v^ 8 '|% Division of Agricultural Sciences UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA - VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY Symptoms: Scabby lesions at corners of mouth, eye- M^. lids, bottom of feet, vent; feathers $^PS&M M* ■ H broken, giving ragged appearance. Note *l i©^B ; w -: «H h incrustations at corners of mouth, the first symptom. Age: 2 to 15 weeks. Nutrients involved: ..-.. ■-*;:.: '":■: >*; ....; 1 ' ' = ^ ■■■■;■■ T 1 Lack of pantothenic acid or biotin. An- .jK other kind of dermatitis sometimes occurs << ^SwililW!^llWi^^^^ V . "igmm 'up i»~- ^^#™ under field conditions, but there is no _^ evidence that a simple dietary deficiency is the cause. DERMATITIS Symptoms: Chicks walk on hocks, feet extended stiffly with toes curled inward. Age: 1 to 15 weeks. Nutrients involved: Riboflavin deficiency. of a number of nutritional disorders or by faulty manageme iii the body into vitamin D. and can com- pletely fill the bird's requirement for vi- tamin 1). However, not all birds are ex- posed to direct sunlight, and atmospheric conditions such as clouds, fog, and smoke reduce the amount of ultraviolet light. Very little ultraviolet light passes through ordinary window glass. It is therefore a good practice to supply in the ration all the needed vitamin D. Dry products containing synthetic vi- tamin I), or feeding oils are supplements commonly used in poultry rations. Vita- min D is usually more stable than Vita- min A, but its stability is affected by many of the conditions affecting vitamin A. Do not premix concentrates of vitamin D with mineral or granular materials such as dried milk products, unless the product is specially stabilized. Such pre- mixing may, for some unknown reason, destroy the vitamin. Vitamin E. This vitamin is known as alpha tocopherol. The most common symptoms of a vita- min E deficiency are incoordinated move- ments of the legs, wings, and neck, some- times followed by convulsions. A similar condition which was observed in the field and had been referred to as "crazy-chick disease" or sometimes as encephalomala- cia, is now regarded as a result of vita- min E deficiency. There is an abnormal movement of fluid into the brain and other tissues, and the skin may have a reddish appearance. The symptoms of vitamin E deficiency must not be con- fused with the paralysis symptoms of neurolymphomatosis (fowl paralysis), or with the virus disease avian encephalo- myelites (epidemic tremor) which are not related to vitamin E deficiency. A deficiency of vitamin E in the diet of young poults results in the develop- ment of an enlarged hock condition. This condition may be aggravated by a min- eral imbalance and also by the presence of an excessive level of an easily oxidi/ed fat such as fish oil. Vitamin E is present in the cereal com- ponents of poultry rations, and in dehy- drated alfalfa meal, liver meal, and fresh greens, so that our usual poultry rations are not likely to be lacking in this factor. Because vitamin E, like vitamin A, is rapidly destroyed by rancid fats, use no rancid ingredients in the poultry rations. Some antioxidants protect the vitamin E of the ration. Vitamin K. This vitamin was discov- ered when it was observed that birds maintained on a special ration bled se- verely after being wing-banded. The main consequence of a vitamin K deficiency is the inability of the blood to clot. In recent years some outbreaks of a hemorrhagic disease have appeared un- der field conditions. This is probably not a simple vitamin K deficiency. The cause for this condition is still in doubt. A rich source of vitamin K is alfalfa: therefore, practical rations which con- tain as little as 2 per cent of alfalfa meal contain adequate amounts of this vita- min. Water-Soluble Vitamins Riboflavin. Riboflavin is required by chicks for normal growth and for the pre- vention of curled-toe paralysis, which de- velops when chicks are fed a ration slightly deficient in riboflavin. The birds walk on their hocks, with their legs ex- tended stiffly in front of them and the toes curled inward, as shown in the pho- tograph on page 9. The sciatic nerves show a typical enlargement. Turkey poults deficient in riboflavin have ragged feathers and a listless, un- thrifty appearance; their hock joints are enlarged and they have difficulty in standing. They grow r very slowly, and mortality is high. The toes are, however, normal. Riboflavin is needed by mature chick- ens and turkeys to maintain egg produc- tion and hatchability at normal levels. Tn chickens, developing embryos from hens fed riboflavin-deficient diets show [10 "clubbed down," edema (abnormal amount of fluid in tissues), and other abnormalities. Among such embryos there is a high death rate during the mid- dle part of the incubation period. Fur- ther, the chicks which do hatch are less likely to survive than chicks hatched from eggs containing amounts of ribo- flavin adequate for normal hatchability. The cereals are generally poor sources of riboflavin: other sources of the vita- min must be added to the ration to insure an adequate supply. Milk products, liver meal, alfalfa meal, and various fermenta- tion products are among the rich natural sources. Synthetic riboflavin is also widely used. Although pure riboflavin is destroyed by direct sunlight, it is relatively stable in mixed feeds. Exposure of feed to di- rect sunlight for several days results in only slight losses of riboflavin. Pantothenic Acid. This vitamin is needed more by turkey poults and breed- ing hens than by chickens. Chicks fed ra- tions deficient in pantothenic acid grow slowly and develop dermatitis. The der- matitis starts with the appearance of in- crustations at the corners of the beak and on the eyelids. As the condition becomes more severe the eyes become stuck shut (see photo on page 00), and the body and feet may bear scabby lesions. The feathers become very brittle. Poults sel- dom develop dermatitis, but poor growth and high mortality are observed when de- ficient rations are fed. Chicken and tur- key hens need pantothenic acid for good hatchability. However, the embryos of chicken eggs from hens fed diets deficient in pantothenic acid (unlike those from hens given riboflavin-deficient diets) show no characteristic deformities. In turkey embryos, lack of sufficient panto- thenic acid sometimes results in a wiry down condition. A form of dermatitis which is some- times observed under field conditions re- sembles the dermatitis of pantothenic acid deficiency, but has not been shown to be the result of a specific nutritional deficiency. No cause for this field condi- tion is yet known. Among the good natural sources of pantothenic acid are liver meal, con- densed fish solubles, molasses, milk prod- ucts, alfalfa meal, and peanut meal. If riboflavin is supplied by natural feedstuffs, the ration is not likely to be deficient in pantothenic acid, since feeds rich in riboflavin are usually rich in pan- tothenic acid. Synthetic calcium panto- thenate and supplements which contain it are also used as pantothenic acid sources in some rations. Choline. Chicks and poults require choline for normal growth and for the prevention of perosis (slipped tendon). Perosis is characterized by the swelling of the hock joint, rotation of the shank outward, and in severe cases by the slip- ping of the tendon from the bones at the hock joint (see photo on page 00). Ei- ther or both legs may be affected. Birds suffering from this condition may have difficulty in obtaining enough feed and water, and may be trampled by their pen- mates. Perosis may also be caused by a deficiency of manganese, biotin, niacin, or folic acid. Where wire floors are used, perosis may be more frequent than where litter is used. Chickens of the heavy breeds, moreover, seem to be more susceptible to perosis than birds of the light breeds. Adult chickens and turkeys have the ability to make choline in their bodies, so the choline content of their rations need not be considered. The level of choline required for perosis prevention is greater than for growth of chicks and poults. Liver meal, fish meal, and some oil meals are good sources of choline and synthetic choline chloride is readily available for feed use. Niacin (Nicotinic Acid). Niacin, one of the B-complex vitamins, is required in relatively large amounts for normal growth and good feathering. Other than [in rations for chicken fryers and for start- ing poults, practical poultry rations are not likely to be deficient in niacin, since barley, wheat and wheat by-products, al- falfa meal, liver meal, fish meal and meat scraps are good sources of niacin. Syn- thetic niacin is also widely used. The principal danger of a niacin defi- ciency occurs when corn is fed in large amounts; corn is particularly low in nia- cin. Corn is also low in tryptophan, which the chick can use for the manufac- ture of niacin. Niacin deficiency is one of the many causes of perosis (see cho- line, above). Perosis in poults due to a deficiency of niacin is aggravated by a deficiency of vitamin E; this, in turn, may be induced by feeding an unsatu- rated fat such as fish oil. Vitamin B ]2 . Another vitamin of prac- tical importance for chickens and turkeys is vitamin B 12 , which was previously called, among other names, the animal protein factor. This cobalt-containing nu- trient is particularly important for repro- duction and for early growth, and large amounts are normally stored in the egg yolk. The requirements may be satisfied by inclusion in the diet of 2 per cent to 5 per cent of such rich sources as liver meal, condensed fish solubles, fish meal, dried skim milk, and dried buttermilk. Fermentation sources of vitamin B 12 are also widely available and inexpensive, and it is a wise procedure to add a con- centrate to satisfy the total needs. Breed- ing turkeys have less critical needs than breeding chickens. The following water-soluble vitamins are not likely to be deficient in practical rations: Thiamine, or Vitamin B , is re- quired by chicks and poults for normal growth and for the prevention of nervous disorders. Since the cereals and their by- products contain large amounts of thia- mine, practical poultry rations provide ample amounts of this vitamin. Pyridoxine (Vitamin B,.). The lack of pyridoxine in chick and poult rations retards growth and gives rise to convul- sions and other nervous symptoms. Breeding hens require pyridoxine for good hatchability. This vitamin is rela- tively stable in feedstuffs, and there is no indication that practical rations are de- ficient in it. Biotin. Biotin is needed by chicks and poults for normal growth and the preven- tion of perosis and dermatitis. The der- matitis caused by a biotin deficiency is different from the dermatitis of panto- thenic acid deficiency. Its first symptom is a thickening of the skin on the bot- toms of the feet, followed by a cracking of the skin. Later, as the condition be- comes more severe, the corners of the mouth, the eyes, and the body skin may be involved. Breeding hens need biotin for good hatchability; low hatchability and mal- formed embryos result when the ration contains inadequate amounts of biotin. Corn, barley, soybean oil meal, and al- falfa meal are good sources of the vita- min, hence a deficiency of biotin in poul- try feeds is very unlikely. However, feed- ing raw egg white causes the biotin in the ration to become unavailable to the bird. Egg white should always be cooked to make biotin available, and also to pre- vent the spread of disease. Folic Acid (Folacin). This vitamin is required by chicks for normal growth and for the prevention of anemia, and is needed for good hatchability in both chickens and turkeys. Poults deficient in folic acid grow slowly and have abnor- mal red blood cells. Folic acid deficiency also causes poor feathering in young birds. Alfalfa meal and liver meal are good folic acid sources. Usually practical rations containing soybean oil meal and alfalfa meal need no special considera- tion given to this vitamin. Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C). Ascorbic acid is needed by the tissues, but birds have the ability to make sufficient amounts of it. It is therefore unnecessary to add ascorbic acid to the ration. [12] MINERALS . . . All birds need a continuous supply of minerals — to form new bone and soft tissue in the growing bird, to replace minerals lost by excretion, to form eggs, and for other vital functions. Common poultry feedstuffs may not sup- ply all mineral requirements. The minerals known to be required are calcium, phosphorus, sodium and chlo- rine (combined as sodium chloride, com- mon salt), manganese, magnesium, po- tassium, iron, copper, and iodine. Sulfur must be provided by the amino acids methionine and cystine. Zinc, though needed by some other animals, has not yet been shown to be needed by poultry. Cobalt is supplied in small amounts by vitamin B 12 . The mineral requirements are summarized in the table on this page. Calcium and Phosphorus: These two most important constituents of bone are required in large amounts by the growing bird. The laying hen also needs large amounts of calcium for the manu- facture of egg shells. Both calcium and phosphorus are needed for the normal functioning of many tissues besides bone. For efficient utilization of calcium and phosphorus, the animal requires an ade- quate amount of vitamin D. A deficiency of vitamin D increases the calcium and phosphorus requirements. Also, the ratio of calcium to phosphorus in the diet af- fects the vitamin D requirement: when the ratio of calcium to phosphorus de- viates very far from two to one, more vitamin D is needed to maintain the effi- cient use of these minerals. Some of the phosphorus found in plant cells is not readily available to the chicken; good diets contain some inor- ganic phosphorus sources. A lack of calcium, phosphorus, or vita- min D results in poor growth and poor calcification (mineralization) of the bones — the nutritional disease condition called rickets (see photograph on page 3). Sodium Chloride (Salt): The require- ment for salt is not more than 0.5 per cent of the diet. Very low levels may re- Mineral Requirements of Chickens and Turkeys Stated as Percentage or Amount per Pound of Feed Calcium (per cent) . . . Phosphorus (per cent) Salt (per cent ....... Potassium (per cent) . Manganese, mg Iodine, mg. ......... Magnesium, mg Chickens Start- ing 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.2 25. 0.5 220. Source: National Research Council. Grow- ing 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.16 0.2 Lay- ing 2.25 0.6 0.5 0.2 Breed- ing 2.25 0.6 0.5 15. 0.5 Turkeys Poults 2.0 1.0 0.5 25. Grow- ing 2.0 1.0 0.5 Breed- ing 2.25 .75 0.5 15. [13 suk in poor growth; moderately high levels may cause loose droppings; very high levels may be poisonous. In a poult ration, too much sail (over 2 per cent) causes digestive disturbances and ascites or "water belly." Manganese: Manganese deficiency in chick and poult ration results in pero- sis, a disease of the hock joint (see cho- line, page 11), and in abnormally short and poorly mineralized bones. In hens, a manganese deficiency results in poor production, thin egg shells, low hatch- ability, and embryo deformities. An ex- cess of calcium or phosphorus raises the manganese requirement. Many feedstuffs do not contain enough manganese to meet the bird's needs; supplements of manganese salts are therefore added to most poultry rations. Magnesium: Magnesium deficiency in chickens results in poor growth and in convulsions (caused by a breakdown of certain brain cells). Although the chick- en's magnesium requirement is high, practical rations always supply enough. On the other hand, feeding excessive amounts of magnesium results in poor growth, poor calcification of the bones, and production of thin-shelled eggs. The magnesium needs of turkeys have not been determined. Iron and Copper: Iron is required for red blood cell formation ; copper aids in iron utilization. Feedstuffs ordinarily contain more than enough of both min- erals to satisfy poultry needs. Potassium: Vegetable materials con- tain relatively large amounts of potas- sium. Thus a deficiency in practical ra- tions is unlikely. Iodine: The animal needs iodine for the manufacture of thyroxine (the thy- roid hormone). In addition, some feed- stuffs, such as soybean oil meal, contain substances which cause goiter (enlarge- ment of the thyroid gland) ; iodine is necessary in the diet to prevent this con- dition. When marine products (for ex- ample, fish meal or shell flour) are in- cluded in the ration, supplementary iodine is not usually needed. But when high levels of soybean oil meal are fed, it is desirable to use iodized salt in the ration. MISCELLANEOUS . . Several other factors of thickens and poultry Antibiotics The use of antibiotics in rations for growing birds has become widespread. The exact reason for the slight increase in the rate of growth observed in birds fed antibiotics is not known ; it is proba- bly brought about by inhibiting certain detrimental microorganisms in the intes- tinal tract. The best evidence for this ex- planation is the fact that birds raised in new quarters do not respond to antibiotic feeding. Similar birds raised in quarters in which poultry have been kept for some time usually give a growth response. The level of antibiotics fed for the growth effect is much lower than is cus- tomarily used for treatment of poultry [14 importance in the nutrition of diseases. The growth effects of antibiotics are greatest for young birds although they may continue for 12 to 15 weeks for growing turkeys. The responses obtained often vary from ranch to ranch, probably due to differences in microbial popula- tions at the different locations. There is no advantage in feeding an antibiotic to laying or breeding hens, except in un- usual instances when low production or hatchability are due to a disease condi- tion. Arsenicals Certain organic arsenic compounds are available for feeding to poultry. Un- der some conditions these compounds ] cause a slightly more rapid rate of growth in young chickens and turkeys. This growth increase seems unrelated to that caused by antibiotics. The mechanism by which these compounds are active is not known but it may be due to alteration in the microbial flora in the intestinal tract in a manner similar to that of antibiotics. // you use arsejiicals, watch out for two things: 1. Do not feed at higher levels than recommended. Lameness and a tendency for the birds to sit down occa- sionally occur when certain arsenicals are fed at levels only slightly above those recommended to increase growth. 2. Dis- continue arsenical feeding five days be- fore marketing to prevent accumulations of arsenic in the tissues of birds. Water Water is not usually regarded as a nu- trient, but it is essential for all poultry. Birds in fact can live longer without feed than without water. Clean water should be kept before the birds at all times in order to maintain maximum feed intake. What affects feed intake To use nutrients efficiently, feed intake must be high. This is so because body needs for maintenance are the first to be met by the feed eaten. Any nutrients in excess of those for maintenance are avail- able for egg or meat production. One of the most important jobs of the poultry- man is to keep the feed intake high. Many non-nutritional factors — high temperatures, lack of water, disease, etc. — may cause a marked reduction of feed intake. Here we are concerned primarily with dietary influence in feed intake. It appears that animals eat primarily to satisfy a need for energy. The evidence to support this statement is rather involved, but one part of it may well be mentioned here. If a diet is diluted with a small amount of an inert material such as cellulose, purified wood pulp, or even sawdust, the animal increases its feed intake to meet its needs for energy. If the level of inert material is increased in steps, the feed intake increases stepwise, also. Finally, however, the animal reaches its capacity, and as the level of wood pulp is increased further, food intake may decrease. An important sidelight to this work is that if the original diet had been slightly defi- cient in some nutrient such as protein, that deficiency would have been over- come by the increased food intake. If a fat carcass is wanted, feed a diet high in available energy. For maximum growth without regard to carcass fat con- tent, however, you have a much wider choice of feed ingredients. What affects feed utilization? The amount of feed required to pro- duce a pound of poultry meat or a dozen eggs is a measure of the efficiency of feed utilization. This measure is influenced by many factors. For meat production, rap- idly growing birds make more efficient gains than birds which grow more slowly. Thus anything which reduces the rate of growth will in turn adversely affect the efficiency of feed utilization. For exam- ple, a deficiency of a single amino acid, vitamin or mineral may cause slower growth and decrease the efficiency with which the feed is utilized. Aside from the effect on rate of growth, there are variations in available energy content of various feedstuff's. It is ob- vious that more of a low energy feed is needed to meet the energy requirement of birds than when a feedstuff high in available energy is used. Harmful materials in feedstuffs In addition to considering nutrient needs, the feed mixer must be sure that the diet does not contain materials that limit growth or egg production. A num- ber of natural feedstuffs such as linseed oil meal, cottonseed meal, alfalfa meal, and others may contain significant amounts of harmful materials. Knowl- edge of the properties of these materials is important to make intelligent use of these feedstuffs. [15 Nutrient Requirements Although the exact needs for many nutrients have not been determined, sat- isfactory estimates are available for some. These are summarized in the tables on pages 5, 7, and 13. These values are based on amounts actually required by chickens and turkeys and do not contain factors of safety which are necessary in practical poultry rations. By using information and data on the nutrient con- tent of feedstuffs, feed mixers can calculate the adequacy of a feed. Information on poultry feeding also may be obtained in the following pub- lications: Feeding Systems for Egg Production Leaf. 2 Feeding Fryers Leaf. 3 Turkey Production in California Cir. 110 Feeding Turkeys Leaf. 30 Calculating Values of Chicken and Turkey Feeds Leaf. 49 TAKE ADVANTAGE OF FREE DIAGNOSTIC SERVICES It is usually difficult to diagnose nutritional deficiencies under field conditions be- cause infectious diseases so often complicate the picture. For this reason we urge the poultryman to take advantage of the free diagnostic service offered by the state and county pathological laboratories. Davis: Department of Poultry Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Haring Hall. Fresno: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, Highway 99 and Orange Avenue, Route 5, Box 210-X. Lancaster: Poultry Pathological Laboratory. Petaluma: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, 1500 Redwood High- way, South. Sacramento: Animal Pathology Laboratory, State Office Building No. 1. San Diego: San Diego County Livestock Department, 4005 Rosecrans Street. San Gabriel: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, 714 S. Santa Anita Street. Turlock: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, P.O. Box 272, Fulkerth Avenue and Soderquist Road. Details of the services are available from your University of California Farm Advisor. If it is impossible to obtain laboratory diagnosis, the information summarized in the illustrated table on pages may be helpful in recognizing certain nutritional deficiencies. Some symptoms, such as curled-toe paralysis, are quite specific results of a nutritional deficiency. Others, such as dermatitis, gizzard erosion, and canni- balism, are not related exclusively to malnutrition. For this reason, laboratory veri- fication of the suspected deficiency is essential. Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Kroiunni.-s, ('dU-ice .,f \grieuliurr, Unueisiti ,.f Calif,, cooperating. Distributed in furtherance ,>i the Vets •., Congress of Maj 8, ind Fune 10, 19] I ,1 Ear] Coke !()m •J,'5G(B3225)JF HHHP aws^MiffM*'! •■'.,': r 'M&iSkw>Z Nutrient Requirements Although the exact needs for many nutrients have not been determined, sat- isfactory estimates are available for some. These are summarized in the tables on pages 5, 7, and 13. These values are based on amounts actually required by chickens and turkeys and do not contain factors of safety which are necessary in practical poultry rations. By using information and data on the nutrient con- tent of feedstuff's, feed mixers can calculate the adequacy of a feed. Information on poultry feeding also may be obtained in the following pub- lications: Feeding Systems for Egg Production Leaf. 2 Feeding Fryers Leaf. 3 Turkey Production in California Cir. 110 Feeding Turkeys Leaf. 30 Calculating Values of Chicken and Turkey Feeds Leaf. 49 TAKE ADVANTAGE OF FREE DIAGNOSTIC SERVICES It is usually difficult to diagnose nutritional deficiencies under field conditions be- cause infectious diseases so often complicate the picture. For this reason we urge the poultryman to take advantage of the free diagnostic service offered by the state and county pathological laboratories. Davis: Department of Poultry Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Haring Hall. Fresno: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, Highway 99 and Orange Avenue, Route 5, Box 210-X. Lancaster: Poultry Pathological Laboratory. Petaluma: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, 1500 Redwood High- way, South. Sacramento: Animal Pathology Laboratory, State Office Building No. 1. San Diego: San Diego County Livestock Department, 4005 Rosecrans Street. San Gabriel: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, 714 S. Santa Anita Street. Turlock: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, P.O. Box 272, Fulkerth Avenue and Soderquist Road. Details of the services are available from your University of California Farm Advisor. If it is impossible to obtain laboratory diagnosis, the information summarized in the illustrated table on pages may be helpful in recognizing certain nutritional deficiencies. Some symptoms, such as curled-toe paralysis, are quite specific results of a nutritional deficiency. Others, such as dermatitis, gizzard erosion, and canni- balism, are not related exclusively to malnutrition. For this reason, laboratory veri- fication of the suspected deficiency is essential. Co-operative Extension work in Agriculture and ll e Economic College of Agriculture, Universit; of California I United States Department of Agricultura co-operating. Distributed in furtherance of the Vets of Congress of May 8, .ind June 10 1911 I i loke Dirertoi California Agricultural Extension Service 20m-2,'56(B3225)JT