than 35 feet ; of course the distance from 35 feet upwards will vary with the clia- racter of the soil, the lighter requiring fewer drains; but I take 4 feet to be the best depth for all soils, and the least expensive. I pay dd. per rod for cutting- and laying and DRAINING RUNNING SANDS. 129 filling'-in 4-feet drains ; but labour in England varies con- siderably. There are draining" tools, wliicli, in the hands of men accustomed to them and to the work, enable them to earn 3.s\ or 3.s\ Gd. per day at this rate of pay per rod. There is no material equal to tiles or pipes. The labour of picking- and breaking- stones is nearly ecpiivalent to the cost of tiles. Where fuel is moderate, Ij-inch tiles may be made at from 10s. to ISs. per 1000, the cost of coals being- from 8s. to 28^. per ton; and about 750 are sufficient for -an acre at 40-feet distances. If tiles are used, no stones should be put on them. I put a little heath or straw on the tiles to prevent their dislodg-enient by the fall of the earth in filling'- in, or soil working- in at the joints. At the prices I have g'iven, draining- costs from 65.^. to 90.?. per acre, including- carriag'e of materials ; I never use pipes or tiles less than 1^,-inch bore. I think the use of stones alone is objection- able, and have lately heard g'reat complaints where they have been used, and the draining- cost from 8/. to 9/. per acre. All drains should be carried directly up the fall, never across. The object in view should be ever to g-ive an even current with the g-reatest foil, and then there is eveiy chance of the drain being- j)ermanent and always washing* itself clean. A knowledg-e of g-eolog-y will much assist in arrang-ing- the direction of the drains ; cutting- across tlie lines of strata or deposits let out the v/ater that lies between them. Before draining-, examine 3-our land by sinking- little Avells 4 or 5 feet deep ; ami if you find a porous substratum that allows water to freely pass dov/n, and you are not shown that water rises in winter, do not drain, for no benefit can accrue therefrom. Agricidtural Gazette, Dec. 19, 1846. 130 INSTANCES OF THE COST OF Art. XXXII.— INSTANCES OF THE COST OF DRAINING AN ACRE OF LAND, The Drains being laid with Inch Pipes at various Depths and Distances asunder; the Pipes being assumed to cost Sij:^ Shillings per thousand, if manufactured upon an estate. By Josiah Parkes, Consulting Engineer to the R. A. S. E. p. T! a ci o j= s ■< 1 u . a 1i Penshurst, Kent. H. Putland, t. f., Saylherst, Sussex. J.Thompson, t. f., Horley, Surrey. T. Hammond. Ditto. H.Simraonds,t.f., Hadlow, Kent. — Kepping, Had- low, Kent. Ditto. J. Taylor, t. f., Mereworth, Kent. — Bartlett, t. f., Butleigh, Somer- set. — Maidehurst, t. f., near But- leigh, Somerset. o o 6 S 3 Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Clay with some stones. Clay super hard gravelly subsoil. Clay super hard gravel bottom. Various ; clay, gra- vel, sandy loam. Clay super hard black gravel and springing subsoil. Clay and stiff loam super, with stones in subsoil. Clay with some boulders in sub- soil. Total cost of Drains per acre. 13 ^ 1 7 11 1 14 7 1 8 6 1 11 9 2 10 2 10 1 10 8 2 17 11 5 8 2 S 2 3 ° S o ^ rt O CO l^ !>. to lO -* ^ © o o -* 7 11 er rod ig, and ing in. *: o ID C^ 1320 1320 1089 875 o o o 00 00 to GO 00 to 1320 14:lfZ. p , drawir and fill Cost of digging Drains. " o 1-^ O 00 O to o to eg -o eg eg eg eg •to O CO lO lO to CO CO eg 50 ; cost getting e stone. Ditto. p. "" '"' O O "* o O O CO o 1-H ,-( r-( eg GO GO CO to to o eg eg eg 25 ; drains digging iking th •a o ':'3co O. CO ■* -* to CO 00 CO Ston for bres o ^ § |feg -, ira eg <>5 (^l to CO 1-333 1-333 1 eg "T^ 'P eg CO O 00 O O O CO GO GO O O 53.3 53-3 40 O 00 55 00 00 " Dis- ance be- tween Drains. ■S CO CO CO o o CO CO -^ O 05 Ci o -* ^ «o CO o o CO CO eg p CO ^ o CO o -^ ■* •" to ■« CO to CO Tf ■* CO 3-6 to 4 2-6to3 3 •saauBisui ^ eg CO -* i-o to «>. CO c^ o ^ DRAINIiN'G AX ACRE OF LAND. 131 Differing circumstances necessarily render it impossible to assign one cost as a universal rule in drainage. The in- stances of cost given in the Table comprehend a variety of soils and subsoils, the texture of which occasioned very different "wages to be given for opening out the trenches. The pickaxe had to be resorted to in Nos. 6, 7, and 9 ; whereas Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, exhibit the usual charge in the district for excavating uniform, or, as 3'ou may well call them, Iwnest, clays at the depths cited. Journal of the R. A. S. E., vol. vi. part 1. CHAPTER IV. ON MANURES. Art. XXXIII.— on THE PRINCIPLES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURING. By Baron Vox Liebig. If we compare the experience of farmers regarding- the fer- tiHty of the soil and the quantity of its productions, we are surprised by a result which surpasses all others in general application and uniformity. It has been observed, that in every part of the globe where agricultxu'e is carried on, in all varieties of soil, and with the most different plants and modes of cultivation, the produce of a field on which the same or different plants have been culti- vated during a certain number of 3^ears, decreases more or less in quantit}', and that it again obtains its fertility by a supply of excrements of man and animals, which generally are called manure ; that the produce of the fields can be increased by the same matters, and that the quantity of the crop is in direct proportion to the quantity of the manure. In former times, scarcely any attempt was made to account for the cause of this curious property of the excrements of man and animals. Without taking into consideration the origin of the excrements, and the relation the}^ bear to the food, it was not astonishing that their effect was ascribed to fi remnant of vital power, which should qualify them to increase the vitality in plants. Ascribing their influence on the fertility of the fields to an incomprehensible occult cause, it was forgotten that every force has its material substratum; that with a lever, in a mathematical sense, which possesses ON THE PRINCIPLES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURING. 133 no extension and g-ravity, no effect can be produced, no burden raised. Guided by experience, which is the fundamental basis of all inductive science, and Avhich teaches us that for every etiect there is a cause, that every quality — as, for instance, the fertility of a field, the nourishing- quality of a vegetable, or the effect of a manure — is intimately connected with and occasioned by something- which can be ascertained by weig-ht and measure, modern science has succeeded in enlightening- us on the cause of the fertility of the fields, and on the efiects which are exercised on them by manure. Chemistry has shown that these properties are produced by the composition of the fiekls ; that their fitness for pro- ducing- wheat or some other kind of plants bears a direct proportion to certain elements contained in the soil, which are absorbed by the plants. It has likewise shown that two fields, of unecjual fertility, contain luiequal quantities of these elements : or that a fertile soil contains them in a different form or state from another which is less fertile. If the elements are contained in the soils in sufficient quantities, it produces a rich crop : if it is defective in one of them only, this is shown very soon, by the impossibility of g-rowing- in it certain kinds of plants. Moreover, it has been proved with certainty what relations these elements of the soil bear to the development of the plants. Chemical analj'sis has demonstrated that a certain class of these elements is contained in the seeds ; others, in different proportions, in the leaves, roots, tubers, and stalks. They are mineral substances, and, as such, are indestructible by fire, and consequently remain as ashes after the incinera- tion of the plants or of their parts. ]Many of these elements are soluble in pure water, others only in water containing' carbonic acid, as rain water ; all were absorbed from the soil by the roots of the plants in a dissolved condition. It has been shown that, if in a field those elements which remain after the incineration of the g-rain or seeds are present in an insufficient quantity, no wheat, no barle}"", no peas — in a word, none of those plants can be cultivated on that field, •which are grown on account of their seeds. The plants which grow on such a field produce stalks and leaves ; they blossom, but do not bear fruit. The same has been observed regarding- the development of leaves, roots, and tubers, and the mineral elements which they leave behind after their incineration. If, in a soil in which turnips or potatoes are to 134 ON THE PRINCIPLES OF be cultivated, the elements of the ashes of these roots are wanting-, the plants bring' forth leaves, stalks, blossoms, and seeds; but the roots and tubercles are imperfect. Every one of the elements which the soil gives up to the plants is in a direct quantitive proportion to the production of the separate elements of the plants. Two fields, which, under otherwise equal circumstances, are unequally rich in mineral elements of the grain, produce unequal crops. One containing- them in larg-er quantity produces more than another containing* them in less. In the same manner, the capacity of a soil to produce tuberculous plants, or such which have many leaves, depends upon its amount of the elements of the soil which are found in the ashes of those plants. It results from this with certainty, that the mineral sub- stances which are furnished by the soil, and which are found ag-ain in the ashes of plants, are their true food ; that they are the conditions of veg'etable life. It is evident, that from a lield in which diiferent plants are cultivated, we remove with the crop a certain quantity of these elements ; in the seeds, those mineral parts which the soil had to provide for their development ; and in the roots, tubercles, stalks, and leaves, those elements which are neces- sary for tJu'ir production. However rich the field may be in. these elements, there can be no doubt that, b}' several cul- tures, it becomes more and more impoverished; that for every plant a time must arrive when the soil will cease to furnish, in sufficient quantity, those elements which are necessary for a perfect g-rowth. Even if such a field, during' many subsequent years, produced twenty-five or thirty fold the amount of the seed — for instance, of wheat — experience shows that the crop g-radually decreases, until at last the amount will be so small, that it approaches the plant in its wild state, and would not repay the cost of cultivation. According* to the unequal quantity in which the mineral elements of grain, tubercles, roots, seeds, and leaves, are con- tained in a soil, or according- to the proportions in which they may have removed in the crop, the land may have ceased to be fertile for roots and tubercles, but it may 3'et produce g'ood crops of wheat. Another may not produce wheat, but potatoes and turnips may thrive well in it. The mineral substances contained in a fertile soil, and serving* as food to the plants, are taken up by them with the water, in which they are soluble. In a fertile field they are contained in a state which allows of their being- absorbed by the plant, and ARTIFICIAL MANURING. 135 taken up by tlie roots. There are fields wLicli are rich in these elements, without being- fertile in an equal pro})ortion : in the latter case, they are united with other elements into chemical compounds, which counteract the dissolving* power of water. By the contemporaneous action of water and air — • of the oxyg"en and carbonic acid of the atmosphere — these compounds are decomposed, and those of their constituent elements, which are soluble in water, but which had been insoluble by the chemical affinity of the other mineral sub- stances, re-obtain the property of being- absorbed by the roots of the plants. The duration of the fertility of a field depends on the amount of the mineral aliments of plants contained in it ; and its productive power for a given time is in a direct pro- portion to that part of its composition which possesses the capacit}' of being- taken up by the plant. A number of the most important ag-ricultural operations, especially the me- chanical, exercise an iniluence on the fertility of the fields only thus far, that they remove the impediments which are opposed to the assimilation of the mineral food into the veg-e- table org-anism. By ploug-hing-, for exam[)le, the surface of the fields is renewed and made accessible to air and moisture. The nutritious elements contained in the soil in a latent state acquire, by these operations, the properties necessary for their transmission into tlie plants. It is easy to conceive the useful influence which, in this respect, is exercised on the produce of the fields by the care and industry of the farmer. But all these labours and etibrts do not increase the amount of mineral elements in the field ; in rendering- soluble in a given time a larg-er quantity of the insoluble substances, and obtaining- by these means a richer crop^ the time is merely hastened in which the soil becomes exhausted. The experience of centuries has shown that, with the help of manure, of the excrements of animals and man, with which we supply those fields which have ceased to })roduca crops of g-rain, &c., serving- as food for man and animals, in a sufficient quantity, the orig-inal fertility can again be re- stored ; an exhausted field which scarcely yielded back the seed is made to produce a twenty and more fold crop, according- to the proportion of the manure provided. Regarding- the mode of action of the manure, it has been observed, that all excrements do not exercise an equal influ- ence on plants. The excrements of sheep and cattle, for instance, increase in most fields the crop of roots and herba- 13G ON THE PRINCIPLES OF ceous plants to a far greater deg-ree than those of men and birds (guano). The latter act far more favourabl}^ on the production of the cerealia, especially if they are added to the animal excrements, and are given to the fields at the same time. A field, for example, which has lost its fertility for pota- toes and turnips, but on which peas and beans still thrive, becomes far more fertile by a supply of the excrements of horses and cows, for a new crop of potatoes and turnips, than by manuring it with the excrements of man or with g'uano. Tlie most accurate experiments and analyses have pointed out that the excrements of man and animals contain those substances, to the presence of which the fertility of the soil is due. The fertilizing power of manure can be determined by weight, as its eifect is in a direct ratio to its amount in the mineral elements of the food of plants. The truth of the I'esult of these chemical analyses must be evident to every one who inquires into the origin of excrements. All the excrements of man and animals are derived from the plants of our fields; in the oats and hay which serve as food to the horses, in the roots which are consumed b}^ a cow, there are a certain quantity of mineral ingredients. A horse, in consuming- 15 lb. of hay, and 4^ lb. of oats per day, consumes 21 ounces of those substances which the hay and the oats took from the fields ; he consumes annually 480 lb. of these constituent elements of the soil, but only a very small portion of them remains in his body. If a horse during one year increases 100 lb. in weight, this increase contains only 7 lb. of those mineral substances which were contained in the food. But what has become of the 473 lb. which we cannot detect in his bod}^ ? The analysis of the fluid and solid excrements which the horse gives out daily shows that the ingredients of the soil which do not remain in the bod}^ of the animal are contained in its excrements ; it shows that in an adult animal, whicli from day to day does neither increase nor decrease in weight, the amount of the mineral ingredients of the excrements is equal in Aveight to the mineral ingredients of the food. As with the horse, so it is with all animals. In all adult anrmalfi the excrements contain the ingredients of the soil according to the quantities and relative 2Jroportio7is in which they are contained in their food. The mineral substances of the food whicli have remained. ARTIFICIAL MANURING. 137 in the body of the animals, and served to increase their weig-ht, are found ag-ain in the hones and excrements of man "who consumes the flesh of these animals. The excrements of man contain the elements of the soil, of bread or of grain, of veg-etables and meat. These discoveries explain, in a most simple and satisfac- tory manner, the fertilizing- effect which manure produces on our fields. It is now obvious why manure renders again fertile the exhausted fields ; why by its means their productiveness can be augmented; why the latter is in a direct ratio to the quantity of manure administered. The exhaustion of the soil by subsequent crops — its decrease in fertility — is produced by the gradual removal of the mineral elements, in a soluble state, which are necessary for the development of our cultivated plants. By a suj)ply of manure they are again restored to that state suited to serve as noiu-ishment to a new vegetation. If the supply of the removed elements of the soil, by means of manure, be sufficient ; if the quantity taken away be restored, the original fertility re-appears ; if the supply be greater, the produce increases ; a defective supply gives a smaller produce. It is now explained why the different kinds of manure exercise an unequal effect upon the fields. The excrements of man, and the guano, containing espe- cially the mineral ingredients of grain and meat, exercise far greater influence on the amount of produce in grain in a field in which these ingredients are wanting, even if those of the leaves and stalks are present in sufficient quantity, than, the excrements of an animal which feeds on roots or green fodder. The excrements of the latter contain the mineral elements of the leaves, stalks, and roots, in prevailing quan- tity, and have a greater value for the production of roots and foliaceous plants than those of man or birds, which contain only a small quantity of those mineral substances which they require for their development. If we compare, for instance, the composition of guano with the excrements of the cow — solid and fluid excrements in the same state of dryness — it is found, that in an equal weight the latter contain five to seven times more of the mineral ingredients of turnii)s and potatoes than the former. If, in a soil which is deprived of all these mineral sub- stances, we Avish to force a crop of turnips by means of guano, we require at least five times more of guano than duno- of cattle. 138 ON THE PRINCIPLES OF The same thing- happens, thoug-h vice versa, if we wish to produce a rich crop of grain by means of animal excrements; in this case, one part of giiano and five parts of animal ex- crements produce the same effect as 13-15 parts of animal excrements. To understand the proper meaning* of these numerical proportions, it is sufficient to mention that 400 pounds of bones contain as much phosphoric acid as 1,000 pounds of wheat; these 400 pounds of bones can furnish sufficient phosphoi'ic acid to 8 acres. If we take the importation of bones into Great Britain in the last ten years to amount to one million of tons, enough phosphoric acid has been supplied to the fields for 25 mil- lions of tons of wheat ; but only a small proportion of the phosphoric acid of the bones is in a state to be assimilated by the plants, and applicable to the formation of the g-rain. The plants, in order to apply the other far g-reater part of that phosphoric acid to their formation, must find a certain quantity of alkaline bases besides the bone earth, which are not given to the plants in the bones, because they contain neither potash nor soda. To have increased the fertility of the fields in the right proportion, 800,000 tons of potash ought to have been added to the one million of tons of bones, in a, suitable form. The same is the case with guano; 60 to 100 pounds of it are sufficient to furnish phosi)horic acid to one acre of tur- nips; but the four to eight fold quantity is required to furnish the turnips with the necessary alkaline bases, and it is still doubtful whether they can be at all provided with, the latter by means of the salts with alkaline bases which the guano contains. At a time when the necessity of the mineral substances for the growth and develo]nnent of the plants, and the direct relation which the effect of manure has to its amount of the same substances, had not been ascertained, a prominent value was ascribed to the organic matters which it contains. For a long time it was thought that the produce of a field of those substances, containing nitrogen, which serve as food for man and animals, stood in a direct proportion to the nitrogen contained in manure. It was believed that its commercial value or its value as manure might be expressed in per cents, by its proportion of nitrogen, but later and more convincing observations have induced me to contradict this o})inion. ARTIFICIAL MANURING. 139 If the nitrog'en and carbonic acid formed by tlie decay and decomposition of the vegetable ing-redients of manure were the cause of its fertilizing- power, this oug"ht also to be seen if the mineral substances are excluded. Direct experi- ments liave shown that the nitrog-en of the excrements can be assimilated by the plants in the form of ammonia ; but that ammonia, as well as carbonic acid, althoug-h it is indis- pensable for the development of all plants, can accelerate the growth of plants and increase the produce of a field of grain, roots, and tubercles, only if at the same time the mineral in- gredients contained in the manure which is applied are in a state in which they are suited for assimilation. If the latter are excluded, carbonic acid and ammonia have no effect on vegetation. On the other hand, ex])erience has shown that on many fields the produce which is rich in carbon and ammonia can be increased to an extraordinary amount without any supply of such matters as furnish these substances. On fields which are provided with a certain cpiantity of marl or slacked lime, or with bone-earth and gypsum — sub- stances which cannot give up to the plants either carbon or nitrogen — rich crops are obtained, in many places, of grain, tubers, and roots, entirely in contradiction with the view which ascribes the eflfect of the manure to its amount of in- gredients containing nitrogen or carbonic acid. To ex})lain this process, which is so opposite to the com- mon opinion, the marl, the lime, the gypsum, the alkalies, and the bone earth were regarded as stimulants, which acted on the plants like spices on the food of man, of which it was believed that they increased the power of assimilation, and allowed the individuals to consume larger cpumtities of food. This view is contradicted if we consider that stimulants mean such substances as do not serve for the nourishment of the organism or for the formation of org-anic elements, and can only increase the weight of the body if at the same time a certain increase of food is given. In supplying the fields with the above mentioned substances the weight of the plants becaiue increased in all their separate parts, w^ith- out their having been provided wath the quantity of food which, according to theor}^, was necessary to this extraordi- nary increase, viz., with carbonic acid and ammonia. Chemical analysis shows that these so called stimulants are either actual ingredients of manure, as gypsum, bone earth, and the active substances of the marl, or that they 140 ON THE PRINCIPLES OF are the means by which the mineral elements contained in the soil are resolved into a state adapted for being- assimi- lated by the plants; this is generally effected by the appli- cation of slacked lime. They consequently exercise on the vital process of the plants not a mere stimulus like the spices, but are consumed for the development of the leaves, seeds, roots, etc.; they becom.e constituent parts of them, as can be shown with certainty by chemical analyses. The success which has followed the application of these substances to the fields, has explained, in a most striking- manner, the origin of the carbon and nitrogen in the plants. In the marl, in the bone earth, in the gypsum, in the nitrate of soda, no carbon is provided to the fields ; and yet, in many cases, the same produce, in some even a higher one was obtained, than by the application of a manure contain- ing carbon and nitrogen. As the soil after the crop does not contain less carbonaceous or nitrogenous substances, it is evident that these products which had been obtained without any carbonic or azotic manures, must have got the carbon and nitrogen of their leaves, roots, and stalks from the atmosphere ; it follows, therefore, that the productive- ness of the fields cannot be in proportion with a supply of carbonaceous and azotic substances, but that the fertility depends only on the supply of those ingredients which should be provided by the soil. The soil does not only serve the purpose of fixing the plants and their roots; it participates in vegetable life through the absorption of certain of its elements. If these elements are present in sufficient quantity, and in appropriate proportions, the soil contains the conditions which render the plant capable of absorbing carbonic acid and ammonia from the air, which is an inexhaustible storehouse for them, and renders their elements capable of being assimilated by their organism. The agTiculturist must, therefore, confine himself to giving* to the field the composition necessary to the development of the plants which he intends to grow ; it must be his principal task to supply and restore all the elements required in the soil, and not only one, as is so frequently done ; the ingredients of the air, carbonic acid and ammonia, the plants can, in most cases, procure without man's interference: he must take care to give to his field that physical condition which renders possible and increases the assimilation of these in- ARTIFICIAL MANURING. 14l gredients by tlie plant ; lie must remove the impediments which diminish their etieet. The favourable influence ■which bone earth, gypsum, and nitrate of soda, exercise on the fields has induced many- farmers to the belief that in applying- them they can dis- pense with manure or with the other elements of the soil ; it requires, however, only little attention to see the great error of this opinion. We observe that the eliect of these substances is not equal on all fields ; in one place the amoimt of produce is increased by the lime, by the bone earth, and by g'vpsum ; in another country, or on other fields, these substances in no way favour veg'etation. From this arises the contradictory views of farmers reg-arding- these matters as manures. If one farmer thinks the liming" of his fields quite indispensable for rendering- them fertile, another de- clares that lime produces no effect at all. The reason of this difference is very simple. The exami- nation of a soil upon which lime has had no effect shows that it was already rich in this substance ; it further shows that its effect extends only to those kinds of soil in which lime is wanting-, or in which it is found in too small a quantity, or in a condition which is not suited to its assimi- lation by the plant. Lime especially serves for resolving- the silicates of alumina (clay), and consequently it cannot fertilize soils in which clay is wanting- — for instance, sandy soils. It must be apparent to every one, that on the cal- careous and g-ypseous fields of France and Eng-land, one- half per cent, of g-ypsum or lime can have no influence at all on vegetation. This can be said with equal justice of bone ashes, and of every other mineral substance serving- for the nourishment of plants. If these substances exercise a favourable effect, some of the constituents of the soil or manure are restored which are indispensable to the nourishment of plants, and which have been wanting- in the soil. If this be the case, the other bodies, equally necessary, must be present in sufficient quantity. On a field in which sulphate of lime has acted favourably, and in which clover had been cultivated as fallow without it, the crop was 2200 lb. of clover hay, in which 53 lb. of potash were removed. On the same field, after it had been g-ypsed, 8,000 lb. of hay were produced, which contained 191 lb. of ])otash. If this potash had not been present in the soil, the g-ypsum would have had no effect — the crop would not have been increased. 142 ON THE rniNciPLES of On fields which are richly provided with all the other mineral ing-redients, with the exception of gypsum, the latter is applied with the greatest success. But if gypsum is pre- sent in the soil, the same eifects are produced hy ashes and lime, as is the case in Flanders. On fields in which phos- phate of lime is wanting, bone ashes increase the produce of grain, clover, or grass ; and on argillaceous soil, lime pro- duces a decided improvement. All these substances act only on those fields which are defective in them, and if the other elements of the soils are present : the latter cause the former to come into action, and rice versa. The farmers who thought that by using lime, gypsum, bone earth, ifcc, they might dispense with animal manure, very soon ob- served that their fields deteriorated. They observed that after a third or fourth successive manuring with those simple substances the produce decreased ; that, as is the common expression, the soil became tired of the manure, that at last the field scarcely produced the seed. It is evident from this, what is the action of the mineral elements in the soil. If, in fact, in the first years, the pro- duce of the soil had increased by the application of bone- ashes, or by a single element of the manure — if this increase was dependent on the amount in the soil of the other mineral elements, a certain quantity of those was annually taken up by the plants and removed in the harvest ; and a time must at last arrive in which it is exhausted by the repeated re- moval ; the soil must become barren, because, of all removed elements, only one or the other, and not all of them in a right j)ro]iortion, have been restored. The right proportion of the supply is, however, the only true scientific basis of agriculture. If we subject the fluid and solid excrements of men and animals to an exact analysis, and compare the elements of them according to their weight, some constant relations be- tween these elements impress themselves upon the mind, the knowledge of which is of some importance. If the excrements of an animal are collected with some care, and left to themselves for some days, their nitrogen appears to have been converted, more or less perfectly, into ammonia. In the fluid excrements, in the urine, the salts of the food, which are soluble in water, are found in the form of alkaline carbonates, or of sulphates, phosphates, and other salts, with alkaline bases. In the solid excrements or ARTIFICIAL MANURING. 143 faces, silica, if it was contained in the food, earthy carbo- nates, and phosphates, are the principal ing-redients. The cpiantity of alkaline carbonates bears a certain pro- portion to the amylum, sugar, pectine, or the gam of the food. The urine of an animal which has been fed with potatoes or turnips, is rich in alkaline carbonates. The potatoes, however, consist principally of amylum ; the chief ingredients of the turnips are sugar and pectine. The urine of a horse which has been fed with hay and oats is relatively poor in alkalies, if compared with the former. It is further shown that the ammonia, or the nitrogen of the excrements, bears a certain proportion to the phosphates ; the azote increases or decreases with the C[uantity of the phosphates, in a manner that both can serve as a measure for each other, although not cpiite as an accurate one. It is not cpiite accurate, because the gum and the amylum also contain a certain, though small cpiantity of phosphate of lime, as has been proved in my laboratory. The ammonia of the excrements is of course derived from the nitrogenous substances in the food ; the phosphates are likewise constituents of the latter. In the composition of the food, an equally constant proportion exists between both, A given weight of gluten or casein, in peas or in grain, always corresponds with a certain weight of phosphates. If the grain or the vegetable is rich in those azotic products of vegetable life, it is also rich in phosphates. If it is deficient in them, the equality of the latter decreases in an equal ratio. As the amount of nitrogen in manure is a measure for its amount in phosphates, and as manure contains, besides these, also the other ingredients of the soil which are required by the grain or by the other vegetables for their development, and taken up by them from the soil, it is easily conceived what was the cause of the error in regarding the azote of the manure as the principal cause of its efficac}'. The reason was, that the ammonia of the manure is always accompanied by the mineral elements which aflect its nourishing quali- ties, because they render its assimilation into the organism of the plant, and its transition into a nitrogenous constituent, possible. Without jihosphates, and without the other mineral elements of the food of pknts, the ammonia exercises no influence whatever upon vegetable life. If it has been shown that the fertility of the soil depends on certain mineral substances ; if the restoration of the fer- 144 ON THE PRINCIPLES OF tility of exhausted fields by means of the excrements of man and animals dej^ends upon their proportions of these matters; if the effect of the manures accelerating- the veg-etation de- pends upon their proportions of ammonia, it is clear that we can only dispense with the latter when we provide all effi- cacious elements exactly in those proportions and in that form most pro})er for assimilation by the veg'etable org-anism in which they are found in the most fertile soil or in the most efficacious manure. According- to our present knowledg-e of the effect of the constituent i)arts of manure, I feel convinced that it is indif- ferent to the ]ilants from which source they are derived. The dissolved apatite (phosphate of lime) from Spain, the potash derived from the felspar, the ammonia from the g-as-works, must exercise the same effects on vegetable life as the bone earth, the potash, or the ammonia, which we provide in nature. We live in a time when this conclusion is to be subjected to a comprehensive and accurate trial ; and if the result corresponds with the expectations which Ave are entitled to make, if the animal excrements can be replaced by their efficacious elements, a new era of ng-riculture must beg-in. I invite the enlightened farmers of England to imite with me for that purpose, and to lend me their aid. Whatever may be the result of these experiments, it is necessary for the future prosperit}^ of ag-ricultm-e that they be made. They will enrich us with a number of valuable facts ; we shall as- certain where we have wasted efficacious matters in the common course of farming- ; we shall acquire an exact know- ledg-e of those substances which are necessary, and of those which are dispensable. For a number of years, m3'Self and many young- talented chemists have been occupied with the analj'sis of those mineral substances which are constituent elements of our plants of culture, and with the examination of the excre- ments of man and animals, as well as of a g-reat number of soils acknowledged as fertile. These labours have been laid before the scientific world long- since, but only a very con- fined application has been made of them in agriculture. The farmer is, by his position, not in the condition to procure and to command the efficacious elements necessary for the restoration and increase of the fertility of his fields in a right proportion and suitable form. For this purpose, science and industry must combine their aid. ARTIFICIAL MANURING. 145 I have been fortunate to remove the difficulties which are opposed to the appHcation of a mere mixture of the elements of manure. If we employ the different elements of manure exactly in those proportions in which they are necessary, according- to experience, for a rich crop of wheat, peas, tur- nips, potatoes, and if, at the same time, we leave them in their common state, they do not produce that etlect which we mig-ht have expected ; the cause of this is, that the ditierent elements of manure i^ossess a very unequal solubility; the ammonia evaporates, the soluble elements are carried otf by the rain, and the effect is more in proportion with the amount of those ing-redients of the manure which are less soluble. I have found means to give to every soluble ingredient of manure, by its combination with others, any degree of solu- bility, without altering- its effect on veg-etation. I g-ive, for instance, the alkalies in such a state as not to be more solu- ble than g-ypsum,i which, as is well known, acts throug'h many years, as long- as a particle of it remains on the acre. The mixture of the manure has been adapted to the mean quantity of the rain in this country ; the manure which is used in summer has a g-reater deg-ree of solubility than that used in winter. Experience must lead to further results ; and in future the farmer will be able to calculate the amount of produce of his fields, if temperature, want of rain, &c., do not oppose its coming- fairly into action. I must, however, observe that the artificial manures in no ■way alter the mechanical condition of the fields, and they do not render a heavy soil more accessible to air and moisture. For such fields the porous stable manure will always have its g-reat value : it can be given together with the artificial manure. All manure which is to be used during the winter contains a quantity of ammonia corresponding- with the amount of nitrogen in the grain crops which are to be grown. Expe- riments in which I am at present engaged will show whether in future times the cost of this manure can be greatly les- sened by excluding half or the whole amount of ammonia.^ ' Equal parts of carbonate of potash and carbonate of lime (chalk), melted together, will dissolve in 460 parts of water. Increase of chalk lessens, while a larger proportion of the other ingredient increases, the solubility. E. N. H. * Dr. Krocker, in his laboratory, has determined, in the course of the last term, the ammonia present in moist soils of great varied physical pro- perties. The results are still unpublished; but he remarked to me one L 146 ON THE COMPOSITION AND USE I believe that this can he accomplished for many plants — as for clover and all very foliaceons veg-etables, and for peas and beans ; but m}^ trials are not so far advanced as to prove the fact with certainty. Giessen University, 1845. Art. XXXIV.— on THE COMPOSITION AND USE OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES. A Lecture by Professor Johnston. Professor Johnston said, that what he had to do, was to explain the nature of what were called artificial manures, and to recommend their use. In reg-ard to the nature of these manures he might state to them that they might be urrang-ed into two different classes — such as consisted of mineral matter only, and those which were composed of or- g'anic matter. He believed most of them were aware that the mineral matter contained in the soil, and the mineral matter contained in plants, was composed of the same substances. There were a considerable number of different thing-s of a mineral nature, which went to the composition of plants. These were the mineral substances contained in the mineral manures. Some of the manures applied to the land con- day, that if the ammonia per-centage of the soil then in hand be estimated as constant through a depth of 1 foot, the ammonia in an acre was about 8000 lb. Even in sand destitute of soluble mineral salts, and nearly so of organic matter, he found a per-centage that was startling. Indeed, the sum of his results is, that the ammonia is in nearer relation to the moisture than to anything else. I found ammonia in the glaciers that come down from heights of 14,000 feet above the level of the sea — from near the summit of Mont Blanc. Even at that height the ammonia is still in quantity that may be weighed. Every rain and snow storm brings this ingredient to the earth. Every soil that can retain its moisture will also retain the ammonia that de- scended with it. Hence one cause of superiority of a soil containing much decayed vegetable matter or much humus. It enables it to hold moisture, as well as furnish a source of carbonic acid. A rod dipped in muriatic acid, and held near the surface of a handful of moist soil, will cause white fumes to rise, occasioned by a combination of the ammonia with the muriatic acid. A gentle breath directed along the surface of the earth, experimented with will render the fumes more apparent. E. N. H. OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES. l47 sisted wliolly of this mineral matter. Among-st these, gyp- sum was much used, which was entirely a mineral manure, consisting- of sulphuric acid and lime, common sulphate of soda, and other substances. But tliere were mixtures of those substances, and those mixtures were now used very extensively. There was also a class of artificial manures, which contained what he mig-ht call combustible or org-anic matter, which could be consumed or burned. The manure used in fertilizing- g-round very frequently contained a por- tion of tliis org-anic matter, which was of g-reat value in the g-rowth of plants, and which he would by-and-by explain. Among-st those manures, so extensively used of late were, ox- hones, which were composed of the following- substances, — Cartilage 33-3 Phosphate of lime 57 '4 Phosphate of magnesia 2-0 Carbonate of lime 3-9 Soda, with a little common salt 3-4 100 Now 30 per cent, of this matter burned, wliile the rest was not consumable. Eape-dust was extensively used as manure, and contained a large proportion of org-anic matter, for when it was burned it left a residimm of 8 or 10 per cent, of mineral matter. Another substance — g-uano — which was the dropi)ing's of birds, when burned, left a larg-e proportion of mineral matter, and was a verj^ useful manure, if applied in proper time, in proper quantities, and imder right condi- tions. These substances were more or less natural manures ; but now they had received, in consequence of the researches made — long and laboriously made — into the composition of plants, and soils, and minerals, a knowledge of what a given soil required to grow a given crop. They were, therefore, enabled to make artificial mixtures of what the soil required to grow a given crop, and he considered this most imi)ortant in the present transition state of their agriculture. The farmer being by this means, to a certain extent, enabled to turn the old elements, which were formerly the opponents of his prosperity, into the most beneficial instruments for his service. The principle was this : — If they took a given plant of any sort and burned it, there remained behind a certain quantity of mineral matter — sometimes more and sometimes less, according- to the nature of the plant. Tlie principle upon which the manufacture of the substances to l2 148 ON THE COMPOSITION AND USE be added to the soil for the purpose of giving- it fertility pro- ceeded, was, to compose such a mixture as would g-ive back or add to the soil in sufficient quantity the constituents of the crop which it was intended to raise, and it depended on a knowledge of the number of those substances, and the proportion in which they existed in dilferent plants, that this could be etiected. These returns to the soil of mixed manure should contain the several substances carried off by the crop. The straw carried off a great deal more of the mineral matter from the soil than the grain ; but, at the same time, the substances that grain carried off were the same as were carried off by the straw. So much in regard to the nature of artificial manures, and the principle upou which they were manufactured, and upon which their virtue depended. Now, the next point was their recom.mendation to use them. Many excellent old farmers told them there was nothing like farm-yard dung, and many young farmers, and those who had learned most, would say the same thing. Now, all present knew that if they had plenty of well-pre- pared farm-yard dung, not exhausted of the liquid, -w hicli, in too many cases, was allowed to run to waste, and as he had seen yesterday on a large farm in the neighbourhood, they need not be afraid of growing excellent crops from that alone. But if they were to look to the best husbandry in. the island, and to ask how it was that those men were most prosperous, every one acquainted with the matter Avould give them the same answer as he would give. Those men farmed the highest and added the most manure to their land. They had not been satisfied with returning to their land what they had taken out of it, but they had uniformly got manures from a distance, for the purpose of supplying* that additional quantity above what the}^ could produce themselves, for bringing their land into its highest state of activity. He laid it down as a general rule, that, in order to have their land in tlie highest state of fertility, they must add to it more manure than they could make upon their farms. The agriculture of Great Britain, although the most advanced in ^le world, was nevertheless capable of being ])romoted to a degree which it was very difficult to form any conception of. This was to be effected after adopting* tlioi'ough-draining, subsoil-ploughing, and other mechanical means for improving the soil, by more skilful manuring than, had been hitherto practised, which was essential to good farming. He recommended this hi^-h mode of farming-, not OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 149 only because it -would be beneficial to tbe country, but because it would also be productive of g-reater profit to tbemselves. He wished to impress upon them that the im- provement in the manag-ement of their farms which he recommended, was not based upon the good of the country alone, althoug-h that was a subject in which they were all interested; but on the consideration that ultimately it would be more profitable to themselves. But althoug-h he nad explained the principles upon which the use of these sub- stances were recommended g'enerally, there were certain par- ticular cases where the use of them all would not be necessar}'. After referring- to the improvements which were g-oing- on in the northern part of the island on several estates (in one instance at the expense of 10/. per acre), and on lands which bad never been cultivated, he said, althoug-h they were exhi- biting- extraordinary perseverance, industry, and skill, in improving- the soil, it was only by the use of those manures that they would be able to make it produce the larg-est crops at the least possible expense. After some observations as to the capability of every kind of land to produce, with proper manag-ement, a })rofitable crop, and to the propriety of manure being- applied only where it was wanted, he referred to an experiment made by the Rev. Mr. Huxtable, of Dorsetshire, in r-aising- a crop of turnips on a soil com- posed almost entirely of chalk. He made a mixture of the substances which went to the composition of turnips, but instead of sowing- it broadcast, or placing it along- the top of the whole drill, he g-ot children to g-o along with bag-s of this substance, and to place a little of it at the distance of every 12 inches, on which three or four seeds were placed, and the result was, that he got a crop of 20 tons an acre of magnifi- cent turnips. In this experiment a curious circumstance ■was to be observed, n-amely, that wherever the seeds were put in where there was no manure put, the turnips got to the size of an egg-, but no more. With such skilful treat- ment as this he believed their most barren soils might be made to par all the expense of cultivation, and leave a profit besides. He then concluded by inviting those present to state the results of their experience for the purpose of enabling others to follow their example. Mr. Fraser, of Reelig, with reference to Professor John- ston's theory of placing the manure close to the seed plant, asked — " Would it not be better to disperse the manure, so that the roots mi"-ht be induced to seek for their food ? 150 ON THE RATIONALE OF CERTAIN MANURES Turnips, for example, g-o a very far way for tlieir food ; and if they exhaust all the manure that is immediately around them, how will they get that which is necessary still to sustain and to comjilete their growth?'" Professor Johnston. — Children must he nourished and at- tended to as children ; at first they must he helped to their food, hut in course of time, if properly cared for, they will help themselves, gather flesh, bone, and muscle, and become strong- men. Just so with plants. At first they must be helped to food by placing- it near them ; as they g-et strong they Avill put forth their feelers and take food from a greater distance, and thus nourish and sustain themselves, growing to maturity. My theory implies, that while food is to be placed immediately within the reach of the suckling, there must also be sufficient in its locality generally to supply it with increased nourishment to give it strength ; and this theory practical men have abundantly demonstrated as sound. Agricultural Gazette, Sept. 19, 1846. Art. XXXV.— on THE RATIONALE OF CERTAIN MANURES EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURE. By Pkofessor Daubeny, of Oxford. To afford a rational explanation of the mode in which the substances applied by the farmer to his land cause it to yield more abundant cro})s, cannot be regarded by him as a super- fluous undertaking, more especially when it is recollected that an entire exemption from theory implies a state of mind almost incompatible with the earnest prosecution of any line of pursuit, that the practical farmer is in his own way often the most inveterate of theorists, and that, even if a correct theory did not assist, an erroneous one would be sure to mis- lead us. The proper province, therefore, of the man of science, who attempts to apply his theoretical knowledge to the advancement of agriculture, seems to me to be that of endeavoTU'ing to extract from the statements of practical farmers the ground-work of some rational theory with respect to the uses of the various substances which long ex- perience has led men to employ in the imi)rovement of the soil; thus enabling us to apply them, not, as at present, at EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTUKE. 151 liapliazard, but witli some degTee of discrimination, and witli reference to the particular circiunstances of each case. Lime. — Now, amongst the whole list of bodies enumerated under the general, but rather vagaie, terms of manures, or fertilizers, there is, perhaps, none of more extensive use, and few more important in their eftects upon the land, than quicklime ; and I may, therefore, select it as the subject for a few remarks, in order to illustrate the position with which I set out, by showing- that, if we could enlig-hten the firmer as to the manner in which it atiects the land, we mig'ht save him much disappointment by explaining- when it is likely to be useless, and when, perhaps, even detrimental in its effects. I am aware, indeed, that I have selected a topic which some may reg-ard as almost exhausted, for all who have con- sulted the recent treatise of Professor Johnston on ag-ricultural chemistry, will admit that he has communicated in it a very able and correct account of the uses of lime in ag-riculture ; nor, with this work before me, should I, concurring- as I do in the g-eneral tenor of his remarks, have brought this sub- ject before you on the present occasion, were it not for the sake of drawing- attention to one in particular, among-st the various uses attributable to this substance, which seems to receive lig-ht from the principles that I ventured to lay dowii in the conclusion of a memoir on the rotation of crops, lately published in '' The Philosophical Transactions." In this memoir I endeavoured to elucidate the distinction that exists between that portion of the ing-redients of a soil which is in a state to become available for the immediate purposes of the plant, owing- to its being- readily soluble in the water that penetrates the ground, and that which is not at present broug-ht into a condition of such easy solubility, and consequently at the present moment does not contribute in any deg-ree to the development of the vegetables that grow in it. The former portion I have distinguished as its active, and the latter as its passive ing-redients ; and I pro- posed to estimate the relative amount of each, by treating* the soil, first with a definite quantity of water impreg-nated with carbonic acid g-as, and afterwards with diluted muriatic acid, and to determine the several quantities taken up by the first and by the second of these re-agents. The former I conceived would be likely to represent the amount which was actually apjilicable to the uses of the plant, since it is to ie presumed that what could not be extracted by a larg-e quan- 152 Ox\ THE RATIONALE OF CERTAIN MANURES tity of water holding- carLonic acid in polution would not be taken up by tlie rain-water which might penetrate the sub- stance of the soil, whilst that which was dissolved afterwards by muriatic acid was likely, in the course of years, to be broug'ht naturally into a similar condition. These positions I illustrated by showing- that a soil ex- hausted by growing- a series of crops without manure was in point of fact more deiicient in those of their ingredients^ which were in an active or immediately available condition, than another which had been more recently manured, al- though the passive ingredients present in the latter might not be sensibly greater in amount. If these principles be admitted, we shall be naturally led to inquire whether certain of the operations in agriculture, which long- experience has sanctioned, may not derive their advantage in part from accelerating- that process of disin- tegration in the soil which renders it more amenable to the influence of atmospheric agents. Thus, amongst the mechanical operations which may con- tribute to bring about this result, I might instance ploughing, and other means of pulverizing the soil, and of bringing- a larger amount of surface into immediate contact with water, carbonic acid, itc. Perha])s the discordant reports which are given us as to the effects of subsoiling upon different descriptions of land might be reconciled by considering- whether the latter was in a condition to allow of its dormant ingredients being- ren- dered available within a short period. But, without dwelling farther upon this and other opera- tions belonging to the same class, I will proceed to consider the chemical means by which the same end is, as I conceive, likewise brought about, and amongst the rest m-ay allude to the pi'actice of liming, which is now of much general use throughout the coimtry. Its effect in rendering the organic matters more soluble, or rather, as I should prefer to represent it, in promoting- their decomposition, so as to render them better adapted for supplying both carbon and nitrogen to growing plants, has been already sufficiently explained by Professor Johnston, and by others. Its action upon the inorganic matter, though not altogether unnoticed, has perhaps been rather less at- tended to. Yet, when we recollect that quicklime mixed with pounded granite speedily liberates the contained alkali, as was first EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURE. 153 established by Professor Fuclis, of IMiinicb, and lias since been introduced as a practice of Mr. Prideaux, of Plymouth, and when we recollect, moreover, that many of the clays and claystones which compose the bidk of several rock forma- tions in secondary and tertiary districts are derived from granite rocks, we cannot doubt that the action of quicklime upon the latter will be of an analogous description, and that a liberation of the alkali present in the rock will be one of the consequences of its application. Nor is this a mere matter of theory ; for I have myself found that twice as much alkali could be extracted from the soil of a portion of the Botanic Garden at Oxford, which had been exhausted by growing- a number of successive crops of poppies for fourteen years without any manure having been employed, after it had been left in contact with slaked lime for a fortnight, than was obtainable from it alone ; the solvent employed for taking up the alkaline salt being in both instances water impregnated with carbonic acid, allowed to trickle slowly through the respective samples of soil. According to this view of its mode of a}iplication we can more readily understand why it should be apjilicable to argillaceous soils rather than to calcareous ones — not merely because it sup])lies the lime which most plants require for their organization, for this might be elfected by carbonate of lime as well as by the pure earth, and indeed would scarcely be required where, as is often the case, the clay contains in itself a small per centage of calcareous matter, but because clays usually contain alkali, whilst limestones do not. We may also explain why the frequent liming of a soil tends to produce exhaustion ; for if the eifect of this sub- stance be to convert its dormant ingredients into its active ones, or to render their i)rinciples, which, from their state of combination, were but s])aringly soluble, more immediately available for the uses of the plant, it is plain that every fresh application of it will tend to diminish more and more the amount of these ingredients, not only by what is actually taken up by the plants, but likewise what is gradually carried away by the rains that percolate the soil. By too liberal a supply of lime, therefore, we seem to be undoing the wise provision of nature, which aims at counteracting the great solubility of the alkalies, by retain- ing them in a state of combination with the other earths from which they are slowly liberated ; thus antici])ating the ingenious expedient of an illustrious chemist of the })resent 154 ON THE RATIONALE OF CERTxVIN MANURES day, wlio, in order to prevent the alkaline ing-redients of his manure from being* carried off before the cro}) has had time to take them up, combines them with carbonate of lime, and thus produces a more sparing-ly soluble combination. Let us, indeed, for a moment stop to consider what would have been the consecjuence had this natural provision for economizing- the resources of the soil been omitted ; one of the most formidable of which would have been that, before the present stage of the world's existence, all the alkalies existing- in the superficial strata of the earth must have found their way into the ocean, when, even supposing- their presence in such excess had not proved destructive to the marine plants which take them up — supposing- even their abundance to have stimulated the marine veg-etation, and thus to have afforded an exuberant g-rowth of alg-fie adapted for manuring- the tracts of land that lie contig'uous to the sea — still the inland portions of our continents must have remained absolutely ban-en, from the impossibility of trans- porting-, to any great distances from the coast, the produce of the sea, which, in the case supposed, could alone have returned to the land those soluble ingredients which the rains of preceding- ages had carried away. These conse- quences are prevented by the state of combination in which the alkalies naturally exist in the soil, as they are thus brought into solution so sparing-ly, that the whole, or nearly the whole of them present in the water which the soil retains, is taken up by plants ; whilst the latter, as they decay, render these principles back again to the soil, in a more available condition, indeed, but still in one which o]iposes some im- pediments to their being carried of speedily by water. Hence the vast accumulation of alkalies locked up within the forests of most thinly peopled countries ; hence the un- rivalled fertility of virgin soil, enriched by the annual tri- bute paid to it by these forests at the period of the fall of the leaf — hence, too, the miasmata so apt to occur in new countries thus circumstanced, whenever the soil is disturbed by the processes of agriculture, and the decay of the vege- table debris accelerated by the free introduction of air and moisture. I may here just allude to another interesting- provision, by which the slow but continuous disengagement of alkalies from certain rocks of igneous origin seems to be secured. I allude to the fact, that, whilst igneous rocks which have cooled rapidly appear to be in the condition of glass — that EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURE. 150 is, to liave their constituents broug'ht into that state of inti- mate union wliicli render them almost unattackable by ordi- nary acids, and of course, therefore, scarcely decomposable by atmospheric ag'ents — the greater portion at least of sub- marine lavas, or of volcanic products which have cooled slowly under pressure, consists of an intimate mixture of g'lassy felspar with some member of the zeolitic family, the characteristic of which is its easy solubility in acids. Nor is this property confined to submarine products, for Dufresnoy has shown that the modern lavas of Vesuvius are distinguished from those of the Monte Somma by being- soluble in acids in the proportion of 4 to 1. Nature, therefore, appears to have provided means for the slow diseng'ag-ement of alkali, not only in the case of plutonic rocks, but also in those of more modern volcanic origin, by causing- the materials of which they consist not in general to assume a vitreous condition, but to separate in the act of cooling- into a certain number of definite combinations, some of which, at least, acids are capable of attacking-, and which, consequently, would be liable to yield to the continued in- fluence of atmospheric agents. Svlphuric Acid. — Another chemical agent which seems to operate in promoting vegetation, somewhat upon the same principle as lime has been represented to do, is sulphuric acid. An example of its operation is appended in the now familiar process of treating bones with this acid, as the earthy phosphates are by this means brought into a soluble form, and are therefore rendered more fit to be assimilated by plants. This, at least, I apprehend to be the true theory of the advantage derived from its use when mixed with bones ; for, although the phosphoric acid is introduced to the soil as a superjdiosphate, still it is not as such that it enters into the structure of the plant ; and it therefore follows, that it must have combined with its usual quantity of lime before it was taken up by the roots. A case, however, of a more precisely parallel description is afforded by the ])ractice, adopted in some parts of the continent, of sprinkling the soil with sulplnu'ic acid. Here, in the first instance, a certain amount of gypsum is g'enerated, which acts beneficially upon certain crops, by supplying them with a material needed for their inorganic constitution. This end, however, might be attained at a cheaper rate 15G ON THE RATIONALE OF CERTAIN MANURES Ly applying- g-ypsiim already formed ; but, then, it is to be considered that sulphuric acid in the very act of producing" this salt disintegrates the soil, releases its component parts from the cohesive attraction which before acted as an anta- gonist force to chemical affinity, and also, above all, converts the minute quantity of phosphate of lime present in most soils into a superphosphate, thus rendering- it more soluble. If we put tog-ether all these several advantages, it may be conceived that a dressing- of sulphuric acid will often suc- ceed better than one of g-ypsum would do, the superior cost of the article being- compensated by the benefit accruing- from its power of converting- the dormant principles of the soil into those which are active, or directly available for its purposes. Gypmm. — In alluding- to the subject of g-ypsum, I cannot refrain from pointing- out that it affords a striking- illustra- tion of the great uncertainty which still prevails with re- spect to the theoretical principles by which the practice of agriculture is at present g-uided. We have here four distinguished authorities in the science of agricultiu'e, namely, Sir Humphry Davy, Baron Liebig, Monsieiu- Boussingault, and Professor Johnston, of Durham, expressing as many distinct views with respect to the opera- tion of this agent as a maniu-e — Sir Humphr}' regarding- it as advantageous by reason of both its constituents, that is, acting as sulphate of lime; Baron Liebig directly by neither one, but indirectly as fixing- the ammonia of the atmosphere; Boussingault attributing its usefulness to the lime it con- tains, and Professor Johnston chiefl}^ to its sulphuric acid. I allude to this discrepancy of opinion rather in order to press upon the minds of agriculturists the importance of in- stituting inquiries for the purpose of ascertaining- more pre- cisely the modus openmcVi of this and other measures, than for the sake of obtruding- any views of my own on the ques- tion more immediately before us — views which have not been tested by any specific train of experiment, and which are therefore the less worthy of being- brought into compe- tition with those of such distinguished philosophers. Nevertheless, I may remark, that, of the four theories just mentioned, the one proposed by Boussingaiilt seems to me the most destitute of probability. It offers no explana- tion whatsoever of the peculiar adajitation of gypsum for plants of the leguminous order, nor for the preference which practical men assign to its use over that of lime, where the EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURE. 157 latter is so much more accessible, and consequently, beyond all comparison, more economical. The oi)inion is based u[)on a series of experiments, wliicb tend to sliow that clover treated with gypsum not only contained more sulphate of lime than it had without it, but also a larger proportion of lime in other states of combination — a very natural conse- quence, in my opinion, supposing- the absorption of the quantity of gypsum which was cong'enial to its organization had invigorated the system of the plant, and thus had enabled it to draw more larg'ely from the soil than it other- wise could have done. The converse hyi)othesis experienced by Professor John- ston seems hardl}' consistent with the fact that gypsum is better adapted for leguminous plants than for cereals, inas- much as the latter, according- to Boussing-ault, yield quite as much sulphur on analysis as the former. With reg-ard to the remaining- hypothesis, propounded by Sir Humphry Davy and by Baron Liebig, it is probable that both the causes assigned by these two j^hilosophers may have a share in the virtues which belong- to gypsum as a manure. All authorities concur in asserting- that those crops which, contain the largest amount of sulphate of lime in their com- position are most benefited by the ap})lication of the sub- stance in question ; and, indeed, even the experiments of Boussing-ault, which are alleged in opjiosition to this theory, evince that clover treated with g-ypsum contained in its ashes more of this ingredient than it had done under other circumstances. But there is one mode of applying- g-ypsum much prac- tised on the Continent, and also in the United States of America, which seems to im})ly a distinct mode of opera- tion from the other. This is the })ractice of scattering- g-y[)sum in fine powder over the leaves of the crop when just rising- above the ground, which is stated to invigorate the stem and leaves, and even to extend its beneficial in- fluence to the roots themselves. This circumstance would seem to point to some function of the substance employed in absorbing- ammonia, and thus bringing this highly important substance into immediate contact with the parts which are most ready to assimi- late it. M. Boussing-ault objects to this view of the subject on grounds that appear to me exceed ngly inconclusive. He 168 ON THE RATIONALE OF CERTAIN MANURES, ETC. begins by calculating- tliat the quantity of clover covering an acre of land had gained by the application of gypsum as much azote as it would have required 134 lb. of carbonate of ammonia to produce. Now, the average quantity of rain which falls in Alsace could in no case convey to the gypsum in a year anything approaching to that quantity of carbonate of ammonia, so that it is impossible that the application of gypsum to the land could have generated the whole of that quantity. But who does not see that the gypsum, according to Baron Liebig's hypothesis, Vv'ould not only absorb ammonia from the rain water, but also condense that which was exhaled from the ground, in consequence of the decomposition of animal matters; and it is the more surprising that this should have been overlooked by Boussingault, as he states just afterwards that gypsum exerts no truly beneficial in- fluence upon artificial meadows, excepting when the soil to which it is applied contains an adequate proportion of azo- tised organic manure. The ])ractice, therefore, of sprinkling the clover leaves with gypsum may have its use in arresting the ammonia exhaled from the ground, as well as that which descends with the rain from the heavens, and in bringing both the one and the other into immediate contact with the absorbing surfaces of the plant. According to this view of the subject, the uses of g3'psum in agriculture will be partly general and partly special — general, in fixing ammonia, which all plants more or less require; special, in supplying sulphate of lime to those species which contain it in their organization, and therefore most serviceable to those, like the leguminse, which con- tain the largest proportion of this ingredient. When the substance alluded to is sprinkled over the leaves of the young crop, as is the case in France, it would seem that the first of these objects is the one principally attained ; where it is mixed with the soil, the second. The former mode may prove serviceable, whatever may be the com])osition of the soil itself; but the latter method of administration appears to presuppose that the soil was de- ficient in it, and, consequently, ought to be preceded by an actual analysis of its ingredients. Farmer's Magazine, Nov. 1846, ON THE THKORY AND PRACTICAL USE OF LIME. 159 Art. XXXVL— on THE THEORY AND PRACTICAL USE OF LIME. By Mr. J. Toavers. About tlie time that Liebig's first work appeared, I, witli others, only endeavoured to show that, in order to decompose siirphis or crude veg-etable matter, and hberate its elements, lime must not onh' attract the moisture, or free water of the lierbag-e, but must disturb the chemical affinities of the elements which compose its tissue, so as to liberate the hydrogen and oxygen, causing' them to re-combine as water, and to deposit the carbon in the form of black charcoal ; in a w^ord, that it must produce chemical combustion — without ig-nition indeed, but nevertheless true in its results. But while the theory, so far as it went, may be certain, we must premise that the lime so to act must be pure and unslaked, or in that very condition wherein we find it when it absorbs and combines with water, in the act of slaking* ; otherwise it can never burn and consume the veg'etable matters, even if applied to the extent of from four to eig'ht hundred bushels per acre. Independently, therefore, of its mere destructive power, |)ure lime, that is to say, lime free from carbonic acid, whether fresh from the kiln, or slaked by air or water (i. e., in the condition of hydrate), must and does exert a chemical action peculiarly specific, and of vast importance to the agriculturist ; and this I shall endeavour to render experimentalh' evident, after quoting- one leading* passage from the paper of Dr. Daubeny. It reads thus — " Its effect in rendering the org-anic matters more soluble, or rather, as I should prefer to represent it, in promoting* their decomposition so as to render them better adapted for supplying' both carbon and nitrog-en to g-rowing' plants, has been already sufficiently explained by Professor Johnston and by others. Yet when we recollect that quick-lime, mixed with pounded granite, speedily liberates the contained alk-ali, and that many of the clays and claystones which compose the bulk of several rock formations in secondary and tertiary districts are derived from granitic rocks, we cannot doubt that the action of quick-lime upon the latter will be of analogous description." These qualities of lime, that is to say, its solvent power, IGO ON THE THEORY AND and tliat of liberating- potash from rocks and clays, are very imj^ortant ; but they have little or no reference to the one which appears to be still more extraordinary. Some years since, the theory of humus was broached ; and for a time the cultivators of the ground were taught to con- sider it the all-in-all, the pabulum of nutrition, '' the chief nonrisher in life's feast 5" or, in other and more homely terms, '^ the cooked food of plants." Soon, however, the zeal of its partizans was checked, and then it appeared that humus was a slowly formed product of vegetable decay, and that, so far from being a wholesome food, its predominance became a medium of barrenness and destruction. Peat bogs, flow-mosses, and, indeed, all submerged masses of vegetable matter, abound with humus ; and these, so long- as they remain in their natural condition, are worthless, and unpro- ductive of good cerial or garden crops. Lime, duly applied in tillage, is the grand chemical remedy ; it exerts a specific action not at all connected with an}' solvent power, and this has been clearly and unequivocally explained by Mr. Row- landson of Liverpool. He has entered into a minute chemical detail of facts, and has shown, b}' irresistible evidence, that his theory of the remedial action of quick-lime is correct. Mr. Ruffin, of the United States, had paved the way for new researches into the agency of calcareous manures, and his able articles were copied into the pages of the British Farmer-' s Ilagazine of 1835. Since the appearance of Rowlandson's article, I entered into several interesting- experiments, a detail of which will substantiate the view taken by that gentleman of the che- mical action of lime. There are two or three substances which fairly represent humus. The first is, the dark-coloured mass that remains after long-protracted fermentation of the dung mixen, and long after it has attained the state of Avhat is termed " spit- dung." The second, the dark brown remains of the bottom of a very old wood pile. The third, completely reduced leaf-mould, or that peculiar modification of moor-soil which is occasionally found in some heath commons. All these substances can be procured for experiment, and will furnish proof of the singular agency which lime must exert upon vegetable remains when reduced to the condition of humus. If to a solution of caustic potash, soda, and particularly of ammonia, a portion of either of the afore-named matters be PRACTICAL USE OF LIME. 161 added, inucli colouring- matter will be extracted, conferring" a deep brown tint to the solution. Water alone, when heated to the boiling- jjoint, will extract a little of this colour, but to a comparatively trifling- extent. From these facts, and by observing- that the alkali employed loses causticity and some of its acrid taste, chemists have concluded that humus con- tains an acid principle, to which the modern term " humic acid" has been applied ; and if we admit that a combining- power between alkalies and other substances in an opposite state of electricity is sufficient to establish the presence of an acid, we will not dispute the correctness of the term. But if, in lieu of any of these pure alkalies, lime be employed, whether in powder or as strong- lime-water, colour will be destroyed, and the supernatant liquid will become A'ery pale. Thus, for example : — Take an ounce of any of the three substances named ; mix with it a quarter of its weig-ht of powdered quick-lime, and pour on the mass a pint of boiling- rain-water. After stirring- to effectually blend the whole, let the mixture repose for a time. At first the float- ing- liquor will be turbid, but it will finally become clear, and nearly void of colour. This experiment may justly be considered inconclusive, for the eftect of the lime mig-ht be deemed neg-ative. How- ever, having- pre])ared any of, or all, the brown liquids, that is to say, the soluble humate of pofa.^tm, of soda, and of (wi?)W7iia, take a known measure of any one of these, more or less, and add to it either a small quantity of lime in powder, or so much strong lime-water as shall be required to produce the effect, which will speedily become sufficiently evident. In either case a precipitate will be produced, and the liquid will be nearly deprived of colour. Here we perceive a positive or direct action of the lime, for it becomes evident that its affinity for the humic extrac- tive or acid is so strong- as to take it from its alkaline base^ ■whether that base has been potash, soda, or ammonia. The same phenomena will occur if common heath soil, bog-, or turbary peat-moss be the subject of experiment. Mr. Rowlandson announced these results in the Jotirnal of Afjr'tcnJture, and I can vouch, by the evidence of repeated experiments, that his conclusions are faithfid, so far, at least, as they can be attested by solutions of any of the humous substances obtainable in farm or horticultural establishments. Further confirmation may be obtained by testing- that dark- coloured liquid from farm dung-hills, which, throug-hout tho 162 ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICAL USE OF LIME. king'clom, is so laudably and economically squandered by our sons of the soil. If lime be added to it in any form, the same preci])itate will occur, with considerable reduction of colour ; and thus we are enabled to sum up the qualities of quick-lime in the space of a few lines. 1. If applied to g-reen vegetables, quite hot from the kiln, it will destroy the tissue and carbonize the substance, itself being' brouglit into the state of mild lime or chalk. 2. As powdered or air-slaked lime, it will directly kill slug's and molluscous vermin, acting- by its peculiar attraction for water. 3. As an alkali, it will neutralize acids of every description, and hence is peculiarly usefid if dusted over trees infested with lichens. 4. Its affinity for humic acid is predomiunnt, as we have seen ; and, therefoi-e, it becomes a specific remedy, wherever there is a redundance of inert decayed vegetable remains. 5. According' to high chemical authority, it is capable to liberate potassa from clay and granitic rocks, and to set it at liberty from its combination with flint as an insoluble silicate of ])otassa. 6. It is a mistake to suppose that quick-lime renders vegetable and animal remains soluble. These substances are partially soluble, as we have seen in the three alkalies ; but the precipitate formed by the addition of lime is not soluble, or, at any rate, it is so far fixed that it will remain long quiescent in the ground, from which it can only be taken up in very small quantities and by slow degrees, according to the capacity of the vegetable for such food. Lime, then, acts as an antidote of redundant humous matter, attracting and fixing its acid as an innocuous humate ; and thus, upon the above principles, I hope that I have established unequivocally the importance of lime as a prime agent and corrective. Farmer^s Magazine, Nov. 1846. ON THE APPLICATION OF LIME. 163 Art. XXXVIL— on LIME : ITS APPLICATION TO NEWLY BROKEN UP LAND. By the Editor of the "Agricultural Gazette." 1. Newly broken up land, tlioug-li it be not maniu-ed with lime, contains sufficient store of nutriment for some years' crops. 2. It is better for newly broken up land to remain unlimed for two or tliree years, except H/uIer special chrumstunces ; for it is already sufficiently fertile, and the expense for some years is unnecessary ; and the application would probably cause an excessive fertility, if one may use that expression, such as would injure g-rain cro})s by an excessive growth of straw. Now the special circumstances to which we allude, occur in cases (1) where light land on a ferrug-inous subsoil has remained long- under stagnant water ; the soil is then found to contain compounds of iron injurious to vegetation, which are decomposed by an application of caustic lime, and the elements of which, imder the influence of that application, are induced to re-arrange themselves in forms no longer injurious. And (2) in cases where, as an effect of stagnant water, peat has been formed, which, when drained, leaves a soil destitute of the mineral elements necessary to fertility ; lime and clay are then necessary applications. The farmer, independently of all theory on this subject, will be jierfectly safe in remembering- that where lime has not hitherto been applied, and where the l-and contains an excess of vegetable matter, or has long been injured by stag'uant water, or is destitute naturally of calcareous matter, lime, whatever the mode in which it acts, is sure to have a fertilizing influence. Apply lime, therefore, a year or two after breaking up your grass lands, and then maintain the fertility thus produced by growing- each year on half the land croj)s for consumption on the land, by selling- only g-min and butcher-meat off your farm, and by bringing- on to it oil-cake and other food for cattle, sheep, and pigs : ^'oii will thus enrich your manure, and increase its quantity. Agricultural Gazette. M 2 1G4 ON THE USE OF Art. XXXVIII.— the USE OF SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME, PRODUCED WITH ACID AND BONES FOR MANURE. Prize Essat of the R. A. S. E. By Mr. W. C. Spooner. [This very valuable Essay commences with some preliminary remarks on the necessity of raising the largest crops of roots at the least possible expense, and on the proved superior economy in the employment, with that object, of bones mixed with an acid over that of bones alone. The Author then proceeds : — ] The specific effect of Lone as food for tLe tnrnip-crop lias long' been known — long-, indeed, before science was in a position to explain tbe cause of its peculiar effects, or to assign correctly to wliat portion of its constituents the bene- fits are chiefly due. It was found, greatly to the surprise of many, that burnt bones, in which of course the organic parts had been de- stroyed, were equal, if not superior, in their effect to bones not so treated ; and that when boiled, in which state the fat had been expelled, they were more productive than bones in a fresh state. It was thence supposed by those Avho jumped to conclusions too hastily, that the substances thus expelled were useless, at an}- rate for the turnip-crop, and they were apparently supported by the theory of a very eminent chemist, who, if we mistake not, laid it down as his opinion that the value of manures depended principally, if not en- tirely, on their inorganic ingredients — a doctrine altogether at variance with the previous generally received notions, that ammonia was the true fertilizing element, and that its amount afforded the measure of the value of manure. In medio tutissrimis ibis — the truth, we take it, will be found to lie between the two extremes. We may justly regard the inorganic constituents as being the most important and essential portion of manure, affording to the plant what the skeleton does to the animal, the basis of support; and, as plants can obtain no other supply but through the soil, we may justly regard them as the most essential consti- tuents. The other elements are, to a great extent, supplied through SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 105 the atmosphere ; and even nitrog'en and its combinations may l)e thus furnished. The avenues through which this atmospheric supply is furnished, are the leaves of the plant ; and their size aiford a correct criterion; ca'to'ls paribus, of the amount of nutriment derived from the aerial source. Thus beans and other pulse obtain more food from the atmosidiere than cereal plants ; roots, more than the former ; and Avheat, from the small size of the leaves, less than any. Thus only can we account for the striking- fact, that if we give a g'ood supply of inorg;anic elements oul)/ to the turnip- crop, we shall very probably have a plentiful crop ; whilst, if these be absent, however rich the manure may otherwise be, the crop will be a failure. Not that we must therefore draw the conclusion, that the org-anic manures are of little or no importance to root-crops : they are of value, and par- ticularly to the grain-crops which succeed. The organic matter which composes about one-third the substance of bones is, however, so intimately combined with the earthy portion, and their disunion is accomplished with such diificulty, that the g'ood effects of either are to a certain extent neutralized, at least so far as the first crop is con- sidered ; and we are consequently oblig-ed to supply five or six times as much as the crop actually requires, and to render them available by means of pulverization. It is on this principle that the assistance of sulphuric acid is sought for and obtained : it serves, by its chemical affinities, to separate the component parts of the bones, and render them more soluble and available as food for plants. In the excel- lent and accm-ate experiments of Mr. Hannam, related in a former number of the Journal, it was clearly proved that fresh bones, when g-round, were superior to boiled ones, from which the fat was extracted ; and the latter were superior to burnt bones, from which the g-elatine was also removed. This result was, however, far more striking- when the bones were dissolved in sulphuric acid, a difference of nearly 2 tons of turnips being- observed, whilst, with the bones merely ground, a difference of 17 cwt. only was exhibited. From the same experiment, we likewise learn that the beneficial effects derived from the earthy part of bones are 4|- times greater than that derived from the org-anic parts. I refer to the Journal for the particulars of these experiments, and to the previous number for other statements, from which, if we had no other evidence, "we should be justified in drawing* the conclusion, that 20-?. laid out in bones and acid will q:o 166 ON THE USE OF much fnrtlier tlian 40-?. expended in bones alone, so far as the turnip-crop is concerned. These experiments, however, appear to have been made with the addition of a very considerable quantity of water, so as to apply the manure to the land in a liquid state, which, ■without denjang- its superiority, is yet attended with such difficulty, trouble, and inconvenience, that it is vain to ex- ])ect that farmers g-enerally would incur it. The expense of a proper cart for the aj)plication of this manure in a liquid state is very considerable, and sufficient to prevent its g'eneral adoption. And, althoug'h it was in this form that the public were first made acquainted with its valuable pro- perties, yet its g'eneral adoption must be attributed to the additional discovery, that it can readily be applied in the state of compost, by means of the common drill. Having* directed my attention to the preparation and employment of this valuable manure in the form of compost, I am in a position to state, that by its means one-half the usual ex- pense in the purchase of bones may be saved. V/e cannot, however, do better than take as our text, or rather the heads of our sxibject, the points to which the attention of competitors are drawn by the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-land, which are — 1. State of bones. 2. Proportion of acid in a given weig-ht of bones. 3. Propoi'tion of water, if any, mixed with the acid. 4. Mode of mixing- the bones with the acid, and of pre- paring- the compost. 5. Effect of various quantities applied in combination or com}>arison with common bones and other known ma- nures. 1. First, then, the state of the bones — with reg-ard to which I have merely to observe, that they should be as fine as possible, but the ordinary state of bone-dust will answer the purpose very well. The dust is decidedly preferable to half- inch bones, for, whilst the increased weig-ht of the former will compensate for its g-reater price, the points of contact being- g-reatly increased by sub-division, the bones are more rapidly and more perfectly acted on by the acid, and recpiire, in fact, a less quantity both of that and of water. We next come to the second and more important point. 2. Tlie proportion of sulphuric or muriatic acid to a g'iven weig-ht of bones. SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 1G7 Sulphuric acid is preferaLle to muriatic acid, for several reasons — it is strong-er, cheaper, has g'reater specific gn-avity, and contains much less water. On mixing- it with water, a much hig-her temperature is attained, which conduces to the dissolving- process, particularly of the org-anic jiortion of the bones. In addition to these reasons, we find that in the trials which have been made, muriatic acid has been found somewhat inferior. I have, however, been rather surprised that there should not have been a more decided ditference than proved to be the case in Mr. Hannam's experiments : and we can only account for this by bearing- in mind that the lowest proportion of muriatic acid employed Avas one- half, which was perhaps sufficient to affect all the phosphate of lime contained in the bones ; whereas, if one-half had been employed, as was tried Avith the sulphuric acid, the result mig-ht not have been so favourable for the muriatic acid. Besides this, probably the miu-iate of lime formed by the muriatic acid is more fertilizing- and soluble than sul- phate of lime formed by the srdphiu-ic acid ; and, from its gTeat attraction for moisture, j^articularly advantag-eous ia such a dry season as that of 184-i. It is, therefore, by no means improbable that an equal qiumtity of bones, prepared separately Avith the two acids, and afterwards mixed to- g-ether, mig'ht be more productive than bones prepared with either acid alone. The ])roportion of sulphuric acid most desirable to employ is a very important })oint, inasmuch as it has been shown that sulphuric acid alone, or mixed with Avater, possesses very little fertilizing- poAvers. This, probably, is OAving* to the circumstance of the soil g-enerally containing- a suffi- ciency of this element, and to the fact that phos])horic acid is so extremely essential, ])articularly in the earh' stag-es of the g-roAvth of the plant, that it Avill not prosper Avithout it, whatever Ave may otherAvise emplo}' as manure. A neig-li- bouring- ag-riculturist, during- the last year, tried to raise a crop of turnips with a good dressing- of salt and soot, which contain no phosphoric acid, thoug-h plenty of ammonia and other fertilizing- ing-redients, but the result Avas a total failure. In a g-arden experiment, I may here observe, I found sulplnu'ic acid and Avater succeed as Avell as bones in raising' turnips, but the soil no doubt contained phosphoric acid, as Avell as alkalies, on Avhich the acid could act fa- vourably. Before Ave authoritatively pronounce on the quantity of 168 ON THE USE OF ficid necepsniy to be mixed witli the bones, it will be better to inquire into the nature and properties of the substances we propose mixing- tog-ether. Sulj)liuric acid, or oil of vitriol, as it is more frequently termed, consists of the imion of two parts by Aveiglit of sul|)hur with three of oxyg-en g-as ; and its strength depends on its purity and freedom from water, for which it has a remarkable affinity, so much so that, if ex])osed to the nir, it will quickly absorb water from the atmosphere. Its relative weakness, therefore, is owing- to the quantity of water mixed with it. In speaking- of sulphuric acid, I must be under- stood to mean in its concentrated state, possessing- a specific g-ravity of from 18.45 to 18.50. And it should be borne in 3nind, in purchasing- the acid, that 50 lb. of the above is at least equal to 60 lb. of the specific g-ravity of 17.14, and therefore, if the weaker acid be used, its quantity must be increased in proportion to the diminution of its streng'th. On applying- the vitriolized bone to the tongue, we find that it tastes both sour and sweet. The sourness arises, probably, from the phosphoric acid, and the sweetness from the g-elatine sug-ar, which is formed b}^ the action of the acid on the g-elatine, converting- a substance very difficult of decomposition into one readily soluble, and which can be easily absorbed by plants. When concentrated acid is mixed with a quarter of its weig-ht of water, the tempera- ture of the mixture is raised to 300°, and boils away at a great rate. The action of this heat on the animal part of the bones renders it of a dark colour; but if a small quan- tity of acid only be employed, the mixture is white, from the carbonate of lime which then predominates. From an averag-e taken from several analyses of bones of man and various animals, the following- appears to be tolerably near the mean : — Organic matter, consisting of gelatine, cartilage, and fat . . 34 Phosphates of lime and magnesia 59 Carbonate of lime 7 loa Or, in rough numbers, the organic matter may be regarded as forming one-third, and the earthy portions two-thirds> Of course, if the bones are very fresli, the former will be in larger proportion than one-third ; thus Mr. Hannam gives SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 169 it as forty-five per cent. The above, however, may be con- sidered as a fail- averag-e in the state usually employed by farmers. Four bushels of bones, which may be considered to be a fair allowance for an acre, will weig'h, in a fine state of bone- dust, about 180 lb. ^ This cpiantity contains 12|- lb. of carbonate of lime, consisting- of carbonic acid, 5|- parts, and lime, 7 parts, which will require 10 lb. of sulphuric acid to convert it into sulphate of lime or gy[)sum. This is the first result of tlie mixture, and is the cause of the very impleasant fumes which are given ofi", and which consist, in fact, principally of carbonic acid diseng-ag-ed from the car- bonate of lime, in consequence of the superior affinity which lime has for sulphuric acid. This result takes place before the acid acts on the phosphates of the bones, and tlius it is that when a small quantity of acid has been sprinkled over bone-dust, the good effect has been but moderate, the car- bonate of lime alone has been acted on, and the phos})hate of lime has remained undecomposed. The quantity of phosphate of lime existing- in the 4 bushels of bones, is about 106 lb., containing- 47 lb. of lime, and 69 lb. of phosphoric acid. If we consider superphosphate of lime to contain a double portion of acid — a fact, however, not quite decided — then 33 lb. of sulphuric acid will be required, which, by uniting- with half the lime, or 23^ lb., forms g-ypsum, and leaves the other moiety of lime united "with a double jiortion of |)hosphoric acid in a state of su])er- phosphate. Thus, 43 lb. of acid will be required to effect these chang-es, leaving- any additional quantity for other pur- poses. ^ Phosphate of lime is a substance very difficult of solution, and thus, in a very dr}- season, the effects of bones are often very slig-ht and imperfect. Superphosphate of lime, on the other hand, is extremely soluble, so much so that the vitriolized bones can be entirely dissolved or suspended in Avater, and thus applied. This at once explains the cause of the valuable properties of the preparation. The bones in ' I find that the average weight of bone-dust, as it comes from the mill, is 1G8 lb. per 4 bushels, although I have found it reach the weight stated in the text. — Author. ^ I do not mean to say that these are the precise changes which take place, but only an approximation to them. Probably, some portion of phosphoric acid may be left in a free state in the prepared mixture. 170 ON THE USE OF tlieir natural state are extremel}^ indig-estible, tlie acid cooks them — converts them into a species of soup, which can readily be eaten and dig-ested by the young- turnips. The adamantine fetters with which the various elements com- posing bones are bound so compactly together are, by means of this new agent, burst asunder — the compact is broken, and each constituent element is left to pursue its own course, and to exercise its own natural af&nities. The chemical changes which take place between the sulphuric acid and the organic portion of the bones are no doubt very com- plicated. Sugar is one result, and probably sulphate of ammonia is another ; but I cannot venture to state what quantity of sulphui'ic acid may be necessary to effect these changes. If we presume that one -third is the propor- tion of sulphuric acid employed, then there will remain 17 lb. to act on the organic portion of the 4 bushels of bones, the remainder having- been required by the earthy portion. We find that manufacturing- chemists, in the preparation of ]ihosphorus from bones (now largely required for lucifer matches), first destroy the organic part of the bones by means of fire, and then mix the remainder with half its weight of sul- phuric acid. Thus, if we suppose 180 lb. to be the quantity em]doyed, by burning it will be i*educed to 120 lb., requiring 60 lb. of acid to form superphosphate, which would be one- third the weight of the bones previous to burning-. I sup- pose, however, that in this case an excess of acid is required to render the process complete, as one-half would otherwise appear to be more than the quantity demanded. From these and other reasons, we may justly consider that the proportion of acid to the bones should never be less than one-third, nor more than one-half. The former, I think, is the most economical, but probablv the precise quantity most desirable will be 42 per cent, of acid. I may, however, observe, that in an experiment during- the last season, in which one portion of the land was manured with bones and acid in different proportions, that which had more bones and less acid proved to be somewhat better crop than where fewer bones and more acid were used ; the expense being the same in both instances. 3. The proportion of water to be mixed with the acid will next receive our attention. When one part b}^ weight of water is mixed with four of acid, the temperature is raised to 300° Fahrenheit. It is, SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 171 therefore, very desirable tliat sufficient water sliould be used to produce this g-reat heat, which facihtates the dissolving- process ; and the quantity above stated, or, if more conve- nient, the same measure of water as of acid, which Vvill be rather more than half the v.eight, will be a very good pro- portion. More should not be used, as no usefid purpose will be accomplished. In an experiment tried last year with different proportions of water, I could not detect any differ- ence in the result. The water should be appKed first by means of a watering-pot, so that it may be intimately combined with every portion of the bones. This is an important point, and greatly facilitates the dissolving pro- cess, which without it is very likely to be imperfectly accomplished. Another reason for applying the water first is, that the bones becoming partially saturated, the acid, from its great affinity for it, rushes as it were into the pores of the bones in seorch of the v.ater, and thus the bones become more rapidly and perfectly mixed with, and acted on by the acid. When no water is employed, and the bones are not entirely in the state of fine dust, as they never are, unless pxu'posely sifted, the surfaces of the small pieces of bone become acted on by the acid, and a coat forms around them which seals up the interstices of the bones, and jjrevents the acid from penetrat- ing. I have no doubt this is often the case likewise from careless or imperfect mixture, and the good effects of the manure are thus materially diminished. 4. Mode of mixing the bones with the acid, and of prepar- ing the compost. It has been recommended that a large heap of ashes or moidd should be made with a hole or depression on the top, in which the bones are to be placed, the acid poured over them, and after some time the whole shovelled up and mixed together. Now, if we examine into the effects of this mode of procediu'e, we shall readily perceive the objection to which it is subject. The ashes, no doubt, contain a considerable portion of carbonate of lime besides other salts, for which sulphuric acid has a very strong affinity. Thus the bones are robbed of a large proportion of the acid, of which they ought to have exclusive possession. And even if common mould is used, or any other substance which has no particular chemical affinity for the acid, still this mould will mechaui- cally absorb much of the acid, and thus deprive the bones of 172 ON THE USE OF it. I I hold it, therefore, as a point of much importance, that the whole of the acid should be directh^ applied to the bones, and that no other substance should be allowed to intercept or abstract their mutual affinities. A very convenient and cheap vessel for manufacturing- the mixture is a sug-ar hogshead, having- its holes stopped with plaster of Paris. It is very desirable to avoid if possible an}^ measuring- or weig-hing- of the acid, as it is so very dan- gerous a substance to handle. Many serious accidents oc- curred to m}^ knowledg-e during- the last year, and it is very difficult to impress farm-servants with a sufficient deg-ree of caution, or even to convince them that a liquid which appears so colourless will burn their skin and clothes. In emptying- a carboy of acid, even into a tub, it is difficult to prevent a little slopping- about and damaging- the clothes of the attend- ants, as well as the basket, etc., which contains the carboy. To prevent these unpleasant consequences, I have adopted the following- plan: — The carboy is placed on a stag-e or cask the same height as the sug-ar hog-shead, into which is put the precise quantity of bone-dust we intend mixing- with the carboy of acid. The water is now added with a water- ing'-pot having- a rose at the end, so as to disperse it tho- roug-hly, and the carboy of acid is then emptied by means of a syphon. This syphon is formed of a })iece of block-tin pipe, which can be bent into any form, about three-quarters of an inch in calibre, and four feet in leng-th. A brass cock is soldered to the long- end of the syphon, on which the rose of a watering-pot may be placed. The syphon is now filled with water, and its long- end closed with the cock, and the small end with the hand or finger. The latter is then quickly inserted into the mouth of the carboy, the cock turned on, and the acid will continue to flow till the vessel is nearly empty, without any assistance, so that the attendant has no occasion to expose himself to the injuries and offensive fumes which almost immediately begin to escape. He may, however, approach the windward side of the tub, and give the mixture a little stirring, which should be continued for some little time afterwards, so that the mixture may be com})lete. A convenient utensil for this purpose is a fork ' I have not found that any considerable quantity of the acid passes through the bones into the heap of ashes or earth ; and though Mr. Spooner's is the better plan, where his ai)paratus can be easily procured, I still think that the expedient I mentioned may be found sometimes con- venient. — Ph. Pusey. SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 173 witli two g-rains, long- in the g-rain, bent at some distance from tlie grains nearly at rig-lit ang-les, and fixed in a wooden handle. On tlie same day a fresli lot of bones may be added, and the process repeated until the hog-shead is nearly full. In two days afterwards the mixture may be shovelled into a Leap, and either remain till wanted, or mixed at once with a certain portion of ashes. It should be shovelled over several times, and ashes added at each time of turning-, which will thus render the mixture fine and dry enough to pass throug-li an ordinary drill. It must be evident that much of the value and economy of the manure depends on it being- perfectly mixed, so that every particle of bone should be exposed to the action of the acid. In mam' cases I have no doubt this has not been sufficiently attended to, and the result has been either that more acid has been used than is really required, or that miuch of the advantageous efiect has been lost. Bv the method which I have here recommended, and which I have adopted after many trials, the mixture can be readily and accurately manufactured, and with perfect safety to the attendants. 1 5. Effect of various c^uantities applied in combination or comparison with common bones and other known manures. My own experience of the advantag-es of sulphated bones commenced in the very dry summer of 1844. Wishing- to try their effects, and thinking- that it was hig-hly desirable to apply them as a compost by means of a drill (though I had not heard of any instances in which they had been so used), I resolved to make the attempt. I intended to a])ply the bones at the rate of 3-| bushels per acre, and half their weig-ht of acid ; but from not making- sufficient allowance for the dampness of the manure, it extended over a large jiortion of land, so that little more than 2 bushels per acre were used ■with about 16 bushels of ashes. On the same day (in the early part of July) other portions of the field were drilled with bone-dust at the rate of 1(3 bushels per acre, and some parts with South American guano. The bones and acid (Swedes) were the first to appear, and their tops grew most luxuriantly. The turnips suffered from not being- hoed till ' In manufacturing a considerable quantity of the mixture to meet a large demand for the present season (184G), I have found much advantage from constructing various utensils of different shapes, so as to perfect the mixture without inconvenience to the attendants, as well as from other improvements in the manipulative process. — Author. 174 ON THE USE OF they were too forward, but the crop throughout the field (considering- the late period of their being drilled, and other unfavourable circumstances) was a very fair one, about 14 tons to the acre. The bones and acid portion was fiiUy equal to the rest, and indeed somewhat better than where IG bushels of bones had been applied to the acre. Every alternate ridge was carted oif, and the remaining half fed off by old ewes with no other food, with the excep- tion of a little inferior hay. The field was then sown with dredge (a mixture of beans, barley, and peas), and the crop "was a very excellent one ; that where the vitriolized bones had been used was at the least fully equal to any portion of the field, and indeed somewhat superior to that dressed with bones alone. Thus it will be seen that the manure answers perfectly well so far as the second crop is concerned j and there is now the prospect of a good clover crop. The result of the preceding year having fully satisfied me as to the value and economy of vitriolized bones, I did not think it necessary to test their merits against other manures during the last season, particularly as other equally suc- cessful experiments had been tried and published. But wishing to ascertain the most economical proportion of acid to be employed, I prepared two lots for a field of 6 acres. In one the bone-dust was at the rate of 4 bushels to the acre, and the acid one-third ; and in the other the acid was half the weight of the bones ; but the latter was diminished so as to reduce the cost of both lots to the same sum. The mixture in each instance extended over half an acre more than was intended, and was mixed with equal portions of ashes, viz., about 20 bushels to the acre. The Swedes came up well, and though attacked b}^ the fly soon got out of its way, and proved a very good crop. The average of the field, however, was very much reduced by the great quantity of hedgerow timber by which it was surrounded, and which spread its blighting influence a con- siderable distance. However much these trees might add to the beauty of the landscape, they certainly destroyed most efiectually the beauty and uniformity of the turnip- crop, and reduced the average of the field several tons per acre. A good portion of the field appeared to average about 22 tons per acre, and the half where the larger quantity of bone-dust with one-third its weight of acid was used, proved superior to the other, though whether to be attri- buted to the difference in the manure, or to the fact of that SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 175 part of tlie field being" somewliat drier, it is difficult to say. The field was a clay loam on the London clay, and was partially drained. I also supplied various ag-riculturists in my neig'hbour- liood with vitriolized bones, prepared in the proportion of 4 bushels (180 lb.) of bone-dust, and GO lb. of concentrated sulphuric acid, which I recommended to be applied to an acre when no other manure was emploj-ed. The result in nearly every instance has been decidedly favourable. Mr. W. Gater, of Westend, employed it at the rate of 2 bushels of bones to the acre, in addition to a fair dressing' of farm-yard dung'. On a portion of the field the dung* was used alone. The former was fit for the hoe several days before the latter, and on weig'hing- portions of each in Januar}' last, there was a superiority of 5 tons to the acre in favour of that portion which had received the addition of sulphated bones. Mr. J. W. Clark, of Timsbury, used the manure which I supplied him with in the same proportions also in addition to farm-yai'd dung', and the Swedes proved the best on his farm. The amount of vitriolized bones used per acre varied in difi^erent parts of the field, and the g'oodness of the crop precisely corresponded to the quantity applied. Mr. J. Blundell, of Bursledon, also used it at the rate of 4 bushels of bones to the acre with 6 bushels, of ashes in competition with nig-ht-soil and ashes. On visiting- his farm a few weeks afterwards, I noticed, at several fields' distance, the superiority of one portion of the field, which I found was that on which the vitriolized bones had been used. The dampness of the season, however, proved so favourable to the development of the other manure, that, on weig'hing' them in December, the latter was found about half a ton per acre heavier ; the expense, however, was nearly double. The weig'ht of the crop was between 17 and 18 tons per acre. I have no doubt that if Mr. Blundell had applied 20 bushels of ashes to the acre, instead of G, with the sulphated bones, tlie result would have been much more favourable. When we bear in mind the large amount of potash con- tained in the crop, it must be very evident that it is of im- portance to supply a g'ood quantity of ashes which contain a fair proportion of potash ; I would therefore recommend that 20 bushels of ashes per acre, at least, should always be employed. 17G ON THE USE OF Ml". Pocock, of Hicldey, iised the mamire at tlie rate of 4 bushels per acre, and one-third acid, and was well pleased with the result, thoug-h he did not ascertain its amount. Mr. Withers, of Luzborough, was another farmer to whom I furnished a quantity, prepared as before mentioned, and he reports very favourably of the result. Mr. Fielder, of Sparsholt, was induced by my representa- tion of its favourable eftects to try the manure, and he found that on his lig'ht land on the chalk it answered ad- mirably. Two bushels of vitriolized bones with ashes suc- cessfully rivalled a small portion of ground drilled at the rate of GO bushels of bones to the acre for the purpose of ex- periment. Although the vitriolized bone has proved very successful with white turnips, I believe that its peculiar excellences are most fully proved by Swedes. I wished to ascertain this by experiment ; and accordingly, on the same day and on similar land, a clay loam, 3 acres Avere drilled with Laiug" Swedes, and 3 acres with Matson's white globes after tares. The Swedes proved decidedly superior both in the early and later stag-es, and thoug'h the roots, as mio'ht have been anticipated, were but of moderate size, in consequence of the very late time of drilling (early in August), yet on com- paring a few rods withoiit manure the difterence was very striking. A small portion of the globes, drilled with ashes alone, also exhibited a similar inferiority. It should be observed, however, that in this experiment the land was probably more suited for Swedes than white turnips ; but, on the other hand, the lateness of the season was more imfavourable to the Swedes, besides which the crop previous to the globes had been manured with stable- dung, whilst the other field had received no dressing since 1843. Supposing that these results are to be attributed to the greater suitability of the manure for Swede, and not owing to other causes, the result is certainly in keeping with the comparative analysis of the ashes of Swedes and white tur- nips, which tells us that the former contains 408 lb. of phos- phoric acid, and the latter only 73 lb. in 100,000 lb. each. It must be evident from this circumstance that white turnips do not require so large a quantity of bones, whether vitriolized or not, and it also corresponds with the well known facts that Swedes require a larger quantity of dung- to supply the necessary phosphoric acid, and also that white SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 177 turnips on favourable land can be raised with aslies alone far more easily than Swedes. I would therefore recommend in all cases with white turnips; that a less quantity of vitriolized bone be employed, and that g'uano, or some other manure possessing its pro- perties, should be used in combination with it. In Ma}' last, a portion of land consisting- of 1-^ acre was drilled with Matson's g-reen top globes, and manured with 1 bushel of sulphated bones, 1 cwt. of African gaiano, and about 2o bushels of turf-ashes per acre. The crop was a very good one, exceeding 20 tons to the acre. In several instances within my own knowledge where guano has been used with ashes, the crop has been destroyed by the pungency of the manure, probably owing to the ammonia which it contains. There is no danger of this taking place with vitriolized bones, and I have found, though seeds will not vegetate if entirely surrounded with them, they readily will if the manure is mixed with twice its weight of mould. The last season has not been a favourable one for dis- playing- the peculiar advantages of vitriolized bones, or rather, it has been from its wetness so favourable for com- mon bones and every other description of manure, that an indiilerent field of turnips has been the exception and not the rule. It is in a dry season when the fly is particularly rife and active, when crop after crop is destroj-ed by this entomological pest, that the advantages of ensuring a vigo- rous growth to young plants is properly appreciated. Amongst all the specifics or antidotes for the fly, there is none, I believe, equal to the employment of vitriolized bones. Hitherto, I have not met with or heard of a single instance in which it has failed to force the plants out of the way of the fly. It is in a dry season, too, that the advantages of early and vigorous growth are shown, when the plant may languish for weeks for want of rain with ordinary manures, and thus lose time that never afterwards can be compensated for. In a garden experiment, tried on a small scale to show the effect of different preparations in forcing the young plant out of ground, I found the following results : — 1. Vitriolized bone applied in solution above the seed caused the plant to appear on the fourth day. 2. The same applied below the seed brought up the plant on the fifth day. 3. Vitriolized bones as compost brought up the plant on N 178 ON THE USE OF the sixtli day, Lotli wlien apj)lied above and below the seed. 4. Sulphuric acid and water below the seed caused the turnip to make its appearance on the sixth day. 5. Bone-dust below the seed brought up the plant on the seventh day, the same time as it appearecl where no manure was employed. In the above instances, with the exception of the fourth, the expense of the manure was the same in each case. Genera I Conclusions. From the facts and reasons which we have detailed and urged in our ])receding' essay, as well as from information supplied by previous experimenters, we may deduce the fol- lowing conclusions : — 1. That super j)bosphate of lime is the essential manure for turnips, and })articularly for Swedes. That with it alone a good crop can be raised ; but without it the turnip will not thrive, however rich the manure ma^^ otherwise be. 2. In preparing the mixture, the bones should be in as fine a state as possible. 8. That sulphuric acid, from its greater strength and cheapness, is preferable to muriatic acid. 4. That Avater, in the projjortion of one-half the weight of the acid, should be first sprinkled over the bones. 5. The proportion ot sulphuric acid most economical to em- ploy should not be less than one-third, nor more than one-half the weight of the bones, and that probably the medium be- tween these two quantities is most advantageous. 6. That the mixture can be applied either diluted with a considerable qiiantity of water by the aid of a water-cart, or with ashes by means of an ordinary drill. That though the former may be more speedy in its efi:ects, the latter can be more conveniently applied, and has the advantage of admit- ting the addition of a large quantity of ashes. 7. That vitriol ized bones may be used either alone or with other manures, and that when the latter are at hand, it is more advantageous to use the former in combination with them. For instance, if there are 30 acres to be prepared, and only sufficient dimg to dress 15 acres, it is better to give a half-dressing of dung over the whole of the turnip break, and make up the deficiency by means of sulphated bones. Thus the plant will be forced in its early and supported in SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 179 its later gTowtli. For the same reason vitriolized bones may be advantageously combined with g'uano. 8. That vitriolized bones are equally advantageous to the second year's crop, when the turnips are either wholly or partially fed off with sheep. 9. That while the economy of this manure is thus proved by practice, it can be as readily explained by theor}^, e. (]., — The tops of Swedes are known to possess double the phos- phoric acid contained in the bulbs. Thus the superphos- phate of lime in the manure causes the rapid development of the leaves — one of its peculiar properties. The leaves being- thus early and largely developed, are enabled to extract a considerable portion of nourishment from the atmosphere, much more, indeed, than where the leaves are small and backward. The diiference between the amount of food derived from the atmosphere by a forward and flourishing- crop, and that obtained by a backward and dwarfish crop, is so much absolute gain to the former, or rather to the land. It costs nothing on the one hand, but yields considerably to the land if the crop is fed off on the other. A manure that would thus force on the turnip in the early stages of its g-rowth, was long felt to be a desideratum by agricidturists. This want has now been supplied ; and even if this were the only recommendation sulphated bones possessed, its discovery and introduction would still be a boon. Last!}'. The value of vitriolized bone may now be con- sidered to be fully and fairl}^ established. Its claims rest not on the assertions of a few experimenters. It has been tried during the last season by hundreds with success, and in the next it will be tried by thousands. It affords, in fact, a triumphant answer to the question — What has science done for agriculture 1 Southampton, 2Uh Feb. 1846. *^* The preparation of bones for turnips, as described by Mr. Pusey (being heated with ashes), and other substances, has been long practised ■with success ; and this preparation causes a softening of tlie substance so much that the smaller parts become immediately proper for the food of plants. J. KiMBERLEY. Jour, of the R.A.S.E., vol. vii. part 1. N 2 ISO ON MANURES WHOSE CHIEF FERTILIZINO Art. XXXIX.— on MANURES WHOSE CHIEF FERTILIZING SUBSTANCE IS PHOSPHATE OF LIME. By the Editor of the " Farmer's Almanac." Some years liave now elapsed since the writer of this, in an essay on the use of crushed bones, ventured to refer to the proba]jle value as a fertilizer of the native phosphorite of lime. In 18i4, Dr. Daubeny made some experiments with reg'ard to its power as a manure for turnips, and obtained the following" weights of turnip roots per acre : — ^ From the soil, simple, ia lb 14*298 Bone shavings, 10 cwt 19-239 Chemical Manure Co.'s guano, 260 lb 26-058 Spanish phosphorite, 12 cwt 28-639 Sulphuric acid with ditto, 12 cwt 30-869 S. American guano, 260 lb 31"114 Bones with sulphuric acid, 11 cwt 31-898 Graham's Animal Comp., 260 lb 32-109 Sulph. of ammonia, 1 cwt 32-670 Bones, finely powdered, 12 cwt 36-185 Potter's guano, 260 lb 37-201 Stable dung, 22 tons 39'476 In some experiments of Sir II. Verney's," the fertilizers were apj)lied in 1844 to a turnip crop. The experiment, however, failed, from the seeds not g-erminating-. On the succeeding- crop of Chevalier barley (sown at the rate of 1|- bushel), the following- were the manures applied, and the results produced per acre : — Weight. Produce. Qr. Bu. Pk. 3 6 2 5 5 3 2 7 5 5 3 2 5 6 3 8 2 Soil simple Unburnt bones Burnt bones Pigeon's dung Spanish phosphorite and sulphuric acid Superphosphate of lime Stable dung 1 7 18 18 18 1 20 5f » Jour. R. A. S., vol. vi. p. 330. 9 Ibid. p. 331. SUBSTANCE IS THE PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 181 From some recent and valuable experiments of Mr. Pusey and Mr. Brooks, of Hatford,i it is probable, as we have long- since elsewhere suggested, that by finely dividing bones by putrefaction, and mixing them with gypsum powder, an effect may be produced upon turnips similar to that of using the superphosphate of lime. Mr. Pusey sajs, " I mixed eight bushels of crushed bones with sixteen bushels of our brick-coloured peat-ashes. In a few days, the heap began to heat violently, and the heat lasted for ten days : the whole was reduced to a fine reddish-grey powder. On try- ing this compost by the side of superphosphate, with a crop of turnips, the effect was precisely the same : the ashes cost only fourpence for two bushels — the acid would have cost five times as much. The superphosphate of lime appears to answer very well for wheat. Mr. P. Leigh obtained the following results per acre : — ^ JIanures. Cost. Produce in Bushels. £ s. d. 1 12 6 1 12 6 4 10 2 4 2 4 9 29 38 38 40 40 53 Rape-dust, 5 cwt Urate, 6 cwt Dung, 30 loads Superphosjjhate, 6 cwt.. . It is noticeable that oil-cake, which is found so enriching to the dung" of live stock, abounds with phosphate of lime. In the ashes of the gold-of-pleasure cake (constituting 6'89 per cent, of the cake), of English linseed-cake (constituting 7'25 per cent.), and of American linseed-cake (constituting 6*35 per cent.), were found by Mr. Fromberg, — ^ Gold of 1 Pleasure. Alkaline salts I 30-43 Phosphates of lime and magnesia 40-56 Lime i 3*46 Magnesia j 0-49 Silica I 13*65 Sand I 10-84 Enslish Cake. American Cake. 31-55 47-67 4-88 1-51 10-81 3-86 38-20 56-26 1-24 a trace 4-04 ' Jour. R. A. S., vol. vi. p. 327. " Trans. High. Soc, 1846, p. 203. * Ibid. vol. V. p. 605. 182 ON MANURES, ETC. Tlie constant withdrawal of tlie pliospliate of lime from pastures by hay and by live stock, and the total neglect of any means of returning- a supply to the soil, are well worthy of the farmer's attention. We have already given ^ the analysis of rye-grass, in which it exists in very considerable proportions : and as regards live stock, " If we consider," says Professor Johnston,^ " that an animal of 20 to 25 stone weight contains about 50 lb. of bone, the important consti- tuents of which it derives from the soil, it will be easily understood how the rearing of growing stock for successive generations should impoverish the soil of the materials of bones, and how the application of bones as a manure should increase its productiveness in those grasses from which the animal derives the materials of which its bones are com- posed." The experiments which we have made Avith crushed bones, and with gypsum, as a top-dressing for old, worn out pasturage, are confirmed by those of Mr. Fleming, of Barochan, in Renfrewshire, who says, ^ " I have had very satisfactory results from top-dressing meadows and grass on my new moor property, with dissolved bones, and guano, and salt. The produce has been doubled at the trilling expense of 16.*f. per acre." Mr. Stewart, of Hillside, in Dumfriesshire, adds, when speaking of some experiment on similar land with bones and lime, " The effect is mostly in favour of the bones, both in the quantity and in the quality of the pasture and hay. It is the inferior varieties of guano (pro- vided the price is commensurate with the small amount of the salts of ammonia, and the large proportion of water they contain) that is the best adapted for those pasture lands that require an additional supply of the phosphate of lime. Most of those of commerce have been analyzed by Pro- fessor J. F. Johnston.^ He found in these, per cent. — Farmer's Almanac, 1847, p. 25. Trans. High, Soc, p. 313. Ibid. p. 314. Aff, Gaz., vol. iii. p. 244. EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIFIC MANURES. 183 Kinds. Water. Ammoniacal matter. Earthy phosphates. Peruvian Chilian Bolivian Ichaboe Saldanha, light . . „ dark . . Algoa Bay Halifax Bird's Island .... Patagonian, light ,, dark 7 to 9 10 13 6 IS 26 17 27 ^ 33 44 S S 2-26 i 23-93 24-47 25-49 14-18 40-99 20-55 56to66 50 56 65 64 36 44 14 22 22-37 23-16 20-61 h9to21 j j 20 25 16to23 22 30 25 29 21 29 43 56 70-20 43-15 22-67 22-43 5-37 24 to 32 Farmer's Almanac, 184/ Art. XL. — experiments WITH SPECIFIC MANURES. By Mr. Alex. James Main, Whitehall, Lasswade. [Mr. Main closes an interesting account of his experiment.s, which ap- pear to have been very carefully and ably conducted, with the following General Remarks and Conclusions.] General Henuo-hs. On reviewing- tlie results obtained from the experiments re- corded in the succeeding- tables/ some important facts present themselves, well worthy of a more jiarticnlar description. This I shall proceed to g-ive as succinctly as possible. And, first, I would remark the fact, proved in the tables, that one manure may be successful in one locality and not in another, .and rice versa. Sulphate of soda has ])roved itself, on this firm, a valuable top-dressing- on oats ; svlpliafe of ammonia the reverse. In other experiments on the same crop, conducted in other places, and reported in the " Transactions of the Hig-hland and Agricultural Society," the effects of the two substances were completely reversed. Sulphate of ammonia was the ' The valuable and instructive tables referred to liere and in succeeding parts of this article, are in the vol. of the Tram, liiyh. Soc. from which this extract is taken. — Ed. F. F. 184 EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIFIC MANURES. successful, siilpliate of soda the imsiiccessfiil application — I speak here of the substances in the individual application — in mixture; both are successful, and in varying- degrees. On grass, the two succeed well togetlw)', in conjunction with common salt and pigeon dung' ; on oats, the most successful mixture with sulphate of ammonia, is g'uano, nitrate of soda^ and animal charcoal ; and sidphate of soda succeeds best with nig-ht-soil, saltpetre -refuse, and animal -charcoal; on •wheat, sulphate of ammonia succeeds well with nitrate of soda, applied with which substance, sulphate of soda fails ; ■with the former, however, animal-charcoal was conjoined, with the latter, it was not, and hence, probabl}', the success of the one and the failure of the other ; on the potato-crop, sulphate of soda succeeds, while sulphate of ammonia fails ; the experiments in this case, however, are destitute of authority, from their erratic character ; — on the whole, both substances are good in mixture. The facts connected with these substances are demonstrative of the good results attend- ing- widely-extended experiments ; and from them also the lesson may be learned that, before larg-ely using- any manure, it ought to be carefully experimented on. Saltpetrc-refme has proved itself a most excellent top- dressing", both in the individual and mixed applications. Nor is it destitute of merit when applied with other substances as a manure to root-crops ; on all, it has exercised a most bene- ficial influence. As a g-rain producer, its value is great in respect of quantity, but it is inferior as regards quality. And in respect of g-rain, it is surpassed in the wheat-crop by nig-ht-soil; besides that, comparing- its produce in straw ■with its produce in g-rain, and both with the produce ob- tained from other specifics, it fails in producing- a (piantity of the latter corresponding- with the amount of the former. In mixture, however, this failing- is corrected, thoug-h the amount of produce in g-rain does not equal, in every case, its own produce, individually applied ; as a set-off to this, it is improved in cpiality. On the whole, this is a valuable manure. IMy experiments in n'ujld-soW are most satisfactory, and fully justify the conclusion, that it is a g-ood manure. Pro- bably, in other experiments undertaken this year, the effects of this manure will be sufficienth' broug-ht out ; if so, then a just appreciation of its value may be formed ; if not, I submit that, from the g-ood effects of it recorded in my experiments, its merits demand a more extended inquiry. I EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIFIC MANURES. 185 am aware that in Eng-land this manure has been long* used and ajipreciated, but it is of very recent introduction into Scotland ; and the merit of being- the first to introduce it, so far as I am aware, belongs to Messrs. Mack and Ruthar- ford, of Leith. The facts, however, are conclusive, and night -soil, if judiciously prepared, will, I am convinced, attain to as much celebrity as g'uano. Every effort should be made to secure it in abundance ; particularly, it should be impressed upon the authorities of cities and larg-e towns, the desirableness and propriety of attending- to its collection. This done, not only would a great national good be secured, but a large increase of revenue would result to the cities and towns themselves. Glancing at its effects, it is foimd to be rich in the production of grain, both in quantity and quality. As a producer of straw, it is inferior to many of the other applications ; but, on the other hand, its economical results are superior. In mixture, its value is considerably enhanced, nor are its essential qualities diminished ; its production of grain, in the case of oats, is greatly increased, its cjuality little inferior ; and its produce in straw, though still inferior to other substances, is largely augmented. In wheat, these remarks, in respect to mixtures with this substance, do not hold good. The produce, mixed with saltpetre-refuse and gypsum, is inferior to that from its individual application. I attribute this, however, in a great measure, to the presence of gypsum. That substance has not at all answered my expectations in any of my experiments. And, ag"ain, this failure is the result of only one application in mixture, and therefore does not afford sulhcient data for a decision. But, be that as it may, the fact that it is, in every essential par- ticular, a most valuable top-dressing for wheai;, is unques- tionable. Compared with guano, night-soil has not been so successfid in its application to root-crops, nor, on the whole, has it entirely failed ; a sufficient gaiarantee, that in respect to these crops, it is an improveable manure. This latter conclusion is strengthened by the fact that, allied to other substances, and applied to the turnip -crop mentioned in tables G and H, it in the one surpasses farm-yard manure in two applications, and nearly equals it in 'a third ; and in the other table, while it surpasses farm-manure, it also excels the produce from guano itself — the mixtures with both sub- stances being- equal in kind and quantity. For the mixtures most beneficial in combination with night-soil, I must refer to the tables, merely' remarking, that in the instance of its 180 EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIFIC MANURES. surpassing- guano applied to tlie turnip-crop, it was in alliance with dissolved bones and animal-cliarcoal. Guano, as compared with night-soil, is inferior in the g-rain, and superior in the root-crops. Its merits and de- merits, however, are so well known that I need not enter on their detail. This far, however, I may remark, that in case of the privation of this article, we have, in the case of grain- cro})s, equally good substitutes in saltpetre-refuse and night- soil ; and in respect of root-crops, I have no doubt that bones and night-soil will be made to equal it. Eeferring to table D, a curious efiect is found to follow : in the first place, g'uano, saltpetre, and night-soil, in combination, and in the next, the same substances with another added. The mixture of the three substances is a complete failure ; with the addi- tion of another substance, however, in each of three appli- cations they succeed. In the first of these three applications, animal-charcoal is added j in the second, sulphate of mag- nesia ; in the third, nitrate of soda. The first is su])erior in straw and grain, but inferior to the other two in weight of g'rain ; the second is sujierior to the third in grain, but in- ferior in straw and weight of grain ; and the third is inferior to both the others in grain, but again surpasses both in weig-ht. All, however, are very superior to the three sub- stances in combination, and applied without the addition. The cause of the failure in the application of the three sub- stances, I cannot sufficiently explain : that it is to be attri- buted to the combination of guano and night-soil, is not strictly consistent with the effects of the two combined in other experiments; and yet the fact, that the addition of another substance is sufficient to obviate the bad effects of the mixtures, seems to point in that direction. Probably, therefore, the fact may be, that two ammoniacal excrements operate injuriously on each other, and that they require an amount of corrective power equal, on the one hand, to salt- petre-refuse and sulphate of magnesia, animal-charcoal and saltpetre-refuse, or nitrate of soda and saltpetre-refuse ; and, on the other, to one-quarter of bones dissolved in sidphuric acid. I take the facts as I find them, and these demonstrate that guano and night-soil do not operate well together, except when an equivalent amount of corrective power is applied along- with them, or, which is to the same purpose, that these substances, equally divided, of which the two named are a portion, do not produce beneficial effects. I do not hazard an opinion in elucidation of this subject, my EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIFIC MANURES. 187 cliemical knowledge being* insufficient for the purpose ; but the fact is interesting-, at least to myself, and may be so to others more experienced, if it do not come under that class of facts which derive their interest solely from the ignorance of their discoverer. This conclusion, however, is clear, that guano and night-soil mixed, and in combination with other substances, is an excellent top-dressing for barley, and I have no doubt eqiially so for other grain-crops ; and that the two substances mixed and applied to turnips, with bones dissolved in sulphuric acid, effects a vast saving in the first cost, secures a larger crop, and is more satisfactory in econo- mical results, than a much larger quantity of dissolved bones applied alone. Nitrate of soda individually applied, has not produced equally favourable results in this locality as in others. Pro- bably its liigh price may have assisted in producing this unfavourable result, as certainly the a|)pearance of the crop, when growing, did not indicate any failure in the manure itself In mixture, it has been of great utility, and, no doubt, is worthy of considerable attention. The experiment recorded in Table F, is an interesting proof of the fact, that farm manure combined with guano affords the largest amount of vegetative and economical results, when applied in the proportion of fifteen carts-load, of the former to 3 cwt. of the latter. It would be inter- esting and instructive to enlarge on this experiment, and by the application of various quantities of guano, respectively applied to 10, 1.5, 20, and 2-5 tons or cubic yards of farm manure, ascertain correctly, and beyond possibility of doubt, at what rate applied these manures Avould he most pro- ductive. The same remarks a]iply to the experiment on potatoes. Night-soil might also be conjoined in the experi- ment by itself, and with other substances, and the results might elucidate facts of some importance I attach some importance to the experiment with hones on the turnip crop, exhibited in Table H. Bones, as a manure, are most important articles in agricultural economy, and they are most deservedly so. No experiment, therefore, tending to enlighten as to their improvement can be unimportant, especially if, from their improvement, they can be economized. Dissolving bones in sulphuric acid has tended greatly to advance this great object, namely, the improvement and economy of bones as a manure. The facts, however, elicited by these experiments tend to prove it still further possible 188 EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIFIC MANURES. to economize and improve tliem. A reference to Table H will clearly illustrate tlie fact. I leave to persons more versed in chemical lore than myself to illustrate this point ; Lut this I observe, that the larg'er the amount of the ammoniacal substance introduced into the mixture, the greater is the saving- in bones, and in proportion is the crop increased. Of the effects of inixed manvrcs there can be no doubt. In every experiment undertaken to illustrate the properties of the specific manures, the results from mixtures bear a prominent part. In those I have imdertaken, this remark also holds g'oodj and there can be no question, but that in this way the larg'e proportion of our foreig'n manures should be used. No doubt, some trouble may be necessary to dis- cover the best mixtures, but this done, the results will more than repay the cost. In the absence of mixtures, many of our best manures, at least our best used in this way, are lost sight of, and thereby we deny ourselves the benefit to be de- rived from their use. Nor, because a mamu'e fails as an individual a])plication, is it a reason for arg'uing- its failure in mixture. This fact is distinctly proved in the succeeding- Tables. Nor is this all, our best individual applications can be improved by combination, either applied to grain or root crops. Have we an individual substance excelling- in the produce of straw, by a judicious mixture of this substance with one or more substances excelling- in the produce of g-rain and in the weight of it, the properties of all may be im- proved, and the farmer more amply remunerated than by adhering- to any individual substance. A word of practical improvement. Not mine alone, but many other experiments have clearly elucidated most important facts ; these shoidd be promptly acted on. Much g-ood is lost by inactivity in the application of truths derived from careful experiment. This should not be ; for thoug-h some labour, and possibly experience, may be necessary to demonstrate their practical usefrilness, the public and private interests to be subserved should, at all times, be a sufficient stimulus to the prosecution of inquiry. Let farmers collate and reduce to practice the facts to be g-leaned from experiments already recorded, and they will reap benefit in their own profit, and promote the national good. EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIFIC MANURES. 189 Conchmons. 1st, Eveiy description of crop requires an ingredient essential to its production, and without it such crop cannot be raised in perfection. 2d, If a soil does not contain in itself what is essential to the growth of the plant upon it, it must be supplied throug'h the medium of one or other of the specific manures. 3d, The essential substance necessary to be added to the soil, may be discovered by consulting- the nature and proper- ties of the plant to be raised. 4th, Nitrate and ammoniacal substances excel in the pro- duction of straw, grass, or potatoes, and turnip tops, without an equivalent production of grain or bulbs; so these sub- stances should not be ap[)lied alone, but in combination with others containing- phosphates. This is illustrated by the fact that salt-petre refuse and nitrate of soda, applied with g'uano or prepared nig-ht-soil and animal charcoal, improve their individual production, either in quantity or weight, or in both. 6th, Salts which are sidphates produce grain in larger proportions to their straw, than other salts which are nitrate or ammoniacal. Gth, Bone manure, though dissolved in sulphuric acid, may be greatly enhanced in value by the addition of ammo- niacal substances ; hence it is inferred, that substances capa- ble of imparting additional luxuriance to the foliage of plants, largely administer to their necessities, and, combined with phosphates, are highly advantageous. 7th, Sulphuric acid is eminently beneficial to the potato crop, and, in the experiment on that crop recorded in the Tables, has proved itself a preventative of the disease called " curl," having produced a healthy crop, when, from the same seed, and otherwise treated in the same manner, the other plants of the field were much infected with that disease. I am aware that some of these conclusions are mere repetitions of ascertained facts, but truth is never injured by repetition. Perhaps I should have added to the list of my conclusions this one, that farm manure and guano, combined in the proportion of 15 tons of the former to 3 cwt. of the latter, is the proportion in which I have found these sub- stances to succeed best; and as regards farm manure and night-soil, the best proportion is, 25 tons of the former to 1;^ cwt. of the latter. This last result, however, may be 190 EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTINUED greatly improved upon, and therefore should not be taken as a just criterion, eitlier for the purpose of estimating' the value of the nig-ht-soil, or deterinining- the best mode of applying- it. Trans, of the High, and Agric. Soc. of Scotland, Oct. 1846. Art. XLL— experiments ON THE CONTINUED EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC MANURES. By Mr. A. F. Gardner, Barrochan, Renfrewshire. The cojichislons to be drawn from these crops for three years are, — 1st, That moss and guano are able to supply the place of farm-yard manure in a greater degree than any other substance that has yet been tried hei-e ; and from the experience of the last four years it has been found that a mixture of dung and guano, in the proportion of from 10 to 14 tons of the former to 3 to 5 cvvt. of the latter, will raise a larger crop, in the first instance, than from 30 to 40 tons of dung alone, and leave the land in as good, if not better, condition for the after crops, at about one-half the expense of the dung. 2d, That burnt bones are equal, if not superior, to fresh bones, for raising crops to which bones are applicable as a manure ; and that bones will (if applied to green crops on land in which their constituents are defi- cient,) keep up the fertility of such land in a high degree for the after crops. Bone-dust was applied nine years ag'o as manure for a turnip crop, in a field of medium soil, and this field was trenched this season and sown with oats. The land where the bones had been put gave 7 bushels oats, and 50 stones more straw, than that land to which farm-yard manure had been applied at the same time to the turnip crop, besides the grain having been 2 lb. per bushel heavier; and, during the time this field lay in grass, the portion manured with the bones could be pointed out from the rest by a darker colour and greater luxuriance of pas- ture. 3d, That sulphate of soda, applied to green crops, does not seem to have any influence iij)on crops after the second year of its application. Trans, of the High, and Agric. Soc. of Scotland, Jul 184&. EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC MANURES. 191 Art. XLII.— experiments ON THE CONTINUED EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC MANURES. Drawn tjp by Mr. A. Murray, Nethermill of Cruden. From the results of three years' experiments of the rota- tion, Mr. Murray says the following- conclusions may be drawn : — 1st, Farm-yard manure with guano, seem to g-ive the greatest bulk of crop, and a heavier crop than a fidl manur- ing' of either alone. 2d, Farm-yard manure with bone-dust, or bone-dust and sulphuric acid, produce heavier crops of turnips and oats than a full manuring' of either alone. 3d, Notwithstanding- the weight of hay crop, after the bone-dust, or bone-dust and svdphuric acid, appears about equal to that raised by the other applications, still they uniformly produce the best sole of rye-grass and white clover. This may be accounted for in two ways. 1st, Much more phosphates are added to the soil by a full manuring- of bone-dust, or bone-dust and sulphuric acid, than from farm-yard manure or guano. The same result holds good with mixtures of these. 2d, The texture of the soil is much firmer in the txu'nip crop after bone-dust, or bone-dust and sulphuric acid, than after farm-yard manure or guano. Now, experiment and experience have proved, of late years, that the texture of the soil has much influence in the growth of clover. 4th, The addition of sulphuric acid to bone-dust, appears to accelerate the growth of vegetables. This is an im- portant circumstance for wet cold clay soils. I find, that a less quantity of sulphuric acid along- with bone-dust, than that used by the Turrift' experiments — say, 6 lb. instead of 25 lb. to tlie bushel, has all the advantages of early action, and is free from the objections to so large a proportion. 5th, With regard to farm-yard manure, or peat and saline manures, they fall behind the other applications after the first year. This may arise from the saline manures being* • easily dissolved, and thereby early ^appropriated by the plants. 192 ON GUANO, AND ITS COMPARATIVE MERITS. Art. XLIIL— on GUANO, AND ITS COMPARATIVE MERITS. By Professor Johnston. [At the meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, held August 5, two highly interesting and instructive lectures were given by Professor Johnston on manures. The one delivered at the public breakfast elicited many valuable observations from several members of the society giving the results of their experience in the use of different kinds of manure. To elicit such a discussion was the professed object of the address.] With regard to g-uano, it was well known it was derived from a description of sea-fowl wliicli lived on fish, and which was produced in g-reat abundance. If they fed some fowls on the ordinary food, and others on fish, they would find that the manure of the latter was more valuable than that of the former. There was another fact with reg-ard to the manure of birds g-enerally. It was well known that the excrements of animals, of cows, horses, sheep, &c., consisted of solids and liquids. In the solids were found the phos- phates ; from the liquids ammonia was obtained, or at least the nitrogen which formed ammonia on fermentation. Now, in tlie excrements of the sea-fowl and other birds, the liquids and the solids were ejected tog-ether, and consequently it was more valuable. This was an important point. Hitherto only the solid excrements of animals had been really at- tended to ; but they did not contain all that the farmer wanted ; they did not contain the ammonia and saline qua- lities which the liquids carried off. It was not necessary that he should say much on the theoretical advantages of g'uano, nor was it of much importance to them ; but they would find, from the market-value of its main constituents, in what its advantages really consisted. Ammonia was the principal fertilizing ingredient, and the price of that was from 30s. to 4:1. per ton. In guano there was 65 per cent, of ammonia, and a large proportion of phosphate of lime. These two articles constituted the great proportion of guano, as well as the most valuable in the market. He had already told them that the sea-fowl ejected in one excrement both ammonia and the phosphates ; whilst in animal excre- ments, the phosphate was contained in the solid and the ammonia in liquid. He would draw attention to some of the varieties of guano which had recently come into the market, in order that they might compare them with those which had already come into use. These varieties had been ON GUANO, AND ITS COMPARATIVE MERITS. 193 broiig'lit from Saklanlia Bay and Patagonia. Tlie former variety contained 70 or 80 per cent, of phospliorus, and was very rich, and tlie Patagonian g-uano was as good as tlie better qualities of Iclniboe guano. It was a subject of congratula- tion, that on the coast of Patagonia there was a very large supply of guano, and he hoped that the guano from all parts of the world would last the farmers as long as they would require it ; and that by the time this manure failed they would be able to dispense with it. He thought it a most G'ratifvin^' circumstance that Providence had thus interfered to cause knowledge in these matters to now in the right channel. When guano failed, still the use of artificial manures would not stop. He anticipated that artificial manures would then be prepared, if not b}' manufacturers, at least by the farmers themselves, many of whom would be able to prepare them. Tlieir business at present, however, was with guano as they found it. Three or 4 cwt. of guano was equal to 20 or 30 tons of farm-yard manure. He had stated its theoretical value, and if the time vvould have per- mitted him to explain all the things the plant requires, he could have shown them that this guano, to a great extent, supplies all the demands of the crop. The result of his inquiries in the country had shown that it was better hus- bandry to use guano and farm-yard manure in due proportions ; or, if they did not do that, to use guano the first year and farm- yard manure the next. But in his opinion the safest way, in all cases, would be to use the proper proportion of dung and guano, as larger crops, generally speaking, had been obtained in this manner. He thought it was not the best, or the most economical method to use guano in a dissolved or liquid state. He then alluded to the great analogy which exists between guano and bones, explaining, however, that guano acts more quickly than bones. He next noticed some experiments which had been made in Ross-shire, Scotland, with guano. A gentleman named Ross, who resides in that county, which contains some as good land, and as good farmers, as in York- shire, wrote to his grieve or bailiff to apply guano to the land in the ratio of 4 cwt. to the acre. The grieve thinking his employer must be wrong, applied the guano in three several proportions. To one part he applied 4 cwt., to another 8 cwt., and to a third IG cwt. The consequence was, that on the land where 4 cwt. were applied beautiful crops appeared, whilst the contrary was the case with the other jjortions, especially with regard to that portion to o 194 ON GUANO, AND ITS COMPARATIVE MERITS. wliicli the 10 cwt. of gaiano had been applied. Then came the crop of wheat; for wheat was taken after the turnips. When the wheat was g-rowing" where the 16 cwt. had been appHed, the straw was dark coloured, the corn was small in the ear, and when thrashed it was absolutely black. Where 8 cwt. had been applied the sample was a little better, al- thoug'h the straw had a peculiar dark colour. Where 4 cwt. had been applied the sample of wheat was beautiful, and that wheat broug'ht into the market Gd. per busliel more than the wheat taken from the land on which 8 cwt. had been placed, and the wheat taken from the land where the 16 cwt. had been applied could scarcely be sold at all. He mentioned another case which had been brought under his notice ten days ago, to show the effects of g-uano in promoting- the growth of the crops. He then drew their attention to the effects produced on the farm of Mr. Fleming-, of Renfrew- shire, and g-ave the result of the money value of three crops, g-rown in 1842, 1843, 1844, of turnips, oats, and rye, after the application of g-uano. The crops where g-iiano was applied left a profit, after paying- every expense for rent and interest on the capital, of 30/. 16s. ; where farm-yard manure was ap- plied, at the rate of 25 tons for turnips, there remained a profit of 14/. \Qs., leaving- a difference in the profit in favour of the g-rower, by the application of guano, of 16/. In the one case 3 cwt. of g-uano was used, and in the other 25 tons of dung-. The learned professor was here asked what value he put on the manure, to which he replied 8/. 155.. He men- tioned a few other cases of a similar kind, the result bein^ that more profit was to be obtained from the use of half farm-yard manure and half g-uano than when they used farm-yard manure only, or when mixed with bones. The question would hereafter be, whether they would look to the after effects of g-uano, or whether they would not rather look to its immediate effects, or whether they would not apply it in smaller quantities from year to 5^ear, rather than larg-er quan- tities every four years. He believed it would be found more beneficial to apply it to each successiA'-e crop, to appl}^ it to the seed, and then to apply a top-dressing- when the plants made their appearance above the ground. After trj'ing- this plan, he thoug-ht it would be the most profitable they could adopt. In the course of his remarks, the learned professor alluded to the following- table, which was placed over the chimney- piece in larg-e characters : — ON GUANO, AND ITS COMPARATIVE MERITS. 195 Composition of different kinds of Guano. Water Levenside. Star of the best. Icliaboe. Bolivian Chincha 13-75 2285 58-90 52-66 13-50 32-31 33-50 27-66 32-34 9-80 17-41 55-33 8-34 65-60 15-90 51-37 Organic matter and ^ ammoniacal salts S Sulphate of soda S and common salt J Carbonate of lime } and magnesia . . i Earthy matter Phosphate of lime . . 6-94 6-51 4-92 0-78 5-00 1-58 5-81 1-.30 1200 2-02 4-14 3-88 20-18 3-32 2-77 2-83 3-11 1507j 12-10 3-54 0-57 18-23 1-12 4-46 19-80 3-57 2-39 21-77 100-00100-00 100-00 1 1 100-00 lOO-Oo' 100-00 100-00 1 1 Mr. Lister Maw, of Tetley, near Crowle, rose to make a few observations to tlie company. He produced several turnips, which he said had been grown on his farm for fold- yard manure. And not only was that particular land in a high state of cultivation, but he had succeeded in bringing' other farms, step by step, into an equal state of cultivation, so that they had in fact trebled their produce. He had made some observations last year at Beverley, and he then stated that he had opportimities, which very few in this coimtry had, of making himself acquainted with the manner in which the Incas of Peru carried on their operations. Now, with respect to the relative value of guano, he be- lieved that the Peruvian guano would be found to be the best. And, however much he might respect chemical know- ledge as applied to agriculture, and however much they might be indebted (as they undoubtedly were) to such men as the learned professor, he still thought that the chemical affinities and compounds which were going on in nature were not exactly ascertained in the chemical analysis of the laboratory of the chemist. The peculiarity of Peruvian guano was, that it contained no moisture. It was a great peculiarity of that country that no rain fell on the western coast. And the guano of Peru being preserved in a dry state was much better than that of any other country. He believed the same remarks might ajjply to pigeon mamxre, and that because it was kept in a dry state in the pigeon cot. Mr. Maw showed, by a drawing, the manner of apply- ing- guano by the Incas. Another fact to which he alluded 19G ON GUAAO, ANB ITS COMPARATIVE MERITS. was, til at at the time tlie Incas ajiplied the g'uano to their soil, they had no domestic animals. The llama was the only animal they had ; and therefore they could not raise farm- yard manure. And, as a proof that even if they had such manure, they could not convey it to the land, Mr, Maw referred to his own experience in travelling- in Peru, and to the time occupied by him in moving- from one part of the mountains to another. He referred to the turnips which he produced as evidence against Professor Johnston, that 5 or 6 cwt. of g'uano was not equal to 50 tons of manure. He showed that the fold-yard manure was so rich that the fang-s had g'one out to seek for food, and he thought they had too much. Mr. Maw concluded bv stating- some interesting- details respecting- the great growth of turnips without the aid of guano or artificial manures. If the farmers would only raise sufficient fold-3'ard manure for themselves, which he thought they might do, they would have little occasion for guano. But if not, they might put their hands into their pockets as long as they could for the purpose of raising their crops. He had himself this year large quantities of turnips, rape, wheat, &c., and he had not used an ounce of guano. He had led upwards of a thousand loads of fold- yard manure to his fields, and he had now a thousand loads in hand, which he doubted not he could make good use of in competition with guano. H. S. Thompson, Esq., said he quite agreed with Mr. Maw, that farm- yard manure was a very excellent thing. The great object of guano was not, he conceived, to dispense with the use of farm-yard manure, but to enable them to carry out the cultivation of a Avider breadth of land than could be adequately cidtivated without it. With respect to the advantages of guano on present and subsequent crops, he thought there were two things necessary to be considered. The first was the nature of the season, and the next the proper quantity of guano to be applied. By Professor Johnston they had been furnished with instances in which the application of a very large quantity of guano had been detrimental at least to the first crop, while the application of a smaller quantity had been highly beneficial. If more guano were put on than could be taken u]i by the first crop, of course there would be a portion left for the succeeding crops. If they had a very dry season, and the plant did not appear to derive the whole benefit which guano was capable of supplying, it was manifest that much of its fructifying ON GUANO, AND ITS COMPARATIVE MERITS. 197 properties would be left to tlie succeeding- crops. If tlie nature of the season were taken into account, in conjunc- tion with the quantity of g'uano to be applied, it was very probable that many of the apparent diti'erences of opinion as to the quantity of guano to be applied, and the diii'erent effects produced, might be reconciled. Farmer^s Magazine, September 1846. Art. XLIV.— effects OF GUANO IN GROWING CABBAGES. By Mr. A. F. Gardner. The soil upon which they were gTown is about 2 acres of improved moss land, trenched with the spade in 1842, and the subsoil broug-ht to the surface. It was cropped with potatoes in 1843, maniu'ed with 12 tons farm-yard manure, and 3 cwt. g-uano ])qv acre, and produced a crop of upwards of 15 tons per acre. It was again dug- this spring with the trenching-grape, Avhen 2 cwt. of guano per acre was sown by the hand, broadcast, and harrowed in. After which, in the beginning of April, the cabbages (Drumhead) were dibbled in upon about an acre, and the other portion sown with mangel-wurzel, the land being cleaned and worked in the usual manner. These crops have grown most luxu- riantly, the cabbages giving a crop of upwards of 60 tons per acre, most of them averaging from 20 to 40 lb. a piece. The mangel -wiirzel is now (Nov.) still growing, but has been estimated by good judges to be 40 tons and upwards per acre of clean roots, many of them averaging 10 to 12 lb. a-piece. Art. XLV.— on THE USE OF CHARCOAL AS A FERTILIZER. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esq., F.R.S. I HARDLY deem it necessary to prove to any one the value of charcoal as a valuable manure ; and if it was necessary 198 ON THE USE OF CHARCOAL to obviate tlie suspicion that there is any difference in the effect produced by the use of charcoal-ashes and the im})ure variety of these ashes afforded by peat, I am readily supplied with the means of doing so by a recent report by Mr. Peter Mackenzie, of West Plean, near Stirling-. ^ He tells us that he has been for some years past trying- experiments with peat, cliarred peat, and peat-ashes, as a substitute for stable manure, and for many kinds of crop g-rown by farmers and g-ardeners. He remarks, — " In the spring- of last year, I collected a quantity of peat for various purposes, and part of it was intended to be cliarred or burned. It was not so well prepared for burning- as I wished, a good deal of mois- ture being- in it ; however, a good fire was made of wood to beg-in with, and as the ^^eat dried it was drawn to the fire, and in this way was kept burning- for two weeks. It re- quired little watching', only once or twice in twelve hours. The partially dried peat was drawn to the fire, because it was intended to have a quantity of cliarred peat and ashes mixed together, and in order to obtain both, the fire was kept in a smothered state to char the peat (let the farmer mark the distinction). It commonly burst through in some parts, and there supplied the ashes. When we had a quan- tity to begin with, the unburnt peat, and the charred, with the ashes, were all well mixed together ; at least one-half of the mass was unburnt peat." This mixture was applied about the beginning of May, to a light sandy soil, for a crop of Swedish turnips. The quantity used was at least at the rate of 200 bushels per acre. " We tried it," continues Mr. Mackenzie, " against well-made stable-manure in a state like mould, cut well with the spade, which was applied at the rate of about 20 tons to the acre, and spread into drills, like the peaty mixture. The plants grew well in both cases. We tried to ascertain the amount of produce per acre from each manure, as late as the middle of January 184G ; for, from the mildness of the season, the turnips till then appeared to be in a growing state, each plant having- had about two square feet of surface to grow upon. The siu-face was kept flat, and the ground chiefly worked with the Dutch hoe. The weight of bulbs fit for use manured with the peaty mixture was upwards of 40 tons per acre ; while those pro- duced from stable-dung- weighed only about 30 tons. One row of peas was also manured with the peaty composition, ' Quar. Jour, of Af/ric, 1846, p. 46". AS A FERTILIZER. 199 and yielded as g'reat a crop as tliose manured Avith the stable-manure." Sucli a preparation of charcoal, althoug-h mixed with other substances, the farmer will find very valuable in a variety of ways. It would constitute an excellent foundation for dung-lieaps or sheep-folds, since charcoal very extensively absorbs the g-aseous matters of putrefaction; and, when used in considerable proportions, would also imbibe all the drainag-e matters of the sheep, or other live stock. It answers well, also, for a covering for dung-hills j but to this end, ag-ain let me remind the farmer, that he must only carhomze or char his peat or turf; he must, to accomplish this, by covering- the burning- heap with earth or g-reen turf, retard, reg'ulate, and reduce the extent of the combustion as much as possible. It is to the presence of a considerable portion of carbon in the ashes of a land pared and burnt, that the advantag'es of this now nearly exploded operation may be attributed. The ashes of a pared and burnt chalk soil from Kent contained four to five per cent, of carbon, that of a lig-ht Leicestershire soil contained six per cent., and that of a stiff clay soil from Mount's Bay, in Cornwall, contained eight per cent, of carbon. The evidence, then, is abundant in favour of charcoal as a fertilizer. At such a period as this, too, when starvation appears to threaten, if it has not already visited, a larg-e portion of the population of Ireland, it seems a most oppor- tune and desirable period for the extensive and immediate preparation of charcoal from the abounding- bogs of the sister kingdom. Let, then, the attempt be jjromptly made ; let every owner of bog or peat land make some effort in this way ; and, in so doing, such real friends of their country may rely th-at they will thus not only serve very materially their at present unwillingly idle neighbours, without bur- thening themselves, but that they will moreover enrich their own estates, while they promote the comfort and the im- proved cultivation of the land of their birth. Farmer's Magazine, Nov. 1846. 200 ON THE COMPOSITION AND Art. XLVL— on THE COMPOSITION AND AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF KELP. By John F. Hodges, Esq., M.D. [Read at a late meeting of Council of the Chemico- Agricultural Society of Ulster.] Analysis of the water of the ocean shows lis, that in it are contained all the inorganic ingredients which our crops take away from the soil — that it is, in fact, a liquid soil, from which myriads of vegetables receive the materials for their perfect development. Along our coasts, the plants nourished by the mineral and saline matters, dissolved in the waters of the sea, have long been employed by the farmer as applica- tions to the soil, and in many parts of the kingdom are regarded as his sheet anchor — thus, in some small degree, restoring to our fields the substances lost by the faulty arrangements of our farm-yards and cities. My attention was lately drawn to the sea-weeds of our coasts, from being- engaged in the anah'sis of the well-known substance kelp, produced by their incineration, and which is now exciting- considerable interest, as a source of the valuable metallic- looking substance iodine, at present so extensively employed in medicine. So far as I am aware, no complete analysis of our Irish kelp has yet been laid before the public. It will, therefore, be of interest that the composition of this valuable and accessible source of the materials required to render our fields productive should be made known. The mode of preparing kelp, as generally ]iractised on our coasts, is so well known, that I need not allude to it fui«t^er than to state that the sample submitted to me for analysis was prepared on the shores of the Lough of Strangford, where, I understand, by the use of iron bottoms for the kilns, and by the careful management of the weed, an article of superior quality is produced. It ma}^ also be observed, that when the object of the kelp-burner is to prepare a kelp rich in iodine, only some particular species of the Fucus family should be employed ; but when it is required merely for agri- cultural purposes, all the numerous species, both of drift and shore weed, may be used with advantage. The sea-weeds, as cast on our shores, or cut from the rocks, contain a verv large amount of water — thus, the fresh. AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF KELP. 201 leaves {Frond) of the Eladdered Wrack (Fi/cvs 'cesicrdosiis), and of the tangie {Lam tii aria dlgitata), which are found in so g-reat ahimdance on our coasts, when dried at 212 degTees, and incinerated, yielded Water. Organic matter. Ash. Bladdered Wrack 68-8 26-2 5.0 Tangle 18-1 IS'l 5-8 Of the stalks of the tangle, which are considered so valuahle by the kelp-burners on the north-east coast, two samples g-ave as follows : — No. 1. No. -2. Water 8400 8310 Organic combustible matter 10'40 11"06 Incombustible matter, or ash 5'GO 5-84 100-00 100-00 Mean of ash afforded by leaves and stalks together, 5*5 per cent., or a ton of the weed, as taken from the sea, would yield about 123 lb. of incombustible mineral matter or kelp. The inquiry now presents itself, how far the ash is capable of supplying our fields with the mineral and saline matters removed by cultivation. As kelp is a substance remarkably complex in its composi- tion, and contains a number of ingredients with which our farmers are not familiar, and the enumeration of which would only serve to perplex them, I consider that it will be sufficient to state the proportion of those ingredients which possess an agricultural value. From the great variety of weeds employed in its manufacture, the composition of kelp must be expected to vary considerably. The specimen from which I obtained the following results was received from a member of our society, A. H. IMontgomery, Esq. of Tyrella, County Down, and was prepared on the shore of Strang'ford Lough, near Greyabbey : — 100 lb. of this kelp contained — Potash 8-22, or 184^ lb. per ton. Soda 25-82, or 578^ lb. per ton. Lime 5*17 Magnesia 8-47 Sulphuric acid (vitriol) 20-17 Phosphoric acid 5-43 Chlorine, one of the ingredients of common salt 11-70 Silicic acid 2-71 The analysis just given shows that in kelp we have a rich 202 ON THE COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF KELP. supply of the inorg-anic ing-redients required by our crops, while the larg-e amount of salts of potash and soda which enters into its composition, point it out as i)eculiarly adapted for the nourishment of our potato and turnip crops. The sample examined, from containing- but a small amount of soluble silica, would not be so well adapted for the growth of the corn crops, except in situations where a sufficient sup- ply of soluble silicates were already present in the soil ; biit, in g'eneral, the kelp of our coasts contains a much g'reater amount of silicates, from the common practice of fusing" a quantity of sand with the melted ash — a practice which, for the sake of increasing- the weig-ht, is carried to a shameful extent by the kelp-burners. As kelp affords us, as I have shown, a convenient source of the most important elements of plants, and in a convenient portable form, so that we can readily carry it into the interior of the country, and applj' it in situations where its action would be still more beneficial than in the neig'hbourhood of the sea, it is, I conceive, of importance that some experiments should be instituted with this substance, by such of my hearers as possess the oppor- tunity. From several experiments, with diiferent samples of kelp, I find that a hundredvveig'ht of that manufactured on our coasts usually contains between 50 to 70 lb. of salts soluble in water, which would aftbrd the plant, from its for- mation, a ready prepared supply of nutritious materials, while the alkaline silicates and salts of lime, magnesia, &c., would continue to exercise a beneficial influence upon the fertility of the field, even beyond the present season. The averag-e produce of potatoes, in many districts in the north of Ireland, I have ascertained by careful inquir}-, does not exceed 350 bushels, or 10,600 lb. per Irish acre, an amount of tubers which analysis shows us to contain about 190 lb. of matter extracted from the soil. The chief consti- tuent of the ])otafco tuber is ])otash, an expensive article with the manure dealer, 92 lb. of which is taken away from our fields with every 350 bushels of potatoes that we send to market. Now, half a ton of kelp, of the same character as the sample examined, contains, as we have seen, about 92i lb. of that alkali ; so, by applying- that quantity of it to a portion of g-round in which we have produced 350 bushels of potatoes, we not only maintain its fertility, so fiir as it depends upon the presence of that substance in the soil ; but also g-ive it a supply of other matter which will be useful to the succeeding' crops of the rotation ; for the amount of soda ON MANURING FOR HOPS. 203 given to the soil in Lalf a ton of kelp is much g'reater than is required for the development of the potato crop, 350 bushels of potatoes requiring- only 54|- lb. of soda, while the kelp contains 289 lb. Agriculhiral Gazette, Oct. 10, 184G. Art. XLVII.— O N MANURING FOR HOPS. By J. C. Nesbit, F.G.S., M.C.S.L., &c. [After having given a series of elaborate analyses of the mineral ing-redients of the hop, Mr. Nesbit concludes his essay with the following- observations on the constituents of manures required for the cultivation of this plant; according- to the results of the preceding analyses. To show the large amount of common manures necessary to supply the potash to an acre of hops, he observes, that] The averag-e quantity of potash contained in guano is 3 lb. per cwt. The straw of wheat contains on an average 5 per cent, of ashes, and every 100 lb. of the ashes contain about 13 lb. of potash. Farm-yard dung contains on an average 7 per cent, of mineral ingredients. These contain about 3^ per cent, of potash. The following- table, which gives iis the weights of dif- ferent manures necessary to furnish 17 lb. of potash to an acre of land, will make it probable that the large cjuantity of potash taken out of the land by the hop, is the main reason for the necessity of manuring- this plant so highl}'-. Quantity of guano, farm-yard dung, or wheat straw, ne- cessary to furnish the 17 Ih. of iiotash tahen from the soil by the acre of Farnham hops. Hops, leaves, and bine of one acre of hojis, con- taining 500 lb. hops, 146^ lb. leaves, 289 lb. bine. Guano. WTieat straw. Farm- yard dung 9351 lb. 7 cwt. 23 cwt. 61 cwt. 204: ON MANURING FOR HOPS. It is evident, from the foregoing* table, tliat thongli cwt, of giiano are amply suiKcient to supply the acre ot hops with its phosphates, yet that it requires 7 cwt. to supply the potash. Consequently the 5 cwt. of guano might have been replaced by a cheaper maniu'e destitute of phosphates, but containing ISg lb. of potash. Hitherto I have spoken as if the hops, leaves, and bine of the acre of Farnhams were of the usual or average weight. But this was not the case. Owing to the un- kindly weather, the yield was very deficient. It is no un- common thing in some districts to grow a ton of hops an acre. We will suppose a farmer to grow a ton of hops per acre,' and that the mineral ingredients of the hop are in the same proportion as in those which were analyzed. We will suppose that the bine and leaves were double in quantit}'^, but containing the same per cent, of inorganic matter as the others. This would give us 64 lb, removed per acre by the golding hop, while the grape hop would re- move about 75 lb. per ton, though perhaps 64 lb. might be taken as the average. The following- table will then show us the weight of guano, wheat straw, or farm-yard dung, per acre, necessary to be put on the land, to replace the potash withdrawn by the hops, bine, and leaves : — Qiiantity of guano, wheat straw, or farm-yard dvng, an- nnally necessary to replace the 64 Ih. of potash taheii Jrom an acre of land, by a ton of hops, with bine and leaves corresponding. Hops, leaves, and bine of an acre of hops, con- taining 2240 lb. of hops, 293 lb. of leaves, 578 1b. of bine. Guano, ton. cwt. Wheat straw. tons. cwt. Farm- yard dung. tons. cwt. 3111 lb. 1 5 4 7 11 13 Now, as the whole of the above methods of furnishing the necessary amount of potash are enormously expensive, we are necessitated to look to other and cheaper sources for this valuable substance. Sevei'al salts of potash are well known in commerce, and likewise to the agricultiu'ist. Nitrate of potash, or salt- petre, is one, and common pearlash is another. ON MANURING FOR HOPS. 205 Saltpetre contains aljout 47 per cent, of potash, and pearl- ash about 68 per cent. By calculation, therefore, we find that 64 lb. of potash taken from the land by a crop of hops would be rejilaced by 130 lb. of saltpetre, at a cost of about S2s., or by 94 lb. of pearlash, at a cost of about 3'3s. The weights of saltpetre or pearlash given above would supply the deficiency of potash, supposing- the whole crop, including bine, leaves, and hops, were removed from the land. But if the bine and leaves be allowed to rot on the gTound, about one-sixth less than the preceding amounts Avouldbe sufficient. The impropriety, therefore, of removing the bine, d. for the delivery by the hose, bs. by the LIQUID MANURE. 211 water-cart, 11.?. or li?.s. in tlie distribution of stable-manure : an equivalent quantity, and that close to the farm. Then, there was this g-reat advantag-e in favour of the hose (though you cannot give an estimate in money-value as the relative amounts), that, in the distribution by the water-carts, there is the poaching- of the land by the weight of the cart and horse, and probably the damag-e of which would be more than 5^. and of course still greater damage in the case of the cartag-e of the heavier produce of stable-manure. With the hose, the experiment appeared to be complete, with the addition of a very important fact, that you could, by the hose, get on the land at any time ; but with the water-cart, or in spreading- solid manure, of course, you are restricted by the state of the weather as to its application at certain periods. So far as they could tr}-, I think these 2000 gallons of sewer-water were found equal to about 3 cwt. of guano, and about 15 tons of stable-manure. But there was another important point which was established beyond a doiibt, which was, that the friction through the hose, for a considerable length, was much less than we anticipated ; for instance, we used half a mile of hose, and carrying it on the surface, over fur- rows, and through a ditch, and over a hedge, I think at the end of 800 yards it gave out a jet something, as near as I could judge, of iO feet (nearly half the height due to the pressure). These experiments appeared to establish the fact, that the hose, in many circumstances, for the delivery of a given quantity of water, even considering it as a means for the distribution of simple water, woidd have been cheaper than the water-meadow itself, and you have the advantage also with that, of being able to apply the liquid-manure to arable cultivation. With the water-meadow, you only apjdy it to grass-land. Putting the interest on the machinery and capital together, we could not put down the fair expense of this delivery by the hose at much more than 1.5. an acre, that is for 2000 gallons." Agricidtural Gazette, Oct. 10, 1846. p 2 212 ON THE RELATIVE Art. LI.— on THE RELATIVE VALUE OF MANURES. By Mr. Karkeek. [At the annual meeting of the Probus Club, various tabular statements were exhibited in the room, containing analyses of soils and manures, and the results of experiments instituted with different manures by various members of the club. The following paper, founded on these experiments, was read by Mr. Karkeek.] He first suggested that wlien tlie produce of two unlike manures iu the same experiment does not differ more than a ton or so per acre, their effect should be considered as equal. Among- the many experiments entrusted to his revising, there were none that he could find so deserving of their attention as those made -with bones and sulphuric acid. The first experiment to which he would direct their attention, with this new fertilizer, was made by J. H. Tremayne, Esq., of Heligan. Three acres of strong loamy clay-slate soil were appropriated for it. The seed was Skirving's variety, sown in the latter part of May 1845, in drills of 27 inches a})art. Each of the manures was mixed with 14 bushels of wood and coal ashes per acre, which was drilled in with the seed. The following statement shows the different manures applied, the cost per acre, and the produce per acre : — No. Manure per acre. Cost. Produce. 1. — 24 bushels bone-dust 12s. ■ ■ 30^ tons. 2. — 8 bushels of bone-dust and 100 lb. of sulphuric acid 36 . . 28 3. — 20 cart-loads of good farm-yard manure 60 . . 28 The Swedes grown by the vitriolized bones were the earliest in leaf, and fitted to hoe sooner than the other plants. Ultimately there was no great difference in the weight of bulbs ; but the difference in the expense per acre was very considerable, the bone-dust and dung costing more than the amount stated, as the extra expenses of carting and sjireading the dung were not taken into the account. Mr. Karkeek said, it should be observed that the crops in this experiment, compared with those afterwards mentioned, might appear large ; but it should be remembered that the turnip crop of 1845 was one of the largest, and the one of 1846, perhaps, one of the smallest, since the general intro- duction of artificial manures into the county. The propor- VALUE OF MANURES. 213 tion of bones and acid nscd per acre in Mr. Tremayne's experiment is unusually large ; the quantity now recom- mended is 4 bushels of fine bone-dust, weighing" about 180 lb. to 80 lb. of concentrated sulphuric acid, the common oil of vitriol of the shops not being sufficiently strong for the purpose. The following experiment was made on Treverbyn estate in Probus, by Mr. J. Kendall, on a barley arish (stubble), the soil of a light loamy character, resting on brown arenaceous slate, and valued at 25,s-. per acre. No. Manure per acre. Cost. Produce. ]. — 12 bushels of bone-dust and 2 cwt. of sulphuric acid 60s. . . 20 tons. 2. — 20 bushels of bone-dust and 1 cart-load of wood-ashes 68 .. 18 J 3. — Dry superphosphate 64 . . 20 4. — 3 cart-loads of wood-ashes and 3 cart-loads of field-ashes 33 .. 8 The object Mr. Kendall had in view in making the experi- ment was to test bones in three ditii^'ereut ways at about the same expense. The superphosphate took the lead at the commencement, and continued it throughout. The rajudity of growth is seen in every experiment made with superphos- phate, which is of essential importance ; for the turnip is a plant which exposes a large surface of leaf to the atmosphere, and on this depends its ])ower of obtaining organic matters from the atmosphere. The next experiment is a trial of Ichaboe guano against the dry superphosphate, by Mr. C. Parks, at Newlyn, on a wheaten arish, the soil of a deep loamy character, resting on arenaceous slate, and valued at 25s. per acre. The extent of land was 5 acres. Produce No. Manure per acre. Cost. without tops. 1. — 25 cwt. of Ichaboe guano 22s. 6d. . . 13^ tons. 2. — 22 cwt. of superphosphate 22 6 .. 16^ He had several experiments of this character before him, and in every instance the superphosphate proved to be a very cheap manure, and rapid in its fertilizing properties. J. S. Enys, Esq., of Enys, tried the superjihosphate on a piece of sparry soil, resting on coarse argillaceous slate, near Carclew downs, valued at 10s. Gd. per acre. On 27 rows, measuring 29,403 square feet, manured with 2 cwt. of Ichaboe guano, the weight of turnips without to])s was 8 tons i)er acre ; whilst on 22 rows, measuring 24,948 square feet, manured with 2 cwt. of superphosphate, the weight of bulbs averaged 214 ON THE RELATIVE 11 tons per acre. The Rev. T. Phillpotts, of Feock, insti- tuted some very extensive experiments witli ditierent manures for turnips, and the result confirms the experiments pre- viously mentioned, as he obtained as heavy a crop with 4 cwt. of super})hosphate and ^ cwt. of Potter's artificial g'uano mixed, at an expense of 4:6s. per acre, as with 32 bushels of bone-dust, at a cost of 96^., or with 32 bushels of bone-dust and |- cwt, of Potter's gaiano, at a cost of 102s., or with 28 loads of rich butchers' dung-, at a cost of IGSs. per acre. The next experiment was instituted at Trewithen, by Mr. Trethewy, with four different kinds of manures for turnips, on an old ley pasture of a loamy character, resting- on arenaceous slate, valued at 30^. per acre : — No. Manure per acre. Cost. Produce. 1. — Ichaboe guano 36*. . . 23^ tons. 2. — Liebig's patent manure 35 . . 24 3. — Dry superphosphate 45 . . 232 4.— Bone-dust 72 . . 20^ The most interesting* part of this experiment is the effect of " Liebig''s turnip manure," which produced the larg-est crop at the smallest expense. This manure pushed the turnip plant more rapidly forward than either of the others ; but it will be seen that the same effect does not always attend its operations ; for, in the very next experiment, made by the same party on Carnvvinick estate, and in a different kind of soil, it had quite a contrary effect. This was on a plot of ground of six acres, purposely reclaimed from the wastes adjoining- Trelyon common, by stubbing-, beating-, and burn- ing-, as is usually practised in cultivating- the g-orse wastes in this comity. The soil is of a coarse character, resting- on arg-illaceous slate : — ■ No. Manure per acre. Cost. Produce. 1. — Liebig's turnip manure 35*. . . 12;J- tons. 2.— Saldanha Bay guano, No. 1 26 . . 27 3. — Superphosphate of lime 45 . . 20j 4.— Bone-dust 72 . . 26f 5. — Ichaboe guano , 38 . . 20^ 6. — Saldanha Bay guano, No. 2 38 .. 26^ In remarking- upon this experiment, Mr. Karkeek said, the first thing that attracts the attention is the small produce from Liebig's manure, compared with its eflect in the former exj)eriment ; for, in this case, it appeared to have acted the Avorst of the lot. He then proceeded to account for the VALUE OF MANURES. 215 contrary action of the manure on tlie two soils, by stating- that the meadow at Trewithen, having* been highly manured, for the last seven years with farm-yard dung, might be considered as fairly rich in carbonized and nitrogenized matter, besides a tolerable amount of alkaline ])hosphates and silicates ; but the Carnwinick soil could not atlbrd much of these matters; for, excepting the ashes left from the burning of the furze root, Sec, there was probably very little else, saving the inorganic or mineral elements which the soil itself atforded. He knew nothing of the composition of Professor Liebig's manure ; he believed it to be entirely a mineral one ; but the next experiment would perhaps throw some light on the subject of its failure at Carnwinick. This was made on a very extensive scale by J. D. Gilbert, Esq., Trelissick, on a wheaten arish of 10 acres, lying on coarse argillaceous slate, abounding in quartz (provincially spar- stones), the soil of which was extremely poor, having been very considerably injured by bad farming previous to its coming into Mr. Gilbert's possession. It was valued at 12.?. per acre ; and in preparing the land for a turnip crop of " Scotch yellows," it was ploughed 7 inches deep, and the seed and manure drilled in 27 inches apart. No. Manure per acre. Cost. Produce. 1.— Bone-dust 72*... 10 tons. 2. — Fish refuse ' (one load of fish offal with 1 1 loads ofeartW — .. l]i 3.— Farm-yard dung 100 .. IQi 4. — 3 cwt. of Liebig's patent manure 35 . . 6 5.-3 cwt. ditto, with 200 lb. of Ichaboe guano .... 59 . . ll-\ 6. — 100 lb. of Ichaboe guano 32 . . 13 7. — 24 bushels of bone-dust and 100 lb. of nitrate Qfsoda 91 .. 20^ 8. — 24 bushels of bones and 100 lb. of nitrate of potash 98 . . 20| The produce in each case, excepting the two last, was ex- ceedingly light, but the experiment is an interesting one, as testing the efiect of eight different manures on a poor ex- hausted soil. In this instance Liebig's manure, compared with the guano, No. 6, at about the same cost per acre, yielded only two-fifths of the weight of turnips; and in the trial No. 5, where 200 lb. of Ichaboe guano were added to Liebig's manure, the weight of turnips compared with No. 4, ' The recent fish refuse, according to a note in the last edition of Sir H. Davy's work on Agricultural Chemistry, contains about four per cent, of nitrogen, besides the phosphates. 21G ON THE RELATIVE was exactly douLled. The g-uano in tliis instance contained, according- to analyses, 30 per cent, of phospliate of lime, with mag'nesia, oxalate of lime, and 25 per cent, of ammo- niacal salts. From this he was led to believe that the inactivity of Liebig-'s manure on Carnwinick, was owing- to a deficiency of azotized matters in the soil, as well as the want of a sufficient quantity of phosphate, for when both were added in the g-uano used in Mr. Gilbert's experiment, the crop was equal to that produced by 25 loads of g-ood farm- yard manure, and su])erior to that ])roduced by 24 bushels of bone-dust. In Nos. 7 and 8, in the last-mentioned experi- ment, they had a striking- proof of the utility of combining* nitrog-enized substances with the phosphates when absent in the soil, for the addition of 100 lb. of nitrate of soda in one case, and the same weight of nitrate of potash in another case, produced an increase over No. 1, when the bone-dust was used without these salts, of double the produce. Both. these salts furnish nitrogen to the plant as well as an alkali^ and hence their value in addition to the bone-manure, on a soil previously exhausted of these materials, — 100 lb. of each furnishing- about 19 lb. of nitrog'en. The turnip crop can be cultivated, perhaps, with a smaller supply of nitro- g-enized substances than almost any other, particularly when compared with Avheat, barley, beans, &c. Science now taught them that the atmosphere yields its portion to the growth of plants, as well as the soil. Hence the larger the vegetable surfaces they could present to the atmosphere in the shape of luxui-iant stem and foliage, the more they should absorb from it ; and this was partly eftected by the organic matters in the soil, whether supj)lied in the shape of manure^ or from accumulated vegetable and animal matter in a state of decay. Good farm-yard manure, in a recent state, not too much decayed, will aiford the farmer an abundant sup- ply, and unless these matters are supplied to the soil, the inorganic or mineral elements, such as the alkaline phos- phates and silicates, will not be of much avail to the growth of the crop. Mr. Karkeek then adverted to the doctrine recently introduced by Professor Liebig, which under-esti- mated the influence of organic manures in the soil, and attached the more importance to the inorganic constitu- ents of plants, by keeping a supply of which in the soil lie is of ojunion that the carbon and nitrogen, which are necessary for the growth of the plant, will be supi)lied through the atmosphere. This is a theory altogether op- VALUE OF MANURES. 217 posed to the experiments wliicli lie (Mr. Karkeek) had placed before them that day, and it was also opposed to Liebig-'s previous teaching*. They mig'ht rely upon it that the inor- ganic elements were of very little use in a soil as food for plants, without a corresponding" supply of the organic. The reason that guano answered so well was, because it contained (like farm-yard dung) all the elements which plants require ; and putting either into the earth restored those substances which the plants abstract from it, and which are necessary to their growth. For the turnip crop next season, he would recommend them to use a mixture of superphosphate of lime and guano, in preference to either of those manures singly, which he had every reason to believe would be found to be a useful and economical manure, not only for txu'nips, but for grain crops generally. Another advantage derived from the mixing of these manures was, that the superphosphate fixes the volatile parts of the giiano, and prevents its dissi- pation into the atmosphere, which loss must othei'wise ensue when so small a cpiantity as 2 cwt. or 3 cwt. is distributed over an acre of ground as a top-dressing for corn or grass, particularly in dry weather. Some of the guanos are more evaporable in the atmosphere at common temperatures than others. The South American is less volatile than that from Ichaboe and other African localities, which, under circum- stances of exposure, should be either mixed with a substance that would lessen its volatility, or be quicldy covered up in the soil. Agricultural Gazette, Jan. 23, 1847. CHAPTER V. ON CULTIVATION AND CROPS. Art. LII.— principles OF FARMING. By Mr. Hewitt Davis. 1. Never to be contented until all your land has been trenched and turned over by the plough a foot in depth, nor until — 2. The wet land be made dry by deep-draining', and con- sider no land effectually drained unless the drains be 4 feet in depth ; that is to say, unless the water-level be so far below the surface, that corn shall have at least a foot of dry earth to root in, unaffected by capillary attraction of moisture from below, and the chill that water nearer to the surface cavises ; this can be done only by having- the drains 4 feet from the surface, and within 40 feet of each other. 3. For sowing of spring corn, consider the season com- mences with the new year, and have no other fear than that of being too late. When the ground is dry enough, and fine enough, the sooner it is in the better ; it will yield more, and the liability to blight, or to be beaten down, will be less. 4. In sowing, drill or dibble all; and have the rows not nigher than a foot between them; so as to admit of hoeing either by horse or hand, and hand-weeding at late periods. 5. lloe and hand-weed all corn ; let not a weed in flower PRINCIPLES OF FARMING. 219 he seen among'st it ; ever recollect that Aveeds occTipy space and consume nutriment, displacing" corn, and robbing- tlie land. 6. Never sow two crops of one g'enus in succession; le- gumes or pulse may follow cereal gTain,and cereal g-rain may follow legumes or pidse ; but never cereal after cereal, or pulse after ])ulse. Recollect rye-g'rass is a cereal plant, and unsuits the land for white-straw corn. 7. In apportioning- the rate of seed per acre, do not lose sight of the bad consequences that must ensue if too much be sown. Bear in mind, that if so much be sown as to produce more plants at first than the space will afterwards allow to attain maturity, the latter growth of the whole will be impeded, and a diseased stage will commence, as soon as the plants cover the ground, and remain till harvest. 8. Manure should be applied only to green or cattle crops, and never to corn ; by giving it to the former, the earth derives the advantau-e of the extra dressin"" that the extra growth returns ; but when applied to corn, the earth is so much the more exhausted by the extra growth of straw, and frequently, too, the grain is thereby positively injured by being beat down and blighted in the straw, that it always is made more hazardous by dressing. 9. Were farmers to buy nil their manures, they woidd find that the cost of maintaining their land in fair heart "would be about 1/. per acre per annum. This fjuantity of dressing, every farm, in fair productive cultivation, would supply of itself, if a proper use and economy be made of its material to form manure, and a due care taken of it afterwards ; but from misapplication and waste of the straw and fodder, and from negligence in the preservation of the dung and urine, at least half is usually lost, and the arable land of England may thus be said to be prejudiced at least 10s. per acre. 10. Were no other injury done to the crops by trees and hedges in small enclosures, than that which arises from their mischievous shade and shelter, it woidd be equivalent to the ordinary rent of such fields ; but the farmers sustain a fur- ther loss in the additional time occupied in its tillage, by the more frequent stoppages and turns they cause, and by the encouragement to idleness in the men that their cover alibrds. I believe arable fields with lar^'c hedges and hedge-row tim- 220 SYSTEM OF FARMING. ber round them, whose dimensions nre imder eig-ht acres, are seldom or ever worth a farmer's cultivation. I see much poor open dowTi land in profitable cultivation, and larg'e dis- tricts of enclosed land of far better quality, ruinons to the occupiers ; and I have not a doubt that to the difference in the size of the fields this may be principall}^, if not entirely, traced. Agricultural Gazette, Sept. 12, 1846. Art LIU.— on HIS OWN SYSTEM OF FARMING. By the Rev. A. Huxtable. [Sturminster Agricultural Society.] The following" statement of the year's experience was made, at the late annual meeting- of this society, by the Rev. A. Huxtable, who, after some preliminary remarks, said : — As so many farmers, nearly three hundred, have visited my farms during- the last year, it will not be considered egotistic if I presume to lay before you the principle upon which these farms are carried on. I will beg-in with the arrangement I have made for my cattle by placing- them on boards. These are now, after many experiments, fashioned thus : A space of 4 feet in width is allowed to each beast ; the boards are g-rooved behind to prevent their slipping-, and a fall of half an inch secures the rapid flowing- away of the liquid^ whilst a boy with a scraper constantly takes away the solid manure; the beasts thus kept are g-enerally cleaner than those on straw. The benefits are : 1. That I am no long-er limited in the quantity of stock I keep by the amount of straw g-rown — I want every lock of straw for nobler purposes ; in summer to lay between the layers of g'reen hay, vetches, clover, (fee, when salted, in which state I employ it to cut into chaff with alternate layers of turnip-tops. Now, with respect to these, I assert that they are worth more for the ])roduction of milk, when g-iven in due moderation, than the same weig-ht of tur- nips. The objection to their use, in the case of dairy cows, is the offensive taste which these, far more so than the tur- nips themselves, communicate to the milk. Saltpetre will SYSTEM OF FARMING. 221 not remove this ; but it can be eifectually removed by the use of chloride of lime. You can get this from drug-gists, whole- sale, at 4,(1. or bil. per lb. Dissolve half an ounce in 1 gallon of water, add a tea-spoonful of this to every g-allon of milk (unless the taste be strong', half a tea-si)oonful will be suffi- cient), churn at least twice a week, and this ap})lication, I will undertake to assert, will remove instantaneously all bad taste from the milk, and therefore from the butter, care of course being- taken that the churn and all the dairy utensils are previously well sweetened. You need not fear the use of the chloride; in such quantities it is perfectly wholesome j and the only evil of adding- too much is, that you will g-ive a worse flavour than that which you seek to remove. The second benefit produced is, that, by keeping- cattle on boards, the manure is fit, if required, for immediate use. That which is dropped in one day, by the use of ashes, may, if required, be drilled the next. It was in this fashion that 40 acres of stubble turnips have been g-rown by me this year. Look at this root, it weighs 2 lb. its green weighed precisely the same. If the whole field had been like this, the crop would have been 32 tons i»er acre ; for the turnips were drilled only 14 inches apart, and singled out at 9 inches dis- tance. They were not sown until the last week in August, after one ploughing, crushing, and harrowing. And why did not the whole field give roots like these '.'* There are only a few of the drills containing turnips so large; and these are found, where, through the unevenness of the ground a double quantity of manure was uttered by the drill. In- structive difference! If I had but shown more faith in mother earth, and intrusted her with 2 cwt. of guano in addition to my home-made manure, then I could have invited you to come and admire 30 tons of wheat-stubble turnips per acre. Oh, if we had but capital enough, and trust enough in the soil, with God's blessing, what a cliflerent face our fields would wear. I will now refer to my sheep feeding on boards. I con- sider this method to be now perfect ; in French phrase im fait accompli. Mine have done this year admirabl3% -^ ^'^^ state the result of two weighings of a lot of six of those sheep, which were selected as fair representatives of the flock in the house; they were weighed at a distance of three weeks, under precisely the same circumstances : — 222 SYSTEM OF FARMING. Xo. 1st weiijlit. 2a weiglit. Whole ?ain. 1 210 1b 227 1b 17 1b. 2 220 233 13 3 215 220 5 4 212 217 5 5 205 220 15 G 19G 210 14 69 wliicli gives a gain per week of weig-lit to eacli sheep on the average of somewhat more than 3| lb. When they were first " put up," they ate not less than 20 lb. of Swedes a day each ; but latterly they have not consumed more than 15 lb. of roots, one-half being Swedes, the other half Dale's hybrids • — the 160 sheep ate daily 1 bushel of linseed, which weighed 63 lb., and 1 bushel of beans, w^hich gives 5 lb. of seed and beans per sheep each day on the average. If we assume the value of turnips to be 15^. the ton, the value of 105 1b 8.1 J. 5 lb. of beans and linseed 7 Attendance per sheep 1 Or 1*. 4i at 10 per cent. . 1 10 ^£9 5 6 But the return is £12 6 Estimated profit per acre . . . £5 6 Gentlemen, fi-om experience I know three crops can be raised at the expense nov/ g-iven ; and, in thanking- you for the kind attention you have given to my leng-thened state- ment, I commend to you the QL per acre profit, and I wish in the coming- year you all may get it. Agricultural Gazette, Jan. 10, 1847. Q^ 228 ON LIBERAL MANURING AND AuTrci.E LIV.— ON LIBERAL MANURING AND DEEP CULTIVATION. By Mr. Mechi. I DO not tliink, g'entlemen, that the farmers of this country- apply sufficient capital to the land, that is to say, I think they take too much land in proportion to their capital. The consecpience is, the hest use is not made of that capital. I do not helieve that any man can farm to the utmost extent of profit in these days, without purchasing- artificial manures — g'uano, for instance, for his distant fields, thus avoiding* cartag-e ; and a larger quantity for his near fields with deep cultivation, and hettor ag-ricidtural implements. Mr. Hutley, a g-reat authority in our county, who farms 2000 acres in a most profitahle manner, said at our Witham meeting, that he considered g'uano paid itself in the straw alone besides the crop, and that he has now 100 acres of wheat dressed with 2 cwt. per acre of g-uano. {" He sells his straw.") No, he does not. And I can tell you further, he never feeds ofi:" a piece of clover, or a piece of fine rye-grass or tares, with- out giving his sheep one pound of oil-cake per day. It ap- pears to be a great expense. But what is the result? Enor- mous crops both of roots and of wheat. And his system is profitable, because every two or three years he hires an ad- ditional farm. Gentlemen, the question of deep cultivation is so important that I must not leave it. I know that the majority of agriculturists consider that subsoiling is not a profitable thing, or a proper thing. Now that is one of the greatest mistakes that ever was made in agriculture. If you find a farmer ploughing his ground 5 inches or G inches, you will find him digging his garden to 15 inches or 20 inches depth. If you ask him why, he says, " I can grow better crops in my garden by deep cultivation." How in- consistent then ! If the one operation be right, the other is wrong. Besides, if increased depth of cultivation be inju- rious, you must carry out the principle and say that 2 inches are better than 3 inches, and that 1 inch is better than 2 inches ; and thus you must go backward, and in course of time there would be no cultivation at all. I say you must carry out the principle of deep cultivation. What is there magical in the favourite depth of C inches, except in the DEEP CULTIVATION. 229 power of a pair of horses to draw the plough and do an acre a day? Will any man say, if his horses can take 18 inches with a pair, he would not do it ? I hnve a proof on my farm at present which will astound yon as showing- the eft'ects of deep cultivation, and it may assist you in coming to a })roper conclusion on the subject. I ploughed one part of a field of mustard with Smith's subsoil-plough, 15 inches below the other, which went 9, that is, 24 inches deep altogether. The other part of the field was ploughed in the usual manner. Both were done on the same dn}", and both were treated in the sam.e way as to manure. My bailitf prognosticated that I had ruined one side of the field, and that we should grow nothing — that was the part of the field subsoiled ; m}' man remarking that '' diving down into that nast}' subsoil woidd be the ruin of the crop.'' Now I luid occasion to come into Suftblk. On my return, I asked my bailitl", " Well, how goes on the mustard ?" He said, " Oh, I am done now !" " Done now !" said I, " what is the matter.'' doessubsoiling answer?" "Oh," said he, ''I am wholly done!" I said, " I am glad of it, and I hope that many farmers who come to see the crop will be ' done' too, and alter their minds." Many farmers have seen the result with their own eyes. In the one case the crop was 4 feet in height, and as thick as it could be ; in the other case the height the crop attained was but 1 8 inches. The Secretary of the Debenham Farmers' Club, Mr. Green, has seen the crop, and he therefore is a witness to the dif- ference. Whether I shall see the same ditference in the wheat crop to follow, I don't know. I have subsoiled in other cases, and I have uniformly found it answer the desired pur- pose of increasing the crops. But, gentlemen, woe betide the unfortunate wight who does this without deep drainage ! If he subsoil without drainage, he will make his land like the bottom of a pond, and ruin his crop. That is a distinction which should be particularly attended to, because many farmers have condemned subsoiling when they ought to have condemned themselves for not having previously drained the land. Agricultural Gazette. 230 IMPROVEMENTS IX CLAY-LANDS. Art. LV.— improvements IN CLAY-LANDS.— DRAINING. By Mr. Dodds. [At a late meeting of the Dorking club, Mr. Dodds read an excellent essay upon the improvements of clay-lands, in which he pointed out the advan- tages of draining, increa-ing the size of the fields, and the removal of hedge-rows, and a necessary alteration of the rotation of cropping. The following are extracts : — ] While draining- is going- on, anotlier evil is to be remedied ; and the operations required for its removal must g-o on simultaneously with the draining-. It is Vv'ell known that many farms, extending- to quite as g-reat a number of acres as the one I am endeavouring- to improve, have their fields averag-ing- not more than five acres each. I would demolish as many of these hedg-e-rows the first year as woidd make enclosures of about 13 acres. The surplus soil I would lay aside in some convenient spot, to be mixed with lime, as soon as the other l-abours of the farm permitted. This com- post I would apply as a dressing- for the said field in the course of being- improved ; taking- care to have it properly prepared by frequent turning- previous to application. There are two objects in demolishing- these hedg-e-rows; to in- crease the size of the fields, and decrease the harbour for the farmer's enemies. First, a saving- of labour is effected, and second, a g-reater crop is secured. As regards draining'^ when the subsoil is stiff and retentive of water, the drains oug-ht not to be placed further apart than 15 feet. In sub- soils less argillaceous, the drains may be put in with effect at twicfe that distance. But now that tiles may be got at such a moderate cost, when compared with what they were a few years ago, it seems advisable that, on stiff clay lands, drains should never be further apart than 15 feet. There are various opinions in regard to the direction in which, drains ought to be placed. In practice, it will be found — and I believe all those who have furrow-drained extensively will bear me out in the argument — that running the trenches right in the line of descent is the most effective method. It is not my object here to go fully into the merits or demerits of any particular system of draining. I shall suppose that the whole field, consisting, as before stated, of 13 acres, has now undergone a thorough clearing, as well as a complete IMPROVEMENTS IN CLAY-LANDS. 231 draiuing", and tiiat a considerable portion of the winter has elapsed before the work has been finished. Having- g'one so far, it is now the object of the farmer to prepare for cro})[)ing' this improved land : and with due deference to those of greater experience, I would sug-g-est that it oug'ht to underg'O a summer fallow for a crop of wheat, and be dressed with a proper supply of farm-yard manure. It may be proper to remark, that the whole breadth of the break oug'ht to be subsoil -ploughed, which is the next step after draining*. This ought to be done to the depth of 12 inches, and the following is the method which I would suggest: — A furrow is, in the usual way, and with a common plough, to be turned up to the depth of C inches ; close behind this plough is to follow one of Read's subsoil-ploughs, or pulverizers, and stir up the soil beneath to a farther depth of G inches ; thus loosening up the " old floor," which has for centuries formed the pathway of the plough team, and giving free access to the air and heat to pass down and ameliorate the soil below. In ploughing, two horses abreast are generally sufficient; and one man ought to manage them. In some cases, three may be required, but they should always be yoked abreast ; as in this way they pull more equally, and are as powerful as four in a line. It is of consequence that the wheat should be got in moderately early ; say as soon in October as the weather AviU permit. The field is supposed to be well cleaned, and if so, in spring I would sow grass-seeds ; thus having it the third year in grass for cutting. I would then, take a crop of oats, after which, beans and turnips, and finish with wheat or barley, thus adopting a six years' ro- tation, viz. : — 1st year — Summer-fallow, manui'ed. 2nd ,, — Wheat, with seeds. 3rd ,, — Grass, for cutting. 4th ,, —Oats. 5th ,, — Turnijis and beans, manured. 6th ,, — Barley or wheat. It ■wall generally be requisite to sow barley after turnips, as they are not often lifted in time for winter wheat. If barley be objected to, wheat can be sown in spring, which often produces a good and bulky crop, although rather later than that sown in October. After the beans, however, wheat may be invariably sown in autumn. This is carrying through 232 IMPROVEMENTS IN CLAY-LANDS. tlie system to be followed witli the first improved portion of tlie farm ; but eacli year a similar quantity is to underg'o the same process, and to be cropped similarly, until the whole larm has been subjected to a complete overturn. The fencing- of the fields is the next operation to be considered. The most suitable fences for a farm, consisting* wholly of clay, are, in my opinion, those composed of thorn or furze. The furze is superior to the thorn, inasmuch as it forms a suffi- cient fence in a much shorter time, and, if kept down and jH'operly trimmed, very soon grows into a useful and orna- mental fence. It is formed thus : — a narrow ditch is to be cast round the field, and the soil taken from it to be formed into a mound by the side of it. On the top of this mound, and while the earth is yet fresh and moist, the seed is to be sown and carefully covered up. A pound of seed is sufficient to sow 200 yards, and the best season for sowing" it is in April. This sort of fence is often objected to, on account of want of durability; but, if kept reg"ularly pruned once a year, in June, it will last for many years. In Wig'tonshire, the furze-hedge is very much adopted, and there they are to be seen 6 feet high ; and being" kept as before noticed, they form an ornamental fence, as well as a shelter to the fields adjoining". Having" thus endeavoured to point out the sys- tem upon which clay land is to be improved, I shall now proceed to the second head of my subject, namely, " How this system is to be most effectually secured." It is obvious that upon the relationship which exists between landlord and tenant depends, very materially, the march of improve- ment in agriculture, as a branch of public industry. A certain amount of capital is essential to the successful culti- vation and improvement of the land. But the owner of this capital must first be satisfied that he can employ it with advantage, beibre he will be induced to lay it out. The uncertain tenure, then, by which a great proportion of the Ifind throughout England is held, serves as an insuperable barrier to the investment of capital in the cultivation thereof. It thus appears that a farmer, in expending" mone}'' in im- proving the land he uses, must have some security for a return adequate to the capital he has sunk. This security is only to be found in a written covenant, subsisting" a de- finite and adequate period. It will be seen, then, from the foregoing remarks, that, to form a proper relationship between landlord and tenant, "the lease" must be substituted for IMPROVEMENTS IN CLAY-LANDS. §33 "the valuation." In attempting- to show the sj^stem of improving- claj land, the tenant has Ijeen supposed to be at the whole expense, and that the improvements have been carried on under his superintendence. But as the g-rubbing-, draining-, and fencing-, are all permanent improvements to the estate, they oug'ht, therefore, to belong- to the landlord ; and it is at his expense, and under the directions of his steward, that these operations will be most satisfactorilj carried on. The tenant may fairly be required to pay at least one per cent, more than the common rate of interest on sums expended on the improvement of his farms ; and it is believed he Avill find it to his advantage to agree to such terms. The sum required for executing the improvements contemplated is 100/. The rate of interest to be charged on such outlay is 5/. per cent, per annum, and it now only remains to show how the tenant is enabled to pay this in- terest. The land formerly produced four sacks or two quarters of wheat per acre. An increase of one quarter may be reasonably expected, and this quantity (three quarters), at 52.'?. per quarter, is 71. lG.»f. per acre, or 101/. 8.!?. for the whole 13 acres. The same price is put upon the wheat, although it is likely to command a higher figure. The rent of the land before, was 7s. per acre, or 4/. 11.*?. for 13 acres. It is now, with interest on outlay added, something- more than 14.s\ 8r/. per acre, or 9/. lis. for 13 acres. The cost of the fallow before, was 60.s\ per acre, or 39/. for 13 acres ; and the cost of the seed, sowing, weeding, harvesting, &c., amounted to the further sum of 32/. 10s. The expense of the fallow is now likely to be lessened, but I shall make no change upon this, and there comes out a most cheering and g-ratifying result. The produce of the land, then, now is 3 quarters per acre, or 39 quarters in all, which, at 52.s\ per quarter, is — £ s. d. 101 8 From this sum deduct — £ s. d. 1. Rent f) 11 2. Cost of fallow 39 3. Cost of seed, sowing, &c 32 10 In all 81 1 Which, deducted from the supposed price of produce, leaves a total return to the tenant of £20 7 Thus it is clear that, with a small outlay on the jiart of the landlord, he receives a fair rate of interest for the 234 ON MEASURE-WORK. money expended, very considerably enhances tlie value of his property, and improves the condition of the occupier of his land. Agricultural Gazette, Jan. 2, 1847. Art. LVL— on MEASURE-WORK. Prize Essay by Mr. Hugh Raynbird. [Of the system of measure-work, it is observed by the author of this essay, that it may be adopted with advantage to the farmer, ia almost every kind of agricultural labour, with the exception of that in which horses or other cattle are particularly engaged : other exceptions are jobs of short duration, and the tending of sheep and cattle. To the labourer also the system of measure-work, or, to use its less pleasing name, task-work, presents many advantages. Some of these are noticed by Mr. Raynbird. We shall, however, at once pass on to that part of the essay in which he describes the mode in which the system may be carried out, and the different farming operations to which it is applicable.] In most kinds of task-labour I would not advise the employ- ment of many labourers in one company; thoug'h in hay and corn harvest, sowing- turnips on the drill-system, dib- bling- wheat, and in some other cases, a combination of force is necessary. The objection to great numbers being- together is, that there vaiiy be some men of loose habits, who will induce the others to spend a portion of their earnings in drink ; when this is carried to any extent, the work is in g-eneral done badly. As an instance of the bad effects pro- duced on the moral conduct of the labourers themselves by the promiscuous employment of g-reat numbers of both sexes, we may mention the gang- system practised in parts of Nor- folk and Suffolk, and which is a g-reat cause of vice and demoralization among- the class of people who are oblig-ed to work in them. In this practice a man called the g-ang-er or undertaker ag-rees with the farmer for certain work, g-enerally hoeing- wheat and turnips, harvesting- and storing- away root-crops, dibbling- wheat, or any lig-ht work in which women and children are employed. The undertaker having- made a barg-ain with the farmer, g-ets tog-ether an assem- blag-e of labourers of all descriptions and characters from the neig-hbouring- towns and villag-es ; these have often to ON MEASURE-WORK. 235 walk some distance to their work, and are then exposed to all the corrupting- influence of bad companions ; their wages are uncertain, for as soon as the weather becomes unfavour- able, or the job is ended, they are thrown out of eniploj. To take the place of the gang- I would either have a steady man, paid a shilling* or two a week extra, to su- perintend the children, or put outwork in wdiich they are required, to men with larg-e families, who would then haye an opportunity of overlooking" the behaviour of their own children. The measurement of task-work may be most exactly taken by the chain for land and the length of drains and ditches, and the tape for taking- the cubic contents of heaps of soil and manure, the dimensions of clay-pits, and the square contents of thatching-. I need hardly remind the farmer of the assistance he may obtain from the agricultural table-books, which will be found very useful, and may be had at a price within the reach of every one. The rates of payment for task-w^ork g-iven by me are those paid during- the last ten years; the day-wag-es have been successively 8.*?., 9.S., and 10,s\ a week; the present wag-es for a common day-labourer are 10^, for summer and winter; during- harvest upwards of 11. a week is earned; and in haymaking'-time beer is given in addition to the com- mon price of a day's work. A woman w^orking- from eig-ht in the morning- to six in the evening- has 8d. or lO^Z. a day. The usual hours of day-labour with us are in summer from six in the morning- to six in the evening-; in winter as long- as it is light ; out of this the labourer is allowed l;j hour for breakfast and dinner. Men employed with, horses work from six in the morning to h-alf-past two in the afternoon,! including- a short time for breakfast : during harvest, from five in the morning to seven in the evening, or as long as the farmer pleases ; out of this they rest about two hours. The quantities of the various kinds of work which I shall state as performed in a given time, are taken from task- Avork actually done by labourers in our employ, and may therefore be considered an average; though, from many ' I find it a much better plan for horses and men, to bait the horses for an hour, excepting in the shortest days of winter ; and in summer to let them He by for two hours, or even for three, during such heat as we have lately experienced. — Pu. Pu.si:\'. To this I agree after experience. — Portma.v. 236 ON MEASURE-WORK. causes, it is impossible for one quantity, or one price, to be taken in every case or situation. The standard measures are always used; for, by adopting- these, I am more likel}^ to make m3'self understood by the greater part of my readers than if I had used any of those obsolete local measures, which I am sorry to see in use in certain parts of the country; they are the cause of many mistakes which mig-ht be remedied by adopting- the standard weights and measures. In detailing- the various operations to which a system of measurement is applicable, I shall divide my subject into separate heads, to each of which a distinct mode of mea- surement is suited. 1st. The kind of task- work to which land or square mea- sure is applicable, the work being paid for b}' the acre, rod, or square yard. 2nd. The kind of task-work to which lineal measure is applicable, the work being- paid for by the chain, rod, or yard in length. / 3rd. The kind of task-work to which solid or cubic mea- sure is applicable, the work being- paid for by the cubic yard or load. 4th. The kind of task-work to which corn-measure is ap- ])licable, the work being- paid for by the quarter, sack, or bushel. 5th. Task-work performed by various kinds of measure- ment. I. — Ihsli-rvorli to which land or square measure is ajyplicahlc. Table of Land Measure. 9 square feet 1 square yard. 30j square yards 1 square rod. 40 rods 1 rood. 4 roods or 10 square chains 1 acre. In using- land-measure as a means of calculating- the earnings of labourers by the piece, it is usual to let or put out the job at a certain rate per acre for such work as mowings reaping, and hoeing, in which a large quantity of land is gone over ; but for trenching and dig-o-ina" in small quantities the square rod is most convenient. 1. Mowing permanent vicadow-grass for hay is the first operation that will come under our notice; it is one of those operations of husbandry which require to be executed with despatch, as, by it being quickly performed, the hay ON MEASURE-AVORK. 237 harvest is slioi'tened, and every advantag-e may be taken to secure the produce in hue weather. This is of g-reat ini- jjortance in the hay-country around London, where in the season of hay -making-, mowers are in g-reat request, and command high wages. In Suflblk, the rate for mowing- varies with the hulk of the crop, from 2.s. to 2s. 6d. per acre : beer is frecjuently allowed in part payment for mow- ing-; the work is then done at 2s., and half a gallon of beer for each acre. The hours of labour in mowing- grass are from five in the morning- to seven in the evening-, sto})ping- two hours in the mean time; they thus labour twelve hours in a day, during- which an expert mower will cut Ig acre; the generality of men will earn in money about Ss. a day. The cost of cutting- low meadow-grass is rather hig-her than of cutting- upland. Mowing clover and rye-g-rass is g-enerally more quickly performed, and consequently the rate per acre is lower. I find the average price per acre is 2s., or 20^/. and half a gallon of beer; the quantity mown in a day nearly 1^ acre ; the earnings of a man will thus vary from 2s'. G(I. to Ss. The cutting- seed-crops of clover and rve- g-rass does not g-reatly differ from the mowing- for making- into hay. Men engag-ed to mow g-rass by the day have 2s. and an allowance of beer; but they cannot of course be fairly expected to work so hard if paid in this manner. The making- g-rass into hay is occasionally put out by the job at the rate of 4.?. an acre for mowing- and making-; this gives ample employment to the wives and children of the mowers. But the farmer must not be guided in his opinion of the right time of carting- by his men, for if he is, he will in all probability have it carted before it is in a fit state for stacking. 2. 3Io)v't>ig wheat is a practice coming into use in pre- ference to reaping ; the rate paid per acre depends of course upon the bulk of the crop, and on the abundance of la- bourers during harvest: for a light crop Qs., and for a heavy one 8s. are paid per acre ; this includes mowing, tying, shocking, and raking. The mowing constitutes barely half the labour, though the making and binding the sheaves may be done by boys ; a strong- lad will make and bind sheaves as fast as one man mows, A man, in a day of ten hours, will mow upwards of an acre ; and, with the assistance of another man, or of two boys, he will be able to complete the other operations required in cuttiug an acre of an average crop of wheat. 238 ON MEASURE-WORK. 3. Beaping is also generally done by tlie acre, and in seasons when the crop is heavy or lodg'ed by rain, it be- comes a tedious labour; the price per acre for a medium crop of wheat that stands uprig-ht is about 85-.; but if the wheat is lodg-ed, from 10s. to 125. A g-ood reaper will sometimes cut more than half an acre in a da}', but the g'enerality do not cut more than one-third. Reaping- beans costs about Qs. an acre. Strangers are frequently emplo^^ed to moM^ or reap wheat; I consider it a good plan to supply them with beer at the rate of a gallon for each acre : this will greatly influence the workmen, as they then will have no occasion to go to the beer-shops for drink sold at a high price. The cost to the farmer will be but little, as he can brew beer for the purpose at about Qd. a gallon. 4. Moiving harlcy or oats is usually included in the con- tract for harvest, of which I am about to give a description. A man will cut upwards of two acres of barley in a day ; of oats he will not be able to get over quite so much. 5. Harvest-work is generally put out by task. Some farmers give a certain price per man to a company, who agree in return to do all the harvest work in cutting, carrying, and stacking the corn, to which an acre or two of turnip-hoeing for each man is sometimes added. Others hire a sufficient number of men, for four or five weeks, at a certain sum for that time ; this method is mostly practised by small farmers, who work with the men and keep them from loitering; for otherwise there would not be much in- ducement for the labourers to hurry. On the larger farms two distinct modes of hiring are sometimes adopted : the men are divided into two companies — one called the crop- men, who engage to cut a certain number of acres of wheat, all the barley, oats, peas, beans, or any other crop that may be grown on the farm ; to pitch and load all the corn, and to turn a portion of it when required ; to this is added a certain qiiantity of turnip-hoeing, about one or two acres for each man. The yard-men, as the others are called, are hired by the month or five weeks ; their labour is of various kinds, though principally confined to cutting wheat, un- loading and stacking corn, and any other labour that may require to be done. An able-bodied man is usually ])aid 4?. 10,'?., and three bushels of malt, for five weeks' certain employment; while the crop-men, who work by the job, have from 4?. IO.9. to 5/., and three bushels of malt, whether their harvest is of lono- or short duration. ON MEASURE-WORK. S39 On a farm of 240 acres of arable land, cultivated on the Norfolk rotation, six crop-men are sufficient. The following- is a roug-h calculation of the work performed by each man, and the cost per acre : — £ s. Cutting (mowing) 8 acres of wheat, at 7a' 2 16 Mowing 10 acres of barley, at 2* 1 Pitching and loading 10 acres of wheat, at Is 10 ,, ,, 10 acres of barley, at 1*. 6d 15 Turning barley 3 Twice hoeing 1 acre of turnips, at 6s 6 £5 10 Where beans are grown, the cost of cutting and tying is about 6s. ; the cost of making peas is from 4.d. per acre. A bargain is sometimes made for leaving the wheat-crop clean up to a specified time, usually to the end of June : in that case, the wheat receives as many hoeings as it may require, at an average charge of Qis. an acre. Hoeing Beans, Peas, and Tares, is done for about 2.*;. Qid. an acre : a certain difference in the rate of payment is occa- sioned by the width between the drills ; when this is narrow, the work goes oft" proportionally slower. With us, barley is seldom hoed, though oats occasionally are ; and if so, at the same ]irice as wheat. 7. Harvesting Boot-crops. — The labourers, in doing- this kind of work, may be paid by the acre, or, when the crop is carried oft' the land, by the number of cart-loads : the former method is to be preferred, as it aftbrds a mode of measurement less liable to dispute. Men with large families are the best to engage in the taking- up and storing away roots, as their wives and children will be able to do a good ON MEASURE-WORK. 241 portion of tlie labour. Harvesting- roots is performed in various ways : I shall merely mention those plans most generally used. When the Swedes are laid in small clamps of about 40 bushels on the land where they g'row, the roots are pulled up and thrown into long- heaps, the leaves being- first cut or pulled off; the heaps are then covered, first with straw, and then with earth. Seven shillings per acre will be a fair remuneration for the labour required in pulling and storing- a good crop of Swedes in this manner. Should the roots be both topped and tailed, a higher price must be given. Another way of keeping Swedes or white turnips is to cover the roots with the plough ; the turnips are pulled and laid in a furrow opened by the ploughman, who, with another furrow, covers the roots with soil, leaving- the tops above the surface : the cost of pidling and laying in the turnips will be about Ss. an acre ; but it must, of course, be done by children, with a man as overlooker. Pulling, cutting off the tops, and filling- turnips into carts, will cost about 8s. per acre ; but this must dejiend upon the size of the roots, where the bulk of the crop is the same. Harvesting Beet. — The })ulling- and laying the roots in heaps ready to be carted away, the leaves being twisted off by the hand at the time of pulling (which is done by men, and is rather severe labour), is paid for at an average price of bs. an acre for a fair crop ; at this rate, a man will earn 2^. a day, for it will take about 2^- days to pull an acre. As the task-men pull the roots, they are filled by boys, and carried to the places where they are stored for the winter. With us, the filling is done by day-work, at a cost of about 2.5. an acre : four boys, at 1.^. a day, filled 190 loads (30 bushels) oft" 7 acres of land in three days. The beet was pulled in the same time by six men, at the rate of Qs. an acre. Banli- h)(j hect is the covering the heai)s, in which the roots are stored, with moulds to keep out the frost ; the heap is made about 4 or 5 feet in height, sloping like the roof of a house. A man will cover about 2 rods in length in a day ; the rate per rod may be from lOrZ. to 12^/. In a hard gravelly soil, it took six men three days to earth up a heap 30 rods in length ; at \s. a rod, they would have earned exactly their day-wages at 20^/. a day. Talihig up and Storing Carrots. — When carrots are sown broadcast, and the plants left thick, the cost of taking- up and cutting oft" the tops is sometimes as high as 18.>f. or 20,?. per acre lor a fair crop ; but when drilled, the cost for taking- R 242 ON MEASURE-WORK. up is mncli reduced : this is caused by the carrots being- liandier to fork xi}) when in rows, besides which, they are g-enerally singled out at greater intervals, and are conse- quently fewer in number and larger than those broadcast. We shall find that, if the work be done by day-labourers, it will take six men to fork up an acre of drilled carrots ; I know this to be about an average, from having assisted in this as well as in other kinds of works that I have described. It Avill take six boys or girls to cut the tops off, as the carrots are taken up by the men. If we take the men at 20<^/. a day, and the children at 6d., we may calculate the cost of an acre will be 13s. ; by piece-work, it could be very well done for 12.. First turning 4. Second turning ."). Loading into carts 0. Carting 300 yards to field, and dividing into heaps r. Spreading in the field 30 cubic yards per acre (c) Seed Operations. j 1. Broadcast sowing : . . . 2. Drilling corn — 3 horses and at- tendance I . . . 3. Setting potatoes ' . . . 4. Hoeing in wheat, from G 5. Dibbling ditto, from 7 0. Dibbling beans 4 7. Planting potatoes by sjiade, from . . 8 (d) Cultivation of Crops. I 1. Harvest-hoeing grain-crop — 9 in. drills 2. Hand-hoeing green crops (singling) 3. Second hoeing I 4. Hand-hoeing broad-cast turnips, &c.: two or three times Horse-hoeing drill-crops ! ... Hoeing (deep) between potatoes (by! hand) i P;iring stubbles (by hand) b Paring and burning old sainfoin . . ,0 1 J Stille burning 11 =• I (e) Harvest operations. [ 1. Mowing clover, from 2 2. Mowing meadow grass, from .... 2 3. Mowing and haymaking i 4. Mowing barley and oats, from .... 2 5. Reaping barley and tying, from . . 7 G. Reaping wheat and tying, from . . .0 8 per cubic yard, about 0? about per acre. to S ,, 10 ,, 8 „ 12 n to „ 1 ,, 14 3 3 10 3 9 14 5 3 G 2 10 O3 Day "Work. d £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. per acre. 19 too 15 4 ,, G „ 3 about 10 per cubic yard. to J about 11 to 2 per acre. ,,0 ,,0 ^0 5 3 G 2 U 10 1 G 258" ON 3rEASURE-W0RFC. 7. Mowing or bagging wheat, from 8, Pitching the crop to the cart, and building thereon, and pitching from cart to rick Stubble mowing, from Stubble raking, from Harvesting beans, from Mowing peas, from Harvesting roots, pulling, cutting off tops, and loading in carts : — Turnips and Swedes, from .... Mangel-wurzel, from Carrots, from Potatoes dug and pitted in field, from Piece Woek. . d. £ s. d. per acre. to 10 1 3 6 8 (f) Preparing Grain for Market. Thrashing and cleaning wheat (by hand) from 10 ,, ,, barley, (by hand) from; ,, ,, oats, ,, from'O ,, ,, beans, ,, fromiO Thrashing peas, from Machine-thrashing (by steam) wheat, from ,, ,, barley, from from (g) Management of Stock. Blacksmith's bill per pair of horses (excepting new metal) Saddler's bill per pair of horses . . Expense of feeding, clearing, and attending to cattle, sheep, and pigs. For details, see articles in former numbers of the Ag. Gaz. per bushel. toO 2 ,,0 u,,o 2.1 ,,0 2i,,0 ]j ,0 if„o 3 1 10 2 9 9 2 6 7 ,, 9 9 ,, 10 18 ,, 1 ,, 1 -1 Agriculttirat Gazette, Sept. 19, 1846, PLOUGHING. 259 Art. LVIII.— ploughing. Breadtli of furrow slice. Space tra- velled in plouiliing an acre. Extent ploiislied per day at rate of Breadth of furrow slice. Space tra- \elled in ploughing an acre. Extent ploujlied per day at rate of 18 miles. ISmiles. Acves. n '' 1 18 miles. 16 miles. - Indies. 7 8 9 10 11 Miles. 14 J- 12i 11 9 A-re^. u 11 2 Inches. 12 13 14 15 16 Miles. 8i 7h 7 61 Acres. 2i 2h 2| 2fs Acres. 1 9 2i 2| 23 Fanner's Almanac. Art. LIX.— to TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. From Prize Ess.vy by Johx Bra vender, F.G.S. Practice of BreaMng vp. The most important preliminary step to be taken pre- viously to breaking- up pasture lands is to liave tliem well drained, if the soil be lieavy and requires it, and then to pare and burn the surface for the purpose of re- ducing' the g-rass, weeds, and toughly matted sward to loose charred ashes, which possess hig-hly fertilizing- finalities. The half of the ashes, which are frequently veiy abundant (in some cases more than GOO bushels per acre), may be carted to other lands about to be sown with turnips, and the other half left for use. on the land that produced them. When the land from which the ashes have been derived is very rich and g-ood, the whole are sometimes removed to other parts of the farm ; but in this the firmer must always be g-overned by circumstances. Half the ashes being- removed, the remainder is drilled with turnips and g-reen crops on the land broken up, or spread over it before being- ploug-hed. The crop of turnips, which must always succeed, is sometimes eaten off in the autumn, some- s 2 260 TO TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. times in tlie spring', and followed Ly wheat, barley, or oats. Those crops, according- to the soil, are succeeded hy vetches, beans, or other g'reen crops, and then regular rotations com- mence, some of which are indicated in our estimates, but, of course, subject to variations from soil, situation, and climate. This is a g'eneral outline, merely indicative of Avhat may be successfully practised. It has been thoug-ht an advantag'e — an idea not yet entirely banished — to break up land in autumn, to pare and burn, spread all the ashes, and plough and sow wheat ; but this has not always been attended with success ; and when paring- and burning- have not been resorted to, the wheat scarcely ever succeeds. The hollowness induced by sods and angular fibrous hmips, with undecomposed g-rass and roots, render the wheat plant more liable to be killed by frost, and more susceptible of the attacks of such insects and vermin as may have escaped destruction by burning-, than when a complete disintegration of the touglil}'' matted soils has been eftected, and the fibrous lumps pul- verized by the treading- of sheep in consuming- the previous g-reen crops. The plan of sowing- wheat without the inter- vention of a g-reen crop is imcertain in its results, and will be discarded by time and experience. The farmer, by merely feeling- his way in this matter, has been led to adopt that plan which he has found best, without adhering- to any imif'orm method; and hence may have arisen variations in the modes of breaking- up land, Avhich become sanctioned under the name of local peculiarities ; and the methods I am just about to describe may possibly possess something- sa- vouring- of local ]ieculiarity, and as such not applicable to all situations and climates; but I can see nothing- to ])revent some or other of them from being- applicable to lands in all parts of England. The methods for breaking- up grass land have not yet settled down into one general principle : I therefore only give the practices that have occiu-red iinder my own observation; and for the pur]iose of confirming those observations I have taxed the kindness of my neigh- bours, and will concisely describe their most recent practice, with its successes and failures. The methods adopted by some of them assume the cha- racter of experiments, and are so apjilicable that one might suppose them to have been undertaken expressly to elucidate the i>i-esent subject. The fact being- otherwise will probably render them more valuable, as they come forth divested of e/ej-ytliiug in the nature of bias; and the persons themselves TO TUnX GKASS LAND INTO ARABLE. ?01 are ignorant of tlie pnrpose fov wliicli tlie information was required ; and, l)esides, I myself watclied the proceeding's of man}- with more tlian common interest. Case 1. A very good and well-known farmer brote iip a large field of pasture in ]844, and, without previously paring and burning, ploughed and sowed with wheat. The land is situated on a level, and not injured by wet. The soil is a moderately light loam of 7 inches in depth on gravel, which rests on a subsoil of clay several feet from the surface. The wheat failed. There were thin patches here and there, with a very fine ear, and on the rest of the land nothing but weeds. Case 2. This experiment was made in 1845. The land was covered with a very thick grassy turf, which would have been very difficult to reduce without burning. This piece was intended to be planted with trees. It was pared and burned early in the spring, which produced a large quantity of ashes. They were spread regularly all over the land, and then oats were sown and jjloughed in with a thin furrow. The oats were an excellent crop, at least 7 quarters to the acre. This was on poor land, worth about 12«. per acre — not more,— and not drained. The great abundance of ashes oifered a good opportunity for assistance being rendered to other lands ; but in this case it was impracticable, for want of other lands to take them to. Case 3. This farmer, in 1844, broke up a piece of land, a sandy loam of toler- able depth, with a stratum of gravel under, on a subsoil of Oxford clay. This land, in pasture, produced a very scanty herbage, and was grazed with young stock, and scarcely worth 204'. per acre. He pared, and burned, and ploughed, and sowed turnips, and bush-harrowed them in, the turf being of a looser texture than is often met with ; but this opera- tion did little more than cover the seed. He had a very fine crop, which was eaten off with sheep, and in autumn the land was sown with wheat, of which he had an excellent crop. His next crop will be Swedes, barley, seeds, and then wheat again. The method of puttmg in the turnips is not to be recommended as safe. Certainly not on all soils. About twenty years ago, I practised it myself on tender sward with success ; but on very tough turf, full of the fibrous roots of vegetable substances, &c. &c., it failed. Case 4. This farmer, in 1S!3, broke up a piece of ))asture-land, the half of which he pared and burned in autumn ; and after spreading the ashes, sowed wheat, and ploughed it in with a thin furrow, and obtained a very food crop. The other half he ploughed up without paring and burning. The land was harrowed and dragged, and the wheat sown and dragged in. He had but a very bad crop, scarcely worth reaping, with abundance of 262 TO TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. weeds. The soil of this land averages 8 or 9 inches deep, on gravel, which rests on a subsoil of Oxford clay. The succeeding crops on a four-field course answered very well. Case 5. In 1845, this farmer broke up a piece of land, and for the purpose of ascertaining what would " answer best," he pared and burned the sward of the entire piece, and spread the ashes. He then sowed half of it with turnips, and had them breast-ploughed in, covermg the seed lightly with little more than the ashes, and had an excellent crop. The other half was ploughed twice or three times, and harrowed and dragged, with the view of doing it well, and reducing it to a fine state previous to sowing turnips. The turnips were sown with the land in nice order, soon after the others just mentioned, and he had nothing. The soil was a light darkish loam, inclining a little to peat, on gravel, with a subsoil of Oxford clay some feet under. Case 6. This farmer, an intelligent man, occupying a large farm, in the spring of 1845, broke up 11 acres of down-land, rather thin soil, on calcareous rubble, and determined to cultivate it in two ways for the sake of experi- ment. He pared and burned the whole of it, and removed about half the ashes to other parts of the farm, which were drilled with turnips. He then spread the remaining ashes, and had about 6 acres of it breast-ploughed, covering the ashes, and shortly afterwards went over it with Croskill's clod-crusher, in an opposite direction to that in which the land had been turned over with the breast-plough, and cut it into squares. It was then harrowed, and the turnips drilled, which are a good crop. After removing part of the ashes and spreading the remainder on the other 5 acres, he sowed turnips, using only half of the seed, and then breast-ploughed the ashes and the half quantity of seed in, and immediately after sowed the remaining half of the seed on the top, and bush-harrowed it in. This portion did net answer anything so well as the other, but the turnips were a better crop than some of his neighbours obtained after sainfoin pared and burnt. Case 7. In describing how this farmer intends to break up 1 1 acres of land of two kinds of soil in the same field, I shall only give the methods adopted by him on previous occasions, and which have always succeeded. The field he has now under baud lies at the junction of the forest marble with the great oolite, and is in consequence variable, part on rock and part on clay. The clayey part has been well drained. He intends to plant the part on the rock with turnips, and the other part with Swedes. His pro- cess will be as follows : To pai-e and burn the turf in the spring, as early as the weather will permit, and haul away half the ashes to be drilled with turnips on other land. To rafter-plough, and leave it for a month or so to the influence of the sun and weather ; then drag it, to pulverize it as much as possible, and after having harrowed it, to plough it clean, with a slight furrow, and then drill white mustard with a portion of the ashes, on the lightest part, reserving the other portion for Swedes. The mustard will come up soon, and be ready for sheep in about a month after being sown. TO TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. 263 The mustard is to be eaten off with sheep in folds, and the land imme- diately plouglied, dragged, harrowed, and then turnips are to be drilled with the remaining ashes. Of course, between the time of sowing the mustard on the lightest part, and its being eaten off with the sheep, the strongest portion will be cultivated and drilled with Swedes. Both the turnips and Swedes will be eaten off with sheep in folds ; the turnips first, and the Swedes afterwards, and sown with wheat, unless circumstances render it desirable to reserve them until nearer spring, in which case the land will be sown with barley ; but the former plan of sowing wheat is most usually practised. This method has been adopted by him on other lands be- fore, and he has always had abundance of green crops and turnips, and plenty of good corn afterwards. Case 8. Another farmer very close to me, and whose operations I have watched with considerable interest, in the spring of 1844 broke up about 7 acres of land, situate on the forest-marble clay, with a covering of darkened soil 8 or 9 inches deep. After paring and burning, part of the ashes was re- moved to other parts of the farm, and drilled with turnips. This piece produced a large cjuantity of ashes, and the portion which was left behind formed a thickish covering for the land. It was ristbalk-ploughed, with a thin furrow, and left for a month exposed to the influence of the atmo- sphere. It was then dragged across and harrowed to pieces, and in June, plouglied with a clean furrow and sown with turnips, and aftervv'ards rolled down. The turnips were an excellent crop, certainly more than 25 tons to the acre, which were nearly all eaten oft" on the land in September and November, a few being taken home and consumed in the stalls. The land was afterwards sown with wheat, and there is a very excellent pros- jsect of a crop. The plant looks exceedingly healthy. Case 9. Although the last party alluded to succeeded to his " heart's content," the following is a more signal instance of that success which, with favour- able seasons and opportunity, reward the activity and perseverance of intelligent men. This farmer has, in the years 1844 and 1845, broken up more than 40 acres of very poor pasture-land, situated on the forest- marble clay, some of very tenacious character, with a depth of C or 7 inches of soil on the top. These lands were first well dramed at the expense of the landowner. The cost was nearly 4/. 4s. an acre, exclusive of hauling, which was performed by the tenant, who also superintended the workmen. He pared, and burned, and cropped the greater portion of it, after the manner of the last party referred to, and succeeded fully as well, if not better. A portion of this land which here more particularly claims our notice, was managed otherwise, with complete success. Instead of letting it remain idle for a month, exposed to the atmosphere, he determined on sowing it, as scon as the sods were burnt, with white mustard. This was done immediately, drilling it thick, IG lb. to the acre, with a portion of the ashes, leaving a portion for the intended succeeding crop, half of the whole quantity, which was large, having been hauled away to other lands. The mustard succeeded wonderfully. In less than five weeks, it was ready for the sheep to eat off. The land was immediately plou"-hed up, dragged, and turnips drilled witli ashes. The turnips were an excellent crop ; they were, in their turn, eaten off with sheep in Sep- tember and November ; the land was then ploughed and sown with wheat, which, as may be supposed, is very promising. QCA TO TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. I could select a, multitude of instances of failure and of success, but it would be useless to multii)ly cases. It will be evident that the safest plan is always to let the first crop he a g'reen ci-op, eaten off with sheep, by which the soil be- comes pulverized and consolidated, otherwise it will scarcely l3ear a profitable crop of corn. When a corn crop is taken first, there is great dang-er of the crop failing-, in consequence of hollowness produced by the tough nature of the under- turf, Avhich atmospheric influences alone during* the first year's crop fail to disintegrate. If the plants be not blown out of the ground altogether in the spring by winds, and a sufficient uTimber escape the ravages of insects and the wire- Avorm, yet without consolidation by the treading of the sheep "vvhile eating off the previous green crop, a large quantity of straw is produced, which from its weight in a green state, and from the s})ongy texture of the soil, is very often laid, and the yield of corn very far short of the expectation of the farmer. But this state of things scarcely ever follows tlie eating oft' of the green crop, therefore we may at once decide that it would always be the best plan, first, to take green crops, which of course will vary Avith the nature of the soil ; turnips on light lands, Swedes on a stronger soil, and rape on ])eaty soils. Should circumstances render it desirable to break up lands in autumn, August would be a suitable time Ijefore harvest commenced. "White mustard should be drilled rather thick, which in about a month will be ready for the sheep. It should be eaten off" on the land, Avhicli will be effected in good time for wheat. The treading of the sheep will break dovv-n the sods, and the land Vv-ill plough up in a much mellower yet firmer state than it wouhl have done without the green crop. Shoidd any one venture to break iqi land, and to sow wheat without the intervention of a green crop, probably folding the sheep on the wheat, in the following spring, will be a means of saving the crop. This I have repeatedly seen done, and in some instances Avith much advantage. It has been a ciistom for many years, on breaking- uji SAvard land, to commence the operation Avith i)aring and burning. This practice scarcely requires further experiment^ to establish it as an essential preliminary. The burning- kills insects that Avould otherAvise devour the turnips and tJie succeeding Avheat, it destroys the roots and seeds of Aveeds, and reduces to ashes the turf that Avould cover the land in the shape of loose sods, and render it too hollow for Avheat after TO TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. 265 the green crop. Burning- produces, too, n liig'lilv fertilizing- manure, comiiosed ot" a mixture of ashes, burnt soil, and charred vegetable matter, impregnated with alkaline salts, which are known to be powerful jjroraoters of vegetation. Generally speaking, land which is selected to be broken up is covered with a large r|uantity of coarse grass, furze, briars, blackthorns, straggling heath-})lants, rest-harrow, sedge, rushes, and many other coarse and woody-stemmed plants, which could not be made to decompose with suiiicient rajudity without burning. By burning, and especially stifle- burning, the roots, fibres, and stems of pl-ants become charred, and are de}n-ived of that tenacity which binds the sods together in matted masses. The modes proposed for tilling each kind of land after being converted into arable, will in a great measure be indi- cated by the succession of crops named in our estimates. But the nature of the soil of our island is almost as variable as the rocks on which it rests, and therefore the rotations which I have named can only be applicable to a limited extent. Thev cannot be strictly api)licable to all soils, nor to the same soil in difl'erent circumstances. There are ex- ceptions to all rotations arising from situation, climate, soil, population ; and, therefore, I dare not ])resume to offer them as applicable under all conditions. They are only indices of that system which may be successfully applied on soils having characteristics in common with those which we have mentioned. Even on the soils possessing those general cha- racteristics, the crops may be ver}' much varied from those which we have named. Thus it may occasionally be best to sow oats instead of barley, and beans, and other green crops, on a portion of the land which I have assigned for seeds, and many other changes may arise from circum- stances, which will cause the farmer, indeed compel him, to deviate from those systems; but if he adhere to the one grand point of following the white crops with green crops, ■whatever system he may adopt will have nearly the same result as those proposed. On thin light calcareous or gravelly soils, sainfoin will answer better than seeds, and therefore should be substi- tuted. The strong fibrous roots of sainfoin operate on the thin loose soils of calcareous rocks, like the arund'tnacerp, on the sands on the sea-coast, in imparting cohesion to the soil. Sainfoin also produces, by the time it is worn out, a tough sward, full of vegetable matters, which by paring and burn- 26G TO TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. ing" furnish a larg'e quantity of ashes, exceedingly useful to the succeeding" turnip crop. It will, therefore, he desirahle to sow sainfoin on all such lands, with the view of modifying* the physical character of the soil, as well as to ohtain manure for turnips, and a large quantity of feed from poor thin soils, sometimes exhihiting scarcely anything on the surface hut the comminuted ])ortions of rock, on which, however, sain- foin flourishes and remains in vigour for years. Downs are principally confined to the chalk, and there sainfoin will often take the place of seeds after harley, lasting- for five or six years. It arrives at perfection the second year, and begins to decline about the fifth, after which the breast- plough is diligently used, and turnips succeed. In our estimates we have considered the green crop to be comprised in the term tnniip crop, which is made up of tares or vetches on all the better kinds of light loams after wheat, Avhich are the same season succeeded by turnips. On stiller kinds of soils the green or fallow crops, which are to be partly con- sumed on the land, are composed of Swedes, turnips, cabbages, mangel-wurzel, vetches, and white mustard; and on good loams of a sandy character, in addition to those mentioned, carrots, peas, rye, and huckwheat ; and, on peaty soils, rape. It will answer the farmer's purpose to vary these green crops as much as possible, and not repeat the same kind on land that during the previous fallov/ had been planted with it. In breaking iip old sward land there are almost always more ashes than are required for the turnip crop. The sur- plus is taken away to other parts of the farm and drilled with turnips and bones, leaving the farm-yard dung' in greater abundance for the Swedes. Newly broken up land may thus be rendered a source of improvement on the remainder of the farm. The ashes thus appropriated will cause a better crop of turnips to be groAvn on the other land for that season, which, when eaten off, will retain the sheep longer on the land, and create more manure, and ensure a better and more regular consolidation. This consolidation, as well as the increased turnip crop, is of great consequence on light loams, the effects being apparent through the entire course. More corn is the result, and of course more farm- yard manure. And when such land comes in turn for tur- ni}is again, it receives a ]>etter and heavier dose of this, the best find most useful manure. With the modern good mnnagement, and plenty of green crops, to break up a piece of sward land is of considerable TO TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. 2Q7 benefit to tlie whole of the farm. It enables the tenant to commence the improvement of hi.s land in the most simple and economical manner. It will not be desirable to attempt to make thin soils deeper by plong'hing- up the hung-ry rubble or poisonous clay from beneath all at once. If done at all, it shoidd be done graduall}', and each successive attempt be made before winter, to give the land a chance of becoming' tempered by the frost and reduced by atmospheric influences. In spite of Vvhat is said in favour of deep ploug'hing- in the north, it will not answer on all soils, and even on those that would in the end be improved by being- deepened, it woidd not be advisable to do it all in one season. 0)1 tlie choice of Land to he hrolicn tip. Our prescribed limits will not admit of this portion of the subject being- treated at leng-th ; I shall, therefore, only insert a few summary observations. Probably they may not be the less useful for assuming- this condensed appear- ance. Lands that may he hro/cen itp. Chalk downs of good depth of soil. Chalk downs of the depth of 5 or G inches on farms where there is a great portion of down land, but care must be taken not to harass the land with too many corn crops. Lands of light, dry, sandy, gravelly, rubbly nature, on a rocky or porous subsoil, with a southern aspect and gentle inclination. Large tracts of rough pasture, now of no great value, which are used for rearing young stock, especially that with a clay subsoil, or gravel on a subsoil of clay, which is kept cold and moist through want of draining. All cold pastures, with a subsoil which changes to a marly substance on being dried, and which becomes shivery and splits upon being wetted again, and which falls to pieces on being exposed to the atmosphere. Strong shallow loams on limestone rubble. Dry loams intermixed with clay. Deep moist running sands that are favourably situated for turnip culture. Lands of modei-ately light sandy nature, but of considerable depth, on porous rock, or on gravel of a considerable depth, on a tenacious subsoil. Peaty soils with subsoils of calcareous clay. The clay may be service- able in consolidating and imparting cohesive power to the peat. Gravel will sometimes have the same effect. Peaty soils should, if possible, be converted into water-meadows. Very stiff soil, with little surface-soil, for the purposes of field- gardens, to be cultivated by the spade, or in cottage farms of a few acres. Heavy, cold, clay lands, which are rendered porous and friable by 268 TO TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. draining, but near to and adjoining large towns. This description of land should be reserved to supply milk, butter, &c. &c. to the inhabitants, v.hich would pay the farmer, and, of course, the land-owner, as well and perhaps better than it would if it were broken up. Such lands are favour- ably situated for improvements from manure, compost, &c. Heavy lands that are stiff and tenacious throughout their substance because of the moisture they retain, but which change their texture by draining. Cold sandy loams, forming pastures of a medium character, frequently occupied for dairy purposes, which cannot always be denominated cold clays, but rather cold sandy loams on a tenacious subsoil, from the abun- dance of moisture they contain, and which are comparatively barren from want of draining and better cultivation. Pastures intrinsically of a secondary character, and a portion of those which have been reduced to that state by long-continued careless dairy management. Breaking up will recruit the former, and enable the latter to recover their lost fertility. Lands of tliis description mig-lit be made a g-reat deal more of than they are at present. They mig-ht be so far improved as to supply the deficiency of dairy produce which would arise from Dreaking" up one-fourth of the whole quan- tity of such land. All the farmers thus situated would afterwards find it unnecessary to purchase wheat. The quantity to be broken up must always be governed by cir- cumstances. There are situations where it would not be desirable to break up more than 10 per cent., just barely enoug'h to produce straw, &c. for litter ; and on others half to three-fourths the farm ; but this cannot be recommended to be done at once. Probably the situations are not very numerous where it would answer to do so ; and any prudent person, of course, would_/W'/ his tray by beginning- on a small scale at first. On dairy farms without arable, 20 to 30 per cent, may be appropriated for arable culture, but this should not be all undertaken at once. If done by degrees, the effect may be Avatched ; and, if unpropitious, the coming* storm- may be averted by desisting in time. Except in peculiar circumstances, I am not prepared to advise a greater extent to be broken up. Lands that should not he hroken vp, or concerning which the farmer should deliberate, and be fully satisfied of the nature of the under- taking before he begins. Very stiff clay soil, with little or no surface-soil, and not drained, should be trenched and planted. Elevated poor sandy or rocky clayey soils should be planted in pre- ference. Lands that are poor from the thinness of the soil. Very light shallow loam on rock, limestone, &c. TO TURN GRASS LAND INTO ARABLE. 269 Very thin chalk soil which exhibits the naked rock, or coarse debris of the rhalk, on or very near the surface. Deep moist running sands that cannot be conveniently drained, should be trenched and planted. Poor clay soils, on a cold-bottomed retentive subsoil, and northern aspect. Very poor ferruginous sands which are covered with heath, unless in peculiar circumstances. Rich feeding pastures. Water-meadows, and those that can by any likely means be converted into water-meadows. Fine rich alluvial pastures and meadows. Accommodation lands near towns. Dairy farms near towns : lands which are occupied for the purpose of supplying the inhabitants with milk. Rich pasture lands. Lands which are liable to floods. If converted into arable, the best portion of the soil would be in danger of being swilled away. Lands adjoining and near to the homestead. This rule is frequently violated on the chalk. Salt marshes ; and doubts may arise about other marshes : locality, and facility for draining them, will best determine their eligibility. Very stiff clay that would require to be summer fallowed for wheat. Small portions for spade culture may be excepted. Such lands may be much improved in pasture by draining, and occasional swUlings with liquid manure ; and frequent dressings with soil, rubbish, road-scrap- ings, &.C., made into compost, and spread over them when practicable. Elevation of Lauds above the Jecel oj" the Sea to ho considered. Lands mucli elevated, apparently possessing- the qualities "wliicli would in other situations determine their elig'ibilit}', Avould not answer, because of the crops not ripening- in a kind and natural manner. I should hesitate to convert any land into arable raised more than 1000 feet above the sea, unless the aspect was favourable, and the locality not farther north than the 5;3rd degree of north latitude. When situated at or beneath this level, aspect will assist us a little in our choice. Thus, if we have two fields at an elevation of 1000 feet, one with a southern aspect, sloping- away at a g-entle ang-le, and the other with a northern aspect, also sloping* away with a moderate ang-le, and we wish to convert one of them into arable, our choice would naturally fall on the field with a southern aspect, because, at this critical point, aspect alone mig-lit be suHicient to turn the balance. Corn grown ahove the heig'ht of 1000 feet is uncertain of producing- g-ood grain : hence, to break up lands much elevated, unless something local sanctioned the proceeding, would be to 270 ON BREAKIXG UP GRASS LANDS. excliang'e a certainty for an uncertainty, a step wliicli g'ene- rally indicates a deficiency of judg-ment, and -wliicli is of too speculative a character for tlie cautious agriculturist to indulg"e in. Journal of the R. A. S. E., vol. vii. part 1. Art. LX.—ON BREAKING UP GRASS LANDS. How Pasture sltouJd he hroJwn vp. All clay pasture lands should be pared and burnt; there are man}" advantag-es attending- this operation in all cases, but there are some peculiar to clay lands — such, for instance, as the improvement it effects in the texture of such soils. At the same time it should be remembered, that land when wet will appear to have an adhesive texture, which when drained will prove a friable open soil ; and therefore no decision on this subject is advisable until after drainage. The object of the landowner in naming- the terms (on this head) on which he will permit the farmer to break up g-rass land, should be to arrang-e so that he may have half of his land in green crop and half in g'rain during- the first and all succeeding- 3'ears ; and in the case of clay land it is necessary to bum all, because while there is no immediate necessity for it in the case of that half of it which is to be sown with oats, beans, or wheat, as the case may be, yet on such soils the sward will not have been sufficiently reduced by the ploughing- and rest for a year, vvhich that half of it will thus receive, to answer for the green crop, which in the succeeding- j-ear follovrs those crops. In the case of light land, however, there is no such difficulty, and therefore on such soils it will be advisable to pJoiujli vp the half intended for grain crops (it will thus be sufficiently rotten and reduced by next spring for green crop culture), and to pare and burn the half in- tended for turnips, Swedes, Szc. That was the mode adopted on the farm I now occupy ; about half of it was ploughed and half pared and burnt. A great crop of oats, and a great crop of turnips, was thus obtained, and a large stock of sheep and cattle were thus kept during- the first winter ; a large stock of manure was thus produced, and a sure foundation thus laid for the permanent fertility of the land. ON BREAKING UP GRASS LANDS. 271 The farmer lias to superintend and bear tlie expense of all these operations. We Lave put the amount of expense he will incur beyond tlie ordinary cultivation of the laud at 30-y. per acre on half of the pastures converted. If he enters on the land at Michaelmas, which will be the most convenient term for him, he will be able to ploug'h those g"rass lands which are to he ■ploiKjhed^ in the autumn (we suppose all the land- lord's operations, except the building-s, to have been com- pleted). The g'rass should be cut close, and the land ploug'hed about 4 inches deep ; and it will be the better of being- rolled before winter, so as to press the furrow-slices home, in order that no gTass may grow between them. In March, 4 bushels of oats per acre may be sown broadcast — they will fall into the furrows and spring" up as if they had been drilled — they should then be harrowed up and down and across the former ploug-hing-, rolled, and left till harvest. Tlie farmer will also, during- winter, be able to g-et all the hedg-erows that are to be removed grubbed up. With regard to those fields which are to be pared and bxu'nt, they must lie till the spring- ; but in ordinary seasons there will be no difficulty in getting- them ready, part for Swedes and part for common turni])s. They may be pared either by hand or by plough ; in the latter case it is right to cut the land by circular shares, arranged on an axle and ■W'eighted, so that they shall pierce the sward in lines about a foot apart. The paring-plough in crossing them, and turning- over a furrow-slice about 10 inches wide, will turn over, not a continuous riband of turf, but a series of patches about a foot long, 10 inches wide, and 1 inch deep. These are more manageable iw the burning. This ploughing, I imagine, will cost about 9.?. or 10.*;. ])er acre. I have had no ex])erience of it. All this farm was pared by hand, by the breast-plougli, at a cost of about Vl^. per acre. The burning, which should be done in as large heaps as possible, and as slowly as possible — the one to ensure against the fires being- put out by every passing- shower, and the other to ensure black a.shes — will cost about 10.?. or Y2s. an acre more; and the ashes where the turf has been cut about an inch deep, will cost 3.<;. or 4.'>'. per acre to spread — the burners being allowed the rubbish off and out of the adjacent gndjbed up hedgerows to assist them. The next o])eration is to plough this land as shallow as possible (say 3 inches deep), in narrow furrow-slices, and thus bury the ashes. The ploughed land should then be 979 ON DRESSING GRASS LAND. rolled linrd, and then harrowed twice or thrice leng'thwajs ; and, lastly, twice or thrice across the ploug'hing- — and the soil shoidd by that time be pretty well torn to pieces. Let the land be then again rolled, and ploug'hed G inches deep across the former ploug-hing-. This will bring- up the 3 inches of fast land below the ashes, and bury those 3 which had been on the surface ; the ashes, as before, be- ing* between them, or 3 inches deep in the g-roimd. If the same succession of rolling's and harrowings be again re- peated, the land will be ready for that drilling- up at intervals of about 2G inches, which jtrejjares it for the seed. The additional cost in preparing- turf land for the seed, m-a}' fairly be put at 30.y, per acre over the cost of preparing- arable land. In ordinary seasons, a large extent of grass land may thus be broken uj) in one season, half of it being- g-ot ready for a crop of Swedish, and the other half for a crop of common turnips. — M. S. Agricultural Gazette, Oct. 3rd, 184G. Art. LXL— on DRESSING GRASS LAND. By Mr. J. Smith. The following; remarks may, perhaps, be useful both to those who are inclined to try the effects of artificial manures, especially guano, and to those v/ho have done so. I have tinder my charg-e a hundred acres of g-rass land, in very poor condition ; and as my employer is likely to be in pos- session of it for several years, of course the sooner it can be improved the long-er time he will have to reap the benefit. Parm-yard manure cannot be got here without costing- twice its value for carriage ; and therefore I thoug-ht something- less ex})ensive and easier to be g-ot at, would better suit my purpose. Some of my friends recommended a dressing- of marl, there being- plenty on the estate ; others soot ; others salt, itc. : but I was rather doubtful of the efficacy of some of these. I thought it advisable to try a small quantity of each as an experiment for the first year, and I selected a piece of ground as nearly as possible equal in quality, which I divided into quarters of acres. To have the pieces as near each other as possible, I lined them off at half a chain in ON DRESSING GRASS LAND, 1^(6 width, wliicli increased them in length, giving- each the chance of g-reater variety of soil, should there he any. The following- tahle shows the different manures, the quantity applied, the time when applied, the cost, including- pre})ara- tion and the labour of applying- them, the weight of produce compared with that where no dressing- was put on, at the time of putting- into the stack, calculating- the value at 4^1. per ton. The produce was cut on the 7th of July : — Without Dressing. ton. cwt. qv. lb. £ s. (I. Produce 12 2 12 Cost Guano, 9 cwt. per acre, applied March 24th. ton. cwt. qr. lb. £ .1. d. Produce 1 16 2 4 Value of extra produce 4 15 74 Deduct 12 2 12 Deduct cost of guano 4 18 Leaves gain of 1 3 3 20 Total profit .. i,-0 1 3 1 1 ^ Guano, 5 cwt. per acre, applied iNIarch 24th. ton. cwt. qr. lb. £ s. d. Produce 1 6 Value of extra produce 2 13 G Deduct 12 2 12 Cost of ;?uano 2 5 5 Leaves gain of . . 13 1 G Total profit. .^'0 8 I Guano, 3 cwt. per acre, applied March 24th. ton. cwt. qr. lb. £ s. d. Produce IG 20 Cost of guano ...... 1 7 Deduct 12 2 12 Value of extra produce 1 4 3 Leaves gain of 3 2 8 Total loss.. £0 13 Soot, 20 bushels per acre, applied ]March 29th. ton. cwt. qr. lb. £ s. d. Produce 15 2 Cost of soot 14 4 Deduct 12 2 12 Value of extra produce 11 6 Leaves gain of 2 3 16 Total loss.. £0 2 10 Coal-ashes, 224 bushels per acre, applied April 10th. ton. cwt. qr. lb. £ s. d. Produce 12 2 20 Cost of ashes 1 G 8 Deduct 12 2 12 Value of extra produce 3 Leaves gain of 8 Total loss.. £1 G 5 Lime, 12 quarters per acre, appUed April 10th. ton. cwt. qr. lb. £ x. d. Produce 11 3 20 Cost of lime 2 14 8 A decrease of ..0 2 20 Value of decrease ... . 2 7| _, . .. : - Totallos.?.. i2 17 Sj T 274 ON DRESSING GRASS LAND. Marl, 24 tons per acre, applied April 10th. ton. cwt. qr. lb. £ x. rl. Produce 9 1 8 Cost of marl 2 9 10 A decrease of . . 3 1 4 Value of decrease .... 1 li 1 .^ Total loss.. i;3 2 11 1 Salt, 2 bushels, per acre, applied March 23rd. ton. cwt. rjr. lb. £ g. il. Produce 7 1 16 Cost of salt .... 4 4 A decrease of . . 5 24 Value of decrease 1 D Total loss.. £\ 'o \ The following' table will show the advantage the 9 cwt. of giiano has over the 5 cwt. and the 3 cwt. per acre : — ton. cwt. qr. lb. The extra produce of cwt. . . 1 3 3 20 Ditto 5 cwt... 13 1 IG Balance of 9 cwt. over 5 cwt.. 10 2 4 Value.. £2 2 1^ The extra produce of .5 cwt. Ditto 3 cwt. Balance cf 5 cwt. over 3 cwt. 11 3 8 Value.. £2 7 3 ton. cwt. qr. lb. Here 9 has the balance over 5 of 1 1 12 Value.. £4 4j It is thus proved, hy the above, that only two out of the eig'ht dressings will meet their expense, that of the 9 and the 5 cwt. of g-iiano to the acre; and this also shows that a little will not do. People are very liable to err by trying- small quantities : they say, we will try 1 cwt. to the acre, and, if we profit by that, we will try more next 3'ear; but when the}^ com})are the produce with the expense, they find the}'' are great losers, and the manure is condemned. Manure is to the soil what medicine is to the human frame. For instance, we may have an inward complaint, and take one pill to cure it ; to-morrow, being- no better, we take another; next day the same, and so on, perhaps, for twelve months; but if one dose does no good, and we take three, we get relief almost immediately, and the cure is certain : this is on account of the more powerful stimulus : had we taken it in time, one ])ill might have proved etlectual; but we ne- glected it till it got too deep a hold, and beyond the power of one, and therefore it required three. It is exactly the same with this poor land ; it lias got beyond the power of ton. cwt. qr. lb. 13 1 IG 3 2 8 ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE RED CLOVER. 275 3 cwt. of guano, and consequently we must give it 9 cwt. of guano before the desired effect is produced. Again, we have medicines which are quick to operate, and vice versa; it is the same with manures: therefore, I cannot condemn those that have not yielded me profit this year. I shall see what next year does ; perhaps they may yield double crops, and for years to come, when the more stimu- lant sorts are exhausted. I have at times applied lime with the g'reatest success, especially on stiff cold land. (This, on which the experiment was made, I may mention, is of a gTavelly flinty nature, with a chalk bottom.) Part of the failure in the lime 1 attribute to its being" put on late ; but still it was on before the g-rass had made any growth. I may also state, that Avhere the guano was applied, the hay was of very superior quality, and fit for cutting three weeks before the others, which would have insured a good second crop by this time, as it is now in advance of the others. IVext year I mean to try the manure water; but as the quantity will be limited, I must have other manures as well. Perhaps some of your correspondents will be kind enough, through the medium of your paper, to state what with them has ])roved the most beneficial, also the quantity applied, and the mode of applying it, vtc. United Gardeners' and Land-Stewards' Journal. Art. LXII.— on THE CULTIVATION OF THE RED CLOVER, AND THE CAUSES OF ITS FAILURE. By Robert ]McTurk, Esq., Hastings Hall, Dumfriesshire. [Ill considering this subject, Mr. McTurk reviews the different opinions that have been maintained as to tlie cause of the gradual deterioration which ensues, when the same variety of crops has been cultivated on the same field for a number of years consecutively, or even at short intervals. For although this condition has been more apparent — or more closely observed of late years in its relation to the red clover than to any other crop— it is one of more general bearing, involving, in fact, a fundamental principle of vegetable phj'siology, whose influence is co-extensive with the whole vegetable kingdom. We shall only name the theories noticed by the author of this Essay, in order that we may pass to its more strictly practical portion. T 2 276 ON THE CULTIVATION 1. The necessity of an alteration of crops is presumed to be owing to a peculiar excretion or discharge from the roots of plants, render- ing the soil unfit, for a time, for the healthy growth of the same kind of plant. 2. After repeated cultivation of the same variety of plants, the soil becomes exhausted of the ingredients which constitute the specific nou- rishment of such plants. 3. The failure (of the red clover in particular) has been attributed " to a want of a certain degree of cohesiveness in the particles of the soil." Hence the soil's power of retaining heat is diminished ; and all plants, particularly clover, which are impatient of sudden changes of temperature, are thus easily destroyed by the frost. Of tliese opinions, Mr. McTurk adopts that which bears the stamp cf this inductive age, viz., that plants degenerate in soils which do not supply them with a sufficiency of the elements of which they are composed — of what, in animals, would be called their food. He proceeds to consider this, as well as other circumstances, important to the successful cultivation of the red clover.] It now remains for us to show that there are various causes which have all more or less influence in occasioning- the failure of the clover plant, and to endeavour to point out the means by which the evil may be remedied. When we ascertain the composition of any plant, we will find that the proportions of its org-anic and inorg-anic con- stituents are, in man}' resjjects, ditierent from every other plant, however nearly allied it may be to them all, and that even the difterent parts of the same plant contain those same constituents in different proportions. In so far as the inorganic constituents are concerned, there is no source from which they can be derived in sufficient abundance but the soil ; and as these substances are found to exist in the soil in very unequal cptantities, there is no doubt but that, while one kind of plant is withdrawing- one substance in greater amount, another is appropriating- another substance in a larg-er degree ; and so it is with every crop. It is therefore evident that, unless these substances are restored in quantities equal to what have been abstracted, the soil must, in course of time, be exhausted. It is also evident that, while some of these substances readily accumulate in sufficient abundance from the decomposition of matter which is continually taking- place, others are very slowly restored, and some scarcely at all, unless when contained in the manure which is from time to time applied. It may be observed that, in the course of the ordinary operations of husbandry, some of the more soluble of these substances may be carried down by the rain into the soil, while in a pulverized state, in g-reater abun- dance than they are produced by natural causes, to a depth OF THE RED CLOVER. 277 to wliicli the roots do not extend. Undei- tliese circum- stances, it is not to be wondered at that the soil sliould be sooner uniitted for the gTowth of some crops than for others ; and e>pecially for those crops which require a larger amount of those substances which, in the first instance, exist in the soil in more limited quantities, or which are more soluble, and carried away br rain to a depth beyond the reach of their roots. ^ This is, perhaps, more the case with red clover than any other plant, which will be more apparent when we avail ourselves of the aid that chemistry atfords. It tells us, in the first place, that 1,000 lb. of red clover, in the dried state, according- to the analysis of Sprengel, contain the following- proportions of inorg-anic matter : — Potash 19.95 Soda 5.29 Lime 27.80 INIagnesia 3.33 Alumina 0.14 Silica 3.G1 Sulphuric acid 4.47 Phos]ihoric acid 6.57 Chlorine 3.62 From this analysis, we learn the very large proportion of potash which red clover abstracts from the soil, when con- trasted with the other crops with which it is generally asso- ciated in the course of a regular rotation. WTieat contains in 1,000 lb. of the grain 2.25 Stra«-, 1,000 lb 2.45 Bariey 2.27 — 1.80 Oats 15.0 — 8.70 Rye-grass hay — — 8.81 If v/e allow that the straw is double the weight of the grain, then in 1,000 lb. Of wheat, there is only 0.89 of potash. Of barley " 2.13 — Of oats '. 6.30 — Thus we see that 1,000 lb. of red clover requires nearly as much potash as is contained in twenty times the same amount of wheat, eight times the amount of barley, and ' See Professor Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, p. 205. i37S ON THE CULTIVATION tlu'ee times tlie amount of oats, and twice of lye-grass, tlie very crops which are made to form part of the rotation along' w^it'h it. 1 Besides, potash is one of those substances which has a strong- affinity for water, and is, on that account, very sohdjle in every state of combination in which it is found in the soil; hence its great liability, when the land is under culti- vation, to be carried off' by rain. This observation, however, applies more to the rain which falls in inland situations, or to those localities which are screened from the sea by some high mountain range ; for there is g'ood evidence to show that portions of the various saline substances contained in sea-water, and which contribute so much to the fertility of the soil, are often carried to considerable distances from the shore. "^ We may further observe, that it is owing- to the still g'reater amoimt which the different green crops require of inorg-anic as well as of organic food, that a larg-e applica- tion of manures is found to be necessary for their growth, in Avhich case those sidjstances cannot be said to be abstracted from the soil. Althoug-h these remarks are made more particularly in reference to potash, as the substance which, with the excep- tion of lime, enters more largely into the composition of clover than any other, and one which is more apt to be washed from the portions of the soil which is subjected to frequent culti- vation, still they are applicable to other inorganic consti- tuents, though many of them are less soluble, and exist often in much larger proportions than jiotash. This view of the case helps to explain why the red clover crop is less abundant on land which has been frequently cultivated, and why its faihu-e is more perceptible on inland situations, than in those more exposed to the sea. But there are often causes of failure on soils which cannot be said to be deficient in any of the substances essential to the growth of this crop. In the spring of 1841 we commenced a series of experi- ' Gypsum has been strongly recommended by Sir Humphry Davy, and other writers on agriculture, as a valuable manure for red clover ; but we have found that coal, peat, and wood ashes — particularly the ashes of ash- wood — are much more efficacious. This is chiefly to be attributed to the potash which they contain. ^ Liebig's Agricultural Chemistry, pp. 110, 138. And we believe that Dr. Madden, when at Penicuick, had satisfactorily proved, by a series of ob.-ervations there recently made, that the rain which falls between the sea and the Pentland hills contains more saline substances than the rain which falls bevond that ranae. OF THE RED CLOVER. 279 ments, with the view of obtaining- some information on this subject, and conceived that we were more Hkelj to ai-rive at the truth by beginning- at the g-ermination of the seed, and marking- witli care the progress which it made in the ditie- rent stag-es of its g-rovvth. A piece of ground was selected atljoining- the house, the soil consisting- of a lig-ht fresh loam, and as much alike in character as one soil could be. Two rows of boards, 8 inches broad, were placed edg-eways, parallel with each other, at G feet apart in the g-round. The earth was then put in, and equalized between the boards till an inclined plane was formed by it, with a rise of 1 inch in the foot. The earth was thus level with the upper edg-e of the south board, and G inches below the upper edge of the north one. This inclined plane, though onl^^ G feet wide, was 70 feet in length. Sixty-eight gentle impres- sions were made upon the mould with the handle of a rake, after the plane was made as smooth and uniform as it could be. In those impressions, the same number of the dilferent kinds of seeds most commonl}^ used in agri- culture were sown,i and more earth was then put in till it was level with the upper edge of the boards. The seed sown in this way, had little or no cover of earth at one end of the rows ; but the cover gradually increased, till it reached a depth of G inches at the other end. The boards enabled us to make this cover with great accuracy, so that at ever}' part of the rows in which the seed germinated, there was an inch of additional covering of soil for every foot in length ; so that by api)lying- the foot-rule to the surface, we could ascertain at any time the depth of the seeds, and by assuming the half of the space in which the seeds germinated, that gave the j)roper depth of covering. The seeds were equally exempted from the risk of germi- nation, being prevented by too much cover, and at the same time from being lost, in case of dry weather, from having too little. We thus arrived at what may, with confidence, be regarded as the proper depth at which clover seed shoukl be placed ; and of six samples sown in this way, namely, English, French, American, Flemish, Juliers, Suck- lings, the average, and therefore the proper depth may be stated at 1 inch. There is no doubt that seeds will germinate at a greater depth in a light gravelly or sandy soil than in a clayey ' For these, we are indebted to the kindness of Mr. Thomas Kennedy, aursery and seed:3maD, Dumfries. 280 ON THE CULTIVATION one ; but we consider the soil in which the experiments were made as equally removed from both these extremes, and, in this respect, as of a very fair average for an ex- periment of the kind. Having- ascertained tlie depth, we proceeded, in the first week of June in the same year, to find out the proportion of seeds that mig'ht be expected to germinate in a given num- ber of medium cpiality, such as are commonly sold in the shops. Out of 500 seeds sown in rows, at a distance of inches in the row, 426 germinated ; showing a deficiency of nearly 15 per cent. Out of one of Mr. Lawson's best samples of 500 seeds sown, 475 germinated ; showing a deficiency of only 5 per cent. This was not the only loss sustained at this stage of their growth, for before they had attained to what might be considered the rough leaf, there was scarcely a plant for every two seeds sown ; showing a deficiency of at least 60 per cent. The insect which chiefly committed these depredations was the same that so often destroys tbe turnip crop ; although we cannot say that the slug had no share in them. In these experiments it was not our object to destroy insects, but rather to learn the extent of the ravages which these enemies of agricultural plants are capable of commit- ting. Whether they have been as destructive in former years we have no means of knowing ; but it is not unlikely that they, like every other species, may increase with the means of subsistence, and for whose support the extended cultivation of the turnip crop makes ample provision. From what has been said on this part of the subject, it must be obvious that, even under the most favourable cir- cumstances, much of the seed committed to the soil never attains maturity. When we think of the great disadvan- tages to which its seeds are exposed in field cultivation, the numberless chinks and crevices in a soil but moderately rough, in which they may be cast, it is not to be wondered at that from this cause alone the expectation of the cultivator should sometimes be disappointed. No clover seed should ever be sown until the soil intended to receive it is made as fine and light as straight-toothed harrows can make it, to fill up the crevices, and only one strake should afterwards be given with them. There is another practice in many dis- tricts of Scotland, of eating down young grass with sheep and other stock occasionalh', from which much injury is sus- tained. It is but too common to see the grasses nipped as close to the surface as teeth can reach : and we have often- OF THE RED CLOVER. 281 observed clover, by tins treatment, nipped over at the neck, which must, in every case where this happens, prove fatal to it ; but althoug'h it may not have sustained injury to this ex- tent, still it is stripped of its leaves, and these, from the way in which they come out from the stem, and spread around it, are well adapted to afford the required protection to the stem and root. It is true that the leaves tliemselves are often laid prostrate by the severity of the frost ; but this only causes them to fairaround the neck, and cling- more closely to it. We would not be imderstood as condemning- all pasturing- of young- grass, for this often proves a great convenience for sheep ; and we have invariably found it an unfailing' antidote to inflammation of the bowels, or hraxy — the disease to which young- sheep are most subject ; but we most decidedly condemn it when carried so far as to deprive the clover of all protection. Upon the same pi*inciple, we also reg-ard the practice of mowing- the grain crop with which the clover is sown, as very hurtfid to the young- grasses. Having arrived at the knowledge of these facts, with regard to the depth of clover and the depredations of insects, we began in the following spring another set of ex]ieriments, at the same time allowing all the clover plants of the pre- vious year to remain in the ground, with the view of watching' their future progress. We then set oft' a piece of ground, 10 feet square, and divided it into equal parts of a foot each j 400 clover seeds were then selected from Mr. Lawson's best sample, one-half of wdiich were of the lighter yellow, and the other half the dark purple-coloured variety; and the yellow w^as sown in the one-half of the ground, and the purple in the other, to ascertain if there was any difference in their germination or durability in the ground ; but in both respects there was scarcely any difference, the yellow, by a few plants, having the advantage in germination. Four of the selected seeds were planted in the centre of each foot of the ground previously laid oft", with the intention of insuring one plant in each division ; and as soon as the ])lants were considered out of danger from insects, only one was left in each space. Mostly all were in flower in September ; Init in this respect there was considerable difference ; and all were cut down by the end of the montli, that their treatment might be similar to what they would have received if grown with a crop. With the exception of six plants, they all survived the winter, and we believe they were those which were most advanced at the time of cutting, and after which 282 ON THE CULTIVATION tliey exhibited but little symptons of tlirowing" out fresb leaves. In this experiment no manure of any kind was applied, as the object was to obtain a knowledge of the dura- bility of the red clover in the ground, when grown under the most favourable circumstances in regard to s})ace and new soil. The ninety-four plants which survived the winter grew most luxuriantly in the summer of 1843, some of which brought to jierfection fourteen stem-llowers, and none fewer than six, at the beginning of August, at which time one-half were cut down, and the other half allowed to grow to the end of September, much about the time that the second crop attains its maturity, when we foimd that the plants which had thrown out the greatest number of flower-stems, when cut in August, were deficient in the number of their stems to the plants which were less vigorous at that time. After the September cutting they began to throw out leaves of a more sickly character than they had yet exhibited, but no flower- stems. Not more than nine plants survived the winter ; and the only indication of their having- done so was but a few sickly leaves, which made their appearance in April 1844, after which they died. It a[>j)ears from this experiment, and also from the dura- tion of the plants of the first experiment in which we tried to find out the proper depth of cover, that all the diflerent varie- ties of red clover generally cultivated in this country,',whether the seed is from Holland, America, or any other quarter, are biennial, instead of perennial, as they are often represented to be. It is true that we often find plants of red clover, in fields which have been sown out with it, years afterwards ; but these have arisen from seeds which were ]>laced imder circumstances imfavourable to germination. As, for example, besides a sufiicient depth of earth, stones are often pressed down with the roller upon the top of seeds, the air excluded, and germination for a time prevented. Next spring- the stones are taken away on account of the hay-cutting, or they are turned over by sheep in winter, when this obstacle to g-ermination is removed ; but instead of in the first spring", this change in circumstances might take place at any future period, and the seed will sjn-ing \\p then, if it has not lost its vitalit3\ Besides, there is a variet}- of red clover which is perennial, and indigenous to many soils of this country, more especially the drier ])arts of meadow land which have not l)een ploughed ; but the seed of this variety is not com- monly sold in the shops. OF THE RED CLOVER. S83- Much about this time our attention was particularly directed to the improvements of Francis Maxwell, Esq., of Gribton, a gentleman in this neighbourhood, who, several years before, had commenced spade-trenching- and thorough- draining on a very extensive scale. He had completed seven or eight fields of large extent, but of the worst quality on his estate, with thorough-draining and spade-trenching fifteen inches deep. We had almost constant opportunities of seeing the same fields for more than twenty years before these improvements were commenced. None of them were worth more than twelve shillings per acre, exclusive of the local advantage which they possessed ; and others were of the very worst description of land in the country. They had at first been broken out of thin moor, with a cold and retentive tilly subsoil. The crops which they had yielded were very scanty, such as might be expected from such land. The clover never deserved the name of a crop. The fields had been limed in the first stage of their cultivation, and also slightly after being trenched. The rotation of crops taken after the improvements was first oats, then potatoes or turnips, then barley or oats, all of fair quality, and at the same time sown out with rye-grass, and red and white clover. The healtbiness of the red clover, on some of the fields, was very evident after the grain crop was cut, and also in the rye-grass bay ; but the after-crop of the clover in October seemed one solid mass, and in several parts was completely lodged. These improvements on a large scale coincided with some experiments we had been making on a small one. That land which has been frequently cultivated, and which has become clover-sick, may be benefited by deepening the soil, and bringing a portion of those substances to the sur- face, of which it is either exhausted by the repeated cultiva- tion of the clover, or which have been carried down by rain, is a fact every day receiving the additional testimony of those who have had recourse to subsoiling ; and, although the advantages of such operations are very evident on other cro])S, on none is it more so than red clover. It may now be pro{)er to show how the alkalies are re- stored to the soil, when rest or })asturage is substituted for cultivation. All soils consist of disintegrated rock ; and whether these changes may have been, in the first instance, produced by some mighty cause, which produced more im- mediate results than we see in operation at the present time, agents are still constantly at work in the atmospheric 284 ON THE CULTIVATION cliang'es of lieat and cold, wet and dry, v.'hich are not less capable of accomplishing' the disintegration of the hardest materials of which the g-lolje is composed, and, in course of time, their decomposition also. By marking- the operation of these ag-ents, we learn the jn'ocess by which the alkaline bases are made to form part of the soil, and the various saline combinations into which they are enabled to enter. Rocks of every formation contain some one or other of the alkalies, and often more than one, according- to Liebig-. Feldspar contains not less than 17 per cent, of potash ; albite 11 per cent, of soda ; zeolite, 13 per cent, of both alkalies taken tog-ether ; g-ranite, grey wacke, porphyry, basalt, clay- slate, clinkstone, sandstone, lime, lava-loam, contain each their certain proportions ; and the decomposition of any one of these rocks must always restore to the soil one or more of the alkalies. In the course of cultivation, there is always a constant breaking- down of the materials of the soil, to which the tear and wear of the iron implements emplo3'ed bear ample testimony ; and although portions of the stones (frag- ments of the dilferent rocks) of which they consist are in this way pulverized, still they supply no new food for the succeeding- crops until they have been decomposed, and ren- dered soluble — chang-es which will then be more speedily effected, and the alkalies restored in g-reater abundance, than required for the purposes of pasturage. Carbon, azote, and the elements of water, which, in different proportions, unite to form so many of our most valuable animal and vegetable substances, and which are equally essential, are derived from other sources which can be more readily supplied to the soil; but, imtil of late years, when science began to lend her aid to agriculture, the application of the alkalies (with the ex- ce])tion of lime), as necessary constituents of every fruitful soil, formed no part of the practice of agriculture ; and it is only when these substances are exhausted that a soil is re- duced to the sterile condition alluded to by Liebig, when he says, that " no quantit}' of manure could fertiUze it for the production of certain crops ;" and not, as he attributes it, to the injurious nature of the substances excreted from the roots. 1 ' Although Liebig gives countenance to the doctrine of radical ex- cretion, which we have previously tjuoted, there is scarcely a chapter in his Chemistry of Agriculture, in which he does not, in one shape or another, recognise the truth which we have here stated. " It must be admitted," he says, " as a principle of agriculture, that those substances which have OF THE RED CLOTER. 285 In these observations we have pointed out the causes to which the faihire of the red clover crop is chiefiy to be attributed, and shall now, in conclusion, shortly advert to what has been advanced on that sidjject, as well as on the remedies suggested. 1st, We see, then, that much seed is lost from foiling into chinks and crevices ; and that, even in certain conditions of the soil, with the common harrow, so much cover may be given to the seed as to prevent its germination. This is more particularly the case when the soil is rough or damp, or of a heavy and impervious character. Clover seed can. scarcely be soAvn in such descriptions of soil without more than one-half of it receiving from two to three inches of cover ; and, Avhen rolled, it is entirely lost. It would be much better, under such circumstances, to sow the clover seed after the harrowing has been finished, and simply to roll afterwards, and in this way rather to risk the chances of its being destroyed by an over-dry summer : the chances are at least three to one in its favour, the circumstances favour- able to the growth of red clover being a dry or well-pulve- rized soil, and not more than one inch of cover. 2nd, It is also evident that a very large proportion of the plants, in the first stage of their growth, are liable to be destroyed by insects and slugs. At the present time, we are aware of no remedy of general a])plication for the evil but to sow less sparingly. In many districts the neglect of this precaution is too common an error. The cpiantity allowed in some is from 4 to 6 lb., in others from G to 10 lb., and in some of the finer lands still more. Suppose, then, that in the first of these 5 lb. are given to the imperial acre of seed of average quality ;i this is only one seed to every ten square inches ; and if we deduct one-half for the loss sustained iu germination and by insects, we have only one seed for every twenty square inches. We also found that 5 per cent, was lost by frost, which will also make the distance still greater ; and if we take the acre of Scotch measure, hj which the soil is still calculated in many parts of this country, we been removed from a soil must be restored to it ; but whether by means of excrement, ashes, or bones, is in a great measure a matter of indiffe- rence." Professor Johnston, in his Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, has established the same important truth upon a foiuidation from which it can never be removed. ' Supposing that there are 130 seeds in five grains, or l.j,3G2 to the ounce. 286 ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE RED CLOVER. shall have a space of nearh^ twenty-eight square inches around each plant. 3i'd, Before clover can he successfully cultivated on wet, or even damp land, it must he drained ; first, hecause clover delights in a dry soil ; and secondly, when the frost expands the moist soil in contact with the neck of the plant, it is left hare alter the thaw arrives, and is therefore more liahle to he destro3'ed hy the next frost. 4th, If clover is too closely cut down, it is left without the leaves, its natural protection ; and, if the frost is afterwards severe, it is sure to he destroyed. 5th, Mowing- is ohjectionahle to a certain extent, for the same reason. When the crop is cut with the sickle, a larger amount of stuhhle and foliage are left upon the ground for protection. Gth, These precautions are necessary to have a sufficient numher of jdants in the ground in spring ; hut it is clear that the future crop must also depend on the amount of the proper nourishment contained in the soil, and the facility with which it can he appropriated by the plants in every stage of their growth ; for, if stinted before the tillering- commences, fewer stems will l)e thrown out, sometimes only two or three, and often, when food is more plentiful, as many as a dozen, and all of them more luxuriant. From this cause, the crop may either be one-fourth the weight, or four times that amount, as was well illustrated in the case of Mr. Maxwell's (of Gribton) crop, -which had not received more than 3 lb. of seed to the acre ; but, from the improvement ■which he had effected, nourishment of every kind was abun- dant ; and the extraordinary manner in which the plants tillered in consequence, furnishes us with a satisfactory ex- ])lanation as to the uncommon weight of crop from so small a quantity of seed. 7th, It must also be evident that the practice of eating down the second crop with sheep must have a much greater tendency to maintain the soil in a favourable condition for the growth of clover, than when the practice of carrying it off tlie land to be consumed was more generally prevalent. 8th, We recommend with very much confidence thorough- draining and trench-ploughing, as the most efficacious reme- dies which can he resorted to for restoring to its original fertility land Avhich has become clover-sick. Trans, of the High, and Agric. Soc. of Scotland, July 1816. ON THE SCARLET TREFOIL, S87 Art. LXIII.— on THE SCARLET TREFOIL. ( Trifolimn Incarnatum.) By Mr. Foaker, Kirby, Colchester. Immediately after liarvest, sow oi- drill a peck and a half of tlie seed per acre on a wheat stubble, without ploughing-, and harrow it in ; this is all the cultivation necessar}-. It has been said that it will not bear out winters ; this may be true when it is brought direct from the south of France, or from Italy. I brought mine from Switzerland, and have had it eighteen years on my land, and I have no doubt it would stand the winter in every county south of the Grampian Hills ; the more sheltered the situation, of course the earlier in sj)ring it will lift its crimson head. On burn- ing soils, where in dry summers the clovers are grilled into tinder, and when the husbandman can take the produce of an acre home in his apron, and the work is hnished; on such lands, half a peck of the trifolium seed (which I will prove presently will cost but one shilling, if the farmer grovvs the seed himself), sown on the young clover directly after liarvest, and harrowed in, would double or treble the crop. I always do it in every field where I am doubtful of the young clover. I am not advocating growing the scarlet trefoil as a crop in place of the clover ; this mistake has been made, and it is a great one ; it leaves the land, more particularly light land, in too frothy a state for the wheat crop • it should be sown as a crop after the wheat, not before it. Sheep and lambs prefer it to clover when young, but in blossom are not so par- tial to it; yet, when made into stover, they will eat the whole greedily. Dry land suits it best; in low places on heavy land, where the water stagnates, it is likely to lose })lant. If the farmer gTOws the trifolium seed himself, one acre of tares costs him four times the amoimt of an acre of trifolium ; and I will point out how he may prove himself that one acre of trifolium is worth two of tares. The land on which tares are grown is the fallow, and whether the tares are there or not, the rent, the tithes, and parochial expenses must be paid; the land also must be ploughed up in the axitumn, therefore the only fair charge 288 ON THE SCARLET TREFOIL. that can be broug-lit against the tares is tlie seed; some agTiculturists sow three bushels per acre. I will, however, only reckon two, at 6s. Gd. per bushel, — 13.*;. Now, let us see what the trifolium will cost. Here is also no extra expense beyond the seed. The averag-e growth of the seed with me has been 15 bushels per acre; if cut when the straw is green, which it may be without injuring the seed, thrashed the next or following day, and the straw immediately stacked, it will pay all the workmanship. When it is also considered that the crop is generally clear from the land the first week in July, leaving the best months of summer for fallowing, 61. per acre is a full remuneration to the agriculturist for the crop ; this brings the seed to Ss. per bushel, or 2s. per peck; thus the farmer ma}^ have an acre of the trifolium by the end of April, for Qs. less than one-fourth part of the cost of his washy tares. Tares at all times are better physic than food, and in wet seasons they are for horses that which seamen and soldiers designate bad small beer — swipes. As the potato occupies the lowest step of degradation as food for civilized man, so do tares for the brute ; they are French- men's water-soup diluted. As soon as the scarlet trefoil begins to blossom, put two or three horses to it in one yai'd, and the same number on tares in another ; keep them thus a month, no further proof will be necessary of the superiority of the trifolium. I will grant it is not so certain a crop as the tares, but what does this amount to 'I I grow 40 acres of wheat a year, and have the same quantity of fallow. If I sow the whole 40 acres with trifolium, and 20 acres fail (very unlikely, by-the-by), on this 20 acres I lose Ss. per acre ; the 20 acres that remain will pay me tenfold for the whole. I care nothing about the 20 acres lost, the land is ready for fallow or turnips, as it was ultimately intended. I have had about three waggon-loads of trifolium stover per acre, thei-efore, exclusive of cutting and getting up, it cost me Is. per waggon-load; if I lose half the crop, as above stated, it costs 2s., and I am convinced that the land v/as not 2d. the worse for it. This is no wild theory ; it is the ex])erience of eighteen years. If it can be proved that the land is the worse for this green croj), then some charge ought to be made against it beyond the price of the seed ; but I contend it is not. I have grown it side by side with the long fallow, the same with the tares, and I could see no difference in the following crops, except that my clovers ON WHITE MUSTARD. 289 were invariably better after the trifolium tlian after tlie tares. Do not let the farmer dream lie is buying- the scarlet trefoil seed this year at 8^. per bushel ; if he does, he may well be surprised at finding- it 21., and cheap, too. One peck and a half will give an acre of green food next May worth nearly double the money ; a second peck and a half, on good land, will give three waggon-loads of stover j the remaining- peck will produce from 10 to 12 bushels of seed. The first step towards a good crop is good seed. I have seen bushels of seed sold for trifolium that was not worth its Aveight in sand ; and when the price g-ets hig-h, it floods in from France ; seeds of all kinds, good and bad, perchance mixed with dodder and other parasites. I have begun cutting- the trifolium for the horses on the 14th of May, and for stover the 19th. This gives time for turnips, if the land is calculated for them. Agricultural Gazette, June 184G. Art. LXIY.— on WHITE MUSTARD. By Mr. Thomas Cooke BuRRoroHES. (Prize Essav.) [The cultivation of the ^^^lite Mustard (Sinapis alia of Linnaeus), the plant commonly grown in our gardens for early salading, has of late years been attracting the notice of agriculturists as a useful fallow crop, either for sheep-feed or for ploughing in as a green manure. The consideration of its properties and uses forms the subject of a Prize Essay in the Journal of the It. A. S. E., from which the following abridged account is taken.] There is scarcely any soil, however poor (provided the cli- mate be adapted to it), upon which it will not g-row ; but, of course, its luxuriance will be in proportion, other things being* efpial, to the fertility of the soil. A good friable turnip soil, capable of jiroducing good crops of wheat, with a drv sub- soil, is well adapted to its growth; upon peat soils it flourishes with extreme luxuriance. To disperse it as completely as possible over the land, the most approved method of sowing- it is by a seed-drill havinu: no coidters, or by a barrow-seed engine ; a well-practised and careful seedsman may sow it evenly enouo-h by hand to answer all })nrposes. V 290 ON WHITE MUSTARD. The land should, be rediiced to as fine a tilth as for tur- nips ; the seed should be sown upon a harrowed surface, and then covered by light seed-harrows, g'oing" twice over the ground, the second time across or obliquely. Quantity of seed to be sown, from three-quarters of a peck (if the land is in a very fine state) to a peck per acre. The ground shoidd not be in a very dry or cloddy state ; nor should the seed be pvddled in when the land is in a very wet condition, as dr}^ w^eather quickly following* w^ould be apt to cause a crust upon the top of the soil, which would much hinder the progress of the seed in coming up. If sown in May or June, or up to the middle of Jul}'', the crop will, in an average of seasons, have attained to its full growth — that is, be ready to burst into bloom — in six or seven weeks. As the autumn advances, its growth is slower In a favourable season it may be sown even as late as the end of September, and produce a considerable bulk of crop to be ploughed in before the winter frosts destro}'^ it. From reference to Mr. Burroughes's journal kept during* the summer of 1845, it appears that he ploughed up G acres of fallow on a light turnip soil which had been sown with rye-grass (in the wheat crop the previous year), and fed off and folded by shee]), which was rolled down and harrowed, and sow^n with a peck per acre of white mustai'd — 4 acres on the 10th, and the I'emaining 2 acres on the 16th May. On the 21st June began to feed it off (being about 2| feet high) with 228 sheep and 70 lambs, which kept them, being folded upon it at night, with only a bare layer to exercise upon in the day, twelve days; the sheep improved much in con- dition. July 8th and 11th, the whole was sown with white tur- nips, after one ploughing and deep scarifj'ing. The turnips came up rather shy, and grew slowly at first, and were not quite a full plant, but very good size in bulb. Four acres of white mustard w'cre also sown after tares — 2 acres on the 5th, and 2 acres on the 11th August 1845; after one ploughing and sundry harrowings, upon a fertile mixed soil, and which w^as begun to be fed off with sheep on the 10th October, it being then a ver^^ fine crop, nearly as high as the hurdles, this ground was afterwards sown wdtli wheat. Of the efficacy of white mustard ploughed in as a green manure, Mr. Burroughes had no experience at the time when he sent in his Essay. " I can only say," he observes, " that ON WHITE MUSTARD. 291 my present gTowing- crop of wlieat after mustard ploug'lied in, which was sown after tares, presents a healthy and hisu- riant appearance ; and wdiere wheat was sown after mustard, folded off by sheep in October last (as before mentioned), the fulness of plant and healthy appearance far exceed, at present, wheat put in rather earlier upon a clover layer and sheep-folded." It is a healthy food for sheep, but, like all other succulent veg-etables, should be given at first sparing-ly, and for the first few days in conjunction with some other food. It is in greatest perfection for eating- just before it comes into blossom ; but as its progress towards flowering- is rapid, it is advisable to beg-in stocking- it several days, or a week, before it is in this state, or ic becomes too old and sticky. It should also be sown in succession about twice a week. Altliough bulky in appearance, there is not above half the wefo- in it that there is in a g-ood crop of cole ; but it may be sown to come into use at a time when flock-masters are at a loss to provide for their sheep; if sown upon a clean fallow in the latter part of April, or beg-inning- of May, a fair crop of white turnips way succeed it ; but when a bulky crop of turnips is of indispensable importance, Mr. Bur- roug-hes cannot, from the experience of himself and others, recommend its cultivation as an intermediate g-reen crop. White mustard following- tares, either to be fed off by sheep or ploug'hed in as a green manure may answer very well. It is said to be an antidote to wireworm. It is a very useful crop to g-row upon heavy hand fallow (unfit for turnips), sown about midsummer, after the land has received its due culture, and eaten off by sheep in August or September pre- vioTis to laying- up the land for winter. As a g-reen manure, it should be ploughed in before ex- hausting- the land by fallowing-, and all the top ends of the plant should be well turned under the fiu-row, which can only be accomplished by means of a chain, one end being fastened to the " hake" of the plough, and the other to the top of the coulter ; a wooden clog- being- in the centre of the chain to keep it down, and drag-g-ed along- the bottom of the furrow, by the motion of the ploug-h, just before the succeed- ing- furrow falls upon it. Jour, of the R. A. S. E., vol. vii. part 1. u 2 292 RUSSIAN BEAN. Note on White Mustard apjjended to the above. By Ph. Pusey, Esa. Mustavd is certainly not in g'eneral a dang-erous food for slieep; but ns one instance of serious injury has occurred from its use in my own neig'libourliood, it is rig'lit that the circumstances of that injury should be known, in order to prevent the recurrence of a similar loss. They are stated as follows, in a letter from Mr. Williams of Buckland : — " I am sorry to say I have had a loss with my sheep from eating' mustard ; but I consider it purely accidental. My son had sown about 8 acres; in six weeks it was fit for the sheep ; we did not begin it, however, until the end of about nine weeks. For the first four da3\s the sheep ate it well ; and wishing" to consume it as quick as we could, to plough, the land ibr wheat, my shepherd, seeing the sheep do well, ventured to give them double the quantity ; the consequence was, tlie whole flock of 20.5 ewes were all of them in a most alarming state when found in the moi'ning — five of them being dead, and most of the others much swollen ; only the five, however, died, and I consider it was entirely from giv- ing them so much. After a few days, we ventured the same sheep upon the rest, and finally they finished it without any failure. Art. LXV.— RUSSIAN BEAN. By Mr. Hev.'itt Daais. This bean, which I believe originally came from Eussia, greatlv resembles the Heligoland, and is becoming generally known as the Russian or winter bean. Its capabilities to stand our winters in tlie south, when sown in September and early in October, I have fully tested, having grown it every year the last sixteen or seventeen years, and never saw it hurt except on springy land, or when it has been later sown. I think it a most valuable introduction for loamy soils; the advantages from growing it are, that it does well on soils un- suited for spring beans, aifords an excellent alterative crop and HARVESTING CARROTS. 293 seed-bed for turnips ; it harvests early (mine tliis year were cut early in July) and admirably, and, at little cost, enables the g-roimd to be prepared for wheat, and, when well sown, that is to say, drilled wide and kept perfectly clean by the frequent use of the scarifier and hand-hoe, admits of foul land being- cleaned at little cost, and without the loss of a crop of corn. I have finer crops of turni])s upon 25 acres that were sown among* my beans, at a cost of only 7s. or 8.?. an acre, than are generally to be seen this j-ear with high manuring- and a fallow, t shall this week put nearly 600 sheep on them, and they will last them nearly two mouths ; and yet, after crops giving 4 to 5 quarters of beans per acre, or more — and one of the fields was a piece of old sainfoin, that had lain as waste for many years, full of weeds, and in every respect appeared unsuited for the growth of corn ; this piece, which lies on the Haling- farm, adjoining- Croydon, was broken up last September, and sown with beans in October, is now covered with a good crop of turnips, and will be sown with wheat this autumn. This bean, for its early flowering- and setting-, appears never to suffer from the dolphin, or, indeed, from spring drought, of which the crop this year is a remarkable instance. They have proved fine crops without excejition, yet generally spring- beans have been almost a total failure. Agricultural Gazette, Sept. 12, 1846. Art. LXVI.— harvesting CARROTS. By the Editor of the " Agricultural Gazette." The harvesting- of root-crops is best done by piece-AVork. The harvesting- of a good crop of carrots has hitherto cost us fi'om 17s. to 25,9. ])er acre — that of Swedes and mangel- ■vvurzel, from Qs. to lO.s. For this sum, the contractor pulls the roots, cuts oft' the leaves, fills the roots into carts, and g-athers and loads the leaves also. In the operation of harvesting- carrots, the spade is re- quired ; it is pressed into the ground, and used as a lever by the right hand, while, by the left, the root is pulled up. Each man lifts two rows as he })rocecds, and four men form- ing- a company, eight rows are thus pulled and laid regularly 294 HARVESTING CARROTS. on the ground in two lines. Two women can top tlie roots, i. e. cut the leaves otF them, as fast as this nimiber of men can pull them ; and, leaving- the roots in a central row, they throw the leaves into two lateral ones, as they })roceed. The carts, the number of which, varying- according" to the dis- tance from the heaps, must be such as will convey the roots olf the land as fast as they are ready, following- close upon the cutters ; a man and a boy will be able, under ordinary cir- cumstances, to fill both roots and leaves into them as fast as those already mentioned can prepare them ; and another man and boy will be able to pile the roots up in the heaps, and thatch and finish them off as they proceed. We mention all these details, because it is all-important to the speed and economy of the operation that the forces emj)loyed in the different parts of it should be rightly proportioned to each other. The leaves, if they be already withered, may either be left on the ground and ploug-hed under, or, as on land already rich enoug-h for grain crops, they may be carried away to the fold-yard and trod down by the cattle. When they are still green, they may be used as fodder. As long as leaves are green, they remain useful in the growth of the plant. The only reason wh}' we should harvest our carrot-crop be- fore the roots have stopped growing, is their extreme sensi- tiveness to frost. This is so great, that it is of the greatest importance to secure, before night, all the roots pidled during each day ; if they get frozen, though it be merely on the surface, it will be almost impossible to preserve them through the winter. We have but one more remark to make, and that is on the fact that rottenness, when it is owing to any external cause, always commences at any cut or bruised portion of the surface. It thus becomes of importance that the surface of the roots should be cut or abraded as little as possible. The root-fibres should not be cut off at all, and the leaves should be cut off so far from the crown of the root, as that they may fall separated from one another. So far as our experience has hitherto gone, if these points be carefully attended to, and if such a plan of harvesting be adopted as fulfils the three requisites of success before alluded to, there is but little risk of the farmer losing much of his crop, by heating- or putrefaction, before the spring. Agricultural Gazette, Oct. 17, 1846. TO PRESERVE THE SWEDISH TURNIP. 295 Art. LXVIL— to PRESERVE THE SWEDISH TURNIP. By Mr. Charles Allix. Having read and tried every method, I believe, that has been suggested as to the management of the Swedish turnip when taken up previous to the winter, I have never been quite satisfied, as, whether they were placed with a good deal of trouble and labour in long piles, and covered with straw, or straw and earth, or in round heaps and covered with earth, or between wattled hurdles, or topped and tailed and deposited in a furrow made by a double mould-board plough, and covered by the common plough, there have always been too many rotten to satisfy me. If deposited in a barn or building, it might answer xevj possibly, as in the case of mangel-wurzel, which I have for several years managed in this manner. I do not remember ever having had a single rotten one. But for Swedes, it would be almost impossible to store any great quantity, so much room would be required — as, for instance, for only ten acres. However, this year I tried a plan that does appear to answer, very sim]3le and very cheap ; but only having tried it one year, and that year a remarkable one for its mildness, I will not speak positively, and shall be happy to hear any remarks xqjon the ])lan, or any improvements suggested by brother farmers. The plan is this : — In December, or when you please, with the horse-hoe, only one of the side knives being on, and that knife reversed, you will be able to cut all the tap-roots, and scarcely disturb a turnip in the row^s. This alone is of use in the spring, even if you do not wish, to do more, as it will very much prevent the turnips running to seed, and of course the tap-roots from drawing the ground. I tried two rows at a time, both knives on ; but my man found it almost im])ossible to hold the instrument sufiiciently steady, and the turnips were consequently disturbed in the rows. The tap-roots having been cut, I then pass the double plough up the centre between every six rows, and let the turnijjs (which pull iq), the tap-root being cut, as easily as possible) to one of my labourers at Cs. GcL an acre, at which, he finding two children, probably his own, he will make good wages, the average wages in this country being 2^. a day for a man. A child on each side of him hands the 296 CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. turnips to him, and lie ])]aces them in the fiiiTow made by tlie plough. One ploug'hing- then with the common plough completes the business, by turning- the earth to the turnips and covering- them to the necks ; if not quite so neat as you wish, a man with a hoe will quickl}' and easily make it perfect. By this means, I believe the plants will resist almost any frost, will be ready when wanted, cannot draw the g-round, and scarcely a turnip will be rotten. Journal of ike R. A. S. E., vol. vii. part 1. Art. LXVIIL— cultivation OF WHEAT. By the Editor of the "Agricultural Gazette." Wheat -sovt^iNG has doubtless commenced more than a month ago in the bleaker parts of the country ; whilst in others the autumn seed-time will not be over for a couple of months to come. There are several points connected with the practice, on which the widest difference of opinion exists. Among these is the propriety of growing it after corn crops, which, as the ordinary rule in farming, we cannot but deny ; the propriety of making this the crop in the rotation to which farm-manure is chiefly ajtplied, which we very much doubt ; and the propriety of using much or little seed per acre, which necessarily depends upon the circumstances imder which the crop is grown. In reference to the first of these, as experience has already suificiently indicated, the necessity, as a general rule, of growing corn crops, or crops for sale, alternately with green crops, or crops for consump- tion on the land, there is but little need to appeal to the theory of the matter. It is sufficient to say, that, under any circumstances, the sale of ]n-oduce, and especially where it is in the concentrated form of grain, is necessarily an injury to the land, which, until we better know how to replace its loss, should not be permitted oftener than once in two years. The interval permits the operation of fallowing, with the growth of a fallow crop, and thus enables us to clean the land and to restore its fertility. As regards the second point above mentioned, it is only necessary to say, that where this alternate system of hus- bandry prevails, the bulky, crude, and coarse manures so CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. 297 rich in carbonaceous matter, wbicli the farm-yard supphes, are certainly better made use of for the growth of a larg'e bulky crop, such as turnips or mang-el-vvurzel, than for the growth of wheat, where the chief object is not straw, but g-rnin. This, we are sure, will be agreed to by all except those whose soils, by the repeated robbery to which we have above alluded, are always at the lowest pitch of poverty. In reference to the question of seed, it is impossible to give any rule upon a subject which is so manifestly dependent on circumstances. All will agree that a certain loss of seed occurs every year from destruction by birds, water, and frost, wire-worm, &c. ; and it will also be agreed that these causes must be much more influential in some localities than in others ; add to this the fact that some soils will cause a seed to throw out twenty heads, while others fail of producing- five ; and we can easily see how it is that some farmers, speaking from experience, recommend 3 bushels per acre, whilst others, on equally imanswerable grounds, have asserted 3 pecks to be more than enough. Our general practice is to sow about 1 ^ bushels per acre, drilled in rows 9 inches apart ; but we have grown the crop from less than 2 pecks per acre with very fair results. It is obviously of importance that each should in this matter determine for himself what, under his circumstances, it is best to do ; for^ while the evils of thick sowing involve a serious waste of valuable food, those of fhiib (using the term as being on the other side of what is right) equally tend to our loss by inducing a late harvest, a tendency to mildew, not to speak of a want of plant. As regards the preparation of the land for this crop, the wheat plant likes a firm seed-bed ; it prefers a stitf soil, and is tlius best sown on a stale furrow when the land is wettish, and it should be sown by drill or dibble, not broadcast. As regards the choice of varieties, this doxdjtless must be left to circumstances, and our advertising columns publish many sorts of unquestionable abmidance, as well as quality of produce ; but wheats difter in their straw, as well as in their grain, and this should have some influence on our choice. Short-strawed wheats should be chosen for rich soils. Agrlctdtural Gazette, Oct. 10, 184G. 298 PREMATURE DECAY IN WHEAT. Art. LXIX.— premature DECAY IN WHEAT. [In reply to an inquiry in the Agricultural Gazette, as to the cause of wheat dying away prematurely, Mr. Hewitt Davis offers the following facts, having come within his own observation, as proving to him that lands wiU not bear a very frequent repetition of wheat — he observes : — ] Prior to my occvipying* the Spring- Park farm, it was farmed by the wealthy and intelHg-ent owner, and, from want of drainage and trenching-, was then iinsuited to the g'rowth of clover or beans, and he confined his cropping- to roots, oats, rye-g-rass and trefoil, or tares and wheat, fre- quently taking- wheat after the roots. He purchased man- ure largely, and besides, used on the arable land the dung- from a larg-e racing- and hunting- stud, and from 30 to 40 brood mares, so that the winter g-rowth of his wheat was always luxuriant : but I noticed that soon after the wheat was in ear it became scrawled or root-fallen, and was laid by wind or lig-ht showers ; the ears filled imperfectly, and the appearances were as described by you. For some time this was ascribed to causes — such as the want of lime, the consequence of spring-hoeing-, the heavy rolling', and the like ; but since I have chang-ed the course of cropping, that is, have introduced beans or peas, and red clover into the rotation, I have not suifered; my wheat stands perfect. I do not hesitate to ascribe the evil to want of streng-th in the straws from too frequent repetition in the crop ; and had I had any doubt before this summer, which I had not, I should have none now ; for a field of wheat of mine this year, on part of which wheat had been taken two years ago, showed the consequence of repeating- this crop too often. Where the wheat was two years ag'o the crop went off, whilst the remainder stood till harvest. In my inspection of land, I frequently find districts where the wheat is more liable to be laid, and I fancy I even trace this evil to the injudicious cropping- then adopted; for it too often occurs that this crop is erroneously considered the only paying- one, and that its frequent return is desirable ; and hence it is taken till the return diminishes, and more is lost by this dependence upon wheat than is imagined. Agricultural Gazette, Aug. 29, 1846, ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FLAX. 299 Art. LXX.— on THE CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FLAX. By Mr. Glover. I SHALL now proceed to describe tlie plant, the soils best adaj)ted to its g-rowtli, and the manag'ement of the crop. Flax belongs to the genus Linum, of which there are several species ; the most important and the only one that is culti- vated is L'lmim usitatlssimum — common flax. Root annual, fibrous; stalks uprig-ht, 2 or 3 feet high or more, round, smooth, leafy, branching- only at the top ; leaves lanceolate, sessile, at the lower part of the stem g-rowing thickly tog-ether, without any order, on the upper part of the stem more distant and alternate ; flowers larg-e, of a delicate pur- plish-blue colour; petals fine, wedg'e shaped, deciduous, streaked with veins of a deeper colour, the tips notched as if eaten by insects, the claws white. According- to the ana- h'sis of Leo Mayer, the seed contains 11-265 of fixed oil, 0-140 of wax, 2*488 of soft resin, 0*550 of resinous colouring- matter, 0*926 of a yellow matter analog-ous to tannin, 1*48 of amidine, 6*154 of gum, 15*12 of veg*etable mucilag'e, 2*921 of g-luten, 2*712 of albumen, 10*884 of sweet extrac- tive, 44*383 of husks containing- mucilag-e. Although the soils best adapted to the g-rowth of flax are deep and friable loams, and such as contain a larg-e proportion of vegetable matter in their compositions, yet it is g•ro^v^l in inferior soils in Belgium and Holland, rendered rich b}' manui-e, and upon mere bog-s in Ireland. In truth, the plant will floui'ish upon most soils not absolutely barren. The diseases of flax are few, consisting- chiefly of the mildew and the rust. The young- plants are sometimes attacked by the fly, but these casualties rai-ely occur in this country. With respect to the management of flax, I shall be able to state more clearly by taking- each part under a separate head. Botation. — The place for flax in the rotation is after lea or corn crop, and as soon as possible after the land has been broken up from grass ; it will therefore succeed, with pro- priety, oats or wheat after lea, and this may be regarded as the proper place for flax in the rotation. It should not by any means come after turnips or potatoes, as the fibre would be invariably coarse, and the stalks uneven, from the manure not being- properly incorporated with the soil. It must not 300 ON THE CULTIVATION AND be cultivated on land wliicli lias been recently limed, cer- tainly not sooner than the third or fourth year. Prejjaratlon. — In jireparing- the land for flax, the objects to be attained are the reduction of the soil to a fine tilth, and the thorough eradication of weeds. The pre]iaration of the land for this crop is even of more importance than the quality of the soil itself The land should receive a deep ploughing- in the autumn, as soon as the previous crop is removed off the land, as this ploughing- facilitates the after pulverization of the soil in the spring. In this state it remains during the winter; and as early in the spring as the state of the soil will admit of the action of the implements of tillage, its fur- ther preparation is to be resumed with a good harrowing, to reduce partially the furrow slices which have stood the winter. After this another ploughing is to be given in a direction crossing the preceding one, after which the har- rowing is to be repeated, and continued as long as it is found to have a beneficial influence in pulverizing the soil. Such weeds as have been brought to the surface by the action of the harrows are then collected over the surftxce^ and removed from the field, as well as all large stones, v/hich in most soils are also disengaged b}' the action of the har- rows. In favourable cases, and in rich and easily-pulverized soils, this preparation may be sufiicient ; but in most cases another ploughing* and harrowing will be requisite. The action of the clod-crusher will be a necessary auxiliary to that of the harrows, especially on adhesive soils, the lumps of which, in dry weather, will resist the action of the har- rows alone. Son-imj. — The best seed time is during the latter part of March and beginning of April, the precise period being re- gulated by the weather and consequent state of the land. Plax-seed that is proper for sowing should be fresh, smooth, plump, and so heavy as to sink in water; it should taste sweet, and on being broken it should appear of a bright yellowish-green colour, and oily. The quantity of seed sown is from 6 to 9 pecks, or 3 bushels per acre, or even more when particularly fine flax is requii-ed.. It is better, perhaps, where fibre is the primary object, to sow too thick than too thin; as, with thick sowing, the stem grows tall and straight, with only one or two seed capsules at the top, and the fibre is found greatly superior in fineness and length to that produced from thin-sown flax, which grows coarse, and branches out, producing much seed, but an inferior MANAGEMENT OF FLAX. 801 quality of flax. After sowing', cover it with a seed harrow, g-oing" twice over it, and once across, or anglewise. This makes it more equally spread, and prevents the deep creases g-enerall}' made by the teeth of the harrows. Wccduui — Commences when the weeds can be readily distinguished among'st the plants, or about the third week. In this country it is usually performed in the same manner as the weeding- of corn. PuUhig. — The best criterion is, when about two-thirds of stalks are observed to turn yellow, and to lose their leaves ; and also when, by cutting' the seed-pod across horizontally, the seeds have chang'ed from the white milky substance Avhich they first show, to a pale brown colour, and are pretty firm. In pulling', take the plant close below the bolls ; this allows the shortest of the plants to escape : with the next handful, the puller draws the short plant, and so keeps the short and long- each b}^ itself, to be steeped separately. This should be particularly attended to, as it enhances the value to the spinner, and consequently to the grower, who will be amply repaid for his trouble. As soon as pulled, the flax is stocked without binding'. The handfids are set iq), resting' against each other, and the top ends joining- like the letter A, forming" stooks about 8 feet long-, a strap keeping- the ends firm. In this way it will resist wind and rain, and dry quicklj'. In six or eight days it may be bound into sheaves with wheat-straw bands, and stacked j the seed may be taken ofl' at leisure ; the mode of taking the seed is by repeated strokes of a beater, the foot being at the same time kept on the root end of the flax, to prevent it from being turned about, which would impede the after process in its manufacture. Stcepbuj. — It is the practice of some to steep as soon as the flax has been dried in the field. A great disadvantage in treating flax in the autnmn is the difficulty in many cases of ])reserving the seed after rippling. The system now ad- vocated is, that flax should be steej)ed the following May; a system which possesses the advantage of aflbrding the farmer the best season of the year for stee})ing and grassing ; and at a time of com])arative leisure, when his attention is not called oft' the harvesting- of other important crops. The object of causing the flax to undergo this process is to facilitate the separation of the fibre from the stem, during which the mucilaginous matters, causing- the fibres to adhere to it, par- tially undergo the putrefactive fermentation. The water for 302 ON THE CULTIVATION AND this purpose sliould be soft, pure from all mineral substances, clean, and clear. The sheaves of flax are put into a frame made of common poles, something- like a larg-e earthenware crate, with the root end uppermost. The whole is immersed in the water ; a covering- of straw, to shade ofl' the light, is found to be advantageous. When covered over in this man- ner, stones are placed upon the frame, till the whole is sunk a little under tlie surface of the water. The bottom should not touch the ground, so as to allow the water to flow over and under it. A gentle stream should, if possible, always pass over the pond ; it carries ofl" impurities, and does not at all impede due fermentation ; it is essential to produce flax of g-ood colour ; flood and all impure waters should be carefully kept ofi^. The test for knowing- when the flax is sufficiently watered is this : — Try some stalks of an average fineness, break the woody part in two places, about three inches apart, at the middle of the length ; catch the wood at the lower end, and if it will pull out (downwards) for those three inches freely, without breaking' or tearing- the fibre, it is ready to take out. This trial should be made every day, after fer- mentation subsides, for sometimes the change is rapid. It is safer to steep it too short a period, than ever so little too long. In the first case, merely a little more time is required in the future processes ; in the second, the strength and texture of the fibres may be injured. When the flax is sufficiently watered, it is taken out of the pond, and placed on the banks to drain for a few hours. Spreading. — Short and close pasture land is the proper place on which to spread the flax, and in this operation it is important to distribute it evenly over the surface, and to make the rows perfectl}' straight, to prevent confusion in tui-ning. The intention of this process is to wash and bleach the flax by exposure to the sun and rain. After remaining two, three, or four days, according to circumstances, it is turned over by long poles or wattles, run under the rows , beginning witlx the first row, and proceeding, so that the second falls upon the ground occupied by the first. The length of time during- which flax should remain on the grass is variable, depending- on the weather and state of the flax. If possible, it ought not to lie longer than five days. Breahwg. — The flax is bruised by an instrument called a break; which consists of two frames fixed together at one end by a hinge, and works the one into the other ; or by passing- it through a breaking machine, which consists of MANAGEMENT OF FLAX, 303 four pair of fluted rollers, placed upon a frame of wood. Tliroug-li the flutes of the rollers, which revolve into each other, the flax is passed in small handfuls. In this manner the flax is bruised, and put into a state to have the lig-neous refxise separated from the fibrous part by scutching-. Scutching. — This operation may be performed either by machinery or by manual labour. When performed by manual labour, a handfiil of the flax is held by one hand in the open- ing- of the scutching- board, and beaten by an implement called a swing-le, held in the other hand, by the repeated strokes of which the woody particles of the stem are sepa- rated from the fibre. Or the operation of scutching- may be performed by a machine called a scutching- mill. It resem- bles a small caravan ; in the interior are three recesses, formed for the men to stand in while at work, and for their protection from the action of the swing-les, which being placed in an iron axle, and set in motion, would, if necessary, strike the flax resting- on the scutching- boards at the rate of about twelve hundred times in a minute. The scutching- mill and breaking- machine were the invention of Mr. Warnes. The Plough, Dec. 1846. Art. LXXI.— ox THE CULTIVATION OF FLAX. By the Editor of the " Farmer's Almanac." The cultivation of the finer varieties of flax in Eng-land has been lately proposed, as not only causing- ver}^ considerable extra demand for labour, but as being- productive of consider- able profit to the g'rower. It is, ]>erhaps, through the error of regarding- flax as being- so very exhausting- a crop that its cul- tivation has been retarded in England. It is supposed not to exhaust the soil more than a crop of wheat j and even this exhaustion is avoided if it is pulled green for the purpose of spinning- into yarn, without allowing the seeds to ripen. " It is grown," remarks Mr. G. Nicholls, " on light poor land, in Bels'ium and in Holland ; and I have seen it a-rowino" on mere 304 ON THE CULTIVATION OF FLAX. bog- in Ireland." ' — " The soi]," adds Mr. Sprovde, "to which the cultivators of flax in Flanders and the northern ])arts of France give the preference, is strong- loamy land. Strong' clays do not answer well, nor soils of a g-ravelly or dry sandy nature. The climate of Ireland, from its humidity, is well calculated for the growth of flax. Flax, it seems, follows a crop of oats or wheat after a lea, and should not be sown oftener than once in seven years. A fine and deep tilth is very desirable." ^ The seed is sov/n during- April, broadcast, about 2y bushels per acre, and the best comes from Holland or America. The seeds are excellent as an article of food for cattle, and should be consumed on the farm.^ Mr. J. Barker, of Ramsay, says, " I am now feeding- fourteen horses and colts with straw and hay com})Ound. My plan is, to add to 8 bushels of cut hay and 8 bushels of wheat, 28 lb. of crushed linseed boiled in 18 pails of water. This I g-ive at nig-ht. In addition, each horse has one pint of pea- meal per day, and 1 cwt. of straw per week." ■* The expense per acre of flax-gTowing- in Ireland is, it appears, ^ £ s. d. Rent and taxes 2 5 2} bushels of seed 1 10 Ploughing and sowing 10 Weeding, twelve hands at 8 J 8 Pulling, twelve hands at 1« 12 Watering, seven hands at Is 7 Scutching, 70 stone at lOd 2 18 4 Lifting, &c. Sec, ten hands at Is 10 Carting to mill and market at Gs. 2(7. per ton. ... 19 8 £10 The ordinary produce on the continent is said to be from 201. to 30/. per acre ; and much larg-er crops than these have, on rare occasions, been obtained. According- to Dr. Kane,^ 100 parts of the dried stem of the flax plant is composed of — Carbon 38-72 Hydrogen 7-33 Oxygen 48-39 Nitrogen -50 Ashes 5* ' Jonr. R. A. S., vol. v. p. 549. ^ On Flax, p. 9. ^ Aqricultural Gazette, vol. i. p. 754. " Ibid. p. 789. * Ibid. p. 124. ^ Sproule on Flax, p. 38. GROWING FLAX ON NEV»^LY BROKEN UP GRASS LAND, 305 In 100 parts of these ashes he found — Potash 9-78 Soda 9-82 Lime 12-33 Magnesia /■79 Alumina 608 Silica 21-35 Phosphoric acid i0-84 Sulphuric acid 2-(i5 Chloriue 2-41 Carbonic acid 16-95 Analysis of three varieties of linseed-cake, by Gyde : — ^ No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Water 18- 13- -15 Fat 12-4 10-5 -8 Organic matter exclusive of fat 63- 69-5 -/I Ash 66 7' '6 Farmer'' s Almanac. Art. LXXII.— growing FLAX ON NEWLY BROKEN UP GRASS LAND. From an Essay on the Advantages or Disadvantages of Breaking up Grass Land. By Mr. Thomas Rowlaxdson, Liverpool. The course here recommended for breaking- up old leas is difi'erent from that usually pursued, oats or wheat being* generally taken : the most common course is to take a crop of oats. I am averse to both \ oats, on account of the crop being" of so little value, whilst it is extremely exhausting; wheat, because it is particularly obnoxious to the wire-worm on lea land, and in other respects is objectionable. It may appear strange to recommend rape and potatoes for the pur- pose, but I can assure the reader that it is the usual course pursued in the best potato-growing districts in Lancashire and Cheshire, and is the almost universal practice in Ireland, excellent crops being obtained in this way \ rape also grows well on lea. But I do not deem down-land adapted to rape; I should on such recommend potatoes to be taken. There is ' Agricultural Gazette, vol. ii. p. 549. X 306 GROWING FLAX ON NEWLY BROKEN UP GRASS LAND. one crop better tlian all others adapted for lea, provided it is in fertile condition, viz., flax, wliicli on down-land that "would bring- 4 quarters of vvheat when broken up from the lea, would yield a crop of liax worth 30/., the charges on which, including" rent and taxes, at 30s. per acre, Avould Timount to about 13/. 10s., of which sum 11/. 10.?. would be expended in labour. The growth of flax ought to be en- couraged above all other descriptions of agricxdtural produce. As it cannot be profitably grown unless the ground is in g'ood condition, both as regards cleanliness and heart, many landlords have prohibited its growth, under the impression that it is a highly impoverishing crop; j^et it is not so impoverishing a crop as wheat, even if allowed to stand for seed ; and if pulled in the white is the least impoverishing- crop that is sold ofl:" the flirm. The water in Avhich flax is retted should always be thrown on meadow or pasture land. There is a singular circumstance that peculiarly'- fits flax for cultivation on weak sods, such as downs and sandy soils, viz., that a crop of 38 stones is often more valuable than one of 70 stones; indeed, poor soils, with care and attention, will 3^ield quite as good a return from the sale of flax fibre as richer lands, but poor soils will not bear its being- so fre- quently grown. I shall, on the subject of flax, again quote Mr. Walkden, with which quotation I shall nearly conclude the subject : — " I beg to give you another instance of down-land of a stronger and better description, being brought into the northern system of cultivation by Mr. Erough, of Shaw Farm, near Marlborough. He has boned his land to a very considerable extent; and his turnips thus manag-ed have invariably been a great crop. It is his opinion, that were the system of two corn crops in succession, and of mowing- the seeds for hay instead of pasturing- with sheep, done away Vv-ith, the land would become more certain for turnips, parti- cularly Swedes, than in the north. He has also grow^n lin- seed with success, for which he considers the lightest of the fJon-ns particularly adapted. He thus obtains a substitute for oil-cake — the carriage on which from London renders it very dear. Linseed is sown instead of barley or oats in spring. He has brought into cultivation the whole of his clown pastures, and is enabled, by artificial grasses, to keep more sheep in summer, and much better than in its original state. But his greatest advantage is in the winter ; a good turnip system, instead of hay, enabling him to provide food ON FLAX, ITS VALUE, ETC. 307 for many more sheep at a far less cost, as well as keeping them in a much hig'her state of condition. In short, the farm will bear comparison with the rich lands of the neigh- bourhood considered of twice the value." When a iiax crop is to be taken, the following- course may be recommended : — Flax on the lea ; if pulled in the white, a crop of turnips taken the same year, fed oif, followed by potatoes (if left for seed, wheat next); wheat after potatoes; clover, hay, pasture, potatoes, tares, and rape, and pasture seeds. In this course, as well as all those preceding-ly related, ])otatoes can be replaced by Swedes if desirable. Journal of Agriculture, Oct. 1846. Art. LXXIII.— ox FLAX, ITS VALUE AS A STOCK-FEEDING AND REMUNERATIVE CROP. By ]Mr. Thomas Dixox, Agricultural Engineer. [At the December meeting of the Darlington Farmers' Club, Mr. Dixon spoke on the subject of " the quantity and kind of stock that can be kept upon a clay-soil farm, half arable and half grass, compared with when it is nearly all arable.'' He impressed upon the meeting that the greater the number of cattle fed and kept upon a farm, the greater the profit that farm is likely to yield ; he enforced the necessity of proper drainage and efficient cultivation; he reminded them that, on a former occasion, they had come to a resolution that it was more economical to keep all heavy cattle in the house upon green cut food during summer, than to turn them out upon the pastures, and that by doing so a greater number of cattle could be kept with advantage. From all these premises, he considered it quite evident that a farm nearly all in tillage could carry a much greater number of cattle to advantage than a farm half arable and half grass would do. He then proceeded to the consideration of the value of linseed as food for stock.] Old ])rejudices are fast wearing- away, and therefore you will not be surprised when I tell you, that if I live a few years long-er, I expect to see linseed used as a general ingre- dient for feeding cattle on almost every farm ; and not only this, but I also expect to see ever}^ farmer grow his own lin- seed for that purpose. It is true tliat flax has from time immemorial been condemned as a scoiirging and injurious crop to produce on a farm, and therefore it has been in many farm leases and agreements prohibited from being grown ; X 2 308 ON FLAX, ITS VALUE AS but for all this, I very mncli donbt if it is a more exhausting' crop than several others that are g-rown ; and the principal reason of its being- thought a scourging- crop has, I believe, arisen from an improper course of cro[)ping- having- been pur- sued, and thereby the fertility of the land in some cases injured ; whereas the g-reat art in following- out a proper course or rotation of cropping-, is to adopt such a scheme, that no particular crop may follow another which has already extracted from the soil a great portion of the principal ingredients required for the succeeding- crop, without first adding- to that land such a description of manure as will remedy the defect. I may here also be allowed to name that at another of our past discussions I was deputed to introduce a subject, which was " The comparative advan- tages and profitable cultivation of old grass land as compared with arable land of similar quality." I then showed that it required, at the very least, two acres of good grass land to keep a fattening- beast for a year ; and I now wish to show, as clearly as I am convinced myself, that less than an acre and a half of medium tillage-land, by adopting a proper system, will do the same thing, and also will feed the cattle much faster than the old method. There are already some gentlemen, not far distant from our immediate locality, who are using considerable quantities of linseed, as steamed food, along- with meal, cut straw, and turnips, for winter feeding-, and I believe also with very good effect ; and I think the probability is that, to some extent at least, it will be also applied by the same parties to summer feeding, along with green cut food. There is one gentleman in particular whom I may name, John Hutton, Esq., of Sowber Hill, who has adopted this system, and who very kindly invited our chair- man, along- with Mr. Johnston and myselfj to go to his place, and see the whole process of preparing the food, and the way in which the stock seemed to thrive upon it. We availed ourselves of his kindness, and by that means obtained a treat of no common order, when he gave us in detail all the diffe- rent items of expense that he was at in the preparation of the food ; and during the few hours that we spent at Sowber Hill, we were three different times amongst the cattle, and each time found them Ij'ing down resting; in fact, their quiet appearance and healthy thriving- condition were such, that we felt perfectly satisfied that they were feeding in a very superior manner; whilst Mr. Hutton quite con- vinced us that by using- the steamed food along with turnips, A STOCK-FEEDING CROP. 309 he could feed at least twice tlie number of beasts with the same quantity of turni[)s that he formerly did, and that in a much less time than was required when the steamed food was not used along- with the turnips. He was also convinced that it was with ef|ual, if not greater, profit to himself. Now, in order to give you a clear view of my own ideas on this matter, it will be requisite to g"o a little into detail, to show what may be done by gTowing- such produce upon a farm as is requisite for cattle-feeding-, viz., corn, linseed, and turni{)s; also rape, tares, clover, and rye-grass. Now, an acre and a quarter of land will g-row 208 stones of corn ; another acre and a quarter will produce 90 stones of linseed ; and upon three-quarters of an acre you may grow 14 tons of turnips. Now these quantities, the corn being- ground into meal, the linseed steamed, and both mixed as required with a sufficient quantity of cut straw, will, with the addition of the 14 tons of turnips, be ample for feeding- four beasts during- the whole of the twenty-sis weeks of the wdnter half-year. This would be at the rate of two feeds of the compound, and two feeds of turnips, in each day. Then, for the summer half-year, I am pretty certain that it would be a considerable advantage to give one feed of compound per day, along- with mown clover, tares, or rape ; and by this me-ans five-eighths of an acre of corn, five-eig-hths of an acre of linseed, with one and a half acres of rajie, tares, and clover, would be suf- ficient to feed four beasts throug-h the twenty-six weeks of the summer half-year : thus the quantity of laud required to feed four full-g-rown beasts for a year, is six acres. But I must now^ tell you, that the whole of the j)roduce of the six acres •would not be required ; for you will recollect that in this calcination I named above an acre and three-quarters of lin- seed. Now, if the fibre on this acre and three-qiiarters and twenty perches of flax be rough-dressed for the market, it will yield a profit of about 127. 10.'^., independent of the lin- seed used for the cattle-feeding-; and therefore, this being- the case, if we reckon five acres we shall be much nearer the truth. Now, g-entlemen, if it be found by experience that flax is a more remunerative and profitable crop than most others, I do not see why it should not be grown under proper manag-ement, when it is also seen that the seed is so valuable in the feeding- of cattle ; besides which, it is now well known that the manure produced by linseed-feeding- is much more valuable than that produced by ordinary stall feed; but 310 ON FLAX, ITS VALUE AS tlie most profitable part of the crop is the fibre of the flax. I have taken some pains in endeavouring- to ascertain the expenses of rearing- and preparing- a crop of flax ; and I find that the profits thereon are generally m\;ch greater than upon ordinary crops of corn ; and, from the information I liave g-ot, I am led to believe that 40 stones per acre is certainly not above an average crop, but which, without reckoning- anything for the seed produced, would yield a profit of about 71. per acre. The expenses of cultivating an acre of flax, and preparing- it for sale, will be about as follows : — £ s. d. To rent of one acre of land 1 10 To rates and taxes 10 To ploughing, harrowing, &c 1 5 To seed, 2i bushels 1 10 To weeding 12 To pulling 12 To saving and dressing seed 10 To watering and grassing 1 5 To carting home 10 To scutching 40 stones 2 Total expenses per acre ^£"10 4 By 40 stones of flax, at 7.9 £14 By 18 bushels of seed, at 7* 6 Total produce per acre £20 G Deduct expenses, as above 10 4 Profit per acre £10 2 I must beg of you, gentlemen, to pardon me for thus di- gressing from the question at issue ; but I have done so to show that it is desirable that each farm should produce its own linseed for feeding, and that it is profitable to do so ; and also to show that it would not be fair to take the whole six acres, which I have before named, into account for the feeding of four beasts for twelve months, but that five acres are sufficient, as follows : — First, for the summer twenty-six weeks, A. R. P. Land to grow corn for meal 2 20 ,, linseed for steaming 2 20 ,f clover, tares, and rape .... 1 2 Total quantity for summer 2 3 A STOCK-FEEDING CROP. 311 Then for tlie winter twenty-six weeks, A. R. P. Land to grow corn for meal 1 1 , , linseed for steaming 1 1 ,, turnips 3 Total for winter 3 1 Total for summer 2 3 Total for the year G Deduct for the flax ] Quantity of land required 5 Therefore, g-entlemen, tliis shows that five acres of arable land, of medium quality, under proper cultivation, are sufh- cient to feed four full-sized boasts for tv.'elve months : whereas, on a form half arable and half grass, eig"ht acres at least woidd be required to do this ; therefore, this, I think, shows ])retty clearly that a considerable cpiantity more stock may be kept on a farm in which the land is chiefly under the ploug'h. Now, I would not have you to understand that I would confine the system to feeding beasts only, certainly not ; for, if it answer well for fat stock, I do not see why it should not answer well for milch cows and other heavy cattle. A farmer's milch cow, upon ordinary land, g-enerally consumes from an acre and a half to two acres for her summer's keep, and about as much more for winter ; but I have no doubt, if the same cow were fed in the house upon cut-food with a feed ])er day of the compound, that one-half the quantity of land would be ample for the same purpose. Then, if this be so, there can be no doubt but similar results would accrue in nil cases of heavy stock being- fed in the stall instead of in the pasture. From inquiries which I have made, I find that in winter, feeding- with the steam compound, the following- quantity is sufficient for a gTown beast per day : — Linseed < 2 lb. Ground corn 5 Cut straw 10 Turnips 30 This quantity is given in two feeds of the compound, and two feeds of turnij)s; and a little straw is also given at nig'ht. Milch cows and other cattle might have one feed ])er day of this compountl, along' witli their ordinary food. The g-reat advantag-e derived from the use of the compound which I have now partially described, seems to arise in difterent ways. 312 ON FLAX, ITS VALUE, ETC. 1st, From the food being' cut, gTound, and given in a warm state, both mastication and digestion is considerably assisted, and thereby the animals obtain more rest, and consequently fatten in less time. 2nd, By using- the compound a greater number of cattle can be fed, which is a very important matter, more particularly where turnips are not plentiful. 3rd, The manure produced by this method of feeding- is found to be more valuable than by turnip feeding only. Henry Chaytor, Esq., of Clerveaux Castle, said, that if the system of stall or box feeding- cattle were carried out to a g-reater extent than at present, he had no doubt but that it would be beneficial, more particularly if the linseed required for the purpose was cultivated and g-rown upon the farm where it was consumed ; and he had very little doubt but that the system partially detailed by Mr. Dixon, the secre- tary, might be carried out successfully, as well as beneficiall}^; and if the fibre of the flax could be profitably saved and prepared for the manufacturer, which he did not see any reason to doubt, he thought it would be the means of pro- ducing- a g'ood deal of labour in vacant seasons for the wives and families of the labouinng- man, which, he considered^ would be a very good thing. Now, a g-ood deal had been said with regard to flax being" an exhausting- crop, and no doubt it mig-ht be so ; yet he had reason to believe that wheat and some other crops were also exhausters of the land, perhaps as much as flax 5 therefore, in that respect, he fan- cied there were no difficulties but what could be removed by judicious cultivation and a proper course of cropping*. But in discussing- this subject there were so many thing-s which oug-ht to be taken into account, that it was, he thoug-ht, utterly impossible for the present meeting- to come to any correct conclusion; for, although Mr. Dixon had entered pretty larg-ely on the subject, yet there were many points which bore upon the subject that would require explanation : as, for instance, he had not shown how it would answer to stall-feed in summer with g-rass cut from old sward, in com- parison with tares, clover, or rape. He also thought that Mr. Dixon's estimate of the expenses of cultivating- an acre of land and winning- the flax was too hig-h, as was also the value that he put upon ordinary land; yet there was no doubt but the profit would be equal, if not superior, to the profits upon ordinary crops of corn, if at all judiciously managed. Farmer's Magazine, Jan. 1847. ON THE TUSSAC GRASS. 313 Art. LXXIV.— on THE TUSSAC GRASS. By the Governor of the Falkland Islands. [Of this new variety of green food, an interesting account appears in the Journal of the R. A. S. E., in the form of a letter from the Governor of the Falkland Islands to Lord Palmerston. It is described as a plant which loves the sea-spray, the tinest plants growing almost in the water. It grows on peat-bogs, on exposed islands in the Falklands, 800 and 1000 feet above the sea, open to the westerly gales, which are laden with moisture. But it also grows and flourishes in sheltered inland situations. When once it has taken root in any soil, drift-sand blowing over it, amongst it, and almost burying it, does not seem to injure it. As to its propagation, Captain Moody writes, — ] In tlie g-arden I was so successful witli tlie plants from seed, that I proceeded to transplant suckers from the wild ones on tlie rocky skore to the rich mould in the garden, and I found them to thrive vig'orouslj. I took suckers from these ag'ain, also from the plants raised by seed, and jjlanted out more rows. Every plant answered admirably. I cut them do^\^l, and they gi-ew more bushy and spread, throwing out fresh suckers. I should soon have filled a paddock with the plants ; but as it was necessary to chang-e the site of the chief town, I had to abandon my g-arden, and begin new and arduous labours, which have occupied the time of all hands too much to spare any for experimental agriculture. In laying- out a piece of ground for tussac grass, the follow- ing circumstances must be borne in mind : — the plant grows in bunches, occupying fi-om 2 to 3, and sometimes even 5 feet in diameter, and the blades of grass, when full gro\\Ti, are 7 or 8 feet long. The roots seem forced up from the ground, and I have been in patches of fine full-grown tussac in which a man on horseback is almost concealed. I should therefore sow the seed in rows 2 feet apart, some in a garden, and some on exposed points of peaty soil, close to the sea, and within reach of the sprav, carefully weeding between the plants as they grow up. When they are 9 inches or a foot high, the suckers might be separated and planted out 3 feet apart in rows. As the plants grow large, every alter- nate row should again be {)lanted out, in order to leave room for a man, cow, or horse, to })ass between the rows without treading down the plants. To raise from seed appears a 314 ON THE TUSSAC GRASS. more uncertain and much slower method than that of plant- ing" out suckers from the finest plants. [A plant so hardy and of such luxuriant g-rowth, should it retain these qualities in this country, cannot fail to prove a most important addition to our agricultural resources. It is g'reen all the year round ; frost does not appear to injure it, nor does snow cover it ; it is a soft, succulent, and highly nutritious grass, extremely relished by all animals — cattle, horses, sheep, and pig's. Cattle and horses fatten upon it in a surprising- manner : they eat the w*hole blade, down to the root, which they relish most : they will eat old dry tussac thatch from oft' the roofs of houses. In the autumn of 1845, the Governor caused a g-overnment herd, consisting' of 800 head of cattle, and about 60 or 70 horses, to be placed, for the winter months, on an island having- an area of, as nearly as possible, 800 acres — about 400 were covered with tussac g-rass — the remainder thinly covered with coarse wing--g-rass and rush, a very Avretched piece of pasture-land, aftbrding- scarcely any nutriment. The animals remained on this island nearly six months, with no other nutriment than what it aftbrded. The tussac was eaten down to the roots — by the following- autumn it Avould have entirely recovered. The quantity of the g-rass "injured, by being- trodden down and eaten too close, is incredible; and the horses, from pre- ferring- the root, do more mischief than the cattle."] The plant is of slow g-rowth, and would probably be three years in coming- to perfection, during- which ]ieriod, however, it might be cut annually with advantag-e. When once full g-rown, it spring's up rapidl}' after being- cut down, the blades reaching- their full heig-ht of 7 feet by the end of summer, thoug-h cut down in the spring-. I lve})t u]) a favourite horse in a loose box one winter, and had him fed entirely on tussac, cut for him and g-iven g-reen. He ate it g-reedily, and was always in excellent condition ; but as a general rule, I should consider it soft food for a horse doing- any work. When it is remembered that this invaluable provision of nature thrives luxuriantly where scarcely any other vege- tation wdll exist ; that it is most nutritious, and much relished by cattle, it is impossible to resist feeling the most earnest desire to see it extensively tried in those jiortions of the United Kingdom which in climate and soil bear some resemblance to the Falkland Islands. I might easily expa- tiate on the extreme beauty of its vegetation, covering rocky ON THE TUSSAC GRASS. 315 storm-beaten promontories and small islands witli a dark rick verdure, always reminding- me of tropical luxuriance ; but its im})ortance in a practical jjoint of view is what I am desirous of making- fidly known to your lordship and to all interested in agricultural pursuits. I should wish to send a large quantity of tussac seed to Eng-land eveiy season, but the settlers here are as yet far too few in number and far too busy to spare time to collect it. It appears to me it would be money well laid out if one of our leading- agri- cultural societies were to send here an intellig-ent person to remain the six summer months collecting- seed. He would be absent from Eng-land about a year, and the whole ex]iense would not exceed 300Z. He should bring- either a wooden or iron house, 10 feet scpiare, with a small stove ; three tons of coal, provisions, such as biscuit, pork, coffee, and sugar ; g-unpowder, shot ; warm clothing, bed and blankets ; a fold- ing- table, two stools, and a military canteen. More thing's would be an encumbrance. Dettleff, whom I have men- tioned above to your lordship, usually goes from the settle- ment on foot, and takes only a g-ood dog- and a stick. He is absent about two months, sleeps under a rock, lives on wild g-eese and rabbits, and occasionally a calf, and invariably returns in the best possible health. A person from Engiand mig-ht, however, fix his little residence on a small tussac island close to the settlement, and at present reserved by Government, and in one summer collect such a quantity of seed, with Dettleif's aid, as would more than cover his expenses, to s-ay nothing- of the advantage of having- a g-ood authority at home, that could be referred to at any moment. I have g-iven a close attention to this g-rass for four years ; and tlioug-h at first it may appear a dreamy kind of en- thusiasm, I do not hesitate to say, that, should it be found on trial to succeed in the United Kingdom as well as it does in the exposed portions of the Falkland Islands, it will raise the annual income of many landed proprietors from " hun- dreds" to ''thousands." A. tussac-fed ox is in the finest order here at the end of the winter, though never housed or cared for in any way. In the Falmouth. Packet and Cornish Herald newspaper, of the 23rd August 1845, I have been shown a parag-raph stating- that J. Matheson, of Lewis and Achany, M.P., sent some tussac g-rass seed, procured from the Falkland Islands, to Stornoway, and that Roderick Nicolson, tacksman of Colb, has been ])erfectly successful in raising- g-rass from the seed. I should be g-lad to hear of 316 ON THE TUSSAC GRASS. some of the seed being- sown in the salt-water marshes near Southampton, Dung-eness, Isle of Sheppey, the fens near the "Wash in Lincolnshire, the banks of the Thames, and south shore of Essex round to Plarwich — in short, anywhere near the sea, preferring-, as a general rule, marsh and peat-bogs to sand-hills or downs, although I would always try both. I should also be g'lad to hear of some having- been tried on inland bog's, as the bog- of Allen and "Chatmoss." I have omitted to mention that I would sow the seed very early in the spring-, and not too deep. Journal of the R. A. S. E. vol. vii. part 1. [From the Irish Farmer's Jonrnal, May 20, 1846.] The tussac g-rass seed in its early stage requires g-entle treatment, otherwise the young- plants Avill fail after they have vegetated ; and during- the first year they appear deli- cate and uncertain : at least such is the result of my obser- vations. I do not mean, however, to infer that the plant will not prove sufliciently hardy for oiu' climate ; on the con- trary, I think it abundantly so : but more than one-half of the plants raised here became sickly and dwindled away, with- out any apparent cause that I could perceive, after they were planted out last May. Considering- that this occurred from their being- deprived of saline matter, I had a very weak solu- tion of common salt in water tried on two plants, leaving- the others as they were. This solution was kept fidly six inches from their roots, and did not appear to have any effect. The plants only commenced to g-row fi-eely towards the end of August, when they continued to make considerable pro- gress luitil the middle of November. Being anxious to increase the stock as speedily as possible, and ignorant of the effect our winter would have upon them, I had the strongest plants taken up, divided, and replanted in a glazed frame, where only one out of the eight survived the winter. Three others were lifted with balls of earth, and potted without being disturbed. They continued to grow during- the win- ter, and so did one good plant which was left without any protection in the open border, and which is now the best we have. It is growing vigorously, and will afford good side- shoots for propagating. These grow readil}'', if carefully slipped off, and planted in small pots at this period of the year. I have, therefore, no longer any doubt of the tussac grass being freely introduced within a short period. From ON THE BEST TIME FOR HAY HARVEST. 317 one g-ood plant perliaps forty may be propag-ated in one season, if taken early in tlie year, as tlie oii'sets soon become strong-, and afford young- pl-ants in their turns ; neither have I any reason to doubt its suitableness for inland situations. Mr. George, g-ardener at Clonbrenny, county Meath — who, for intellig-ence and knowledg-e of his profession, is sur|)assed by A'Cry few in his line — informs me that the sing'le plant he raised is now g-rowing- most vigorously, and producing- plenty of young- shoots. He further states that he is cultivating- it in well-manured, rich, loamy soil, mixed with sand. The strong-est plant we have is g-rowing- in peat and sand, where it was weak xmtil I had it well supplied with liquid manure, which it appears to relish, from the g-reat prog-ress it has made within the last four weeks. The leaves are now fully a foot long-, and nearly half an inch broad. The indig-enous g-rass to which the tussac g-rass bears the g-reatest resem- blance is the cock's-foot {Dactylh glome rutii), both in the foliage and manner of gromng- in tufts. I allude to the young' plants as they now appear, which of course will alter very considerably as they advance towards perfection. D. Moore. Roi/al Dublin Society's Botanic Garden, Glasnevin. _^ Art. LXXV.— a FEW HINTS ON THE BEST TIME FOR HAY HARVEST. By O. Whistlecraft, Author of the " Climate of England." Many formers complain that they are never lucky with their hay ; and if they begin to mow between the 22nd and 30th of June, they seldom, indeed, can be fortunate in harvesting- it. The best time, /. e. the safest, is between the 11th and 21st, which, five years out of six, will be fine, and never was a rainy period. Why ? Because it is the lulling- time be- fore the (juarterly storm period ; and hence it is that those who cut after the 21st expose themselves to storm. In the finest summers, a storm will come about June 23rd ; a turn of wind occurs, and a temporary chang-e, on account of its being- one of the four critical positions of the sun and earth ; so that when, in March and September, the sun becomes apparently half way between extremes, or when, in June and 318 ON THE BEST TIME FOR HAY HARVEST. December, its extremes happen uLove and below the equator respectively, it affects the air, and causes a convulsion at those changes ; and in every year we see it more or less at those periods, or a fevf days after. We never had it so g-laring-ly illustrated as of late; to- wit, as follows: — In 1844, after a long- drought, the first rain came on June 24th. In 1845, after the severe winter, rain and wind first came March 22nd. After a hot fortnight, a thunder-storm June 24th, followed b}^ more wet. A thunder-storm again Sep- tember 21st, at the quarter; and another December 22nd, and the only snow of last winter. Again, in 184G, on the 23rd of March, heavy thunder-storms ; and after a continued scorching-time, on June 22nd, at night, a series of storms set in for some days. What can be clearer than the ' fact that it is unsafe, and moreover unwise, to mow grass and clover on June 21st, when it can safely be got up prior to that day, five years in sis at least ? The clover is generally fit by June 12th, and if the grass be not by the 17th, wait till July comes in. The following table shows the number of fine and wet days between June 21st and September 21st, from 1831 to 1844, both inclusive. In this, the term wet days merely shows all days whereon any rain fell : — Years. From June From July From Aug. 21 to July 21. 21 to Aug. 21. 21 to Sept. 21. Fine. Wet. Fine. Wet. Fine. Wet. 1831 20 10 23 8 21 10 1832 23 7 25 6 18 13 1833 20 10 22 9 20 11 183-1 25 5 26 5 20 11 1835 22 8 31 0! 19 12 1836 22 8 22 9 15 10 1837 24 6 20 5 15 16 1838 18 12 17 14 25 6 1839 20 10 17 14 17 14 1840 14 16 24 7 24 7 1841 13 17 20 11 21 10 1842 21 9 26 5 20 11 1843 22 8 20 11 25 1844 20 10 19 12 26 5 Farmer's Almanac. INDICATIONS OF BARRENNESS AND FERTILITY. 319 Art. LXXVI.— natural INDICATIONS OF BARRENNESS AND FERTILITY. As the day is now (August) rapidly approaeliing- when tlie young- farmer commonly enters upon his farm, it will be useful to remind him of the scientific indications aftbrded by soils of their deg-ree of productiveness ; since, after all the cautions which skill and practice can sug-g'est, mistakes, especially by the stranger, are not always very readily escaped. It was thus that the celebrated Arthur Young- was, much to his cost, deceived in hiring- (althoug-h assisted by his Suftblk bailiff) a farm in Ilertibrdshire. " I know not," he said, in his usual emphatic manner, " what epithet to g-ive this soil. Sterility falls short of the idea: a hung-ry vitriolic g'ravel. I occupied for nine years the jaws of a wolf In a recent prize essay, Jlr. J. Bravenden, and also Mr. J. Arkell, have skilfully examined this important question. ^ Amidst many other natural indications, the colow of a strang-e soil should be carefidly recorded ; barren soils are g-enerally of a lig-htish brown, foxy, fawn, pale red, and whitish-yellow colour — a deep yellow is a certain sig-n of barrenness. Mr. Bravenden thinks all soils should be called barren that do not produce on an avei'ag'e 20 bushels of v/heat, or 30 bushels of beans, oats, or barley, per acre. The spontaneous growth, in considcr- dhh' proporfloiis, of the following- 2)Jant-'<, is an indication of a barren soil : — The agrimony dry sandy soils. Rough dandelion dry barren pastures. Woody betony ; . ■ in woods. Canterbury bells high chalk pastiu-es. Heath-bell flower 0:1 heaths. Flea rush in wet places. Star knapweed barren meadows. Corn marygold on sandy soils. Common cudweed barren meadows. Smooth catsear sandy and gravels. Silver weed lands subject to floods. Sheep sorrel sandy meadows. Wild thyme barren elevations. Of the natural grasses which tenant barren soils are — ■ Common bent ^ dry heaths, limit of elevation above White-rooted bent S the sea 2000 feet. ' Jmir. R. A. S., vol. v. p. 429-559. ^' 320 NATURAL INDICATIONS OF Creeping bent clay soils. Marsh bent damp and shady places. Tufted hair limit of elevation 1500 feet. Slender foxtail . . , . , black peat. Common quaking . . . o poor soils. Soft brome poor exhausted pastures. Sheep's fescue dry sandy soils. Wood fescue in damp woods. Woolly soft moist peaty pastures. Wild sainfoin barren chalk pastures. Timber trees flourish best on soils whicli are for — Sycamore sandy lightish. Maple deep sandy. Alder wet. Birch light, moist, and sandy. Hazel nut deep, sandy, moderately fertile. Beech calcareous. Ash deep, flourishes on the inferior oolite. Walnut dry loamy, rich. Larch thin, dry, and rocky. Poplar wet, boggy. Pine light, dry, and rocky. Elm deep rich loam. Of tlie ])lants whose chief occupancy of the g-round indi- cate a fertile soil, are — Stinking May-weed, dandelion, fat hen, pale persicaria, cow-parsley, sow-thistle, virgin's bower, chick-weed, goose-grass, nettle. The same presence of the following- grasses also indicate a fertile soil : — The meadow fox-tail, meadow fescue, sweet-scented vernal, rye-grass, meadow oat-grass, rough-stalked meadow, fiorin, perennial red clover, crested dog's tail, white clover, cocksfoot, creeping vetch. Of aspects, a northern aspect is rather an indication of barrenness, so is N.E. or N.W. ; pasture lands with these aspects are the most subject to moss. S., S.E., or S.W., or W., are very favourable aspects. A fertile inclination should not exceed 160 degrees ; soils of a greater inclination are thin, and near the rock or subsoil. Elevation. — 1500 feet may be considered as the limita- tion of natiu-al fertility. Wheat seldom ripens at above 1000 feet. " High farming, however," adds Mr. Bravenden, " embracing the best modes of cultivation, is found to ame- liorate the severity of the climate, and to place us, as it were, in well cultivated districts, several degrees nearer the BARRENNESS AND FERTILITY. 321 equator, and reduces the liig-liest of oxir cidtivatcd liills several hundred feet." The geological character of a district is also a great' criterion by which to judg'e of the fertility or barrenness of its soils and their prevailing' quality. With this view, the followino- table will be of service.^ Prevailing quality of the Soil. Clayey. TERTIARY SYSTEM. Deposits. 1. Alluvial 2. Diluvial I 3. London clay ' barren. 4. Plastic clay barren. SECONDARY. The chalk formation. Deposits. Upper chalk Lovv-er chalk Gault Green sand IVealden formation. Deposits. Wealden clay Hastings sand Ashburnham beds Purbeck beds Oolitic formation. Deposits. Upper oolite Kimmeridge clay ^ Coral rag Oxford clay Cornbrash Great oolite Fuller's earth Inferior oolite Lias formation. Deposits. Upper lias shale Lias marls Lower lias shale Lias rocks New red sandstone. Deposits. Upper new red sandstone Lower ditto Magnesian limestone barren. barren. barren. barren, b aren. barren. barren. barren barren. Sandy or rocky. barren, barren. barren. barren, barren. barren. barren, barren, barren. Loamy. fertile. fertile, fertile. fertile. fertile. fertile. fertile. fertile, fertile, fertile, fertile. fertile, fertile. * Jour, Roy. Aij, Sac. vol. v. p. 591 . S22 BAKRENNESS AND FERTILITY. Table contimied. Carboniferous formation. Deposits. Prevailing quality of the soil. Clayey. Sandy or rocky. Loamy. barren. barren, barren, barren. barren, barren. barren, barren. barren, barren. fertile. fertile, fertile. 2. Millstone ^rit 3. jNIountain limestone Old red sandstone PRIMARY. Cumbrian rocks Metamorphic rocks. Deposits. Plutonic rocks. 1 . Basalt 3. Sienite Farmer^ s Almanac, Aug. 1846, CHAPTER VI. MISCELLANEOUS. Art. LXXVIL— on KEEPING FARM ACCOUNTS. By THE Editor of the " Agricultural Gazette." The matter of greatest difEculty to any one who would keep liis farm accomits with any minuteness, is the distribu- tion of the sum paid for labour among'st the several heads on AV'hich it is charg'eable. Imag'ine a farmer, at the end of each week, paying- two dozen labourers, men, women, and children, who have, during- that period, been working", each of them for days and parts of days, at different sorts of work ; if he enters the time of each man separately in his day-book, he may have ever}' week, for labour alone, forty entries to make there, forty in the journal to which he transfers them, and eig-ht}' in the ledg-er to which they are posted on the Dr. and Cr. sides respectively of the accounts which they concern. To do this every week would be endless work, and some contrivance is therefore necessary by which the labour may be shortened. (The Editor then proceeds to g-ive the following descrip- tion of the labour-book employed by him, and by which the above supposed 160 entries are reduced to twelve or twenty.) The following' is a copy of the pag-e in such a labour- book for the week ending- Dec. 5, 1S4G. )24: ON KEEPING FARM ACCOUNTS. ■^ooooooooooooooo ©o-*oo oo 5^ uo oi c O ' CO CO • r-l CO O O O O O O O O CO o © O • r-l CO O O O o "5; O O © © j; O OD © ■* Q^o © © © en o 00 © o © o o © •XBps.iiipa_iv i-Hi— II— i^oocoocr. c:-><-* •T)COCOCOCOCOOOi-l©i— iC^C^lr-HrHr-l © © © o © © © © o o CO o © © c o « o = ^ :i: H -^ ^ 5; >^ O jf • - „- - ^ si'? S o ,-1 =^ !>. ON KEEPING FARM ACCOUNTS. 825 In explanation of tins table, we must first beg* our readers to imagine the columns 1 to 4, and 5 to 8, to be present ; tbey are omitted merely because, as no work during that week was properly cliarg-eable on the accounts of barley, oats, tiu-nips, ifec, which they severally represent, they would mere!}' and uselessly occupy room. To put into words all that this table sig-nifies would fill nian^^ columns ; we shall merely say a word or two of ex- ])lanation, and in proof of its usefulness point to the fact, that in place of the forty-nine entries in the da3--book, which would otherwise be required, six only are necessary. In- stead of a separate entry for each of the })articulars stated here, one only is required for each of the columns; for the total in each indicates the whole amount of labour during* the week for the benefit of the account which that column represents. The mode in which the work of each day is put down will be understood by reference to the figures at the head of the columns; whatever crop or account a man has been working- for, the number of the column belonging- to that account is placed opposite his name at the end of the day ; and so at the end of the week the book-keeper is able to divide the whole money due to him among- the several columns in which it is charg-eable. The fact is, that during- the week referred to the chief works on the farm were ploughing- for wheat, carrying- out dung- for wheat, thrashing- wheat, carting- carrots and mang-el-wurzel home, and looking* after the stock ; and any one looking- at the number of the columns will easily see how this tallies with what the table tells him. The labour of book-keeping- is very much diminished by this ex])edient, and it may be still further lessened if the labourers be paid only once a fortnig-ht, as ours are. The totals of the first week may then be carried forward to head the columns of the second, and the several sums paid are thus transferred to day-book and journal only once a fortnig-ht. All piece-work payments, and any ])etty sums, as market ex- penses, etc., may very properly be recorded here, too, and this will still further diminish the number of the entries to be made in the ledger. .•« There is one class of expenses which should be kept sepa- rate from all the others — viz., those which are incTirred in the permanent improvement of the land, and in bring-ing- it into that state of cultivation which it is intended to maintain. Many tenants, secured by a lease, are engaged in this, Avhich S2G ON KEEPING FARM ACCOUNTS. is properly landlords' work ; and for them, in tlie first and second years of tlieir occujiation, to charge against the returns of those years the whole cost which has been then incurred would be obviously wrong. Wherever the same capital is invested, and the same skill and judgment exer- cised, the accounts should certainly show a similar annual income ; and so, no doubt, if properly kept, they will, plus or miuKS, the cxtra-ovddwM'j elfect of weather and prices. But to do as is often done — to charge upon each year all that during it has been invested in the permanent improve- ment of the land, would have the contrary efiect of exhibit- ing a loss upon every fresh investment of capital, and con- sequent additional exercise of skill. All such expenses should be placed in a " dormant capital" account, and on the whole sum which appears there at the end of each year (along with all the rest of the farm capital) the usual per-centage should be charged in the annual balance-sheet ; such a portion only of the jji-hicipal should also annually be charged before the ''balance" is struck, as shall exhaust the '' account" by the end of the lease. If 100/. be spent in draining during the 10th year before this period, then year after year, on the debtor side of the dormant capital account, the sum standing v/ill be 90/., 80/., 70/., &c. ; 10/. per annum being annually abstracted and charged on the gross produce of the farm before the clear profit of the year can be ascer- tained, and, in addition to this, 5 per cent, has also every year to be charged on the 90/., 80/., 70/., respectively, which at those periods represent the amount of the farmer's capital still remaining invested in that particular form. Now, as regards the yearly inquiry into the profit or loss attendant upon the twelvemonth's proceedings, it is really a very simple affair. Suppose a farmer to have commenced his year's accounts aright, he then entered (whether actually or not), by jwrchasc, into his position; and the several portions into which his capital at that time invested might then have been divided were placed on the debtor side of the several accounts which concerned them. The sheep account received its record of the value of sheep on hand, and of that portion of food to be consumed by them then remaining ; the wheat account received its record of grain in rick and barn, of seed sown, of ploughings, harrowings, &c., by which the crop had till then been benefited ; and so on. Since then, payments on account, whether for labour, or stock, or food ; and receipts on account for produce of all kinds have ON KEEPING FARM ACCOUNTS. 327 been regnilavly entered ; and all that lias now to be done is to estimate tlie present position of tlie farmer just as if lie reere ahout to r/ire vp business altor/ether, and to place, as per valuation, his present invested capital on the creditor side of the several accounts to which it belong's. It then merely remains to arrange the balances of these accounts — debtor or creditor as the case may be — in columns on a sheet; to charg-e bh per cent, upon the working- capital of the concern, together with that share of the dormant capital which this year must return ; and the balance, when struck, will repre- sent the income of the year. Agrictdtwal Gazette, Dec. 12th and 19th, 184G. INDEX. Acids, action of lime on, 153 soils containing, ]iJ3 Acre of land, expenses of, 227 cost of cutting, 239 Agriculture, how better promoted, 148 Agriculturist, duties of the, 140 Air-drains, uses of, 94 Air necessary for the flow of water through drains, 94 Air, utility of, to land, 100 AlkaUeS; consequences if omitted from the soU, 154 Low produced, 153 how restored to the soU, 283 obtained from igneous rocks, 154 sterility caused by the absence of, 284 Ammonia, when useful, 139 Animal frame, substanceswhich com- pose the, G Animal manure, of what composed, 142 Annual farm operations, how paid for, 257 Animals, state or condition of, 7 Arable land, how to obtain it, 259 how drained, 1 24 mode of tilling it, 265 quantity required to feed four beasts for twelve months, 310 Artificial manuring, the principles of, 132 Artificial manures, analysis of, 147 Artificial manures do not alter the mechanical condition of fields, 145 nature of, 14G necessary for extensive fai-ming, 228 Ashes (surjjlus), how used, 266 Aspects, their indications, 320 Atmosphere, a boundless storehouse of manure, 81 action of the, 77 Barker's (Mr.) plan of feeding horses, &c, 304 Barley and peasmeal with milk the best food, 57 Barnes's (Mr.) pigs, uniqueness of, 59 mode of dressing his meadows, 59 Barrenness and fertilitj^i natural in- dications of, 319 Barrow-pig best for the poor, 59 Bath-bricks, where made. 93 Beans, growth of, on chalk and clay farms, 225 hoeing of, 240 Beasts, mcrease in weight of, 17 Beet, harvesting of, 241 Birds, manure of, 192 Board-feeding for cattle, &c. 221 Bog-draining, method of, 109 Boggy-soil, description of, 110 Bog or peat land, appeal to the owners of, 199 Bone -manure, value of, how in- creased, 189 Bones and sulphuric acid, experi- ments with, 212 properties of, 191 Bones, analysis of, 108 importance of, in agricultural economy, 138, 187 mode of mixing with acid, 171 quantity of phos])hate of lime in four bushels of, 169 330 INDEX. Bones, state in wliicli they should be, 166 when burnt and boiled more productive than when fresh, 164, 190 Book-keeping, labour of, how di- minished, 325 Boxes for feeding, description of, 21 Box-feeding, advantage of, 21, 312 Breaking up land, expense of, 271 experiments in, 2G1 practice of, 25!) safest plan for, 2G4 Breeders, proper food for, and treat- ment of, 8 Bruce's (Mr.) experiments, 55 Bull, value of a first-rate, 1 3 Burning and paring sward-land, re- sults from, 2G1, 270 when and how to be done, 271 Cabbages, effects of guano on, 196, 197 the best food for lambs, 54 Calves, food for, 13, 14 how forced when weaned, 15 time for dropping, 13, 14 Capillaiy powers of vegetation, 108 Capital, the best use of, 228 Carbonate of lime, quantity in four bushels of bones, 169 Carbonic acid, when useful, 139 Carboniferous formations, character of, 322 Carbon, quantity of, in various sods, 199 Carrots, growth of, on chalk and clay farms, 225 harvesting of, 293 hoeing of, 240 leaves, how disposed of, 294 root -fibres not to be cut off, 294 rottenness, where it commences, 294 storing of, 241 Carry-drains must not be run along headlands, 101 Carse of Gowrie, state of land on, 155 Case of James O'Ned, 30 " Cattle Compound," method of making, 22 superiority of, to foreign oil- cake, 24 Cattle, different forms of matter in, 39 food and general management of, 7 food to be increased as preg- nancy advances, 8 feeding on boards, benefits from, 221 on the rearing of, 6, 12 sheds and folds for, 35 winter and summer feed for, 309 winter treatment of, 15 Cattle-sheds, cost of, 38 materials for constructing, 35 paper for roofing of, 37 specification for construction of, 36 where to be constructed, 36 Cess-pools convenient breaks in lines of drains, 95 how constructed, 96 Charcoal, produce of turnips from the use of, 198 use of, as a fertihzer, 197 value of, in various ways, 199 Charred-peat, how prepared, 198 Chalk and clay farms, growth of peas, beans, &c. on, 225 Chalk -formations, character of, 321 Chalk-sod, experiment on, 149 Chemical examination of food, 20 Chemist, expedient of a, 154 Chemistry, value of, 133 Chevalier-barley, experiment on, 1 SO Chloride of lime, use of, with milk, 221 Churning, when carried on, 68 Clay-lands, improvements in, 230 how secured, 232 Clover, causes of the failure of, 275- 280, 285 on the cultivation of, 275, 287 practice of sprinkling it with gypsum, 157 Cold, how produced, 99 Common drains, how made, 112 intervals of, 113 Continent, mode of applying gyp sum on the, 157 Corn-bruiser, use of the, 68 Corn-crops must not be manured, 219 Corn-measure, to what applicable, 250 INDEX. 831 Corn, quantity of, grown on an acre and a quarter, 309 Cost of drainage affected by texture of soils, 82 Covering for drains, 105 Cows, importance of a good lot of, 12 Crop of cattle, shape, &c. of the, 3 Cropping, alteration in the rotation of, 231 Crops, different properties of an acre of, 18 injury of by trees, 219 one genus must not be sown in succession, 219 pay for the cultivation of, 257 require an ingredient essential to production, 189 Crushed bones and gypsum, use of, 182 Cubic measure, to what applied, 217 Cultivation of crops, payment for, per acre, 257 Cuttmg (mowing) an acre, cost of, 239 Day-labourer, hours of, 235 Deep and shallow drains, difference between, 123 Deep cultivation, Mr. Mechi on, 228 Deep-draining the basis of agricul- tural improvement, 106 increase by, to crops, 107 Deep drains, importance of over shallow, 102 Depths of drains, 101, 230 how to be determined, 125 Depth to which plants will send their roots, 104 Dew -worm, an auxiliaiy to the drainer, 90 Dibbling, how and where done, 242 Digging, cost of, 243 Ditch-digging, 244 prices paid for, 245 Down-lands, how cultivated, 30G Drainage, causes of obstruction to, 84, 88, 89 natural aids to, 90 Drained iields, map of, 78 Drained lands, manure more effec- tive on, 7G suffers least from drought, 81 Draining, advantages arising from, 76 a knowledge of geology neces- sary in, 125 benefits derived from, 124 cost of, 124, 129, 130, 245 expense and profit of, 120 how little understood, 123 how to carry it into eflfect, 100 level, when used in, 126 result of operations in, 129 the Deanstone system, 73 the Elkington system, 72 the principles of, 123 when carried on, 110 Drains, cost of, 130 covering for, 105 cutting, process of, 114 deposits in, analysis of, 86 depth and distance of, not the same in all soils, 82 depth of, 78, 101 depth of, how to be determined, 125 direction in which they should be placed, 230 distance of apart, 78, 230 how formed, 126, 127 how to be laid, 106 level, when used, 126 long runs in, to be avoided, 127 plans of, should be laid down, 101 roots of trees injurious to, 100 should be carried up the fall, 124 should be frequent and narrow, 78 should be well secured above, 79 should not be placed in a hedge, 101 turf most preferable for cover- ing, 79 Drayton-Mauor Park, nature of sub- soils in, 88 Dressings for grass-land, 272 Drill-workers, description of, 243 Dry soil, warmth of a, 76 Elevation, limit of, for fertility, 320 Eny's, E., experiments of, 213 Evaporation, action of, 80 Expenses in farming, separation of, 325 332 INDEX. Experiments in breaking up land, 2G1 " Eye " drains, how formed, 11 1 Farm accounts, on the method of keeping, 323 Farming, principles of, 218 Farm labour account, plan for, 324 Farm manure aad guano, combi- nation of, 187 properties of, 191 Farm manure, how and when to apply it, 206 its effect on wheat crops, 206 Farm operations Cauuual) how paid for, 257 ' Farm-yard dung, value of, 148 more necessary than that made upon farms, 148 best manure for bulky crops, 297 Fattening pigs must not run about, 58 Feeding stock, methods of, 50 Mr. Thompson's experiments in, 48 results of two systems, 51 Fences, the most suitable, 232 how formed, 232 Feqcing, wages for, 245, 246 Fertility, duration of, 135 Filling, carting, &c. how done and cost of, 248 Filling in drains, by whom con- ducted, 114 apparatus for, 119 Flail, cost of thrashing with, GO Flax breaking, how done, 302 crop of, when to be taken, 307 description of, 299 difficulty of preserving the seed after rippling, 301 diseases of, 299 exhaustion of land by the growth of, how prevented, 303, 312 expense of rearing and pre- paring a crop of, 310 expense per acre of growing, 304, 312 fibre, profit of, when dressed, 309 fitness of, for weak soils, 306 ground for, must be in good condition, 306 Flax, growing of, on newly broken up grass land, 305 how to know when sufficiently watered, 302 Ireland well adapted for the growth of, 304 its value as a stock-feedip.g and remunerative crop, 307 on the cultivation, &c. of, 299, 303 preparation of land for, 300 produce of, per acre, 304 prohibition of the growth of, 307 pulling, the best time for, 301 rotation in sowing of, 299 scratching, how performed, 303 seeds of, an excellent food for cattle, 304 soils best adapted for, 299, 304 sowing, the best time for, 300 spreading, proper land for, 302 steeping, the practice of, 301 stem, composition of the, 304 the best of all crops for lea land, 306 water for, description of, 302 weeding of, when commenced, 301 when and how sown, 304 Flax-seed, experiment with, 45 Flemmg ( Mr.), value of crops of, 194 Fly, antidote for the, 177 Foetal animal, control over, and how supported, 7 Fold-yard manure, produce of, 196 Food and general management of cattle, 7 Food, chemical examination of, 20 composition of, 39 how received by plants, 165 nutritive qualities of, 11 of cattle to be increased as pregnancy advances, 8 of young animals not to be stinted, 7 quantity required for feeding four beasts twenty-six weeks, 309, 310 Four-feet drains, cost of, 124 Four-horse power machine, cost and rate of thrashing of, 62 dimensions of, 62 Fresh bones, when ground, superior to boiled, 165 338 Furrow-drains, dimensions of, 113 material for tilling, 113 depth of, 113 Furze-hedges, utility of, 232 Gang system, demoralizing effects o'f the, 234 Garden stuff of little use when growing, 58 Gas -lime, uses of, 155 Geological table, 321 Geology, a knowledge of necessary in draining, 125 Germinated barley, process of form- ing, 24 Gilbert i Mr.), experiments of, 215 Glaciers, ammonia found in, 14G Grain for market, cost of preparing, 258 Grass-field, experiment in a, 82 analysis of clays taken from a, 84 Grass land, different manures for, 273 draining of, 270 dressings for, 272 expense of, 271 how to be broken up, 270 how to turn it into arable, 259 on breaking up of, 270 on dressing of, 272 on the advantages, &c. of break- ing up of, 305 terms of with landlord, 270 when to be burnt, 271 Gravel-drains, how formed, 120 Green crops, advanfcige of sowing, 27 high value of, 22(3 should be much varied, 2G6 Growing animals, &c. functions of, 9 Growing pigs, garden stuff" of little use for, 58 Guano, analysis of, 183 combination of with farm- manure, 187, 190 compared with other manures, 137 comparison of, with night-soil, 186 composition of different kinds of, 195 constituents of, 192 effects of, in growing cabbases, 196, 197 experiments with, 193, 213 Guano, gain by using large quanti- ties of, 274 great object of, 19G how best used, 193 how produced, 192 loss by the use of small quanti- ties of, 274 mixture of, with moss, 190 pays itself in straw, 228 peculiarity of Peruvian, 195 sometimes too pungent, 177 useful wlien burned, 147 value of crops grown with, 194 varieties of, 192 Gvpsum and potash, effects of, 141 how formed, 155 opinions as to its operation, 156 mode of applying it on the con- tinent, 157 uses of, general and special, 1 58 value of, for red clover, 273 Handling a beast, method of, 1 of beasts, importance of, 3 Harvest operations, wages of, per acre, 257 Harvest-work, how accomplished, 238 Hay harvest, a few hints on the best time for, 317 H:uilming, price of, per acre, 242 li"dge-rows, propriety of demol- ishing, 230 surplus soil fi'om, how applied, 230 Hip and rump of cattle, distance from, 2 Hoeing, benefit of, 239 Hops, manure for, 203, 205 contents of, 205 Horns of cattle non-essential in handling, 4 Horse-power, cost and rate of thrashing l)y, 65 Horses and colts, Mr. Barker's plan of feeding, 304 Horses, how to be used in plough- ing, 231 proper food for, 1 1 Hose, advantage in favourof the, 211 House-fed beasts, profits resulting from, 2!) Huraber, peculiarity of land i-e- claimed from the, 91 Hummeller, uses, &c. of the, 67 334 INDEX. Humus, colour extracted from, 161 effect of lime on, IGl substances wliich represent it, 160 the theory of, 160 ■where abundant, 160 Husbandry, effects of rain in the operations of, 276 Hutley (Mr.) opinions of, on man- uring, 228 Hutton's (Mr.), method of feeding stock, 308 Huxtable's (Mr.) system of farm- ing, 220 Ichaboe guano ,experiment with, 213 Implements, chapter on, 61 Improved land, how to prepare for cropping, 231 Indian plantain will not grow with- out lime, 153 Inorganic constituents the most essential parts of manure, 164 Interest on outlay, how paid, 233 Iodine, whence procured, 200 Ireland, appeal to the owners of bog land in, 199 Karkeek (Mr.), experiments of, 212 Kelp, agricultural ingredients in, 201 composition, &c. of, 200 value of, to potatoes, 202 Kendall (Mr.), experiment of, 213 Ketton short-horns, excellence of, 3 Kind landlord, note of a, 226 Labour, division of, 226 Labourers, bad effect of promis- cuous employment of sexes, 234 Labour, table of the value of, 253 Lamb, cabbages the best food for, 54 Land, capacity of all kinds to pro- duce, 149 Landlord and tenant, relationship between, 232 Lands that may be broken up, 267 how improved, 268 what may not be broken up, 268 elevation of to be considered, 269 change in after, 268 Land to be broken, on the choice of, 267 Land to be examined before dramed, 125 unproductive for some plants may be good for others, 134 Leas, how broken up, 305 Leigh's (Mr.) experiments on stall- feeding, 18 Lias-formations, character of, 231 Liberal manuring, on, 228 Liebig's turnip - manure, experi- ments with, 214, 216 Light land, how managed, 270 Lime, action of, on acids, 153 antiquity of, as a productive agent, 150 effect of, on humus, 161 effect of, on waste lands, 154 how applied, 153 indispensable for agriculture, 152 introduction of, into Scotland, 150 its application to newly broken up land, 163 its qualities, 162 its use as a fertiUzer, 151, 163 must be in contact with air, 155 productive qualities of, 151 proverb regarding, 154 quantity of, and when applied, 152 solvent power of, 159 theory and practical use of, 159 use of, not to be discontinued, 151 uses of, 153 various kinds of, 151 what best for agricultural pur- poses, 151 where discontinued, crops be- come sickly, 153 "where not so much required, 152 why repeated, 154 gypsum, &c. cannot supersede animal manure, 142 Liming fields, difference of opinion respecting, 141 Liming, general use of, 152 if too frequent, produces ex- haustion, 153 Lineal measure, to v/hat applicable, 244 Linseed, adaptation of down lands for, 306 INDEX. 335 Linseed, advantages resulting from, 46 as steamed food, 308 food for older calves, 14 how administered, 43 mode of boiling, 43 quantity of, grown on an acre and a quarter, 309 Linseed-cake, analysis of three va- rieties of, 304 Liquid manure, how procured, 208 mode and expense of delivering it, 210 mode of application, 208 productive properties of, 209 tank for, 70 Liquid manure cart, description of, 08 Live stock, transit of, GO Local peculiarities, practices sanc- tioned under the name of, 2G0 Machines of various sizes, where used, 62 Main-drains, dimensions of. 111 construction of. 111 Malt, value of, as food, 44, 46 Management of stock, cost of, 258 Mangel-wurzel, growth of, on chalk and clay soils, 223 Manuring, cost of, per acre, 219 Manure, action of, 133 analysis of, 136 application of, 206 cost and profit of various kinds, 274 evil of trying small quantities, 274 for hops, 203 from linseed-feeding, value of, 309 how to increase, 27, 29 improvement in, by the use of prepared food, 44 inorganic constituents the most essential parts of, 164 more elective on drained lands, 76 necessary to restore fertility, 132, 135 on the rationale of, 150 payment for management of, 237 profit of, 26 to what crops to be applied, 219 whence derived, 136 Manure - heaps, how best turned over, 249 Manures, chapter on, 132 on the relative value of, 212 tables of weights of, 203, 204 Map of drained fields for farmer, 78 Marl, uses of, 151 Marl, bone-earth, &c., uses of, 139 influence of, 141 Marshall's ',Mr.) mode of feeding, 42, 47 Matter, differentforms of, in cattle, 39 Maw (Mr.), observations of, 195 Maxwell (F.)> experiments of, in thorough-draining, 283 Meadow-grass, how mowed, 236 Means for carrying out the inten- tions of nature in cattle, 7 Measurement of task-work, 235 various kinds of, 236, 252 Measure-work, on, 234, 256 Mechanical operations, influence of, on fertility, 135 Metamorphic rocks, character of, 322 Milch cow, consumption of, 310 ISIilk, food approximatuig to, 7 ingredients of, 19 perfect food for a growing ani- mal, 9 Mineral elements of grain necessary for the soil, 134 action of the, 142 Mixed manures, effects of, 188 MLxture of elements, difliculty of, removed, 145 Mode of opening drains, 1 1 4 tools employed in making, 115 Moisture injurious if too great, 100 " jVIoorband," analysis of, 103 Moss and guano, mixture of, 190 Motive powers employed, 63 IMowing meadow grass, how exe- cuted, 236 cost of, 237 Mowing wheat preferable to reaping, 237 cost of, 237 Muriatic acid, action of lime on, 153 Muscle and fat, how to obtain, 40 Mustard, eff"ect of subsoiling on a field of, 229 Natural grasses which tenant barren soils, 319 which indicate a fertile soil, 320 336 INDEX. Natural indications of barrenness and fertility, 319 Neck and head of cattle not handling points, 4 Newly broken-up land, little ex- pense required for, 163 Night-soil, experiments with, 184 Nitrate and ammoniacal substances, uses of, 189 Nitrate of soda, uses of, 187, 216 Nutritive qualities of various kinds of food, 11 Occasional labour operations, how paid for, 256 Ocean, inorganic ingredients in the waters of the, 200 Oil-cake, phosphate of lime in, 181 Oil-seeds, advantage of, in feeding, 40 best with beans and peas, 40 Old and present practice of return- ing excavated earth, 1 18 Old grass and arable land, compara- tive advantages of, 307 One-horse carts, the advantages of, 70 Open furrows en surface injurious, 108 O'Neill (James), case of, 30 Oolitic formations, character of, 391 Paper for roofing, description of, 37 how applied, 37 Paring and burning, how done, 242 Parks (Mr), experiment of, 213 Pasture and prepared food, resem- blance between, 53 Pasture-lands, draining of, 270 dressings for, 272 expense of, 271 how improved, 99 how to be broken up, 270 terms of, with landlord, 270 when to be burnt, 271 Pasture, present exhausted state of, 28 how to improve it, 28 Payment of task-work, 235 Peas, growth of, on chalk and clay farms, 224 hoeing of, 240 Peat and saline manures, 191 Pens, size of, 13 Peroxide of iron, amount of, in drains, 86 absence of, in drains at Drayton Manor, 87 Peruvian guano, peculiarity of, 195 Phosphate of lime, abounds in oil- cake, 181 difficulty of solution of, 169 its power as a manure for tur- nips, 180 quantity in four bushels of bones, 169 withdrawal of, from pastures, 182 Phosphorus, how formed, 170 Picking stones, payment for, 252 Fig-feeding on boards, results of, 223 Pigs, article on, 59 cleanliness in, importance of, 57 costiveness in, cure for, 58 extremes of temperature to be avoided, 57 how to choose, 59 mode of feeding, 11 must be ining, 57 on tattening of, 57 protection from cold, &c. ne- cessary, 57 purging of, cure for, 58 steamed food for, 56 sty must be warm and airy, 57 sun must not scorch their backs, 57 uniqueness of Mr. Barnes's, 59 when fattening must not run about, 58 when to be cut, 59 Pipes most preferable of drain-tiles, 97 circular, the best, 103 how to lay them, 109 size of, 105 strength of, 104 substitution of, for tiles, 103 where best made, 104 Plans of drains should be laid down, 101 Plants and children, similitude be- tween, 150 Plants, depth to which they will send their roots, 104 difference in the constituents of, 276 inorganic constituents of, ob- tjdned from the soil, 276 INDEX. 337 Plants, the growth of which indicates a barren soil, 319 which indicate a fertile soil, 320 Playfair (Dr.) on the food of ani- mals, 19 Ploughing, how paid for, 243 facts connected with, 259 Plutonic rocks, character of, 322 Potash, affinity of, for water, 278 weight of, in 1000 lb. of wheat, cScc, 277 Potatoes, average produce of, in the north of Ireland, 202 value of kelp to, 202 Porter's (Mr.) experiments, 121 results of, 122 Portman's (Lord) note on task-work, 254 Postle's (Mr.) feeding, results of, 25 Potter's artificial guano, 214 Prepared and pasture food, resem- blance between, 53 Prepared food, feeding stock with, 47 Prepared food for cattle, on the use of, 39 Preparing grain for market, cost of, 258 Primary formation, character of, 322 Principles of farming, 218 Productive qualities of lime, 151 Pulverizing, effect of, on land, 152 Quarter-pork, strong food improper for, 58 Quick -limp, effect of, vi'ith pounded granite, 152, 159 Rain, benefit of, to vegetation, 99 effect of, 80 how it should penetrate the soil, 77 Rape-dust as manure, 147 Rape, immense produce of, 31 profit arising from feeding on, 32 Reaping, how done and paid, 238 Red clover, all varieties of, are bi- ennial, 282 causes of the failure of, 275, 280, 285 depth at which the seed should be placed, 279 experiments with, 279, 281 gypsum valuable for, 278 Red clover, improvement in land for growing of, 283 injury to, by insects, 280 mowing grain-crops injurious to the young grass of, 281, 286 number of seeds which germi- nated in a given quantity, 280 on the cultivation of, 275 proportions of inorganic matter in 1000 lb. of, 277 state in which the soil should be when sown, 280, 286 young grass of, good for sheep, 281 Regularity and cleanliness, impor- tance of, 48 Resemblance between prepared and pasture food, 53 Richmond's crushing -machine, 4G Ridges and furrows, inutility of, 77" Riving wood, price for, and how done, 252 Rocks of all kinds, alkalies in, 284 Root crops, cost of growing an acre of, 227 harvesting of, 240 how best harvested, 293 superiority of English, 22G value of, per acre, 227 Roots, dislike of, to stagnant water, 106 Roots of trees injurious to drains, 101 Ross's (Mr.) experiments on the land of, 193 Rump-bone of cattle, place of, 1 Running sands, best method of draining, 125 bottom spit, how taken out. 127 outlet of, when attended to, 126 pipe-tiles, difficulty of fitting', 129 rapid falls in, to be avoided, 127 rate of payment for, 128 sides of, to jirevent them from. falling, 128 tiles, where to be placed, 12G ; how secured, 127 tools recjuired for, 128 when filled in, 128 Russian bean, article on, 292 Sainfoin, where best used, 265 Saline and peat manures, 191 Z S38 IIVDEX. Salt, great value of, 11 Salt and soot, experiment with, 167 Salted feeding, benefit of, 45 Saltpetre, quantity of potash in, 205 Saltpetre refuse, use of, 184 Salts (sulphates), properties of, 189 Sand soils, description of, 125 Sandstone (new red) formations, character of, 321 Sandy field, experiments in, 109 Sawdust, use of, 224 Scarlet clover, article on, 287 dry land best for, 287 quantity yielded per acre, 288 necessity of having good seed, 289 Scotland, high position of, in agri- culture, 150 introduction of lime into, 150 Sea-weeds, analysis of, 201 Seed operations, cost of, per acre, 257 Seed, per acre, quantity to be sown, 219 Sewer-water, value of, 211 Shallow drains, incompleteness of, 81 Shearing, how paid for, 252 Shed-feeding, 16 Shed-feeding sheep, 33 economy of, 34 Sheep, compound for feeding, 24 convenience to, of clover-grass, 281 facts with regard to, 54 go longer with male than with female young, 54 to give additional value to, 10 white mustard a good food for, 291 Sheep -feeding on boards, results of, 221 Sheep, shed-feeding of, 33 economy of, 34 facts relative to, 34 Shoulder of cattle, proper condition of, 3 Short-horn, properties of a, 1 loss by, in the dairy, 5 outward contour of, 5 Sods, &c., danger of, to wheat plants, 260 Soiling and shed-feeding, 16 Soils and plants, relations between, 133 Soils, carbon contained in, 199 Soils, capillary force of, 84 changes in, after drainage, 81 ingredients of, active and pas- sive, 151 properties of, 140 what they require to grow given crops, 147 ; how proved, 147 Solid measure, to what applied, 247 Sows during gestation, how to feed, 58 when to be spayed, 59 Specific manures, experiments on the effects of, 197 Spring corn, when and how to sow it, 218 Stagnant water, dislike of roots to, 106 Stall-feeding cows, 27, 312 proper animals to begin with, 17 when commenced, 17 Starch, gum, &c., per-centage of fat or tallow yielded by, 20 State or condition of animals, 7 Steamed compound, advantages aris- ing from the use of, 312 quantity for a beast per day, 311 Steam-engine in Aberdeen too ex- pensive, 63 where jirofitably employed, 64 Stock, cost of management of, 258 Stock-feeding, 311 Stomach, importance of its being filled, 51 Stones alone objectionable for drains, 124 Stone-drains, construction of, 78 not to be put on tiles, 124 imperishability of, 78 material for, 115 depth of, 116 Stones for draining, proper size of, 116 where laid down, 116 how covered, 117 Straw-feeding, loss sustained by, 32 Straw, use of, in producing milk, 220 Subsoiling, advantages of, 228 ruinous without deep-di'ainage, 229 Subsoils, description of, 102 Substances which compose the ani- mal frame, 6 Suffolk, table of the value of labour in, 253 INDEX. 339 Sulphated bones an antidote for the fly, 177 experiments with, 173, 175, 17? Sulphate of ammonia, use of, 184 Sulphate of soda, use of, 183, 190 Superphosphate of lime, on tlie use of, 164 solubility of, 169 use of, 178, 208, 213 Sulphuric acid and bone-dust, pro- perties of, 191 Sulphuric acid, agency of, 170 care required in the use of, 172 how formed, 168 how used, 165 possesses little fertilizing power if used alone, 167 preferable to muriatic, 167 properties of, 155 proportion used, 170, 1/4 quantity used, 166 effect of, on potato crops, 189 Sward-land, burning and paring of, 264, 270 when and how to be done, 270 dressings for, 272 how to be ploughed, 271 Swede turnips, curious experiment with, 224 how to preserve them, 295 purging effects of, 52 tap-roots of, how cut, 295 Table of the value of labour, 253 Tares, cost of, per acre, 288 land on which grown, 287 Task-work, measurement of, 235, 244 ; note on, 254 rate of payment for, 235 various kinds of, 236, 252 Tertiary system, character of, 321 Thatching, cost of, 244 Thin soils, management of, 267, 270 Thorough-draining, 76, 98 security against bad crops, 98 Mr. Maxwell's experiments in, 283 Thrashing and dressing, expenses connected with, 64 practice of, 64 Thrashing, cost of, 251 Thrashing-machine, on the, 61 Tdes, cost of, 124 how to be laid, 103 Tile-drains, liabiUty of, to accident, 78 Timber trees, soils for, 320 Trajj-rock, of what composed, 152 Trees, injury of, to crops, 219 Trenching, cost of, 243 Turf-dratnmg, 79 Turf-drains, how formed, 118 Turf most preferable for covering drains, 79 Turnip crops, effect of bone as food for, 164, 165, 174 176 mixture for, 217 ' Turnip-feeding, advantage of, over straw, 33 Turnips, abundant crop of, 221 advantage to, by hoeing, 239 great saving of, 53 produce of, 28 produce of, in chalk soil, 149 produce of, from the use of charcoal, 198 quantity of, grown upon three- quarters of an acre, 309 Tussac grass, an important addition to our agricultural resources, 314 beauty of, 315 expense of collecting seed, 315 fattening qualities of, 314 fondness of horses and cattle for, 314 ground for, how laid out, 313 how grown, 313 on the cultivation of, 313 places where it may be grown, 316, 317 properties of, 314 slow growth of, 314 soft food for a working horse, 314 treatment of, 316 when to be sown, 316 United States, mode of applying gypsum in the, 157 Urine, value and analyzation of, 55 Vegetables ashes, lime in, 153 Vegetables, properties of, 10 Vegetation, capillary powers of, 108 Ventilation, importance of, 13 Vitriolized bone an antidote for the fly, 183 experiments with, 173,175, 177 taste of, 168 340 INDEX. Warmth an equivalent for food, 19 Warmth of a dry soil, 76 Wanies's (Mr.) feeding, ample re- turns by, 25 cattle, profits realized by, 41 Warp-soils, varieties of, 92 difference as to the necessity of draining- of, 93 Washing the food prejudicial, 54 Waste-land, effect of lime on, 154 Water, affinity of, for vpater, 278 a conductor of heat to the soil, 108 the farmer's best friend, 107 Water and air, action of, 135 Water in ditches, great utility of, 94 Water-power machine, cost and rate of thrashing of, 61, 65 how to ascertain the power of, 62 Water, quantity of, in different food, 19 quantity to be mixed with acid, 173, 178 Water-veins, presence of, 90 Wet land, bow to diy it, 218 Wheat plant, quantity of salt in which it will flourish, 93 Wheat plants, mjury to, by sods, &c., 260 Wheat, mowing of, preferable to reaping, 237 ; cost of, 237 hoeing of, 240 Wheat, on the cultivation of, 296 quantity of seed to be sown, 297 premature decay in, 298 preparation of land for, 297 rotation of sowing with other crops, 296 used as a compound, 24 White mustard, article on, 289 a healthy food for sheep, 291 an antidote to wireworm, 291 Burrouglies's (Mr) experiment with, 290 ; note on, by Mr. Pusey, 292 quantity sown per acre, 290 state of land for sowing, 290 when to be ploughed in, 291 when to be sown, 290 will grow on any soil, 289 White turnips good for fattening lamb, 54 Winnowing-machine, uses, &c., of the, 67 Winter manures, quantity of ammo- nia in, 145 Winter treatment of cattle, 15 Wood-drains, cost of, 119 how formed, 118 where to be adopted, 119 Work, quantity done in a given time, 235 Yellow and purple clover, experi- ments with, 281 Londou : Primed by Stewakt and MtrniAV, Old Bailey. April, 1S47. CATALOGUE OF SMITH, ELDER AND CO.^S PUBLICATSONS. WORKS IN THE PRESS. THE EEV. DR. CROLY. TS2S PATRIARCHS— THE PHOPHETS-THE APOSTLES. Their characters and influence on the ages in whicli tliey lived, considered in connexion with the Christian dispensation. To form a series of tliree separate and independent volumes. The First Volume, treating of the Patuiarciis, will shortly appear. SIR JOHN HERSCHEL. OBSERVATIONS l^^ THE SOUTHEHrsJ HEMISPHERE. Made during a recent residence at the Cape of Good IIo?e. In one volume royal 4lo. By Sir John Hkksciiel, Bart. Illustrated by numerous Plates. {Kearhj ready.) MR LEIGH HUNT. ME2^, ■^VOMEN, AHD BOOKS : A Collection of Essays, by Lkigii Hunt, "i vols, post 8vo. With Portrait of the Author. {Early in May.) MR. G. P. R. JAMES. ItUSSEIalj: A TALE OP THE RYE-HOUSE PLOT. By G. P. R. Jamks, Esq. 3 vols, post 8vo. (In May.) THE SURRENDER OF KOT KANGRA. SZX VIEIVS OF KOT KANGRA, AND THE SURROUND- ING COUNTRY. Representing the Passage of tlu^ British I'orce under Brigadier Wheeler, C.B., to whom the Fortress surrendered. With Portrait of Looiidur Singh, Killedar of the Fort. Coloured facsimiles of the original draw- ings made on tlu! spot by Lieut.-Col. Jack, yoth Regt. N. I. with Descriptions. Coloinbier Folio. — — -j5^ WORKS JUST PUBI.XSKE3> B-y flfb ^ul)litatiou0* A V/HIM AI??D ITS COHSBQUSNCBS. A Ro^iANCE of our Own Times. In 3 vols, post 8vo., price 1/. lis. 6(1. SAVAGE LIFE AKD SCENES IH AUSTRALIA AlilB IME^W SSALAKD. Beinc: an Artist's impressions of Countries and People at the Antipodes. By George Fuench Axcjas, Esq. Second edition, in two vols, post 8vo., with numerous Illustrations, price 24s. cloth. " These volumes are the production of an intelligent and pains-taking travell(>r, who spent considerable time amongst the aborigines of Australia and of New Zealand, under cirrumslanccs peculiarly favourable to an accurate observation of their habiis and character. Rlr. Angas's volumes are enriched with numerous illustrations, aiui are eminently worthy of the confidence of readers. They bear the impress of truth, are the productions of an observant and intelligent mind, and will do more to familiarize our countrymen with the scenery and natives of tiie colonies described, than any other work ■with which we are acquainted." — Eclectic Review. "The graphic style of the writing, and the high arlistical character of the embellish- ments, bear out the description of these volumes in the title. The author has seen every- thing with an artist's eye, and recorded it with an artist's pen." — Church of Ensfland Quarter///. " Mr. Angas writes as an artist ; and he does not write the worse for that. We can see ■what he sees, because he understands the art of word-painting. All that he writes is eminently objective. There is an individuality in his descriptions which brings the scene or the person vividly before our eyes. It is nature — it is life — that is presented to us." — ^tlax. " Mr. Angas is just such an explorator, observer, end artist as we could wish to send out to any part of the world, civilised or uncivilised, of which we wished to have a fair description. Now Australia and New Zealand, of which so much has been written, are, as regards the pencil, almost undescribed countries, while they present, in the novel aspects of nature, much to interest, and as the field of colonization, appeal to deeper feel- ings than those of mere curiosity. * * The whole work is full of entertainment." — I'alrinl. " Mr. Angas has evidently a passion for travelling, and nature has, in many ways, fitted him for this arduous pursuit. His style is joyous and readable, and we know not when we have read two volumes containing so much that is new and interesting." — JcrroLd's l\Iagazine. " These are two volumes of good arlistical description, with much of finer staple than the title-page promises. Mr. Angas observed nature in the Southern hemisphere with a painter's eye, and has thrown much poetical feeling into liis impressions of it." — Morning Chronicle. " lie has not the bias or coarseness of many who have gone out to the antipodes ; he has a belter taste, in some sense a more cultivated mind, and is lifted above the atmo- sphere of Colonial parlizanship." — Spectator. " After a careful reading of these two volumes, we pronounce them, without any hesi- tation, to afford on the whole the most faithful pictures of savage life in Australia and New Zealand yet published." — Weekli/ Chronicle. " Mr. Angas has happily shown the present stale of the countries he has seen ; and we will venlure to say that his experience amongst the inhabitants of New Zealand c-tends further than that of any adventurer who may have preceded him." — Douglas Jerrold s Weekly Newspaper. -» SS^IITH, S1.3S^ ATSU CO., CORI«rHIZ.3:i. ■m ME. JAMES'S NEW NOVELS AND EOMANCES. THE CASTLE OP SEiREKTSTEIN : Its Lords Spiritual and Temporal; its Ixhabitants Earthly ar.rl Uxkarthly. By G. P. R. James, Esq. Author of " Heiflelbeig," "The Stepmother," "The Simiggler," kc. kc. In 3 vols, post 8vo. price \l. lis. 6d. " Tills is undoubledly one of the very best of IMr. James's Novels. The interest never flags throughout. It gives a most vivid picture of old German Chivalry." — Weelili/ Chronicle. "We know not when we have been more — or indeed so much — gratified by ilio peni?al of a work of liciion. It presents a great variety of well and strongly drawn characters. * » » \Ve doubt whether Mr. James were ever more successful." — Ncval and Military Gazette. " This Romance is the best which its author has produced for a long time. It will prove very popular at the libraries." — Critic. " \Vc have a notion thai this will prove the most permanently popular of ail IrFr. James's Novels, for it is compounded of those materials which delight all novel readers." — John Bull. " Mr. James has laid the scene of this lale of the 1.5lh century, on the banks of the Rhine. Admirable descriptions supply pictures of the period, such as the author can draw so well ; he realizes the superstitions of that age, and lills the dreaded unknown as \i\idly as the actual and familiar of customary existence." — Literary Gazette. HEXDBI.BERG: A Romance. By G. P. R. James, Esq. Three vols, post 8vo. price \l. lls.M. TISE STHP-MOTHEK. By G. P. R. James, Esq. In 3 vols, post 8vo. price 11. lis. Qid. ARRAEI NEILij Or, TIMES OF OLD. By G. P. R. James, Esq. Three vols, post 8vo. price 11. lis. Gd. T£IE SMUGGLER. A Ts'^ovel. By G. P. R. James, Esq. Three vols.postSvo. price 1?. ll.s. Gd. M. JAMES'S CHAPtLEMAGNE. THE HISTORY OP CHARLEiyiAGNE, With a Sketch op the State and History of Fraxce, from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the Rise of the Carloviiioian Dynasty. Bv G. P. R. James, Esq. A new edition, in demy 8vo. price 125. cloth. AUTOBIOGEAPHY OF A NEGEO SLAVE. 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In "Imagination and Fancy," Mr. Leigh Hunt has given an answer to th.e question "What is Poetry?" in an Essay that forms an Introduction to the whole range of poetical invention ; one region of which— the purely imaginative and fanciful — is investigated in a spirit of critical and genial enjoyment. '' Wit and Humour " is prefaced by an illustrative Essay, exemplify- ing the various modes ia which these qualities have been manifested in Prose and Poetry. Opinions of the Press on Wit and Humour. "The design of this delighiful series exiends beyond a collection of elegant exlracls, while it combines die best features of such collections. The two volumes already published are precisely the books one would wish to carry for companionship on a jtiurney, or to have at hand when tired of work, or at a loss what to do for want of it. They are selections of some of the best things some of our best authors have said, accompanied with short but delicate expositions and enforcements of Iheir beauties. They are truly most genial, agreeable, and social books." — E.raminer. "This is really a delightful volume, forming a proper complement and companion to its predecessor on ' Imagination and Fancy.' Each of them gives us the best passages of the best writers, in Iheir respective kinds, illustrated by one who w ill himself leave no mean remembrance to posterity, in the spirit of genial criticism, informed hy a delicate faculty of discrimination. What more could literary epicures desire?" — JMorning Chronicle. " If we were to choose the subject and the author of a fireside book for the long w inter evenings, we should certainly call some such volume as this into existence. The reader will look for exquisite things in this book, and he will find a great deal more than he looks for in the prodigal resources opened up in its pages. It is the very essence of the sunniest qualities from English poets." — Atlas. "There is something genial in the very title of this volume; and it does not belie its title. 'Wit and Humour,' forms a pendant lo 'Imagination and Fancy,' by the same author. A like design is embodied in both works. The book is at once exhilarating and suggestive : it may charm frivolous minds into wisdom, and austere ones into mirth." — AthencEuni. Opinions of the Press on Imagination and Fancy. " This volume is handsomely printed, and beautifuily bound in a new style of ex- quisite delicacy and richness. In external beauty ' Imagination and Fancy ' equals any gift-books thai have appeared; and it will form a more enduring memorial than any other volume that might be selected as a gill for tlie coming season." — Spectator. "This is a Christmas gift, worth half a dozen of the Annuals put together, and at half the cost of one of them. "NVe have often wished for such a book, and in our aspiration, the name of Leigh Uunl has ever presented itself as that of tlie man above all others qualified to do justice to so charming a subject." — l^Iomivir Chronicle. "The volume is, we trust, the precursor of many more, which will complete and do justice to the plan. The series so completed would be the best ' elegant extracts' in the language." — Ea-aminer. " This is a charming volume : both externally and internally it is most attractive." — Atlas. "It is a book that every one who has a taste must have, and every one who has not should have in order to acquire one." — Jerruld's Masruzine. " This book is tastefully got up, and we should think better of the house where we saw a well-read copy of it lying about." — Tait's Magazine. " These illustrations of ' Imagination and Fancy' are distinguished by great critical sagacity, and a remarkable appreciation of those qualities."— //fj-a/^/. The Third Volume of this Series, illustrative of "ACTIOKJ AND PASSION," Will appear in the Autumn. SIVIXTH, Zi:.2>Elt ilT73 CO., COKITKIIiX. THE OXFORD GEADUATE ON ART. "MODERN PAINTERS." Volume the First. By A Graduate of Oxforb. A New Edition, revised by the Autlior, being the Third. In imperial 8vo., uniform with Vol. 11. SECONB VOIiiUME OP " MODERN PAINTERS." Treating of the Imaginative and Theoretic Faculties. By a Graduate of Oxford. In one volume, imperial 8vo., price 10s. (ui. cloth. " We are prepared emphalically to declare, that this work is the most valuable conlri- bulion towards a proper view of painting, its purpose and means, that has come within our knowledge." — Forei/r>i Qunrtrr/t/ Review. "A work distinguished by an enlightened style of criticism, new to English readers, and by the profound observation of nature displayed by the author." — Dublin University Magazine. "This is the production of a highly gifted mind, one who has evidently bestowed time and labour to obtain a prariical knowle(i:,'e of the fine arts, and who writes eloquently, feelingly, and fearlessly." — Pohjtechnic Review. " It has seldom been our lot to take up a work more admirably conceived and written than this beautiful and elaborate essay. To a |)erfect idea of the scope of the inquiry, and a mastery of all the lecimicalities required for its due treatment, the Graduate unites considerable metapliysical power, extent of philosophical and scientific knowledge, a clear and manly style of expression, and no inconsiderable command of humour and satire." — Atlas. "The Oxford Graduate is a bold revolutionist in art Avery Luther in art-criticism He has asserted and established the claims of Landscape painting to a much higherranU than it hilherlo enjoyed The second volume of this remarkable work rises above the liisl. Indeed, we question if any but a high order of mind will embrace the fidl grandeur of its design, or follow the masterly analysis by which its propositions are elucidated." — English Gentleman. " The author now comes forward with additional force, and, we must hope, with still higher effect, on the public taste He directs his attention in the present volume from the individual artists to the art itself." — Britannia. ON T£2E SITE OP T3E2S HOIsV SEPULCHRE. AVitli a Plan of Jerusalem. By George Finlay, Esq., K.R.G., Author of" Greece under tlie Romans."-— In 8vo., price \s. Gd. A rJARRATIVS OF THE RECOVERY OP H. m.. S. GORGON. (Charle.s II()TII.\m, Esq. Captain), Stranded in tlie Bay of Monte Video, May 10. 1844. 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Gd. half-bound. *#• The Publishers have instructions tn supply to National Fchools, British and Foreign Schools, and to all schools sujjported by Voluntary Contributions, a limited number of copies, ai Gd. each. -as TVORKS JUST PXTEX,ISHSD EY THE JESUITS IN ENGLAND, THS WOVSTIATE; or the JESUIT IDJ TRAIDJING. Beinp: A Year among the English Jesuits : a Personal Narrative. By Andrew Steinmetz. Second Edition, with Memoir and Portrait of the Author. In one vol. post 8vo. pi ice Is. 6d. bound in cloth, " This is a remarkable book — a revealer of secrets, and full of materials for thouglit. .... It is written with every appearance of strict and honourable irulhlulness. It describes, with a welcome minuteness, the daily, nightly, hourly occupations of the Jesuit Novitiates at Stonyhurst, their religious exercises and manners, in private and together ; and depicts, with considerable acuteness and po^^er, the conflicts of an intelli- gent, susceptible, honest-purposed spirit, while passing through such a process. If our readers should be disposed to possess themselves of this volume, it will be (heir own fault if the reading of it be profitless." — British Quarterly Review. " This is as singular a book of its kind as has appeared since Blanco While's •Letters of Doblado,' with the advantage of dealing with the Jesuits in England, instead of Popery in Spain It will be found a very curious work." — Spectator. " If it be desirable to know what is that mode of training by which the Jesuit system prepares its novices for their duties, this is the book to inform us, for it is a chronicle of actual experience. . . . The work of Mr Sleinmetz is throughout marked by great fairness, ... he neither conceals nor exaggerates ; a spirit of candour pervades the whole narrative. . . . Could we know the experience of other novices, we should find that all have undergone, with more or less intensity, the process so vividly described in this volume. . . . It is written in an extremely animated style. The author's thoughts are original, and the passages relating to his personal history and feelings are agreeably introduced, and add to the interest of his narrative. It is a sufTicient proof of his accuracy, that, though the Jesuits have many j)cns in Ibis country, not one has been hardy enough to impugn a sentence of his statements." — Britannia. " Mr. Sleinmetz writes a most singular and interesting account of the Jesuit semi- nary, and his way of life there. ... He seems to be a perfectly honest and credible inlbimer, and his testimony may serve to enlighten many a joung devotional aspirant who is meditating 'submission' to Rome, and the chain and scourge systems. There is nothing in the least resembling invective in the volume." — Morning Chronicle. "At a time when Jesuitism seems to be rising once more, any work on this subject comes very opportunely. How the writer became a member of this mysterious body gives a key to the character of the man himself, and the spirit of his book. . . This narrative is well written, and as interesting as we expected." — Weekly Chronicle. " The woik has all the interest of a romance, and yet we do not believe that any portion of it is fictitious. . . . The author writes well, and evinces a strong and disciplined mind. The picture he draws of Jesuitism is a fearful one. The reader will find abundant matter for grave consideration in this most singular and striking volume." — John Bull. "A more remarkable work it has seldom been our fortune to peruse. We hear and read much of the Quietism and Passive Obedience inculcated amongst the Jesuit body; but liere we become personal spectators of these principles in action. . . . Mr. Stein- metz appears to be a most remarkable character. He may be received as an unbiassed witness. . . . We repeat it, Mr. Steinmeiz's book is most valuable ; earnest and truthful in its lone, and cxlreniely interesting in its detail." — New Quarterly Review. THE JESUIT IN THE FAMILV. A Tale. By Andrew Steinmetz. In one vol. post 8vo. jirice 9*. cloth. " .'\ well-written and ])owerful novel, constructed for the development of Jesuit prac- tices, and to show the Jesuit in action. The interest in some parts is intensely wrought up. iMr. Sleinmetz has produced a work of no ordinary character, full of talent and full of interest." — John Bull. " Itemarkablc for force of ideas and originality of style. * * * The narrative is dra- matic, bolh in construction and language, and marked with great vivacity. In the conduct of the story and action of the personages, Mr. Sleinmetz shows that he has closely studied human life, and profiled by his observations. Indeed, we recollect no recent fiction that gives a more acute exposition of the varieties of individual character." — Britannia. SIMIITH, BSiX>£I£ AJSH CO., COHHJ^XImI,. FIRST SEEIES OF TALES OF THE COLOXIES. tasjSS op the coLorsriES; or, the adventures OP AW EMIGRANT. By Charles Rowcroft, Esq., a late Colonial Magistrate. The Fifth Edition. In foolscap 8vo., price 6*. cloth. " 'Tales of the Colonies ' is an able and inlereslnij,' book. The author has the first great requisile in ficlion— a knowledge of the life he undertakes lo describe; and iiis matter Is solid and real." — Spectator. " This is a book, as distinguished from one of the bundles of waste paper in three divisions, calling themselves 'novels.' " — .Ithenaum. " The narration has a deep and exciting interest. No mere romance, no mere ficlion, however skilfully imagined or powerfully executed, can surpass it. The work to which it bears the nearest similitude ;s Robinson Crusoe, and it is scarcely, if al all inferior to that extraordinary history." — John Bull. " Since the time of Robinson Crusoe, literature has produced nothing like these ' Tales of the Colonies.' " — Metropolitan Magazine. " .... Romantic literature does not supply instances of wonderful escape more marvellous. . . . The book is manifesily a mixture of fact and fiction, yet it gives, we have every reason to believe, a true picture of a settler's life in that country; and is thickly interspersed w ith genuine and useful information." Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. " The contents of the first volume surpass in interest many of the novels of Sir Walter Scott." — Wesfviinster Review. " An exceedingly lively and interesting narrative, which affords a more striking view of the habits of emigrant colonial lll'e than all the regular treatises, statistical returns, and even exploratory tours which we have read. ... It combines the fidelity of truth with the spirit of a romance, and has altogether so much of De Foe in lis character and cora- posillon, that whilst we run we learn, and, led along by the variety of the incidents, become real ideal settlers in Van Diemen's Land." — Literary Gazette, SECOND SEEIES OF TALES OF THE COLONIES., THE 3USHHAKGE11 OF VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. By C. RowCROFT, Esq., Author of " Tales of the Colonies." In 3 vols, post 8vo. price \l. \\s. Gel. " These volumes have the same qunlilies that gained so much popularity for the Author's previous work ' Tales of the Colonies.' No one has dcpicled colonial lilc, as manifested in the selllemenls of Australia, with so much vigour and truth as ^Ir. Rowcroft. He rather seems to be a narrator of actual occurrences than an inventorof imaginary ones. His characters, his maimers, and his scenes are all real, lie has been compared to De Foe, and the comparison Is just." — Britannia. " These volumes form a second series of ' Tales of the Colonies,' and the pages are marked by the same vigorous and graphic pen which procured such celebrity for the first series. The Interest, generally well sustained throughout, is occasionally of the most absorbing and thrilling kind. Altogether, there is a freslmess about these volumes which brings them out In strong contrast to the vapid productions with which the press is teeming." — Globe. " The story contains all the merils of the ' Tales of the Colonies' as regards style ; being simple and Crusoite, If we might use the term, in its narrative. Mr. Rowcroft possesses invention to an extraordinary degree. In the manner in which he manages the escapes of the bushranger, — and he produces, by llie simplest incidents, most inleresliiig scenes ; — piclures of nature and of a society totally dillerent from anything lo be found elsewhere." — If'eekli/ Chronicle. FAKN'Z THE LITTLE MILLINER ; OR, TI-IE RICH AND THE POOR. By Charles Rowcroft, Esq. In one vol. Svo., handsomely bound in cloth gilt, with Plates, price Mn. — The twelve parts may be had separately, price Is. each, sewed. "WOXLIUS JtrST FXrBIiISHEI> S7 AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEiAlENT. THE FAHI^ER'S friend, a Periodical Record of Recent Dis- coveries, Iniprovernents, and Practical >Suggestions in Agriculture. One volume, post 8vo. price 7s. 6d. cloth. THE IHDIAN MEAIi BOOK: Comprising the best American Receipts for the various Preparations of that excellent Article. By Eliza Leslie, of Philadelphia; Author of " American Domestic Coolcery ; " " The House Book ; " " Seventy-five Receipts ; '' " French Cookerj ; " &c. &c. Second Edition. Foolscap 8vo. sewed in a wrapper, price Is. tid. " Next lo the corn itself, we cannot conceive a more acceptable present lo (he poor of any neighbourhood, either individually or in parochial libraries, than Miss Leslie's work. It is very simple, and embraces recipes for every purpose lo which maize is put in the I'niied States, and therefore cannot but add to the comfort of the too limited table of the labouring man." — Indian News. " This little volume cotilains about sixty receipts for difTcrcnt preparations of Indian meal, and all of which may be found useful in the threatened dearth. Maize, or Inthan corn, is now admitted lo be the best and must available substitute for the potato." — • Kconomist. THE COMMUniCATIONS BET'WEEI^ EUROPE AND irdDEA THROUGH EGYPT, Considered in relation to the Political and Commercial Interests of Great Britain, and the Policy of France. By George Finlay, Esq., K.K.G., Author of " Greece under the Romans."— In 8vo., price 2*. ijd. " A well-written and very interesting pamphlet on a subject of immense interest to the government and people of Britain, and one on wiiich, we are afraid, sullicienl attenliou has not been bestowed by the authorities in this country." — Cumberland Pacquet. A PAMIIilAR EXPLANATION OP THE ART OP ASSAYING GOI.D AND SIIjVER; And its bearing ujion the Interests of tlie Public demonstrated ; wiih considerations on the Importance of the Pix Jury; a Review of the past and present state of the Goldsmiths' Trade ; and a Table, showing the mixture a)Kl sterling value per ounce of every t|uality of Gold tliat can be alloyed. By James H. Watiierston, Goldsmith. In post 8vo., price 3*. M. cloth. EEV. H. MACKENZIE'S COMMENTAET. COKirCENTARY ON THE HOLY GOSPELS, Arranged according to the Table of Lessons for Daily Service.; designed for Family Reading. By the Rev. Henry Mackenzie, M.A., of Pembroke College, Oxford; Incumbent of Great Yarmouth. 8vo., price Is. cloth; or in Five Parts, at \s. 3d. each. LIFE m NORTH WALES. LLE'WELLYN'S HEIR; Or, North Wales; its JManners, Customs, and Superstitions during the last Century, illustrated by a Story founded on Facts. In tliree vols, jjost 8vo., price 1/. II,';. Cul. " It is a real work, with more material and original knowledge than half the manufac- tured novels thai appear in these days." — Spectator. " We can most cordially recommend it as a series of Sketches of North Wales well worthy of perusal ; so various and so carious as to be as welcome lo the library of Ihe antiquary and portfolio of the artist as lothe leisure hour of the novel reader."— Z(7t'7-ff?y Gazette. Sl^XTH, SIiSER A:N'S CO., COSlTTHIIiIi. ME. PRIDHAM'S ACCOUNT OF THE COLOxMES. :S?IGI>AND'S COLONIAIj EiaPXRE. An Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of tlie Bkitish Empire, its Colonies and Dependencies. By Ciiaules Pridham, Esq., B.A., Member of the Royal Geographical Society, kc. Volume I. — Comprisinf; THE MAURITIUS AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. "The first volume of a work inlcnded to romplclcly exhibit Engl.inti's (!oloiiial Empire. The author is Mr. Pridham, who, in a modest preface, apologizes for having at so early an age undertaiien so gigantic a task. The first volume, however, shows no lack of eiliii'r ability, research, or knowledge. It is occupied with an excellent account of the Mauritius, divided into four parts : the first part gives its history from its discovery by the Portuguese to the present time; the second describes its inhabilanis, and their institutions and stales ; the third its physical features and natural productions; and the fourth its industry, com- merce, and government. Ample information is given on all these heads, and regarding the extent of the author's design, and the evidence he gives of the requisite (pialilicalion to carry it out satisfactorily, we make no doubt that his work will be a valuable addition to the history and geography of our colonial empire. The present volume is complete in itself." — liritannia. " This is the first volume of what promises to be an important national work. The instalment now before us is brimful of valuable and interesting information, making up by far the most complete account of Mauritius which bas yet been given to (he world. The author has the qualifications necessary to the due fuliilraent of the task whicli he has set himself. He is patient and pains-taking, accurate and impartial." — .-Itlas. " This is the first volume of a series, which we hope to see completed in the spirit with which the task has been undertaken. As a whole, we are bound to say that the book is a standard one, and that 'England's Colonial Empire has met with a chronicler of zeal, industry, and ability." — Colonial Gaztttr. " There is no other such description of the IMaurilius exiant. The author has not only consulted the best, and perhaps all the authorities, but he has added information of his own, apparently gathered on the spot." — Economist. clinicaiji illustrations or the diseases op INDIA: As Exhibited in the :Medical History of a Body of Europe.\n Soldiers, for a Series of Years from their Arrival in that Country. By William Geddes, M.D., Member of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, and the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta, and late Surgeon of the Madras European Regiment. la one vol. 8vo. Price lOs. cloth. " It is hardly possible to conceive a more complete medical history than the one fur- nished by Dr. Geddes. He has conferred an inestimable benefit upon medical science; and no jiractitioner who regards either his interest or his duty can be without the book." — Indian Sews. "To the medical ofTicers in India, and especially to (hose about to proceed thither, this will be found a valuable book of reference, and well nierils to be included in the list of works wilh \\hich odicers are required to provide themselves on joining the service." — British and Foreign Medical Revieiv. " We strongly recommend every medical man going to the East Indies to have a copy of it at Ills side, as alTording an excellent pattern for him to follow in (he acrumulalion and arrangement of his observations when engaged in practice. Dr. (icddes has done for the symptoms of the diseases which he describes what Louis has done for the microscopic phenomena of fever." — Medico-Chirurgical Review. "The leading characters of this volume are great precision .ind accuracy. This work must be referred to as a source of correct information on most questions relating to the diseases prevalent among Europeans in India." — Edinburirk Medical and Hurgicd Journal. " The hook will be valuable to every future practitioner as a means of knowing the suc- cess of certain methods of treating the diseases of India ; and the student will find in it a minute description of those diseases which he is most likely to meet, should he be destined to serve in the East." — Lancet. 10 "WOKKS FUBXiISHEB BV d^igsrcllautous^ THE BUTIES OP JUBGE ADVOCATES, Compiled from II ek Majesty's and the Hon. East India Com- pany's MiLiTAHY Regulations, and from the Works of various Writers on Military Law. By Captain R. M. Hughes, 12th Regiment Bombay Army ; Deputy Judge-Advocate General, Scinde Field Force. In one vol. post 8vo., price la. cloth. " Captain Hughes's little volume on this important subject will well supply the absence of that full and parlicular inl'orraalion which ofQcers suddenly appointed lo act as 'Deputy Judge Advocates' must have fell the want of, even though tolerably well versed in military law." — Spectator. " A professional vade-vieciun., relating to most important duties, and executed in the ablest manner. We consider this, the only complete separate treatise on the suliject, to be one of great value, and deserving the study of every British officer."— i^iY. Gazette. " This book is a digest as well as a compilation, and may be emphatically called ' The Hand-Book of Military Justice.' "—Atlas. " We recommend the work to every British officer." — Army and Navy Register. THE WOTE-BOOK OF A NATUEIALIST. By E. P. Thompson. Post 8vo., price Qs. cloth. " The author of this modestly-styled 'Note- Book ' not only possesses and communi- cates scientific intelligence, but he has travelled far and near, and from very infancy been devoted to natural history We rely on the quolalions to support our opinion of the very agreeable and various character of this volume." — Literary Gazette. " In all that relates to original observation the ' Note-Book of a Naturalist ' is agreeable, interesting, and fresh. . . . The more original and numerous passages may vie with the observations of Jesse. In fact, there is a considerable resemblance between the two authors. Anecdote is subslanlially the character of the better part." — Spectator. SCESffES IH TKE LIFE OP A SOLDIER OP FORTUHS. By a Member of the Imperial Guards. In I2mo., price 5^. " This tale has a strange personal history. It purports to be the autobiography of an Kalian soldier, who fought under the banners of the french Republic; and who, later in life, when become a teacher, told his story to an English traveller, his pupil, who has here set it down." — Tail's Magazine. ^ OUR ACTRESSES; Or, GLANCES AT STAGE FAVOURITES, Past and Present. By Mrs. C. Bakon Wilson, Autboiess of the " Life of the Duchess of St. Albans," " Memoirs of Monk Lewis,'' &c. &c. In 2 vols, post 8vo., illustrated with numerous Engravings on Steel, from new and original Portraits, price 2-l«. cloth. " Handsome volumes, adorned with several portraits, and the biographies are full of amusing anecdotes." — Atlas. " So attractive are the stage and its denizens that considerable amusement will be derired from the perusal of these pages." — Literary Gazette. s»siTH, £:&i>si£ jaiJ3 CO., coJiisrm:LjM. n PRYINGS OP A POSTMAN. In one vol. post 8vo., price os. CKRXSTMAS PESTIVITIES : TALES, SKETCHES, AND CHARACTERS. 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Arranged upon tlie improved system recommended in the " Home Booli ;" and exhibiting tlie ^^'celi.ly, IMontlily, Quarterly, and Annual Expenditure for every article of Domestic consumption. For the use of either large or small Families. By the Author of the "The Home Book." Post 4to., half-bound, price is. Gd. " Tiiese two useful lillle volumes form the most complete system of Domestic Slanage- mcnt for the guidance of the young Housekeeper tlial has ever appeared. Of the Home Book we cannot speak loo highly." — Ginitle man's Magasinr. " Incomparably the best arranged work of its class that we have seen." — La Belle ^Issemblce. A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY OF THE 'WOOLLEN TRADE. From the earliest Records to tlie ])resent Period, comprising the Woollen and Worsted .Manufactures, and the Natural and Commercial History of Sheep, with the various Breeds and Modes of Management in diiferent Countries. By James Bischoff, Estp In two large volumes, 8vo., illustrated witli Plates, price 1/. 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ASSURANCES UPON I.IVES, A Familiar Explanation of the Nature, Advantages, and Import- ance arising therefrom, and the various Purposes to which they may be usefully applied : including also a particular Account of the routine required for Effecting a Policy ; and of the diflerent systems of Life Assurance now in use, the Principles, Terms, and Tables of Seventy London Assurance Offices, &c. By Lewis Pocock, F.S.A. In post 8vo, price 75. cloth. " There are no teclinicalilies in Mr. Pocock's work to prevent its beinp; useful lo all ; and those, therefore, who are likely lo have recourse lo Life Insurance will do wisely in consulting this familiar explanation of ils nature and advantages." — Globe. AN INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSES AND MODES OP THE ■WEALTH OP INDIVIDUALS J Or, The Principles of Trade and Speculation Explained. By Thomas Corret, Esq. Post 8vo, price 0*. cloth. " Mr. Corbet deserves our best ihanks for laying down so clearly and methodically his ideas on the subject of such vast importance." — New Monthly Magazine. OUTLINES OP NAVAL ROUTINE; Being a Concise and Com])lete Manual in Fitting, Refitting, Quartering, Stationing, Making and Shortening Sail, Heaving down, Rigging Shears, and, in short, performinu" all the ordinary duties of a Man-ol'-War, according to the best practice. By Lieutenant Alexander D. FoRDYCE, R.N. In royal 8vo, price \0s. Gd. boards. ESSAY ON THE LIPE AND INSTITUTIONS OF OFPA, KING OP MERGIA, A.D. 7.5o— 794. By the Rev. Henry Mackenzie, M.A. In 8vo. price 3s. Gd. in clotli, gilt leaves. "A very scholarly eomposilion, displaying much research and informalion respecting the .\nglo-Saxon institutions." — Spectator. SI^XTH, EXiSSB. ANH CO., COK.IfHIX.Ii. 13 THE OBLiIGATIONS OF LITERATURE TO THE MOTHERS OF ElMGLAIfflJ. Prize Essay, 1840. By Caroline A. IIalsted. In one vol. post 8vo., price 5s. neatly bound in cloth. "The object of the writer has been to show the services rendered by the mothers of England to religion and the stale, and to science and learning generally; and the examples adduced display considerable knowledge and research, and are always happily selected and placed in the most attractive point of view." — Britannia. THE LIFE OF MARGARET BEAUFORT, Countess of Richmond and Derby, and Mother of King Henry the Seventh, Foundress of Christ's and of St. John's College, Oxl'ord ; Being the Historical Memoir for which the Honorary Premium was awarded by the Directors of the Gresham Commemoration, Crosby Hall. By Caroline A. Halsted, Author of " Investigation," &c. In one vol. demy 8vo., with a Portrait, price \2s. "This work cannot fail of success. The subject is deeply interesting, and has been hitherto almost unexplored. The style is chaste and correct, and it has high claims to popularity wide and permanent. On many topics the authoress has accumulated some valuable historical details from sources which have not hitherto been consulted, and has thus compiled a work which, if not enlillcd to rank amongst the 'curiosities of literature,' is at least one of the most interesting and instructive books of the season." — .Itlas. THE LAST OP TSSE PL ANT AGE WETS: An Historical Narrative, illustrating some of the Public Events and Domestic and Ecclesiabtical J\Ianners of the Fifteenth and Sixttenth Centuries. Third Edition. In one vol. fcap. 8vo., price 75. Gd. cloth boards. "This is a work that must make its way into a permanent place in our literature. The quaintness of its language, the touching simplicity of its descriptions and dialogues, and the reverential spirit of love which breathes through it, will insure it a welcome reception amongst all readers of refined taste and discernment." — Atlas. AXGLO-SAXOX LITEEATUEE. Ar^ALECTA ANGLO-SAXOrJICA. A Selection, in Prose and Verse from Anglo-Saxon Authors of various Ages; with a Glossary. By Benjamin Thorpe, F'.S.A. A New Edition, corrected and revised. Post 8vo., price Vis. cloth. THE AKGLO-SAXOW VERSION OF THE STORlf OP APOLLONIUS OF TYRE, Upon which is founded the Play of '' Pericles," attributed to Shakspcare ; from a MS. in the Library of Christ Church College, Cambridge. With a Literal Translation, ii:c. By Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. Post 8vo., price G5. A GRAMMAR OF THE ANGLO-SAXON TONGUE, With a Praxis. By Erasmus Hask, Professor of Literary History in, and Librarian to, the University of Copenhagen, k.c. &;c. A New Edition, enlarged and improved by the Author. Translated from the Danish, by B. Thorpe, Honorary Member of the Icelandic Literary Society of Copenhagen. 8vo., price Vlt, ^ 14 "WORKS FUSZ.XSHSX> SV UNDER THE AUSPICES OF H. M. GOVERNMENT, AND OP THE HON. THE COURT OF DIRECTORS OP THE EAST INDIA COMPANY. FAUNA AWTTIQUA SIVALENSIS, The Fossil Zoology of the Sewalik Hills, in the Nortli of India. By Hugh Falconer, M.D., F.R S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Member of the Asiatic Society of Benu^al, and of the Royal Asiatic Society or tlie Bengal Medical Service, and late Superintendent of the H. R. I.C. Botanic Garden at Saharunpoor : and Proby T. Cautley, F.G.S., Major in the Bcncal Artillery, Member of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, &c. Edited by Hugh Falconer. Plnn of PuhUcafion. — The work will appear in about Twelve Parts, to be published at intervals of four months ; each Part containing from Twelve to Fifteen folio Plates. The descriptive Letterpress will be printed in roval octavo. Price of each Part, one Guinea. — Part I. contains Proboscidea. — Parts II. and III., containing the continuation of Proboscidea, will be published shortly. Prospectuses of the Work may be obtained of the Publishers. " A work of immense labour and research Nothing has ever appeared in lithography in this country at all comparable to these plates ; and as regards the repre- sentations of minute osseous texture, by Mr. Ford, they are perhaps the most perfect that have yet been produced in any country. . . . The work has commenced with the Elephant group, in which the authors say ' is most signally displayed the numerical rich- ness of forms which characterises the Fossil Fauna of India;' and the first chapter relates to the Proboscidea — Elephant and Mastodon. The aulliors have not restricted themselves to a description of the Sewalik I'ossil forms, but they propose to trace the alfmities, and institute an arrangement of all the well-determined species in the family. They give a brief historical sketch of the leading opinions which have been entertained by palfeontologists respecting the relations of the Mastodon and Elephant to each other, and of the successive steps in the discovery of new forms which have led to the modifica- tions of these opinions. They stale that the results to which they themselves have been conducted, lead them to dilTer on certain points from the opinions most commonly enter- tained at the present day, respecting the fossil species of Elephant and Mastodon." — .'Ji/dress of the President of the Geological Society of London, 20lh Feb. 1846. Works recently Published and in progress under the authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. * * In order to secure to science the full advantage of Discoveries in IVafural History, the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty s Treasury have been pleased to make a liberal grant of money towards defraying part of the capenses of the fol- lowing important publications. They have, in consequence, been undertaken on a scale luorthy of the high patronage thus received, and are offered to the public at a viiich lower price than would otherwise have been possible. I. ILItUSTRATSOMS OP THE ZOOLiOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA. Comprising all the new species of Quadrupeds, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes, obtained during the Expedition fitted out by " The Cape of Good Hope Association for exploring Central Africa," in the years 1834, 1835, and 1836, with Letterpress Descriptions, and a Summary of African Zoology. By Andrew Smith, M.D., Surgeon to the Forces, and Director of the Expedition. In Royal Quarto Parts, price \Qs. and 12s. each, containing on an average ten beautifully coloured Engravings, with descriptive Letterpress. The whole of the Plates are engraved in the highest style of art, from the Original Drawings taken expressly for this Work, and beautifully coloured after nature. Twenty-four Parts are now published. S^VrXTH, SXIQSR ANH CO., COl^MHIIiXi. 15 II. THE ZOOJL.OG'S' OF TF3E VOVAGE OP 3K.M.S. SULPHUR, Under the Command of Captain Sir ED^VARD Belcher, R.N., C.B. F.R.G.S., &c. Edited and Superintended by Richard Brinsley Hinds, Esq., Surgeon R.N., attached to the Expedition. The extensive and protracted voyage of Her Majesty's Ship " Suljjhur," having been productive of many new and valuable additions to Natural History, a number of which are of considerable scientific interest, it has been determined to publish them in a collected form, with illustrations of such as are hitherto new or unfigured. The collection has been assembled from a variety of countries, embraced within the limits of a voyage prosecuted along the shores of North and South America, among the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and in the circumnavigation of the globe. In many of these, no doubt, the industry and research of previous navigators may have left no very prominent objects unobserved, yet in others there will for some time remain abundant scope for t!ie Naturalist. Among the countries visited by the " Sulphur," and which in the present state of science arc invested with more particular interest, may be mentioned the Californias, Columbia River, the North-west coast of America, the Feejee Group (a portion of the Friendly Islands), New Zealand, New Ireland, New Guinea, China, and Madagascar. In Royal Quarto Parts, price 10s. each, with beautifully coloured Plates. This Work is now Complete, and may be had in sewed Parts, price 51., or in half-russia, or cloth binding, at a small addition to the price. — Parts I. and II. contain Mammalia, by J. E. Gray, Esq., p.p. S.— Parts III. and IV. Birds, by J. Gould, Esq., F.L.S.— Parts v., IX., and X. Fisii, by J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. — Parts VI., VII., and VIII. Shells, by R. B. Hinds, Esq. III. THE BOTANY OP THE VOYAGE OP H.M.S. SULPHUR, Under the Command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher, R.N. , C.B. , F.R.G.S., &c., during the years 1836—42. Edited and Superintended by Richard Bkinsley Hinds, Esq., Surgeon R.N., attached to the Expedition. The Botanical Descriptions by George Bentiiam, Esq. This "Work is now Complete, and maybe had in six sewed Parts, price 3/., or in half-russia, or cloth binding, at a small addition to the price. ■u 16 -V(r03l2£S PVBIiISHSB BT PUBLISHED WITII THE APPROVAL OF THE LORDS COMMISSIONERS OF HER majesty's TREASURY. GEOIaOGSCAIj OBSSHVATZOHS MABE BURIJJG THS vo"^Aas or 22. m. s. BBAaiiS, Under the Command of Captain Fitzroy, R.N. Part I.— On Coral Fonnations. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S., Sec. G. S., kc. Demy 8vo., with Plates and Woodcuts, price 15s. in cloth. Part II.— On the Volcanic Islands of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Together with a brief Notice of tlie Geology of the Cape of Good Hope, and of part of Australia. By Charles Darwin, M.A., Esq. Price 10s. 6d. demy 8vo. cloth, with Map. Part III. — On the Geology of South America. By Charles Darwin, M.A., Esq. Demy 8vo., with Map and Plates, price 12^. cloth. AK INQUIitV INTO THE NATURE AND COURSE OP STORMS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN, South of the Equator; with a view of discovering their Origin, Extent, Rotatory Character, Rate and Direction of Progression, Barometrical Depression, and other concomitant phenomena; for tho ])ractical purpose of enabling ships to ascertain the proximity and relative position of Hurricanes ; with suggestions on the means of avoiding tliem. By Alexander Tuom, Surgeon 8Cth Royal County Down Regiment. In one vol. 8vo., with Map and Plates, price I2s. cloth. "The work before us is most valuable to seamen. . . . Mr. Thorn e;ives us the result of his observations at the Mauritius; a station wliich is peculiarly well adapted for ob- serving the hurricanes of the Indian Ocean, the ravages of whicii seamen have annually experienced; and those observations, combined with the results obtained by indefatigable enquiry, have entitled him to the gratitude of seamen, who may now profit by them. . . Mr. Thorn's theory is rational and philosophical, and to us it is most satisfactory. . . . There are important considerations for seamen in this work." — Nautical Magazine. " The author proceeds in strict accordance with the princi[ilcs of inductive philosopiiy, and collects all bis facts before he draws his inferences or propounds a theory, llis statements are so full and clear, and drawn from such simple sources, yet are so decisive in their tendency, that we think there can be no doubt he has established the rotatory action of storms. The practical application of his investigations are too palpable to be missed." — Britannia. A DISSERTATION ON THE TRUE AGE OP THE EARTH, As Ascertained from the Holy Scriptures. Containing a Review of the Opinions of Ancient and Modern Chronologers, including Usher, Hales, Clinton, and Cuninghame; and a Chronological Table of the Principal Epoclis and Events in Sacred and Profane History, from the Creation to the Present Time. By Professor Wallace. In demy 8vo., price 12*. cloth. " it is learned and laborious." — Britannia. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES, CHEMICAL AND AGRICULTURAL. Part I. contains — Carbon a Compound Body made by Plants, in quan- tities varying with the circumstances under which they are placed. — Part II. Decomposition of Carbon during the Putrefactive Fermentation. By Robert Riug, F.R.S. In demy 8vo., price 7*. Gd. ST/ITTH, SIiBSR AWZ> CO., CORXl'HII>3:>. 17 ILLUSTEATED WOEKS ON NATUE.\L HISTOEY BY CAPTAIN THOMAS BEOWN. ILLUSTRATIONS OP THE RECEIPT CONCKOLOGY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. With the Description and Localities of all the Species, — Marine, Land, and Fresh-Water. Drawn and Coloured from Nature, by Captain Thomas Brown, F.L.S., M.W.S., M.K.S., Member of tlie Manclicster Geological Society. In one vol. royal 4to., illustrated with fifty-nine beautifully coloured Plates, price G3s. cloth. ILLUSTRATIONS OP TilS FOSSIL CONCHOLOG'? OP GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. By Captain Thomas Brown, F. L. S. To be completed in about Thirty Numbers, each containing four Plates. Royal 4to., price 3^. coloured, and 2*. plain. Twenty-eight Numbers have api^eared, and the work will soon be completed. ILLUSTRATIONS OP THE GENERA OP BIRDS. Embracing their Generic Characters, with Sketches of their Habits, By Captain Thomas Brown, F.L.S. Now pubhshing in Numbers, royal 4to., each containing four Plates, price ds. coloured. Part I. is just completed, price 3Qs. cloth. 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