AT LOS ANGELES 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 LIBRARY
 
 APPLETON'S 
 
 MUSICAL 
 
 SERIES 
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 BY 
 
 ALBERT LAVIGNAC 
 
 PROFESSOR OF HARMONY AT THE PARIS CONSERVATOIRE 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH BY 
 
 ESTHER SINGLETON 
 
 TRANSLATOR OF LAVIGNAc's "MUSIC DRAMAS OF RICHARD WAGNER " 
 
 AND AUTHOR OF " A GUIDE TO THE OPERA," "SOCIAL 
 
 NEW YORK UNDER THE GEORGES," ETC. 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK, LONDON MCMXXII 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 LIBRA*?
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1902 
 BT D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 Printed in the United States of America
 
 Made 
 
 Library 
 
 P\T 
 
 
 - 
 
 L_ 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 u 
 
 M 
 
 PART I 
 GENERAL REMARKS UPON MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 /III. 
 
 V/IV. 
 
 vv. 
 
 r- 
 
 co T7 ._ 
 
 CD VI. 
 
 in 
 
 m VII. 
 
 LU 
 
 iL. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mosic A LANGUAGE, AN ART AND A SCIENCE . . 3 
 AMATEUR AND ARTIST ...... 7 
 
 NATURAL APTITUDES, HEREDITARY TALENT AND 
 
 EARLY INFLUENCES ...... 9 
 
 INDICATIONS OF MUSICAL TALENT IN YOUNG CHILDREN 15 
 PROPER AGE TO BEGIN THE STUDY OF Music AND 
 
 How TO TEACH Music TO YOUNG CHILDREN . 20 
 SOLFEGGIO, MUSICAL DICTATION, IMPORTANCE OF 
 
 HEARING GOOD Music AND PROPER LENGTH OF 
 
 TIME FOR DAILY STUDY 25 
 
 INDICATIONS OF SPECIAL APTITUDES AND OPINIONS OF 
 
 GREAT MEN ON Music . . . . .31 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF CONDUCTING STUDIES METHODICALLY 
 
 AND LOGICALLY , 42 
 
 c 
 S. L 
 
 Ik 
 
 o 
 
 Cft 
 
 II. 
 
 PART II 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 PROPER AGE TO BEGIN THE STUDY OF AN INSTRU- 
 MENT, CHOICE OF A TEACHER, AND HINTS TO 
 PARENTS . 
 
 TONE, RHYTHM AND TIME 
 
 49 
 66
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 v/IH- QUALIFICATIONS OF A TKACIIKR FOR ADVANCED 
 
 PUPILS, READING AND ENSEMBLE-PLAYING . . 75 
 
 IV. THE PIANO 85 
 
 V. THE ORGAN 122 
 
 VI. THE STRINGS : VIOLIN, VIOLA, VIOLONCELLO AND 
 
 DOUBLE-BASS ....... 132 
 
 VII. THE HARP 14(5 
 
 VIII. THE WOOD-WIND : FLUTE, OBOE, ENGLISH HORN, 
 
 CLARINET AND BASSOON ..... 151 
 IX. THE BRASS : HORN, TRUMPET, CORNET AND TROM- 
 BONE ......... 161 
 
 X. THE GUITAR AND MANDOLIN 174 
 
 XI. DIFFICULTIES OF DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS CON- 
 SIDERED . 175 
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 I. THE CHILD'S VOICE, CHANGE OF VOICE, EARLY IN- 
 STRUCTION, EXAMINATION OF TUB NATURAL VOICE 
 AND CHOICE OF A TEACHER ..... 183 
 II. THE BEL CANTO, RELATION OF SINGING TO THE 
 GENIUS OF A LANGUAGE, METHODS, VOCALIZA- 
 TION AND PERIOD OF DAILY STUDIES . . . 202 
 
 III. READING, IMPORTANCE OF MUSICAL STUDIES, STUDIES 
 
 NECESSARY FOR THE STAGE AND PHYSICAL RE- 
 QUIREMENTS FOR AN OPERA SINGER . . . 218 
 
 IV. HYGIENE OF THE VOICE 231 
 
 V. THE ACCOMPANIMENT 235 
 
 [Vi]
 
 CONTENTS 
 PART IV 
 
 THE VARIOUS STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. THE CREATIVE FACULTY AND HIGHER MUSICAL STUDIES 241 
 
 II. THE SCIENCE OF Music : STUDY OF HARMONY AND 
 
 COUNTERPOINT 254 
 
 III. ORCHESTRATION AND INSTRUMENTATION . . . 273 
 
 IV. HABITS OF GREAT COMPOSERS ..... 289 
 V. THE PROGRESS OF ART . . 305 
 
 PART V 
 
 OF THE MEANS OF RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCA- 
 TION THAT HAS BEEN ILL-DIRECTED AT THE 
 BEGINNING AND HOW TO REMEDY IT 
 
 I. SUGGESTIONS FOR INSTRUMENTALISTS, SINGERS AND 
 
 COMPOSERS .... ... 315 
 
 II. SUGGESTIONS FOR AMATEURS 334 
 
 III. THE STRING-QUARTET 343 
 
 IV. THE DILETTANTE ....<... 349 
 V. HELPFUL BOOKS AND METHODS . . 359 
 
 PART VI 
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION: INDIVIDUAL, 
 CLASS, AND CONSERVATORY INSTRUCTION 
 
 L PRIVATE TEACHING 371 
 
 II. CLASS INSTRUCTION 372 
 
 III. CONSERVATORY INSTRUCTION 379 
 
 IV. EUROPEAN CONSERVATORIES ...... 385 
 
 V. AMERICAN CONSERVATORIES . . . 433 
 
 OH]
 
 PART I
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 PART I 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS UPON MUSICAL 
 EDUCATION 
 
 I. Music A LANGUAGE, AN ART AND A SCIENCE 
 
 Music is a Language. 
 
 Infinitely less precise than the most rudimentary 
 of languages with regard to the subject treated, on 
 the other hand, it possesses an intensity of expres- 
 sion and power of communicating emotion to which 
 no spoken language can attain, however perfect it 
 may be. 
 
 Like all other languages, it is composed of several 
 dialects, patois, or jargons, it even has its slang; it 
 has its rational and etymological orthography, its 
 phonetic orthography and its whimsical orthography ; 
 we may therefore speak it more or less well, and write 
 it more or less correctly. 
 
 " The study of the musical language is like that of 
 all other languages. He who learns it in his infancy 
 can become master of it, but at an advanced age, it 
 is almost impossible to acquire it." * 
 
 * Rubinstein, Aphorisms (Le Mtnestrel, 1900 J.
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Like all other languages, also, it can be taught in 
 two ways, by practice and theory. It possesses its 
 own special literature of an extreme richness and va- 
 riety ; the composer is an author of the same rank as 
 the man of letters ; the virtuoso singers and instru- 
 mentalists are interpreters like the reciter or reader ; 
 one makes use of words, the other of sounds, but their 
 aim is the same, to excite emotion, or, at least, to 
 captivate the intellect. " Music is a sort of universal 
 language which harmoniously relates all the sensa- 
 tions of life" (Mme. Cottin). Finally, also, like 
 other languages, it constantly transforms itself by a. 
 slow and logical evolution, following the progress of 
 civilization and corresponding to the needs of differ- 
 ent periods and different countries. 
 
 Music is an Art. 
 
 The most subtle, the most ethereal and the most 
 evanescent of all the arts ; the architect moves blocks 
 of stone; the painter fixes upon canvas,* wood, stone, 
 or paper, colours that will last for an unlimited time ; 
 even the poet finds in the words of his language the 
 fixed and ready-prepared elements for his work. The 
 musician alone seems to work in the void and with 
 void; sonorities extinguished almost as soon as heard 
 and of which nothing remains but a memory, those 
 are his materials; it is with such means that he must 
 " charm the ear, interest the mind and sometimes ele- 
 vate the soul," according to an old definition, which 
 is not the worst for all that. The art, however, may 
 be likened to poetry, for the composer plays with 
 sounds as the poet plays with words ; like poetry, also, 
 
 [4]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 it is strictly bound by the laws of rhythm and con- 
 sonance; like it, it addresses itself to the mind, the 
 heart and the soul by means of the organ of hearing. 
 It also has a strong resemblance to painting, because 
 it possesses a particular colouring of the latter, which 
 is orchestration; its form and line is the melodic con- 
 tour; and the judicious balancing of the combina- 
 tions resulting therefrom, which in the one, as in the 
 other of the two arts, constitutes harmony. It may, 
 perhaps, be likened to architecture even more for 
 those who can understand the important part played 
 in music by the relative proportions of the various 
 parts of a composition, whether they be of enormous 
 or trifling importance, whether it is a question of 
 a simple song without words, or an oratorio, a little 
 dance air, or an opera in five acts. To consider music 
 as the " architecture of tone," according to the say- 
 ing of Mme. de Stael, is an absolutely correct con- 
 ception : a symphony of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, or 
 Saint-Saens is a veritable tonal edifice, exactly as a 
 monument such as the Parthenon in Athens, St. 
 Mark's, Venice, or Westminster Abbey is a master- 
 piece of architectural harmony. 
 
 Music is a Science. 
 
 " There is no art without science : the whole race 
 of masters proves this." * 
 
 It is even a science of mathematics in the highest 
 degree, for, after all is said and done, all the elements 
 and all the processes that go to make up a musical 
 work find their explanation and their raison d'etre 
 
 * Charles Crpunod, fyude siir les chorals de Bach (Preface).
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 in numbers and in combinations of numbers. Un- 
 fruitful of herself and by herself, by strengthening 
 Art and augmenting its productive power, " Science 
 is a dial that marks the hour of the progress accom- 
 plished." * 
 
 Rhythm, whether it be reduced to its most simple 
 expression or carried to extreme complexity, is noth- 
 ing more than the division of time into equal or 
 unequal, but always proportional fractions. Intona- 
 tion, or the height of a sound, depends solely upon 
 the absolute number of vibrations that produce the 
 body of tone set in action for a given time. Intensity, 
 the greater or less strength of tone, results from the 
 fulness of those same vibrations, and from the vio- 
 lence with which they disturb the ambient air. The 
 timbre (quality of tone) is the result of the indi- 
 vidual conformation of the instrument by which the 
 tone is emitted, and the subdivisions or harmonic 
 .sounds that accompany it. The most masterly com- 
 binations of harmony and counterpoint are based 
 upon the numerical relations that exist between dif- 
 ferent tones, from which springs the more or less 
 accentuated sensation of consonance, dissonance, or 
 discord, which the ear experiences, and which it en- 
 joys, tolerates, or rejects. Finally, for I think I 
 have omitted nothing, everything may be reduced to 
 figures, analysed and explained by the positive laws 
 of acoustics and mathematics. 
 
 Music is then at once a Language, an Art and a 
 Science, and should be considered, according to cir- 
 * Emile de Girardin. 
 
 [6]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 cumstances, under one or other of these three as- 
 pects. 
 
 Language is of divine essence, for singing is as 
 natural to men as is speech, or the simple cry ; it is 
 even quite reasonable to think that among the first 
 human beings the cry and vociferation preceded ar- 
 ticulate speech. 
 
 Art is the product of the human mind, always tend- 
 ing to ennoble, to poetize and idealize the materials 
 furnished by nature. 
 
 Science, as cold and positive as Art is exuberant, 
 appears here with its numbers and exact formulae, as 
 a salutary curb, or a pendulum charged with main- 
 taining the equilibrium. 
 
 From Language is born Art, which could not exist 
 without it, and which Science comes in her turn to 
 explain, and prop up in some measure, by guiding 
 her in her developments, and preventing her some- 
 times from wandering into dangerous and blind paths. 
 
 It is by inquiring into these ideas and others of 
 a similar nature that we may best discover the best 
 means to employ in order to undertake and pursue 
 a musical education under healthful conditions, a 
 matter which is more difficult than is generally be- 
 lieved, and which should not be treated lightly. 
 
 II. AMATEUR AND ARTIST 
 
 Whether it is a question of acquiring the talent of 
 an artist or an amateur, that is only one of degree, 
 for in taking as an example the special career ef a
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 lyric artist who has to be both singer and actor, really 
 one does not know precisely where to place the barrier 
 that separates the professional artist from him who 
 gives his time to music for his own pleasure. The 
 methods of study are obviously the same for both, 
 with some slight differences which will be shown in 
 the course of this work, since the final goal to be 
 attained is nearly the same. Moreover, do we not 
 see amateurs transforming themselves into militant 
 artists every day, just as we see also professional 
 musicians abandoning their too-ungrateful career to 
 embrace" some more lucrative one while still continu- 
 ing to exercise the art merely for their pleasure or 
 for that of those about them. 
 
 The advice that is to follow, the fruit of forty 
 years' experience in teaching, in every degree and 
 under all conditions, is therefore applicable to these 
 two categories without distinction, just as it is to the 
 different branches of the art of music, composition, 
 singing or instrumental virtuosity, which any one 
 may intend to follow at the beginning. 
 
 I say at the beginning, for it will often happen 
 that the original plans will be modified by the force 
 of circumstances, or by causes that are impossible to 
 foresee before the day when they inexorably force 
 themselves upon us, such as the lack of voice in the 
 adult whose parents prematurely determined to make 
 a singer of him, because he had a pretty voice as a 
 child or "because everybody has one ia the family." 
 Do not laugh ; that happens every day. 
 
 [8]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 III. NATURAL, APTITUDES, HEREDITARY TALENT 
 AND EARLY INFLUENCES 
 
 This very naturally leads me to point out the too 
 frequent fault that, from the point of view of apti- 
 tude, consists in regarding the child as a sort of con- 
 tinuation of ourselves, and determining his career in 
 accordance with that which we should/ like to have 
 embraced and which we regret that we did not follow. 
 Most certainly there exist cases of heredity in artistic 
 disposition as in everything else: from the Sixteenth 
 to the Eighteenth Century we have been enabled to 
 see the tribe of the Bachs peopling Thuringia, Sax- 
 ony and Franconia with a host of artists of the first 
 order, who, in order to preserve a kind of patriarchal 
 bond among themselves, assembled once a year, some- 
 times at Erfurt, sometimes at Eisenach or Arnstadt, 
 to the number of a hundred or a hundred and fifty. 
 We may cite from antiquity the Hortensius, Curio, 
 find Lysius families, in which the art of oratory was 
 transmitted, even among the women ; ^Cschylus, in 
 whose family eight tragic poets are counted; and 
 nearer our own time, the Vernets, painters, father 
 and son, for three generations ; Mozart, whose father 
 played the violin ; and Rossini, whose father played 
 the horn, at fairs ! 
 
 Certainly we might cite others, but it would be 
 just as easy to find contrary examples of children, en- 
 tirely destitute of all artistic sentiment, whose father 
 and mother were musicians ; and, inversely, artists of 
 
 3 [9]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 genius whose parents had never manifested the slight- 
 est inclination towards music. Moreover, there are 
 a great number of great artists who pursued their 
 musical studies against the will of their family: 
 Berlioz, whose father, a doctor, wanted him to be- 
 come a doctor like himself ; Wagner, of whom his 
 family had decided to make a painter, and who could 
 only give himself up to music to the great distress of 
 his family who did not believe in his vocation ; * Han- 
 del, who was forced to work in secret; and Nicolo, 
 Dalayrac and Chabrier were of this class. 
 
 Therefore, we must not make any rules at all ; and 
 it is distressing when people say to you : " Oh, if I 
 ever have a son, I will make a musician of him, 
 I should so much have liked to be one myself ! " This 
 most frequently ends (obstinacy entering into it) in 
 imposing upon the poor little creature months and 
 years of work for which he does not feel the slightest 
 attraction, and which is to him a veritable torture. 
 This can even be carried so far as to make him abhor 
 music. 
 
 On the other hand, one thing which is of enormous 
 importance in the future development of the intel- 
 ligence of the child, in the present meaning, is his 
 surroundings during his early childhood, the atmos- 
 phere which he breathes and the degree of musical cul- 
 tivation possessed by those who are continually with 
 him. At the risk of seeming paradoxical, I have no 
 hesitation in saying that a nurse who cannot sing in 
 tune, can spoil his ear forever; and what I advance 
 * Lavignac, The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. 
 
 [10]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 here is not so very extraordinary, if people will only 
 notice that a child acquires and preserves, sometimes 
 for his whole life, and always for a very long time, 
 the characteristic accent of the country in which he 
 was born, or the persons by whom he was brought 
 up; and if after many years it happens that he 
 loses it, there will always remain with him a propen- 
 sity to recover it on the shortest stay in his native 
 country. 
 
 " The Romans have taught us, by their applica- 
 tion to the study of their language, what we should 
 do to instruct ourselves in our own. With them, the 
 children from the cradle were trained in the purity 
 of language. This was regarded as the first and the 
 most important care, after that of morals. This was 
 particularly recommended to the mothers themselves, 
 the nurses and the servants. They were warned to 
 watch as far as it was possible, lest any vicious ex- 
 pression or pronunciation escape them, for fear that 
 their first impressions might become a second nature 
 to them which would be almost impossible to change 
 afterwards." * 
 
 What therefore is there astonishing in the fact 
 that the same phenomenon should be produced with 
 regard to musical sounds? The baby who has never 
 heard anybody sing in tune, will not be able to form 
 an idea how to sing himself, so he will begin by sing- 
 ing out of tune ; his ear, still in a state of formation, 
 will become accustomed to and in some measure at- 
 tuned to that way of singing. Later, he will continue 
 * Rollin, Traits des Etudes. 
 [11]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 in this way, having no reason to do differently ; and 
 that is how false voices are produced. 
 
 " Man's education begins at his birth," said J. J. 
 Rousseau ; " the first habits are the strongest," 
 writes Fenelon. Now, what are the first habits that 
 a child can acquire? To walk badly, or to pronounce 
 badly, since these are the first two things that he 
 learns; and I add to sing badly, because he amuses 
 himself quite as much with humming as in babbling 
 syllables. Montaigne was of the same opinion, and 
 was even more explicit. This is what he says : " I 
 find that our greatest vices take their bent from our 
 most tender infancy, and our chief government is in 
 the hands of a nurse." I believe that this is suffi- 
 ciently clear, at least unless one wishes to admit that 
 to sing falsely, or to hear falsely, denotes a defect of 
 conformation. 
 
 On this subject, I find a charming anecdote in 
 Gounod's Memoires and reproduce it textually : " My 
 mother, who was my nurse, certainly made me swal- 
 low as much music as milk. She never fed me with- 
 out singing, and I may say that I took my first lessons 
 unwittingly and without having to pay that atten- 
 tion that is so painful in early years and so difficult 
 to obtain from children. Unconsciously, I had al- 
 ready had a very clear and precise notion of the in- 
 tonations and the intervals that they represent, of 
 all the first elements that constitute modulation and 
 of the characteristic difference between the major and 
 minor modes, even before I could speak, because one 
 day hearing a street singer (some beggar doubtless),
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 singing a song in the minor, I cried out : * Mama, why 
 does he sing in do when he is crying? ' 
 
 " I had therefore a perfectly trained ear, and I 
 could with advantage already have held my place as 
 a pupil in a course of solfeggio, or I could even have 
 been the teacher." * 
 
 By a strange concordance of ideas, the celebrated 
 Professor Zimmermann who was destined to become 
 the father-in-law of Gounod, frequently used this ex- 
 pression : " It is necessary to inoculate a child with 
 music." 
 
 J. J. Rousseau relates that when he was quite lit- 
 tle, one of his aunts sang popular songs to him while 
 rocking him asleep: "I am persuaded," he adds, 
 " that I owe to her my taste, or rather my passion, for 
 music, which was not developed in me until long after- 
 wards." ) 
 
 From all this, we may regard it as settled and suf- 
 ficiently demonstrated that long before the period 
 when it is proper to undertake musical instruction, 
 properly so-called, it is not a matter of indifference to 
 prepare the soil for this culture by rooting out ill 
 and hurtful weeds, that is to say by removing from 
 the baby all disturbing causes of the sense of hear- 
 ing, violent noises, trepidations, shrill or discordant 
 voices, and instruments that are too blatant, with the 
 same care that will be employed later in preventing 
 his hearing anything that might develop bad taste. 
 
 A father, who cherishes for his daughter, who is 
 
 * Gounod, Mtmoires <Tun artiste. 
 f J. J. Rousseau, Confessions. 
 
 [13]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 still in her cradle (this is a simple supposition), the 
 ambition that she shall shine one day as a dancer at 
 the opera, probably would not be very much surprised 
 if one of his friends should advise him to watch her 
 from her first steps so that she might not have crooked 
 legs. He perhaps might even have thought of it him- 
 self. 
 
 At bottom, it is exactly the same thing as that of 
 which we have been talking. The only difference is 
 that the legs are visible, and if they are crooked we 
 can see it at once ; while if any deformity is produced 
 in the apparatus of hearing, mysteriously fitted as it 
 is into the skull cavity, nobody can detect it until it is 
 too late to apply any possible remedy. And the harm 
 remains. Later, it is asked why this child hears false, 
 and sings false, while his parents heard and sang so 
 true, and it is often merely because his ear has been 
 brutalized or led ill at an age when it would have been 
 easy to care for it, as is done for the visible organs, 
 the developments of which are easy to follow day by 
 day. 
 
 Now, if the ear is defective, it would be better to 
 renounce at once all thought of making music, first 
 because such a one can never be anything but a de- 
 testable musician of the lowest order, a musician who 
 is far too numerous, and then because he can never ex- 
 perience any pleasure in it. And since music is ranked 
 among the arts that give delight, it would be simply 
 absurd to undertake the study of it with the half- 
 certainty that one would never extract from it the 
 slightest enjoyment, that one would never arrive at
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 anything but pitiful results, in default of the natural 
 taste and the special aptitude that are so necessary, 
 and, finally, that in pursuing a chimerical aim, pre- 
 cious time is lost that might be utilized in a thousand 
 agreeable and profitable ways. Therefore, I hold 
 those parents very guilty, who, simply for the sake 
 of conforming to the present stupid fashion that de- 
 mands that everybody shall be more or less of a mu- 
 sician , exact such efforts from their children without 
 having assured themselves beforehand that they have 
 at least strong chances of success. 
 
 IV. INDICATIONS OF MUSICAL TALENT IN YOUNG 
 CHILDREN 
 
 How then can we satisfy ourselves that a predis- 
 position for music exists? 
 
 To speak the truth, I do not belfeve that there are 
 any absolutely certain and infallible signs ; but there 
 are numerous indications which rarely deceive. And 
 here are a few of them : 
 
 The child (I am not speaking of an infant, but of 
 a child of from four to six years, and perhaps older), 
 manifests an evident pleasure in listening to music. 
 He walks up to the piano. He loves to hear singing. 
 He asks not to be sent to bed in the evening when 
 there is music. That is a good sign already. 
 
 A child, who allowed to choose between an evening 
 at the circus and a concert of serious music, selects the 
 concert, deserves that this should be noticed; if he 
 does this again, so much the more reason. 
 [15]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 He drums on the table, or upon the window-panes, 
 vith a ruler or his fingers, with a clearly-marked 
 rhythm, reproducing the recognizable swing of a 
 Traltz or a march, that is also of good augury. 
 
 If he easily retains the simple airs that he has 
 lieard sung, .children's tunes, popular songs and 
 hymns, and enjoys singing them to himself for his 
 own pleasure, that is a serious indication. If he 
 really sings them in tune and in time, that is an excel- 
 lent sign, which must be taken into consideration. 
 
 If, of his own initiative, without the suggestion of 
 any one, he has the idea of picking out those airs upot?' 
 the piano with one finger, that is still better; and if 
 he should happen to succeed, that is almost conclu- 
 sive. 
 
 One may then proceed to a few little experiments 
 with the object of proving if he possesses those two 
 precious qualities : the sense of the imitation of tones. 
 and the memory of tones, which are not the samo 
 thing at all. 
 
 One should make him listen, from any instrument 
 whatever, or still better from the voice, to one note 
 first, just one, asking him to sing it. If he should 
 succeed, then, try another note, but be careful not 
 to exceed the limits of his little voice, so that you may 
 not demand anything beyond his powers, nor con- 
 fuse, nor trouble him. Then you can make him listen 
 to and repeat two consecutive notes, a major sec- 
 ond and a minor second, third, fourth, or fifth, but 
 always intervals easy to grasp, taking care always to 
 give them sometimes ascending and sometimes de- 
 [16]
 
 scending. If he satisfies these tests, which need not 
 be carried beyond three notes, he certainly possesses 
 the instinctive sense of the imitation of tones, a very 
 precious thing, because it is acquired with great dif- 
 ficulty and thorough study by those who are not nat- 
 urally gifted with it. 
 
 With regard to the memory of tones, one must pro- 
 ceed differently. After having made him listen in- 
 tently to any note whatever, for example la of the 
 scale, to which you very strongly call his attention, 
 and which you make him sing and repeat, you play 
 for him the scale of C major very slowly, asking him 
 to recognize la as you play it. You can modify the 
 experiment by playing the tones out of their regular 
 order in the scale. You can make it still more diffi- 
 cult and more of a test by talking of something or 
 other, by telling a story, or by clapping your hands, 
 or knocking on the table, making noises which have 
 no musical character whatever, between the moment 
 his attention is called to the note and that when you 
 ask him to recognize it among several others. He 
 who stands this second test, may be truly considered 
 as having a correct ear, and is very probably apt to 
 profit by musical instruction. 
 
 It must be well understood that these divers tests, 
 which are easy enough to vary, should always be un- 
 dertaken in familiar play, and without any solemnity 
 that might produce the intimidating appearance of 
 an examination. 
 
 Moreover, if this is not successful one day? there 
 is nothing to prevent one from trying it again a 
 [17]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 month or a year later, without despairing in the 
 least ; for the musical temperament is far from mani- 
 festing itself at the same age in cver} r individual, and 
 extreme precocity is not always an indispensable ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 I will quote here, however, a very interesting ex- 
 ample that I have found in a volume by Camille 
 Saint-Saens, which will show in what manner the mu- 
 sical sense is revealed during the earliest years among 
 those who are veritably well organized, as well as the 
 proper way a child should be put through the divers 
 experimental tests of which we have just spoken. 
 
 " In my childhood, I had a very delicate ear, and 
 people often used to amuse themselves by making me 
 name the note produced by any object that would 
 give out a tone, candlestick, glass, or sconce. I 
 could always tell the note without any hesitation. 
 When they asked me what note a bell produced, I al- 
 ways replied : * It does not make one note ; it makes 
 several.' This seemed to astonish people greatly." * 
 
 And I wager that this will still greatly astonish 
 many persons, because the multiple resonance of bells, 
 which really do produce several tones despite the 
 proverb " qui n'entend qu\me cloche n'entend qu'un 
 son '' there is always one tone so strongly prominent 
 that it absorbs the attention to such a degree as to 
 render the others completely unnoticeable. And it 
 was in hearing these that the young Saint-Saeis ex- 
 hibited a remarkable sagacity, and a truly rare 
 delicacy of hearing. 
 
 * Camille Saint-Saens, Harmonw et Mtlvdie. 
 [18]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 Saint-Saens was a prodigy of precocity ; Mozart 
 ras another; at the age of four years he already 
 composed little minuets ; Haydn, at five, manifested 
 the pleasure he would have in taking part in a fam- 
 ily concert by imitating the playing of the violin by 
 means of a small stick upon a piece of wood. This 
 was less striking, but shortly afterwards, he really 
 played, and with taste, upon a real violin. We might 
 cite several others who became very great artists, but 
 this is far from being a necessary condition ; one 
 might almost assert the contrary, that in general the 
 little prodigies, hectic blossoms of a hothouse, do not 
 enjoy long careers. All these unfortunate violinists, 
 pianists, and others, of six and four years, products 
 of unnatural forcing, whom we see some Barnum ex- 
 hibiting throughout the world, are most frequently 
 destined to become very ordinary musicians, or to dis- 
 appear early from the artistic horizon, where they 
 have no longer the slightest reason to attract atten- 
 tion. 
 
 Beethoven was not an infant prodigy ; far from it ; 
 it was necessary to beat him in order to make him 
 work at his piano: so says Fetis, to whom I leave the 
 responsibility of this bad treatment. Even if it did 
 succeed so well in his case, there is no reason to make 
 beating a rule for teaching the arts of pleasure. 
 
 Rubinstein expresses a very interesting opinion 
 upon this subject: " Most of our great masters were 
 infant prodigies, but the number of great masters is 
 very small in comparison with the great mass of 
 musically-gifted children we admire every year, and 
 [19]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 who, later, fulfil none of their promises. Ordinarily, 
 musical talent manifests itself in children at the ten- 
 derest age ; but there comes a time ( with boys from 
 fifteen to twenty, and girls from fourteen to seven- 
 teen) when this musical talent suffers a crisis, is 
 weakened, or goes to sleep forever ; only those who are 
 capable of passing this Rubicon, become great artists, 
 their number is very limited." * 
 
 V. PROPER AGE TO BEGIN THE STUDY OF Music AND 
 How TO TEACH Music TO YOUNG CHILDREN 
 
 The age at which it is expedient to begin the ele- 
 mentary musical instruction is essentially variable, 
 and cannot be fixed precisely. It cannot be the same 
 for everybody, and remains subordinate to various 
 considerations, the principal only of which I can 
 think of enumerating here. 
 
 In the first place, come the general physical con- 
 dition and health of the young subject : one should 
 never exact from a sickly child a brain-work, in reality 
 very enervating and exciting, that might result in 
 some irremediable harm to his normal development ; 
 examples of cases of over-taxation are, unhappily, 
 not rare. The child should be gay, well and alert ; 
 if he is not, then it would be better to wait. More- 
 over, it is very important to take into account his 
 character, the aptitude that he may have shown al- 
 ready for some other study, such as reading, the reci- 
 tation of fables, or for games that demand a certain 
 * A. Rubinstein, La musique et ses reprlsentants. 
 
 [20]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 effort of intelligence or memory. Finally, although 
 wishing for their appearance, it is necessary to wait 
 patiently for the manifestation of some one of the 
 precursory signs, by which, as we have shown, those 
 who are gifted by nature with a temperament quali- 
 fied to receive the benefits of a musical education may 
 be almost certainly recognized. The great philoso- 
 pher Kant has told us : " To develop each individual 
 in the full perfection of which he is capable, that is 
 the aim of education." Before attempting to in- 
 culcate the principles of any art whatsoever into a 
 child, it is imperative therefore to assure yourself that 
 he is in the desired condition to profit by them. I re- 
 peat this here for the last time, so as not to return to 
 it again. 
 
 When the proper moment seems to have arrived for 
 giving him his first musical notions, it is necessary 
 to choose a method, a plan of procedure, and to put 
 him in the hands of a teacher, being thoroughly 
 saturated with this truth, that it is not more difficult 
 to direct an education well than to direct it badly ; 
 the whole thing is to take trouble enough to enlighten 
 oneself instead of walking blindly. 
 
 Just here, it is well to remember that music is above 
 all a language, and that the system of teaching that 
 is best adapted to it is the one also that accords best 
 with the teaching of languages, the one by which we 
 all have learned our mother tongue, and which is 
 naturally pointed out to us by simple common sense: 
 practice before theory. 
 
 To teach music to a very young child by means of
 
 principles, no matter how simple they may be, is about 
 as judicious as trying to teach him to talk by gram- 
 mar. Certainly, one may and one does accomplish 
 this, but at the cost of how much lost time, of how 
 much irritation to the parents and the teacher, and of 
 what useless fatigue to the poor little brain of the 
 pupil ! 
 
 It is so easy, on the contrary, to present the thing 
 as an amusement, a game that is a relief from his 
 others, and to let Nature work. Nature has endowed 
 the child with the spirit of imitation ; it is because he 
 hears people talking around him that he tries to do 
 the same, and of his own accord attempts first to pro- 
 nounce the simplest syllables, ba or ma, which he re- 
 peats to satiety for several months, before passing to 
 others that are more complicated, such as Za or ra, 
 and then unites them to form words. If, as a cruel ex- 
 periment, one should impose absolute silence around 
 a child from his birth to his coming of age, it would 
 never occur to him to try to talk. This is, moreover, 
 exactly what happens in the case of those who are deaf 
 from their birth ; never having heard any talking, it 
 never occurs to them to talk, although their vocal or- 
 gans may be perfectly formed for it ; and they become 
 deaf-mutes. It is then by the simple spirit of imita- 
 tion, and by amusing himself, that the child learns 
 to form all the sounds of the spoken language, arid 
 not because some one explains to him the difference 
 between the vowels and consonants, the labials and the 
 gutturals. Later, when he knows how to form words, 
 it is in precisely the same manner that he learns how to 
 [22]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 construct phrases, first of two words, and then longer 
 ones, always without any advice whatever, but only 
 by listening to what is said around him and striving 
 to imitate it as closely as possible ; ( it is then that he 
 acquires the accent of the place where he is brought 
 up, as well as the expressions and turns of phrases of 
 the persons who are with him); it is not until very 
 much later, when he already speaks in such a way as 
 to make himself thoroughly understood that you 
 should make such observations as these to him: Do 
 not say : " I am been," but " I am gone " ; or again 
 you must not say " I have conversed to Mama," but 
 " I have conversed with Mama." But before that, he 
 will speak, if not correctly and elegantly, at least in 
 such a way as to make himself understood perfectly. 
 When afterwards, the child is able to read, if he 
 has the taste for reading and some little spirit of ob- 
 servation, he perfects his speech in the most natural 
 manner, and, what is still more curious, he often 
 teaches himself orthography thus by pure instinct, 
 by the memory of the eyes, without any one ever hav- 
 ing given him the slightest knowledge of the most 
 elementary rules of grammar. I know several in- 
 stances of young persons who have never opened a 
 grammar and who write French in an absolutely cor- 
 rect manner; when a chain of words puzzles them, 
 they write it in several ways, look at it attentively and 
 invariably choose, the best. I do not maintain that, 
 carried to such a degree, this method would suit every 
 subject; no! first of all, it is necessary that they 
 should love to read, and read much ; then it is also nee- 
 [23]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 essary that they should read attentively and by bring- 
 ing their attention to bear upon the aspect and 
 physiognomy of the words and phrases, that they 
 finally should possess the spirit of observation, imi- 
 tation and the memory of the eyes. 
 
 It may seem as if I am wandering from my sub- 
 ject; on the contrary, we are in the very heart of it. 
 Of all languages, music is the one that best accom- 
 modates itself at the start, particularly when one is 
 dealing with very young children, to this means of 
 teaching, by practice only at first, reserving all the- 
 oretical notions until the time when the learner shall 
 have reached the age of reason. Then theory will be 
 indispensable and should take the chief place. Here 
 is an experiment which I have made several times, and 
 which has always succeeded: introduce a child whom 
 you have reason to believe is well-organized into an 
 elementary course of solfeggio, where the pupils are 
 a little older than he is ; at first he is greatly flattered. 
 The teacher makes him sit near him, and then says 
 nothing to him, absolutely nothing, he only watches 
 and listens ; we conduct the class without taking any 
 notice of him, except to have him taken away on the 
 pretext that the lesson is over, if he shows signs of 
 fatigue, or if he yawns. At the end of a dozen sit- 
 tings, we shall be surprised to see him try to beat time, 
 in order to do like the others, or even try to sing; 
 when he is with little friends who are dancing in a 
 ring, we let him dance with them; since the game is 
 a singing-game, he has a perfect right to sing with 
 the others. Every now and then we may ask him to 
 [M]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 show us on the music-books where we are ; taken un- 
 awares, he makes mistakes at first ; then he will try 
 to follow by the glance of his big comrades, but in a 
 short time he will be able to follow the music alone, 
 by means of the figure, particularly if we trust him 
 with the duty of turning the pages, which will force 
 him to fix his attention. If at this time we begin to 
 teach him the notes, we shall find that he knows them 
 already. A great and troublesome halting-place will 
 have been passed without his ever having suspected it. 
 
 From this time forward we can treat him like the 
 other pupils, and make him take an actual part in 
 the lesson. 
 
 One cannot always have at hand a good course of 
 elementary solfeggio, intelligently directed. We in- 
 dicate elsewhere another manner of undertaking this 
 study,* which could not be pushed too far, nor pro- 
 longed too greatly, for this is the one that makes the 
 true musician. 
 
 VI. SOLFEGGIO, MUSICAL, DICTATION, IMPORTANCE 
 OF HEARING GOOD Music AND PROPER LENGTH 
 OF TIME FOR DAILY STUDY 
 
 Solfeggio, properly speaking, consists of singing 
 whilst naming the notes and beating the time. It is 
 thus that we learn to read in all the keys with equal 
 facility, an indispensable matter for those who wish 
 to carry their studies very far, especially in the field 
 of composition. " Apply yourself without delay to 
 
 * See page 89. 
 3 [25]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the reading of ancient clefs, otherwise the treasures 
 of the past will remain hidden from you." Later, 
 when we shall speak in detail of the special education 
 of the singer and that of the instrumentalist, we will 
 specify the clefs that may be rightly dispensed with, 
 but which it would be better to know, this is in re- 
 serve. 
 
 The works written for the instruction of solfeggio 
 are innumerable. There are as many good and ex- 
 cellent as bad ones, it is the teacher who must know 
 how to discriminate ; the good ones are all those that 
 have an artistic and musical character; the others 
 must be shunned like poison, for they have the power 
 to alter the nature and pervert the taste of the child 
 forever. And at no stage of the instruction is it more 
 necessary than at the beginning to spur the pupil 
 towards the beautiful, and to form his judgment by 
 keeping from him all that is vulgar, trivial and ugly, 
 for he will always feel the effects of it. 
 
 Of the numerous courses, the solfeggio d'ensemble, 
 of two or three parts, is a very good thing, but, of 
 itself insufficient. It must not be neglected, however. 
 
 An excellent complement to solfeggio is musical 
 dictation, which bears the same relation to solfeggio 
 that the theme does to the interpretation, or rather 
 that writing does to reading. In this exercise, it is no 
 longer the pupil that sings, but the master ; after hav- 
 ing made them listen in extenso to a phrase of eight or 
 
 * Robert Schumann, Conseits aux jeunes musicims, translated 
 from the German by Franz Liszt, a very small work, from which, 
 however, we shall take pleasure in quoting very often. 
 
 [26]
 
 sixteen bars, he cuts it into short fragments, each of 
 which he repeats several times, with pauses, so that 
 the pupil may have the necessary time to write what 
 he has heard and understood. 
 
 If we find ourselves face to face with a pupil totally 
 lacking in voice, or suffering from aphonia, we can 
 try to supply the study of solfeggio which is forbid- 
 den to him on account of his unhappy constitution, 
 by developing that of dictation, which he should then 
 be made to write in the different clefs. This is, how- 
 ever, only a makeshift. 
 
 As soon as the child is able to read and write 
 fluently, it becomes expedient to make him learn the 
 first elements of the Theory of Music, which, in all 
 probability, he will be apt to understand and to as- 
 similate easily. With the exception of what has to 
 do with definitions, it is absolutely useless to make 
 him learn anything at all by heart and word for 
 word,- an excellent system for parrots but not for 
 artists. It is infinitely better simply to make sure 
 that the thing has been thoroughly understood, 
 and well fixed in the intelligence, and to be satisfied, 
 even if it is expressed a little awkwardly, as it adapts 
 itself to the requirements of infantile explanations. 
 Later, it will be necessary to dive deeper into the 
 study of Theory, and even to require the pupil to 
 solve these problems that are somewhat of the nature 
 of a Chinese puzzle, such as are found in all the books 
 written especially for this study. It is a kind of men- 
 tal gymnastics, a training exercise which has in it 
 nothing whatever that is fatiguing, and which only 
 [27]
 
 those disparage who have not experienced its bene- 
 fits. 
 
 At this period in the education of a young mu- 
 sician, it is already very good and useful to make 
 him hear good music from time to time, and to take 
 him to Symphony Concerts, always provided that he 
 seems to take pleasure in them, because in the con- 
 trary case it would be much better to put them off. 
 If he has a very true voice, even if it is but a tiny 
 thread, and if he is sufficiently advanced not to give 
 any trouble, we may try to gain him admission as 
 a participant in one of the numerous well-trained 
 choruses, whether composed of artists or amateurs, to 
 take part in some of the rehearsals, at first partial, 
 and afterwards the whole time, and finally in the Con- 
 cert itself. All this is to give him the opportunity 
 of hearing music talked about, and of rubbing 
 against musicians, perhaps composers, of seeing how 
 music is made, and learning a lot of things through 
 his own little experience. All this is excellent, upon 
 the simple condition that it is always a pleasure 
 and not a tax. It must also be a condition that he 
 shuns the vulgar and coarse music of a low order, 
 such as that of the Cafes-Concerts, Music Halls, 
 and other horrible anti-artistic places. In a word, 
 from this time forward all occasions to bring the 
 child into contact with music and musicians {good 
 music and good musicians), must be sought for, and 
 at the same time to repulse emphatically all that might 
 cause him fatigue, enervation, and ennui, which must 
 be avoided above all else. All this is a question of tact 
 [28]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 and caution, of which the parents and teachers are 
 the sole judges. 
 
 To finish with this period of infantile education, 
 upon which I have thought I ought to insist some- 
 what at length, because to my mind it most frequently 
 is of decisive importance, I will add that one must 
 not demand sustained attention to the elementary 
 study of music from the child for more than half an 
 hour (even a quarter of an hour at the beginning) 
 at a time ; more would be lost time, the mind being no 
 longer on the work. But one can repeat this half 
 hour (or this quarter of an hour) two or three times 
 during the day, at long intervals, using these in- 
 tervals for rest, play, a walk, or other studies, such 
 as writing, reading, mathematics, drawing, etc., etc., 
 which should not be neglected, for the study of music 
 alone will never lead to anything great, even for a 
 professional musician, who would experience great 
 unhappiness in life, and even much hindrance if he 
 were deprived of all other instruction, and had never 
 learned anything except music. Now these three 
 half-hours a day, well-employed, are perfectly ade- 
 quate to obtain the desired result at this period of 
 education. 
 
 During these primary studies, which may be pro- 
 longed, according to the temperament, the activity 
 and the degree of intellectual receptivity of the 
 neophyte, from two months to two years, it is well 
 to observe him attentively and minutely, for a happy 
 circumstance, often the most unforeseen bf all, may 
 chance to reveal some splendid aptitude in him and 
 [29]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 indicate the exact path into which he should be di- 
 rected. Whatever this may be, we shall never have 
 to regret the time so far devoted to the elementary 
 study of Solfeggio, Dictation and Theory, for in 
 any case it will be necessary to pursue them, and for 
 a long time. They form the best and the most solid 
 basis of all musical instruction ; but we have said that 
 it becomes necessary thenceforth for us to form a 
 definite aim, to know what we wish and whither we 
 are going, for " an education without a definite aim 
 produces a character without force," as Legouve has 
 said excellently. It is well not to let the slightest 
 hints escape you, to take note of them, to compare 
 them, to put them together, and finally to stop with 
 some determined object. Upon what does the course 
 of a river depend? Upon the first stone that it en- 
 counters on its way. What is it that decides the 
 course of a whole life? Often a fortuitous meeting, 
 a circumstance of futile appearance, a word heard by 
 chance. Nothing should be neglected. 
 
 Here it is as though we were at a railway junction. 
 Upon the line that we shall choose, the entire con- 
 tinuation of the route will depend. Therefore we 
 cannot reflect too maturely nor examine the matter 
 too minutely before making a choice that will cer- 
 tainly have a great and decisive influence upon the 
 future. 
 
 [30]
 
 VII. INDICATIONS OF SPECIAL APTITUDES AND 
 OPINIONS OF GREAT MEN ON Music 
 
 Very often, at this age, the little pupil becomes 
 enamoured of a certain instrument, listens to it with 
 more pleasure than to any other, likes to look at it 
 and to touch it, and to try to make it speak. We may 
 then put the question to him : would you like to learn 
 how to play it? And even the reply to this question 
 should often be interpreted according to the more or 
 less communicative, enthusiastic, or timid character of 
 the child. If we think from some way by which he 
 behaves that he really has a desire for it, and if on 
 the other hand we have already been able to observe 
 that he has perseverance in his ideas, if, finally, his 
 choice has not fallen upon some ridiculous instrument 
 such as the Chapeau Chinois,* for example, there is 
 nothing to prevent us from deciding, in principle, to 
 direct him at first with a view to the study of that in- 
 strument rather than any other. This does not mean 
 to say that we must immediately go and buy him one, 
 for there are some instruments the study of which he 
 must not undertake until he has got his growth; but 
 it does mean to say that from this time forward we 
 can map out a plan of work for him, preparing him 
 in the most logical and favourable way for the mastery 
 of his favourite instrument. 
 
 Certain signs may give us reason to believe that 
 
 * Chinese Pavilion, a kind of sistrum made of brass plates and 
 bells, used only in military music. 
 
 [31]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 we are in the presence of a composer's organization; 
 for example, if the child, having only the vaguest 
 ideas about music, is tormented with a desire to write, 
 and to note down something that he has invented or 
 sincerely believes that he has invented, such as a lit- 
 tle melody to some words, or a dance tune. I can 
 mention one, who, after hearing his elder sister play 
 the first sonatas of Mozart, composed (?) a Grande 
 Sonate (that was the title), dedicated to his sister, 
 which had only thirteen bars all told. The Allegro 
 numbered five: the first movement, made up of four 
 notes, represented the first motif in C; the second in 
 G, with the word expressive, constituted the second 
 motif, after which a very thick double bar, with dots, 
 clearly indicated that the first repetition was fin- 
 ished; the second began with some scales, having 
 many accidentals scattered at random, after which 
 returned the first and second motifs, both in C. The 
 Adagio contained only three chords, all false, but 
 quite ample in intention, and ended with an organ- 
 point. The Finale, evidently unfinished, was in six- 
 eight time, and was peppered with notes, quavers, 
 semi-quavers, and demi-semi-quavers ; there Avas no 
 common sense in any of it, but one felt that it was in- 
 tended to go very, very fast, with a dizzying rapidity ; 
 it had seven bars. The whole thing was written on 
 a sheet of small letter paper, which he had ruled him- 
 self, all awry, and splashed with numerous blots of 
 ink. 
 
 To any one ignorant of musical education, this 
 would have been considered as an insignificant child's 
 [32]
 
 play, a simple and harmless scrawl; but it really 
 showed an extraordinary power of observation and 
 imitation : the first piece divided into two repeats, the 
 second motif announced in the key of the dominant, 
 and then in the principal key ; the care to begin the 
 second repeat with surprising modulations ( !), the 
 very short Adagio with its solemn organ point ; and 
 the Finale, of infinitely greater speed than the rest, 
 all this revealed an instinct for form that was abso- 
 lutely stupefying, for here, crudely sketched, as if to 
 order, was exactly the plan of the classic Sonata and 
 Symphony likewise. This child has become a com- 
 poser of talent, although somewhat eccentric, and 
 even obtained, many years ago, the Grand Prix de 
 Rome. 
 
 However, we must mistrust a singular aberration 
 in certain individuals who imagine that they are com- 
 posing because they accumulate notes, clefs, sharps 
 and flats upon music paper that mean nothing, and 
 who take a great pleasure in doing this, what do I 
 say? their sole pleasure. This becomes an obsession 
 with them, a haunting occupation. I have known sev- 
 eral of these ; with the last one, this peculiar condi- 
 tion, which is certainly unhealthy, continued until 
 the age of sixteen or seventeen years, when I lost 
 sight of him. He refused to apply himself to any 
 studies, musical or foreign to music, and spent his life 
 in the library of our Conservatoire in gazing at the 
 most complicated scores, of which, naturally enough, 
 he could understand absolutely nothing, then, go- 
 ing home, he would begin afresh with a gentle perti- 
 [33]
 
 nacity, to cover sheets upon sheets of ruled paper 
 with signs resembling those he had just seen, signs 
 that offered no mutual co-ordination, and devoid of 
 all meaning. He seemed to be intelligent and ex- 
 pressed himself very well. His father had tried in 
 vain to make him learn designing, his own craft, and 
 then the violin, but he would not listen to any of this, 
 and begged to be allowed to come as a purely passive 
 listener to my class in harmony and continue his be- 
 loved reading in the library, which made his unhappy 
 father say : " It is very necessary that I should make 
 a composer of him since I can make nothing else of 
 him." This reasoning was absurd. I have seen sev- 
 eral other examples of this peculiar monomania, but 
 in a lesser degree ; if this were an isolated case, I 
 should not have spoken of it. 
 
 The consequence is that when you see a young child 
 manifest this irresistible desire to write, thus fasci- 
 nated by music-paper, you must not jump at the con- 
 clusion that he is exhibiting the organization of a 
 composer ; neither must you throw away nor tear up 
 his crude attempts, but show them to some experienced 
 musician to learn if he can discover in them any sign 
 that reveals a marked predisposition. 
 
 There are also some who improvise for hours upon 
 the piano, sometimes even without ever having 
 learned to play, and who take a very great pleasure 
 in it. Means should be found to get some artist to 
 hear this, one who is endowed with good judgment 
 and capable of appreciating whether this is simply an 
 incoherent, fabric, more or less attractive, or whether
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 it contains the trace of a musical idea or conduct in 
 the development, or even whether these so-called im- 
 provisations are not merely simple reminiscences, or 
 memories of things heard, in which case they would 
 reveal memory and the faculty of imitation rather 
 than the gift of creating new forms. 
 
 Perhaps one infallible indication is the instinctive 
 preference for good music, and the dawn of that 
 judgment that prevents the thought of applying the 
 epithet " pretty " to the overture of Don Giovanni, 
 or that of " beautiful " to a charming Air de Ballet 
 by Leo Delibes. Musical memory is also a good thing, 
 that which enables you to retain and to sing in tune 
 and time a melody that has pleased you. But, in 
 reality, it is far from being always the case that pre- 
 cursory signs manifest themselves from the tenderest 
 age. Most frequently, the child simply gives proof, 
 quite early, of a general aptitude for music, and it 
 is in the course of his studies, and instigated by them, 
 that the desire to compose is developed in him, de- 
 noting that there is reason to direct his instruction 
 specially towards that end. 
 
 As for those gentle young persons who, while af- 
 firming that they wish to compose, wait patiently un- 
 til their studies are over before they attempt to write, 
 on the pretext that they don't know how, we may be 
 certain that they do not possess the divine spark. 
 
 Certain children find means during their solfeggio 
 
 lessons, or while taking part in choruses, to show a 
 
 natural feeling for good phrasing, which leads them 
 
 to sing with intelligence, to shade well and to take 
 
 [35]
 
 breath at the right place. With regard to such, there 
 should be no hesitation in letting them have some 
 veritable singing-lessons from a good master, and in 
 seeking opportunities for them to sing short solos at 
 Church, at the Temple, at Concerts, or in informal 
 musical gatherings. Whatever may be their future 
 vocation, they will always be glad to know how to 
 sing; but it is imperative to suspend immediately all 
 vocal exercise, singing or solfeggio, as soon as the 
 first signs of the change of voice appear. We will re- 
 turn to this in the proper place. 
 
 We also find children who do not manifest th<! 
 slightest aptitude. Here there is room for distinction. 
 
 If this indifference and apathy extend over all 
 studies and are not peculiar to music, we must regard 
 it merely as general laziness, and try to find for music 
 as for all the others, a stimulus in emulation, promises 
 of reward, or threats of punishment. Keep from 
 threats, however, as much as possible, for the use of 
 chastisement is a very sad way to instil the love of art. 
 I have sometimes seen brutal parents beat a child un- 
 mercifully because he refused to work, and then com- 
 pel him to sing with taste in the midst of tears and 
 sobs. I have followed several of these children. They 
 all became worthless. So you must not beat them, but, 
 when the laziness is general and not confined to any 
 one thing, you must not yield to them, either ; apply- 
 ing that speech of Rollin's : " Education is a gentle 
 and insinuating mistress, the enemy of violence and 
 constraint," with gentleness and firmness you must 
 impose upon the child some musical task, even indif- 
 [36]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 ferent or mechanical (which forms an exception) 
 however short, be it only half an hour a day, among 
 his other studies, which, moreover, will refresh him 
 in spite of himself; and if he is too rebellious to do 
 this work when alone, then have recourse to a tutor to 
 make him do it. And this is the reason why: it hap- 
 pens very frequently with natures that are weak and 
 devoid of energy, that the musical aptitude * is in 
 some measure acleep and does not exhibit itself until 
 much later, towards 18 or 20 years of age; this is 
 particularly frequent with young persons who have 
 worked in mathematics or the exact sciences ; one fine 
 day, they wake up with a violent desire to play the 
 piano or the violin, or to know how to read a score, 
 and then, if no one has known enough to force them 
 lo acquire some elementary ideas in their early years* 
 even against their will, they are very unhappy at not 
 being able to satisfy their inclination. To acquire 
 these, they make the most fruitless efforts, with poor 
 results or none at all, for they have no longer the nec- 
 essary suppleness of mind, having passed the happy 
 age when one learns languages while being amused. 
 They deplore their laziness, but it is too late. And 
 thus one would have done them a kindness by exact- 
 ing from them those few moments of daily practice, 
 even passive, I repeat, borne with weariness, which 
 would now suffice them as a basis upon which they 
 could give themselves a good instruction by means of 
 intelligent amateurs. These cases seldom occur in 
 
 * I have not to concern myself with the others ; but it is possi- 
 ble that it is the same with all, at least regarding the arts. 
 
 [37]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Germany, where music forms part of the education ; 
 all the children who go to school learn to sing, both 
 boys and girls without exception ; each class begins 
 with a chorus celebrating the benefits of the instruc- 
 tion, or the respect due to parents, or even some 
 patriotic or religious subject (what an education!), 
 and thus all the little scholars are little musicians. 
 Our neighbours, therefore, happen to put into prac- 
 tice a principle of one of our great historians, who 
 was also a great moralist : " Music brings to the soul 
 a veritable inward culture, and is part of the educa- 
 tion of a people" (Guizot). In 1538, Luther ex- 
 pressed an analogous idea in other terms : " One can- 
 not question," said he, " that music contains the germ 
 of all the virtues ; and I can only compare those whom 
 music does not touch to blocks of wood or stone. 
 Youth then should be brought up in the practice of 
 this divine art." 
 
 For him, who also said : " Music governs the world, 
 it is a gift of God, and it is closely allied to theology," 
 it is certain that music formed an integral part of be- 
 lief, his admirable Chorales lead us to believe this, 
 and he could not conceive an education in which it 
 would not have a large share. 
 
 Finally, there exists a last category, that of the 
 children who, industrious and active in all their other 
 studies, have an invincible repugnance and an invol- 
 untary and irresistible aversion to everything in the 
 domain of music. " Education should bring to light 
 the ideal of the individual," said J. P. Richter, who 
 knew what he was saying. Now, for these, their ideal 
 [38]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 certainly is not music. It is to be hoped that they 
 have another one, and one must know how to seek for 
 it, to discover it and help it to soar, not fatiguing them 
 more than is necessary with studies to which they are 
 not adapted and which will never lead to anything 
 that is worth while. 
 
 There is quite enough bad music and there are 
 quite enough bad musicians, and so there is nothing 
 to regret. I am most certainly not one of those who 
 wish that everybody should be a musician ; on the con- 
 trary, this seems to me one of the faults of the age. 
 What I should like, and this is not at all the same 
 thing, is that all children, even those who show no 
 disposition for it, with the exception of some specially 
 marked cases of repugnance, should receive sufficient 
 material musical instruction, to enable them at a later 
 period, in case the artistic sentiment should declare 
 itself, to find a foundation prepared, so that they 
 should not have to begin entirely at the begin- 
 ning, which would be too laborious and repellent for 
 them. 
 
 Do not all the large establishments for general in- 
 struction prudently act in this way, by inculcating in 
 the child, before his career is decided upon, elementary 
 notions touching a little on all things, several of which 
 in the course of time will have to be abandoned as be- 
 ing of no use to him? 
 
 I should add that those absolutely recalcitrant 
 natures of which we have spoken last are excessively 
 rare, for which we must congratulate ourselves, if 
 Shakespeare is to be believed : 
 [39]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 The man that hath no music in himself, 
 
 Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, 
 
 Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils ; 
 
 The motions of his spirit are dull as night 
 
 And his affection dark as Erebus: 
 
 Let no such man be trusted.* 
 
 Even if we make allowance for poetical exaggera- 
 tion, and admit that one may be a perfectly honest 
 man without the love of music, we must pity those to 
 whom the intelligence of our beautiful language is 
 closed, for many of the purest and most elevated en- 
 joyments are thereby refused to them forever. 
 
 Putting these exceptions aside, let us return to that 
 important question, from which we have wandered a 
 little, what direction to give to the musical studies of 
 each individual when once he has acquired some ele- 
 ments of solfeggio, and even if one wishes, of the 
 piano. 
 
 If he manifests any special taste for any instru- 
 ment, among those that are within the capacity of his 
 age, the best thing is to let him follow his impulse, 
 which has every chance of being good. If, on the 
 contrary, his choice falls upon an instrument which 
 it would be better for him not to attempt till later, 
 profit by this time to advance the general instruction, 
 preparing meanwhile the paths by the musical studies 
 which will be marked out in the next chapter. 
 
 It is the same if, attracted by the prestige of the 
 theatre or the bait of a lucrative profession, he as- 
 pires to be a singer ; we should mark time while wait- 
 * Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, Act V., Scene I. 
 [40]
 
 ing for the appearance of the voice, but without neg- 
 lecting before all else to make a musician of him, a 
 thing so much the more precious because it is so rare 
 in the world of singers. Here, however, there is a very 
 interesting exception which we shall reserve for Chap- 
 ter III. 
 
 If, finally, he exhibits a very marked propensity 
 for composition, it is never too early to start him 
 upon the complex studies of a composer (for they 
 are very long if one pleases). What is essentially de- 
 sirable is not to neglect one of them, and thereby be- 
 come a thorough musician, in possession of the tech- 
 nique of the art in its full expanse. 
 
 It may often happen, as has been already said, that 
 although surrounded with the wisest precautions, we 
 have chosen a road aside from the most suitable one, 
 whether because appearances were deceitful or because 
 we interpreted them wrongly, or because as the years 
 passed new aptitudes came to light. In this case, if 
 the individual has followed the general plan of study 
 which is the exclusive subject of this work, he can 
 easily manage to apply to a new aim the greater part 
 of the knowledge already acquired with another end 
 in view, and reduce to a minimum the loss of time oc- 
 casioned by that fork of the road.
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 VIII. IMPORTANCE OF CONDUCTING STUDIES ME- 
 THODICALLY AND LOGICALLY 
 
 To gain this result, the great point is always to 
 conduct the studies methodically and logically in the 
 normal order that agrees with the first branch that 
 we think advisable to adopt ; in a word, don't " put 
 the cart before the horse." In this way we shall con- 
 stantly find points of contact between this branch and 
 others, we shall never have learned anything really 
 useless, and we shall be able to walk in the new path 
 without having to go back too far ; while with studies 
 pursued in a desultory manner and not linked together 
 as they should be, we may squander and throw the 
 most manifest talents into confusion, and cause tho 
 loss of a vocation. 
 
 Several years ago, Massenet, then Professor of 
 Composition in the Conservatory, sent to me a young 
 provincial, eighteen years of age, saying something 
 to this effect : " Here is a boy who is strongly recom- 
 mended to me, he has ideas and a passion for compo 
 sition, but as he has never studied harmony, he is as; 
 ignorant as a carp in the art of writing; I think 
 that after he shall have studied two or three years 
 with you, he will be ripe for counterpoint and fugue 
 with me." Naturally, I admitted him without ex- 
 amination, and I gave him for Mentor, as is the cus- 
 tom in our classes, which are too large for the pro- 
 fessor to concern himself with each one individually, 
 the oldest and the most serious of his comrades, not 
 without telling him by whom he was sent to me and 
 [42]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 the importance that I attached to his being carefully 
 directed. At the end of a few lessons, the latter, very 
 much vexecj? declared to me that it wouldn't do at 
 all, he coultl not possibly make him understand. I 
 tried in my turn, and I discovered what was lacking in 
 the pupil ; this was the first elements of solfeggio. He 
 did not even know how to tell the keys. Heavens ! 
 things looked grave. I then managed to get one of 
 my colleagues, professor of solfeggio, to admit him 
 into his class as a listener, for he was long past the 
 regulation age when he could have been received as 
 a pupil ; there, he worked steadily, but he was already 
 thick-headed, and it took more than two years of ef- 
 fort, aided by private lessons, to turn him into a pas- 
 sable reader. Now then, he is back in my class, still 
 full of courage, and this time in good condition; he 
 can now, at the age of twenty-one years, at last be- 
 gin his special studies in composition. Everything 
 was going well, extremely well, and he was giving un- 
 deniable proofs of intelligence and facility, when the 
 period of military service arrived ; his regiment was 
 sent to garrison in a little isolated spot; no theatre, 
 no concerts, no means of intellectual development. 
 When he returned to me for the third time, three } r ears 
 later, he had lost in a great measure the benefit of 
 his first studies in harmony, and, after several fresh 
 attempts, we were forced to agree with one accord 
 that it was really too late to dream of recovering 
 henceforth the suppleness of mind necessary to ac- 
 quire all the knowledge in which he was deficient, that 
 he could not enter that career before an age when it
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ought to be already clearly marked out, and that 
 finally, after having expended so much courage and 
 energy, there was nothing to do but to give up all 
 hope of ever becoming a composer such as he had 
 dreamed of being. Inconsolable, but unable to bring 
 himself to the complete renunciation of the art which 
 he had thought to have made the aim of his life, the 
 poor boy became a clarinettist ! and as he had not be- 
 gan to study that instrument until late, he plays it 
 very badly, which greatly distresses him, for he has 
 still an exquisite taste. 
 
 It is very certain that if his parents, who now de- 
 plore their blunder, instead of having opposed the 
 flight of his genius, (for he had always begged them 
 to let him study music) had only consented during 
 his early years to let him have some solfeggio les- 
 sons and to study music as an amateur according to 
 his desire, things would have been entirely different. 
 He would have come to the Conservatoire at the re- 
 quired time, and sufficiently prepared to learn har- 
 mony, and the rest would have gone along smoothly. 
 Their terror at his aspirations to become a composer 
 led them to make a bad clarinettist of him. 
 
 This example may be instructively accompanied by 
 an anecdote humourously related by Berlioz. 
 
 " A man, a rich landowner, deigned to present to 
 me his son, aged twenty-two years, who, according to 
 his own confession, was still unable to read music. 
 
 " I come to entreat you, Monsieur," he said, " to 
 be good enough to give lessons in high composition 
 to this young man, who will, I hope, shortly be an 
 [44]
 
 GENERAL REMARKS 
 
 honour to you. His first idea was to be a colonel, but 
 notwithstanding the eclat of military glory, that of 
 art with its seductions decided him positively ; he pre- 
 fers to make himself a great composer." 
 
 " Oh ! Monsieur what a mistake ! If you but knew 
 all the vexations of this career! The great composers 
 all devour each other ; there are so many of them ! 
 Moreover, I am not willing to charge my- 
 self with conducting him to the goal of his noble 
 ambition. In my opinion it would be better for him 
 to follow his first idea and to enlist in the regiment 
 which you have just mentioned to me." 
 
 "What regiment?" 
 
 " Parbleu! the regiment of colonels." 
 
 " Monsieur, your pleasantry is greatly misplaced ; 
 I will importune you no longer. Happily you are not 
 the only master and my son can make himself a great 
 composer without your assistance. We have the hon- 
 our to salute you." * 
 
 A great depth of truth is hidden under this amus- 
 ing form. Persons who imagine that they can become 
 great composers at will by desiring glory and taking 
 a few lessons from a great master are legion. They 
 are ignorant of the patient study to which it is nec- 
 essary to submit even with the best natural endow- 
 ments before attaining the level of an honest medi- 
 ocrity; above all, they are ignorant of the utility of 
 the methodical spirit so indispensable to every form 
 of education, and, perhaps, artistic education more 
 than all. 
 
 * Hector Berlioz, Les Grotesques de la Musique. 
 ' [45]
 
 PART II 
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS
 
 I. PROPER AGE TO BEGIN THE STUDY OF AN INSTRU- 
 MENT, CHOICE OF A TEACHER, AND HINTS TO 
 PARENTS 
 
 Although realizing that I hold a contrary opinion 
 to the greater number of teachers of special instru- 
 ments, I shall never advise allowing a child, that is 
 not to be exhibited as a phenomenon at shows and cir- 
 cuses, to study any musical instrument whatever 
 before the age of six at the earliest. It seems to me 
 a most barbarous practice, and I will not be a party 
 to it. Solfeggio, if you like; an instrument, never. 
 This does not prevent allowing little children to amuse 
 themselves by drumming upon the piano if such is 
 their pleasure (and this is something that should be 
 forbidden later), but to impose any study upon them 
 seems to me monstrous, and, moreover, absolutely use- 
 less. 
 
 There is always here, slight as it may be, a cer- 
 tain amount of physical fatigue, of force expended 
 in an abnormal way, detrimental to growth, and also 
 a concentration of the mind which they ought to be 
 spared since it is not absolutely necessary and might 
 [49]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 be hurtful to them. Before making artists, you must 
 make men and women, that is to say just now, little 
 boys and little girls, who are well constituted, sound 
 and capable of supporting the notable increase of 
 physical and mental efforts that will inevitably be im- 
 posed upon their general education, without the latter 
 thereby either suffering or being weakened. I insist 
 upon this point by the addition of an artistic edu- 
 cation, musical or otherwise, together with the differ- 
 ent studies involved. 
 
 They have quite enough to do up to this time if 
 they learn to read, to write a little, to count upon their 
 little fingers and to commit to memory such short 
 fables or little verses as are within their infantile 
 reach. To demand more of them would be bad judg- 
 ment. It would be compromising. 
 
 This being said, let us see first in a general way 
 what is the best means of producing a good instru- 
 mentalist. 
 
 When a young artist is about to make his choice 
 of an instrument, or when we intend to help him in 
 this choice, it is advisable to take into account not only 
 his tastes and sympathies, but also his physical apti- 
 tudes, and still other considerations, such as the 
 amount of time it is possible for him to devote every 
 day to his musical studies ; his definite purpose, which 
 may quite as likely be that of acquiring simply what 
 is called an " amateur talent," aiming at the virtuosity 
 of an artist; his social position, which may be of a 
 kind to favour his studies, or to impede them, etc., 
 etc. All this is very delicate and also very important, 
 [50]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 and should not be left to the chance of an unreflect- 
 ing impulse; by doing the latter we expose ourselves 
 to mistakes that we shall have cause to regret later, 
 when there will be no time to retrace our steps. 
 
 The aim of this chapter is precisely to caution the 
 pupil, or his natural advisers, parents or teachers, 
 against the temptations and errors of this kind, by 
 making them acquainted in advance and with a cer- 
 tain exactness, with the special exigences of such or 
 such a study. 
 
 It is clear that he who desires to cultivate the art 
 merely for his pleasure, or as a luxury, may very well 
 allow himself to be guided solely by his inclinations 
 or predilections for one instrument or another; the 
 worst that can happen to him, is that he may attain 
 perfection, which is really not a necessity for him. 
 But it is entirely different with him who intends to 
 make art his career, for he is compelled by that very 
 fact to take into consideration first of all the natural 
 qualities with which he is gifted and which he can 
 use to the best advantage. In a word, everybody 
 should know exactly what he wants and what he can 
 do, and this is not an insurmountable difficulty, since 
 it is merely necessary to know, before embarking upon 
 the study of any instrument, how well it suits him, the 
 amount of work that it will impose upon him, and the 
 result that he can confidently hope for. 
 
 When once the choice of the instrument is made, 
 it remains to find out what is the best and most profit- 
 able way to undertake and pursue the study of it. 
 Now, since a number of fundamental principles may 
 [51]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 be applied without distinction to the study of all in- 
 struments, we shall first endeavour to collect them here, 
 in order to avoid repetition, reserving for the sub- 
 divisions of this chapter the treatment of whatever is 
 peculiar to each family of instruments, or to each of 
 its members considered separately. 
 
 1. The first thing to take note of, is that the study 
 of an instrument, whatever it may be, should be be- 
 gun very quietly, serenely and without any violence, 
 proceeding by very short periods, short enough never 
 to allow of fatigue. I state this more precisely, so 
 as to make myself thoroughly understood : the advent 
 of fatigue must not be taken as a sign for the momen- 
 tary cessation of work ; this would be too late ; you 
 must have a presentiment of it and know when to stop 
 even before it makes itself felt. This is of capital 
 importance. 
 
 Then, little by little, very gradually indeed, one 
 will increase the duration of these periods of study, 
 but always carefully avoiding prolonging them until 
 the moment when the appearance of lassitude is to be 
 feared. 
 
 It is not until after one is fully disciplined in the 
 practice of one's instrument that one may venture to 
 brave fatigue, making an extra effort from time to 
 time; and then, frequently, this mode of proceeding, 
 exceptionally employed, may result in rapid progress. 
 But in elementary studies, it is of no value, and is the 
 worst of all methods. Work should be regular and 
 moderate. 
 
 [52]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Hence arises the necessity of breaking it up and 
 distributing it wisely among the different periods of 
 the day. 
 
 All the instructions that we shall give in the fol- 
 lowing pages study for a quarter of an hour, half an 
 hour, or an hour remain subordinate therefore to 
 this invariable rule, that during the first months, at 
 least, work must never be pushed to the point of fa- 
 tigue, but the student must stop in time, rest and 
 begin afresh. 
 
 2. Acquire at once the habit of studying slowly, 
 never giving way to the pleasure of flinging off scales 
 or rapid passages; by so doing, you only learn to 
 jumble. Always listen to yourself and try to get the 
 best quality of tone. 
 
 Never work, even for a few minutes, without think- 
 ing of what you are doing, the end to be attained ; if 
 the attention has wandered, if you find yourself think- 
 ing of something else, which is another indication of 
 fatigue, it is better to break off and begin again later. 
 Even for the most elementary work, that of scales, for 
 example, this condition is indispensable; work done 
 with a wandering mind is of no profit; it is a waste 
 of time. 
 
 3. While working at anything whatsoever, ele- 
 mentary or more advanced exercises, etudes, pieces, as 
 also when reading, the time should always be marked 
 in some way ; the singer or solfeggist should beat time 
 with the right hand, as the conductor of an orchestra 
 [53]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 does with his baton, without the slightest violence or 
 stiffness, but with ease; the player of a wind or 
 stringed instrument, by an imperceptible movement 
 of the toes ; and the pianist or harpist, who can spare 
 the use of neither foot nor hand, by counting the time 
 or its subdivisions in a low tone. The singer should 
 not mark the time with his foot, for this always pro- 
 duces a slight trembling in the voice. Neither should 
 the pianist, because then he would acquire the habit 
 of beating it on the pedals, which would produce the 
 most disastrous effects. 
 
 4. Even in the primary studies, you should be 
 careful never to play anything but good music; at, 
 least, music that is healthful and well written, 
 " Healthy men are not made by bringing children up 
 on sweets. The nourishment of the mind ought to br 
 as simple and substantial as that of the body. The. 
 masters have taken care to supply us abundantly with 
 the former. Let us keep to it." * 
 
 For certain instruments, the piano and stringed in 
 struments, this judicious advice will be very easy to 
 follow. For others, such as the wood-wind and brass, 
 it will be infinitely more difficult, their repertory be- 
 ing unfortunately so very much smaller, and some- 
 what mediocre in quality. 
 
 5. In the study of every instrument, there are two 
 
 things to work for: technique, or mechanical study, 
 
 which varies with each instrument ; and style, which 
 
 * Schumann. 
 
 [54]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 is the same for all. At the beginning, it is always 
 necessary to give the precedence to the mechanism, 
 although it is the least pleasurable. Afterwards, the 
 two may be developed side by side ; you can even ac- 
 custom yourself to shade with intelligence and thus 
 render those exercises that permit of such treatment 
 a little more interesting. The most agreeable mo- 
 ment of study, beyond any doubt, is that when we 
 have become sufficiently master of our mechanism to 
 be able to give all our attention to style, the art of 
 phrasing well, of shading and of punctuating; but 
 even for this, long studies in technique are indispen- 
 sable, and we must have the courage to submit to them. 
 
 6. Each instrument should jealously preserve its 
 characteristic timbre (quality of tone) : a flutist, 
 whose tone makes us think of a clarinet, a trumpet- 
 player whose timbre approaches that of the horn, are 
 both equally in the wrong. 
 
 7.- From the very beginning of study, faults and 
 good qualities will.be revealed. The wise teacher, 
 while correcting the faults and endeavouring to get 
 rid of them, pays even more attention to developing 
 the good qualities and making the most of them. 
 Progress is quicker by this means. 
 
 8. No matter how far advanced in study, never 
 
 try to excite astonishment by tours de force and 
 
 difficulties vanquished ; that must be left for clowns. 
 
 We should always consider mechanism as a means ; the 
 
 [55]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 end is to interest and charm. It is far better to play 
 pieces below our present ability, and play them in 
 time, correctly, intelligently and with the expression 
 that belongs to them, than to attack compositions that 
 are too difficult and interpret them in a mediocre man- 
 ner. 
 
 9. In addition to solfeggio, indispensable to 
 everyone, a few ideas of harmony will never do any 
 harm. For the pianist and the harpist, this is even 
 insufficient ; a complete knowledge is necessary. 
 
 10. All serious teachers agree in recognizing that 
 a practical knowledge of the piano, without any at- 
 tempt at virtuosity, is a great advantage to every 
 singer and instrumentalist, and facilitates his special 
 studies. 
 
 11. 'We should always devote a few moments every 
 day to reading, as soon as it becomes possible, re- 
 quiring ourselves to read more slowly than the move- 
 ment indicated, to play strictly in time, and never 
 to stop nor to go back over the ground, even when we 
 have made a mistake. 
 
 12. Ensemble music is a very useful and profit- 
 able exercise, perhaps the best of all for forming the 
 taste and developing the style, but not until we have 
 become a perfect master of our instrument and are 
 capable of comprehending the enormous artistic in- 
 terest belonging to this study. 
 
 This also applies to orchestral music; it is the 
 [56]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 veritable school of application. We should therefore 
 eagerly seek every opportunity of taking part in an 
 orchestral symphony, just as soon as we feel qualified 
 to do so intelligently. 
 
 Such are the general principles: let us now study 
 their application. 
 
 The choice of a teacher, particularly at the begin- 
 ning, is a very difficult and delicate matter, the im- 
 portance of which can escape nobody, and in which we 
 cannot be too circumspect. If too severe, he re- 
 pels the pupil; if too indulgent, he encourages lazi- 
 ness. If too old, he appears as a dotard; if too 
 young, he lacks experience, that is certain. Really, 
 it is very difficult. 
 
 It is necessary to strike a happy medium: a man 
 still young, rather gay than morose, which does not 
 in the least prevent him from being serious, and prac- 
 tical, knowing how to present things, even if they 
 are a little tiresome, under their happiest aspect, 
 should, the amount of talent being equal, attract the 
 preference of the parents. If to these qualities he 
 adds that of being fond of children, if he does not 
 disdain to descend from his pedestal every now and 
 then to relate, as a reward, some little curious and edi- 
 fying story (such as Lully, the scullion and his little 
 violinists, Mozart and Marie Antoinette, Orpheus 
 charming the wild beasts, etc., etc.), that would be 
 perfect. 
 
 " What ! " some one will ask, " the History of 
 Music already ? " And, why not, forsooth, if one can 
 5 [57]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 thus teach something without its being suspected, that 
 is so much gain ; and awakens taste ? 
 
 The characteristic sign of a very good teacher i* 
 knowing how to make himself loved by his pupils, be> 
 cause while they love him, lie makes them love every- 
 thing relating to his teaching. The lesson hour 
 should be an hour of pleasure, and when we see the 
 child awaiting its return with joyous impatience, it 
 is a proof that we have given him a good master. 
 
 Whenever there is a chance of getting a woman 
 for the elementary instruction of young children, 1 
 am for the woman ; she unquestionably possesses more 
 than we do, by intuition, gentleness, persuasion, and. 
 above all, patience, which are the principal qualitie c 
 to be sought in a teacher, always granting equal artis 
 tic value, in all that concerns primary instruction, 
 Now, for solfeggio, the piano and the harp, that i,- 
 to say for most of the studies that are within the ca 
 pacity of the child, there are just as many women 
 teachers as men ; we also find them for the violin and 
 violoncello. In any case of hesitation, I should ad 
 vise giving the preference to a woman-teacher, but 
 always with the same reservations, that is to say thai 
 she must not be too strict, nor too lax, nor too old, 
 nor too young, and this naturally for the same rea- 
 sons, which here assume even greater importance, 
 for these defects are exaggerated in the female sex. 
 It seems to me useless to dwell here upon this sub- 
 ject to which I shall have occasion to return when it 
 becomes a question of higher education, whether of 
 singing or of instruments. 
 
 [58]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Now, I have something that is very hard to say ; 
 for, to my great regret, I am going to hurt some pro- 
 foundly respectable persons of the best intentions ; I 
 arm- myself with all my courage to write it : parents 
 are always the very worst teachers, and should refrain 
 as much as possible from giving lessons to their own 
 children. 
 
 There, it is said; and cruel as it may be, I will not 
 retract a single word; I will even add to it: even if 
 they are excellent musicians, even if they make teach- 
 ing their profession, parents are the most detestable 
 teachers when it comes to their own children, but the 
 latter only, because, inversely, for the very reason 
 that they have children of their own, that they love 
 and understand them, they can be perfect teachers 
 for those of others. 
 
 Here I feel the need of taking refuge behind the 
 unimpeachable authority of an unquestioned master 
 in the art of education, that of Legouve: " A father," 
 he says, " has two irremediable defects for a master ; 
 he is an intermittent master and an amateur master. 
 Fathers, even when lettered or learned, are 
 not good masters." * A mother is still less so, which 
 goes without saying. 
 
 This is what happens about six times a week in a 
 household where the father has undertaken the musical 
 education of his daughter: 
 
 " Papa, I cannot take my lesson just now, be- 
 cause Mamma is going to take me to the dressmaker's 
 to see her dress tried on." 
 
 * Ernest Legouv^, Les P&res et Us Enfants. 
 [59]
 
 MUSICAL, EDUCATION 
 
 " But, my child, I have stayed at home on purpose ; 
 later, I shall have no time." 
 
 " See, dear," interposes the mother, " it is such a 
 lovely day, you would not want to deprive the child of 
 a walk. You have nothing to do this evening, you 
 can give her her little lesson after dinner." 
 
 " Very well, if you think that will be better. Go 
 along." 
 
 In the evening, after dinner, an old friend comes 
 to see you, or the child is sleepy ... in short, 
 the lesson is put off till to-morrow ; and to-morrow, the 
 same thing happens again. 
 
 It is not the same when the appointment is made 
 with a teacher, whether he comes to your house, or 
 you go to his. Here, a mutual obligation has been 
 contracted for, and on both sides punctuality and 
 regularity in the lessons is maintained. 
 
 Then people are always inclined to treat their own 
 children differently from the children of others ; they 
 always find the rules too complicated, the methods too 
 long, and the elementary exercises too developed ; they 
 always want to simplify or abridge the work, to judge 
 them more from their hearts than from their reason ; 
 or, again, if they are on their guard, they mistrust 
 their tenderness, and become unduly exacting and ir- 
 ritating towards the pupil ; and in any case they 
 always have the fault of expecting a too rapid 
 progress from those who are not really profiting; 
 for, as that deep and witty observer Legouve has 
 said, agreeing in this with J. J. Rousseau and many 
 other great moralists : " The greatest fault in the mat- 
 [60]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 ter of education is the desire to go fast. 
 Education should not be a fever. An ordinary mas- 
 ter is the best of guides, precisely because he is neither 
 too hurried, nor to anxious to attain his end." * 
 
 There are still other reasons: a salaried master 
 comes to give a lesson ; the pupil has worked badly or 
 insufficiently ; the master is dissatisfied, he bestows a 
 reprimand and demands that such a thing shall not 
 happen again ; then it is over, the reproof has been 
 given. If, on the other hand, it is the mother who has 
 given the lesson, she talks about it all day, even when 
 out walking, and she complains about it at table to 
 the father so that he may scold in his turn, until the 
 child, set on edge, begins to cry if he is nervous, to 
 reply impertinently if he is badly brought up; then 
 they send him to bed without kissing him good-night, 
 and he cherishes a deep hatred for music lessons, and 
 for music itself, the original cause of his unhappi- 
 ness. 
 
 Therefore, there is great danger when parents 
 venture to be teachers of their own children ; and up 
 to a certain point, one must admit that this danger ex- 
 tends to intimate friends, those who come to the house 
 often, who play with the child and take him on their 
 knees; they are subject, in a less degree, to the same 
 weaknesses as the parents, and the child does not 
 regard them as seriously as he does a stranger whom 
 he only knows as his teacher. 
 
 Parents have another role of equal importance, two 
 other roles, if you prefer; they should place them- 
 * Ernest Legouv, Les P&res et les Enfants. 
 
 [61]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Selves above and below the professor. Above, because 
 it is they who select him and give him authority over 
 the pupil, and also by the watchfulness that they 
 should always exert over the lesson. Below, by hold- 
 ing themselves always ready to serve him as kindly 
 helpers and tutors, if he expresses the desire, for he 
 may perfectly well prefer not to be aided at all. In 
 any case, they should be present at the lessons, at least 
 frequently, so as to assure themselves of the exact ful- 
 filment of the material part of the master's prescrip- 
 tions, the time for study, the division of the work, 
 etc. If the latter should request them to act as tutors, 
 they should take minute notes and preside over the 
 studies conscientiously, reminding the pupil of all 
 that has been ordered and exacting its execution with- 
 out any curtailment or omission, and above all without 
 modifying or adding anything of their own invention, 
 the indispensable condition upon which a teacher can 
 assume and maintain his responsibility. I consider it 
 unnecessary to dwell upon this point. 
 
 Several times I have seen mothers, with essentially 
 praiseworthy intentions, remembering that they had 
 received a good musical education when they were 
 young girls, set themselves to work again when the 
 eldest of their children have reached the age of seven 
 or eight, so as to be able to start their musical edu- 
 cation themselves. Every time that they have set 
 themselves up as teachers, the result has been de- 
 plorable. When, on the other hand, they have had the 
 good sense to act only as tutors, even when occasion- 
 ally the professor's ability was inferior to their own, 
 [62]
 
 everything went along smoothly. This experience, 
 which I have often been able to repeat, seems to me ab- 
 solutely conclusive. 
 
 Parents should also make a rule never to discuss to- 
 gether, or with the master, anything with regard to 
 his ideas, methods, or requirements, or any question 
 touching the course of study in the presence of the 
 pupil. The latter (do not forget that we arc only 
 concerning ourselves here with the studies of very 
 small children), should consider his master as in- 
 fallible and impeccable, and blindly accept all that he 
 says, as if it were Gospel truth. If we lessen this con- 
 fidence, if we throw confusion into the child's mind, 
 we compromise the result fatally. Therefore, if AVC 
 have some remark to communicate or some observation 
 to make to the teacher, or some wish to express to him, 
 it must be done privately, before or after the lesson, 
 and without the knowledge of the child. This should 
 also be observed, with even more reason, upon the ex- 
 change of ideas that the parents have and should have 
 between themselves on the question of the teacher's 
 value, of his talent, and of his manner of teaching, 
 for everything that tends to weaken the blind confi- 
 dence that the child ought to have in him, everything 
 that may make him suspect that any one could dif- 
 fer with him and not approve of him in every 
 respect and not consider him as an oracle (and chil- 
 dren have an unheard-of finesse, in such matters, 
 whenever it is a question of criticising their precep- 
 tors), will result in depriving the teacher of all or a 
 part of the prestige to which, with regard to his 
 [63]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 young pupil, he owes his greatest strength and his 
 greatest means of action. 
 
 If we have an^ serious reason to complain, or to be 
 dissatisfied, we must know how to set ourselves reso- 
 lutely to change things, however much it is to be 
 regretted, for with every change we must first expect 
 a period of suspension in the progress: it requires at 
 least several days for the pupil to familiarize him- 
 self with a new face, with a new manner of expression, 
 often with very different terms for saying the same 
 thing; moreover, there are not two professors, even 
 of equal ability, who hold identical ideas and have the 
 same methods. All this has a tendency to bring 
 about a temporary disturbance in the work, at the 
 very least a hesitation, uneasiness and embarrass- 
 ment. It would be better to be able to avoid all that. 
 
 The most desirable thing of all, at this initial pe- 
 riod of musical instruction, is to know where we can 
 put our hand at once upon a teacher capable of carry- 
 ing the child along quickly, through these primary 
 and secondary studies, so that we shall not have to run 
 after a new master until the time comes for the higher 
 studies, if indeed one should be needed then. It would 
 be ideal to have only one from the beginning to the 
 end ; but, for certain instruments, notably the wind in- 
 struments, this ideal cannot be realized ; but this is 
 not the case with all. 
 
 It is therefore very right and proper that parents 
 
 tvho are intelligent and solicitous of the future should 
 
 toncern themselves before everything else with this 
 
 ^natter of capital importance : the selection at the very 
 
 [64]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 beginning of a teacher who, being sufficiently devoted 
 to his work to accept the ungrateful task of teaching 
 the first elements, should have enough ability to take 
 the child as far as possible in the study of the chosen 
 instrument. 
 
 When once this question is settled, things must 
 naturally be allowed to go on for a certain time, for 
 several months or several years, without however let- 
 ting these lessons be an exclusive occupation, but sup- 
 plying them, according to the principles already laid 
 down, with diversions, by means of studies uncon- 
 nected with music, as well as reserving some moments 
 for the complete repose of the mind. 
 
 But we should eagerly seize all occasions to let the 
 pupil hear, and if possible to let him see at close range, 
 the great virtuosi, or merely able artists of the instru- 
 ment that forms the object of his studies. This should 
 serve to widen his horizon, excite his ambition, and en- 
 courage him to work. At the same time, if he is suf- 
 ficiently advanced for this, we can induce him to learn 
 or read in advance some of the pieces he will hear exe- 
 cuted; by taking note of their degree of difficulty, he 
 will better appreciate the worth of the artists. But 
 that which must be sought after above everything else, 
 is that under these circumstances his attention shall 
 be directed far more to the qualities of style, phrasing 
 and good rendering, than to those of pure technique, 
 notwithstanding the real importance of the latter; 
 and that he shall thoroughly comprehend that if it is 
 precious to possess a fine mechanism it is only for the 
 sake of being able to place it at the service of an ele- 
 [65]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 vated style and a beautiful interpretation of the works 
 of the masters ; on the contrary, he must turn his at- 
 tention from tours de force and acrobatic feats that 
 have no other merit than vanquished difficulties, 
 which constitute the most paltry side of art. 
 
 II. TONE, RHYTHM AND TIME 
 
 Whatever instrument is concerned, we may say 
 with the greatest certainty that from the instant the 
 first elementary knowledge is acquired, what should 
 dominate throughout the remainder of the studies is 
 the earnest effort to create a beautiful timbre, and 
 constantly to improve it. Many artists make them- 
 selves masters of every kind of technical difficulty, 
 possess a perfect mechanism, and are able to phrase 
 and shade with art and intelligence, without being 
 able to exercise upon the public that captivating and 
 all-embracing charm that is the result of a beautiful 
 sonority. Therefore we will point out, as far as words 
 will serve, the dominant character of the timbre that 
 should preferably be sought in ever} 7 instrument. 
 
 What is meant exactly by having a beautiful tone. 
 if the tone that is considered beautiful in any one in- 
 strument is not the same for all? To have a beau- 
 tiful tone is to produce upon an instrument the dif- 
 ferent tones of which the scale is composed in the 
 manner that is best calculated to show off the instru- 
 ment to its greatest advantage. To have a good tone, 
 is then to have an excellent quality of tone, a tone 
 pure, clear, full, vibrant and of great brilliancy ; a 
 [66]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 precious faculty, independent of the talent of execu- 
 tion, properly so-called, and which, in certain indi- 
 viduals, above all, the musicians who play wind- 
 instruments, is not always the fruit of study, but the 
 result of a natural disposition, and principally of a 
 particular conformation of the mouth.* 
 
 The contrary negative quality was once very 
 humourously expressed by the words little tone, on 
 which subject it is appropriate to recall an anecdote 
 very well-known among orchestra-musicians, which 
 Berlioz has very cleverly narrated under the title of 
 Sensibility and Indifference A Funeral Oration in 
 Three Syllables. I borrow this story from him : 
 ; ' Cherubini was walking in the foyer of the Concert 
 Hall of the Conservatoire during an intermission. 
 The musicians about him seemed sad: they had just 
 heard of the death of their comrade Brod, a remark- 
 able virtuoso and first oboe at the Opera One of 
 them, approaching the old master, said: 
 
 " Eh bien ! Monsieur Cherubini, nous avons done 
 perdu ce pauvre Brod ! " 
 
 "Eh! quoi?" 
 
 (Le musicien elevant la voix), " Brod, notre cama- 
 rade Brod ! " 
 
 "Eh bien?" 
 
 " II est mort." 
 
 " Euh ! petit son ! " f 
 
 * George Kastner, an eminent musicographer, member of the 
 Institute : Par&mioloyie muswale de la lanyue fran^aise (1850) out. 
 of print. 
 
 f Berlioz, Les Grotesques de la musique. 
 
 [67]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 People also say a bad tone, which is aven worse 
 than a little tone. On any instrument whatever, a 
 cottony, weak, flabby tone, and one that does not 
 carry, is always a bad tone ; the same is true of a tone 
 that is raucous, strident, hollow, or in a word disa- 
 greeable in any sense; as also any tone that per- 
 verts the characteristic timbre of the instrument that 
 produces it and seems to be an imitation of some 
 other. The truly beautiful tone has the breath of 
 health; it is frank, sincere, robust, energetic without 
 being rough, sweet and soft without weakness, and 
 always frankly characteristic, that is to say, without 
 leaving the slightest doubt, for every one with a deli- 
 cate and experienced ear, as to the instrument by 
 which it is emitted. If therefore, on hearing an in- 
 strument played, we find it an impossibility clearly to 
 recognize and name it, the instrumentalist has played 
 bad notes; this proves that his timbre is not frankly 
 characteristic, and is lacking in sincerity. 
 
 Whenever one speaks of a beautiful timbre, of a 
 beautiful sonority, of a good quality of tone, this is 
 what must be understood. Beauty is not the same for 
 all ; that of a dog does not consist in having a beak, 
 and an elephant with wings would be as ridiculous as 
 a bird with four feet. It is the same with instruments. 
 A violin can, in certain notes, particularly by means 
 of harmonics, produce a certain illusion of the flute; 
 with the sourdine, it can sometimes recall the oboe. 
 Incidentally, such effects may be employed, but we 
 must not make a habit of this and believe that this is 
 what is called the beautiful quality of violin tone. 
 [68]
 
 It is especially bj listening to the great artists that 
 we can come to understand thoroughly what a beau- 
 tiful timbre is, and the enormous prestige it gives to 
 talent; and it is above all by trying to imitate them 
 that we ourselves manage to attain that quality that 
 exceeds all others, and which nothing can replace. It 
 must not be denied that upon certain instruments, a 
 beautiful timbre often takes long to acquire, and is, 
 moreover, difficult; but when once it is found, it is 
 never lost. 
 
 When he arrives at this point, the young artist 
 ought to have such a love of his instrument, as to be- 
 lieve implicitly that it is the most beautiful of all ; and 
 he will truly have reason to think thus, and he ought 
 to be encouraged in his conviction, for in reality there 
 is not a single instrument that is not superior in some 
 respects to all the others ; it is this very thing that he 
 ought to see and try to put in evidence. Such an at- 
 titude of mind is excellent, and is more favourable 
 than anything else to the blossoming of the great 
 talent of the virtuoso. 
 
 Another important matter of attention should be 
 rhythm, and this also from the very beginning to the 
 end of the studies, for a tottering rhythm gives the 
 hearer a kind of discomfort, which he cannot always 
 account for, but which deprives him of a great part 
 of his pleasure. " Play in time," said Schumann, 
 " the playing of many virtuosi resembles the stagger- 
 ing of a drunken man." I will add to this a personal 
 observation which everybody can verify: it is that 
 those irritating persons, who have that detestable 
 [69]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 mania when walking and talking of stopping every 
 five or six steps to make their argument sink deeper 
 into the mind of their interlocutor, and at need hold- 
 ing the victim by the button of his coat, are always 
 devoid of the rhythmic sense. As for these, we can 
 quickly get rid of them by going another way, or by 
 jumping into a carriage, but it is much more difficult 
 to escape from a musician who is determined to play 
 you his favourite piece, and if he does not play it in 
 time, he subjects you to a veritable torment. Inde- 
 pendently of all other more artistic considerations, 
 we may say that to play in time is the politeness of 
 music, just as to speak intelligibly and to write 
 legibly are the- acts of a good education. These com- 
 .parisons seem to me quite just, for all music played 
 in bad rhythm thereby becomes unintelligible, or at 
 least exacts from the listener a .mental tension thai 
 rapidly becomes painful and fatiguing. 
 
 A piece of music, no matter what it is, should stand 
 plumb as a building, and architects are not in the 
 habit of often taking for models the Leaning Tower 
 of Pisa or those of Bologna, which are not for a mo- 
 ment interesting except as curiosities. Rhythm is the 
 breaking up of musical time into parts more or less 
 long or short, but strictly proportional; time is the 
 absolute equality, in duration, of all the notes of 
 the same value. We then can play in time while giv- 
 ing the rhythm in an incomplete manner ; but we can- 
 not produce correct rhythm without playing perfectly 
 in time. 
 
 It is seldom that the feeling for time is not in- 
 [70]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 stinctive; for really, almost everybody walks nearly 
 in time ; but when this exact feeling does not exist 
 naturally and in a sufficient degree, it can be devel- 
 oped by the exercise of a well measured walk, by 
 counting the steps as in a military march: one, two; 
 or one, two, three, four; also by the dance. (It may 
 be remarked, in passing, that that pretended rhyth- 
 mic difficulty, which frightens beginners at the piano 
 and which is called three two or two three is solved 
 unconsciously by the least accomplished dancers in the 
 two-step Valse, simply because no one ever dreamed 
 of telling them that it was a difficulty ; while the or- 
 chestra is playing in three time, they are dancing in 
 two ; for this, it is sufficient for them to fix their at- 
 tention only upon the first beat of the music, which at 
 each return, coincides with their own first beat.) 
 
 We can also cultivate this faculty by means of a 
 prudent use of the metronome, which is nothing more 
 or less than a clock beating the fractions of seconds 
 with a mathematical and inflexible regularity. This 
 inflexibility, however, which constitutes its whole 
 value, becomes a fault if we abuse this mechanical de- 
 vice, and communicates an unpleasing rigidity to the 
 pupil. This is why, although recommending its 
 usage in certain cases, we believe that its employ 
 should be limited. 
 
 First of all, we should never make use of it if we 
 possess instinctively the feeling for time, and the 
 equality of time intervals, which happens ninety-nine 
 times out of a hundred. It should be reserved for 
 those exceptional cases where the pupil truly has 
 [71]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 trouble in accomplishing this mental operation, and 
 where the ordinary means of beating time, and count- 
 ing, have failed. Then, and then only, he should use 
 it, but by applying it solely to scales, exercises and 
 purely mechanical studies, which under these circum- 
 stances, should engross the greatest part of the time 
 consecrated to study. With regard to all pieces in 
 which qualities of style, even summary, are to be dis- 
 played, it is imperative to abstain from it completely, 
 excepting, be it clearly understood, in passages of 
 dexterity, which, from the standpoint of execution, 
 may be likened to simple studies. Under these condi- 
 tions it may be used with profit. But this is not the 
 true application of the metronome. Above all, its ob- 
 ject is to determine, with a precision quite beyond the 
 reach of the conventional musical terms, the move- 
 ment, the exact speed that belongs to a piece of music, 
 according to the intention of the composer. " To 
 drag or hurry the time are equal faults." * How- 
 ever, if in doubt, it would be better to take a move- 
 ment too slowly ; but the best of all would be to take 
 a movement correctly, upon which even musicians of 
 highest standing can hesitate or differ in opinion, a 
 fact which often occurs, and is partly the cause of 
 the differences in interpretation of the same work by 
 various conductors. The metronome settles the ques- 
 tion when the composer has taken the pains to indi- 
 cate the formula himself, which many contemporary 
 composers wisely do. On the other hand, it is im- 
 portant to place a merely relative confidence in the 
 * Schumann. 
 
 [72]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 metronomic instructions applied to works anterior to 
 the invention of the metronome and its vulgarisation, 
 for such indications can only be the work of an edi- 
 tor, or proof-reader, and therefore have no authority. 
 Now, from the researches of one of my colleagues,* 
 it is clearly shown that although the first idea of a 
 chronometer applicable to music dates from the end 
 of the Seventeenth Century, it was not until 1816 
 that the actual metronome, the inventor of which was 
 Maelzel, made its official appearance, and could have 
 been practically adopted. With regard to metronomic 
 signs therefore, only those must be considered sure 
 and certain that apply to works after this date; the 
 others, if they are not simply fanciful, may relate to 
 some apparatus of the same species, long since fallen 
 into disuse, and whose scale, now unknown, may have 
 differed as much from the metronome of our time as 
 the thermometer of Celsius, Reaumur and Fahrenheit 
 differ from one another. 
 
 A care for firmness in the rhythm, like the effort 
 towards a beautiful sonority, which, properly speak- 
 ing, have nothing to do either with technique or style, 
 although they are indispensable auxiliaries to both, 
 should be constantly present in the mind of the young 
 virtuoso, who, moreover, if he is provided with a cer- 
 tain dose of artistic sentiment, will not be slow to ap- 
 preciate its value and incomparable importance. 
 
 Therefore, after a certain number of years, which 
 varies quite as much in accordance with the nature of 
 
 * Paul Rougnon, Dictionnaire musical des locutions ttrang&res, 
 snlt'i (Tune jfitude sur le metronome. 
 
 6 [73]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the instrument as the aptitude of the pupil, the 
 amount of time devoted to work every day, and the 
 ability of the teacher, the period for the higher or fin- 
 ishing studies will arrive. 
 
 Here many things will change. The unity of the 
 instruction, so desirable in the beginning, has now lost 
 its preponderant utility ; if we can still keep the first 
 teacher, he should be kept ; but if he has become 
 insufficient, there would be no objection to taking one 
 of a higher class ; indeed this would often even prove 
 an advantage by initiating the pupil into new meth- 
 ods of execution, showing him another manner of re- 
 garding interpretation, and making him realize the 
 differences that can exist between two neighbouring 
 schools. 
 
 The essential thing at present is to have to deal 
 with a militant-virtuoso in the full activity of his 
 powers, and the vigour of his talent, and the more 
 brilliant an executant he is, the better he will be as 
 a master, for what will be required of him will be to 
 give explanations far less than to furnish examples ; 
 his teaching will consist especially in plaving for his 
 pupil, rarely entire pieces, but very frequently com- 
 plete passages, a song, phrase, or a difficult passage, 
 the beautiful expression, elevation of style, or bold- 
 ness and perfection of execution of which the pupil 
 will immediately try to reproduce; but this instruc- 
 tion will be incomplete unless, at the same time, his 
 aim is to elevate the student's musical sentiment, in- 
 culcating a?sthetical ideas and inspiring him with the 
 love of the beautiful. It is for this reason, having ar- 
 1 74.]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 rived at this point, that it has become essential to ap- 
 proach only an artist of great worth, one of those 
 who know how to reveal the thought of the composer, 
 by means of their own powerful interpretation, and 
 thus make themselves veritable collaborateurs of gen- 
 ius. Otherwise, it would be better not to leave the first 
 teacher. 
 
 III. QUALIFICATIONS OF A TEACHER FOR ADVANCED 
 PUPILS, READING AND ENSEMBLE-PLAYING 
 
 With regard to this finishing master, whether he be 
 young or old, a man or a woman, of a character more 
 or less pleasing, that is a matter of absolute indiffer- 
 ence, provided he is a great artist as well as a virtuoso 
 of the first order. 
 
 If we have the opportunity of coming across one 
 of these complete artists, and if we can obtain regular 
 lessons from him, it would be best to stop there and 
 not seek any other direction in the future. But this 
 is not always possible, for such natures are scarce and 
 are found more frequently among those great wander- 
 ing virtuosi, who, like comets, make only rare appear- 
 ances of short duration and then fly to other skies, not 
 caring in the matter of instruction to give anything 
 more than a few fugitive and superficial counsels. 
 No matter how brief these counsels may be, we should 
 gather them religiously and endeavour to apply them 
 and turn them to advantage, and then await the pas- 
 sage of another meteor, for changes, even though fre- 
 quent, are no longer to be dreaded, as in the element- 
 [75]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ary studies; for pupils of a supple nature and quick 
 intelligence, it is even a great element of progress, 
 during the period of the higher studies, to see the same 
 things thus presented under various aspects. 
 
 In the great centres, however, it often happens that 
 there are to be found artists who are permanent, or 
 rarely away, and who, possessing high attainments, 
 consent more willingly to put the finishing touch to 
 the accomplishments of ardent pupils who are al- 
 ready prepared for the advanced studies of virtuoso- 
 esthetics. 
 
 The young virtuoso should be reared in ideas of 
 eclecticism. While holding preferences, which is now 
 his right and his duty, he should not become the vas- 
 sal of a certain manner, nor a style that is always the 
 same, and with stronger reason, the study of a single 
 composer, an error somewhat frequent in a certain 
 class of amateurs. He should have studied and should 
 understand the works of every school, admire what 
 they have to offer of the Beautiful, and know how to 
 bring it out and place it in relief in his execution of it. 
 
 An original and graceful mind will know how to 
 impress a special mark of distinction upon the smallest 
 things; while identifying himself with the intimate 
 thought of the composer, he will preserve his own in- 
 dividuality, and the fusion of these two characters will 
 often give rise to effects of which the composer him- 
 self never dreamed. 
 
 It is all this that constitutes the genius of inter- 
 pretation, the most beautiful thing, after that of pro- 
 duction, that can exist. To make oneself in this way 
 [76]
 
 THE STUDY OF JNSTRUMENTS 
 
 thus, whilst relegating to the background all thought 
 of personal success, the collaborator of the composer 
 and the necessary bridge between him and the audi- 
 ence, constitutes the highest conception of the mis- 
 sion of an inspired virtuoso. 
 
 " Perhaps Genius alone can comprehend Genius ! " 
 Chopin frequently said, meaning certainly by this 
 that a work conceived by a genius demands inter- 
 pretation by a genius also, a strong thought which 
 we find again in George Sand, under a somewhat kin- 
 dred form : " The divine mystery of an artist's 
 thought reveals itself only to great sympathies," 
 without being greatly astonished at such similar 
 views being held by the genial musician-poet and the 
 eminent writer. And it is among these enthusiastic 
 artists whose sympathetic natures thus reveal to them 
 the sacred mystery of the composer's thought that 
 you must seek the guide who will initiate you into 
 the deepest beauties of great interpretation, that 
 ideal professor whose counsels are always elevated 
 and philosophical, and who will know how to open 
 your soul to the supreme joys of the artistic admira- 
 tion, contemplation and revelation of the great mas- 
 terpieces. For, let there be no mistake, when once by 
 the patient study of mechanical means, we have suc- 
 ceeded in breaking away from the rising above all 
 difficulties, and considering them as a quantite neg- 
 ligeable, interpretation appears as the purest of all 
 pleasures, one of the most intoxicating of all blisses. 
 
 I have already remarked that there are two things 
 to work for in the study of an instrument, technique 
 [77]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and style. I believe now it would be better to say that 
 there are four : technique, style, reading, and the cul- 
 tivation of the memory. To the first two we need not 
 return. The art of reading well at sight, is, in gen- 
 eral, acquired easily enough, upon all homophonous 
 instruments (that is to say those from which only 
 one sound is heard at a time), by means of the regu- 
 lar daily practice of half an hour or an hour. For 
 the organ, the piano and the harp, which always utter 
 several sounds simultaneously and have in conse- 
 quence a very great number to be read, the difficulty 
 increases proportionately. Therefore we shall return 
 more particularly to this when speaking of these in- 
 struments. With regard to the others, only three 
 recommendations are necessary : always choose pieces 
 that are sufficiently easy and simple of execution to 
 enable you to read them without stumbling; more- 
 over, the professor should pick them out ; always take 
 the movement slower than indicated and maintain it 
 by beating time with the foot, or counting in an un- 
 dertone, according to the instrument ; read along 
 without ever stopping, no matter what happens. If 
 you have really read very badly, if you have made 
 too bad a mistake, carefully examine the passages 
 that have presented such difficulties, and begin again 
 a second time, never more than that. It is very good 
 to read with an accompaniment ; this is an exercise 
 which two pupils can practice jointly, which makes it 
 more attractive, but only on condition that they im- 
 pose upon themselves the absolute law of abstaining 
 from the least moment of halt. No one is a good 
 [78]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 reader till he is able not only to read correctly, but 
 when he knows how to give the spirit and the senti- 
 ment that belong to the work that is being read, as 
 well as if it had previously been studied. It goes 
 without saying that the reading at sight qf certain 
 works of great virtuosity remains inaccessible even 
 to the ablest, no matter what any one says about it ; 
 nobody can pretend to read at sight an Etude of 
 Paganini, or a Rhapsodic of Liszt. 
 
 Every instrumentalist, to be thorough, should be 
 able to take his part in a concerted work and in an or- 
 chestra ; and since he must play here in quite a differ- 
 ent manner from that of a soloist, a new study is 
 necessitated, which, however, is quite easy, in compari- 
 son with that of the instrument itself, but is none the 
 less a special and perfectly distinct study. There are 
 persons who can play a, solo on the violin, flute, or 
 oboe quite decently, yet who find themselves entirely 
 out of their element when it comes to plunging into 
 an ensemble. Here the ruling qualification is self- 
 abnegation ; knowing how to contribute one's exact 
 share, and this at every moment and on every note, 
 for the effect of the whole, without endeavouring to 
 attract attention to oneself individually ; to know how 
 to be nothing but a useful citizen in this little model 
 Republic, which the orchestra really is ; to know how 
 to maintain well one's place, and nothing but one's 
 place; to know how to apply to this all the technical 
 skill at one's disposal ; this is a calm and serene pleas- 
 ure, a veritable satisfaction to the conscience. 
 
 In Chamber-music, which is only the microcosm of 
 [79]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the orchestra, an orchestra reduced to its simplest ex- 
 pression, and of which the String Quartet is the 
 purest and highest manifestation, each one preserves 
 a greater individuality, and at times can afford scope 
 for a certain spontaneity which is not misplaced but is 
 indeed essentially opportune. It is he who has the 
 floor; the others accompany him by adopting his 
 opinions or by shaking their heads, by approving 
 or opposing him. Next, it will be another's turn, 
 the roles will find themselves inverted: then the dis- 
 cussion closes in, becomes more animated, and may 
 even degenerate into a dispute. The Quartet is a per- 
 petual conversation, a dialogue full of wit, in which 
 each of the interlocutors should get inside the skin of 
 his character, as a consummate comedian does. Can 
 you understand the interest that the study of such a 
 style presents, in which only musicians of the first or- 
 der have dared write, on account of the profound 1 
 thought, the knowledge and the spirit of appropri- 
 ateness that are necessary? Now, it is in this samr 
 order of ideas that are also conceived all the great 
 works of Chamber-music, also called concerted music, 
 the Duos and Sonatas for the piano and violin, or 
 violoncello, the Trios for these three instruments 
 united, the Quartets for piano, violin, viola and vio- 
 loncello, the Quintets; and others in which partici- 
 pate the wind instruments, flute, oboe, clarinet, horn, 
 and bassoon, each, while contributing to the general 
 effect, having its word to say, its personality to pre- 
 serve. 
 
 Bt to give oneself up to such delights, it will be 
 [80]
 
 perceived that one must be ri vetted to one's instru- 
 ment as a buffalo hunter is fastened upon his horse, 
 making only one with him, fear nothing, and be able 
 to concentrate thought exclusively upon questions of 
 interpretation. 
 
 This study therefore complements the instrumental 
 studies, and it is with this that we will end this rapid 
 general view, before passing to what concerns each 
 instrument considered separately. 
 
 However, we should observe that if what precedes 
 concerns all the instruments, that does not mean to 
 say that everything, excepting the fundamental and 
 elementary precepts, can be applied exactly and 
 equally to each one of them. We have just now com- 
 pared the orchestra to a sort of little musical Repub- 
 lic; now, in this imaginary Republic, as in all others, 
 all the citizens are far from being equal sharers, 
 equality is but a vain word. If it is easy for a violin- 
 ist, or a violoncellist, to push to the furthest extreme 
 the studies in style that we have just described, it is 
 thanks to the incalculable number of masterpieces 
 with which the great masters of all the epochs and of 
 all the Schools (the German School more than any 
 other) have endowed the library of stringed instru- 
 ments, which no instrument can ever exhaust. The 
 difficulty becomes already much greater for the wood- 
 wind instruments, whose musical literature, with a 
 few very brilliant but too rare exceptions, is, alas ! 
 most restricted. They are able, nevertheless, to par- 
 ticipate in the execution of Chamber music in a cer- 
 tain number of beautiful and great works, but the 
 [81]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 opportunity does not present itsolf often. But when 
 we come to the brass, there is nothing, and we truly 
 ask how can these unhappy disinherited ones ever 
 form their taste and acquire any skill in the art of 
 shading. No honourable repertory exists for them, 
 they are condemned by the force of circumstances to 
 revolve perpetually in a circle of ineptitudes, and 
 when they come for the first time to take their part 
 in an orchestra, it is also the first time that they make 
 music. 
 
 It would not be possible then for these to put all 
 our principles into practice. They can supply them 
 by frequenting good concerts, and still better by the 
 supplementary study of some other instrument (their 
 own occupying but little time each day) which will 
 permit them to familiarize themselves with the high 
 ideals of style and interpretation, the noble side of art. 
 This initiation, which for others would be too super- 
 ficial, would be sufficient for thenij when one considers 
 that their part in the orchestra, notwithstanding its 
 importance, exacts less cunning and personality than 
 that of the artist belonging to the other groups, 
 which up to a certain point restores the equilibrium. 
 
 An excellent thing, which greatly aids the study of 
 any instrument whatsoever, is the practice of teach- 
 ing. One learns much by teaching others what 
 one has recently learned, and by being forced to 
 demonstrate it by means of examples. It is then good 
 advice to give young artists, already somewhat ad- 
 vanced, in telling them to try to procure a few little 
 beginners, so as to serve their apprenticeship in teach- 
 [82]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 ing. This counsel is above all addressed, let it be un- 
 derstood, to those who are destined for an artist's pro- 
 fession, and who will be, in consequence, so much the 
 better professors the sooner they have commenced to 
 prepare themselves for it ; but it can be followed with 
 equal advantage by the simple dilettante, who, apart 
 from the progress that will result from it for him- 
 self, will have the satisfaction of doing good about 
 him by giving gratuitous lessons to young children 
 who have not the means of paying for them. To say 
 that he would be the most desirable and ideal professor 
 for them would be a contradiction of all that we have 
 already said, since he will necessarily lack experience, 
 at least at first ; but by taking great care and seeking 
 the aid of his own professor, as well as being very con- 
 scientious, he can often inculcate healthful elementary 
 ideas. To this we shall return elsewhere. 
 
 Another point to be considered as indispensable, 
 is that of accustoming oneself to play in public at an 
 early age. But we must try, as far as possible, not 
 to approach this practical exercise, which is, so to 
 speak, the sanction of all the rest, except under satis- 
 factory, or at least propitious, conditions. Without 
 putting any idiotic pretentiousness into it, but quite 
 the opposite, the young pupil should proceed in this 
 matter proportionately with the same precautions 
 with which a consummate artist, who is conscious of 
 his worth and does not intend to compromise it, sur- 
 rounds himself. From an entirely different point of 
 view, the debutant, who is inexperienced and still sub- 
 ject to all kinds of awkwardness, should know how to 
 [S3]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 avoid all the causes that might be of a nature (by de- 
 priving him of any part of his faculties) to hinder 
 him from doing full honour to the little knowledge he 
 has. Then, this will also be a good habit formed for 
 the day when he himself will have become a talented 
 virtuoso. 
 
 He should therefore refrain, like a true artist and 
 as much as possible, from playing before an unintel- 
 ligent audience that talks instead of listens, which 
 would accustom him to neglect his execution ; if he is 
 a pianist, he should refrain from playing upon a bad 
 piano, a piano in a bad condition, or one out of tune ; 
 if he plays an instrument, he should refrain from play- 
 ing any except his own, at least unless he is perfectly 
 well acquainted with it and is certain that he knows 
 how to make it obey him ; and also from playing with 
 a bad accompaniment, or without having rehearsed, 
 which is exceedingly imprudent ; if concerted or en- 
 semble music is in question, he should refrain from 
 playing in company with performers of an inferior 
 order, in contact with whom he cannot fail to acquire, 
 bad habits, for we do not learn elegant manners by 
 frequenting the society of low people ; over and above 
 all, he should always refuse to play cheap music, or 
 music that is badly written, or of bad taste (not to be 
 confused with light music), even if he is asked for it. 
 
 Apart from these harmful circumstances, he should 
 always eagerly seize every opportunity of putting 
 what he has learned into practice, at first, preferably 
 in an intimate and very restricted circle, and then 
 progress to a larger audience composed of heterogene- 
 [84]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 ous elements, thus gradually preparing himself to 
 confront the great public to which all the manifesta- 
 tions of art are finally destined and addressed. 
 
 Now, we will pass in review the most profitable way 
 to study every instrument. 
 
 For the convenience of classification, we will begin 
 with the keyboard-instruments; the stringed-instru- 
 ments played with the bow and plucked will follow ; 
 and we will finish with the \vind-instruments. 
 
 We will endeavour to make the particular require- 
 ments of each perfectly clear, as well as what can be 
 expected from it and the amount of work necessary 
 to acquire the mastery of it, as also, which is the 
 real object of this book, the best manner of pur- 
 suing any study in accordance with the end intended 
 to be attained. 
 
 IV. THE PIANO 
 
 Of all instruments, the one the study of which can 
 be undertaken with advantage the earliest, is most cer- 
 tainly the PIANO. 
 
 From the age of six, sometimes indeed, of five 
 years, a well-balanced child, with good health and 
 ready intelligence and being already able to read well 
 (this is the simplest and the best criterion) is in per- 
 fect condition to embark upon this study, if it is pre- 
 sented to him as it should be at this age, as a pleasure, 
 I will even say as an amusement, a kind of recreation, 
 and not, as too frequently happens, as a task. 
 
 Contrary to a generally accepted idea, it is very 
 important that the child should receive his first notions 
 [85]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 from a good master, considering that these first no- 
 tions will form the solid basis of all his future knowl- 
 edge, and hence that it is desirable that they should 
 have an artistic and attractive character, the impres- 
 sions of which may be preserved for ever. 
 
 Let us then say plainly that it is false economy on 
 the part of parents to hunt for petty teachers of the 
 lowest order and without experience, on the pretext 
 that it is only a question of teaching a beginner. To 
 teach beginners is perhaps more difficult than any- 
 thing else; and, moreover, it is in a great measure 
 upon the initial direction given in the first hours of 
 their studies that will depend the result into which 
 will finally blossom, when they have reached maturity, 
 all the pains they take themselves and that are 
 taken for them. " We think that it requires a very 
 varied knowledge and a very complete musical edu- 
 cation to be a good elementary teacher, for higher 
 teaching is fruitful in results only when the basis of 
 the first studies has been solidly established." * It 
 is not necessary, however, that the teacher should 
 be an exceptional virtuoso, that would be another ex- 
 aggeration, but he should be a sufficiently able exec- 
 utant to let the pupil hear the desired effect and to 
 show him how he can produce it. " Every art is best 
 taught by example." f This is so much the more to 
 be desired since it is bad for the pupil to have his 
 guidance changed too early, and it would be better to 
 
 * A. Marmontel, Conseils tCun Professeur. 
 
 \ " Tout art est mieux enseignt par fexemple " (Epigraphe du 
 Gradus ad Parnassum de Clementi). 
 
 [86]
 
 keep the same throughout his studies of the piano, or 
 at least for a long time, until the period of the studies 
 of high virtuosity, when it may even be good for him 
 to try different kinds of teaching and to take note 
 for himself of the methods of various schools, as we 
 have already remarked. It is important also that the 
 master should have had a good teacher himself, 
 so that there is no risk of his propagating false prin- 
 ciples ; but above everything else, he must be an artist, 
 with an appreciation of the Beautiful, having a hor- 
 ror of bad composers, and incapable of making a bad 
 selection in the works he puts into the hands of his 
 pupils; an erudite musician, knowing his classics and 
 capable of inculcating in the child, whenever the oc- 
 casion offers, healthful notions of aesthetics ; he must 
 possess, particularly at the beginning, a patience and 
 a gentleness proof against everything, so as to be able 
 to repeat the same thing a hundred times without be- 
 coming impatient ; he must also have authority with- 
 out pedantry, moral influence, a pleasing face, an 
 amiable character, calling forth affection but repell- 
 ing familiarity. These last qualities are found more 
 frequently, and are more natural, in women and 
 young girls. We see that if the choice of a teacher is 
 important, it is not easy, particularly when we do not 
 live in a large centre of population, and that it merits 
 serious attention. 
 
 When once the professor has been judiciously 
 
 chosen and enters upon his duties, it is important to 
 
 leave him entire master of the situation, and not to 
 
 impose any fetters upon him ; to help him as far as 
 
 [87]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 possible, if it is his pleasure, and in the way that 
 pleases him, but not to attempt to modify his ideas, 
 his programme, or his way of teaching. It is like 
 taking on a pilot, to whom the captain, while pre- 
 serving his authority, relinquishes the care of tak- 
 ing the ship into port. Two sets of orders are never 
 worth anything. 
 
 Another matter upon which it is bad judgment to 
 economize is the choice of an instrument. A good 
 little upright piano, by a conscientious maker, new 
 or second-hand, but in very good condition, is the 
 best. A large concert grand, or an old instrument 
 that works badly, would be equally prejudicial to the 
 success of the studies. In reality, one of the first 
 things that one ought to seek here, even with the 
 novice, is a good quality of tone, a beautiful sonority ; 
 it is then necessary to put into his hands a sufficiently 
 sensitive tool to betray the defects and awkwardnesses 
 of his touch. On the other hand, a too sonorous in- 
 strument would deafen and confuse him, and would 
 be too difficult for him to manage. What he wants is 
 a good family horse, fairly spirited, and not an old 
 hack nor a blooded steed. Moreover, it is necessary 
 that his piano should always be kept in perfect tune, 
 so as not to make his ear false if it is naturally true, 
 and to correct it if it is slightly defective. 
 
 People think that at first any kind of a piano and 
 a mediocre teacher are sufficient. These are two gross 
 errors. 
 
 After the age that we have assigned to him, it is 
 clear that the study of the piano may be undertaken 
 [88]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 at the same time as that of solfeggio. If one wishes 
 to proceed thus, it is best absolutely to confound them 
 for some time, to such an extent that the child cannot 
 distinguish in his lesson which is the piano and which 
 is solfeggio, and sees only one thing, music. 
 
 Here is about the type of the first lesson of this 
 nature. 
 
 You write for him upon a sheet of paper which you 
 put on the desk : 
 
 and you say to him : this note is called do ; write me a 
 do. He should copy the note, putting its name 
 above it. 
 
 Then, you show him on the piano the correspond- 
 ing key, upon which you write with the pencil the 
 same sign, saying: "This is the same do; play do."- 
 He should play the note. 
 
 Then you say to him: " Listen well to this do; now 
 sing jt after me." You sing it. And then he should 
 sing it. 
 
 In this way, the idea of the note read or written, 
 that -of the key and the tone that it produces, that of 
 the note that he hears and the note that he sings be-
 
 come incrusted at the same time in his mind, where 
 they melt into a whole which is for him the note do 
 under three forms, the trinity of the do. 
 
 This may be the extent of the first lesson. 
 
 In the following ones, in starting again with do, 
 you can teach him several other notes, always by 
 making him read them, write them, play them, hear 
 them and sing them, by making groups of them, 
 which will be fragments of the scale or little airs. 
 You must point out to him that the notes above the 
 do are written in the clef of (sol) G and those below 
 in the clef of (fa) F, the last of which he cannot sing 
 as easily as the others (first notion of the compass of 
 the voice) and finally, having started from this basis, 
 you can make him copy his little exercises and sing 
 them in solfeggio, before playing them upon the 
 piano, in such a way as to develop the little musician 
 and the little pianist at the same time, and so that 
 there will never be separated in his little infantile in- 
 telligence the three ideas of the written note, the 
 played note, and the note that is sung or heard, which 
 should form an irreducible whole, which is the truth 
 for every musician. 
 
 It must be well understood that this can only last 
 for a time, and that the two studies will have to be 
 pursued separately although side by side. 
 
 At the beginning, especially if the child is very 
 young, the lessons should be very short but very close 
 together; the ideal plan would be a quarter of an 
 hour every day, without any M r ork on the part of the 
 child alone, and without even allowing him to amuse 
 
 [90]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 himself upon the piano in the interval, so as not to 
 acquire bad habits, which would retard his progress. 
 At the end of a few months, you can separate the les- 
 sons to every two days, and increase their length to 
 half an hour, if this child is sufficiently attentive and 
 careful to work alone in the intervening days. It is 
 scarcely until after two years of study that the pupil 
 can profit by a lesson of an hour, repeated two or 
 three times a week, working an hour or two every 
 day. In the course of the studies, one should keep on 
 increasing the intervals between the lessons. Towards 
 the age of fifteen or sixteen years, one lesson a week, 
 or even one a fortnight, should suffice, and later, it 
 would be best only to take one a month. To make 
 them more frequent has the bad result of depriving 
 the pupil of some of his spontaneity and individ- 
 uality. 
 
 The daily work should keep constantly increasing 
 until it reaches about four hours a day (very excep- 
 tionally five or six, in several sittings, and never more 
 than two hours in succession), always attaching 
 great importance, and this from the first months, I 
 should almost say the first days of study, to obtain- 
 ing a beautiful sonority, a good quality of tone,^ 
 something inestimable and which is almost entirely 
 dependent upon the first habits acquired ; " the tone 
 obtained from the same piano varies, according to the 
 suppleness and the delicacy of touch of the artist, ac- 
 cording to his individual nature and the degree of 
 his manual dexterity." * When this principle has 
 * A. Marmontel, Histoire du Piano. 
 
 [91]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 been neglected at the beginning, a work that is often 
 long and difficult is exacted later. 
 
 It is often said : pianists have an advantage over all 
 others in finding their tones already made. This is 
 not absolutely true, since every pianist has a different 
 tone which causes him to be recognized. 
 
 " One of the first conditions for obtaining breadth 
 of execution, a beautiful sonority and a great variety 
 in the production of tone, is to divest oneself of all 
 stiffness. It is then indispensable to have in the fore- 
 arm, the wrists and the fingers, as much suppleness 
 and varied inflections as a clever singer possesses in 
 his voice." * 
 
 Generally speaking, people work too much this 
 remark will make me friends with all pupils, but in 
 general also they work badly. Here, as in so many 
 things, quality is preferable to quantity. 
 
 To work well and profitably, the principal thing is 
 to bring a sustained attention to that which we are 
 doing, and not to allow ourselves to be distracted by 
 any external preoccupation ; to work slowly : Chi va 
 piano, va sano, et chi va sano va lontano,\ the 
 thing which is the most useful of all, and very often 
 also the most difficult to obtain. 
 
 Again I quote from Thalberg, Avho was one of the 
 most enchanting of virtuosi: " We will remark that 
 in general people play too fast and that they think 
 they have proved a great deal by displaying great 
 
 * S. Thalberg, Preface to UArt du chant appliqitt nu piano. 
 f He who goes slowly, goes wisely, and he who goes wisely, 
 goes far. Italian proverb. 
 
 [92]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 agility with the fingers. To play too fast is a capital 
 offence. In a moderate movement, the conduct of a 
 simple fugue of three or four voices and its inter- 
 pretation, in correctness and style, exact and prove 
 more talent than the execution of the most brilliant, 
 rapid and complicated piano piece. It is much more 
 difficult than one would think not to hurry and not to 
 play fast." * And a little further on he adds : " One 
 recommendation that we should not neglect, is to put 
 great sobriety into the movements of the body and 
 great tranquillity into the arms and hands, never to 
 attack the piano from too great a height, to listen con- 
 stantly while playing, to interrogate and to be se- 
 vere upon ourselves as to our playing, and to learn to 
 judge ourselves. In general, people work too much 
 with their fingers and too little with their intelli- 
 gence." 
 
 Another very useful thing is not to forget what 
 we have learned while we are learning something else, 
 which becomes the labour of the Danaides. I fully 
 believe that Jacotot, a celebrated educator of the last 
 century, was the first to formulate that admirable 
 axiom, applicable to all branches of instruction, and 
 consequently to music, but in a way quite special to 
 the piano because of the prodigious quantity of beau- 
 tiful works with which composers have endowed the 
 literature of this instrument and with which pupils 
 are consequently wont to furnish their minds : " One 
 would always be more learned with what one has for- 
 gotten than with what one has retained." How true 
 * S. Thalberg. 
 
 [93]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 that is of everything; and who is there among us, 
 even the most learned, who would not be benefited by 
 recovering the remembrance of a host of things that 
 he has once known and forgotten, abandoning in ex- 
 change the paltry baggage of what has remained in 
 his memory ! " Science is nothing but remembrance," 
 Montaigne has said ; to know anything to-day counts 
 for nought, if to-morrow we no longer know what we 
 knew yesterday. To learn'without being able to recol- 
 lect is equivalent to writing upon shifting sands. 
 
 It is then necessary to cultivate the memory, to ac- 
 custom yourself to learn everything by heart (I say 
 everything without exception, exercises as well as the 
 works of the masters), and to forget as little as pos- 
 sible, nothing, if you can help it. And this is not 
 very difficult, if you proceed with method and perse- 
 verance; here are the means, I hand over the secret: 
 from the moment that you are able to play correctly 
 and properly any piece whatsoever, be it etude or 
 morceau, you should learn it by heart, so thoroughly 
 as to be able to repeat it exactly without having the 
 text before your eyes (for some this will be very 
 easy, for others it will require great effort at first, 
 but it will all come in time, it is nothing but an ac- 
 quired habit, the experience has been proved with 
 thousands of pupils at the Paris Conservatoire alone, 
 and to my knowledge) ; having done this, you must 
 force yourself to play this piece over again, on the 
 following days, alternately by heart and with the 
 music, once, which is a matter of a few minutes. Dur- 
 ing this time, learn something else, which must then 
 [94]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 be submitted to the same rule, but now piece No. 1 
 will keep itself in the memory by being played only 
 every two days, once with the music and once by mem- 
 ory. When a third piece has been learned and like- 
 wise got encased in the memory, piece No. 2, in its 
 turn, will not need to be repeated more than twice 
 every two days, and No. 1 every four days, and so 
 on. You will very easily manage (when I say you, I 
 mean by that everybody, all those who are willing to 
 take the trouble) to retain in the memory and in the 
 fingers pieces that you play only once a month and 
 even less frequently, provided you have proceeded 
 progressively, by gradually distancing the repetition 
 to six, eight, ten and fifteen days, relatively to the 
 order in which the aforesaid pieces have been learned, 
 and then every two months, three months, six months, 
 etc., submitting them however to a new supplement- 
 ary study if you perceive that the memory is in 
 danger of failing. When a musical work has re- 
 mained in the memory for about a year, it is very sel- 
 dom that it ever escapes. To obtain this result, which 
 is so desirable and so delightful, the whole thing is to 
 act systematically ; it is true that after some time, 
 this requires you to keep in mind a veritable cata- 
 logue, but this does not interfere much with other 
 occupations. I have very often seen modest amateurs 
 without the slightest effort register and retain in their 
 memories and fingers repertories of from 150 to 200 
 pieces always ready, among which, if they had a few 
 of Chopin's Nocturnes or Mendelssohn's Romances, 
 pieces of a few pages only, there also figured entire 
 [95]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Sonatas and Concertos, which were regarded in iheir 
 catalogue as simple units. Better than that, I have 
 seen people play without the slightest hesitation 
 ( these were artists ) with the orchestra and from mem- 
 ory, Concertos which they had learned ten or twenty 
 years previously, had never seen since and believed 
 they had forgotten, but which had been submitted, at 
 the proper time, to the rule that I have just described. 
 This appears prodigious, but it is, nevertheless, very 
 simple ; it is sufficient to proceed methodically and 
 systematically, and to absorb thoroughly this truth: 
 it is far more useful to retain what we have learned, 
 than to be constantly learning new things. One hour 
 a day devoted to this perpetual review, is broadly suf- 
 ficient and not in the least tedious, since we are giving 
 ourselves a veritable little concert. 
 
 Apart from this question of repertory, so im- 
 portant to the pianist, whether he be artist or ama- 
 teur, there is another that absolutely obliges him to cul- 
 tivate and develop his memory. It even presents a 
 rather curious fact. About fifty years ago, all good 
 piano teachers were opposed to their pupils playing 
 four notes in succession by heart, for fear of their al- 
 tering anything of the composer's text, and required 
 them always to have the music before their eyes; this 
 was an absolute principle. They were right. The 
 teachers of to-day, while quite as careful about the 
 exact reproduction of the text, no longer think the 
 same, but want to have everything played by heart. 
 They are also right. 
 
 Why? 
 
 [96]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Because during the 200 odd years that the piano 
 has existed,* the instrument and its literature, and 
 the way of writing for it, have been changed from 
 beginning to end. Until the time of Mozart and 
 Beethoven's early years, its keyboard had a very re- 
 stricted compass, of about five octaves and a half, 
 which naturally the composer never dreamed of ex- 
 ceeding. Therefore their works were always written 
 under the hand, and the glance can be easily shared 
 between the keys and the music-book. There was not 
 the slightest reason then in playing the piano to act 
 otherwise than in playing any other instrument, and 
 it was much wiser to keep the music before the eyes so 
 as not to run the risk of going astray. That was very 
 logical. 
 
 But since that time, and even before Beethoven's 
 last years, the piano has been considerably enlarged, 
 since its keyboard now embraces seven octaves and 
 sometimes more. The composers have quite naturally 
 profited by this expansion, by these new resources, 
 and under the influence of the Chopins, Liszts and 
 all the moderns, the manner of writing has quite 
 changed. It goes by leaps and bounds, putting the 
 whole instrument into vibration at once, by means of 
 the pedal; the body itself often has to be in move- 
 ment, and it would be very difficult or impossible to 
 keep the eyes fixed on the music while they are en- 
 grossed in watching the hands and looking at the 
 keys. The only way to play modern music then, is 
 by heart; and when this habit is once acquired we 
 *It was invented about 1717. 
 
 [97]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 also prefer to play in the same way the classic works, 
 which, being more simply written and containing 
 fewer notes, find their way more easily into the mind. 
 , This custom has so thoroughly passed into prac- 
 tice, that a pianist who plays with his notes now looks 
 as unnatural and ill at ease as an actor who should 
 read his part on the stage ; without speaking of that 
 awkward complication arising from the need of al- 
 ways having somebody beside you to turn the pages. 
 
 " You must not only be able to play your pieces, 
 but you should be able to solfa them without the 
 piano ; and your imagination should be cultivated to 
 the point of retaining the harmony that is given to 
 a melody quite as well as the melody itself." * 
 
 When we attentively examine the matter, we per- 
 ceive that so far as music is concerned there really 
 exist three kinds of memory, or, it would be better to 
 say, three distinct manifestations of the memory : the 
 memory of the ear, of the eyes, and of the fingers, 
 which can exist separately, and thus give satisfactory 
 results, but whose union alone constitutes the perfect 
 and truly desirable memory. This requires some ex- 
 planation. The memory of the ear alone is sufficient 
 to retain a melodic contour, or a series of chords, or 
 even the two united ; but it only registers the tones in 
 the memory according to their relation to each other, 
 and not according to their absolute and real pitch 
 (with exceptions of extreme rarity); it is prone to 
 transpose them involuntarily, indeed most of the time 
 unconsciously, and it is in this that its imperfection 
 * Schumann. 
 
 [98]
 
 consists ; it also lacks precision ; it is very nearly, but 
 not quite, a memory, one that allows us approximately 
 to remember an air heard while travelling, or a gifted 
 amateur to play a whole opera, whose first represen- 
 tation he has attended, on the piano when he goes 
 home, to the amazement of his friends, and with 
 good reason (I have never been a witness of this phe- 
 nomenon, but I have been so often told about it !). It 
 is a superficial and incomplete memory ; although ap- 
 preciable. 
 
 Infinitely superior is the memory of the eyes, how- 
 ever strange this may appear at first glance. He 
 who possesses it, retains as graven on his mind the 
 note itself, the printed note, even remembers the place 
 it occupies on the page, and would be capable of copy- 
 ing from memory and reproducing upon the paper 
 the work that he has studied sufficiently to have 
 fathomed it to its depths, even were it an orchestral 
 score, exactly as one would write a piece of verse or 
 any bit of literature that is retained in the mind, word 
 for word ; at bottom, it is the same intellectual opera- 
 tion. This is the analytical memory, the memory of 
 the true musician who knows how to listen with his 
 eyes as well as with his ears, who makes no difference 
 between the note written, the note sung or played and 
 the note heard, ever the same principle. It is this 
 memory above all that we should try to acquire and 
 develop by every possible means, as being the most 
 precious of all. We can exercise it by applying our- 
 selves assiduously to writing out by heart little frag- 
 ments and short passages, which we have first spe- 
 [99]
 
 cially studied with this end in view, and then others 
 of greater length. There are cases, however, espe- 
 cially for the pianist, in complicated passages formed 
 of many notes that succeed each other with extreme 
 rapidity, where this intelligent and rational memory, 
 which demands an effort of reflection, might find itself 
 at fault. Then becomes valuable the mechanical and 
 unthinking memory of the fingers, which correctly 
 and faithfully accomplish their task like veritable au- 
 tomata, when they have been sufficiently trained, 
 without any cerebral effort, and even while we may 
 be thinking of something entirely different. 
 
 I do not know how physiology or the psychologist 
 explains this phenomenon of dual thought-action, but 
 it is indubitably real. There are some persons whc 
 can play for you a piece heavily charged with notes-; 
 while listening to others talking around them and ever 
 taking part in the conversation. To assert that thej 
 put deep feeling into their playing at the same time, 1. 
 should not dare. 
 
 And this is why I say that the complete, perfect, 
 and really desirable memory should be clothed in turn., 
 and sometimes simultaneously, with these three forms : 
 memory of the eyes, ear and fingers. If we possess 
 one of these, we must train for the others; they will 
 naturally aid each other. 
 
 More than any other instrumentalists, pianists 
 should give their whole attention to the study of read- 
 ing at sight, because of the great number of notes 
 that they have to read, whether simultaneously or 
 very rapidly. From the third year, at the latest, it 
 [ 100 1
 
 is necessary to devote a few moments every day to 
 reading slowly things that are easy enough to be 
 read without making any mistakes (I have already 
 said this, but it cannot be repeated too often), with- 
 out hesitating or stumbling, and even to putting in 
 all the shading indicated ; it is only on this condition 
 that this study is profitable. Before reading any 
 piece whatsoever, short or developed, you should go 
 over it slowly, examining very particularly such pas- 
 sages as seem difficult ; but once having started, you 
 must never stop under any pretext whatsoever; it 
 would be better to invent several notes, indeed even 
 several bars, than to stop and begin again. You 
 must possess " a complete absence of remorse for any 
 mistake made," according to the pretty expression of 
 Eugene Sauzay,* a celebrated violinist who was a per- 
 fect master of accompaniment as well as a man of wit 
 and erudition. It is imperative to know how to divine 
 from the figure what we have no time to read, and 
 always to read ahead, at least one bar in slow move- 
 ments, and several in pieces of a lively gait. To 
 know how to read well, a thing precious above all else, 
 is an accomplishment of combined intelligence, 
 ability, and presence of mind. J. J. Rousseau said 
 long ago in his dictionary : " All musicians pride 
 themselves upon playing at sight, but there are very 
 few who in this execution catch the spirit of the work, 
 or who, even if they make no mistakes in the notes, do 
 not at least give a wrong meaning in the execution." 
 
 * E. Sauzay, cote de Vaccompagnement (Firmin Didot, editeur, 
 1869). 
 
 [101]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 With modern music, reading has become in itself a 
 veritable art, and really a very difficult one. 
 
 Four-hand reading is very good practice, still bet- 
 ter than with two pianos, whether with the teacher 
 or with a partner of about the same skill. 
 
 The pianist should also be equally accustomed to 
 the difficulties of transposition, more complicated for 
 him than for any other instrumentalists, because he 
 has infinitely more notes to read than they have. He 
 should therefore train himself very early in trans- 
 posing even exercises. Apart from the utility of 
 knowing hoAv to transpose, this study forms an ex- 
 cellent gymnastic exercise and helps to form a mu- 
 sician. 
 
 When we have acquired complete mastery of an 
 instrument, and can play without having to pay at- 
 tention to the minute details of execution, it is worth 
 while to take ensemble lessons with a violinist or 
 'cellist (inaccurately called lessons of accompaniment, 
 because the piano does not accompany more than it is 
 accompanied, it is absolutely a concerted instrument) ; 
 or we might even choose as a teacher the player of 
 some entirely different instrument,, but we should 
 quickly come to the end of the catalogue of good 
 works written for the_piano and clarinet, flute, oboe, 
 horn or bassoon, while the literature for the stringed 
 instruments is nearly inexhaustible. After getting ac- 
 customed to playing with a single instrument, you can 
 take up the study of Trios, Quartets, Quintets, etc., 
 which is exceedingly interesting. 
 
 This interest lies very largely in the enormous num- 
 [102]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 ber of masterpieces that the classic authors and a few 
 contemporaries have written for Chamber-music, the 
 most elevated form of pure music; partly also in the 
 pleasure caused by the mingling of the timbres. The 
 pianist here is obliged to play otherwise than as a 
 soloist, to modify and frequently to diminish his tone, 
 in order to assimilate and to ally himself with the other 
 instruments, which he should never try to dominate 
 except in particular passages where his part pre- 
 ponderates. Finally, it is an entirely special study. 
 
 It is also a very good exercise to accompany 
 singers: here the verb to accompany is in its place, 
 meaning a complete abnegation, with the one desire 
 of supporting the singer, aiding him and sometimes 
 guiding him, without ever covering his voice. This 
 talent of being a good accompanist is very rare, 
 and one that always denotes an excellent musician, for 
 it requires all the qualities of a virtuoso, and in addi- 
 tion a tact and a presence of mind that are very dif- 
 ficult to acquire. 
 
 In every kind of ensemble music, there can be no 
 question of playing by heart. No matter how sure 
 you may be of your memory, you cannot be respon- 
 sible for the errors into which you may be ]ed through 
 the inadvertence of a partner. 
 
 Whether it is a question of the study of the piano, 
 sight-reading or ensemble music, the foundation 
 should always consist of classical music, or that of 
 contemporary composers who have written in the clas- 
 sical style; for the primary or secondary instruction, 
 it is also necessary to adhere to these ; then a part of 
 [103]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the time should be given to modern music, but with 
 exfreme circumspection, and avoiding all vulgar and 
 unhealthy compositions that unfortunately are rap- 
 idly multiplying. Schumann expresses himself clearly 
 upon this subject: " You should never play bad com- 
 positions, nor listen to them, if you are not compelled 
 to." I believe that this is forcible enough. J^lse- 
 where, he goes still further and seems to invest the 
 pupil with the somewhat excessive functions of a se- 
 vere censor J " Never spread abroad bad compositions, 
 on the contrary help to suppress them with energy." 
 The pupil should not yet trust entirely to his own 
 discernment ; to a great extent it is in this choice that 
 the tact of the professor is shown. The works of 
 Schumann, Chopin and their followers of the Roman- 
 tic School, demanding more maturity, should not 
 figure in the programme of any one before the age 
 of fifteen or sixteen except as hors-d'oeuvres and as 
 pieces for occasional ambitious flights; up to this 
 period, the pure classic Germans must be studied ex- 
 clusively, notably Haydn, Mozart, Bach, Handel, 
 Beethoven, Weber and Mendelssohn (for etudes, 
 Cramer and Clementi, in his marvellous collection of 
 Gradus ad Parnassum) ; for a stronger reason, Liszt 
 and the school of transcendent virtuosity will be re- 
 served for the finishing touch of the studies and should 
 not be touched before the age of eighteen or twenty. 
 Here, as everywhere else, there may be exceptions, 
 extraordinarily precocious natures; it is for the pro- 
 fessor to judge of these; but also not to allow him- 
 self to be deceived by appearances, nor carried away 
 [104]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 by the desire to give pleasure to his pupils or to their 
 parents ; he should represent wisdom and prudence. 
 
 Upon this subject, it will not be out of place to 
 put an end to that misunderstanding, that false no- 
 tion of words and things, that for many young pupils 
 makes classic the synonym for tedious, while modern 
 suggests the idea of what is amusing. It is impos- 
 sible to imagine a more complete error. Among the 
 ancients as among our contemporaries, there are 
 composers who are gay and others who are more pro- 
 found and more serious ; sometimes even, often would 
 be better, the same composer alternately assumes 
 the two aspects. If Bach is austere in his fugues, 
 that does not prevent him from writing gavottes and 
 other pieces in an alert and joyous style; there is no 
 music that is more delightful and witty, more tender 
 and playful than that of Mozart and Haydn, more 
 warm, passionate and dramatic than that of Bee- 
 thoven. We must also take into consideration that 
 what we call in musical matters the classics, are not 
 strictly speaking ancients, they are the moderns of 
 yesterday consecrated by admiration, who directly 
 gave birth to the style of to-day. If we say that every 
 well ordered study should begin with the pure clas- 
 sics, it is to confine ourselves in this chapter to con- 
 siderations of dry pedagogy, and not embarrass our- 
 selves with questions of aesthetics that will find their 
 place elsewhere, because the classic school initiates us 
 progressively into the present manner of writing, and 
 leads us logically towards it, while the modern school, 
 which is its outgrowth, could not serve to lead us to 
 8 [ 105 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the old Masters. This at least is the principal rea- 
 son to be considered by those pupils who desire to 
 follow a normal progress ; professors of some little ex- 
 perience will be able to find several others which there 
 is no need here to indicate to them. 
 
 As soon as the young pupil begins to play properly 
 several little pieces and knows them by heart, it is in- 
 dispensable to accustom him to play them before peo- 
 ple, without any airs and without waiting to be 
 begged, which is the worst possible taste. This 
 should first happen before one's own family and a 
 few intimate friends who are kindly disposed (it is 
 not a treat that is offered to them, it is a service that 
 is demanded of them), then gradually before more 
 numerous audiences. At this age, a child does not 
 know what fear is, of that stupid and paralyzing 
 thing not a trace is known, and this habit of playing 
 before people is formed quite naturally and is never 
 lost. Later, on the contrary, timidity, which is noth- 
 ing but a form of self-love, comes into play, and the 
 greatest amount of form and ceremony is required 
 to induce the young virtuoso to play before those 
 friends who are the most kindly disposed towards him. 
 This is absurd, but it is so, above all with young 
 girls. Now, it is absolutely necessary to avoid this 
 pretentious shyness, and the most certain way is to 
 take it in hand at an early period. Music is before 
 everything else an art that belongs to society, and the 
 executant, whether artist or amateur, it matters lit- 
 tle* has no reason for existence except when someone 
 is listening to him, someone whom he is trying to 
 [1061
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 make participate in his sensations of art. He who 
 never plays except for himself alone would be above 
 all a perfect egoist in the first place, and, secondly, 
 to speak the truth, he would not even need to learn 
 the mastery of his instrument, it would suffice for him 
 to learn to read music fluently in order to satisfy his 
 own pleasure. 
 
 Many kinds of apparatus have been invented with 
 the purpose of developing, by methods of gymnastics, 
 the strength and suppleness of the fingers : the Dacty- 
 llon of Henri Herz, the Chirogymnaste of Henri 
 Martin, the Veloce-mano, the leaden rings, the hand- 
 guides (chiroplast), the dumb pianos -with progres- 
 sive stiffness, and many others which would look 
 terrible if they figured in the museum of instruments 
 of torture at Nuremberg. All these mechanical de- 
 vices are detestable or inefficacious, and I only speak 
 of them here for the sake of strongly discouraging 
 their use. With means of this nature, employed 
 against my will, many of my pupils have gravely 
 compromised their progress; one of them, Mr. Louis 
 H - of St. Louis, Missouri, by making use of an 
 extraordinary and complicated apparatus which he 
 made himself and with which he slept to force his 
 fingers further and further apart, succeeded in crip- 
 pling them completely. 
 
 A similar mishap had already occurred to Robert 
 Schumann : with the aim of improving his technique, 
 and unknown to his most intimate friends, he took it 
 into his head to tie down his third finger firmly, while 
 exercising the four others. The result was that the 
 [107]
 
 third finger was attacked by paralysis, which soon put 
 it out of service, and paralysis progressively attacked 
 the entire hand. All these machines must be de- 
 liberately rejected, for when not dangerous they are 
 useless. 
 
 Certain auxiliary studies should be taken along 
 with that of the piano. Just as, during the primary 
 period, we must consider solfeggio as indispensable, 
 and pursue this study long and seriously, it is well 
 that, having once gained a step higher, the young 
 pianist should possess some notions of harmony; 
 superficial notions, if you please, for the amateur who 
 is only trying to gain a more complete understand- 
 ing of the works he is studying, but notions that must 
 be infinitely more extended for the artist who intends 
 to develop himself in the art of interpretation, and 
 who may, moreover, one day or other be also a com- 
 poser, which very frequently happens and demon- 
 strates a fact, which we shall have occasion to speak 
 of later, the influence of the instruments of the key- 
 board upon musical inspiration and fecundity. 
 
 This study of harmony is not imposed upon any 
 other instrumentalist with the same character of use- 
 fulness as upon the pianist. In reality, the piano, the 
 polyphonic instrument, par excellence, is the one 
 which by its very construction is able to produce the 
 greatest number of simultaneous sounds (with the ex- 
 ception of the grand organ), that which admits of 
 the greatest complications, various parts that are en- 
 tangled, combining with one another superimposed 
 melodies that form counterpoint, chords, or arpeggios 
 [108]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 bristling with accidentals which are not always easy 
 to read correctly or to interpret well, unless we have 
 the power of making a quick analysis, and thus pene- 
 trating and divining the intention of the author. A 
 pianist is not complete unless he is also a harmonist, 
 were it only for the sake of being able to rectify,, 
 in case of need, the mistakes in printing that are al- 
 ways found in even the best expurgated editions of 
 works so complex as are those which are written to-day 
 for the piano. But this is the least of its uses. Ta 
 know how to understand and appreciate the beauty 
 of the works which he interprets is indispensable in 
 order that he may execute them properly, for by exe- 
 cution we do not mean merely a correct interpreta- 
 tion, but an interpretation that is intelligent, inter- 
 esting and elevated, which cannot be attained without 
 taking their structure and harmonic framework into 
 account. 
 
 Despite an old prejudice which seems to be disap- 
 pearing, it is not at all hurtful for a pianist to play 
 the organ, even if he has no idea of becoming an or- 
 ganist. This prejudice may have had some justifica- 
 tion formerly, when the organ keys w r ere very stiff 
 and hard to work; up to a certain point, they might 
 make the touch heavy and deprive it of some of its 
 delicacy ; but nothing of this is to be feared to-day, 
 for the manufacturers are able to render the touch 
 of the organ as light as that of the best pianos. 
 
 This, moreover, is exactly Schumann's opinion: 
 " Do not neglect any opportunity of practicing on 
 the organ ; there is no instrument so efficacious in cor- 
 [109]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 recting the errors or the habits of a bad musical edu- 
 cation." 
 
 What the organ teaches you is to avoid a skipping, 
 dry, superficial and unstable method of playing; and 
 also, inversely, the heavy and slovenly method of 
 those who drag their fingers over the keys, neglecting 
 to let them recover at the proper time, for these two 
 faults are intolerable ; it is like a microscope that mag- 
 nifies all defects, showing them in their most hideous 
 aspect. It teaches integrity of technique. 
 
 Everybody has not a Grand Organ at his disposal ; 
 but a Harmonium, which can render a similar service, 
 is more frequently met with. Play upon this instru- 
 ment (or a Grand Organ) a Bach fugue from the 
 Well-Tempered Clavier for example, or a piece of 
 Handel's, having previously studied them carefully 
 upon the piano where they seemed to be correctly 
 rendered, and you will be amazed at the number of 
 unsuspected mistakes that you will discover, notes re- 
 leased too soon, held too long, unevennesses, gaps, 
 etc. This will make you more careful about your 
 rendering before you try a new experiment. 
 
 Finally, it is necessary that the pianist, without 
 consequent conceit, should realize that, by the very 
 nature of his instrument, he is able to become a more 
 perfect musician than any other virtuoso. None, in 
 reality, finds himself confronted with more complica- 
 tions in rapid passages I am not speaking of the 
 material difficulties, no one else has to make several 
 melodic parts heard simultaneously, nor to bring out 
 a song with one hand while with the other, and very 
 [110]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 often the same, he must preserve a relative but real 
 interest in figures of accompaniment, arpeggios, or 
 contrapuntal formulae. The literature of the piano, 
 in works of the highest style, is the most complex of 
 all musical literatures. By its compass, that is 
 greater than that of the orchestra,* by its power and 
 by the infinite variety of its effects, the piano authori- 
 tatively seizes the preponderant role, wherever it is 
 found. 
 
 In Chamber-music, in String Quartets, Quintets, 
 Septets, with or without wind-instruments, where 
 there is no piano, it is implicitly agreed that the first 
 violin takes the lead ; it gives the signal of attack, it 
 indicates the combination shadings, the rallentandos, 
 the organ-points, finally it commands, and this suits 
 it, because there must alwa3 r s be a leader, and it is 
 well fitted for this part. But if the piano takes 
 a part, the first violin, while preserving the attitude of 
 command habitual to it, finds itself forced to take into 
 account this new partner whose force of will is un- 
 equalled ; it is the latter now that imposes its time 
 and its shading, and this without effort, by the sole 
 fact that it is irresistible, representing an orchestra 
 in itself, with which, moreover, it can maintain a 
 struggle, as happens in Concertos. If each instru- 
 ment taken by itself can be compared to a military 
 unit, the piano is a whole army corps. 
 
 But I am wrong to make use of such comparisons, 
 since we can find better ones without going outside of 
 
 * The piano descends six notes below the double-bass and rises 
 a third above the flute, extremities of the classic orchestra. 
 
 [Ill]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the musical domain. Everybody has heard Hunga- 
 rian orchestras with their keen and strident cembalo, 
 that ancestor of the piano, which gives to them such an 
 individual character of precision, clearness and ner- 
 vous force ; here, as elsewhere, it is the first violin, the 
 only one that is played standing, that directs the band 
 and plays the part of the conductor; all the others 
 obey it, following it with most amusing facility into 
 the rhythmic by-ways that give to Hungarian music 
 so strange and so typical a character, all follow, even 
 the cembalo; but if the latter took a fancy to rob the 
 leader of its authority and modify the interpretation 
 to its own taste, it would carry everything before it, 
 not one would be able to liberate itself from the com- 
 municative power of that metallic and perpetual ham- 
 mering, and the unhappy leader would find itself in 
 the annoying situation of a shepherd who is not in ac- 
 cord with his dog. And it would have to give in. 
 
 This is exactly what would happen in Chamber- 
 music if the pianist did not know how to restrain him- 
 self, make himself flexible and conduct himself far 
 more as a musician than as a virtuoso, although a 
 great deal of skill is required of him in order to man- 
 age to subdue his piano, which is really nothing but 
 a keyed cembalo,* and prevent it from showing its 
 lion's claws, and asserting its dominating strength. 
 Only very great artists can succeed in maintaining the 
 balance without effacing themselves in an exaggerated 
 manner and attenuating without annihilating the 
 sound, which would be equally harmful. 
 * Clavi-cembalo, clavecin.
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 An easy experiment will clearly demonstrate the 
 material preponderance of the piano in Chamber- 
 music. Get somebody to play, entirely alone, the vio- 
 lin, viola, or violoncello part of any piece of ensemble 
 music whatsoever: you will gain no idea of what the 
 combination of the instruments will produce. Get 
 somebody to play, also by itself, the piano part of 
 the same piece, and immediately, with a very slight 
 effort of the imagination, you will be able to divine 
 what will be the general effect by reconstructing ap- 
 proximately, with your mind, the other missing parts. 
 
 When we reduce the piano to the apparently modest 
 part of accompanist, whether for an instrumental solo 
 or for an operatic aria, it becomes a miniature orches- 
 tra of which the pianist is the conductor. Awkwardly 
 employed, it can overwhelm, annihilate, or totally rout 
 the unhappy soloist, whilst in capable hands, it sup- 
 ports and guides him, brings out his good points, 
 shows him the right road when he strays, and becomes 
 his most precious auxiliary, the artificer of his success. 
 The singer is always at his ease when he is accom- 
 panied by the composer, because the composer is al- 
 ways an artist before he is a pianist. More than any 
 other musician, must the accompanist possess pres- 
 ence of mind, sang-froid, and the sense of what is 
 appropriate. He can ruin all, or save all. 
 
 Hence the importance that the most accomplished 
 singers attach to having always a good accompanist, 
 and, as often as possible, their own accompanist, 
 without whom they feel as if they were deserted and 
 disabled. 
 
 [113]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 I hope now that I have made completely clear the 
 importance of the piano in whatever service it may 
 be employed, and the consequent absolute necessity 
 (in order intelligently to manipulate so energetic a 
 mechanism, which, in inexperienced hands can so 
 easily become a disturber) of possessing sound knowl- 
 edge of technique and aesthetics. 
 
 At a period when thousands of young pianists pos- 
 sess an inconceivable finger dexterity, it is not unin- 
 teresting to remind them of the true mission of the 
 simple and the beautiful, that of charming and not 
 of astounding the audience, of playing less for show 
 and more for the heart. This secret, which reveals 
 the true artist, can only be learned by the study 
 of the great masters, aided by hearing, as often as 
 possible, great virtuosi, those who in addition to the 
 prestige of execution possess a high intelligence in 
 matters of art. It is also necessary to know how to 
 listen attentively to good singers, for they can often 
 serve as models, if not counsellors. " One can learn 
 much from singers, but it will not do to accept all 
 their counsels," says Schumann. The great fault of 
 the piano, a fault inherent to its nature, is dryness; 
 it cannot sustain the tone, and if any one ever suc- 
 ceeds in giving this faculty to it, as has several times 
 been attempted already, it will be the piano no longer, 
 but a new instrument. It is then for the pianist, by 
 the force of his art, to lessen and make this charac- 
 teristic imperfection forgotten, by trying to imitate 
 the vocal inflections of singers ; this is why he should 
 listen to them attentively, study and assimilate their 
 [114]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 methods, and try to imitate them or come as near it 
 as possible. " The best advice that we can give to 
 persons who occupy themselves seriously with the 
 piano is to learn, to study and to analyze the beau- 
 tiful art of singing. With this end in view, we should 
 never neglect an opportunity of hearing great artists, 
 whatever may be their instrument, and above all the 
 great singers ; from the very beginning and in the 
 first stage of our accomplishment, we should know 
 how to surround ourselves with good models." * 
 
 For this imitation, a great help to success in pro- 
 ducing the illusion of tones that are sustained or 
 swelled, is the judicious use of the pedals. Of 
 these the great majority of amateur pianists, and, 
 what is more to be regretted, a great number of artists 
 do not know how to avail themselves. " In the use 
 of pedals, which play so important a part in execu- 
 tion, we should take the greatest care never to mix 
 dissimilar harmonies and thus produce disagreeable 
 dissonances. There are pianists who make such an 
 abuse of the pedals, or rather they use them with so 
 little logic, that their sense of hearing is perverted 
 and they have lost the appreciation of pure har- 
 mony." Now, who is it that expresses himself thus? 
 It is still Thalberg, that is to say the man who, with 
 Chopin, carried to the utmost limit of ability the art 
 of using the pedals. " The greatest number of 
 pupils," the learned master, Marmontel, also remarks 
 upon this subject, " to whom the use of the loud 
 pedal is permitted, make use of it to beat the time " 
 * Thalberg. 
 [115]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 (we have already mentioned one frequent cause of this 
 grotesque use) " or, better, put it down and never 
 let it go. This produces a frightful cacophony, to 
 the affliction of all musicians of taste." 
 
 It would be better to abstain entirely from using 
 the pedal rather than employ it at random ; and in 
 truth, in all classic music before the Beethoven pe- 
 riod, it should be left alone. In modern music, on the 
 contrary, it is indispensable; but it is necessary to 
 learn how to make it serve you and never allow it to 
 produce confusion and discord : " The art of the 
 pedal does not consist in knowing how to put it down, 
 but how to take it off." j- This is indeed a truth, 
 the importance of which too few pianists compre- 
 hend. 
 
 It is certain that the study of harmony contributes 
 to uproot these habits, as vicious as they are anti- 
 artistic. 
 
 Formerly, and not so very long ago either, it was 
 the custom to play a prelude on the piano. It even 
 happened, as exaggeration followed, that under the 
 pretext of preludes some performers thus improvised 
 veritable pieces that never finished. This might be 
 charming when the pianist was also a clever im- 
 proviser; but, as this was the exception, more often 
 people found themselves treated to lucubrations of a 
 moment, containing more nonsense and rambling than 
 anything else. 
 
 To obviate this regrettable condition, some nai've 
 
 * A. Marmontel, Histoire du piano. 
 \ A. Lavignac, Uficole de la ptdale. 
 
 [116]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 and well-intentioned professors had the idea of puo- 
 lishing, under the title of Preludes, in all the major 
 and minor keys, some kinds of formulae as hideous as 
 they were pretentious, which the performer was to 
 learn by heart and then be credited with improvising. 
 It was grotesque. Another annoying thing about it 
 was that these formulae having to serve for every 
 piece written in the same key, if there were several on 
 the same programme, no matter what inspired air 
 might be selected, the ridiculous trick was discov- 
 ered. 
 
 A sudden change in fashion occurred, for fashion 
 meddles with everything, and now preludes are out of 
 date, which, after all, is much better. 
 
 There are three cases, however, in which it is still 
 necessary to know how to improvise a few chords : 
 
 The first always presents itself in chamber-music, 
 immediately after having given the A and just before 
 beginning the piece. 
 
 The A is always needed for the instruments to 
 tune by. If, after the horrible cacophony which is 
 the result of this ceremony and which no one has yet 
 found the means to avoid, we were immediately to at- 
 tack the first chord in a piece in E-flat, for instance, 
 the result for the sensitive hearer would be an im- 
 pression of discord, very fleeting certainly, but never- 
 theless painful. Therefore, it is better to prepare him 
 for the tonality by a few discreet chords that will 
 efface from his memory the unavoidable charivari of 
 the tuning of the instruments. 
 
 Second case: if one should have to play in sue- 
 [117]
 
 cession several pieces in very different and dissimilar 
 keys (a thing it would be better to avoid in making 
 up the programme), it is judicious to weld them to- 
 gether, or to separate them, by a rapid modulation 
 which will prevent the memory of the first piece from 
 spoiling the beginning of the second. (This will be 
 a little less of a shock. ) 
 
 Third case : to give the key to a singer whom we are 
 accompanying, especially if he has to begin with the 
 first bar. 
 
 Reduced to its most simple expression, a few chords 
 or a few arpeggi, the prelude can still be useful to 
 give us an idea of the degree of sonority, resonance 
 or deadness, of a hall, or of an instrument with which 
 we are not yet familiar, and also to command silence 
 and hush disturbing conversation. 
 
 In all these circumstances, no matter how brief 
 may be the series of improvised chords, in order that 
 they should be correct and not displeasing, and in 
 order to avoid any clashing or awkwardness, the 
 pianist must be versed in the practice of harmony to 
 a greater degree than any of his associates who play 
 on other instruments, and who have never, or but 
 very rarely, to manage combined notes. 
 
 Everything that tends to develop the musical spirit 
 and the initiative sense is good for him: to sing in 
 choruses, serving in them as a leader in the attack, 
 and if he has no voice, to act as accompanist, rehearse 
 the singers, read the score, make transcriptions, and, 
 in short, serve in every capacity as a real musician. I 
 should like to sum up all this in a formula that is as 
 [118]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 simple as it is true : The pianist who is nothing but a 
 good pianist is a bad pianist. 
 
 If I have thought it necessary to give so much 
 space to everything concerning the piano, it is not 
 merely because this instrument is the one most usually 
 found in our drawing-rooms. It is more particularly 
 because of the preponderant part that it plays in the 
 musical civilization of our time. 
 
 The celebrated Russian pianist and composer, A. 
 Rubinstein, did not hesitate to assert his convictions 
 upon this subject : " Instrumental music," he said, 
 " is man's most intimate friend, closer than his 
 parents, his sisters, or his comrades" (?) "This 
 is particularly shown in misfortune ; and of all instru- 
 ments the one that best plays the part of a friend is 
 the piano. Therefore, I consider the teaching of the 
 piano as a great benefit to humanity and I am not 
 very far from making it obligatory " (this is per- 
 haps somewhat excessive) " regarding it, be it well 
 understood, as an intimate consolation for the pupil 
 and not as a means of shining in society." * 
 
 Did Rubinstein know this thought of Chateau- 
 briand's, which he seems to have tried to paraphrase: 
 " Music puts grief to sleep in troubled hearts " ? 
 
 The piano is everybody's instrument : as has been 
 already established, a knowledge of it is useful, in 
 diverse degrees and for different reasons, to every in- 
 strumentalist, without exception ; it is indispensable 
 to singers and teachers of singing; moreover, the 
 * Anton Rubinstein, Notes et Aphorismes. 
 
 [119]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 piano for other reasons is of extreme usefulness for 
 the composer, as we shall see later. Often, too, it is 
 by means of the piano, which in some measure sets a 
 score before jour eyes and beneath your fingers, that 
 you become a composer. Witness the great number 
 of worthy composers who commenced to express them- 
 selves as simple pianists. (I think it superfluous to 
 add here that every pianist who intends to devote 
 himself to composition, even if solely for his own in- 
 strument, should submit, at least partially, to the spe- 
 cial studies for a composer, and not give himself up 
 blindly to his instinct and the routine fascination ex- 
 ercised by the keyboard.) It is the sole instrument 
 upon which we can condense a score, the only one 
 which in every case is sufficient unto itself, without the 
 aid of any other. From the beginning to the end of 
 the modern studies, and during the entire life of the 
 artist, its indispensableness is perpetually making 
 itself felt for everybody; and certainly of all instru- 
 ments it is the one that plays the greatest part in the 
 diffusion and the expansion of the art. 
 
 If it is correct to say that solfeggio has always 
 been and will always be, under one form or another, 
 the solid basis of all deep musical instruction, we may 
 also say that the piano is its most convenient and 
 practical pivot, the one around which everything re- 
 volves and upon which all branches of teaching are 
 grafted. It is the instrument par excellence of every 
 musician. 
 
 Everything therefore pointed to the propriety of 
 giving it a very large place here; and this so much 
 [120]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 the more because all that we have said on this subject, 
 addressing pianists in particular, besides its direct 
 utility for them, can also, with a few slight modifica- 
 tions, be made use of in the study of every other in- 
 strument. 
 
 If we know how to play the piano, the study of the 
 Harmonium is almost child's play ; if not, we must 
 begin by learning the piano. 
 
 In reality, a very well-trained, supple, and, above 
 all, precise technique is the first indispensable re- 
 quirement, and it is not upon the harmonium that it 
 can be acquired. Apart from the fact that it would 
 be insupportable, it would be entirely insufficient, the 
 keys of that instrument not offering the necessary 
 resistance for this finger gymnastics. 
 
 Next, it remains for us to learn and understand the 
 functions of this instrument, with its various regis- 
 ters, corresponding at once to various timbres and 
 different octaves ; then the management of the bellows 
 (and sometimes the knee-piece, particularly in Mus- 
 tel's harmonium of double expression, the most per- 
 fect instrument of this type), on which depend the 
 modifications of sonority and shadings, which caused 
 it to be called at first : orgue-expressif. 
 
 All this is a matter of a few lessons at most and a 
 few weeks of attention, with very little daily or in- 
 termittent study, which, in this case, is of little im- 
 portance. We often see pianists teaching them- 
 selves this instrument without any text-book and 
 9 [ 121 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 without the help of any teacher, and thus learning 
 to make very good use of it ; but if we want to go so 
 far as to get from it all the delicate effects of sonor- 
 ity of which it is capable and play it like a true 
 virtuoso, a longer period of study is necessary, which 
 varies according to the instinct and the delicacy of 
 touch of each player. 
 
 The study of the harmonium may be a good ap- 
 proach to that of the Grand Organ. 
 
 V. THE ORGAN 
 
 We shall speak here only of the GRAND ORGAN con- 
 sidered as an instrument. 
 
 This mode of expression may seem strange to those 
 who are ignorant that its study may be considered 
 from another point of view : I owe them an explana- 
 tion. The use of the Great Organ in the Roman 
 Catholic Church demands an organist of three com- 
 plete and distinct kinds of knowledge: that of the 
 instrument itself and its management ; that of impro- 
 visation; and that of the liturgy; and very frequently 
 it is this combination of attainments that is un- 
 derstood by the study of the organ; studies of the 
 Roman Catholic Organist would be better. 
 
 The Roman liturgy has no place in this book ; of 
 improvisation, we shall have a few words to say later 
 when speaking of composition ; only the study of the 
 practice of the instrument considered by itself can 
 find a place in the present chapter. 
 
 This having been explained, let us begin by estab- 
 [ 122 ]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 lishing the. great difference between the study of 
 the organ and that of all other instruments, for the 
 reason that there do not exist two organs that are ex- 
 actly alike. When we know how to play one piano, 
 we know how to play all pianos; a violin may be good 
 or bad, but it resembles all other violins; while what 
 is called an organ varies infinitely .according to cir- 
 cumstances, among which are: 1st, the sum of money 
 spent in building it ; 2d : the place that is to be 
 given to it ; 3d : the dimensions and the acoustic qual- 
 ities of the building which it is called upon to fill 
 with its waves of sound ; 4th : the kind of service that 
 is required of it (the simple accompaniment of sing- 
 ing or the execution of organ pieces) ; 5th: the skil- 
 f ulness or simply the fancy of the manufacturer ; 6th : 
 
 , etc., etc. From all of which it may 
 
 result that the instrument represents the volume of 
 a large upright piano, or attain the importance of a 
 house of four stories. An organ may have a single 
 stop and a single row of pipes, and it is already an 
 organ ; it may have two stops, ten stops, twenty, thir- 
 ty, a hundred or two hundred stops ; it may have one, 
 two, three, four or five manuals; it may have pedals 
 or not, and it is still an organ. Its stops may be dis- 
 tributed in a thousand different ways among its 
 various manuals and be controlled or not by combi- 
 nation pedals or other mechanism ; it may have been 
 made for many centuries or according to the modern 
 principles of modern construction, it may be of the 
 most nai've simplicity or of an inextricable complica- 
 tion, and worked by electricity from a distance; and
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 it is neither more nor less than an organ. The 
 master-maker of organs, or organ-maker, who is 
 himself a great artist, and should possess a great 
 knowledge, in acoustics as well as mechanics, never 
 makes two instruments exactly alike. The most 
 colossal organ in the world, to my knowledge, is ihat 
 of the Town Hall in Sydney, Australia, made by the 
 house of W. Hill & Son, of London, which contains 
 127 stops, 162 registers, 9,966 pipes, governed by 
 five manuals, a pedal board and 28 combination 
 pedals, and cost the trifling sum of $90,000 (450,- 
 000 francs). So the question here is not to learn to 
 play any determined instrument, but to learn how to 
 make use of any organ whatsoever, whether we are 
 taken unawares, or have several days to become ac- 
 quainted with it. This last condition naturally is so 
 much the more strongly imposed the more important 
 and complicated an organ is, and no organist, how- 
 ever learned and experienced he may be, would be ca- 
 pable of obtaining, without preliminary practice, ex- 
 actly all the desired effects of sonority from the 
 organ at Riga (Russia), which has 124 stops, or that 
 of Notre Dame at Paris, which has 110, or that of St. 
 Sulpice, which numbers 118. But, let us say also, 
 such instruments are rare and splendid exceptions, 
 and only artists of the first order can be called upon 
 to put them into play. On the other hand, every or- 
 ganist should know how to familiarize himself quickly 
 with an organ of ordinary dimensions, with 30 or 40 
 stops distributed among two or three manuals, such 
 as are found pretty nearly everywhere. 
 
 r
 
 To acquire this faculty, to become capable of mak- 
 ing a convenient use of any instrument whatever 
 (which we assume, be it understood, to be in good con- 
 dition), two things are necessary: first, we must study 
 in books the construction of the organ, ancient as 
 well as modern, so as to understand the use and 
 function of each of its parts ; and frequent the shops 
 of the manufacturers of the Grand Organ so that we 
 may see them close at hand and attentively examine 
 the instruments that are being constructed or re- 
 paired, taken to pieces bit by bit, as also try them and 
 make their divers combinations work when they have 
 been reconstructed. Organ builders are always very 
 obliging and helpful to young organists who ex- 
 press a desire to inform themselves in matters of manu- 
 facture, knowing well that it is the most certain way 
 for them to become skilful in the management of so 
 complicated and so varied an instrument. 
 
 The second thing, when once the function of each 
 piece of machinery is learned, is to frequent the so- 
 ciety of organists, and obtain permission from them 
 to listen close beside them, so as to watch them play 
 and examine the way in which they make use of the 
 resources of their instrument, to which they are ac- 
 customed and the qualities and defects of which they 
 consequently know. As far as possible, we must not 
 limit ourselves to the study of a single organist in this 
 way, but extend this study to several, in order to make 
 comparisons between them and their methods as well 
 as between their various instruments. 
 
 It is not until we feel well equipped with all these 
 [125]
 
 observations and are conscious that we know what a 
 Grand Organ really is, that it is time to take lessons 
 and place our hands upon the keyboard. 
 
 Those who proceed differently will find their prog- 
 ress retarded, because they do not fully comprehend 
 what they are doing and what they are made to do. 
 
 This necessity of knowing and comprehending the 
 construction of the instrument, upon which I insist, 
 must not be regarded as isolated and peculiar to the 
 organ. Every instrumentalist understands the func- 
 tion of his instrument without having to make a spe- 
 cial study of it : the violinist has no need to have any- 
 one explain that the rubbing of the bow produces the 
 tones, and that the intonation is changed by shorten- 
 ing the vibrating portion of the strings by means of 
 the fingers of his left hand, all this happens under his 
 eyes ; the flutist is not long in grasping the mechan- 
 ism of his flute, the utility of the keys, and the stops 
 that he manages with his fingers; but it is otherwise 
 with the organist, who is called upon to make intelli- 
 gent use of an extraordinarily complicated mechan- 
 ism, all of which is hidden and shut up from him, with 
 the exception of the controlling parts, the keys of 
 the manuals and the stops of the registers. In order 
 that he may know his instrument in all its complexity, 
 as the others know theirs in their simplicity, he must 
 make a little preliminary study which is not required 
 from them, that is the only difference. 
 
 Two conditions only are indispensable for under- 
 taking the study of an organ : being sufficiently tall 
 to be able to work the pedals easily, while seated easily 
 [126]
 
 on the bench and without having to stand up even for 
 the most distant pedals, and being able to play the 
 piano perfectly. 
 
 But, some one will object, the organ is much older 
 than the piano! then how did they learn to play the 
 organ before the piano was invented? This objec- 
 tion is very just; however, it would not be formulated 
 by one who had examined, as we have advised above, 
 the organs of different periods, particularly those 
 anterior to the invention of the piano, that is to 
 say, those that have now been in existence for more 
 than two centuries. In those days, the keys of the or- 
 gan were almost as hard to manipulate, to manoeuvre 
 would be more correct, as the Carillons in Holland, 
 where it is necessary to strike the keys with a blow 
 of the fist. A great expenditure of force was re- 
 quired, and the most skilful virtuosi could never have 
 dreamed of the rapidity and velocity which are to-day 
 as easy on the organ as on the piano. The progress 
 of its manufacture has advantageously modified the 
 instrument from beginning to end. It is absolutely 
 certain that the illustrious John Sebastian Bach, as 
 well as his contemporaries, Buxtehude and Couperin, 
 both celebrated organists of the Seventeenth Century, 
 the one in Denmark and the other in France, had to 
 execute his fugues and his toccata, perhaps some- 
 times with regret, in a movement infinitely slower than 
 is possible to the ordinary organists of to-day, who, 
 let us say in passing, sometimes abuse the suppleness 
 of the modern instrument's emission of tone and per- 
 vert the spirit of the Old Masters of the organ by de- 
 [127]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 priving it of a part of its nobility and grandeur. A 
 fugue or any piece whatsoever of the time of Bach and 
 Handel always gains by being executed sedately, 
 broadly, and at a speed possible to the organs of their 
 period, and this is the only way in which its character 
 is preserved. But this is a parenthesis. Before the 
 piano existed, there were the Clavecin, the Spinet and 
 the Virginals, and it was upon these ancestors of the 
 piano that the knowledge of the keyboard was ac- 
 quired. All organists were then skilful clavecinists 
 also. It must also be remembered that at that time, 
 when the practice of music was far from being so 
 common as it is to-day, there were infinitely fewer mu- 
 sicians than there are at present, that the amateur was 
 nothing but a simple listener more or less enlightened 
 and initiated in its technique or aesthetics, but he never 
 practiced the art himself, and that the organs as well 
 as the organists and Maltres de Chapelle might be 
 counted. When a musician embraced this career, he 
 consecrated his entire life to it ; and from that time it 
 mattered little if the novitiate was long and arduous. 
 Now, things have greatly changed ; the smallest 
 chapel has its organ, so it must have its organist ; and 
 many amateurs are ready to assume this office tem- 
 porarily without any idea of making a career of it, 
 having simply in view the very real and elevated 
 pleasure that every musician experiences at the mere 
 contact of the organ manual. So this is the reply to 
 the above objection: Fewer learned; they learned at 
 the expenditure of more time and labour; they ob- 
 tained smaller results. 
 
 [128]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 The great and celebrated organists of the past cen- 
 turies would probably be astounded if they could hear 
 their immortal works executed to-day on one of our 
 perfected instruments by our Guilmants, Widors or 
 Saint-Saens with a virtuosity, an ease, a variety of 
 timbre and a suppleness of expression, which must 
 have been their desideratum, but of which they never 
 could have dreamed, owing to the condition of the or- 
 gan manufacture in their time. 
 
 It is not only necessary that the apprentice of the 
 organ should be able to play the piano very well, but 
 he should devote himself especially on this instrument 
 to the study of the legato style and pieces that have 
 several parts under the hand, such as the etudes of 
 Cramer, Clementi's Gradus ad Parnassum, the Pre- 
 ludes and Fugues of the Well-Tempered Clavier by 
 John Sebastian Bach, and the fugues of Handel and 
 Mendelssohn, which constitute an excellent appren- 
 ticeship for the practice of the organ. In devoting 
 ourselves to this preparatory study, it is important to 
 take scrupulous care in preserving for each note, and 
 for each voice, its integral value, and in not lifting 
 the finger too soon or too late, even for the fraction of 
 a second, using for this purpose what is called sub- 
 stituted fingering, which alone is favourable to con- 
 scientious execution, while thoroughly realizing that 
 those infinitesimal defects of precision, that are even 
 imperceptible upon the piano, become monstrous on 
 the organ, where they produce either gaps or discords 
 that are equally painful and intolerable. We can 
 see by this that to play perfectly on the piano is not 
 [129]
 
 sufficient, but that it is necessary to play with a con- 
 scientiousness and a clearness which very few pianists, 
 even the most skilful, take the trouble to do. And for 
 this, it is not necessary for them to neglect the other 
 special pianistic qualities, for everything that makes 
 them adroit and agile upon the piano will also be 
 found useful for the organ. 
 
 Another kind of agility of quite a special nature, 
 for no other instrument demands it, will have to be 
 acquired, namely, that of the feet and legs ; for the 
 working of the pedals is nothing else than a real key- 
 board whose keys are very much larger than any oth- 
 ers; and embraces, moreover, in modern organs, a 
 compass of about two octaves and a half. To facili- 
 tate this special study, many piano manufacturers 
 make a kind of pedal with strings and hammers that 
 can be placed underneath the piano, thus permitting 
 one to work at home. This is an economy of time and 
 a very great convenience ; if one cannot be procured, 
 it is very necessary to work on an organ. 
 
 We have only spoken as yet of preparatory studies ; 
 the others imperatively demanded the intervention of a 
 teacher. The question is to apply to the touch of the 
 organ what we have already learned on the piano, and 
 bringing it to still greater perfection ; to become in- 
 itiated into the management of the registers and their 
 multiple combinations, resulting in infinite varieties of 
 timbres and sonorous effects of incalculable number; 
 to acquire the particularly pure and elevated style 
 that befits the King of Instruments, and finally to 
 become worthy of the title of organist, which may 
 [130]
 
 be considered as a title of nobility for every mu- 
 sician. 
 
 I fear I may insult the reader by adding here that if 
 a knowledge of the laws of harmony is indispensable 
 to the pianist, it is ten times more so to the organist, 
 who would do well, moreover, to add a few notions 
 of counterpoint if he wishes to penetrate deeply into 
 the spirit of the most authoritative works of his 
 repertory. 
 
 At every period of life, if a man has remained 
 agile and adroit in the use of his hands and feet, if 
 one is a good pianist and harmonist, and if to these 
 acquired qualities is added the natural one of having 
 rather large hands, there is nothing to prevent him 
 from becoming a good organist. The amount of 
 daily work need scarcely exceed three or four hours ; 
 more would be useless and fatiguing. 
 
 A certain maturity of mind is expedient for this 
 great and beautiful study, which, nevertheless, may 
 be commenced at the age of fifteen or sixteen years, if 
 the required conditions are fulfilled. 
 
 It goes without saying that if the end sought is 
 merely the accompanying of hymns upon a very sim- 
 ple organ, the studies can be greatly curtailed. 
 
 If, on the contrary, it is a question of playing the 
 Grand Organ in a Catholic church, the studies of 
 Fugue, Composition, Improvisation, Plain-Song and 
 Liturgy must be added, as we have said above, and it 
 then becomes a very complex science. 
 
 [131]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 VI. THE STRINGS : VIOLIN, VIOLA, VIOLONCELLO AND 
 DOUBLE-BASS 
 
 To understand thoroughly the difficulty attached 
 to the study of Stringed Instruments played with 
 the Bow, their action must be taken into account ; for 
 it is as complicated in reality as it is simple in appear- 
 ance. In this each hand has an absolutely distinct 
 employment, which is not the case in any other class of 
 instruments. 
 
 The left hand supports the instrument ; and, at the 
 same time, by the pressure of its fijigers upon the 
 strings, the vibrations of which it shortens (or cuts off 
 into sections for harmonic notes), it determines the 
 absolute pitch of the tones; it is then upon the left 
 hand alone that accuracy depends, and we can form 
 an idea of the precision that it must acquire, when we 
 realize that placing the finger a tenth of a milli- 
 metre (.03937 inch) out, and sometimes even less in 
 the highest treble, will produce a note off the pitch. 
 This is not in the least an exaggeration, and ex- 
 plains why artists who play with rigorously pure in- 
 tonation are so rare ; moreover, this pressure has to be 
 made with a certain force, without which the tones 
 lack cleanness ; and as the stringed instruments are 
 very often called upon to furnish passages of extreme 
 rapidity, a very great agility is indispensable to it in 
 addition. The qualities required of the left hand 
 therefore are strength, precision, cleverness and 
 agility. 
 
 [132]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 The right hand holds the bow : upon it principally 
 depends all that belongs to expression, the greater 
 or less intensity of the tones, the most energetic as 
 well as the most tender, or most passionate nuances, 
 the most subtle inflections or accents, as delicate as 
 and even more varied than those of the human voice, 
 brilliancy and dash, heat, warmth and breadth ; it also 
 assists largely in the rapid action. 
 
 " The instruments of the bow, particularly the vio- 
 lin and the violoncello, are not limited, as are the 
 wind instruments, to a small number of sound-char- 
 acteristics; their timbre has an infinite variety of 
 shadings," * according as the point, the middle or 
 the nut of the bow is used, according as it is held level 
 or inclined more or less to the side, according as the 
 string is attacked near the bridge or the fingerboard, 
 even over the fingerboard, according to the various 
 kinds of bowing, whether up or down, the principal 
 of which in French are called by the following 
 names: lie or coule, the grand detache, the detache 
 sec, or martele, the sdutille, the jete, the staccato, 
 etc. The use of the bow is a whole art by itself. We 
 must therefore demand of the right hand incompar- 
 able suppleness, accompanied by extreme lightness 
 and the greatest vigour. 
 
 The two hands, each on its own account and by dif- 
 ferent means, join in producing beauty and variety 
 of tone, that constant preoccupation of every virt- 
 uoso. Their perfect agreement produces the bal- 
 ance of the whole and the perfection of the execution, 
 * Gevaert, Nouveau traiU d 'instrumentation. 
 
 [103]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the difficulty of which is so great that no one would 
 dare to attempt it, as it seems almost unattainable 
 when we analyze it closely, unless he had as an en- 
 couraging example a considerable number of instru- 
 mentalists who have been able to vanquish it by 
 obstinate labour. This execution is also very soon 
 aided hy a peculiar instinct, thanks to which the pupil 
 is no longer conscious of the prodigies of skill that he 
 performs every moment. 
 
 Contrary to the keyboard instruments, the prodig- 
 iously complicated mechanism of which is the work of 
 the manufacturer, stringed instruments possess abso- 
 lutely none: a wooden box, four strings of sheep's 
 entrails and a few strands of horsehair, this is all 
 that the artist holds in his hands to produce the most 
 varied emotions. If the result obtained be compared 
 with the simplicity of the means employed, it will 
 be acknowledged that it is amazing and phenome- 
 nal ; nothing is truer, however, and this total absence 
 of mechanical transmission, which leaves man's hand in 
 direct and intimate contact with the vibrating string, 
 is exactly what produces that impression of vitality 
 and penetrating warmth which is the chief character- 
 istic of these instruments and constitutes their re- 
 markable beauty. The man and the instrument grow 
 to be but one individual, or more exactly, the instru- 
 ment is nothing but an extra organ added to the nat- 
 ural organs, that we come so to identify it with our- 
 selves, that we set it in action, like the other organs, 
 under the simple influence of our will only, without, 
 further troubling about the means employed, and 
 [134]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 without even dreaming of analyzing them. This be- 
 comes instinctive, as a new vital function would be* 
 we play as naturally as we should sing, and it is by 
 this sign, this complete oblivion of all preoccupations 
 of a material order, that the artist can most surely 
 recognize that he has at last become the master of his 
 instrument. Up to this point, he is nothing but a 
 simple apprentice. 
 
 Outside of his studies, that are far more engaging 
 than arduous, the normal programme of which we are 
 about to outline, it is also well for the pupil to ac- 
 custom himself early, not only to tune his instrument, 
 but to clean it and keep it in good condition, and him- 
 self to make certain little ordinary repairs that will 
 keep it in perpetual order, such as replacing secun- 
 dum artem, a broken string, setting up in its exact 
 place the bridge that has been accidentally moved, 
 and assuring the good working of the pegs, mat- 
 ters which do not call for the intervention of the 
 violin-repairer, and which one learns to do much bet- 
 ter for oneself and more in accordance with one's own 
 ideas. 
 
 Later, he should teach himself to recognize and ap- 
 preciate the artistic, if not the commercial, value of a 
 good instrument, to distinguish the schools and great 
 violin-makers otherwise than by the label, very often 
 fallacious, lying at the bottom of the sound-box; cc 
 distinguish an old instrument from a clever imitation, 
 in fact, to act as an expert, if only for his own profit, 
 so that he shall not be duped on that day, when, as the 
 reward for his labours, he wants to make himself a 
 [135]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 present of a valuable instrument, a battle-horse, the 
 supreme and legitimate desideratum of every great 
 artist. 
 
 THE VIOLIN 
 
 The VIOLIN is, perhaps, the most difficult of all in- 
 struments to play very well. At first, the study is un- 
 grateful and irritating to the nerves ; but this does not 
 last very long; and the learner soon gains a little 
 power; it is when he attempts to go beyond this and 
 attain real virtuosity that courageous and persistent 
 efforts, entailing a fatigue that may sometimes be- 
 come almost painful, are often necessary. 
 
 Therefore, it is well to begin young, and very 
 soon, to get rid of those irritating difficulties of an 
 elementary nature that are far more painful to face 
 when one is of an age to suffer from their aridity. 
 Taking the average opinion of a number of the most 
 experienced professors, it would seem that the most 
 favourable age to begin is from six to eight 3 r ears. 
 However, it is not well to hurry too much, for, on the 
 one hand, a certain strength is needed, and on the 
 other, it might be hurtful to the physical develop- 
 ment; the pose of a violinist, which is not absolutely 
 natural, particularly with regard to the left arm, de- 
 mands a certain effort till he has become completely 
 accustomed to it. Now, this position is of capital im- 
 portance, and the good attitude of a violinist has an 
 influence upon his playing, his tone and his agility, to 
 a degree unknown to any other instrumentalist. We 
 can venture to judge of the worth of a violinist before 
 [136]
 
 THE STUDY OP INSTRUMENTS 
 
 he has played a single note, by merely seeing the man- 
 ner in which he plants his feet and holds his violin; 
 therefore the best professors are those, who, from the 
 very beginning, pay most attention to giving their 
 young pupils a perfectly correct position, which for a 
 long time will be the object of their care. Some of 
 them advise practising before a mirror, which is also 
 done by singers who want to get rid of the habit of 
 making grimaces; this is not a bad idea. Therefore, 
 on account of this somewhat forced position, to be- 
 gin too early, before the growth is sufficiently ad- 
 vanced, particularly with young girls, might entail 
 a slight curvature of the vertebrate column, which it 
 would be prudent to watch. This is the sole danger 
 of premature study, for the fear that some people 
 have that the vibration of the strings is communicated 
 to the chest and causes trouble is pure illusion. At 
 ten years of age, it is a little late to begin; at eigh- 
 teen, it is too late if you want to acquire the talent of 
 a virtuoso; but even then, with strong will, you can 
 become an orchestra-player, a useful second violin, if 
 you are already a good musician. 
 
 No condition of conformation is rigorously req- 
 uisite provided that the arms and hands are in good 
 condition ; however, a large left hand with a long little 
 finger will greatly facilitate matters. 
 
 The first quality to obtain from the violin is pure 
 intonation ; this necessitates a delicate and already 
 trained ear. Solfeggio, therefore, should precede and 
 accompany the study of the violin. But if the ear is 
 not true, if it does not perceive with precision the 
 10 [ 137 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 slightest differences of intonation, it would be better 
 to give the violin up at once, for this can rarely be cor^ 
 rected, and if one is absolutely determined to study 
 music, fall back upon some instrument with keys or 
 a keyboard, one of those that produce an intonation 
 ready made. If on the contrary, the lack of good in- 
 tonation is occasioned simply by the awkwardness of 
 the left hand, and if the pupil himself notices that he 
 plays out of tune, above all if this is disagreeable to 
 him, nothing is being lost, the study will be justified. 
 
 It is always an advantage for very young pupils to 
 begin with a violin of small dimensions, a half, or 
 three-quarters, according to their stature; this will 
 cause less fatigue to the left hand. They can after- 
 wards pass to a violin of ordinary dimensions without 
 serious difficulty ; and they accustom themselves very 
 quickly to a greater stretching of the fingers, and re- 
 cover accuracy very easily. 
 
 Another very important study is that of the quality 
 of tone, which depends principally upon the bow, but 
 also upon the pressure of the fingers of the left hand 
 upon the strings; a rough or harsh tone, or a tone 
 that is feeble or shrill is equally faulty. You must 
 play the bow on the string, a very accurate expres- 
 sion, the importance of which can only be appreciated 
 by one who has managed a stringed instrument. 
 " Each string of the violin has an entirely distinct 
 tone colour. The chanterelle (first string) has accents 
 that are vibrant and warm, which lend to the melodic 
 phrase all the intensity of expression of which it is 
 susceptible. The very piercing notes of the chante- 
 [138]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Telle, placed in a region to which the human organ can- 
 not attain, give a luminous sensation and awaken the 
 idea of the supernatural and the marvellous. 
 
 The second string is not so biting as the chanterelle: 
 it excels in interpreting melodies that are ideal and 
 suave. 
 
 The third string is distinguished by an incompar- 
 able sweetness. 
 
 The fourth string is a Contralto voice, with a mas- 
 culine and powerful timbre." * 
 
 This may guide us in our efforts Towards a beau- 
 tiful sonority, as applied to each individual string. It 
 goes without saying that the quality of tone depends 
 also, in great part, upon the perfection of the instru- 
 ment, and that we cannot obtain the same richness of 
 timbre from a violin that costs 20 francs as from a 
 Stradivarius ; but in the hands of an awkward pupil 
 the two instruments will not present much difference, 
 whilst the pupil and the professor, or even two pupils 
 playing alternately one and the other of the two in- 
 struments, will produce tones that have not the slight- 
 est resemblance. 
 
 It is therefore absolutely useless, so far as the ele- 
 mentary studies are concerned, to place in the hands 
 of a pupil an instrument of value of which he can 
 make no use ; and this so much the more on account of 
 a most mysterious phenomenon, conceded without 
 question, a violin deteriorates and loses part of its 
 qualities when it is badly played. Inversely, it im- 
 proves under skilful hands. 
 
 * Gevaert, Nouveau traiU <F instrumentation. 
 
 [139]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Besides the qualities of good intonation, purity, 
 and timbre, there is a third quality that is still more 
 difficult and takes longer to acquire, and that is the 
 flexibility of the bow, upon which depends the supreme 
 elegance, the spirit, and the variety of subtle shading, 
 as also the distinction so necessary to an instrument 
 that has to serve the most varied and sometimes the 
 commonest uses ; for the violin of the fiddler, the vil- 
 lage violinist, is the same as that of Paganini. How 
 do they differ? By the manner of playing them, the 
 timbre and the* boldness of the strokes of the bow. 
 This study of the bow is, so to speak, a perpetual 
 study by every violinist who has already arrived at 
 perfection. Long after he has vanquished difficul- 
 ties of all kinds, and attained impeccable accuracy, 
 purity and richness, he still studies and will al- 
 ways study the infinite varieties of bowing, with its 
 innumerable combinations, inventing new ones, and 
 trying to apply them, and will find in this study, which 
 is to him what breathing and vocal inflections are to 
 the singer, an inexhaustible source of artistic satis- 
 faction. 
 
 On no account should the study of the violin occupy 
 more than six hours a day. Four hours will suffice 
 perfectly, even during the finishing studies of pupils 
 who are really well endowed. During the first years, 
 it would be wise not to work more than two hours a 
 day, and even less during the first months. 
 
 Just as in the case of the piano, numerous inventors 
 have employed their ingenuity in inventing appa- 
 ratus of various kinds to facilitate the study of the 
 [140]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 violin: there are some to indicate the place on the 
 finger-board for the fingers of the left hand, and which 
 thus pretend to teach how to play in tune; there are 
 some that are made to force one to draw and push 
 the bow across the strings exactly at right angles ; 
 there are some to force the right hand to hold itself in 
 the most correct manner ; there are some to force the 
 instrument to be held in the proper position; there 
 are many others, infinitely more than might be be- 
 lieved. I have never been able to get a violinist to 
 point out a single one that he considered of the slight- 
 est advantage; from which I conclude that they are 
 all useless and infantile, good only for simpletons. 
 
 THE VIOLA 
 
 Every violinist who would like to play the VIOLA 
 can learn it very easily in a few months, without any 
 need of a professor. He has the same experience as 
 that of the child who has begun on a little instru- 
 ment, and afterwards takes up a violin of the normal 
 size ; he has to accustom himself to a greater stretch- 
 ing of the fingers. For, as far as its handling is con- 
 cerned, it is simply a very much larger violin ; and 
 the use of the bow, although demanding a little more 
 strength, is practically the same. 
 
 The viola does not offer that marvellous variety of 
 timbres which has made the violin the universal in- 
 terpreter of sentiment. We must not ask of it " the 
 brilliant and passionate note; placed within the con- 
 fines of the male and female voice, the viola has an 
 [141]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 undecided and mixed character. Its veiled sonority, 
 of an elegiac melancholy, is suited to everything ex- 
 pressive of suffering, sadness, and depressed feeling." 
 
 However, we can obtain tonal shadings of cap- 
 tivating effect : " The two highest strings have a pene- 
 trating vibration approaching harshness. On the 
 two lower strings the timbre of the viola assumes a 
 sombre and austere colour sometimes verging on the 
 sinister." * 
 
 Such are the various effects that we may seek in 
 studying this beautiful instrument, being sure of find- 
 ing use for it in the practice of chamber-music as 
 well as in the modern orchestra, where it plays an im- 
 portant part. 
 
 To play the viola, it is well to have quite a solid 
 physique, for the instrument is much more fatiguing 
 than the violin. For the same reason, it is necessary 
 to wait until the growth is developed, till about fifteen 
 years of age, and up to that time to study the violin 
 exclusively. Then, it is excellent to carry the two 
 studies along side by side, playing the two instruments 
 alternately ; this will give rapidity and virtuosity, and 
 the two instruments complement one another without 
 the slightest harm to either: Paganini, Vieuxtemps, 
 Sivori, Alard, etc., were admirable viola-players. 
 
 Four hours of daily study are amply sufficient. 
 * Gevaert, Nouveau traitt ^instrumentation.
 
 Tks VIOLONCELLO 
 
 What we have said of the violin may in a great 
 measure apply to the VIOLONCELLO. The conforma- 
 tion of the left hand, strong and large, with the fifth 
 finger rather long, assumes here more considerable im- 
 portance, because of the dimensions of the instru- 
 ment. To have both arms normally formed, and the 
 ear correct, or capable of becoming so, are indispen- 
 sable. The age that appears most convenient for 
 beginning varies between six and twelve years, but a 
 beginning may be made later, as long as the lack of 
 flexibility is not in opposition to the exigencies of the 
 position, particularly with regard to the bow. It is 
 an advantage for the child to practice on a little vio- 
 loncello proportionate to his size, and not to use an 
 instrument of ordinary dimensions until he attains his 
 growth ; finally, the time of daily study depends solely 
 upon the individual endurance; and, consequently, 
 cannot be regulated absolutely ; so long as the work is 
 intelligent and not mechanical, it is profitable. 
 
 The position and the general attitude of the body 
 are of great importance with the violoncello, as with 
 the violin. It acts at the same time upon the quality 
 of tone and the rapidity of the playing; but it is 
 less constrained, particularly since the custom of add- 
 ing a peg to the instrument, which supports a part 
 of its weight. On this account, there is a possibility 
 of slightly prolonging the hours of study, the fatigue 
 being, in reality, a little less considerable. 
 [143]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Besides this, the peg, which is not yet used by all 
 artists, I do not know why, offers an advantage of a 
 particular character for the women who want to study 
 this instrument. Before its adoption, the violoncello 
 had to be held by a slight pressure of the knees, and 
 the feet were constrained to a rather ungraceful posi- 
 tion, almost a contortion ; moreover, the forced con- 
 tact of the skirts to a certain extent spoiled the vibra- 
 tions of the sound cavity. With the peg, these two 
 inconveniences have disappeared ; and the violoncello, 
 held as represented in certain portraits of St. Cecilia, 
 has become infinitely more accessible to women and 
 young girls than formerly. 
 
 This is how the learned musician Gevaert, in the 
 work from which we have quoted several times, de- 
 fines the qualities that constitute the beauty of timbre 
 of the strings of the violoncello, and to which conse- 
 quently the attention of the student of the violoncello 
 should be directed : " Of all the instruments that are 
 qualified to interpret a melodic idea, not one possesses 
 the accents of the human voice in the same degree as 
 the violoncello: not one reaches the deepest fibres of 
 the heart so surely. In variety of timbres, it yields 
 nothing to the violin. It unites in itself the characters 
 of the three male voices : the youthf ulness of the tenor, 
 the virility of the barytone and the austere ruggedness 
 of the bass. Its vibrant chanterelle is called upon to 
 translate the effusions of exalted sentiment: regrets, 
 sorrows and the ecstasy of love. The second and 
 third strings have an unctuous and insinuating 
 sonority that expresses more restrained feelings; the 
 [144]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 fourth string is fitted only for songs of a sombre and 
 mysterious character." * 
 
 But apart from its singing, it finds a use as the 
 bass of the String-Quartet, where its power and 
 roundness give it a particular importance. 
 
 By reason of its compass and its several registers, 
 the violoncello is the only instrument that demands the 
 knowledge of three clefs: the treble, tenor and bass 
 (G, C in alt. and F). 
 
 THE DOUBLE-BASS 
 
 To play the DOUBLE-BASS, it is better to be big 
 and strong, and to have robust hands and fingers that 
 will stretch easily. However, there are double-bass 
 players of medium height who prove that the choice 
 of their large instrument was justified ; but it is bet- 
 ter not to be small, so as not to shock the audience by 
 a comical disproportion; that would truly be embar- 
 rassing. 
 
 Before the age of sixteen, it is greatly to be feared 
 that one has not yet the necessary strength for this 
 instrument; after twenty or twenty-two years, flex- 
 ibility would be lacking, and a great deal more of 
 this is required than might appear. It is therefore 
 between these two limits that it is right to take up 
 the study of this instrument, as indispensable as un- 
 grateful, for it never elicits applause, although it 
 
 * The various citations from the Traitf, by Gevaert, and relating 
 to the varieties of timbre of the stringed instruments are interesting 
 to compare ; this comparison will reveal the different characters of 
 the voices of the quartet. 
 
 [145]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 contributes an incomparable power to the whole effect, 
 as much by its energetic timbre as by its depth. Its 
 motto might be : Sic vos non vobis. 
 
 Its study is almost entirely material, and it is per- 
 haps the sole instrument that never has to furnish 
 style or amiability. " The tones of its strings do not 
 present many well defined differences. Like all instru- 
 ments whose compass is beyond the limits of the hu- 
 man voice, the double-bass is powerless to recall its 
 accents. It has to be satisfied Avith giving an extraor- 
 dinary breadth to the song of the violoncello." * It 
 is a part that is relatively kept in the background, and 
 yet it is of extreme importance in the orchestral en- 
 semble. Its qualities are strength, solidity and ac- 
 curacy, and sometimes a certain relative speed, and 
 that is all. Thus it can be learned rather quickly with 
 three or four hours of conscientious work a day. 
 
 VII. ^THE HAEP 
 
 Formerly very numerous, the family of instruments 
 of plucked strings is to-day reduced exclusively to 
 one individual, the HARP, which was formerly, even 
 during the best period and even while it was still 
 very imperfect, its most beautiful representative. It 
 shares with the organ and piano the faculty of being 
 sufficient in itself and requiring no accompaniment; 
 it is an autonomous instrument, that is to say, it fur- 
 nishes both the melody and harmony. As a singing 
 instrument, however, it is certain that it leaves much 
 * Gevaert, Nouveau traiU cFiistrumentation. 
 
 [146]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 to be desired, for it is incapable of sustaining a tone, 
 but it atones for this defect, inherent to its nature, by 
 the beauty and richness of its timbre, by the dis- 
 tinction of its sonority and its capacity for producing 
 certain passages that are peculiar to it ; moreover, it 
 combines admirably with nearly every instrument, 
 which makes it as valuable in the theatre and concert 
 as in church, and multiplies its uses. 
 
 The age that seems the most suitable for beginning 
 the study of the HARP is somewhere about eight 
 years; a little sooner offers no great objections from 
 the physiological point of view, if these three condi- 
 tions exist: 
 
 1. That the child be rather tall for his age and 
 well constituted. 
 
 2. That the study be directed by some one who is 
 very competent and experienced. 
 
 3. That a harp for study can be found that is 
 small and light enough to be handled without mus- 
 cular fatigue. 
 
 On the contrary, to begin too late, that is to say 
 when the joints are no longer sufficiently supple, 
 would prevent the pupil from ever attaining a com 
 plete mechanical development. However, an adult of 
 twenty or twenty-five years, who has the musical tem- 
 perament, particularly if he has already studied some 
 other instrument, can still become a good harpist. 
 
 No special condition of conformation is particu- 
 larly demanded for the study of the harp, unless it is 
 a very delicate ear; the harpist must be constantly 
 tuning and retuning his harp; this is a necessity; 
 [147 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 nevertheless, rather long arms and tips of fingers 
 that should be fleshy rather than lean and bony, are 
 certainly desirable. The second phalanx of the 
 thumb should also be examined ; if it is too supple 
 and curves backwards, it may cause some embarrass- 
 ment. On the other hand, it is certain that any de- 
 formity whatsoever would be an absolute defect, first 
 because of the inconvenience, and then because the 
 harp, on account of its elegant form and the essen- 
 tially graceful pose of the player, attracts and holds 
 the eyes of the hearer more than any other instru- 
 ment. We can see this at a concert as well as at tht 1 
 theatre; from the moment the harp is heard, every 
 eye turns to it irresistibly. A painful or ridiculous 
 impression would therefore result from any deformity 
 in the player. 
 
 The normal time to devote every day to this study 
 is several separate quarters of an hour at first; ther> 
 two hours, four hours, and, in exceptional cases, six; 
 more would be excessive. 
 
 " All the exercises should be practised very slowly ; 
 the pupil must watch particularly the articulation of 
 the phalanx ; he must exact great suppleness, and im- 
 mediately stop the study when the muscles of the hand 
 suffer from the slightest stiffness or numbness." * 
 
 No matter what the intelligence of the pupil may 
 be, it would be an illusion to believe that he can dis- 
 pense with a teacher, at least during the first months, 
 and as long as the position of the body as well as 
 the hands is not perfectly assured. He would in- 
 * Raphael Martenot, M6thode de Harpg. 
 
 [148]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 evitablj fall into bad habits that would be particu- 
 larly harmful to the beauty of his tone as well as to 
 the development of his agility. Later on, if in ad- 
 dition to this study, he is already a good musician, he 
 can try to do without a master and prosecute his 
 studies alone, but only upon the condition, however, 
 that he does not aim at acquiring transcendent virtu- 
 osity and limits his ambition to a mediocre talent. 
 
 Otherwise, direction is indispensable. And, in this 
 case, it may be remarked that the frequency of the 
 lessons, lessons at short intervals, are of more im- 
 portance for the harp than for the majority of in- 
 struments, which is explained by these two facts, that 
 one contracts defective habits in a few days and that 
 the study of the harp, considered as a whole, is rela- 
 tively brief, only a few years. 
 
 The harp is one of the most inconvenient instru- 
 ments for reading at sight; first, on account of its 
 form, which does not allow the executant to get as 
 near the desk as his eyesight demands and place him- 
 self in the most favourable position ; and finally, and 
 more especially, because upon this instrument, and 
 upon it alone, the accidentals, flat, natural, or sharp, 
 are obtained by moving the pedals, which are seven 
 in number, and these have to be moved before the 
 string is attacked. The harpist, therefore, more than 
 any one else, is obliged to attach the greatest impor- 
 tance to this study, and also, more than any one else, 
 never to undertake playing any piece without first 
 having read it over from beginning to end, so that he 
 may anticipate the modulations as well as the acci- 
 [149]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 dentals of a chromatic nature, and avoid as far as 
 possible any surprise. 
 
 From this reason also arises the necessity of know- 
 ing how to read in advance, as well as of possessing 
 that special memory of the eyes (see page 99), 
 which might be called instantaneous memory, and 
 which permits us to embrace several bars with a single 
 glance without thereby losing the precise memory of 
 what we are playing. 
 
 For this reason, also, a knowledge of the laws of 
 harmony, which often permits a reader to divine what 
 he has no time to read, should be considered a valuable 
 equipment. 
 
 By its very nature, by its facility in executing 
 arpeggios, which owe their name to it, as well as by 
 the short duration of its vibrations, which are much 
 shorter than those of the piano, the harp is essentially 
 an instrument for accompaniments; and for a long 
 time it was exclusively employed as such, and correctly 
 enough ; for it is truly in this role that it is in its best 
 place. Nevertheless, aided by the progress of virtu- 
 osity and the manufacturer, one can, by means of 
 art and address, succeed in producing a certain illu- 
 sion of song, particularly in the soli and in the ab- 
 sence of every instrument that really has a singing 
 quality, in comparison with which it would suffer. 
 The middle strings are the ones that lend themselves 
 best to this effect, which demands a well trained touch, 
 at once powerful and supple. 
 
 Before the invasion of the piano, and again under 
 the First Empire, the harp, although infinitely less 
 [150]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 perfected than it is to-day, was the favourite instru- 
 ment of the female sex, who, after having abandoned 
 it for a long time, have seemed for several years past 
 to be returning to it. It is a fact that of all instru- 
 ments, the harp is certainly the one that allows of 
 the most graceful attitude and the most charming 
 movements of the body and arms, the one that most 
 Harmoniously combines the pleasure of the ear with 
 that of the eyes. 
 
 VIII. THE WOOD-WIND: FLUTE, OBOE, ENGLISH 
 HORN, CLARINET AND BASSOON 
 
 There is less reason for us to enlarge upon Wood- 
 Wind Instruments, the study of which in fact is easier, 
 except when we wish to attain exceptional virtuosity 
 in them, in which case it offers as much difficulty as any 
 others. By that I mean that given an equal amount 
 of time, effort and aptitude, we more easily succeed in 
 acquiring a fair degree of skill upon a wind-instru- 
 ment than upon those that compose the String-Quar- 
 tet. Wind-instruments are generally restricted in 
 compass ; they can produce varieties of intensity only 
 under certain conditions ; they never produce more 
 than one note at a time; with a few exceptions, with 
 them the emission of tone is slower and less active. 
 For all these reasons, and others besides, among which 
 is the scantiness of their repertory, it happens that the 
 study of them is infinitely more limited. But these 
 same reasons, which simplify and abridge the element- 
 ary study, render, as it is easy to understand, the fin- 
 
 r 1511
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 islring studies much more difficult and laborious, if 
 we wish to rise above mediocrity and attain real ex- 
 cellence. When I say that these studies are not so 
 difficult, it must be understood that only the inferior 
 grades are meant ; perfection in any of them is dif- 
 ficult to acquire. 
 
 A new factor here comes into play, one with which 
 we have as yet had little to do, this is physical con- 
 formation. We have indeed said that it is an ad- 
 vantage for a violinist to have a large hand and for 
 a harpist to have long arms, but practically every- 
 body, except the one-armed, can play the violin or the 
 harp ; a small hand and short arms are not absolutely 
 prohibitory, constituting simply an extra small dif- 
 ficulty to vanquish. This is no longer the case here, 
 and the requirements relating to the individual's 
 structure should be very seriously taken into consid- 
 eration in the choice of an instrument ; for, by despis- 
 ing such precaution, we should expose ourselves to 
 disaster, since nothing, not even the most intelligently 
 directed and most obstinate labour, can conquer the 
 invincible obstacles created by a native imperfection 
 of the respiratory organs, or a disposition of the lips 
 other than that which suits the instrument chosen. 
 This is why, as each instrument is considered, we will 
 state precisely the indispensable physiological condi- 
 tions to be fulfilled, even at the risk of exposing our- 
 selves to occasional repetitions, which are preferable 
 to omissions. 
 
 [1531
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 THE FLUTE 
 
 The natural qualifications that are especially fa 
 vourable to the practice of the flute are: rather thin 
 lips, regular teeth, sound lungs and supple and deli- 
 cate fingers. The most necessary requirement for 
 playing well is a good embouchure, " that is to say, 
 a certain arrangement of the lips suitable for putting 
 into the instrument all the breath that conies through 
 the mouth," * without losing any of it, and that will 
 not allow a kind of hiss that precedes the tone to be 
 heard, a very disagreeable thing which occurs in the 
 playing of all faulty flutists. A slightly projecting 
 upper lip is not a disadvantage, quite the contrary. 
 The detached notes being made on this instrument by 
 means of an articulation called tonguing, it is indis- 
 pensable that the artist should possess great volubility 
 in the organ of speech in order to execute rapid pas- 
 sages with cleanness, and above all, he must accustom 
 himself to form a perfect agreement between the 
 movements of his tongue and those of his fingers. 
 
 For a long time, flutes were made out of wood, 
 then of ebony and granadilla wood ; now they are 
 made almost exclusively of silver, which does not pre- 
 vent this instrument from remaining classed with the 
 family of Wood-wind, to which it owes its origin. 
 Moreover, it is demonstrated by the laws of acoustics, f 
 and verified by the experience of skilful makers,:}: that 
 
 * Fetis, Histoire de la musique. 
 
 f See Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone, and Tyndall, Sound. 
 
 J Notably Sax in Paris, and Mahillon in Brussels. 
 
 11 [ 153 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the material of which the tube of wind instruments is 
 formed lias no influence, or next to none upon their 
 timbre. Flutes have even been made of crystal and 
 there is nothing to prevent their being made of gold. 
 
 Of whatever wood or metal the instrument held in 
 the hand may be constructed, the sound that we must 
 try to get out of it remains the same, and the numer- 
 ous adjectives that writers and poets so frequently 
 use regarding it may guide us in this task. The tone 
 of the flute should be pure, sweet, velvety, suave, 
 silvery, crystalline, limpid and ethereal, otherwise, its 
 very nature is changed and it loses all its charm. Ef- 
 fects that are violent and dramatic are scarcely suited 
 to it ; a nasal, heavy or hollow quality of tone is a 
 great defect. Apart from this question of timbre, 
 the principal qualities to be acquired are rapidity in 
 the execution of passages, delicacy in accentuation, 
 lightness, suppleness, extreme agility and the art of 
 skilfully managing the breath. 
 
 It do6s not appear advantageous to begin the flute 
 before the age of ten or twelve years ; before that age, 
 it is somewhat difficult to manage the action of the 
 lungs and some fatigue injurious to the health might 
 even be caused. 
 
 The maximum of work should not exceed four hours 
 a day, here, as always, wisely divided, and consider- 
 ably reduced during the first months. 
 
 The PICCOLO demands no particular stud}'. It is 
 
 simply an ordinary flute reduced one half in all its 
 
 proportions, and consequently it produces tones an 
 
 octave higher; it requires the same fingering and the 
 
 [ 154 ]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 same embouchure. However, in this case, very fat 
 fingers would be an inconvenience. The qualities of 
 sweetness and suavity that belong to the flute are not 
 to be sought in the piccolo ; the latter should be par- 
 ticularly biting, incisive and strident; any excess, a 
 hard and shrill tone, is a fault however. 
 
 THE OBOE 
 
 The study of the OBOE: is very difficult ; the instru- 
 ment is full of pitfalls for the pupil, and the latter 
 must exercise great perseverance in order to acquire 
 an execution that is clean, and to attain a certain 
 ability. The most considerable difficulty that must 
 first be conquered is the obligation of restraining the 
 breath, so as to soften the tone and to avoid what are 
 commonly called couacs, accidents that occur when the 
 reed only vibrates, without any tone issuing from 
 the instrument. But, in seeking to avoid all acci- 
 dents of this nature, we must guard against playing 
 with too much gentleness, for then we run the risk of 
 having the instrument emit the tones an octave higher. 
 Just as sweet and velvety, although a little nasal, as 
 the tones of the oboe are when the instrument is in 
 the hands of a clever virtuoso, so are they sharp and 
 shrill when the performer is inexperienced or lacking 
 in the taste that makes true artists. The oboist 
 should aim at obtaining a tone that is delicate with- 
 out being weak, penetrating without being hard, in- 
 cisive and mordant without crudeness, by avoiding es- 
 pecially heaviness on the one hand and brutal noise 
 [155]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 on the other, which are intolerable defects here. 
 The instrument particularly lends itself to the ex- 
 pression of sentiments that are tender or rustic, to 
 emotion and deep melancholy, which does not prevent 
 its occasionally becoming infinitely witty and ironical. 
 But only artists who are absolutely master of their 
 quality of tone can dream of obtaining from their 
 instrument effects that are so varied and so full of 
 charm. 
 
 To gain this result, it is necessary, not only to be 
 well constituted in everything concerning the chest, a 
 common requirement for the playing of all wind-in- 
 struments, but also to have good teeth (at least the 
 incisors), and thin, delicate and firm lips. The 
 double reed of the oboe is formed of two thin layers 
 of reed, of extreme delicacy, and it is in a great meas- 
 ure by the pressure that the lips exercise upon this 
 fragile organ that are produced all the modifications 
 or inflections of sonority of which the instrument is 
 capable. The sensitiveness of the reed of the oboe is 
 such that many oboists, anxious about the purity of 
 their timbre, undertake the making of their own reeds, 
 and take the most minute pains with it, which is the 
 only means of adapting them exactly to their indi- 
 vidual convenience, although reeds are found in all 
 the shops of the makers of wind-instruments. A 
 great number of bassoon-players do the same thing, 
 although their reeds are less delicate. It is therefore 
 easy to understand that in order to set in vibration 
 an organ so fine, so delicate and so sensitive, thick and 
 fleshy lips would constitute if not complete incapacity, 
 [156]
 
 THE STUDY OP INSTRUMENTS 
 
 at least a great difficulty ; and there are quite enough 
 without this. 
 
 The daily work should be calculated according to 
 the physique of each individual, and may vary be- 
 tween three and six hours ; but because of the fatigue 
 entailed, it would be dangerous to allow a normally de- 
 veloped child to devote himself to it before he had 
 attained the age of eleven or twelve years. If I un- 
 derscore the word dangerous, and if I insist upon 
 it, it is because sad examples have demonstrated this 
 fact in a fashion, alas! irremediable. At the age of 
 fifteen, there is still plenty of time to begin, but at 
 eighteen, it would be a little late. Generally speak- 
 ing, then, let us set the most propitious age approxi- 
 mately at from twelve and fifteen. 
 
 THE ENGLISH HORN 
 
 The ENGLISH HORN, being merely an oboe of larger 
 size, slightly bent for facilitating the execution, and 
 producing tones a fifth lower, demands no special 
 study from any one who can play the oboe fairly well ; 
 a little attention and a few weeks of study will suffice 
 for him to acquire the use of this new instrument. 
 
 Admirable in expressing sentiments of grief and 
 sadness, which it portrays with the most poignant in- 
 tensity, it does not partake of the oboe's sportive and 
 humorous side. It is an oboe in mourning.
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 THE CLARINET 
 
 The CLAHINET may be begun without imprudence 
 at a little earlier age, about ten, if the child is strongly 
 constituted; sooner than this, the respiration is not 
 sufficiently long. No serious inconvenience would be 
 incurred by beginning later, so long as the suppleness 
 of the fingers was preserved. The conditions of con- 
 formation consist only in having good teeth and lungs. 
 To obtain good results, four hours of regular work 
 a day are necessary. 
 
 The clarinet, one of the most beautiful voices in 
 the whole orchestra, is the richest in varied timbres of 
 all the wind instruments. It possesses no less than 
 four registers perfectly defined : the chalumeau, which 
 contains the deepest notes and recalls the old rustic 
 instrument of that name; the medium, warm and ex- 
 pressive ; the sharp, brilliant and energetic ; and the 
 super-sharp, biting and strident at need. Moreover, 
 all these registers, thanks to the progress of manu- 
 facture, are able to melt into one another in the hap- 
 piest manner possible, and furnish a perfectly homo- 
 geneous scale. Although possessing a predilection 
 for certain forms of passages that specially belong to 
 it, it accommodates itself to nearly all the vocal and 
 instrumental formula;, to which it lends its own pe- 
 culiar richness of timbre. 
 
 I should not know how to say here, as I have said 
 with regard to the flute and oboe, what sentiments 
 the clarinet excels in expressing; it can translate 
 [158]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 nearly all. Almost as agile as the flute, as tender as 
 and more passionate than the oboe, the clarinet is in- 
 finitely more energetic and richer in colour, and for 
 these reasons it offers to the pupil a more engaging 
 and interesting field of study. But it can not he de- 
 nied that it is a difficult instrument ; independently of 
 the mechanism, which requires great development, the 
 music written for the clarinet generally contains many 
 rapid passages, and then there is also the question of 
 the embouchure, which can be by no means mastered 
 at the first attempt, and upon this the beauty of tone 
 depends, for the clarinet, like the oboe, is subject to 
 the unlucky couac. 
 
 In addition to the ordinary clarinet, there are many 
 varieties of the same instrument : alto-clarinet, bass- 
 clarinet, little clarinet,* etc. . . . When we once 
 master the handling and the embouchure of this type 
 of instrument, it is very easy to become familiar with 
 the use of any of the members, as the tablature is 
 practically the same. 
 
 Even if one has already become a very good mu- 
 sician, it is almost impossible to learn the clarinet 
 alone ; without a master, certain fingerings and special 
 manipulations, which are not indicated in any method, 
 would always be unknown, and the execution of cer- 
 tain passages would be awkward. 
 
 * The little clarinet is only used in military music.
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 THE BASSOON 
 
 An instrument with a double-reed, forming the 
 bass of the oboe as well as that of the entire group of 
 Wood-wind, the BASSOON very seldom appears as a 
 soloist. In revenge, it is of extreme use in the orches- 
 tra and in chamber-music written for wind-instru- 
 ments. 
 
 The principle for the emission of tone on the 
 bassoon being the same as that for the oboe, it is nat- 
 ural to conclude that the conditions of physical con- 
 formation should be the same for each ; always healthy 
 lungs, and teeth in good condition, etc. However, the 
 utility of thin lips is less felt here, the reed being 
 larger and of greater resistance. 
 
 It is quite soon enough to devote yourself to the 
 bassoon between the ages of sixteen and twenty years, 
 as the chest is not strong enough during the period of 
 growth, and also on account of the weight of the in- 
 strument, because work of about five or six hours a 
 day is required in order to accomplish good results; 
 but understand that you must not wait until this age 
 before acquiring any knowledge of music, and indeed 
 it is very advantageous to have studied some other in- 
 strument previously. When all these requirements 
 are fulfilled, it would seem that it is easier for a bas- 
 soon-player than any other to do without the help of 
 a teacher; however, if real ability is required, it will 
 always be infinitely surer to take a certain number of 
 lessons at the beginning and towards the end of the 
 studies. 
 
 [160]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Owing to its compass, the bassoon in its notation 
 requires the use of two clefs, the bass and tenor. 
 
 I make only a note here of the contrabassoon, a 
 very rare instrument, and difficult to handle, which, 
 although figuring in quite a large number of scores, 
 is nearly always replaced in actual use, whether at the 
 theatre or concert, by another instrument that is more 
 portable and of a more modern construction, gen- 
 erally a Sarrusophone.* 
 
 IX. THE BRASS: HORN, TRUMPET, CORNET AND 
 TROMBONE 
 
 All the brass instruments, with the exception of the 
 cornet, present themselves under two types: the sim- 
 ple type that emits merely a few tones, though of 
 great beauty ; and the chromatic type, which can 
 sound all the notes contained in its compass, but with 
 a less pure and less characteristic quality of tone. 
 
 SIMPLE INSTRUMENTS: CHROMATIC INSTRUMENTS: 
 
 Horn (ordinary or har- Valve Horn. 
 
 mony). Trompette a pistons. 
 
 Trumpet, ordinary. Trombone a pistons. 
 Trombone, sliding. 
 
 One might think that the chromatic instruments, 
 
 being perfect instruments, capable of playing every 
 
 note of the scale, of modulating, and executing more 
 
 rapid and varied passages than the others, in a word, 
 
 * From the name of its inventor, Sarrus. 
 
 [161]
 
 being able to do everything that simple instruments 
 do and many other things besides, one might think, 
 we say, that it would be better to study these alone. 
 
 However logical this reasoning may seem, it is ex- 
 actly true only for those who are merely seeking to 
 acquire a very relative talent. Others who want to 
 be able to fill the part of a capable artist under all cir- 
 cumstances ought to possess a knowledge of both 
 kinds of instruments and be able, according to circum- 
 stances, to make use of either, which is never a matter 
 of indifference. The chromatic instrument should 
 never be employed except when it is rigorously in- 
 dispensable, that is to say when the work to be 
 interpreted has been written with its special qualities 
 in view ; in all other music, and particularly that writ- 
 ten before the invention of the valve, the simple in- 
 struments are always far superior. 
 
 In fact, the addition of the mechanism of the 
 valve, the real advantage of which it is not for us to 
 discuss, has the lamentable effect of depriving every 
 instrument of its individuality, and of giving the va- 
 rious instruments of the brass group too pronounced 
 a family resemblance. It sometimes happens that the 
 listener cannot tell if the tone comes from a horn or 
 a trombone, and as it is the variety of timbres that 
 makes the richness of the orchestration, the latter 
 loses a great deal. Therefore we cross the composer's 
 will and intentions if, as is too often done through 
 laziness or an indifference unworthy of an intelligent 
 interpreter, >ve substitute for the timbre that he re- 
 quires another that is too nearly related to the neigh- 
 [162]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 bouring timbres. This is a breach of fidelity and an 
 error of taste that a conscientious conductor should 
 never tolerate. 
 
 Another consideration arises from the same fact. 
 Whenever we use chromatic instruments, whether 
 rightly or wrongly, we must try, by dexterity of 
 execution, to minimize their faults of construction, 
 think of the type of the instrument and try to get as 
 close as possible to its quality of tone. In this way 
 we shall give them their charm and succeed in getting 
 the most out of them. 
 
 Of all instruments, the brasses are those that suffer 
 the least from a study undertaken at a late date. A 
 robust frame is far more necessary for them than for 
 any others, because of their considerable weight ; and 
 they are also the ones that demand the greatest ef- 
 forts from the muscles of the chest, and a vigorous 
 and sustained breath; and it would seem very inap- 
 propriate to place such cumbersome and fatiguing 
 tools in the hands of children. However, everybody 
 has not always thought thus: the celebrated maker 
 Adolphe Sax, to whom we are indebted for the in- 
 vention of the Saxophones, Saxhorns, Sax-tubas, 
 Sax-trombas and other sonorous machines, held the 
 contrary opinion ; he contended that the constant 
 practice of the biggest brass instruments constituted 
 an excellent gymnastic exercise for the lungs. To 
 support his theory, and to demonstrate the effect of 
 this exercise upon the development of the chest, he re- 
 cruited an orchestra of women who had superb ones, 
 as any one could see. I know not if it was really to 
 [163]
 
 this that they owed them ; but it is certain that it did 
 not appear to do them any harm. 
 
 We make only a note here of those instruments 
 which find their employment solely in military bands, 
 as well as the Bugle and the Clarion. Only one of 
 them, the Saxophone, occasionally appears in the 
 symphonic orchestra or theatre, to which it lends the 
 charm of a mysterious, strange and penetrating 
 timbre. A clarinettist can learn the mechanism of it 
 very quickly, its embouchure being very nearly the 
 same, and its reed simple, more flexible and less deli- 
 cate. As for the Saxhorns and Tubas, they are very 
 quickly learned by those who have already studied 
 another brass instrument. We will not speak of them 
 any more; but with regard to the study of the horn 
 and that of the trumpet, we shall have to return in 
 greater detail to the question already outlined, and, 
 to which too much importance cannot be attached, 
 the chromatic instruments and their judicious em- 
 ployment. 
 
 THE HORN 
 
 There are therefore two kinds- of Horns, the Cor 
 d'harmonie, or French horn, and the valve horn, of 
 more recent invention, which is tending more and 
 more to supplant the old one in the orchestra. 
 
 It does not fall within the limits of this work to ex- 
 amine how far this substitution is happy ; it has its 
 partisans and its detractors. We must restrict our- 
 selves here to explaining what is necessary for the 
 study of each of these two instruments. 
 [164]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Let us first remark that under the existing state of 
 things, in order to be complete, a horn-player should 
 know how to play both of them ; for ,if , in the execu- 
 tion of modern works, the use of the valve-horn is 
 indispensable, since they are written for it and cannot 
 be played on the other, which settles the question, it 
 is advantageous to return to the simple horn for the 
 whole classic repertory, under pain of defeating the 
 composer's intentions, by depriving him of part of 
 his desired effects. 
 
 To be well understood, this demands a few expla- 
 nations as to the way these two instruments work, ex- 
 planations which I will try to give as briefly as pos- 
 sible, avoiding, as far as possible, all technical terms 
 which would be understood only by a few. It is quite 
 understood that I express no preference. 
 
 The French horn is derived from exactly the 
 same principle as the hunting-horn, it is a simple 
 tube coiled around itself, and is not qualified to give 
 out naturally, under the effort of the human breath, 
 modified by the pressure of the lips, more than a 
 very restricted number of tones,* which are therefore 
 called natural tones, and which resound with brilliance. 
 To obtain intercalary tones, the horn-player intro- 
 duces his right hand into the bell of the instrument, 
 obstructing the orifice to a greater or lesser degree, 
 with infinite precautions ; by this artifice, he modifies, 
 by obstructing them, the vibrations of the air con- 
 tained in the tube, which results in some new tones 
 
 * These are the harmonics of any fundamental : C G C EG 
 B-flat C f D E F G. 
 
 [165]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 which have received the name of stopped notes, and 
 which have not at all the same timbre as the first. In 
 the same proportion as the natural tones are vigor- 
 ous and brilliant, the others are veiled, uncertain, 
 timid, and, so to speak, far away. From this lack 
 of homogeneity, which seems a priori a capital de- 
 fect, the old composers (I speak here particularly of 
 those belonging to that beautiful period between Bee- 
 thoven and Mendelssohn) and their interpreters man- 
 aged to obtain tones of exquisite charm. The tran- 
 sition of an open tone to a stopped tone or vice-versa, 
 far from being incongruous notAvithstanding its dif- 
 ficulty and the awkwardness that results from it, per- 
 haps even on that very account, is simply strange, 
 with an essentially Sympathetic strangeness that gives 
 to a phrase sung Ijy the horn an emotional character 
 that is entirely individual. But the stopped notes can 
 be produced only under certain conditions, preceded 
 or followed by open tones, and also without too much 
 precipitation ; and for this reason they demand as 
 much art on the part of the composer who calls for 
 them as skilfulness and dexterity from the executant. 
 Let us pass on to the valve horn. Thanks to a 
 very ingenious mechanical system, analogous to that 
 of the cornet, which lengthens or shortens at will the 
 circuit of air in the tube, it can produce with equal 
 facility all the tones of the chromatic scale (which 
 is the reason it is also called the chromatic horn), 
 and all in the same timbre, which is very nearly that 
 of the open tones of the ordinary horn. Hence, the 
 composer finds it easy to employ, in the most rapid 
 [166]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 modulations and use every note without having to 
 take any precautions ; hence also the performer gains 
 a security which was unknown in the case of the old 
 instrument, besides the faculty of being able to un- 
 dertake rapid passages of all kinds. But on the 
 other hand, the mysterious and veiled tones of the 
 stopped horn are sacrificed. We might indeed pro- 
 duce stopped tones on the chromatic horn by the 
 same artifice as in the simple horn, by inserting the 
 hand into the bell, but as it is far easier to produce the 
 same notes by means of the valves, this is scarcely 
 ever done. Let us add that whenever it is done, the 
 tones, owing to some reason connected with the con- 
 struction of the instrument, do not possess the same 
 poetical character and the same fascination as those 
 produced on the simple horn. 
 
 Now that the two instruments are known with their 
 qualities and defects, we can easily conceive that a 
 clever horn-player should be able to play both alter- 
 nately, according to circumstances. 
 
 Moreover, this double study does not entail any 
 complication. A beginning must always be made with 
 the simple horn, and a good embouchure on it ac- 
 quired, as well as a frank and beautiful sonority, at 
 once vigorous and unctuous, afterwards proceeding 
 to the stopped tones. 
 
 Next we shall pass to the valve horn, which will 
 seem relatively easy ; and finally, we shall be able to 
 play first on one and then on the other, and possess 
 equal command of each. 
 
 Work may be begun on this beautiful instrument 
 [167]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 at the age of fourteen or fifteen, if the chest is strong 
 enough; but it may also be undertaken much later, 
 it really does not matter much at what age, without 
 very marked inconvenience. 
 
 The time of daily study should be divided into pe- 
 riods of half an hour at first, and an hour at most 
 after having become sufficiently accustomed to it. 
 Eight sittings of half an hour each make the best ar- 
 rangement, always taking care to shorten or cut out 
 a few when any symptoms of fatigue appear, as we 
 have already established in a general way. 
 
 THE TRUMPET 
 
 The TRUMPET is like the horn ; the same name in- 
 cludes two instruments: the simple Trumpet and the 
 Trumpette a pistons or chromatic trumpet. 
 
 The principle of the simple trumpet is the same as 
 that of the horn, but as no use is made of stopped 
 notes, its scale is reduced to natural notes only, about 
 a dozen, which is indeed very little. Nevertheless, on 
 account of its brilliancy and power, it is a magnificent 
 instrument, with a heroic and heraldic character. 
 
 To remedy the inconvenience of this small number 
 of notes, makers have ingeniously devised various 
 means. First they tried a spring slide, which, being 
 lengthened at will, lowered the whole natural scale 
 by one, two or three half-tones ; then, later, an Eng- 
 lishman, whose name is not known to us, had an idea 
 of adding keys to the trumpet, as to the clarinet or 
 oboe, and his endeavours were crowned with success; 
 [168]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 but he found that he had created a new instrument 
 whose quality of tone bore little resemblance to the 
 typical tone of the trumpet. " It was an acquisition, 
 but not an improvement." * The inventor called his 
 keyed trumpet by the name of the horn-bugle. Then 
 the French maker Adolphe Sax adapted to it the 
 system of valves, now generally adopted. 
 
 The trumpette a pistons has the advantage over the 
 simple trumpet of being able to produce all the 
 diatonic and chromatic notes in its compass, and is 
 therefore infinitely more convenient for the composer, 
 and also more agreeable for the performer, who with 
 it is no longer condemned to perpetual flourishes, but 
 is able to attack the most varied passages. Just as 
 in the case of the horn, however, the addition of the 
 valve mechanism modifies the timbre, which, no longer 
 so brilliant nor pompous, becomes a little heavier. 
 
 Inversely to what we have said about the horn, 
 teachers of the trumpet are generally of the opinion 
 that it is better to begin with the study of the trum- 
 pette a pistons, between twelve and eighteen, or even 
 sooner, provided that the amount of study be pro- 
 portioned to the physical strength of the individual. 
 To commence too late, after the age of about twenty- 
 five, would be risky, for there are few instruments so 
 ticklish as this one. Those, ^however, who have 
 previously played the cornet can undertake the 
 trumpet at any age whatsoever. Regarding the nec- 
 essary time for study, it is difficult to tell precisely, 
 because it depends entirely upon the temperament of 
 * Fetis, Histoire de la musique. 
 
 13 [ 169 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the pupil and the force of resistance in his lips ; with 
 this reservation, as much time as possible. 
 
 Although of the same family as the horn, the 
 trumpet differs essentially from it in its effects. Its 
 sonority is at once less sweet and soft, but more 
 silvery, clear, strident and brilliant. These are the 
 qualities that must be sought, with a clean, frank and 
 precise attack ; even a little ruggedness, if not allowed 
 to become excessive, is not inappropriate.. Moreover, 
 pupils would do well to endeavour to produce with 
 ease the piano and pianissimo shading, in which the 
 modern composers have found ravishing effects. 
 
 THE CORNET A PISTONS 
 
 At the age of twelve, one can put the CORNET A 
 PISTONS in the hands of a child, if, however, he has 
 not a weak constitution ; in the contrary case it would 
 be better to wait, for up to the age of twenty at least, 
 it will be quite time enough. 
 
 As we have already seen with regard to the trumpet, 
 and generally speaking with all the brass instruments, 
 the fear of fatigue should be the only guide for de- 
 termining the amount of daily study. 
 
 The embouchure of the cornet is infinitely easier 
 to acquire than that of the horn or the trumpet, 
 and it is in a great measure to its facility of emission 
 of tone that it owes its popularity. 
 
 Its timbre, which arises from its construction, is 
 lacking in distinction. To the same degree that the 
 trumpet is clear and elegant in its brilliancy and its 
 [170]
 
 limpid clarity, and the horn is poetical and sentiment- 
 al, so the cornet is essentially trivial and muddy. It 
 is then to lessen its defects that the virtuoso-cornettist 
 must always strive, and here, by a unique exception, 
 it is permissible for him to endeavour to imitate 
 neighbouring instruments and those of the same fam- 
 ily that are endowed with a nobler timbre: thus, to 
 have the tone of a horn, or the tone of a trumpet would 
 not be a defect in a cornettist, but rather a valuable 
 quality under many circumstances. It atones for its 
 fault of vulgarity, first by being very easy to study, 
 and then by a certain volubility, that is peculiar to 
 it, a suppleness that can do everything, trills, re- 
 peated notes, and runs of pretty nearly every kind, 
 as well as an aptitude for singing well or imitating 
 a song, of which it must avail itself. 
 
 The study of the cornet a pistons produces certain 
 qualities for the practice of the trumpet ; but the sim- 
 ultaneous study of the two is useless when working 
 seriously at the trumpet, it may even be harmful 
 to the cornet. When once the period of study is 
 passed, a trumpet-player call play the two instru- 
 ments alternately, provided he makes only a moderate 
 use of the cornet ; an abuse of the latter would expose 
 him to the loss of a part of his most precious quali- 
 ties, particularly firmness in the attack of his tone.
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 THE TROMBONE 
 
 One of the most beautiful and powerful voices In 
 the modern orchestra is the TROMBONE. Admirable 
 in expressing strong and noble sentiments, it becomes 
 simply ridiculous when it is meanly reduced to marky 
 ing time, or reinforcing the bass in dance music, 
 which proves the nobility of its character. 
 ; As in the case of the horn and trumpet, we are 
 here confronted with two instruments which, although 
 bearing the same name, are very different and pos- 
 sess individual qualities : the slide trombone, which 
 is the real trombone, the instrument of pomp and 
 majesty par excellence, and the trombone a pistons 
 the sole advantage of which is that it is easier to learn 
 and to handle, and lends itself better to the execution 
 of rapid passages which do not befit its solemn char- 
 acter and by their very velocity deprive it of a great 
 and the most beautiful part of its prestige and dig- 
 nity. 
 
 Every conscientious trombone-player then, who is 
 desirous of becoming an artist, should first make him- 
 self master of the considerable difficulties presented 
 by. the slide trombone. If afterwards he wishes to ac- 
 quire the trombone a pistons, this will be for him a 
 matter of six weeks, or two months at most. 
 
 One can hardly undertake the study of the trom- 
 bone, the hardest of all the brass instruments, before 
 having attained full growth; it is therefore difficult 
 to state the age precisely. We may, however, call 
 [TO]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 fifteen the limit of youth, for there are several in- 
 stances of pupils of that age who have gone through 
 their studies in good condition ; and twenty-five as the 
 highest limit, beyond which it would seem difficult to 
 accustom the lips to exercise with required force the 
 pressure necessary to obtain a beautiful sonority, sup- 
 ple and firm at the same time. However, if one has 
 already played any other brass instrument what- 
 soever, and if one has by this means acquired the 
 facility of embouchure, one can begin to study the 
 trombone at any age. 
 
 Because of the fatigue it brings, one should never, 
 even though well accustomed to it, work more than a 
 few minutes at a time, and never more than four hours 
 a day ; at the beginning, two hours are amply suf- 
 ficient. Firm and tough lips and a solid and well- 
 formed jaw are necessary. 
 
 Of the slide trombone as well as of the piston, 
 there are instruments of three different sizes, called 
 alto-trombone, tenor trombone and bass-trombone,* 
 all three being equally employed in the orchestra, and 
 almost always simultaneously. 
 
 The music for the trombones being written some- 
 times in the alto, sometimes in the bass and sometimes 
 in the tenor clef, a knowledge of these three clefs is 
 useful to the trombone-player. 
 
 It is the custom to exercise first upon the tenor trom- 
 bone; and when that is learned, little difficulty is ex- 
 perienced in playing upon the others ; it is only the 
 matter of a few days. 
 
 * The double-bass trombone is rarer. 
 
 [173]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 X. THE GUITAR AND MANDOLIN 
 
 It seems entirely superfluous for us to consider here 
 certain odd instruments, strangers to the symphonic 
 orchestra, which, although having a perfectly musical 
 character, are connected with this art only on account 
 of their picturesque quality and local colour, and have 
 been used by composers, only in exceptional cases or 
 as hors-d'oeuvres. Such are, among others, the Guitar 
 and the Mandolin, instruments for serenades, charm- 
 ing to hear in an appropriate setting, in the streets 
 of Seville, or the canals of Venice, but out of place 
 elsewhere; also the Russian Balalaika and the Hun- 
 garian Cembalo. 
 
 Let us say, however, that the guitar, if we want to 
 do anything more with it than to accompany a com- 
 mon Italian or Spanish song, is excessively difficult to 
 learn, but it also forms a very delightful study ; in 
 private, in the midst of a very restricted circle of 
 attentive amateurs, a skilful artist can get charming 
 effects from it, although of little variety and always 
 somewhat similar ; but it is very difficult to find a good 
 teacher of the guitar, this unfashionable instrument 
 falling daily into greater disuse, which is to be re- 
 gretted. 
 
 In Italy and Spain, the guitar plays the part of 
 accompanist to the voice, or to the mandolin ; the 
 latter constantly gives the melody, and guitars accom- 
 pany it. Sometimes a flute or a violin is added. In 
 its picturesque frame, under a beautiful moonlight, 
 or a starry sky, such a little orchestra in miniature 
 [174]
 
 lulls the tourist deliciously, and sometimes produces 
 ravishing effects. The mandolin, on the contrary, 
 may be learned with extreme facility ; the irritating 
 tremolo of its doubled strings, endurable only in the 
 open air, is within the reach of everybody. For vio- 
 linists, in particular, it is a mere toy ; its strings and 
 fingering being identical with their instrument, they 
 have nothing to acquire but that perpetual trembling 
 of the right hand which seems to have furnished the 
 voice with that deplorable example of tremolo of 
 which we shall soon speak. 
 
 XI. DIFFICULTIES OF DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS 
 CONSIDERED 
 
 From the sum of the foregoing information, it will 
 be seen, although this has not been the precise ques- 
 tion, that all instruments are not equally easy or dif- 
 ficult to learn, and that there are some that demand 
 an infinitely longer period of study than others in 
 order to arrive at relatively equivalent results. 
 
 This is an easy matter to understand, but more 
 difficult to measure and state precisely and exactly. 
 We cannot take as a term of comparison the moment 
 when the artist attains perfection, for this moment is 
 imperceptible; what one calls perfection is far from 
 another's idea of it. No one can ever say : I know 
 the violin, or I know the harp; any more than one 
 could say I know History, or I know Astronomy. 
 But one can say: 7 know how to play the violin, / 
 know how to use the harp, I have studied History, / 
 [ 175 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 have some knowledge of Astronomy, because these 
 various ways of expressing oneself do not convey the 
 idea of a complete and final knowledge, any pretension 
 to which is simply absurd. The most accomplished 
 virtuoso to-day will be seeking to-morrow for new 
 effects and methods; so he will still further perfect 
 himself, just as the most learned historian, by delv- 
 ing deeper into his documents and comparing them, 
 will make further progress in his science. Absolute 
 perfection does not exist, and what we call by that 
 name is merely that which seems to us to approach 
 it most nearly, still remaining perfectable. There- 
 fore we cannot plant a fixed landmark upon this ever- 
 fleeting spot. But there is another that can be per- 
 haps stated definitely enough for the present inquiry ; 
 this is the moment when the pupil has acquired a com- 
 plete knowledge of all the means of execution appli- 
 cable to his instrument and knows how to use them 
 with discernment. 
 
 . Admitting this medium level as a term of compari- 
 son, we can first establish, proceeding by families, that 
 those instruments demanding the longest study are: 
 the stringed instruments and the piano; secondly, the 
 wood-wind and the harp ; and thirdly, the brass. ( It 
 will be remarked that neither the organ nor the har- 
 monium comes into the question, these two instruments 
 imperiously requiring a preliminary study of the 
 piano upon which their own, one very short and the 
 other very long, will be afterwards grafted, as we 
 have already seen.) 
 
 If we now examine separately each of the three 
 [176]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 categories grouped as above, individual aptitude being 
 regarded as equal, the pupil who studies the violin or 
 the piano will be the longest in attaining our medium 
 level agreed upon; the violoncellist will arrive before 
 him and he will be preceded by several bow-shots by 
 the double-bass player, whose instrument, notwith- 
 standing its dimensions, or rather on that account, 
 exacts infinitely less delicacy and precision. Passing 
 to the second group, and still supposing the pupils to 
 be equally well endowed and trained, it is the flutist 
 who should arrive first, then the clarinettist and the 
 bassoonist, and finally the oboist; because the oboe is 
 the most delicate instrument of this family to manage. 
 I have forgotten the harp, which perhaps might dis- 
 pute the first place with the flute, for, when once the 
 first difficulties are vanquished, progress is often very 
 rapid. Finally, among the brass instruments, the 
 horn is incontestably the one that claims the longest 
 study, particularly on account of its stopped tones; 
 the trombone and the trumpet are learned in about 
 the same length of time ; and, finally, the cornet may 
 be considered the easiest of all. 
 
 (I have not spoken here of the viola, nor of the 
 English horn, which are equally easy to learn, if one 
 knows how to play the violin, or the oboe. ) With re- 
 gard to the special instruments for military bands, it 
 will suffice to know that in a regiment, when a man 
 shows himself incapable of sweeping the court or 
 grooming his horse, he is put in the band, and within 
 a few months, he is able to sustain his part, Heaven 
 only knows how. 
 
 [ 177 }
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Another classification of instruments is still to be 
 considered from the standpoint of study. It is abso- 
 lutely necessary to make a difference between those 
 who imperatively demand virtuosity, mastery, and 
 those who can do without it. To play the violin 
 fairly well is sufficient to hold a place as second violin 
 in an orchestra; this is true also of the viola, the 
 double-bass, the trumpet, the trombone, and even the 
 bassoon, because they are very rarely required to act 
 as soloists; with second-rate talent, they can make 
 themselves useful at need. On the other hand, great 
 skill is requisite for the first violins, violoncellos, 
 flutes, oboes, clarinets and horns, whose parts are al- 
 ways far more in evidence. In the execution of cham- 
 ber-music, an equal degree of perfection is required 
 of all the participants, whatever their instrument ; no 
 mediocrity is tolerable there. It is the same, with 
 greater reason, when one intends to attract the atten- 
 tion of the audience to oneself alone, by the inter- 
 pretation of a Concerto or even another instrumental 
 solo that is less developed. It would be simply ridicu- 
 lous for any one to attempt such things without the 
 possession of a veritable and complete talent, without 
 being so sure of himself as to feel certain that he will 
 not create that agonizing feeling of fear and anxiety 
 which deprives the public of all the pleasure it lias a 
 right to expect from the execution of a charming 
 work. The true virtuoso should inspire confidence 
 from his very first notes, appear at his ease amid the 
 greatest difficulties, and give everybody the impression 
 that it is all child's play to him. 
 [178]
 
 THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS 
 
 A few years ago, one of our most marvellous young 
 pianists, travelling incognito and finding himself in 
 a large hotel in Switzerland, availed himself of a few 
 moments one morning when the salon was empty to 
 limber up his fingers and play some of the most beau- 
 tiful pieces in his repertory upon a magnificent Stein- 
 way piano that he found there. As he was about to 
 leave, a stranger whom he had not noticed, approached 
 and asked his permission to let him express his ad- 
 miration. " I have been here from the beginning," 
 he said, " and you have charmed me so greatly that 
 if you had continued, I certainly should have remained 
 all day long; I have heard Liszt, Chopin, Thalberg, 
 and no one has ever produced such an effect upon me. 
 Will you permit me to ask you a question ? " 
 
 " With pleasure, Sir, if I can answer it." 
 
 " Oh, yes, certainly. I should like to ask you if 
 you have learned to play or if it is natural? " 
 
 A burst of laughter from the young pianist, who 
 did not see until later that this simple person had paid 
 him the most beautiful as well as the most ingenuous 
 of compliments. In reality, when we hear a great 
 virtuoso, the first impression is that it costs him no 
 effort, it seems as if we could do the same thing ; and 
 reason has to intervene before we realize that this is 
 the result of many years of arduous labour. 
 
 However, not to speak solely of exceptional talent, 
 it is certain that at a small party and at intimate 
 gatherings, a modest and unpretentious amateur can 
 be infinitely agreeable and make himself useful if he 
 atones for his imperfections by qualities of artistic 
 [179]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 intelligence, if he is a good reader and a good musi- 
 cian. This is why we again insist, and for the last 
 time, upon the necessity for every instrumentalist, 
 whether an amateur or a professional artist, to pre- 
 cede or accompany his instrumental studies with solid 
 studies of solfeggio pursued long and patiently, as 
 well as a summary study of the piano ; and if the piano 
 is his instrument, a serious study of harmony and read- 
 ing at sight. Before being a virtuoso, one must be 
 a musician.
 
 PART III 
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING
 
 PART III 
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 I. THE CHILD'S VOICE, CHANGE OF VOICE, EARLY 
 INSTRUCTION, EXAMINATION OF THE NATURAL 
 VOICE AND CHOICE OF A TEACHER 
 
 If it is wrong to hold with the proverb that a hare 
 is necessary in order to make a civet, since an excellent 
 one can be made with a cat, it is nevertheless absolutely 
 true for the singer, since for him nothing can take the 
 place of the voice; and, in order to make a singer, a 
 voice is necessary. 
 
 The voice, depending entirely upon the conforma- 
 tion of the vocal apparatus in its entirety and in its 
 details, comprising the lungs, the trachea, the larynx, 
 the glottis, the mouth and the nostrils, it is not in 
 anyone's power to create a voice for himself or for 
 anybody else if Nature has not provided one. This 
 is what led Schumann to say : " If you possess a good 
 voice, do not hesitate a moment to cultivate it, regard- 
 ing it as the most beautiful gift that has been granted 
 you by Heaven." But if it is forbidden to us to cre- 
 ate voices, if even it is an impossibility to aid in their 
 formation, what does depend on ourselves is not to 
 [183]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 hinder their development by placing obstacles in their 
 way ; and this is what we too often do by lack of care 
 and wise foresight. With a little more care and ob- 
 servation, it is certain that we can aid the work of 
 Nature by simply refraining from shackling it, and 
 thereby obtain a greater number of beautiful voices, 
 which would indeed be a happy result, and at the 
 same time prepare a generation of singers who are 
 good musicians, another matter that is equally to be 
 desired. 
 
 During the period of childhood, boys and girls have 
 almost the same voice, which is the child's voice. 
 People are wrong in often saying that they have 
 women's voices, for they differ entirely from the lat- 
 ter, even the voices of little girls, both in their com- 
 pass, which with rare exceptions is infinitely smaller, 
 and in their timbre, which has not the warmth, ten- 
 derness, nor energy. They differ, moreover, in the 
 limits of their registers. The child's is a provisional 
 voice, just as milk teeth are provisional teeth; there 
 is nothing of either remaining in the adult. 
 
 Nevertheless, the child's voice frequently acquires 
 an intensity and volume that are quite sufficient to 
 render it possible to exercise it, and even to make 
 good musical use of it, either individually as a soloist, 
 or in white voice choruses, to which the juvenile 
 timbre lends an altogether characteristic charm. 
 
 Because a child has a voice, we must not at all infer 
 that it will have one later on, but neither does that 
 mean that it will not have one. It may also be en- 
 tirely without voice during childhood, and possess a 
 [ 184 }
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 superb one after completed growth. This is the 
 unknown 
 
 At the moment of the transformation which makes 
 an adolescent of the boy and a maiden of the little 
 girl, a physiological phenomenon takes place that has 
 received the name of mtie, during which the child's 
 voice completely disappears to make way for the 
 definitive voice. This phenomenon, which is strongly 
 accented in boys, is scarcely noticeable in girls, and 
 for this reason: with the former, a general and pro- 
 longed hoarseness occurs with frequent throat troubles, 
 the speaking voice assumes a hoarse and characteristic 
 timbre, leaving no doubt as to what is happening, and 
 meanwhile the larynx develops to its full dimensions, 
 to almost double its former size, making the Adam's 
 apple protrude, and lowering the compass of the voice 
 by a full octave, and sometimes more. All this can- 
 not pass unnoticed. In the female, whose voice suffers 
 no change with regard to its diapason, the dilatation 
 of the larynx is inappreciable, the modification works 
 chiefly on the timbre, which is imperceptibly modified 
 from day to day, little by little losing its infantile 
 character and acquiring feminine qualities, but with- 
 out anything being manifested externally in the voice 
 that would attract attention. Just because it is less 
 apparent, we must not conclude that it does not exist, 
 for it has the same importance in both sexes. 
 
 The change generally commences, in our temperate 
 
 climates, between the fourteenth year in the boy, and 
 
 about the thirteenth year in the girl. Naturally, it 
 
 is earlier in warmer climates, where development is 
 
 13 185
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 more rapid. It ends about the twentieth year in the 
 man, and the eighteenth in the female. The dates 
 are variable. 
 
 Some people have pretended that a sort of inver- 
 sion is produced in boys, the result being that a so- 
 prano voice becomes a bass, and that even a young 
 contralto announces a tenor: this may happen, but 
 there is nothing absolute in it. Others affirm that 
 the heredity of the vocal faculty is more frequently 
 transmitted from the father to the daughter and from 
 the mother to the son, by a kind of inter-crossing of 
 sex. This is still another illusion that experience con- 
 tradicts. The change offers all kinds of surprises; 
 the real truth being that nobody can tell how it will 
 result. Now it is only when this evolution is abso- 
 lutely complete that the individual, whether man or 
 woman, finds himself in possession of his true voice; 
 and it is only then, in the immense majority of cases, 
 that he thinks of cultivating it and learning to sing. 
 
 To learn to sing more or less correctly, to manage 
 to utter sounds, he can always succeed in to a certain 
 extent. To be really a musician and to sing like a 
 great and intelligent artist is infinitely more rare. 
 And this can very easily be understood, for he has 
 passed the age when the malleable mind learns music 
 like a simple language; he no longer possesses the 
 suppleness of a child, and all that formerly would 
 have been nothing but play for him becomes a study 
 full of aridity. 
 
 For this condition of things, there should be a rem- 
 edy, a remedy so much the more simple and judicious 
 [186]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 in that it would only be a return to an old practice 
 that had always and everywhere given excellent re- 
 sults, and the abandonment of which, for some un- 
 known reason, is certainly most regrettable. 
 
 We can conceive how ridiculous parents would be 
 who, before the definitive voice manifested itself, 
 should pretend peremptorily to decide that they would 
 make a singer of their son, or a lyric artist of their 
 daughter. But, on the other hand, what can be very 
 readily understood is that they should have this de- 
 sire, either because such has been their own career, 
 that it has pleased them, that they have succeeded in 
 it and that they might be patrons of it, or from an 
 inverse sentiment, the result of the regret that they 
 have experienced at not being able to be singers them- 
 selves for some reason or other. 
 
 If such a thought rises in their minds, the follow- 
 ing is certainly the best course that we can advise : 
 As soon as possible, about nine years of age, for ex- 
 ample, simultaneously commence the study of solfeg- 
 gio and the piano, as already shown in the second 
 chapter. At the same time, cause to be given to the 
 child, by a very prudent and very intelligent teacher, 
 real singing lessons, exceedingly short, not longer 
 than a quarter of an hour a day, but dealing with the 
 good emission of tone, correctness, suppleness, respira- 
 tion and vocalization, without ever exceeding the 
 range of his little voice, and particularly without 
 trying to make him reach either high or low notes. 
 (It is by this method, a veritable gymnastics of the 
 lungs, which can never injure the health, but, on the 
 [187]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 contrary, will improve the general condition, by 
 strengthening the respiratory apparatus, that many 
 singers of the beautiful Italian school who sought to 
 form their voices were brought up. ) If the youthful 
 pupil takes pleasure in this study, and if his voice is 
 not too thin, do not fear to let him participate in 
 choral exercises suitable for children's voices, and to 
 make him sing in church and in the maitrises; but 
 never force him if it causes him any fatigue. Con- 
 tinue in this manner until the change makes its ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 Here we must make a distinction. 
 
 If we are dealing with a boy, to watch for the ad- 
 vance signs of the change, such as hoarseness, etc., 
 and immediately, without a day's delay, to suppress 
 deliberately all vocal exercise, song and solfeggio, and 
 this radically, without a single infraction ; and to for- 
 bid him to join in even noisy games in which there is 
 too loud shouting; to treat him in fact as one would 
 do if he had some throat disease; during the whole 
 time that the change lasts, which is several years, to 
 insist upon work at the piano, theory, dictation, with- 
 out forgetting studies outside of music, that are as 
 useful to a singer as his special studies, all this must 
 never be lost sight of. 
 
 If we are dealing with a girl, we must not wait till 
 the change asserts itself, because we know that it will 
 not make itself felt ; but consider it as begun at the 
 age of thirteen, in which we shall seldom be mistaken. 
 We must thenceforth interrupt singing lessons, prop- 
 erly so called, because they always occasion a little 
 [188]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 fatigue to the larynx, but we may with impunity con- 
 tinue a moderate exercise of solfeggio, in low tones, 
 and limited to those notes that are produced without 
 any effort. Apart from this, proceed as with boys, 
 avoid all tempestuous vocal outbursts, take care of 
 the larynx and be more than usually careful to avoid 
 everything that might cause a cold or quinsy ; more- 
 over, do not neglect the study of the piano; this can- 
 not be too often repeated. 
 
 Everything is in this: to have acquired the art of 
 singing before this physiological epoch, and to leave 
 the organ quiet whilst the evolution is operating, with- 
 out however abandoning the study of music, by fre- 
 quenting concerts and theatres if possible, by hearing 
 and appreciating the great singers, in one word, by 
 giving free play during this period of waiting to all 
 that is likely to purify the taste and elevate the 
 judgment. 
 
 When it is thought that the change is completed, 
 the scholar's new voice should be tried in the presence 
 of his old master, who will be the best judge to de- 
 cide the opportune moment for resuming the studies, 
 greatly simplified thenceforward ; for, if it has pleased 
 Nature to gratify the pupil with a fine voice, in a few 
 months he will be able to make use of it as if he had 
 worked for five or six years, with the additional and in- 
 estimable advantage of not having tired it with this 
 careful work that has been done on his provisional 
 child-voice ; his milk-voice, I was going to say. Ex- 
 actly the same thing will happen to him that we have 
 already seen happen to the little violinists who, after 
 [189]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 having practised on a small instrument, take a real 
 violin in their hands ; in a few weeks, or months, hav- 
 ing already learned how to sing, he will have made 
 intimate acquaintance with his new organ, he will 
 have recognized its qualities and defects (for there is 
 no absolutely perfect, natural voice), and perhaps, 
 who knows? he will be his own best master for the 
 future. In any case, he will never allow himself to be 
 badly guided. 
 
 In support of this thesis, which some people will 
 find too beautiful, I can quote a very great authority, 
 that of the illustrious singer Faure, who thus expresses 
 himself in his celebrated book : " The art of singing 
 is passing through a period unfavourable to its pros- 
 perity. . . . We will mention first among the 
 multiple causes of the decline of the art of singing, 
 the abandonment into which the study of religious 
 music has fallen since the almost complete disappear- 
 ance of the mattrises. These schools were at the same 
 time, although indirectly, excellent and fertile nur- 
 series for our operatic stages; it is well known what 
 musicians and organists, what singers and illustrious 
 composers this school has produced. There was no 
 reason to fear that the choice of the pupils would 
 turn rather to the church than to the theatre; the 
 latter possesses, in fact, pecuniary resources against 
 which it will always be hard for the church to strug- 
 gle. This is a great argument that naturally weighs 
 very heavily in the balance with young people in their 
 choice of a career. 
 
 I shall meet with the objection that one cannot 
 [190']
 
 destine a child for the lyric career without exposing 
 oneself to cruel misreckonings ; it may even be added 
 that the stay in a maltrise will not be of the slightest 
 use to it if the transformation of its child voice into 
 a man's voice is not accomplished as happily as one 
 could hope for. There will none the less remain in 
 him the material for an excellent musician who is able 
 to direct his efforts in another line and create a place 
 for himself among the teachers and instrumentalists 
 who people our orchestras, and even among the com- 
 posers." * 
 
 This is exactly the point I wanted to reach. When 
 the crisis of the change is once definitely passed and 
 leaves a voice that is not worth cultivation, the fact 
 must be regarded as regrettable, that is certain, but 
 nevertheless it must not be considered that the time 
 spent on the infantine studies has been lost ; far from 
 that, only they must be employed in attaining an- 
 other goal. If they have been directed in the way 
 above indicated, or in some other way proceeding 
 from the same ideas, the pupil will be found to have 
 acquired by the study of solfeggio great ability as a 
 reader, and further, a certain skill at the piano ; and, 
 still more, an intimate knowledge of what vocal mech- 
 anism is, a matter as precious to every instrumental- 
 ist as to the composer. He will then be in a good 
 position to continue his musical studies by modify- 
 ing their direction whilst having nevertheless as- 
 sured to them a solid base and one that is the best 
 of all. 
 
 * J. Faure, La Voix et le chant. 
 
 [191]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 The maitrises,* of which Faure speaks, no longer 
 <f!xist, or have become extremely rare; it does not fall 
 within the scope of this work to discuss the desirability 
 f>i their re-establishment, but there is nothing to pre- 
 sent the application of their programme (solfeggio, 
 the elements of harmony, singing, choral singing, 
 piano and organ) to every child of whom we wish to 
 make a musician, and if possible, a singer of real 
 talent. 
 
 This is how the Larousse Dictionnaire, which can- 
 not be suspected of tenderness for anything touching 
 religious instruction, expresses itself : " The maitrises 
 were formerly schools of music attached to the cathe- 
 drals, and in them youths and children, kept and edu- 
 cated at the expense of the Chapter, received a com- 
 plete musical instruction and furnished the chapel 
 music, sometimes as singers and sometimes as instru- 
 mentalists. Before the establishment of the Paris 
 Conservatoire, the creation of which, as well as that 
 of the Ecole des mines and the Ecole Poly technique, 
 was the work of that immortal Convention which knew 
 how to think of everything, the only music-schools 
 existing in France were the maitrises, and we may say 
 that it is to them that we owe the real progress of our 
 country, so far as music is concerned, before the Revo- 
 lution. Their instruction was not at all perfect, cer- 
 tainly, it was even very incomplete, since, from the 
 practical point of view, it devoted itself exclusively 
 
 * There are six in France, supported by the State, at Langres, 
 Montpelier, Moulins, Nevers, Rheims, and Rodez ; in Germany, 
 at Dresden and Leipzig. 
 
 [192]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 to the study of religious music ; but it is none the less 
 true that the maitrises furnished even our theatres 
 with a great number of artists of real talent, and that 
 such and such a singer of renown owed his education 
 to such and such an establishment of this nature. 
 . . . It is certain that from a general point of view 
 these institutions, scattered and multiplied over the 
 whole surface of the country, rendered considerable 
 services, not only by reason of the teaching they 
 propagated, but also on account of the musical taste 
 that they developed on every side." 
 
 On the same subject, moreover, here is the opinion 
 of one of the masters of French art : " It was the nur- 
 Bery whence all the musicians, instrumentalists, sing- 
 ers, or composers were drawn. The Church worked 
 then for the Theatre, and the male personnel of the 
 opera was recruited only in the maitrises. As for the 
 female singers, they formed themselves. In the im- 
 itative arts, women have the livelier perception and 
 the finer sentiment; they learn better and more 
 quickly." * 
 
 It might be added that it is also certain that these 
 schools, created especially for liturgical chant and for 
 the needs of worship, did not form voices as flexible 
 as those of the Italian school of the same epoch, which 
 tried above all to produce theatrical singers. There- 
 fore their enemies could not find words bitter enough 
 *' to blast this teaching of singing that stopped short 
 at the change of voice," not taking into account that 
 
 * Adolphe Adam. Souvenirs cTunmusicien. (Notice sur J. J. 
 Rousseau.) 
 
 [193]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 among those who, after this wise period of halt " had 
 preserved their voices, there were found a good num- 
 ber " who then returned as soloists or choristers, or 
 " were employed in the theatres." 
 
 On the other hand, it was admirably conceived, its 
 results were excellent, and we may take this ancient 
 institution, so unhappily dismantled, as an almost 
 perfect model. 
 
 The change being completed, whether one has 
 learned to sing beforehand or not, the first great ques- 
 tion that presents itself, the fundamental question, is 
 to know whether we are in presence of a voice that can 
 be put to use. Here, nothing can replace the enlight- 
 ened opinion of a professor, and indeed one of the 
 greatest experience. It is not sufficient for him to 
 know how to sing very well and to be the possessor of 
 great talent. Above all, it is necessary for him to 
 have had a long practice in teaching, and to have al- 
 ready had many young pupils pass through his 
 hands, for nothing is more delicate or more subject 
 to error than the diagnosis that is required of him. 
 Therefore, in this case, we should seek a veritable au- 
 thority in singing, and accept only with the greatest 
 reserve the appreciations of teachers of the second or 
 third order, who always find you with a voice, if only 
 for the sake of getting an extra pupil and enlarging 
 their field of experience. Furthermore, we must not 
 be astonished if the very serious teacher whom we have 
 selected as an expert docs not immediately give his 
 opinion, but asks permission to repeat the test on days 
 separated by various intervals of time, prescribing ex 
 [194]
 
 THE STUDY OP SINGING 
 
 ercises ad hoc to be performed in the meantime ; 01 . on 
 the contrary, according to circumstances, the observ- 
 ance of complete repose, in order to be able to judge, 
 the better at each examination, of the development of 
 the voice and its progressive expansion, from which he 
 may succeed in deducing what may be hoped of it in 
 the future. 
 
 It is necessary to know how to submit to all these 
 exigencies, for which there may be good reason. 
 
 For, we must not deceive ourselves, a natural voice, 
 that is to say after the change, is almost always very 
 different from what it will become when once cultivat- 
 ed, and great sagacity, in combination with much deli- 
 cate observation, is requisite to foresee with any de- 
 gree of certainty in what way it will be modified later, 
 whether naturally or under the influence of study. 
 
 There are many instances of tenors, even after 
 many years, who have become barytones or basses ; 
 and surprises of the same nature also present them- 
 selves in women's voices. 
 
 But here we are anticipating; let us return to the 
 examination of an uncultivated voice. The principal 
 qualities to be desired in it are a good timbre and a 
 certain degree of natural flexibility. Strength and 
 volume increase with age and study. By processes 
 known to every teacher, we easily manage to extend 
 the compass and gain several notes, especially high 
 ones ; but a bad timbre is hard to modify, and flexi- 
 bility cannot be developed unless the organ already 
 possesses some natural elasticity. It is therefore to 
 these points that we shall see the master of the art of 
 [195]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 singing, to whom we have submitted the case, pay par- 
 ticular attention, only taking secondary notice of such 
 and such a beautiful low or high note, that, on the 
 contrary, the pupil will be inclined to exhibit to him 
 as a jewel. But he will also examine other things, 
 the general structure, the capacity of the lungs, and 
 the physiognomy and conformation of the mouth, 
 which are of great importance in the emission of the 
 voice, for it is in the mouth-cavity that the timbre is 
 produced. 
 
 It should also be taken into consideration that a 
 great and powerful voice is not indispensable even for 
 the theatre, contrary to a somewhat generally pre- 
 vailing impression, for there we see every day voices 
 medium in intensity but fine in timbre and distinction, 
 outdo others of greater volume that are lacking in the 
 seductiveness exercised by good emission. It does not 
 follow that volume and force are to be despised, but 
 they are not the principal things, and it is particularly 
 by the good pronunciation that the voice manages to 
 dominate the orchestra and penetrate into the remote 
 corners of a vast hall. Let us add that an amateur who 
 knows how to manage his voice can be charming and 
 exquisite in the drawing-room with a very restricted 
 volume, and that there again what is most desirable is 
 purity, in combination with flexibility and clearness 
 of articulation. 
 
 Finally, when it can be asserted that all the condi- 
 tions requisite for forming a singer or cantatrice ex- 
 ist, it is important not to choose a teacher lightly, 
 but to place oneself in safe hands. 
 [196]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 For that again, we may have recourse to the enlight- 
 ened advice of the same eminent master, for even if he 
 is not disposed personally to guide the first labours of 
 beginners, which is quite probable, it is also probable 
 that among his own pupils, or in his personal follow- 
 ing, there is some young artist who has been brought 
 up in a good school whom he will be able to recom- 
 mend as worthy of confidence, while still retaining 
 general direction and supervising the studies by means 
 of hearings at considerable intervals ; and this period- 
 ical control will be at the same time the best of stimu- 
 lants both for the pupil and the teacher. 
 
 If for any reason, one does not succeed in obtain- 
 ing this exalted direction, there is so much the more 
 reason to surround oneself with a thousand precau- 
 tions and enlightened advice so as knowingly to apply 
 only to a teacher of great care and prudence ; for, in 
 any kind of study, whether music or other, nothing 
 approaches in importance the choice of an elementary 
 teacher. It is easy to understand this when we remem- 
 ber that his mission consists not so much at the outset 
 in teaching how to sing, as to fashion, to bend and 
 sometimes even to transform the instrument that 
 Nature has given in the crude state, and all this by 
 means of a few simple exercises, always v)ery simple, 
 that never cause any fatigue. 
 
 If the slightest fatigue manifests itself, it is be- 
 cause the teacher is incompetent, or that he does not 
 suit you, which may happen, and amounts to the 
 same thing. If, at the end of two or three months, 
 your voice has not been modified to some extent, in 
 [197]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the direction of improvement, it is again because you 
 have an ill-chosen teacher ; for the first steps of prog- 
 ress should be somewhat rapid. In either case, it is 
 better to make a change, and as soon as possible; for 
 the pernicious influence of a teacher who ill conducts 
 this first part of the studies may result in the total 
 loss of the voice, which is irremediable. 
 
 What still further increases the difficulty in this 
 grave question of the choice of an elementary teacher, 
 is that, nowadays, I know not why, everybody calls 
 himself a professor of singing; and the directories 
 swarm with them. In the first place, all the accom- 
 panists who belong to a singing-class, in good faith 
 by that sole fact believe themselves to possess the de- 
 sired capacities. There is no doubt that they might 
 attain them, but at least they are lacking in personal 
 experience. I know violinists and pianists who have 
 never had the slightest voice, and have never at- 
 tempted to sing, who boldly dub themselves pro- 
 fessors of singing ; while others consider that it is suf- 
 ficient to have an Italian name, or to Italianize their 
 own. We can see from this with what sage circum- 
 spection it is advisable to proceed before confiding so 
 delicate and fragile an organ as a freshly formed 
 larynx to a professor who by inappropriate exercises 
 can ruin it for ever. It has sometimes been said that 
 a female teacher is better suited for women and a male 
 for men. This does not seem to me in any way jus- 
 tified, and many examples have shown me that it is 
 a matter of absolute indifference, at least for the 
 present; later on, we shall see. What is of essential 
 [198]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 importance for the moment, whatever the sex of the 
 pupil may be, is to deal with a master who has already 
 given proofs of ability by forming good singers, and 
 one who himself has sung with talent. Whether he 
 has preserved or lost his own voice matters little, for 
 he will very seldom have to set an example, and 
 enough voice will always be left to him to make him- 
 self understood. If he has preserved it, however, that 
 can only be an extra inducement, as it shows at least 
 that he has known how to manage himself well. 
 
 The first care of the teacher, in the first lessons, 
 should be to classify the voice, that is to say, to de- 
 termine, at least provisionally, in view of what kind 
 of voice it is advisable to exercise it. This is already 
 a very difficult matter, since it is rarely that in the 
 native state a voice presents itself with entire frank- 
 ness; and opinions regarding it may very often dif- 
 fer: where one professor will see a barytone, another 
 will find the material for a tenor. Two things alone 
 can guide us : range and timbre. The range being 
 essentially modifiable by study, certain professors 
 base their opinions solely on the timbre; it is neces- 
 sary, nevertheless, that these two factors shall not be 
 in too flagrant contradiction, whence arise hesitations 
 and tergiversations that are sometimes quite justified 
 and even inevitable, when we find ourselves in the pres- 
 ence of an organ that becomes modified of itself, as 
 often happens, as we have already said. 
 
 A large number of modern methods begin by teach- 
 ing the pupil the anatomy of the larynx. This gives 
 them a very learned air, and leads one to believe that 
 [199]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the authors have taken the trouble to dissect the wind- 
 pipe; but it seems to me to be an absolutely useless 
 piece of knowledge for the pupil. He will sing neither 
 better nor worse just because he knows that the voice 
 is due to the sonorous vibration of the vocal cords, 
 constituted by the thyro-arytenoidian muscles. When 
 he shall have been taught that in the chest-voice the 
 fibrous and mucous layers of the vocal cord both 
 vibrate, whilst the larynx and the pharynx contract 
 and the glottis tightens f" whilst in the head voice, the 
 larynx is relaxed, the glottis opened, the pharynx dis- 
 tended, and the mucous layer alone of the vocal cord 
 vibrates, ought he to try to produce these special 
 actions in his throat in order to give a head or chest 
 note? And when from physiology he learns that the 
 nasal cavities, the ethnoidal cellules, the maxillary, 
 frontal and sphenoidal sinus communicate with his 
 mouth and powerfully contribute to form the timbre 
 of his voice, will he know any better how to modify 
 this timbre? Assuredly not. Therefore, accord- 
 ing to my own conviction, all this knowledge will 
 not aid him in the slightest degree in understanding 
 the lessons of a good teacher, nor in practising after 
 his example a good respiration, a good emission of 
 voice and a good pronunciation. 
 
 It is as though one should pretend to teach soldiers 
 to march with commands of the following nature : 
 
 " Contract your femoral biceps ! " 
 
 " Relax the triceps ! " 
 
 " Distend the adducent muscles ! " 
 
 They would much more readily understand: 
 [200]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 One, two one, two particularly if the cor- 
 poral were to add the example to the word. 
 
 This makes us think of the scene between M. Jour- 
 dain and his teacher of philosophy : 
 
 Master : " The vowel A is formed by opening wide 
 the mouth: A." 
 
 M. Jourdain : " A, A. Yes ! " 
 
 Master : " The vowel E is formed by bringing the 
 lower jaw close to the upper one : A, E." 
 
 Jourdain : "A, E ; A, E. Faith, yes ! Ah, how 
 fine that is ! " 
 
 Master : " And the vowel I, by again bringing both 
 jaws together and stretching the corners of the mouth 
 out towards the ears, A, E, I." 
 
 Jourdain : " A, E, I, I, I. That is true. Long 
 live science ! " 
 
 Master : " The vowel O is formed by opening the 
 jaws again, and bringing the corners of the lips to- 
 gether : O." 
 
 Jourdain : " O, O. Nothing can be truer ; A, E, I, 
 O, I, O. That is admirable. I, O ; I, O." 
 
 Master : " The opening of the mouth makes a sort 
 of little circle that represents an O ... I will 
 thoroughly explain all these curiosities. . . ." * 
 
 There he is well advanced. Will he know any bet- 
 ter how to speak afterwards? 
 
 Whether such a study of the physiology of the 
 voice is desirable for the professor even is debatable; 
 perhaps (?) at the utmost it might enlighten him in 
 the selection of the exercises of pure vocal gymnastics 
 * Moliere, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Act I., Scene VI. 
 14 [ 201 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 that might suit such or such a pupil, but then only 
 on the express condition that this study is complete 
 and not superficial, as is almost always the case. To 
 make it complete, it must be extended over the whole 
 range of the respiratory apparatus, from the lungs 
 and the muscles of the breast to the nasal cavities and 
 the nose, which play an important part in the forma- 
 tion of the timbre: which would inevitably lead, in 
 order to arrive at a comprehension, physiologically 
 speaking, of the functions of all these organs, in- 
 timately related as they are with all the others, to a 
 study of general anatomy. If this utility were really 
 demonstrated, the best professor of singing would 
 be the doctor the laryngologist, which will not 
 bear examination. There is nothing worse than the 
 demi-savants, and nothing more pretentious. The 
 old professors of the great Italian period of the bel 
 cmtte, who, we must frankly confess, could easily give 
 us lessons in the art of forming the voice and render- 
 ing it flexible, did not trouble themselves with this 
 superfluous knowledge. They proceeded empirically, 
 it will be said; that is possible, but what is certain is 
 that they obtained results which we no longer do. 
 
 II. THE BET, CANTO, RELATION OF SINGING TO THE 
 GENIUS or A LANGUAGE, METHODS, VOCALIZA- 
 TION AND PERIOD OF DAILY STUDIES 
 
 It is true to say also that nowadays what is de- 
 manded of singers is no longer what was demanded 
 of them then. At that time, the ideal singing was 
 [202]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 an almost instrumental virtuosity, an incredible 
 agility, comparable to that of the flute, trills, 
 roulades, chromatic scales, arpeggios, ornaments of 
 every kind and gorgheggi * which skilful singers 
 did not hesitate to introduce into the score of the com- 
 poser, even in the most dramatic situations, even to 
 the extent of disfiguring it and rendering it entirely 
 unrecognizable, with the sole and frankly-avowed 
 aim of setting in relief their prodigious ability and 
 showing off their most beautiful notes. Some of them 
 had favourite features, cadences, or finales, that they 
 adopted invariably in all their roles. This was the 
 reign of singing for the sake of song, and it must be 
 acknowledged that the music was only a pretext for 
 vocal flutterings and warblings of the utmost ele- 
 gance. The composers lent themselves to this with 
 complete indifference and were perfectly willing to 
 accept this collaboration of the singer, provided that 
 it indirectly attracted success and plaudits for the 
 work. Certain operas of this epoch show this clearly. 
 In them we can scarcely see anything but canevas des- 
 tined to disappear under numberless fiorituras com- 
 pletely disfiguring the author's original idea. 
 
 It is at this point that Manual Garcia,f one of the 
 last representatives of this school, cynically entitles 
 " Of Changes," one of the chapters of his work, in 
 which we may read such things as this : " In tracing 
 their ideas, the authors counted upon the accent and 
 the accessories that the talent of the singer was able 
 
 * Gorghegghiare, in Italian means to trill, to warble like birds, 
 t Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing. 
 
 [203]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 to add to the work. There are different kinds of 
 pieces which, by reason of their nature, are confided 
 to the free and learned inspiration of the exec- 
 utant." 
 
 In that beautiful age of the Italian bel canto, when 
 the singer's mission was very different from the con- 
 ception of to-day, to study a role consisted in adjust- 
 ing it to one's own measure by almost entirely re-mak- 
 ing the vocal part so as to show off the eminent 
 virtuosity of the interpreter. 
 
 The sentiment was only a secondary consideration : 
 an artist was reputed to have a heart when he held a 
 sufficiently prolonged organ-point on the last note but 
 one of a phrase. 
 
 All that is of small importance. What is certain 
 is that in order to attain that prodigious degree of 
 agility, which was then the pinnacle of the singer's 
 art, the Italians were in possession of admirable meth- 
 ods, and knew how to work patiently for long years 
 without breaking their voices and without tiring them. 
 
 The modern art has altogether different require- 
 ments. It demands infinitely less virtuosity ; and, in 
 revenge, it exacts a respect for the note written, an 
 artistic intelligence, a concord of sentiment between 
 the poetic text and the musical accent, an expressive 
 and emotional intensity which the eminent singers 
 of the beautiful Italian period made the least of their 
 cares. We strive to charm and to interest more than 
 to astonish. With them it was the contrary. 
 
 There is still another thing to be considered. Peo- 
 ple do not sing in the same way in all countries, and 
 [204]
 
 they could not do so. The manner of singing is in- 
 timately connected with the genius of a language. 
 Thus it is that the art of vocalization, which attains 
 its highest point among the Italians, whose language, 
 rich in vowels, in long and short syllable and in 
 rhythmical accents, is already almost a music, would 
 not have been able to develop among the Germans, 
 who sing almost constantly upon consonants. These 
 two languages, so opposed by their origin and by their 
 sonority, could but engender two diametrically op- 
 posed schools of singing, one energetic and guttural, 
 the other supple and elegant. The French singers, 
 of Latin race, sided more closely with their Italian 
 brethren, whom they for a long time forced them- 
 selves to imitate, sometimes succeeding. Thus they 
 were easily led to believe that the Germans did not 
 know how to sing, simply because they sang differ- 
 ently from themselves. This is quite as simple as if 
 they believed that the Germans did not know how 
 to speak because they did not speak French. A Ger- 
 man Lied becomes as ridiculous when we sing it in the 
 Italian style as would be a Cavatina of Donizetti's 
 translated into German. To every idiom, its own 
 music and national interpretation. That is why a 
 work when translated loses the half of its savour and 
 poetry ; homogeneous though it was, it becomes whim- 
 sical, and the interpreter, however talented he may 
 be, more especially if he possesses much talent and 
 tact, finds that he has lost his bearings, and is left 
 hesitating between the spirit of the literary text and 
 the musical style, which do not accord. 
 [205]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 This explains perfectly why the art of singing, 
 which is essentially in accord with the various lan- 
 guages with which it is associated, cannot be taught 
 in the same manner in all countries, which would be 
 an offence against good taste, since the results ob- 
 tainable are not the same. It is quite natural that 
 the professors, French, English, German and Italian, 
 should employ different procedures, having to attain 
 dissimilar ends: this can be very readily understood. 
 But what is strange, and what I do not undertake to 
 explain, is the absolute lack of unity in the teaching 
 of singing, and the prodigious diversity of methods 
 extolled for this end, that we meet with at every step, 
 without passing the limits of the territory of any 
 given nationality whatsoever. Let us take France. It 
 seems, does it not, that there is and that there can be 
 only one single true way of singing in good French. 
 Very well. Whilst for a very long time all the violin 
 or piano methods, not in France alone, but in the whole 
 world, resemble one another point by point and ap- 
 pear to have been minutely copied from one another, 
 yet the most extraordinary divergencies continue to 
 exist with regard to the fundamental principles of the 
 study of an art which seems so simple in itself ; for in- 
 contestably " Song is as natural as speech to man- 
 kind." * 
 
 The most curious thing about it is that it is the 
 
 same in all countries, and that, notwithstanding the 
 
 most praiseworthy efforts, professors of singing have 
 
 not yet come to an agreement as to the best manner 
 
 * A. Lavignac, La musique et lea musiciens. 
 
 [206]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 of teaching singing. That " the art of singing up 
 to the present time does not employ technical terms 
 of a signification that is accepted by all ; " that " two 
 singers, talking, one after another, of their registers, 
 mediums, or passages, are perhaps not speaking of 
 the same vocal particulars," * this alone is a regret- 
 table matter; but this may be'only a question of lan- 
 guage, or vocabulary. But what is still more grave 
 and strange at the same time is. to maintain complete 
 divergences regarding the very processes of teaching 
 and their applications. So many professors, so many 
 methods, and frequently diametrically opposed : this 
 is indeed incomprehensible. And most astonishing of 
 all is the fact that there is not a single one of these 
 teachers, I mean here the great masters, who have 
 schools and are qualified to write methods, there is not 
 one, I repeat, who has not produced some remarkable 
 pupils, who, in their turn, invent new processes and 
 obtain good results from them. 
 
 I find an amusing sally on this subject in Rubin- 
 etein's Aphorisms: 
 
 " The doctor and the professor of singing resemble 
 one another in many points: the doctor can heal 
 or kill, he may make a false diagnosis ; he gladly 
 invents new remedies, and always finds that the 
 doctor who preceded him did not understand the 
 case. 
 
 The professor of singing can place a voice or spoil 
 it; he can take an alto for a soprano voice, and vice 
 versa; he is anxious to invent new methods of teaching, 
 * Dr. Castex, Les maladies de la voix. 
 
 [207]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and always finds also that the professor who preceded 
 him gave the pupil faulty instructions. 
 
 The public treats these specialists both in the same 
 way. It has confidence in charlatans. Everybody 
 recommends with equal willingness his doctor, or his 
 singing-master ; and, after all, it is still Nature who is 
 the best physician and the best singing-master." * 
 
 Upon my word, this is as well conceived as it is wit- 
 tily written. 
 
 Does this mean that song is such a natural thing 
 that all methods are good, or all useless? One would 
 almost be tempted to believe so. In fact, some profes- 
 sors do without them entirely, and invent exercises ap- 
 propriate to the particular nature of each of their pu- 
 pils, helping to develop the qualities and root out the 
 faults in proportion as the need makes itself felL 
 They may very well be in the right. Moreover, after 
 carefully reading over a couple of dozen celebrated 
 methods that I was already thoroughly well acquaint- 
 ed with, I would not venture to affirm here a prefer- 
 ence for one more than another. I would rely upon 
 the advice of experience and good sense, and what- 
 ever may be the method that my reader has in his 
 hand, he will find nothing in it that can contradict me. 
 
 In the study of Singing, just as in the instrumental 
 studies that form the subject of the preceding chap- 
 ter, there is room for two distinct parts, one of mechan- 
 ism, which here is called Vocalization, and the other 
 of the Art of Singing, properly so-called, comprising 
 * A. Rubinstein. 
 [208]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 style, phrasing and the intelligent taking of breath, 
 etc. 
 
 It is proper to begin always with vocalization. To 
 vocalize is to sing a, e, i, o, u, ou, and eu, that is to 
 say, the vowels or diphthongs, without making use of 
 consonants. 
 
 In general, people vocalize on a alone, which is 
 wrong. We ought to exercise successively on all the 
 vowels that belong to the language in which we sing, 
 as well as their various modifications, which are more 
 or less favourable to the emission of sound, some low, 
 others high. 
 
 The study of vocalization comprises exercises of all 
 kinds for flexibility, from simple separate sounds to 
 the complete subjection of the voice, according to 
 Faure's happy expression, by going through the 
 scales, arpeggios, chromatic figures, the traits and 
 roulades derived from them, appogiatura, and trill. 
 It also includes the placing and emission of the voice, 
 its bearing, the union of the registers, passing from 
 one to another (passing from the chest to the head 
 register, which is often called simply the passage, is 
 one of the greatest difficulties in the art of singing), 
 the purity of the timbre and the certainty of intona- 
 tion, etc. It is the study of the voice considered as an 
 instrument. 
 
 For this entire part of vocal technique, it is certain 
 that we cannot be better inspired than with the ideas 
 and procedure, if not the methods even, which are 
 honoured in every country, of the old Italian school, 
 which carried this study to the extreme of perfection. 
 [209]
 
 I think it will be interesting to borrow a few para- 
 graphs from a work already cited, which, although 
 written by a Spaniard, the son of a Spaniard,* justly 
 stands as an authority on the question of Italian sing- 
 ing. 
 
 " It is not sufficient to pick up a few notions of 
 music in haste ; artists are not improvizcd ; they form 
 themselves by long preparation ; their talent must be 
 developed early, and by a careful education and spe- 
 cial studies. 
 
 The special education of the singer consists of the 
 study of solfeggio, then that of an instrument, and 
 lastly, that of singing and harmony." 
 
 He does not say what instrument ; but he could 
 scarcely have any other in view than the piano, the 
 harp, or the guitar, instruments of accompaniment. 
 Observe also that he places this study of an instrument 
 before that of singing itself, and that he demands a 
 knowledge of harmony. The singers of that day were 
 relatively much better musicians than those of to-day, 
 who, however, on account of the evolution of music 
 and the style of the works that they have to interpret, 
 should have need of much more than their predeces- 
 sors had. 
 
 " The voice in its natural state is nearly always 
 rude, uneven, uncertain, trembling even, and finally, 
 unwieldy and limited in range. Study alone, enlight- 
 ened and determined study, can fix the intonation, 
 purify the timbre, and perfect the intensity and 
 elasticity of tone. By study, we level the aspersities 
 * Manuel Garcia. 
 [210]
 
 THE STUDY OP SINGING 
 
 and incoherences of the registers, and, by uniting one 
 register with another, we extend the dimensions of the 
 voice. Study enables us to acquire agility,- a quality 
 loo greatly neglected, in general. We must submit to 
 severe exercises not only the organs that are rebellious, 
 but also those which, led away by a dangerous facility, 
 can not master their own movements." This deserves 
 particular attention, for " this apparent flexibility 
 is allied itself with a lack of clearness, tenuto, correct- 
 ness, assurance and breadth ; that is to say, with the 
 absence of all the elements of accent and style." 
 
 All this is admirably thought out and expressed ; 
 it is a complete programme of the studies of vocaliza- 
 tion; there is not a word to be added to it or taken 
 from it. This is exactly the way in which the work 
 of vocal mechanism must be conducted in order that 
 it may be brought to that state of suppleness that will 
 allow it to attack difficulties of every kind, and to lend 
 itself to the expression of every emotion. 
 
 We will not become dull over the question of the 
 classification and nomenclature of voices, upon which 
 all professors are not absolutely in accord, which, to 
 tell the truth, might well be nothing but a simple af- 
 fair of words ; nor over the exact delimitation of the 
 registers in each voice, which varies with individuals, 
 and can be determined with precision only by a skilful 
 professor after a profound and often-renewed exami- 
 nation of the organ of each pupil. 
 
 All these vocalization exercises, as well as those of 
 which we are about to speak, should never absorb 
 more than two hours of the day, divided into halves 
 [211]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 or quarters of an hour, which may be further sub- 
 divided with periods of rest, if fatigue makes its 
 appearance. 
 
 When the pupil has succeeded in getting his voice 
 into such complete subjection as to be able to overcome 
 with ease the majority of the material difficulties of 
 execution, another period opens in which it is a ques- 
 tion of forming a style for himself, or to speak more 
 correctly, of studying the different styles. 
 
 Kastncr excellently says : " To sing is not only 
 to produce with the voice different intonations at ran- 
 dom, or in conformity with the instinct that we have 
 for that object, it is also to make audible, according 
 to the rules of the art, varied sounds intended to ex- 
 press the passions and sentiments of the heart." 
 
 This, in fact, is the veritable aim, and the long and 
 complicated study of vocalization has no other use 
 than to prepare the organ for the expression of the 
 idea, in order to Jbe able to employ it, through its en- 
 tire range and with the plenitude of its powers, as 
 freely and easily as we make use of the speaking voice. 
 
 In thi? new study of a higher order, the superiority 
 of the Italian school totally disappears, and our ef- 
 forts must be concentrated especially upon what is 
 good diction in the language in which we are sing- 
 ing. Clearness of articulation and pronunciation is 
 of the greatest importance in singing. If the voice 
 did not have that superiority over the instruments of 
 uniting words to music, it would be surpassed by a 
 great number of them, in compass, or agility, or even 
 in richness of timbre. What renders it incomparable
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 and places it above the admirable sound-mechanism 
 invented by the ingenuity of the lute-makers is pre- 
 cisely that inimitable faculty of explaining and de- 
 termining with words the sentiment it expresses, 
 and expresses with an intensity which can not be at- 
 tained by the spoken language alone. It places the 
 title beneath the drawing. 
 
 Now, if the listener does not clearly catch the 
 words, a great part of the interest is lost for him, and 
 the voice is nothing more than an instrument like the 
 others. " A singer who is not understood subjects his 
 audience to annoyance, and destroys a great part of 
 its musical pleasure by forcing it to perpetual efforts 
 to catch the meaning of the words." * 
 
 It is important then to resume the study of the 
 vowels, already sketched out in the course of the work 
 of vocalization, but now from the linguistic and de- 
 clamatory point of view, and to add to it that of the 
 consonants, which will acquire very great importance 
 in the intense expression of violent or pathetic emo- 
 tion. A few lessons in good diction, that may be 
 taken with a good comedian or tragedian, would not 
 be at all out of place, and would help one to grasp the 
 " infinite shades " f that may tinge the accentuation 
 of every vowel as it traverses the larynx, shades by 
 means of which the true singer knows how to ex- 
 press in turn tenderness, fatuity, violence, indigna- 
 tion, indifference, love, hatred, anger, hypocrisy, 
 frankness, kindness, joy, irony, faith, magnanimity, 
 
 * Burja, Memoires de V A cademie des Sciences de Berlin. 
 
 f Ch. de Brasses, Trait 4 de la formation mtcanique des langues. 
 
 [213]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 pardon, candour, courage, triumph, meditation, grief, 
 in fact the entire gamut of human passions. The 
 function of the consonants is rather to increase the 
 force of the sentiment ; the more energetically they are 
 pronounced, the more impression the words produce 
 upon the hearer. " The consonant expresses the force 
 of the sentiment as the vowel expresses its nature." 
 
 Those whose syllabic articulation is lacking in firm- 
 ness may try an excellent means indicated by Faure, 
 which consists in practicing singing, or simply read- 
 ing in a loud voice, keeping the teeth clenched and 
 nevertheless forcing oneself to pronounce clearly and 
 make every syllable distinctly heard. " The obstacle 
 that we meet with in doing this forces the muscles of 
 the lips and tongue to efforts that develop their vigour 
 and agility." 
 
 Both professor and pupil in fact should set them- 
 selves to combat and to vanquish, or at least to at- 
 tenuate, all the vices of pronunciation or emission, at 
 the head of which we must place the tremolo, one of 
 the most horrible of all, which can only be excused 
 in singers made decrepit by age. Rossini said that 
 old singers ought to be killed. It is to be noted that 
 this frightful tremolo, or perpetual trembling of the 
 voice, which many male and female singers who are 
 still young, but destitute of artistic common sense, 
 seem to take pleasure in cultivating as a means of ex- 
 pression^), is found hardly anywhere except in 
 France, and a little in Italy, where however it was se- 
 verely proscribed at the great epoch; that we find 
 hardly any examples among the English singers ; and 
 [214]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 that there is not the slightest trace of it among the 
 Germans, who manage to express emotion in a more 
 musical manner. Next comes the grassayement * a 
 fault frequent in southerners, who are easily taught 
 to get rid of it by a few exercises of the tongue fa- 
 miliar to everybody. There are also the pronuncia- 
 tion of Z instead of J or Ch ; the stutter, as well as 
 that disagreeable sonority that is wrongly called sing- 
 ing through the nose, or talking through the nose: I 
 say wrongly, because in truth the voice, in order to 
 be pure and beautiful in quality, should escape in part 
 through the nostrils, and, on the contrary, it produces 
 the defective timbre that we improperly call nasal 
 when it does not pass through them. We can see this 
 by pinching the nostrils while we sing or talk. We 
 ought therefore to say that the fault lies in not sing- 
 ing through the nose. But this is a digression. 
 
 There still remain many more things to study : the 
 art of properly managing respiration, and distribut- 
 ing it in accordance with the exigencies of the musical 
 discourse ; that of punctuating and scanning a verse 
 well ; of shading and accenting the syllables from the 
 purely grammatical point of view quite as much as by 
 reason of the degree of expressive importance they 
 bear; all this, and even this is not all, is what one 
 has to learn from a professor of high style, diction and 
 lyrical declamation, that is to say, from really a great 
 artist. 
 
 But, in order to teach these things, this great artist 
 has no absolute need to be himself a singer. Every 
 * A thick pronunciation of the R. 
 
 [215]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 man of taste, who possesses a pure and elevated 
 aesthetic sense, can give most profitable advice to a 
 singer, who thenceforward is in full possession of his 
 vocal powers, whose organ is in complete subjection, 
 and who, knowing all the processes in detail, will 
 know how to apply them for himself so as to obtain 
 the effects that are demanded of him. Having reached 
 this point, the singer can again find an excellent mas- 
 ter in a composer who will make him study his works, 
 and will be more favourably situated than anybody 
 else to make him understand their correct interpreta- 
 tion and the benefit that is to be derived from them. 
 To work thus successively under various composers of 
 merit is perhaps even the best exercise for mastering 
 style during this final period of attaining perfection, 
 the one that opens the vastest horizon, and that best 
 enables us to seize the function of the singer in art. 
 
 An erudite instrumentalist, well instructed in music 
 and literature, eclectic, having read and studied a 
 great deal, an experienced orchestral leader, and a 
 cathedral organist, can also .fill this same office and 
 serve as precious guides, whereas they would have been 
 only mediocre teachers, or at least very inefficient ones, 
 when it was a question of placing and developing the 
 voice. 
 
 Since we have just spoken of cathedral organists 
 (kapellmeister) let us take advantage of it by say- 
 ing that an excellent thing, so far as concerns the 
 higher study of the art of singing, is to sing fre- 
 quently in churches and temples. The sober style im- 
 posed by the dignity of the place obliges the singer 
 [216]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 to employ only simple and noble effects, that lend a 
 breadth and firmness to his art and his individual man- 
 ner in their entirety of which something advantageous 
 to him will permanently remain. 
 
 Let us resume. The study of singing, leaving out 
 those preliminary infantile studies, the undeniable 
 advantages of which we have demonstrated, gains 
 by being undertaken immediately the change is 
 completed and the voice finds itself formed ; that is to 
 say, between seventeen and eighteen years of age in 
 women, and eighteen and twenty in men. Earlier 
 would be dangerous, as the lack of stability of the 
 vocal cords would expose them to being forced or 
 strained, especially in the low register, and this in 
 turn would cause the loss of the high tones and the 
 whole head-register for the women. 
 
 But we may begin later in life if the voice has not 
 been foundered by abuse, and if it has preserved 
 its suppleness. From thirty to thirty-five years for 
 men, and from twenty-six to thirty for women may 
 be considered the extreme limits. 
 
 A beginning must always be made with solfeggio; 
 and, just as soon as one is somewhat of a musician, the 
 voice must be disciplined by the study of vocalization. 
 Concurrently, the use of the piano must be acquired. 
 
 Singing, properly so-called, with the adjunction of 
 words, must not come till later. 
 
 The period of study every day should always be 
 very short. Three or four half-hours, wisely scat- 
 tered through the day, and kept far enough apart 
 15 [217]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 from one another to avoid all fatigue, are the best 
 arrangement that can be made. To work more than 
 this would be foolish. If with this small amount of 
 work no progress is made, nothing will be gained by 
 increasing it ; the fault must be sought elsewhere ; and 
 if it does not consist in some defect of conformation or 
 organization, organic deficiency or lack of musical 
 aptitude, we can only attribute it to a bad method of 
 work, or a bad choice of exercises. 
 
 III. READING, IMPORTANCE OF MUSICAL STUDIES, 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR THE STAGE AND PHYS- 
 ICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR AN OPERA SINGER 
 
 Let us add that it is quite permissible to lighten and 
 vary the solfeggio studies by the sight-reading of 
 melodies with words, at first selecting very simple ones, 
 such as popular songs. In practicing this exercise of 
 sight-reading, so precious for the singer, it is neces- 
 sary to proceed as we have already said for the in- 
 strumentalist ; first run your eyes over the whole of 
 the words, so as to get some idea of their character 
 and sentiment, look over the melodic contour in the 
 same way, so as not to be surprised by the modula- 
 tions, changes of time, or any difficulties whatsoever; 
 then, having once started, go right ahead, keep- 
 ing good time, without trying to correct any errors 
 committed, and taking care of the shading just as 
 though it was a question of a piece already learnt. 
 When the singer is a harmonist as well, a case of ex- 
 treme rarity, alas ! he reads the lines of the accompani- 
 [218]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 ment, especially the bass, at the same time as the voice 
 line, and, by this means, his task becomes incom- 
 parably easier. But, by an aberration that does no 
 honour to his artistic intelligence, the singing-pupil 
 in France scarcely ever understands what a great ad- 
 vantage it would be to him to be an excellent, trained 
 musician. He even seems to glory in his ignorance 
 and to delight in it. For him, music and singing arc 
 two absolutely distinct things. Singing appears to 
 him as a noble art beside which music is nothing but a 
 sort of inferior and contemptible art. 
 
 I know not where such outlandish ideas can have 
 arisen, but it is certain that they are very deeply 
 seated, and that they shackle the studies of young 
 singers to a ridiculous extent. How often we hear at 
 the Conservatoire, before the full board of examiners, 
 absurd reasonings of this nature : " I did not come 
 here to learn music, I came to learn singing." * What 
 would singers think of a comedian who was stubborn 
 enough not to want to learn how to read, and by that 
 very course prevented his own access to all literary 
 study? That would scarcely be any more stupid. 
 But that does not happen. This is a trait of careless- 
 ness and laziness peculiar to the singer, who thinks 
 himself the king of all Creation as soon as he possesses 
 a very strong and roaring voice. 
 
 Let us regretfully say however that this organic 
 
 fatuity dees not exist in Germany, where singers, who 
 
 are infinitely better advised, are not ashamed to study 
 
 music ; that it is scarcely to be found in Italy, Eng- 
 
 * A. Lavignac, Les Gaietfa du Conservatoire. 
 
 [219]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 land, Holland, or Belgium; and that it is especially 
 prevalent in France; of which fact we have no rea- 
 son to feel proud. 
 
 For a long time, I was in close relations with a 
 charming tenor who was the possessor of a voice of 
 very high range and strong timbre. This, added to 
 the way of writing the tenor in the G clef (that is to 
 say, an octave higher than the real sound pro- 
 nounced), had given him the conviction that in a duet 
 with a soprano, he was the one who always had the 
 highest note. He made it a matter of amour-propre, 
 and was astonished that in the scores the soprano line 
 was always placed above the tenor. Nobody dared to 
 contradict him, some for the sake of not causing him 
 chagrin and others for fear of putting him in a rage, 
 for he was exceedingly irascible. One day, however, 
 relying on our ancient friendship, I risked an attempt 
 to show him his error. He burst into a violent rage, 
 pretended that I was jesting and wanted to make sport 
 of him, and that he did not need to take lessons from 
 anybody. . . . And we remained embroiled un- 
 til his death. 
 
 Our singing-students are not willing to recognize 
 that this ignorant vanity places them in a condition of 
 real inferiority with regard to their foreign brethren, 
 and that it condemns them, in addition, to remain per- 
 petually under the tutelage of someone, an accom- 
 panist, a tutor, or a singing-master of their theatre, 
 and all because, incapable as they are of reading for 
 themselves and understanding their parts, they must 
 always bejyiped to like scholars. 
 [ 220
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 It is not till later, in the course of their career, that 
 they perceive the trouble caused by this lack of pri- 
 mary instruction in musical matters, and then, labo- 
 riously, clandestinely also, they again take up, and 
 without boasting about it to anyone, the study that 
 their simple braggadocio had led them to disdain at 
 the favourable moment. There is not a single person 
 who can contradict me. 
 
 This retrospective, and, for that reason, more dif- 
 ficult, work will be escaped by every young singer 
 who is willing to convince himself from the very be 
 ginning of his vocal studies, that are to take so little 
 trouble, since they ought never to exceed two hours a 
 day, that it is as necessary for him as for every other 
 musician seriously to study the fundamental principles 
 of the art of which he wants to make himself the in- 
 terpreter ; he has all the time for it. . 
 
 Musical art is thus constituted: it comprises pro- 
 ducers, who are the composers ; and interpreters, who 
 are the singers and instrumentalists. 
 
 In this, it resembles dramatic art, wherefore Lamen- 
 nais has said : " The actor is to the dramatic poet 
 what the executant is to the composer." These two 
 functions, without which the work of art could not 
 exist and receive life, are indispensable and comple- 
 ment each other, and each has its own beauty. Just 
 as the composer could not do without the interpreter, 
 to the singer and the instrumentalist would have no 
 plausibility if the author were not there to furnish 
 them with matter for interpretation. But in order 
 ^b*t these two agents may comprehend each other and
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 combine their mutual efforts, it is exceedingly neces- 
 sary for a bond to exist between them, and this bond 
 can be no other than general technique, that which 
 unites all the branches of music and binds together 
 all its constituents. 
 
 This is the reason that singers have certainly noth- 
 ing to fear in pushing their musical instruction as far 
 as possible. By doing so, they will only understand 
 the better the real importance of their functions, and 
 will know how to fulfil them intelligently, without be- 
 ing constantly compelled to have recourse to the help 
 and knowledge of others. 
 
 If, while still young, they could succeed in convinc- 
 ing themselves of this truth, that by the study of gen- 
 eral technique (solfeggio, theory, and harmony), re- 
 inforced by that of the piano, they would conquer 
 their independence and their artistic liberty, they 
 would attain very much higher and quicker results, 
 and notably a more complete development of their own 
 personality. 
 
 Too often, the young artists produced by the same 
 school seem to have been turned out of the same mould, 
 they have the same emission of tone, the same style, 
 the same qualities and the same faults. This is be- 
 cause they have had the same masters, the same tutors, 
 the same accompanists, and that in their impotence 
 (which they are forced to recognize in petto) to di- 
 rect of themselves any of their education as singers by 
 endowing it with a personal originality, they have 
 come to suffer the influence of the school in too con- 
 stant and too exclusive a manner. With more learn-
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 ing, they might have been more themselves, and on 
 that account infinitely more interesting. 
 
 In addition to their vocal and musical studies, those 
 artists who are destined for the theatre should give at- 
 tention to those that are special to scenic art ; de- 
 portment, attitudes, theatrical presence and mimicry ; 
 a Roman emperor should not have the ways of a valet ; 
 a little tragedy in view of the opera, or the lyrical 
 drama, a little comedy for the opera-comique, or 
 other light composition kinds and then another mat- 
 ter of considerable importance is the study of the 
 repertory. 
 
 This new collection of studies requires the inter- 
 vention of two new teachers: the first, who will teach 
 everything concerning deportment and gesture, 
 above all else should be a man or woman of the stage, 
 and himself possess the habits of the boards. It is 
 not requisite for him to be a musician ; a good 
 comedian will serve very well if he cares to take the 
 trouble to consider the somewhat special exigencies 
 occasioned by words sung and the relative slowness 
 of action put into music. If the attitudes are stiff or 
 awkward, if the movements are lacking in suppleness 
 or elegance, the best thing to do will be to join a danc- 
 ing-class (there are many classes for dancing and de- 
 portment), and for men to frequent the fencing- 
 school. There is nothing like it for acquiring swagger 
 and ease, and for learning how to stand and move 
 about naturally and without pretension ; but this must 
 not displace the teacher of stage-deportment in any- 
 [223]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 thing relating to mimetics, bearing and the art of 
 wearing costume. 
 
 As for the study of the repertory, we would gladly 
 range ourselves on the side of those who think that 
 there is an advantage in working with a professor, not 
 only of our own sex, but with one whose voice re- 
 sembles our own as closely as possible and who has 
 held on the stage a position similar to the one we de- 
 sire, and has even had the opportunity of playing the 
 parts, the traditions of which we ask him to transmit 
 to us. These conditions can be nothing but favour- 
 able ; but they are far from being indispensable, and 
 it is certain that every artist who has any experience 
 of the stage, whether he be a singer, a leader of the 
 orchestra, tutor, or accompanist, may perfectly con- 
 duct and bring to a happy conclusion this study that 
 is as useful as it is interesting. 
 
 In order to be able to say that we know a role, it is 
 not sufficient to have learned the important airs and 
 the principal points; it is necessary to have acquired 
 a complete knowledge and comprehension of the char- 
 acter, to know it entirely by heart from beginning to 
 end, including words, music, gestures and attitudes, 
 and to be ready to play it and sing it fully staged 
 after a few full rehearsals. Otherwise our work is in- 
 complete and inefficient, and will have to be done all 
 over again some day. 
 
 It is in the course of the study of the repertory that 
 the young lyric artist begins to perceive the extent of 
 the fatigue that the career entails, and understands 
 why his early teachers, on making their first examina-
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 tion, had to take into consideration, in addition to his 
 purely vocal qualities, his conformation, his general 
 health, and in fact everything that might serve to 
 foretell the force of resistance necessary for the ex- 
 ploitation of his organ. 
 
 What is fatiguing is not learning to sing, as we 
 have seen; it is not singing; it is the singing of an 
 entire work in the course of one evening, with short 
 entr'actes that scarcely constitute rests, since most of 
 the time is employed in changing the costume ; it is 
 having to begin again the next day with the same 
 work, or another one ; it is having to dominate the or- 
 chestra, especially the modern orche.stra; it is having 
 to rehearse early in the morning ; it is having con- 
 stantly to learn and to assimilate new roles; it is hav- 
 ing to travel as they do in artistic tours, when for 
 most of the time they travel during the night, to re- 
 hearse at daybreak and play in the evening ; it is 
 singing in concerts, which necessitates fresh re- 
 hearsals; it is the obligation of singing at soirees, of 
 being ever in the breach, or quite ready to mount 
 guard there; it is passing through the most diverse 
 emotions ; it is being the slave of one's engagement, of 
 not having the power to do what one likes with the 
 day and the hour, of being unable to rest and to relax 
 without the aid of a medical certificate ; it is having 
 to play a playful part when one's spirit is in mourn- 
 ing; it is being forced to sing whether one wants to 
 or not, whether one is well or ill ; finally, it is the career 
 that everybody recognizes as one of the hardest and 
 most burdensome as well as brilliant and full of ex- 
 [225]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ternal attractions. We need to be built of sand and 
 lime to support its fatigue, particularly during the 
 first few years, for we become inured to anything, this 
 as well as anything else. Therefore we can not help 
 smiling at the aberration of certain amateur singers, 
 men and women of the fashionable world, who, how- 
 ever, are not devoid of talent, who naively class them- 
 selves with professional artists, and because one 
 evening they may have sung, at a charity concert, a 
 scene or an act from an opera, after much coddling 
 and preparation, accept comparisons to their ad- 
 vantage. " Oh ! indeed, Viscountess, you were won- 
 derful; the opera never gave us a Marguerita that 
 came up to your ankle ! " or, " Mr. - , with as- 
 tounding fire, leaves far behind him all the artists who 
 have ventured to attempt the part of - , reputed 
 so overwhelming." It would be interesting to see 
 what would become of Mr. - - if he had to play 
 and act this part so overwhelming, in its integrity, on 
 the stage, with the orchestra and an ordinary audi- 
 ence ; and what the Viscountess would say if anyone 
 were to propose that she should repeat this little ex- 
 ercise four or five times a week, at the same time add- 
 ing the four other acts, or by playing a different work 
 every evening. 
 
 And how disillusioned would be those pretentious 
 dilettanti of the art of singing if it were given to them 
 to hear themselves turned into ridicule quite as much 
 by the people of their own world, whom they regard 
 as their passionate admirers, as by real artists. And if 
 they only knew how odious they arc to the composers 
 [ 226 ] "
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 whom they weary to death by beseeching them to ac- 
 company them in public for the sake of thereby gain- 
 ing an enthusiastic autograph letter, or a few words 
 of vain flattery, who, sometimes out of simple polite- 
 ness, sometimes from a sentiment of ironical courtesy, 
 discharge at them a few compliments ... of 
 double meaning : " Dear Madame, I never heard any- 
 body sing that as you do ... I have never heard 
 anything like it. . . ." 
 
 I do not say this in the least to asperse amateur tal- 
 ent, or to try to belittle its merit in the slightest, for, 
 on the contrary, I am of opinion that there are ama- 
 teurs of most remarkable talent, and that there may 
 very easily exist some who equal or even surpass pro- 
 fessional artists either in virtuosity or in elevation of 
 style. 
 
 There are artists and amateurs of every rank, and 
 the qualification " artist " does not imply any idea of 
 superiority any more than that of " amateur " neces- 
 sarily implies the idea of superficial or negligent stud- 
 ies. Unfortunately there are artists who dishonour 
 this title, just as there are amateurs of high intelli- 
 gence who possess the genius of interpretation and 
 the most elevated sentiment. These great amateurs 
 ought to be admired, applauded and encouraged, for 
 they powerfully contribute to raise the artistic level; 
 but care must be taken not to establish a parallel 
 between them and the militant artists whose whole 
 life is consecrated to the worship of the art, who 
 feel their responsibility pledged, and have to con- 
 quer or to maintain by their own worth the favour
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 of a public, the great majority of whom arc indif- 
 ferent. 
 
 The amateur plays on velvet, for he never presents 
 himself to his audience under the same conditions as 
 the professional artist, though he is pleased to delude 
 himself with that idea. Of the occupation, he knows 
 nothing but the roses, and does not even suspect the 
 endurance, the strength of will and sometimes of cour- 
 age required by the stage career for him who with each 
 note, step and gesture defends his life and reputation. 
 It is not a question here for him of a vain matter of 
 fashionable and ephemeral potty glory ; one single 
 failure, especially near the start, may compromise the 
 whole future. And to what may a failure be due? 
 To a moment of inadvertence, or distraction, an indis- 
 position, a tired voice resulting from too many re- 
 hearsals,- to a thousand causes that do not detract 
 from the worth of the artist in the slightest degree. 
 
 I have not to speak here of the numberless mortifica- 
 tions that impede the triumphal career of a singer : the 
 jealousies, the cabals formed to effect the downfall of 
 a manager, but which hit the actor first, the rivalries 
 which, noble as they should be, become base and ma- 
 lignant; all this would carry me far beyond the ar- 
 tistic domain ; but it is none the less true that the 
 singer who launches himself on the stage exposes 
 himself to all these dreadful things and should be 
 warned beforehand. 
 
 If to sustain him he did not have the love of his art 
 and the sentiment of his dignity as an artist, to which 
 we may more prosaically add the bait of good engage- 
 [228]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 ments, his life, the brilliant side alone of which is seen 
 by the great public, would be nothing but a hell dis- 
 guised as Paradise. 
 
 To these cares of all kinds, must be added the con- 
 stant preoccupation of the" maintenance of his voice, 
 which is not a simple object of luxury for him, far 
 from it. 
 
 When we see the almost maternal care which the vio- 
 linist and 'cellist lavish on their instruments, the mi- 
 nute toilette that they perform even in the tiny cor- 
 ners, lovingly polishing it, carefully swaddling and 
 muffling its neck and strings with a soft woollen mate- 
 rial when they take it out into the world ; and when we 
 see the players of an oboe, or clarinet, keeping all 
 the parts of their outfit in a condition of scrupulous 
 cleanliness and surrounding their reeds with all kinds 
 of precaution and solicitude, we ask ourselves wheth- 
 er it is not worth while giving far greater care to the 
 divine and living instrument, more perfect, but also 
 more susceptible than any, the only one that can 
 never be replaced by any tradesman, should we ever 
 have the misfortune to let it get spoiled. 
 
 Every singer understands the utility of these cares 
 which the ignorant public often wrongly regards as 
 an exaggeration, or a Sybaritic practice; but not all 
 know how to apply them judiciously, and sin some- 
 times by excess of precaution and sometimes by im- 
 prudence. To coddle oneself too much is in its way a 
 mistake, for by that means one renders the organism 
 still more sensitive to inclement weather, and the 
 [229]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 slightest variations of temperature which nobody can 
 completely guard against, and which then become so 
 much the more dangerous. To brave cold, Avind and 
 humidity must be bad for any voice unless it is of an 
 excessively rare robustness and rusticity, and even 
 that often ends by playing the owner an ugly trick. 
 
 Everybody must learn to study his own organ, to 
 take account of the degree of resistance or suscepti- 
 bility that it offers to the perturbative action of ex- 
 ternal agents, and thus knowing the cause, adopt the 
 preservative hygienic measures that are personally 
 favourable to himself, without troubling to learn 
 whether they would suit his neighbour, or recommend- 
 ing them to him in turn, for there do not exist two 
 voices identically alike, nor two that should be treated 
 exactly in the same way ; which is what we must allow 
 thoroughly to penetrate our minds. Let us add that 
 the imagination often comes into play. It does not 
 therefore follow that because an able singer comes to 
 you and says: " This is what I do," you should think 
 you were doing well by doing the same and taking 
 him as a model. What is excellent for one may be 
 ill suited to another, and rice versa; everybody should 
 employ for this effect the means specially appropriate 
 to his own nature, and only those. Hence arises the 
 necessity for the singer to know himself, as the instru- 
 mentalist knows his instrument, since he is his own in- 
 strument, or more correctly speaking, he carries his 
 instrument in himself.
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 IV. HYGIENE OF THE VOICE 
 
 This chapter on singing would therefore not be 
 complete if we neglected to speak a little about vocal 
 hygiene. 
 
 First, we will borrow from a special work some lines, 
 the first of which corroborate certain ideas expressed 
 at the opening of this study :* " The education of the 
 voice should not be abbreviated. Prolonged studies 
 assure a long career, and if we see an early end to 
 voices which seemed to have the promise of a long 
 future, it is often because the period of preparatory 
 study has been shortened, in the haste to utilize an 
 organ full of promise as soon as possible. It is because 
 it has not been sufficiently trained. Let us recall the 
 good examples: Caffarelli, a pupil of Porpora, and 
 Rubini, working six or seven years before appearing 
 in public." Many other names might be cited ; in fact, 
 almost all the great artists who have had a long career, 
 and among our contemporaries, Mme. Miolan Car- 
 valho, Mme. Viardot, Mme. Malibran, Duprez, Faure, 
 etc. " The voice should be trained from infancy, 
 long before the change. It does not differ in that from 
 other gymnastics. An artist who goes late into the 
 career may sometimes grace it well, but almost always 
 for a short period. Let a child give free play to the 
 various notes of his singing voice, and as soon as his 
 change is completed, he will find it to be well exercised 
 in the new key-board that has fallen to his lot." 
 * Dr. A. Castex, Hygiene de la voix parUe et chantte. 
 [231 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 All rational physical exercises of a nature to con- 
 serve the general health are good for the singer during 
 the period of study, as also later, especially those the 
 effect of which is to develop the muscles of the chest: 
 horsemanship, fencing, dumb-bells, swimming (if the 
 reaction is good), and canoeing are very favourable 
 sports, provided they are used prudently, and there 
 is no exposure to catching cold. One should abstain 
 from exercise completely, however, when one has to 
 sing either at the theatre or at a concert ; on that 
 day, relative repose "is necessary. Faure even recom- 
 mends " avoiding long walks, or drives, in carriage, 
 or railroad car," on account of the trepidation, and 
 then he proceeds to advise the singer to select his 
 rooms in proximity to the theatre. 
 
 The principal precautions to be taken, apart from 
 violent and inopportune exercises, are: to abstain 
 totally from singing, either in public or even for exer- 
 cise while a cold lasts, or a sore throat, or even a simple 
 hoarseness, if the larynx is susceptible, and at the 
 slightest indisposition with women ; not to abuse and 
 founder the voice, either by singing uselessly or by 
 forcing it to produce tones beyond its normal range, 
 especially high ones; to avoid violent laughter, too 
 loud talk and long speeches, as also vociferation and 
 fatiguing cries ; not to play the piano just before sing- 
 ing; so far as concerns dressing, never to compress 
 either the neck, or the body, or the feet; for an ali- 
 mentary regimen, a simple and strengthening menu, 
 " little or no alcohol, nor anything that is irritating 
 to the throat (mustard, cayenne pepper, etc.). Butch- 
 [232]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 ers' meat, red or white, fish, eggs, milk dishes, mollusks, 
 oysters, mussels and snails, rice, tapioca, potatoes, 
 fruits in general (except nuts and almonds), and un- 
 fermented cheese should form the basis of the repast; 
 many singers attribute a special virtue to the raw 
 egg ; it can do no harm to anybody and may be espe- 
 cially good for some throats. Avoid singing during 
 digestion, or at least for long; on the day of perform- 
 ance, it is prudent to dine at least three hours before 
 the curtain rises. Nearly all singers smoke, but almost 
 all physicians are of opinion that it would be better 
 if they did not; in any case, what appears certain is 
 that the bad habit that some smokers of cigarettes 
 have of inhaling the smoke has the effect of favouring 
 the production of phlegm. Many male and female 
 singers during the entr'actes or before each entry on 
 the stage feel the need of clearing the voice by the ab- 
 sorption of some liquid or other : so long as it is only 
 a question of cold bouillon, lemonade, sirups, coffee, 
 even Bordeaux, Malaga, or beer, it will not hurt them, 
 but Champagne must be distrusted, also alcoholic 
 liqueurs and all that contains alcohol, such as grog 
 and punch, which, after producing an effect of excita- 
 tion might have a totally contrary effect by reaction, 
 not to speak of other inconveniences by which they risk 
 offending or scandalizing the audience. On return- 
 ing into the wings, or green-room, one generally finds 
 oneself passing suddenly from an overheated atmos- 
 phere into one that is sensibly colder; moreover, the 
 larynx and bronchial tubes, ' congested by the action,' 
 are in a condition of extreme sensitiveness, and more 
 16 [ 233 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 than ever susceptible to the influence of every morbid 
 cause. It is then advisable immediately to cover the 
 neck and shoulders (especially decolletee women, of 
 course), to breathe exclusively through the nose, so 
 that the air may be warmed by passing through the 
 nasal cavities, and consequently to avoid all conversa- 
 tion." * 
 
 The singer who is careful over the good working of 
 his larynx, without being forced to live as an ancho- 
 rite, ought systematically to forbid himself any de- 
 parture from his regime and all excesses of whatsoever 
 nature. If he desires his voice to obey him, he must 
 make himself its slave and set it a good example. 
 " Freshness, spontaneity and strength are the most 
 precious qualities of the voice, but they are also, of 
 course, the most fragile. The voice that once loses 
 never regains them, its timbre remains cracked with- 
 out recovery. We call a voice broken when it is reduced 
 to this exhaustion. A similar prostration of powers 
 sometimes manifests itself from the period of study, 
 when we may attribute it to the bad management of 
 the pupil's studies. The error would be equally de- 
 plorable whether the nature of the organ had been 
 misunderstood, or whether anyone had attempted by 
 obstinate labour to convert the voice from low to high. 
 The inevitable result of the latter attempt would be 
 the destruction of the voice. The studies should tend 
 to develop the natural gifts of an organ, and not to 
 transform them nor to stretch them be} r ond meas- 
 ure." * Thus far, his advice deals with management 
 * Dr. A. Castex, Hygiene de la voix parUe et chantte. 
 
 [234]
 
 THE STUDY OF SINGING 
 
 of study quite as much as hygiene properly so-called ; 
 what follows applies more particularly to the latter: 
 *' Singers, who are so strongly interested in the preser- 
 vation of their instrument, the most delicate and 
 fragile of them all, will understand the necessity of the 
 minute care to be taken to prevent its total loss or 
 even any change in it. First of all, they should 
 avoid excesses of any kind in regimen, habits and con- 
 duct. There is no excess that does not immediately 
 exercise a deleterious action on the voice." The 
 enumeration of excesses follows. " All these excesses 
 fatigue the organ and render it Coarse for the time 
 being; and if often renewed cannot fail to de- 
 stroy it." * 
 
 Let us add finally that an excellent practice from a 
 hygienic point of view, as well as a process of study, 
 consists in effecting every morning before breakfast 
 a complete cleansing of the vocal apparatus by means 
 of gargles and nasal douches with warm boratcd 
 water, and immediately afterward practicing a few 
 vocalization exercises. This is what Faure designates 
 by the suggestive term of " toilette of the voice." 
 
 V. THE ACCOMPANIMENT 
 
 Every singer who is anxious to bring into promi- 
 nence the qualities of his style should attach enormous 
 importance to the matter of being accompanied well, 
 either by the piano or orchestra. If he is troubled in 
 the slightest degree by the accompaniment, he loses 
 * M. Garcia. 
 [235]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 all his faculties, being hampered in his proceedings. 
 He becomes stiff and awkward, and is no longer him- 
 self ; it is necessary that he should be able to sing in 
 public as he does at home, without any more constraint. 
 
 No artist nor amateur should expose himself to a 
 misadventure of this nature. 
 
 If it is a question of singing with the orchestra, 
 the conductor will be the first to require at least one 
 rehearsal, and thus all will be well. But if it is a 
 question of singing either at a concert or an evening 
 party, even among friends, accompanied by the piano, 
 two things should always be inquired into. The first 
 is whether the piano is strictly in tune, and whether it 
 has been recently tuned in the diapason to which the 
 singer is accustomed (in France, the normal dia- 
 pason) ; for if the piano has several false notes, it is 
 the singer who will be suspected of singing false, and 
 nobody will think of incriminating the instrument; 
 and if the piano, although true, is tuned in too high 
 or top low a diapason, it will no longer agree with the 
 tessitura of the voice, which will find itself displaced 
 and will no longer be able to produce the studied 
 effects with precision. The second thing is to make 
 sure of a very good accompanist. For this, it is an 
 incontestable fact that, when the situation permits of 
 it, the best thing is to have a professional accompanist, 
 always the same one, whom you take with you, who is 
 acquainted with all your ways, and with whom you 
 feel entirely at ease. When this is impossible, it is 
 highly necessary to rehearse with the artist who is 
 to be at the piano; unless, at least, you know him 
 [236]
 
 THE STUDY OP SINGING 
 
 from having been accompanied by him before, you 
 must not be satisfied with a simple sketch, or with a 
 few scattered indications, or the general movement, 
 a rallentando here, a pianissimo there; that is not 
 enough, a veritable complete rehearsal is necessary, 
 and it is not complete until the moment when the 
 singer feels tranquil and sure of being well seconded. 
 There are virtuoso-pianists who do not know how to 
 accompany, either because they have not the instinct, 
 or because they are not used to it; we have attended 
 to them in another part of this book. It is necessary 
 to beware of them, for they are very annoying, and 
 to prefer to them an artist who possesses the special 
 qualities required, which are docility, abnegation of 
 personal effect and a peculiar characteristic style. 
 
 The principal qualities that a singer should seek 
 in an accompanist are the following: 1. To be a 
 very able piano-player and an excellent sight-reader. 
 2. To know how to efface himself and follow with 
 elasticity the shading and the slight infractions of the 
 rhythm. 3. To have sufficient initiative to cover an 
 error on the part of the singer and guide him if the 
 need arises. The last two qualities that appear to 
 contradict one another are both equally indispensable, 
 and it is the difficulty of finding them united in the 
 same person that is the cause of the extreme rarity of 
 perfect accompanists. 
 
 In sum, it should be thoroughly recognized that the 
 most brilliant singer loses all his power if he is awk- 
 wardly accompanied ; and that, inversely, the most 
 mediocre singer can acquire a certain prestige in the 
 [237]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 hands of an accompanist who knows how to manage 
 him and to bring out his few good qualities. 
 
 Every experienced artist knows this, and will not 
 allow himself to be accompanied by the first comer; 
 beginners are not sufficiently careful about this ; it 
 is nevertheless quite as dangerous for them, for if the 
 old-stagers are very properly careful not to appear 
 except under advantageous conditions, in order to 
 keep intact the reputation they have acquired, the 
 young ones, on their part, have yet to establish theirs, 
 and ought not to neglect anything that may help to 
 make them appreciated ; and the constraint resulting 
 from the fact of being ill supported and finding in- 
 sufficient assistance in the accompaniment may go so 
 far as completely to paralyze their efforts. On many 
 occasions, I have personally witnessed the distress to 
 which they are put by a defective accompaniment, so 
 that in affirming that an excellent accompanist doubles 
 the powers of the singer, I have only one fear, and 
 that is of understating the truth. 
 
 In a restricted space, short pieces, melodies and 
 lieder, as not requiring great development of voice, 
 acquire an exquisite charm and an intimate flavour 
 by being accompanied by the singer himself, if he is 
 sufficient of a pianist for it; nothing is more delight- 
 ful : absolutely master of his effects, since he has no- 
 body to count with but himself, the artist can give 
 himself free rein and abandon himself to all the 
 caprices of his inspiration, and his interpretation is 
 thus clothed with a character of sincerity, unity and 
 penetration that is difficult to realize under other con- 
 ditions. 
 
 [238]
 
 PART IV 
 
 THE VARIOUS STUDIES NECESSARY FOR 
 COMPOSERS
 
 PART IV 
 
 THE VARIOUS STUDIES NECESSARY FOR 
 COMPOSERS 
 
 I. THE CREATIVE FACULTY AND HIGHER MUSICAL 
 STUDIES 
 
 No study, however ably it may be conducted, can 
 result in producing a composer worthy of the name 
 out of any individual who is not natively endowed 
 with that entirely special instinct that leads one to 
 create and invent combinations of sounds, and which 
 in various degrees is called having ideas, having the 
 creative faculty, and lastly, having the sacred fire, or 
 having genius ; for there is no doubt that one may 
 have a little genius, facility, originality, gleams of 
 genius, or have a great deal of genius. There are 
 little geniuses and great geniuses, these words are cur- 
 rently employed. One may even have genius without 
 suspecting it, although the contrary is much more fre- 
 quently the case, alas ! With some it is a natural gift, 
 as is a faculty for figures, or magnetic power with 
 others. It even becomes a function : Saint-Saens says 
 of himself, without for a moment thinking of glorify- 
 ing himself or being the least bit vain about it,, that he 
 " produced music as an apple-tree produces apples," 
 [241]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 simply because he was so constituted. He who is en- 
 dowed with this faculty experiences, in fact, an irre- 
 sistible necessity of producing, of creating music, just 
 as the professional assassin feels the need of killing 
 some one, or the Newfoundland dog that of dragging 
 a drowning man out of the water. 
 
 This is why so many young composers reveal their 
 vocation from infancy, as we have already said, by the 
 propensity for putting their ideas down on paper, 
 when as yet they know none of the theoretic elements 
 except what they have been able to divine. New- 
 foundland pups and future assassins must also in 
 some manner give a foretaste of their aptitudes. 
 Buff on has said : " Nature gives the force of genius, 
 the cast of character and the mould of heart; educa- 
 tion only modifies the whole." 
 
 But though it is impossible for us to create such fac- 
 ulties at will, yet to a certain extent we can try to de- 
 velop the germ by education, of course on condition 
 that the germ, minute though it be, really exists, just 
 as we can also try to stifle it and prevent its flowering ; 
 for, if it is possible for us to annihilate it and hinder 
 it from manifesting itself, of which there is no doubt, 
 it is no less certain that by setting inverse procedure 
 in action we ought to be able to come to its assistance. 
 It is perhaps in the examination of what would be the 
 worst culture-liquid for the microbe of genius in its 
 native state that we can determine with certainty first 
 what must be avoided and then what must be sought 
 to favour its growth and blossoming. 
 
 Among the worst conditions, we may certainly place 
 [242]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 the living in some forlorn region far from every intel- 
 lectual centre, isolation, or association exclusively 
 with common people who are totally destitute of in- 
 struction, the absence of all affection, employment in 
 manual labour of a kind that demands no intellectual 
 effort, ignorance of all manifestation of any art what- 
 soever, in a word, all that constitutes the most brut- 
 ish existence. I firmly believe that a young man who 
 has been brought up from his infancy till the age of 
 twenty-four under such conditions, which are diffi- 
 cult but not impossible to find in combination, will 
 never distress his family by manifesting a strong de- 
 termination to devote himself .to dramatic composition. 
 
 Therefore, it is the counterpoise of this brute edu- 
 cation that must be adopted in the broadest sense if we 
 wish to furnish the divine creative faculty with every 
 chance to reveal and assert itself, and if we wish to 
 provide this young grain with a good soil and the in- 
 tellectual fertilizer that it needs. 
 
 To arrive at this result, it is necessary to bring to 
 the fore, parallel with the purely musical studies, lit- 
 erary, scientific and philological studies, and push 
 them as far as possible; to read a great deal, and se- 
 rious books rather than frivolous works ; to study the 
 great poets, those near relatives of great musicians ; 
 to know the rules of versification and prosody, so as 
 to know how to distribute the accents and respirations 
 in the vocal works ; to frequent the museums, to learn 
 to admire the beautiful under all its forms, including 
 Nature, which is not to be neglected the most, and to 
 this end, to travel, to travel a great deal, as was the 
 [243]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 advice of Montaigne, who had not music especially in 
 mind : " What is wonderfully good for education is to 
 visit foreign countries for the sake of rubbing and pol- 
 ishing our brains against those of others." When 
 travelling, which is much easier to-day than when he 
 recommended it, we must know how to take interest in 
 everything, local manners, usages, traditional cus- 
 toms that have lasted, costumes, architecture, beauties 
 of nature ; manifestations of art ; learn to appreciate 
 the great painters and sculptors of each country, for 
 one does not know much when one knows only what is 
 done at home, even as one is not a great lord if one has 
 never touched anything but music; seek intellectual 
 circles and the society of artists, and listen to their con- 
 versation, for I would not venture to affirm that to a 
 certain extent genius is not contagious ; choose one's 
 friends among men of high intellectual culture and 
 take interest in their labours of whatever nature they 
 may be; go to the theatre often, not the lyric stage 
 alone, but also the good theatres of tragedy, comedy 
 and drama; and try by every imaginable means con- 
 stantly to enlarge one's mind, broaden the field of 
 one's intelligence, and elevate one's mind ; such should 
 be the constant aim of all young musicians who aspire 
 to become veritable composers in the highest and best 
 acceptation of the term. 
 
 It is quite certain that most of these notions might 
 be considerably abridged or even completely neglect- 
 ed if the limit of our ambition was to write a few little 
 light pieces of no pretensions to artistic character, 
 such as a country dance, or the common accompani- 
 [244]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 ment of a popular song. That is musical slang, 
 which answers only to instinct and facile expression 
 and does not require any kind of study. The maker 
 of music must not be confounded with the composer ; 
 and here we have in mind only those who have noble 
 aspirations and want to mount to the higher spheres 
 of this art. Now there is not one of our counsels that 
 will not be of use to the latter. It might be thought, 
 for example, that the recommendation to dive deeply 
 into literary studies and reading the poets is addressed 
 specially to those who intend to write for the stage: 
 it is not so at all, for there is no more profoundly phil- 
 osophical style than that of the String Quartet or that 
 of the Symphony which is derived from it, or rather 
 which is its extension, so strongly do certain quartets 
 appear to be reductions of symphonies and to have 
 been conceived for the orchestra. One might think 
 that it is not a matter of importance to have travelled 
 much in order to produce beautiful melodies, but this 
 is a mistake, for, without having to regard it as an 
 indispensable condition, yet very often the contem- 
 plation of beautiful mountain scenery, the incidents 
 of a sea-voyage, the emotion produced by a striking 
 natural phenomenon or the memory that it leaves be- 
 hind is the principal cause of the inspiration of a 
 beautiful thought that reflects its grandeur, charm, 
 or local colour. 
 
 It is a sentiment of this nature that explains the 
 
 sending to Italy and Germany for three consecutive 
 
 months of the winners of the Prix de Rome, whatever 
 
 branch of art they may belong to, painters, sculptors, 
 
 [245]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 architects, or musicians. In these travels, in addition 
 to all that people learn in travelling, they find the op- 
 portunity, as Montaigne says, to rub against other in- 
 telligent artists. Inspiration may find its source in 
 everything and everywhere, it is therefore in the most 
 cultivated and best furnished minds that it will most 
 frequently find the opportunity of springing forth, 
 with equal intensity of innate genius. 
 
 There is still another study of which I have not yet 
 spoken, precisely because it more specially concerns 
 those who want to make a business of the stage: it is 
 that of history, in which I include mythology, or 
 myths and popular legends. When one has to set a 
 poem to music, it is not a bad thing to understand it : 
 now, one can understand it only if one knows its char- 
 acters, the reasons that induce them to act in one way 
 rather than in another, their characters, their impor- 
 tance, the part they have played in History, and the 
 period in which they lived. Moreover, it is not a bad 
 thing to know the manners of that period so as not to 
 turn into ridicule usages that, if they are no longer of 
 our age, were at that time infinitely venerable, and so 
 as not to commit anachronisms and reproduce a wrong 
 spirit. 
 
 In the same way, a knowledge of Latin is absolutely 
 necessary for those only who are attracted by relig- 
 ious music; it facilitates and illuminates literary 
 studies, nevertheless, and for this reason might be 
 recommended to all; but if the Latin tongue is to 
 serve as a text, it is indispensable to know it, for we 
 cannot set to music and properly punctuate a phrase 
 [246]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 the sense of which we cannot grasp, word for word, or 
 words in which we do not know the long or short syl- 
 lables that should be accented. Therefore, in this 
 case, it is not sufficient to know Latin, but the special 
 rules of Latin prosody in addition. 
 
 Finally, if I add that among the studies of the 
 sciences, of which I have spoken somewhat briefly, that 
 of acoustics, although the least advanced of the physi- 
 cal sciences, is the most important of all to the com- 
 poser, for whom it will open new vistas for harmony 
 as well as for orchestration, I shall have completed 
 the enumeration of the branches of knowledge out- 
 side of music that seem to me to be necessary for the 
 student composer. 
 
 All these things, if they are not studied now, will 
 have to be returned to later. It is therefore better to 
 furnish the mind immediately. 
 
 It may be that you will meet with musicians who 
 have " arrived " who will tell you with the best faith 
 in the world : " What is the use of encumbering your 
 mind with all those studies? Nobody ever taught me 
 all that." 
 
 With these, bring the conversation to a point of 
 history, adroitly lead them to give their opinion of the 
 characteristic side of a poet, ask them for the explana- 
 tion of a phenomenon in acoustics, in fact, put them 
 under a little examination, and you will very soon ac- 
 quire the conviction that if nobody has ever taught 
 them anything it is because they have learned every- 
 thing for themselves, and that they would be strong 
 enough to convince the doctors of this. 
 [247]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 The love of reading, the taste for literary or scien- 
 tific meetings, and conversation with learned men, in 
 their case, by the aid of a great facility of assimila- 
 tion, will have taken the place of lessons and studies 
 properly so-called. It matters little how they have 
 learned, or whether they have learned without effort, 
 and without even perceiving it ; what is Certain i? 
 that they know. You will never see a great artist an 
 ignoramus. 
 
 But, someone will object, with such a programme of 
 studies, in which even there has as yet been no mention 
 of musical technique, how much time will it be neces- 
 sary to devote to it? A whole lifetime would not suf- 
 fice. Yes, it would, by using method and not study- 
 ing all this at once. Everything in its own time. 
 After several years devoted to letters and to the exact 
 sciences, one will proceed to philosophy and reading 
 the great poets, and then the pupil, having learned to 
 work, which is always the principal thing, may be left 
 to himself to complete his studies by such reading 
 as suits him, selecting it from the subjects already 
 sketched and which have the most attractions for him, 
 and are on that very account the ones that he has the 
 most interest in investigating. As for travelling, it 
 will find its place naturally during vacations. 
 
 The higher musical studies are very long, it cannot 
 be denied, when we want to render them solid and base 
 them on an indestructible rock : " Time respects noth- 
 ing that has been made without him." (I know not 
 from whom this thought of profound truth emanates, 
 but J. J. Rousseau somewhat paradoxically manages 
 [ 248 ]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 to go even farther: " The greatest fault that we can 
 commit in education is to be in a hurry ; the essential 
 thing is not to gain time, but to lose it." We have 
 already seen an analogous conviction expressed in 
 more measured terms by Ernest Legouve. ) The com- 
 poser cannot escape this inflexible rule, and as he can- 
 not devote his whole time every day to music alone, 
 which would be extravagant and would lead to a 
 breakdown he will find a derivative and relative re- 
 pose in literary labours skilfully varied. 
 
 It is even necessary for him to arrange moments of 
 veritable recreation, play and distraction. The best 
 games for him are those of combination, among which 
 chess, billiards and a few others stand first ; but I in- 
 sist upon chess, which trains us to reflect and foresee, 
 and the men of which, with their various moves and 
 the illimitable resulting complications may offer inter- 
 esting analogies with the games of counterpoint and 
 the Innumerable combinations to which they give rise. 
 Also physical exercises, such as sports, horsemanship, 
 and especially fencing, which singularly develops the 
 spirit of appropriateness, forces us to think quickly 
 without the aid of words, and constitutes gymnas- 
 tics of the mind at the same time as the very best of 
 the exercises of the body. In one word, put into 
 practice the following excellent advice : " The great 
 secret of education is to make the exercises of the body 
 and those of the mind always serve as relaxation to one 
 another " ( J. J. Rousseau) ; then, as a complete stop > 
 a simple walk in the fields, in the fresh air, in accord- 
 ance with the paternal advice of that good Schumann, 
 17 [ 249 ]
 
 whom I often quote, because he is, in my opinion, one 
 of those who have best understood the subject that I 
 am attempting to develop here, Musical Education, 
 which must not be confounded with Musical Instruc- 
 tion, which I have treated in other works. Here is 
 the text of this advice : " Often rest yourself from 
 your musical studies by reading good poets. Take 
 walks assiduously (I think this expression to walk as- 
 siduously absolutely charming; it so well represents 
 the ways of the student dreamer) in the country, 
 through the fields." 
 
 The whole thing, here as always, is to avoid fatigue, 
 intellectual exhaustion, which we may manage so much 
 the more easily in proportion as more variety is intro- 
 duced into the studies and we do not keep constantl}' 
 to the sole idea of music, always music, which must 
 be avoided, if only for the sake of always coming back 
 to it with new and ever greater pleasure. 
 
 And now it is no longer the pupil himself whom X 
 am addressing but his relatives, his family and those 
 immediately about him, and all who take any interest 
 in him to put them on their guard against two equally 
 dangerous rocks from which it is for them to preserve 
 him. One is adulation and the other is indifference. 
 The first breeds fatuity and the second entails dis- 
 couragement. 
 
 It is detestable to create an atmosphere of admira- 
 tion around a youthful composer and to accustom 
 him, as is too often done, from his earliest attempts 
 to excessive praise which he is ever ready to accept as 
 [250]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 genuine and which intoxicates him and deceives him 
 as to his real value, and the sad results of which are 
 first to hinder him from working and to lay up cruel 
 deceptions for him in the future. 
 
 It is quite as bad to show nothing but coldness and 
 indifference to his work and what it produces, for, if 
 he sees his friends and relations take no interest in it 
 and pay no attention to it, how can he hope for the 
 good will and a more sympathetic reception on the 
 part of the strangers of whom the public is composed? 
 I once knew a talented young man who at least pos- 
 sessed great facility of production which had been 
 developed by complete studies, who, after having de- 
 voted three entire months to the composition of an im- 
 portant work, one evening gathered together the mem- 
 bers of his family to give them a private hearing of it. 
 The poor fellow had got scarcely half through it when 
 one left the room, another went to sleep and a third 
 took up a newspaper! He could have cried over it. 
 The result was that he gave up composing, which is 
 probably to be regretted. 
 
 It is necessary to know how to keep a middle course, 
 to give evidence of interest, to show ourselves indul- 
 gent, to be always ready to listen, to give encourage- 
 ment, neither to praise nor criticise unless we feel 
 certain that we are competent in the matter, but also 
 to avoid all enthusiasm that would not find an echo 
 in the outside world and might lead a beginner 
 to range himself prematurely among the misunder- 
 stood geniuses and imagine himself a victim of 
 this art. 
 
 [251]
 
 By the side of Genius there is Talent. 
 
 When the two are united, the artist is complete. 
 
 We must not regard talent as a diminutive of 
 genius, that would be a very false conception. They 
 are two things that are absolutely distinct from one 
 another and both equally necessary to the composer, 
 but do not resemble each other in anything. 
 
 If, as we have just said, genius is an innate faculty, 
 a natural gift like blue eyes or black hair, talent, on 
 the contrary, is acquired piecemeal by study and is 
 accessible to everybody except those rare natures that 
 are absolutely refractory to any artistic idea. 
 
 I shall make myself understood better by a compar- 
 ison. 
 
 It is necessary to have some little voice in order to 
 become a singer; but this is not enough, to learn how 
 to sing is also necessary. The voice is the gift; to 
 know how to sing is what is acquired. There is not 
 the slightest advantage in having a beautiful voice 
 unless we know how to use it ; and to know how to sing 
 is useless if we have not the voice. 
 
 Similarly, in order to become a composer we must 
 first have some little inspiration; but that does not 
 suffice, we must also learn how to write. Inspiration is 
 the natural gift; to know how to write is what is 
 acquired. There is no use in having ideas if we do 
 not know how to take advantage of them ; and there is 
 no use in possessing talent if we have not at least a 
 tiny grain of genius to fertilize it with. 
 
 And, pursuing our parallel, just as we should never 
 advise anybody who has no voice to study singing, 
 [252]
 
 so it is almost useless to plunge too deeply into the 
 long and often arid studies of the composer unless we 
 have a strong presumption that we shall find a few 
 ideas to place at the service of our erudition. 
 
 We will not return to the elementary studies. It 
 is thoroughly understood that before undertaking the 
 higher studies it is necessary to have a solid founda- 
 tion of solfeggio, to play the piano pretty well, and, 
 above all, to be a good sight-reader and able to write 
 with facility what we hear, since now it will be a 
 question of writing no longer under a master's dicta- 
 tion, but under the dictation of our own imagination. 
 
 I do not fear insisting again here on the importance 
 of the use of the piano, because it is for new reasons. 
 When we are forming a composer, we must think of 
 everything that will facilitate his career; now, the 
 piano should hold the first place here: by its means 
 he will manage to make his productions comprehensible 
 to an editor, or a theatrical manager, and give him an 
 idea of it. If he is not a sufficiently good pianist for 
 this, he will be forced to have recourse to an inter- 
 preter, which is not at all the same thing. Every- 
 body knows the Italian proverb: traduttore, traditore 
 (translator, traitor); however able and well-inten- 
 tioned he may be, a third person will never succeed 
 in conveying the thousand shadings of detail in his 
 work as intelligently as himself, and in giving it the 
 desired go and colouring, and penetrating the mind 
 of the leader of the orchestra with it. It is also a 
 good thing to be able to accompany the singers and 
 make them rehearse, for this is the way by which he 
 [253]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 will best be able to train them and succeed in incul- 
 cating them with his own ideas, which could not be 
 done by the best accompanist who is not imbued with 
 them as he is. The piano is a power for him, a 
 precious tool, an incomparable auxiliary, the handling 
 of which he must acquire at the most favourable time, 
 that is to say, in early youth. If not, he will always 
 regret it. 
 
 " I have often missed the use of this instrument ; 
 it would have been useful to me under many circum- 
 stances," wrote Berlioz * at a period when his career 
 had almost ended and when he had been able by cruel 
 personal experience to learn what things are likely to 
 aid or to hinder a composer's course. 
 
 II. THE SCIENCE OF Music : STUDY or HARMONY 
 AND COUNTERPOINT 
 
 This small collection of preliminary knowledge 
 constitutes what we will henceforth call being a good 
 musician. By solfeggio,, we possess the Language; 
 by the piano, we have been able to make ourselves 
 familiar with the Art. Now we are going to enter 
 directly into the domain of Science. 
 
 " Do not be afraid of the words Theory, Harmony, 
 
 Counterpoint, etc. If you smile at them, they will 
 
 do as much for you." Again it is Schumann from 
 
 whom we borrow this gracious image which is absolute 
 
 truth ; for if we have thought it our duty to say above 
 
 that the higher musical studies are sometimes arid, 
 
 * Hector Berlioz, Mtmoiret. 
 
 [254]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 this must be understood to apply only to those who 
 are incompletely endowed. For the others, musical 
 science is amiable and full of charm, as Montaigne 
 seems to describe it in his picturesque language: 
 " Science should have her abode in a fertile plain to 
 which we gain access by sweet-scented and flowery 
 ways of smooth and easy grade. Why set her apart 
 on a savage rock, a phantom to terrify people? " 
 This is particularly true for the science of harmony, 
 " that divine art that all great minds have loved ; 
 perhaps the only one that we may hope to find in the 
 better world that is promised to us." * 
 
 The study of harmony teaches you that precious 
 thing, probity of writing; and with it, grace, elegance, 
 distinction, and especially clearness of ideas. With- 
 out it, the style is awkward, heavy, and full of useless 
 incumbrances and superfluities ; moreover, it is this 
 that teaches us the art of rich, entrancing, or suave 
 sonorities, happy modulations coming sensibly and 
 appropriately, true equilibrium and learned propor- 
 tions to be given to the tonal edifice ; also the art of 
 writing for the voice, handling it skilfully and ob- 
 taining from it all the effect it is capable of yield- 
 ing. 
 
 The traces of it last through the entire life of the 
 composer, especially if he has studied under the direc- 
 tion of a learned and experienced master; and all his 
 works to their smallest details will show its influence 
 so much so, that on examining a single page of any 
 writer whatsoever, a true artist can judge immedi- 
 * Fran9ois Bazin, TraiU (FHarmonie (Preface). 
 [255]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ately whether his studies have been carried far or 
 merely sketched. 
 
 Harmony is the chief of the composer's studies. 
 By this I mean that if any one of them had to be 
 neglected, which would always be infinitely to be re- 
 gretted, it should not be this one on any account what- 
 soever. 
 
 This study cannot be completed in a week; on the 
 contrary, it gains by being conducted tranquilly, rest- 
 fully, and reflectively; for the pupil ought to store 
 his mind with a number of rules and no less numerous 
 exceptions without memory coming into play at all, 
 or very little. What is essential is to gain a full com- 
 prehension of the value of these rules and exceptions, 
 to grasp the reason for the existence of each and 
 thoroughly to understand their utility. Then we 
 find ourselves in possession of resources at which we 
 ourselves are astonished, for nothing beforehand, and 
 particularly early in the study, could have made us 
 suspect their existence. 
 
 It is quite understood that these writing studies, as 
 well as those of counterpoint, of which we shall speak 
 a little later, must be done at the table, without the 
 aid of the piano or other instrument, so as to accus- 
 tom ourselves to hear mentally with absolute pre- 
 cision. If at first this is troublesome, it will not be 
 for long, and we shall be well recompensed later. 
 
 Above all, we must not forget that nothing is to 
 
 be gained by going quickly, and be on our guard 
 
 against professors who pretend that they will teach 
 
 us harmony in twenty lessons. It is necessary for 
 
 [256]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 us to reckon on about two years for merely learn- 
 ing the rules and knowing how to apply them (for 
 here we must never separate practice and theory). 
 Then remains for us to acquire manual dexterity, 
 touch, the real talent of the harmonist, which takes 
 at least an equal length of time. 
 
 We must not be afraid of this slowness, which is 
 more apparent than real, however strange that may 
 appear, for on one hand, when once the harmony 
 studies are ended half of the whole distance will have 
 been covered, and, on the other hand, by means of a 
 certain dovetailing of the studies which I will explain 
 a little later, we find ourselves able to save a consider- 
 able amount of the total time. 
 
 The average age at which it seems to me most desir- 
 able to undertake the study of harmony is about 
 15 or 16 years. Here it is no longer as with sol- 
 feggio (the Language) that is never learned better 
 than intuitively. We have now reached Science, and 
 a certain degree of maturity of mind is indispensable, 
 so that to begin earlier seems to me to be useless and, 
 perhaps even hurtful, as mentally fatiguing except in 
 certain exceptional cases, for there is nothing absolute 
 in this. But on the other hand, he who in a desired 
 time has acquired the primary knowledge and has pre- 
 served a very precise memory of it may devote himself 
 to harmony at no matter what age, since reasoning 
 is everything here. Perhaps even (I have never made 
 the experiment) anyone whose mind has already been 
 disciplined for the work by some other study demand- 
 ing close application, such for instance as mathematics, 
 [257]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 might succeed in assimilating the precepts of har- 
 mony in a shorter period than is generally necessary. 
 
 The amount of time to be devoted to harmony is 
 one or two hours a day at the beginning, gradually 
 increasing this up to four hours. More would be 
 useless. Moreover, this time must be divided so as 
 never to keep the mind intent on the same subject for 
 more than two consecutive hours. 
 
 To these four hours of harmony, add two hours of 
 piano, four hours of literary or scientific study, mak- 
 ing ten hours of work, reserve two hours for meals and 
 the unforeseen, two hours more for walking or physi- 
 cal exercise, a total of fourteen hours ; there is a well- 
 balanced day leaving still about ten hours for sleep, 
 which is more than is necessary even in youth. 
 
 Approximately this is how I would distribute these 
 hours through the day, so as to get the greatest pos- 
 sible profit: 
 
 Morning: 8 to 9 Harmony 
 
 9 to 11 Scientific studies 
 
 11 to noon. . . . Piano 
 
 Afternoon : 1 to 2 Rest or exercise 
 
 2 to 3 Harmony 
 
 3 to 5 Literary studies 
 
 5 to 6 Harmony 
 
 6 to 7 Piano 
 
 Evening : 8 to 9 Rest or exercise 
 
 9 to 10 Harmony 
 
 In this manner, fatigue will be reduced to a mini- 
 mum by the variety introduced into the diverse con- 
 [258]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 secutive studies. For harmony, which is the principal 
 thing for the moment, I reserve the best places : the 
 morning on getting up, then after exercise, when the 
 mind is refreshed and the ideas fresh, then in the even- 
 ing before going to bed, which prepares the work for 
 the following morning and renders it easier. The 
 hours of recreation are arranged just after those of 
 repose, which conforms to the principles of hygiene ; 
 moreover, they are those in which intellectual work is 
 at once more laborious and less profitable. 
 
 Twice a week, one of the hours devoted to harmony 
 should be occupied by the lesson (two lessons are suf- 
 ficient) ; once a week, one of the hours of piano study 
 should likewise have a piano lesson substituted ; if 
 with this, the professor of literature could be induced 
 to come to talk with his pupil once or twice a week in 
 the hours reserved for literature and science, that 
 would be perfect ; there would be neither fatigue nor 
 lost time, and the work thus regulated would be agree- 
 able and productive at the same time. 
 
 I have presented this little model of the employ- 
 ment of time so as to reply in advance to the objec- 
 tions that might arise as to the difficulty of learning 
 so many things at the same time. Many more are 
 learned in the Lycees, because there, the employment 
 of each hour is strictly fixed. 
 
 We must know how to make our own personal regu- 
 lation ; and once made, to become its slave. 
 
 We may vary the exercises of written harmony, 
 which is the basis of the instruction, with those of har- 
 mony applied to the piano, and this is an excellent 
 [259]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 thing. These practical exercises are: 1. Playing 
 on the piano the Figured Bass, such as was used by 
 the composers of the Sixteenth Century, and which 
 was still employed by Rossini in the recitatives of all 
 his works in Italian. 2. The accompaniment of a 
 song, or any melody which is presented devoid of any 
 indication. 3. The reading and translation to the 
 piano of the orchestral score, which is of the highest 
 interest. All this should be done at sight, without 
 preparation of any kind, and under the attentive eye 
 of an excellent master, an indispensable matter. Un- 
 der these conditions, this accustoms one to think 
 quickly, and to apply the rules of harmony without 
 hesitation, and it is an excellent preparation for the 
 study of improvization. 
 
 During the whole time of the harmony studies, as all 
 those that follow them, it is indispensable to hear a 
 great deal of music of every school, but especially the 
 best possible, and preferably by the classic writers : 
 grand symphony concerts, chamber-music, recitals 
 by great virtuosi or great singers, organ recitals, cho- 
 ral renderings, all these are also subjects of study for 
 the harmony student. But we must not go to hear all 
 this passively for the mere sensual pleasure of the ear, 
 we must force ourselves to bring to these hearings a 
 little of the spirit of analysis that will later form the 
 principal element in the studies of pure composition ; 
 that is to say that we must not listen to a single piece 
 without trying to recognize in what key it is written, 
 the time (we have the right to look at the conductor), 
 and the principal modulations. All this can be noted 
 [260]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 down rapidly on a little pad carried for the purpose 
 that can afterwards be submitted to the professor for 
 the sake of being sure that we have heard and under- 
 stood correctly. 
 
 To catch the key in which an orchestral piece or 
 chamber-music begins, we have only to listen attentive- 
 ly to the musicians while they are tuning up, and thus 
 get the A with them. If we do not succeed in this 
 way, it is because our ear is not yet sufficiently trained 
 and then we must courageously set ourselves again to 
 the exercises of dictation.* A few rare individuals 
 enjoy a very singular faculty, a sort of indefinitely 
 prolonged and constant memory of sound in its abso- 
 lute degree of height in correlation with the name that 
 is given to it, they have the A of the diapason (an 
 essentially conventional thing) or any other note as 
 though indelibly engraved on their ear, and, conse- 
 quently, without any kind of aid, they can discern 
 the exact key of everything that they hear. At any 
 hour of the day or night, on their return from a long 
 journey on which they have not heard a note of music, 
 or on recovery from a long illness, they can give the 
 A to an orchestra with certainty, and they never make 
 a mistake ; they have the diapason in their ear, or bet- 
 ter still, they are living diapasons. I have known sev- 
 eral without taking count of them, and I have been 
 able to convince myself that this strange disposition 
 constitutes only a negative quality that leads to noth- 
 ing and is useless. Neither Rossini, nor Gounod, nor 
 Ambroise Thomas, nor other great composers with 
 * See page 26. 
 
 [261]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 whom I have often talked about it possessed it in the 
 slightest degree. It appears to me indubitable, how- 
 ever, that this faculty is connected only with an ear 
 that is perfectly true in what concerns the relations 
 of sounds to one another, a matter that is indis- 
 pensable. 
 
 Let us return. Another way of hearing a concert 
 intelligently is to procure beforehand the score of 
 what is going to be played, decipher it at home, carry 
 it to the concert, follow it attentively and play it over 
 again on returning home. The same thing should be 
 done for the concerts of Chamber-music. For all the 
 classic quartets, there exist little diamond editions that 
 are easy to put in the pocket, which double the pleas- 
 ure of listening for those who know how to read well. 
 For the classic symphonies of Beethoven, Mozart, 
 Haydn and Mendelssohn, the orchestral score must 
 also be procured so as to learn how to discern the 
 timbre of each instrument (again a little piece of 
 good advice by Schumann : " Penetrate early into the 
 tone and character of every instrument and accustom 
 your ear to distinguish its individual colouring." 
 Notice carefully that he says : early ) ; this will be 
 exceedingly valuable later when we shall occupy our- 
 selves with Orchestration. 
 
 Employed in this manner, the two hours' duration 
 of a concert will afford more instruction than any 
 other lesson whatsoever. 
 
 Less useful for the moment are theatrical perform- 
 ances, which, however, must not be entirely neglected, 
 but during which the mind is too much occupied with. 
 [262]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 other tilings to be able to attend to those details of 
 purely musical analysis. Their turn will come in their 
 proper time. 
 
 The moment has now arrived to explain the over- 
 lapping of studies, of which I have already said a few 
 words. 
 
 When we begin the study of Harmony, it is well to 
 continue that of solfeggio, at least for a certain time, 
 since we have established that it could never be pushed 
 too far nor prolonged too much. Similarly, when we 
 have attained a certain skill in writing by the study 
 of Harmony, we can without inconvenience undertake 
 that of Counterpoint conjointly, but in small doses. 
 
 It is difficult to settle the opportune moment, for it 
 depends altogether on the personality of the pupil, his 
 character and temperament. The teacher, who alone 
 can judge of this, is alone capable of determining. 
 In short, it is the moment when the pupil, having now 
 for several months known the whole of the principles, 
 is beginning to know how to apply them judiciously, 
 with facility and elegance to those school exercises 
 known by the name of given themes and given basses, 
 whatever their style may be, either of classic or mod- 
 ern form. To begin Counterpoint earlier than that 
 would be a fault, and for this reason : its rules, while 
 they are not the same as those of Harmony, which are 
 derived from it, present numerous analogies, never- 
 theless ; and if we begin to study it before the former 
 have had time to fix themselves indelibly in the mind, 
 we run a great risk of confusion arising between the 
 [263]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 two, rendering them both unintelligible, or depriving 
 them of the precision that constitutes their force, to 
 the great prejudice of the pupil's progress, who will 
 simply get confused. It therefore belongs to the pro- 
 fessor alone to assume such a responsibility, I repeat, 
 because the pupil cannot be the judge of this ques- 
 tion ; he is not sufficiently favourably situated to see 
 for himself. 
 
 But when this double study is undertaken at the 
 proper time, Counterpoint, on the contrary, becomes 
 a precious and incomparable auxiliary for the com- 
 pletion of the higher studies of Harmony. We shall 
 understand this immediately. 
 
 The two following comparisons have often been 
 made : " Counterpoint, in relation to Harmony, is 
 what Syntax is to Grammar," or " Counterpoint is to 
 Harmony as Algebra is to Arithmetic." Both are 
 false, for Syntax would be of no use at all unless we 
 first knew Grammar, and Algebra, with its formulae 
 and equations, would be helpless without the assist- 
 ance of Arithmetic to solve them, whilst Counterpoint 
 forms a complete whole in itself and we can learn it 
 quite well without knowing a word of Harmony, as 
 is often done in Germany and as was necessarily 
 done everywhere before the harmonic theories were es- 
 tablished and spread, and before they existed even 
 in germ. I infinitely prefer this third comparison 
 which possesses the advantage of an indisputable his- 
 toric truth: " Counterpoint is a dead musical language 
 which has given birth to the living musical language 
 of the present day." 
 
 [264]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 The musicians of to-day, therefore, have the same 
 interest in learning Counterpoint as the French, 
 Italians and Spanish, people of Latin origin, have in 
 learning Latin. They will never so well comprehend 
 the genius of their own tongue, nor ever speak and 
 write it so purely as when they have studied their 
 mother tongue. This it is wherein lies its veritable 
 utility for every composer who has the ambition to 
 write works of an elevated character and of solid con- 
 struction. 
 
 We cannot form an absolutely exact idea of what 
 Counterpoint is without having practised it to some 
 extent ourselves; nevertheless, I wanted my readers 
 to know the truth about it. That is why I ask to be 
 allowed to make another comparison which perhaps 
 will be better understood by some people, particularly 
 those who cultivate the arts of design : " Counterpoint 
 is in music what the manner of the primitive masters 
 is in painting." The great and admirable works writ- 
 ten in the pure style of counterpoint by Palestrina, 
 Orlando di Lasso, Arcadelt, Clement Jannequin, Vit- 
 toria, Allegri, and other of their contemporaries have 
 something of the simplicity, stiffness and awkward- 
 ness in their manner, but also the sincerity and pro- 
 found conviction of the admirable paintings of the 
 primitive Italians, Cimabue, Giotto, and the first of 
 the great painters of the Italian Renaissance, Ghir- 
 landajo, Lippi and Botticelli, etc., which are so de- 
 lightfully interesting and attractive to study when 
 one can do so at leisure in the museums of Florence. 
 Like these also, their subjects are almost always re- 
 18 [ 265 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ligious texts, conceived and interpreted in the Me- 
 diaeval manner. 
 
 " At the beginning of the German school," says 
 Theophile Gautier, " we find the handling dry, la- 
 boured, minute and hieratic, so to speak, which is 
 common to all the primitive artists." A musician 
 could not have expressed himself in truer terms. 
 
 The robust and ingenious art of the early masters 
 is dead, just as the contrapuntal style is; but both 
 have given birth to other artistic manifestations, 
 which could not have existed without them and their 
 fertile gropings, and in the course of years produced 
 geniuses like Michelangelo, Titian, Lionardo da 
 Vinci, Raphael, Paul Veronese, Rubens, Velasquez, 
 Sebastian Bach, Gluck, Mozart, Beethoven, Rossini, 
 Berlioz, Wagner and the great modern masters, thus 
 leaving the imperishable traces behind them. 
 
 That is what Counterpoint is. 
 
 From the technical point of view, the great differ- 
 ence that exists between it and the harmonic theory is 
 that the latter is based upon the existence of fully 
 constituted chords and the combinations that they can 
 form among themselves ; whilst Counterpoint, start- 
 ing from a more rudimentary point, considers all the 
 arrangements that can be brought into existence by 
 notes simultaneously grouped two by two, three by 
 three, etc., and it is from this that it takes its name, 
 punctum contra punctum, point against point, the 
 word point being taken here in the sense of note. 
 
 For the harmonist, the chief thing is the chord ; fot 
 the contrapuntist, it is the note. To tell the truth, 
 [266]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 Counterpoint is the oldest and most venerable of the 
 system of Harmony, and Harmony is nothing but 
 modernized Counterpoint. Everybody who tries to 
 make two notes go together, or sketches the slightest 
 fragment of accompaniment to a song, is making 
 counterpoint unknown to himself, just as M. Jourdain 
 made prose ; so there is no need to be greatly fright- 
 ened about it. 
 
 Counterpoint rejects constructed or arpeggio 
 chords ; regular and rigorously symmetrical formulae 
 seem flat and uninteresting and stupid to it ; above all, 
 it likes the independent march of the parts and takes 
 pleasure in ingenuities which it sometimes even pushes 
 to the verge of puerility or Chinese ornaments ; for 
 ever and ever it demands variety, as in Gothic archi- 
 tecture, in which not one capital, not one ornamental 
 detail, nor a window-frame is repeated, and this va- 
 riety must not injure the unity. It also constantly 
 requires invention, fresh designs and new riches, 
 voices that seem to question and answer each other 
 wittily, pursue, overlap and get entangled without 
 ever returning a second time into absolutely identical 
 combinations, such is the very essence of Counter- 
 point, the highest expression and the most perfect 
 form of which is the Fugue, as understood by Sebas- 
 tian Bach, who marked the culminating point of that 
 epoch. 
 
 All the studies of Counterpoint converge towards 
 this sole goal: to succeed in writing the Fugue cor- 
 rectly. " Therefore there can be no better study for 
 a young composer. He will thereby learn to present 
 [267]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and develop his ideas with power, flexibility and in- 
 genuity." * It is by the study of Counterpoint that 
 we learn to know the most learned musical combina- 
 tions, as well as the art of getting the greatest pos- 
 sible advantage from an idea, or a motive, that here 
 takes the name Subject. It is in the Fugue more than 
 anywhere else that we find the model of good order 
 and equilibrium for all the parts of a musical com- 
 position of whatsoever dimensions and whatever may 
 be the style in which it is conceived, even the most 
 modern and most advanced style. Very foolish or 
 ignorant are those then who think that all these rules 
 and all these principles are of a nature to shackle 
 genius ; they may dam it however, which is quite an- 
 other matter. It should be sufficient for them to know 
 that all the most celebrated composers who are the 
 objects of their admiration were and still are strong 
 contrapuntists, as well as skilful harmonists. Mozart, 
 Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Cesar Franck, 
 Richard Wagner, Massenet and Saint-Saens, to men- 
 tion only a few, have strongly impregnated and 
 nourished their minds with these solid and retrospec- 
 tive studies of which all their works bear the masterly 
 imprint, which has not in the least hindered them from 
 preserving and loudly asserting their own personality, 
 and from going forward. 
 
 Has any one ever thought of pretending that the 
 
 study of Greek or Latin literature, the reading of 
 
 Sophocles, ^Eschylus, Euripides, Horace, or Virgil is 
 
 likely to be prejudicial to the originality of young 
 
 * Th. Dubois, Traitt de contrepoini et fugue. 
 
 [268]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 writers, be they poets, prose-writers, or dramatic au- 
 thors? This would be neither more nor less absurd, it 
 would be the same thing. It would be attributing to 
 ignorance a virtue that it does not possess, and putting 
 a premium on laziness and heedlessness. 
 
 And unfortunately, this idea is very prevalent in 
 the amateur world; they think that as soon as they 
 have ideas they have only to take a pen and put them 
 down on paper without taking any notice of what 
 those who went before them did. 
 
 With my own ears, I have heard a young society 
 composer utter this delightful table-talk : " Why, 
 they would pay me to write Bach: but that I would 
 not do ! " I have also heard a young painter who had 
 lived in Rome for several months boast loudly that he 
 had never set his foot in a museum. They were two 
 imbeciles. 
 
 Far from this, we should know our classics to the 
 bottom, admire all that is admirable in them, set our- 
 selves to penetrate profoundly into their genius and 
 their proceedings, their composition, and never fear 
 that this knowledge will incite us to anything more 
 than this : the desire to become a creator like them, 
 which is perhaps the best way to stimulate the blos- 
 soming of ideas, and to induce and excite the secretion 
 of thought. " The influence of the masters is a 
 veritable paternity: to want to do without them is as 
 sensible as it would be to pretend to be a father with- 
 out having been a son." * 
 
 In the same order of ideas, we will say on this point 
 * Gounod, fitude sur les chorals de Bach. 
 
 [269]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 of the higher studies that even more energetically 
 than in the past the obligation is imposed to hear a 
 great deal of music of all styles, the religious style, 
 (Catholic religious art has produced marvels, that 
 are infinitely too greatly neglected in our day), the 
 symphonic style, the dramatic style, the music of all 
 ages, modern as well as classic, for one ought to 
 neglect nothing. " If there were only one school and 
 one doctrine in art, art would very quickly perish for 
 lack of boldnesses and new attempts." * Therefore, 
 we must frequent the churches, concerts and theatres 
 where there is music. When we go to the theatre, es- 
 pecially to hear a work that we do not yet know, we 
 must first have read the entire score, preferably at 
 the table, if we have arrived at that degree of per- 
 fection which consists in hearing with ,our eyes 
 ("You must render yourself capable of reading any 
 music and comprehending it by sight alone " f), 
 otherwise at the piano, if it suits you better and if 
 you play that instrument well, by taking note of the 
 passages to which you think you will want to pay 
 special attention when you hear it given, either by 
 reason of their special beauty that delights you, or on 
 the other hand because you feel that you do not un- 
 derstand them, on account of appearing confused or 
 obscure to you. Then, take the score with you to the 
 performance, and courageously follow the execution 
 line by line even if that should cause you to be re- 
 garded as a " poser " by those in the next seats. Be 
 particular for the moment carefully to qbserve the 
 * George Sand. f Schumann. 
 
 [270]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 great features of the composition, the division of the 
 work into parts, the structure of these parts, the di- 
 vision of the work by scenes according to the more 
 modern form that tends at present, perhaps a little 
 too much, to become generalized; pay attention also 
 to the manner of treating the voices, in the solos as 
 well as in the ensembles and choruses; to the role of 
 the orchestra, the concordance between the dramatic 
 action and the musical text, the good prosody and the 
 lyrical declamation. In fact, proceed as if you had 
 been commissioned to write a critical and analytical 
 account of the work, nevertheless forcing yourself to 
 take note of the interpretation and the value of the 
 interpreters, setting beside them the ideal of the in- 
 terpreters and interpretation dreamed of by the com- 
 poser. In this manner, you will succeed in forming 
 your judgment and having the right to assert ad- 
 mirations and preferences based on something more 
 than the fashion, or public snobbery. At a second 
 hearing, if you are convinced that you have thor- 
 oughly penetrated the intent of the composer and his 
 proceedings, it will be better to go to the theatre with- 
 out the score and let the action work upon you. After 
 analysis, emotion. Some people may extol the in- 
 verse order: to submit themselves to the emotion first 
 and seek its causes afterwards. It is perhaps a mat- 
 ter of temperament ; you can try it. I prefer to pro- 
 ceed as I have said, because in the Lyrical Drama, or 
 the Opera, or even the Opera Comique, it is not the 
 same as in the Operetta or Fairy Opera, where sur- 
 prise and the unexpected play an important part. A 
 [271]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 great musical work that is truly beautiful produces 
 as great an impression at the second hearing as at the 
 first, sometimes greater (this is even a mark of true 
 masterpieces), and consequently this element of the 
 unforeseen need not be taken into account for its 
 sound appreciation, and for so much the more reason 
 in the case, analysis for the sake of study, of which 
 we are speaking here. 
 
 Those who are hardest to please will agree that our 
 plan of composition studies, if for a moment it has 
 seemed to them to be more extensive than they antici- 
 pated, is not really too burdensome, and permits of 
 some pleasant moment, for, after all's said and done, 
 the obligation of often going to the theatre or con- 
 cert, even with the means of taking interest in it more 
 intelligently than the ordinary run of mortals, would 
 make many students envious, whatever their branch of 
 study might be, and would not strike anybody as a 
 very cruel compulsion. 
 
 It is the same with a little erudition that is as easy 
 as necessary to acquire, being complementary to these 
 instructive attendances, this is that of the History of 
 Music. To hear a composer without knowing at what 
 epoch he lived, or what kind of man he was, or to what 
 school he belonged, or what are his principal pro- 
 ductions is to expose ourselves to deplorable contempt, 
 ridiculous even with respect to ourselves, and of a 
 nature to warp all equitable judgment. 
 
 Now, in a few evenings devoted to reading several 
 well- written works on this subject, a few memoirs, or 
 collected biographies of celebrated artists, we shall 
 [272]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 quickly come to possess this knowledge, or complete 
 it, if already in prior studies we have had the oppor- 
 tunity to dip into it. I intentionally said several 
 works instead of one work, because in the majority of 
 cases they are blemished with partiality or inexact- 
 nesses, and they will serve to correct one another if we 
 read several. 
 
 III. ORCHESTRATION AND INSTRUMENTATION 
 
 Now I want to speak of an entirely different kind 
 of study which also is full of attraction, because it is 
 by its very nature exceedingly varied and because it 
 is only superficial, unlike all those of which we have 
 had to speak hitherto ; also because it is a preparatory 
 step towards the most seductive study of all, Orches- 
 tration, whose turn will soon come. It is the question 
 of acquiring a simply summary knowledge of the 
 management of one of the instruments belonging to 
 each of the three principal groups of the orchestra : 
 strings, wood and brass. He who, during the time 
 that his studies of Harmony, Counterpoint and Fugue 
 last, manages to spare one hour a day to study a 
 stringed instrument the first year, a wood-wind instru- 
 ment the second year, and a brass instrument the 
 third year, even though he totally abandons them one 
 after the other, will have scarcely anything more to 
 learn in the matter of instrumentation. By this sim- 
 ple course, he will have acquired an incomparable 
 mastery, for, by each instrument that he will have thus 
 practised, he will have quite a sufficient knowledge of 
 others of the same family ; and, by the union of the 
 [ 273 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 three, the whole orchestra. And, I repeat, one hour a 
 day for three years is sufficient for the realization of 
 this ideal, which seems prodigious: the possession of 
 complete knowledge of all the organs of the orchestra. 
 
 One instrument or another, it appears to me a mat- 
 ter of indifference which, should be chosen from each 
 group ; however, in preference, I should take the Vio- 
 loncello, the Clarinet and the Horn. The Violoncello, 
 because it seems to me a little less irritating to the 
 nerves during the first months of study, in which we 
 necessarily play somewhat out of tune ; the Clarinet, 
 because of its diverse registers so clearly cut; the 
 Horn, because incontestably it is the noblest of the 
 family, and also because of the stopped tones that are 
 peculiar to it. If it is easier to find teachers for the 
 violin, flute and trumpet, I see no great objection 
 in that, but the neighbours will be somewhat more to 
 be pitied. 
 
 It is necessary that the teacher should fully under- 
 stand what we want, and that he should give his les- 
 sons quite differently from the way he would if it were 
 a matter of forming a virtuoso; that what is demanded 
 of him is much less learning to play the instrument 
 than explaining how it is played ; and especially keep 
 in mind that by reason of the general programme of 
 studies that we have adopted, we cannot devote more 
 than about a year to it. 
 
 In one year of the violin or violoncello, a pupil of 
 
 open intelligence may easily gain a knowledge of the 
 
 following: the fingering of the scales and usual 
 
 arpeggios, of double chords, triple and quadruple 
 
 [274]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 chords, the manner of producing the natural and ar- 
 tificial harmonics, and above all, which is of the most 
 importance, the various effects that result from the 
 variety of bowing. He will execute all this clumsily 
 and awkwardly, but that matters little, he will know 
 how to distinguish between what is possible, easy, dif- 
 ficult and impossible ; that is all that he needs. In 
 a year of the clarinet, he will be able to know the 
 embouchure, the tablature and the various fingering 
 of all the notes, the timbre of the three registers, and 
 the most familiar features. In a year of the French 
 horn, he will know how the natural and stopped tones 
 are produced, and here again if he succeeds only in 
 sounding them with difficulty, taking lots of time 
 for it, he will be able to form an exact idea of the 
 working of the brass instruments, and what can be 
 demanded of them. A few lessons may be devoted to 
 the valve horn, to complement this. 
 
 All this can be easily done during the course of the 
 Counterpoint and Fugue studies, for they are not so 
 pleasing as that of Harmony ; instead of four hours, 
 two wjll suffice when well employed ; here especially it 
 is advisable to apply the Latin adage: Festina lente, 
 make haste slowly. 
 
 Therefore, one of the two hours taken from the 
 writing work may be utilized for this summary study 
 of the instruments. One is left over; what shall we 
 do with it? Employ it in the way that is the most 
 interesting to him who is already initiated into the 
 history of music by his reading. Take any author 
 whatsoever, according to our own individual syrnpa- 
 [275]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 thies, and decipher all his works that we can procure, 
 chronologically, beginning with the first, so as to fol- 
 low him step by step and see him develop as we are 
 trying to develop ourselves. After him, take another 
 and then another, as many as are desired, at the same 
 time, if possible, reading their biographies again 
 (there are some who have left autobiographies, or 
 memoirs), and trying to become thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with the epoch at which such or such a work 
 was written, and under what influence, etc. 
 
 Here, as everywhere, the study of the great classics 
 is always the best and most important, and should 
 come first; but that does not mean to say that we 
 should neglect the moderns and our contemporaries; 
 that would be a grave fault, a veritable gap in our 
 education. In the material impossibility, for lack of 
 time, of studying them all one after the other, it is 
 better to select a few, those towards whom we are most 
 strongly attracted, and make their intimate acquaint- 
 ance, rather than to scatter our forces by fluttering 
 through a large number. 
 
 (In order really to have an intimate and complete 
 knowledge of a composer, we must read him through 
 three times with constantly sustained attention : the 
 first time, from end to end in the order in which the 
 works were produced; the second, by categories: 
 symphonic, theatrical, religious, vocal and instru- 
 mental, still chronologically in each category ; the 
 third time, paying attention only to the culminating 
 points and the great masterpieces, and submitting 
 them to profound study. 
 
 [276]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 If we wanted to apply such a process of investiga- 
 tion to Bach, Haydn, or Beethoven, it would absorb 
 a man's lifetime. We indicate without advising it, 
 for it would indeed be too absorbing, and only for the 
 reason of showing how less profound studies may be 
 conducted, while keeping the same methodical prin- 
 ciple as a base, or attacking less prolific producers. 
 
 By this, we especially mean to say that no one can 
 truly feel convinced that he knows a man of genius 
 to the depths unless he has followed the march of his 
 development and studied his masterpieces down to 
 their smallest details.) 
 
 It is by reading much good music in this way and 
 by bringing the spirit of analysis and observation to 
 this reading, that we most surely come to be imbued 
 with the importance of form, as well as to know the 
 musical forms, the scope and the normal proportions 
 to give to a work of any kind whatsoever, as they 
 have been established by the great classic or romantic 
 masters, either by the aid of long gropings, or the 
 powerful deductions of their logical genius. It will 
 be observed that these forms, which vary within wide 
 limits according to the periods, schools and styles, 
 and also in accordance with the fancy of each com- 
 poser, which never loses its rights, all have a firm, 
 fixed and immutable course, which is characteristic 
 of them, and, together with this, a suppleness and 
 elasticity in their proportions that relieve them of all 
 pedagogic rigidity and give free rein to the imagi- 
 nation. 
 
 The art of form, which is of considerable im- 
 [277]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 portance with regard to composition, is the art of har- 
 monious proportions, it is the harmony of form as un- 
 derstood in architecture. 
 
 Its importance makes itself felt in every detail as 
 in the whole, from the structure of a simple motive 
 to the largest divisions of a long-winded work. " It 
 is not a composer's caprice that has established the 
 different forms and aesthetic exigencies : thus it is that 
 you cannot change the forms of the Sonata without 
 making it simply a thing of fancy, something that 
 will be neither a Symphony, a Sonata, nor a Concerto. 
 In its elementary laws, architecture is the art that ap- 
 proaches most closely to music. Can anybody rep- 
 resent to himself a house, a church, or any edifice 
 whatever without a fixed form? Can anyone imagine 
 an edifice the f aadc of which would be that of a 
 church, the other face that of a pavilion, and the sides 
 those of a railway station and a factory? " * 
 
 A musical work can no more do without logical di- 
 mension and equilibrium than a speech or a poetical 
 work can. The poets have their forms: the Sonnet, 
 Madrigal, Ballade, Ode, Meditation, Stanzas, 
 Strophes, Couplets, etc., are also poetical forms. 
 Musicians also have theirs, a complete list of which we 
 have no room to enumerate here, but in which we rec- 
 ognize as principal and typical: Melody, Romance, 
 Air, Glee, Lied, Chanson, Canzonetta, Recitative, 
 Fugue, Symphony, Sonata, Concerto (these last three 
 are closely related), Overture, Marches of various 
 characters, Dance or Ballet airs, etc. Without form, 
 * A. Rubinstein, La musique et ses reprdsentants. 
 
 [278]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 the work lacks homogeneity ; genius must learn to 
 submit to it; it is the duty of talent to use its re- 
 straint, at the same time introducing the other indis- 
 pensable element, variety. 
 
 " Variety in unity " is the formula of the work of 
 art, whatever it may be; now, unity cannot be ob- 
 tained without respect for form, which is not a con- 
 straint, but a support of the idea : 
 
 " It is nothing without the mind, it is everything 
 with the idea." * 
 
 Form is the scaffolding, the skeleton, of all musical 
 construction ; if we do not see it, we must feel it, as 
 we feel the anatomy in painting and sculpture, the 
 body beneath the folds of the vesture, and the skeleton 
 under the flesh. Those musicians who treat this 
 branch of their studies lightly never produce anything 
 but desultory works, disconnected, vague, forceless, 
 lacking in cohesion and good form. 
 
 When we have successfully carried through all these 
 studies, that are so truly attractive and full of va- 
 riety, the rhetoric and philosophy of music, we may 
 begin to recognize in ourselves a certain amount of 
 erudition, to be conscious that we know something, 
 which is far from unpleasant. 
 
 Now then, when the time has arrived when we are 
 capable of writing a Fugue in four parts in a satis- 
 factory manner, we may, while still continuing to 
 practise this admirable exercise, begin to occupy our- 
 selves a little with Instrumentation and Orchestration, 
 * Victor Hugo. 
 
 [279]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 which constitutes a fresh interlacing of the studies, 
 and consequently enables us to gain time. 
 
 To a large extent, the two words Instrumentation 
 and Orchestration are synonymous. There is a shade 
 of difference, however. Properly speaking, Instru- 
 mentation is the personal knowledge of each instru- 
 ment considered individually, that is to say, of all that 
 we can reasonably ask of it and of all the effects that 
 we can obtain from it. Orchestration is the art of 
 grouping them, playing with them, obtaining timbres 
 of infinite variety from their inexhaustible combina- 
 tions, and mixing them with one another as a painter 
 mixes the colours of his palette. 
 
 Instrumentation is a science; Orchestration is an 
 art. 
 
 How do we learn Instrumentation? First, from the 
 special treatises; next, by reading methods of instru- 
 ments, above all by having a finger in the pie and 
 trying to play some of them ; largely also by reading 
 things that are well written and observing how those 
 masters who are most learned in the matter have 
 treated each member of the orchestra, the specific ef- 
 forts that they have demanded of it, and the form and 
 nature of the features that are easiest or most familiar 
 to it. Like all other sciences, it is acquired by read- 
 ing, observation and experiment. 
 
 How do we learn Orchestration? By orches- 
 trating. 
 
 " The orchestration of a piece of music is like the 
 painting of a picture ; the combination of the instru- 
 ments is like the mixing of colours according to the 
 [280]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 tint we wish to obtain. Moreover, there is also light 
 and shadow in instrumentation." * 
 
 The simplest exercise consists in taking a good 
 arrangement for the piano, for two or four hands, 
 of an Overture or part of Symphony, go and hear it 
 given by an orchestra, swiftly noting as well as we 
 can with eyes as well as ears to which instrument the 
 composer has confided such and such a passage, song 
 phrase, feature, etc., and afterwards try to re-orches- 
 trate the same piece in the same way. When this work 
 is finished and we confront it with the original score, 
 we shall be prodigiously astonished. It will scarcely 
 resemble it at all. Then, by comparing the two texts, 
 that of the composer and our own, note by note, 
 part by part, seeking in all the smallest details the 
 cause of the superiority of one over the other (note 
 that I have the politeness not to say which), we shall 
 be giving ourselves the best and most profitable lesson 
 possible in Orchestration. 
 
 After having repeated this experiment several 
 times, and having attained an almost satisfactory re- 
 construction of it, we may, indeed we ought to, in- 
 crease the difficulty by not hearing it before the 
 orchestra plays it, and, with no other guide than the 
 musical sentiment, try to divine the timbres that the 
 author must have desired. And we shall always com- 
 pare it with the score afterwards. 
 
 The inverse exercise may also be recommended: 
 that is to take an orchestral score and make a faithful 
 and respectful transcription of it for the piano, for 
 
 * Rubinstein. 
 19 [ 281 1
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 two or four hands, or for two pianos, or even for a 
 small number of instruments selected for this purpose. 
 This work of transcription, that is analogous to that 
 of an engraver reproducing a picture, who, being 
 unable to render the colours, nevertheless causes the 
 gradations of tint to be divined by relative values, 
 obliges the pupil to delve to the depths of the orches- 
 tration, no detail of which can escape him. This is 
 therefore very instructive. 
 
 This is one of the rare branches of musical knowl- 
 edge that we can study alone, by observation and com- 
 parison. If, however, we can have the advice of a 
 talented composer, expert in the matter, this does not 
 stand in the way of our taking advantage of it with 
 the greatest eagerness. 
 
 Treatises of Orchestration also exist, and we ought 
 to read them so much the more since they are almost 
 all written by men of indisputable ability. In them 
 we shall learn the theory of Orchestration and see the 
 processes employed by the masters analyzed and ex- 
 plained ; and this reading will complete the instruction 
 already acquired by frequent symphonic concerts, etc. 
 It is now more than ever that we must not go to the 
 concert without being provided with as many scores 
 as we can carry with the aid of a few devoted friends ; 
 for now that we have submitted to all the initiations, 
 there is no reason that anything should remain hidden 
 from us. And if we understand everything, every- 
 thing becomes a subject of study. 
 
 The ideal lesson for this art that is so subtle and so 
 delicate, the veritable musical colouring, would be to 
 [282]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 hear our own essays in a concert hall, so as to judge 
 of the effect for ourselves, just as the painter steps 
 back to examine his painting. Some very rich ama- 
 teurs, or a few rare young artists whose friends sup- 
 ply them with the services of the leader of an orches- 
 tra, alone can afford this Oriental luxury or obtain 
 such a favour at rare intervals: the palette of living 
 colours, which a symphonic orchestra is, cannot be 
 procured cheap. Nevertheless, we manage to orches- 
 trate fairly well even if not learnedly and with all the 
 delicacy desirable, by the spirit of observation and 
 being present not only at performances, but perhaps 
 still more even at partial rehearsals, .where an able 
 leader makes the various groups play separately be- 
 fore uniting them, thus dissecting the score, so to 
 speak. For the sake of gaining practice, it is even 
 more advantageous to go personally into the orches- 
 tra and form a part of it. It is rare that a musician 
 of the orchestra who does not consider his functions 
 too much in the light of a business does not, by sim- 
 ple routine, become capable himself of orchestrating 
 in a perfectly logical manner. So if we have sufficient 
 grasp of the mechanism of an instrument, we may con- 
 sider it very instructive to take a part, even if it is 
 only as a supernumera'ry amateur, in a good concert 
 or theatre orchestra. There we shall even learn se- 
 crets, feats and tricks, that neither treatises nor pro- 
 fessors can teach; and if some day we ourselves are 
 called to lead an orchestra, we shall highly ap- 
 preciate having learned to obey before having to 
 command. 
 
 [283]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 To play the kettle-drum really well requires a con- 
 summate musician, as do all the instruments of the 
 battery (this is the name given to the group of per- 
 cussion instruments : timbales, big drums, cymbals, 
 triangles and other drums), by reason of the respon- 
 sibility incumbent upon them. A drum-beat given out 
 of place may throw the entire orchestra into con- 
 fusion. All these percussion instruments may be 
 learned in the space of a few days or a few minutes, 
 so if we are not sufficiently skilful on the violin or 
 oboe, we can always solicit one of these posts of con- 
 fidence, we are sure to find our candidature well re- 
 ceived by any orchestral leader if we present our- 
 selves to him as a harmonist or fuguist. I should 
 astonish many people by citing here all the great 
 composers who for many years have held the posts 
 of drummers in the great theatres of Paris and in the 
 Societe des Concerts alone, and have owed partly to 
 this the development of their talents in the art of 
 Instrumentation and Orchestration. It is also by par- 
 ticipating in symphonic performances that we best 
 learn the art of directing, communicating our will, 
 and making ourselves understood by almost imper- 
 ceptible gestures. A case may happen when a leader, 
 either to go to the back of the hall to judge of an 
 effect, or to make separate groups rehearse sepa- 
 rately, will be disposed to yield his baton for a moment 
 to a member of the orchestra whom he considers a 
 solid musician. Such opportunities should be seized 
 with the greatest eagerness, as also others of directing 
 private rehearsals of amateur choirs or little orches- 
 [284]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 tras. In a word, never allow an opportunity to es- 
 cape of having a finger in the pie, and being an active 
 musician in some way or other. 
 
 "And how about composition?" I shall be asked, 
 " it has not yet entered into discussion. When shall 
 we speak about it? " 
 
 We shall never speak of it, with your kind per- 
 mission, because it would be absolutely useless after 
 what we have said. 
 
 If he who, according to our advice, has gone 
 through solid literary, scientific and philosophical 
 studies, has devoted himself to the serious reading 
 of poets and prose writers, has frequented the mu- 
 seums, learning there to admire painters, sculptors 
 and architects, has lived in an intellectual and artistic 
 atmosphere, has travelled, seen and studied the 
 beauties of nature and the civilization of various 
 countries, has studied history, mythology, a little 
 Latin, acoustics and the history of music, has pushed 
 to the utmost his studies of solfeggio, piano, har- 
 mony, counterpoint, fugue, score-reading, musical 
 analysis and orchestration, has dipped into those of 
 the violoncello, clarinet and horn, has intelligently at- 
 tended lots of concerts and lyric and dramatic theat- 
 rical performances, has been nourished with the sap of 
 the masters, I say if he is not yet ripe for compos- 
 ing, it is because he really lacks the aptitude, and he 
 will do well to renounce it. But then what is he going 
 to do in that quandary ? 
 
 He will not be in that condition, and there is no 
 1285]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 need to fear it. On the contrary, this is what is very 
 likely to have happened, without my having had, or 
 anybody else, any need to advise him : Almost at the 
 beginning of his studies, if not before, the youth will 
 have caught the plague of composition, and will have 
 composed, perhaps even in secret if he is of a timid 
 nature, r he will have shown his attempts to his mas- 
 ters, in which he will have been quite right. In fact, 
 these first attempts, whatever they may be, should al- 
 ways be encouraged, on condition that they consist 
 only of short pieces, of such importance as a Minuet, 
 a Song without Words, or a little melody on a poetic 
 text, and that they do not encroach upon the time 
 normally devoted to his studies, which must come be- 
 fore everything. 
 
 More than this, these essays must be dated and pre- 
 served so that they may serve as a type for comparison 
 later on so as to show his progress and intellectual de- 
 velopment. And he must continue thus throughout 
 his labours in Harmony, Fugue and Orchestration, 
 producing little short and unpretentious pieces, as 
 many as he likes, provided this does not interfere in 
 the least with his regular daily studies, and does not 
 take him away from them for a moment. 
 
 We may thus take the first eight or ten bars of 
 some work of a master and exercise ourselves in de- 
 veloping them and altering their character while pre- 
 serving as far as possible throughout the piece, the 
 style and go of the opening. This is a very fine ex- 
 ercise, both amusing and instructive, and one that 
 may be varied in many ways that are easy t:> imagine. 
 [286]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 Then at length, a moment will arrive when, having 
 acquired his whole outfit piece by piece, having, 
 moreover, learned by assiduously reading the great 
 masters, the form and structure of a Sonata, a Sym- 
 phony, or an Oratorio, which are classical forms, also 
 the more modern forms of the Opera, the Lyrical 
 Tragedy and the Symphonic Poem, he will feel him- 
 self armed for dashing into the domain of grand com- 
 position and there fly with his own wings, inventing 
 in his turn. On that thrice happy day, Composition 
 will become his one and only study, in which all the 
 others will be merged, as well as all the annex species 
 of knowledge so laboriously but how pleasantly ac- 
 quired. There will no longer be any reasons for lim- 
 iting himself to little works of trifling expanse, on 
 the contrary, he will be able to enlarge his frame day 
 to day, give way to his inspiration (always assuming 
 that he has one) and to all his caprices, being certain 
 that the talent is there to maintain it, if necessary in 
 its wanderings and illicit overflowings, and to make it 
 return to the right road by talking to it in the lan- 
 guage of reason. He will have that happy feeling 
 that he has acquired the mastery of his art, that he 
 has penetrated all its processes, that none of its secrets 
 is hidden from him, and that now every audacity is 
 allowed him. With this sentiment, another will 
 mingle, another no less noble, still more elevated and 
 above all more fertile, which is that when we know all 
 we know nothing yet, that all this is only a preamble, 
 and that it is only beginning with the day when all 
 the materials are collected at the base of the work, 
 [287]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 classified, numbered and ticketed, that the edifice com- 
 mences to rise from the ground. 
 
 It is here then that the real studies of the composer 
 begin, since henceforward he has under his hand 
 everything that he requires in order to become his 
 own and sole master. Henceforth, it belongs to him 
 alone to decide how he shall train the branches of the 
 tree the roots of which we have assisted him to plant 
 solidly, to choose the school under whose banner he 
 will be glad to range himself (for he must always 
 belong to one school, or at least attach himself to one 
 before thinking of becoming the head of a school of 
 his own), to judge which of the bases of his erudition 
 are those that lack solidity and that it is desirable to 
 strengthen or to select as a foundation. 
 
 Like a veritable Wandering Jew, he will always 
 have to march onwards to the knowledge of the Beau- 
 tiful, ever to study and ever to seek. But the condi- 
 tions are changed, and it will be hardly possible any 
 longer for him to assign a precise and invariable hour 
 every day for every kind of work as formerly. The 
 idea is capricious, we must take it when it is willing 
 to come. One day, we shall not do anything; the 
 next, we shall work every hour. We shall have long 
 periods without the shadow of an inspiration; and 
 then suddenly our ideas will be in a state of ebullition. 
 This, at least, is what we have always heard people 
 say!
 
 IV. HABITS OF GREAT COMPOSERS 
 
 Certainly there is a portion of truth in this : a man 
 is not equally disposed to compose at all times ; but 
 it is wholly and rigorously true only for lazy and 
 listless minds; the others know how to help them- 
 selves, to solicit Inspiration and force her to col- 
 laborate with them when it pleases them. Ah ! upon 
 my word, when we hold her, the vixen, we must not 
 let her escape; we must seize her by the hair, shut 
 ourselves in with her, refuse to open the door to our 
 best friends and force her to empty her sack to the 
 bottom. What proves clearly, I repeat, that we can 
 compel our Muse to pay her visits at fixed hours, is, 
 the fact is notorious that many great artists have 
 their favourite hours for composing, which most often 
 are forced upon them by the exigencies of their lives, 
 as well as by their domestic conditions. Some are of 
 the morning, others of the evening, as indeed are 
 nearly all the workers in ideas : a few are of the after- 
 noon ; indeed, everyone has his own manner of work- 
 ing. 
 
 Haydn was a very early riser, and yet he never 
 worked except in full dress, in which he was like 
 Buffon ; he began by shaving himself carefully, pow- 
 dered himself and put on his finger a certain ring, a 
 sapphire, I believe, surrounded with brilliants, which 
 had been given to him by the great Frederick, unless 
 it was Prince Esterhazy; that done, he shut himself 
 up in a quiet room and wrote for several consecutive 
 hours, five or six, without stopping. 
 [289]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Mozart, the gentle and pious Mozart, was some- 
 times less particular, and composed a little everywhere, 
 and under all conditions. " When I feel well dis- 
 posed, in good humour and given up to myself alto- 
 gether, when I am alone and have a calm and satisfied 
 mind, as, for instance, when I am travelling in a good 
 carriage, or taking a stroll after a good meal, or in 
 bed at night without heing asleep, then it is that 
 ideas come to me and throng into my mind. Those 
 that please me, I retain, and even hum ; at least, so 
 others have told me. It seems to me impossible to 
 say whence they come to me and how they arrive; 
 what is certain is that I cannot make them come when 
 I wish." * Happily they came often enough without 
 that, and pursued him even into the restaurants of 
 Vienna, Prague and Munich, where he was very fond 
 of playing billiards and smoking a pipe, and compos- 
 ing in his head. 
 
 Rossini, I can personally testify, composed almost 
 constantly and in all ways, rarely at the piano, most 
 often in the evening or at night, and like Mozart, 
 often found inspiration in a carriage or post-chaise. 
 In the irregular joltings of these vehicles, he per- 
 ceived rhythm, and of these rhythms, melodies were 
 born. There is no doubt that he would have found 
 them in the trepidation of the railroad, if he had 
 dared to try ; but he had such a dread of this mode of 
 locomotion that no one was ever able to induce him 
 to set foot in a car. Who knows whether the auto- 
 mobile may not become a new source of inspiration? 
 * Mozart, Correspondence. 
 
 [290]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 Handel, the man of mighty conceptions, was far 
 from despising the support of a bottle of very good 
 wine. 
 
 Gluck preferred champagne, and composed vio- 
 lently gesticulating, walking up and down, and act- 
 ing all his characters, often in the open air, on the 
 lawn, in a garden. 
 
 Beethoven also undoubtedly found a powerful aux- 
 iliary to inspiration in motion and walking. What- 
 ever the season, every day after dinner, which was at 
 one o'clock, according to the Viennese custom, he set 
 out for a walk, and with big strides twice made the cir- 
 cuit of the city of Vienna. Neither cold, nor heat, nor 
 rain, nor hail was able to stop him. Then it was that 
 his heat of fancy attained its full ardour. It would 
 seem that the movement of his legs was of service to 
 the activity of his genius. When he lived in the coun- 
 try, he often walked the whole day long, always alone, 
 and in the most rural and solitary places. " He com- 
 posed as he walked and never wrote a note before the 
 piece he had in his head was entirely finished." * His 
 ideas were slowly and laboriously elaborated, and his 
 themes, even those that presented themselves under 
 the simplest and most natural aspect, were retouched 
 many times by him before he gave them their definitive 
 form, as we can see for ourselves by looking through 
 his manuscripts collected in the house of his birth at 
 Bonn ; but when it was fixed, the composition in its 
 entirety was grasped by his mighty intelligence. He 
 was therefore abstracted to an extraordinary degree. 
 * Fetis, Biographie Universelle des musiciens. 
 
 [291]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 He would enter a restaurant, sit down for an instant 
 and ask the stupefied waiter for the bill, without hav- 
 ing ordered anything. His clumsiness was prodigious, 
 " he usually broke everything he touched, not a single 
 piece of furniture in his house, and any article of 
 value less than anything else, was safe from his at- 
 tacks, and many times his ink-pot fell into the piano 
 by which he was working," * which, religiously pre- 
 served in the museum of Bonn, still retains its indelible 
 traces. Although he had always lived in the midst of 
 the high Viennese aristocracy, in which drawing-room 
 dances were held in high honour, " he never succeeded 
 in dancing in time." f 
 
 Herold composed while walking, humming or sing- 
 ing, often in the Champs-Elysees and invariably 
 passed his best friends by without recognizing 
 them. 
 
 Gounod composed especially at the table, or, at 
 least, in his head ; when he wrote, everything was ab- 
 solutely clear in his brain ; his manuscripts prove this. 
 He always had a notebook with him, or near him, in 
 which he jotted down his ideas as they took form in 
 his mind. This he did under all circumstances, even 
 at table. It does not appear that he had a predilection 
 for any special hours, but it is certain that he did not 
 work at night, at least during the latter part of his 
 life, but preferably after dinner and very early in the 
 evening. In his immense and imposing work-room, 
 he had a grand organ by Cavaille Coll, an Erard 
 
 * W. de Lenz, Beethoven et ses trois styles. 
 f Ferd. Ries (pupil of Beethoven).
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 grand piano, and a Pleyel piano-bureau which often 
 served him as a writing-table. 
 
 Wagner liked to write standing up before a large 
 table-desk like the cash-desks in the shops ; his scores 
 were written without erasures, in a superb calligraphic 
 hand, admirable for its clearness and firmness, and 
 worthy of a professional copyist. 
 
 Berlioz, who played no instruments but the guitar, 
 flute and flageolet, necessarily worked at the table. 
 
 Franck, who was the head of a school, scarcely com- 
 posed at all till after nine o'clock in the evening, oc- 
 cupied as he was nearly the whole day by his lessons 
 and other professional duties, and continued some- 
 what far into the night. A marvellous improviser, he 
 preferred to work at the piano ; and, as if to get him- 
 self warmed up, he always began by playing to him- 
 self several works by contemporary composers of his 
 liking, among whom often figured C. V. Alkan, a 
 musician very little known to the present generation, 
 but whose piano works, so ingenious and solidly con- 
 structed, deserve something infinitely higher than this 
 oblivion. He wrote first on a double piano staff, re- 
 serving a third line for noting a few characteristic 
 orchestral designs; then he made a complete rough 
 draft in pencil, retouched it minutely, and then wrote 
 out the final score in ink. 
 
 Meyerbeer wrote in a regular manner in the even- 
 ing, and his servant had orders to drag him away 
 from the piano at the stroke of midnight. 
 
 Schumann would not admit that anyone could write 
 otherwise than at the table. He worked a little in
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the morning and a little in the evening, but he ripened 
 and combined his works for a long time before putting 
 a note down on paper, and tried passages from them 
 on the piano. 
 
 Mendelssohn, on the contrary, in his character as 
 an admirable improviser, made much use of the piano, 
 and preferred to work in the morning. 
 
 Ambroise Thomas, when a bachelor, had a tiny little 
 hole drilled in his door at the height of his eye, 
 through which he could see who rang; and he would 
 hardly open to anybody except his collaborators or 
 his favourite pupils. When you got in, about eight 
 o'clock in the morning, on his piano, written in pen- 
 cil, you always saw music in course of being written, 
 which he carefully laid aside on your arrival. Hence 
 we may suppose that he worked in the morning, and 
 perhaps in the evening also. This is all that I know 
 of him at that period. In his ripe manhood and in 
 his old age, he always carried about him pads of ruled 
 paper on which he noted the ideas that presented them- 
 selves to his imagination. In the middle of a walk, 
 or a conversation, or a repast with intimate friends, 
 you saw him suddenly cease talking, his eyes became 
 dreamy, and he took a little pad out of his pocket. As 
 to the actual work of writing, he liked complete isola- 
 tion, and much preferred the night-time, in Paris as 
 well as in the country. He often composed in bed, 
 but often also he got up and remained at the piano 
 for several hours. An interesting detail is that he 
 never passed a day without, on rising in the morning, 
 after a few exercises of hygienic gymnastics, spend- 
 [294]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 ing an hour on scales, exercises and studies always the 
 same, by Moscheles, Hummel, and Chopin, his fa- 
 vourite composer. 
 
 Auber generally worked at night, and very late, 
 till two or three in the morning, in order to avoid out- 
 side noises. His old servant, Sophie, who looked after 
 his linen, did not like barrel-organs ; one day she said 
 to Auber in my presence : " I have a horror of barrel- 
 organs, I much prefer the noise that you make at 
 night with your piano." This sally made M. Auber 
 laugh heartily. 
 
 When the exigencies of his life in society obliged 
 him to abandon his work in the evening, he got up at 
 five in the morning and worked till eleven. 
 
 Halevy had a table-piano that had been made for 
 him by Pleyel. He was quite willing to converse as 
 he orchestrated. From time to time, he would draw 
 out his keyboard, strike a few chords on it, and then 
 push it back like a simple drawer and continue to 
 write. 
 
 Boicldieu also wrote at the piano. 
 
 Felicien David, not being much of a pianist, some- 
 times sought the aid of his violin. 
 
 Adolphe Adam almost always worked at his grand 
 piano, the right-hand side of whose keyboard was 
 stained with innumerable splashes of ink; he played 
 eight, ten, or twelve bars, and then wrote them down. 
 
 Bizet worked especially in the evening and still 
 more at night ; he often made use of a piano-bureau by 
 Pleyel, like Gounod and Halevy. 
 
 Guiraud worked from the moment he got up, which 
 [295]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 occurred at noon at the earliest, at four o'clock at the 
 latest; he continued till six o'clock, stopped to dine, 
 and again set to work till a late hour of the night. He 
 also made use of the piano, but only as a check after 
 writing at his table. 
 
 Leo Delibes installed his work-table beside his up- 
 right piano in a sufficiently silent and comfortably 
 padded attic above his apartment. 
 
 Massenet composes only in the morning, from five 
 to nine o'clock, and at the table: at nine, his compo- 
 sition day is finished! 
 
 But let us not commit any indiscretions with re- 
 gard to illustrious living composers, let us leave them 
 to work in their own way. 
 
 I may say that several musicians of former days 
 had some strange habits : 
 
 Cimarosa, for example, contrary to all the others, 
 who wanted calm and silence, found a stimulant to his 
 ardour in light and noise. 
 
 Paesiello never felt himself better inspired than 
 when buried under thick coverings. 
 
 Sarti, it is said, scarcely ever composed except in 
 profound obscurity. 
 
 Mehul took pleasure in placing upon his piano, 
 facing him, a death's head, which leads us to believe 
 that he also wrote at the piano, otherwise it would 
 probably have been more agreeable to him to put it 
 on the table. 
 
 I will not be responsible for these last; I only re- 
 peat what has been told me. Analogous and well- 
 known eccentricities, however, have existed among 
 [296]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 many writers and masters of speech. Balzac worked 
 only from midnight to noon ; Buffon, like Haydn, as 
 we have already said, in court dress, with lace cuffs, 
 and powdered; Milton wrote with pleasure only when 
 listening to music, than which nothing can be more 
 disturbing ; and lastly, the great preacher Bourdaloue 
 liked to play the violin before going into the pulpit, 
 and was never more eloquent than after having in- 
 dulged in this enjoyment. 
 
 As we have seen, every master has his individual way 
 of calling his Muse. If it is so with them, why should 
 it not be the same for composers who are only starting? 
 Then there are many things that we can do without 
 her immediate help and without her constant presence : 
 all the material details of Orchestration that de- 
 pend more on talent than on genius, the thousand 
 little retouches that are only mechanical, and what 
 not? 
 
 We can always find means of occupying ourselves 
 usefully while awaiting her arrival, the days on which 
 she is late, and to see you harnessed to work very often 
 brings her. All means are good ; the final result alone 
 is to be considered. 
 
 The obligation of composing only in the evening 
 is especially felt by those artists who inhabit a noisy 
 quarter of a great city. At that hour, we have no 
 longer to fear inopportune visits and annoyances of 
 every kind ; the noises outside have quieted down ; we 
 feel assured of our tranquillity, we have not even the 
 fear of being disturbed that fear that is almost as 
 perturbative as the disturbance itself. The composer 
 20 [ 297 ]
 
 has as much need of calm as the painter of sunlight 
 effects : the painter takes advantage of the hours that 
 the sun is good enough to grant him ; the musician 
 should know how to profit by isolating himself during 
 the silent hours, and drive out of his mind, if he can, 
 all ideas that are foreign to his art, every cause of 
 distraction, torment or care. " Preoccupation is the 
 death of occupation," says Gounod, whose fine 
 thoughts, always so profound, cannot be too much 
 meditated upon. We must know how to drive it away 
 at all costs and force ourselves to concentrate our whole 
 attention on the goal to be attained. It is perhaps 
 for this reason even more than merely for the sake of 
 destroying the material noises coming from outside, 
 that we see several composers (Bizet, Guiraud, Am- 
 broise Thomas, Franck) make use of the piano as a 
 sort of appetizer for the mind, disengaging the latter 
 for a moment from the cares of existence, and thus 
 putting aside the causes that disturb the conception of 
 the idea. 
 
 It goes without saying that the works conceived with 
 a view to virtuosity, such as the Concertos, and the 
 great or little pieces for an instrument treated in solo, 
 gain greatly by being written when we have at hand 
 the instrument for which they are intended, if we know 
 how to play it. The composer who is a violinist has 
 no right to write a passage without trying its effect ; 
 the composer writing for the piano should therefore 
 naturally like to put his piece together by playing it ; 
 but however this may be, these should also be capable 
 of composing whatever it may be without the aid of 
 [ 298 ]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 any instrument at all, if that is necessary, as soon as 
 they can obtain absolute silence around them, unless 
 they are not complete artists, but virtuoso-composers. 
 " The fingers should execute what the mind has con- 
 ceived ; not the inverse. ... If music proceeds 
 from your inner meaning, if you have felt it, it will 
 have the same effect on others." * 
 
 For those, however, who prefer to compose at the 
 piano, which does not hinder them from first ripening 
 their ideas by meditation, a valuable auxiliary would 
 be a keyboard-register, automatically inscribing in 
 some manner or other, but easy to read and transcribe, 
 all that is confided to it. Many interesting attempts 
 in this direction have been made already, and it may 
 be confidently presumed that in the near future some- 
 body will succeed in creating a really practical type. 
 Those that have so far been constructed aim espe- 
 cially at automatic repetition by means of a manual 
 or clockwork movement, which gives them some likeness 
 to a mechanical piano (one can obtain a result of the 
 same nature with a good phonograph that docs not 
 too greatly disfigure the timbre) ; what would be far 
 more useful than this repetition for an improvizing 
 pianist, is the more or less conventional graphic no- 
 tation of his idea by a series of dots and dashes traced 
 on an endless band provided with a staff and unroll- 
 ing on a cylinder placed beneath the keyboard while 
 being played ; so that by taking this band off the ap- 
 paratus he can re-read his entire improvization, which 
 he will then only have to transcribe, at the same time 
 * Schumann. 
 
 [299]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 adding those modifications and ameliorations result- 
 ing from meditation. 
 
 All who have heard Beethoven, Mozart, Chopin and 
 Mendelssohn improvize are unanimous in affirming 
 that it was then, when relieved from the material 
 shackles of writing and given up to their whole spon- 
 taneity, that they were most moving, and often quite 
 different from what they were in the works over which 
 they had reflected. This will not astonish anybody 
 who has heard any of the great organist-improvizers 
 of the present day whose instantaneous productions 
 are sometimes admirable, and superior in vital inten- 
 sity to anything that they could have written in the 
 silence of the cabinet. Now, it frequently happens 
 that young composers possess such an organization 
 that the slowness of writing causes them to lose the 
 thread of their ideas, and that not having time to 
 write down all that they think, they let part of it 
 escape, or disfigure it. 
 
 It is the same with them as with certain great orators 
 of the bar, the church, or parliament, whose eloquence 
 never rises so high as in the fire of improvization, and 
 who never find expression so happy, words so exact, 
 metaphors so bold and appropriate, when they want to 
 write their discourse. For these, there is stenogra- 
 phy ; but no one has yet found stenography for music ; 
 it is probable even that this will never be found unless 
 it is merely melodic, which might well be useful, but it 
 would be insufficient. 
 
 And since we have been led to speak of improviza- 
 tion, that individual and seductive art, let us say in 
 [300]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 passing that people have a very small and incomplete 
 idea of it when they imagine that it consists merely 
 in yielding oneself up to the chance of inspiration, 
 by letting the fingers run and wander at random over 
 the keyboard ! Where the mind does not work there 
 can never be any manifestation of art, but a simple 
 act of routine, despicable by its very unconscionable- 
 ness and by its automatism and one which does not 
 deserve to attract attention. 
 
 Never, oh never, does an improvizer worthy of the 
 name embark without knowing in advance what he 
 wants to say, what form as a whole his piece will have, 
 and a general plan perfectly skeletonized in its broad 
 lines. A few insignificant or imperceptible details will 
 alone be left to momentary caprice, to spontaneity, 
 to certain mechanical or unconscious impulses, a sort 
 of finger habit which seems to exclude errors of style, 
 and this is the very least that is left to chance, if indeed 
 we may thus designate the result of prodigious ability 
 and an inexplicable faculty that has almost become an 
 instinct. It would be unpardonable for him who 
 possesses it not to cultivate it, since it demands no new 
 study beyond those that we have already indicated, 
 and since the special qualities that it brings into play 
 namely, appropriateness, sang-froid and presence of 
 mind are those which are developed most easily by fre- 
 quent practice, by habit and by will. 
 
 When the question is one of improvization or written 
 composition, whatever may be the manner of compos- 
 ing that any one has adopted because it is easiest for 
 him or conforms best to his nature, it must never be 
 [301]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 forgotten that emotion should always preside over the 
 conception of every work of art, and that to communi- 
 cate this emotion to others, and make them share in it, 
 is the supreme goal to which the truly great artist 
 should perpetually tend. 
 
 This thought is marvellously well expressed by two 
 strong and very different minds, who at least on this 
 point were in agreement, Lamennais and Victor Cousin : 
 " If sound possesses of itself an expressive power, this 
 power should be applied and brought into play by the 
 artist, since it is nothing but his instrument " (Lamen- 
 nais). " The problem of art is to reach the soul 
 through the body " (V. Cousin) ; which clearly means 
 that to write music without the desire of moving or 
 interesting is like talking without saying anything, 
 which is the most tiresome thing in the world. 
 
 And this is true whatever may be the nature of the 
 work, its elevation or its futility, its length or its brev- 
 ity, some feeling must always emanate from it, and 
 consequently must have been put into it. Its form and 
 importance are of little consequence: Beethoven is 
 quite as moving in his Sonatas as in his Symphonies ; 
 Schubert rises to a touching eloquence in the shortest 
 of his melodies, certain of which do not exceed eight 
 bars; Chopin's Nocturnes are true poems, on the same 
 level with his Ballades and Scherzos ; and Boileau's 
 celebrated verse, " A faultless sonnet is worth as much 
 as a long poem," may be just as well applied to music. 
 
 Therefore, there are few great composers who have 
 not taken delight in producing, if only to rest them- 
 selves after their more highly developed works, short 
 [302]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 pieces, to which the conciseness of the style lends an 
 additional charm. Neither should the student-com- 
 poser disdain them, for this will contribute towards 
 making his talent more flexible by teaching him that 
 quality, as rare as it is precious, of being able to ex- 
 press himself at once briefly and completely. Perhaps 
 indeed he will feel himself led to adopt for the gen- 
 erality of his productions this more intimate form in 
 which the thought, by rendering itself precise, becomes 
 condensed, which makes the composition more easily 
 understood by the listener. He should not struggle 
 against this inclination and regard this as an inferior 
 kind of composition : it is not the length of a piece 
 that constitutes its beauty ; neither is it its complica- 
 tion. Far from that, the most original ideas, the 
 most ingenious and the most interesting operations 
 may often find a place in simple and short pieces. 
 Beethoven with his Sonatinas, Schumann with his 
 Album a la Jeunnesse, Mendelssohn in his admirable 
 Songs without Words, Gade in his Noel, Bizet in his 
 Jeux d'enfants, Gounod, Massenet, Dclibcs, and Schu- 
 mann in their melodies, the colossal John Sebastian 
 Bach in his Inventions in two or three parts, and 
 many others have proved this. 
 
 Everybody knows the pretty story of Horace Ver- 
 net's horse : He was engaged by a very rich English 
 sportsman to paint the picture of a very beautiful 
 horse in which its owner very justly took great pride. 
 He had the animal brought to his yard once, twice 
 ten times. Several weeks later, he requested the Eng- 
 lishman to come to his studio and see the result. En- 
 [303]
 
 thusiasm of the latter, who was ecstatic over the per- 
 fection of the work, the perfect resemblance and the 
 lifelike feeling that the artist had fixed upon the 
 canvas, and which rendered this picture a marvellous 
 work of art, really a perfect masterpiece! And he 
 asked the price. 
 
 " Fifty thousand francs," said Horace Vernet. 
 
 Stupefaction of the sportsman ! " What, fifty 
 thousand francs? But you have only worked ten 
 times on this picture." 
 
 " Do not deceive yourself, my lord," the great 
 painter replied, as coldly as wittily, " I have worked 
 more than forty years on your horse." 
 
 And he was right. And this reply contains a deep 
 lesson. In the work of an artist, of whatever kind, 
 are reflected all his qualities, all his talent acquired so 
 laboriously, all his knowledge and the experience of 
 his entire life. 
 
 If all painters had wished to paint only historical 
 pictures, we should have had no Teniers nor Gerard 
 Dows ; and we have never heard it said that Mcisso- 
 nier's pictures lose any of their value because of being 
 contained in a very small frame. Everyone should 
 know how to choose the genre or genres for which he 
 is best adapted, and keep to them, always keeping 
 perfection in view. If it is true that " art is acquired 
 by study and practice," as d'Alembert says, it seems 
 good and wise, however, not to squander our efforts 
 in too many different fields, particularly at first ; we 
 run the risk of not excelling in any one of them. Rare 
 are such geniuses as Mozart and Saint-Saens, who can 
 [304]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 attack victoriously every manifestation of musical 
 thought. 
 
 Finally, while strongly respecting the established 
 principles and admiring their logic, we must not re- 
 nounce innovations if we are conscious of acting judi- 
 ciously in introducing them : 
 
 sometimes in its course, a vigorous mind, 
 
 Feeling the restraint of art too much, departs from the 
 
 prescribed rules, 
 And from art itself learns to pass art's limits. * 
 
 V. THE PROGRESS or ART 
 
 It is thus that art progresses and transforms its*elf . 
 And the modest workers who thus contribute to its 
 slow evolution may be compared to those microscopic 
 madrepores, of which Michelet speaks : " From the day 
 when optics allow us to perceive the infusoria, we see 
 them making mountains, we see the madrepores paving 
 the Ocean." They do a great deal more than pave it, 
 they lift it higher and submerge entire islands, thus 
 changing the geography of the globe ; they have their 
 part to play in creation. Each of them builds his cell 
 a little higher than those already constructed, just as 
 :he artist, by taking as his base and support the works 
 of his predecessors, should try to elevate still a little 
 higher, according to his means, the construction of 
 the edifice of art, of which he will never be more than 
 one of the labourers whatever the force of his genius 
 may be. 
 
 * Boileau, Art pottique. 
 [305]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 And let him not regard this comparison with an 
 animalcule as something to wound or belittle his part. 
 On the contrary, it is this spirit of abnegation, per- 
 sonal disinterestedness and devotion to Art, that raises 
 him above all others and makes him a priest of the 
 Beautiful, that eternal cult, and may justify that fine 
 remark of Proudhon's : " Of all classes of society, that 
 of the artists is the richest in strong souls and noble 
 characters." That is precisely how the artist should 
 be regarded. He who would place his personal inter- 
 ests above that of Art would be as despicable as a poli- 
 tician who would take advantage of temporary position 
 by furthering his own affairs to the detriment of those 
 of his country ; a thing which I greatly hope is never 
 seen, and will never be seen anywhere. This does not 
 happen to the artist, for he has too deep a love of the 
 Beautiful not to have also a love of the Good, which is 
 almost inseparable from it. The true artist is essen- 
 tially good and generous, always affable, cordial and 
 kind, always ready to protect and help his brothers at 
 need, to aid with advice and often with his purse those 
 young people who show a desire to embrace his career, 
 which is at once so hard and so full of attraction, to 
 show them the right road and to guide them with inex- 
 haustible kindness by trying to make it easier than 
 it has been for him, to smooth their way and serve 
 them as a ladder by which they may reach a higher 
 level than he himself has been able to attain. Is not 
 this the part- of a fine character? Those who do not 
 answer to this description are not really great artists 
 at heart, they are artisans who may indeed be es- 
 [306]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 timable practitioners or manufacturers of art, more 
 or less skilful in their calling, but who have no right 
 to the noble title of Artist, taken in the high and 
 proud acceptation of the word. 
 
 Voltaire, greeting Gretry, said to him : " You are a 
 musician and a man of mind, sir; it is a rare com- 
 bination." He could not say this to-day, because for 
 a long time, nothing has been more common among 
 great artists than high mentality, unless it is heart and 
 affability. 
 
 The artist I mean here the composer should be 
 first of all a creator ; he should be ceaselessly inventing, 
 considering this as his mission. " Art is to man what 
 the creative faculty is to God." * 
 
 In the hierarchy^ of music, the composer occupies the 
 first rank ; the brain that creates being superior to the 
 organ that executes. And it is in this also that he 
 differs entirely from the Singer and the Instrumental- 
 ist, who are interpreters, and whose function consists 
 in faithfully transmitting and bringing to the com- 
 prehension of the public the author's ideas, embellished 
 more or less by the prestige of their own talent. Their 
 part is none the less beautiful for that ; they are the 
 advocates and heralds of talent and genius, which very 
 often owe half their success to them ; and they thus 
 contribute powerfully, on their side, to the evolution of 
 musical art, which could not do without interpreters ; 
 but theirs is not to invent, that is even forbidden them, 
 while it is not only the right, but the duty of the most 
 insignificant of composers. 
 
 * Lamennais. 
 
 [307]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Now, since for more than two centuries the greatest 
 geniuses have worked ceaselessly to bring modern poly- 
 phony to perfection, it would not be extraordinary if 
 this marvellous mine were nearly exhausted. There 
 remains the resource indeed of seeking to create still 
 new forms, but this cannot go very far ; the discovery 
 of unknown riches in the domain of Harmony, already 
 thoroughly explored in every direction, seems exceed- 
 ingly improbable ; to do better than has been done, 
 without changing the order of ideas, and this for a 
 long time still, seems to border on the impossible. 
 
 It is therefore probable enough that we shall shortly 
 arrive at a kind of turning-point in the history of 
 music, one of those points that have already been found 
 at other times, where Art, not being able to go any 
 further in the path that it has followed for several 
 centuries, and not being able to remain stationary 
 either, which is contrary to its nature, must effect an 
 evolution and open up a new road for itself in coun- 
 tries of an entirely different aspect, perhaps explored 
 formerly, but into which it now penetrates bringing 
 with it the materials for colonization and investigation 
 acquired in the course of its former travels, with 
 processes of fertilization not yet applied to those 
 regions. 
 
 Really, it seems impossible to push much further 
 the science of harmonic and orchestral combinations 
 that modern art has developed to their extreme limits, 
 and which have arrived at their summum. The route 
 followed has led us up a peak, probably the most ele- 
 vated that has ever been attained, for it is indeed dizzy- 
 [308]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 ing ; but beyond which we cannot dream of mounting 
 higher ; moreover, we are threatened with famine. It 
 is necessary therefore to descend into the valleys again 
 there to seek and gather some flowers which are melo- 
 dies, and perhaps replenish our provisions there be- 
 fore dreaming of ascending some other mountain as 
 yet unknown, the distant summit of which is for the 
 moment, and perhaps for a long time to come, veiled 
 from us by the clouds of the future. 
 
 It has always happened thus, and thus also it will 
 always be, because it is impossible that it can be other- 
 wise. 
 
 We are witnessing the complete blossoming of the 
 system of art inaugurated in the second half of the 
 Seventeenth Century, the most illustrious representa- 
 tives of which were Bach and Handel for Germany ; 
 Scarlatti, and, a little later, Pergolese for Italy ; and 
 Lully and Rameau for France. Their geniuses so 
 diverse gave birth to three great national Schools, two 
 of which particularly, the German and the French, 
 have imposed upon themselves the mission of develop- 
 ing, although in different ways, the grand symphonic 
 style and modern counterpoint, thus putting to new 
 use the materials accumulated by the preceding mu- 
 sical civilizations, which kept religious art principally 
 in view, almost the sole employment of the voices, and 
 ended in the creation of the Fugue. 
 
 Likewise, the treasures of harmonic combinations 
 
 and the discoveries in instrumentation accumulated for 
 
 three centuries by the present schools will not be lost 
 
 by those that follow. This is a rich inheritance that 
 
 [309]
 
 belongs to them, that it is their right and duty to cul- 
 tivate so as to make it serve for what will be their 
 ideal, pruning away certain superfluities or useless 
 complications, just as the masters of our time have 
 known how to do in rejecting all that has seemed to 
 them puerile and anti-artistic in the fantastic orna- 
 mentation of the old Counterpoint of the Middle Ages, 
 whilst making the best use of the strong blocks of the 
 dead art bequeathed by our ancestors for the erection 
 of their admirable building. 
 
 Such transformations are not produced suddenly ; 
 they are the fruit of centuries of efforts, and many 
 generations toil in obscurity for them untilthe day 
 when a man of genius who combines them all appears in 
 all his glory. A new peak has been climbed on which 
 he plants his standard, and which henceforth will bear 
 his name. But how many modest pioneers, unknown 
 to fame, have had to illuminate his path, pointing out 
 the dangers and rocks, blazing it, so to speak, and 
 harnessing themselves to his triumphal chariot. 
 
 One must not despise these bold soldiers of art who 
 construct the works of approach, never fearing to 
 enter courageously into unexplored and sometimes 
 blind paths, and who, in very truth, do more for the 
 march and progress of music than those who, walking 
 in the steps of the leader of the file, seek only the 
 success and applause of the multitude. " Art does not 
 exist in order to procure wealth. Be a noble artist 
 and the rest will be given to you into the bargain," 
 says Schumann, who knew how to preach by example. 
 Everybody must bring a stone; no matter how small 
 [310]
 
 STUDIES NECESSARY FOR COMPOSERS 
 
 it may be, the contribution will never be useless, pro- 
 vided it is sincere and brought in good faith. 
 Alfred de Musset was not afraid to write : 
 
 An artist is a man, he writes for men. 
 Liberty is the priestess of the temple. 
 
 The composer, filled with the nobility of his mission, 
 should not therefore apply himself to doing again 
 what has already been done, for there is no advance- 
 ment in this, but to creating anew, to venturing cease- 
 lessly into paths where there may be something to 
 discover, and to inventing ingenious methods. But 
 when I say venture, there are at least two ways of 
 venturing: we may venture heedlessly or venture pru- 
 dently ; here is where the role of talent intervenes, cry- 
 ing " stop," if we have taken the wrong road. Then 
 it is at least useless to push research in the direction 
 of careers already exploited, where we can discover 
 nothing but what has been discovered already by 
 others ; or, if we do this, let it be knowingly and with 
 the intention of going farther. Hence the utility of 
 erudition and intimate knowledge of the Masters of 
 the past, in a word the History of Music. 
 
 What will be the coming Art? That is impossible 
 to predict. 
 
 Nevertheless, after the manner in which the pre- 
 ceding evolutions have announced and produced them- 
 selves, considering also certain tendencies which mani- 
 fest themselves in the highest representatives of the 
 art of to-day, we may conjecture that a return to the 
 tonalities of Plain-Song or the Greek scales, much 
 [Sll]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 richer than ours, with a preponderance given to the 
 melodic element, allied to a far greater simplicity of 
 procedure, is not improbable. Everybody knows that 
 in every species of art the greatest effects are produced 
 by the simplest means, and that in everything, good 
 taste and distinction do not consist in producing em- 
 barrassment nor a parade of one's knowledge. Now, 
 the farther we have strayed from this simplicity of 
 method, the greater the chance that we shall return 
 to it ; the same reason should attract composers to the 
 antique modes, which, long forgotten and embellished 
 with prodigious artifices of Harmony, now appear as 
 novelties. Likewise, it seems natural that the purely 
 melodic element which latterly has been in truth too 
 much disdained, will claim its ancient rights. Who 
 lives will see. Not till two hundred years hence shall 
 I know if I have been a good prophet.
 
 PART V 
 
 OF THE MEANS OF RECTIFYING A MUSI- 
 CAL EDUCATION THAT HAS BEEN ILL- 
 DIRECTED AT THE BEGINNING, AND 
 HOW TO REMEDY IT 
 
 21
 
 PART V 
 
 OF THE MEANS OF RECTIFYING A MUSI- 
 CAL EDUCATION THAT HAS BEEN ILL- 
 DIRECTED AT THE BEGINNING, AND 
 HOW TO REMEDY IT 
 
 I. SUGGESTIONS FOE INSTRUMENTALISTS, SINGERS 
 AND COMPOSERS 
 
 So far we have only had to consider straightfor- 
 ward guidance of a musical education undertaken 
 normally, and pursued with a precise and clearly de- 
 fined aim; side by side with this rational course we 
 have foreseen and admitted irregularities caused by 
 circumstances and by almost inevitable modifications 
 of tastes and aptitudes, though causing, on the whole, 
 deviations of but little importance, slightly preju- 
 dicial to the studies as a whole, and merely entailing 
 delays that are more or less to be regretted. 
 
 The question that presents itself now is altogether 
 different: it concerns what advantage can be derived 
 from incomplete musical education, ill understood and 
 ill directed at the start, and how it can be rectified, 
 completed, or ameliorated. 
 
 Let us say at once that this is the most difficult 
 thing in the world, and that we must not deceive our- 
 [315]
 
 selves on this point. We can never hope to derive 
 anything but a relatively modest advantage from 
 studies that have been ill conducted, at least unless 
 they have been pursued only for a very short time. 
 To say or to think otherwise would be the negation 
 of all that we have studied up to this point, and that 
 has shown us the utility of a logical plan in the nor- 
 mal progress of these studies. Save exceptions of 
 extreme rarity, of which we shall speak, however, it 
 must always be remembered that those who have made 
 a false start must suffer the evil consequences and in- 
 evitably remain in a state of inferiority ; that a very 
 great amount of tardy and hurried work is not equiva- 
 lent to work quietly done in its own time; that two 
 mouthf uls at once are not favourable to digestion ; 
 that " lost time can never be recovered," and that 
 " There is no advantage in running, it is necessary 
 to start in time." * 
 
 Let us not bear too heavily, however, upon these 
 demoralizing considerations, but proceed in quest of 
 means by which we can partially remedy this deplor- 
 able state of things. 
 
 Of course, if it is merely a question of a child that 
 has been badly started, and if this is perceived at the 
 end of one or two months, or even a year or two, the 
 thing is very simple ; we must consider what has been 
 done simply as null and void, try to make him forget 
 it, place him under a serious teacher, and begin again 
 on a new basis. 
 
 This is not the question that requires to be studied. 
 * La Fontaine, La Lievre et la Tortw (fable). 
 
 [316]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 It is the very frequent case of the individual, man 
 or woman, who, having reached the adult age, per- 
 ceives that his musical education, which he had 
 thought satisfactory, is full of gaps, whether because 
 it was not undertaken in time, or because it has been 
 wrongly directed, or because he himself has not given 
 the necessary attention to it, or because certain cir- 
 cumstances placed obstacles in the way, or because of 
 any other reason whatsoever, regrets that things are 
 as they are, and wants to make up the deficiencies of 
 his previous studies, even at the cost of difficult and 
 bitter toil. 
 
 We must not hide from ourselves the fact that this 
 is an extremely difficult thing and one that demands 
 before everything else an energetic and persistent de- 
 termination. 
 
 It is enough, however, that there have been mani- 
 fest examples of success, same of which were even 
 brilliant, to show there is no reason systematically to 
 dissuade those who have the courage and the constancy 
 from again beginning their artistic education. 
 
 But here, contrarily to what we have hitherto said, 
 we must distinguish between those who take to music 
 for their simple pleasure and those, on the other hand, 
 who find themselves under the necessity of making 
 their living by the practice of this art. 
 
 The latter are indubitably the most interesting, and 
 since the advice that we can offer is not the same for 
 both categories, we will begin with them. 
 
 As we cannot dream of making something out of 
 nothing, we will always suppose that there exists a 
 [317]
 
 certain basis of knowledge, of ability practically ac- 
 quired, or, at least, special and well characterized 
 aptitudes. To seek to ameliorate something that does 
 not exist would be sheer folly, and there is no question 
 here of opening the artistic career to those who, rec- 
 ognizing themselves as incapable of practising any 
 other profession, take up this one as a makeshift. 
 Moreover, to tempt them thus would be the worst 
 service that we could render them, and attracting aux- 
 iliaries of this kind would be the worst service that we 
 could render to art. No matter how unfinished an 
 artist may be, on account of his defective or insuf- 
 ficient studies, it is rarely that he does not possess 
 some quality, even if it is but slightly developed ; now, 
 it is this quality that must be sought, in order first 
 to cultivate and then to bring it into prominence by 
 surrounding it with others, if there is still time. For 
 the sake of clearness, therefore, we will proceed with 
 types, examining each by itself and endeavouring 
 to discover the particular means, few enough, alas ! 
 that can best serve in this new art of saving the rem- 
 nants. 
 
 The first type that presents itself to the mind, be- 
 cause it is the most frequent one, is that of a person 
 whose sole qualification is that of playing the piano 
 fairly well. (I mean by this that every auxiliary 
 study has been neglected.) One cannot go very far 
 with that. But if, while striving after mechanical 
 perfection, which must certainly not be abandoned, 
 since it is the brightest gem in the crown, we devote 
 only two hours a day to sight-reading, and another 
 [318]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 to Harmony, for about two years, things will assume 
 quite a different aspect. Thenceforward we may 
 hope to be employed as an accompanist, which, al- 
 though modest enough, sets one foot in the stirrup of 
 the career, and may open many doors later. The 
 study of reading at sight may perfectly well be car- 
 ried on in this special case without the aid of a 
 teacher ; to be serious is sufficient. We can take out a 
 reading subscription at a music publisher's, and set 
 ourselves, for example, the task of reading a new score 
 every day, in the manner previously indicated. We 
 must not be afraid to begin with very easy, simple and 
 ingenuous scores, of such old French authors as Mon- 
 signy, Dalayrac, Gretry (a Belgian), passing after- 
 wards to Mehul and Gluck. Quite the contrary ; in- 
 deed, it would be wise to stick to them for a certain 
 time and then gradually take up more difficult ones, 
 such as Herold and Auber, before attacking Meyer- 
 beer, Verdi, and finally the modern school. 
 
 Concurrently, and in proportion as we feel ourselves 
 capable, we should read works for the piano at sight, 
 the pure classics at first, and then a little of every 
 school, carefully setting aside light and mere showy 
 compositions that are of a nature to hurt the taste. In 
 a case such as the one under consideration, we must 
 possess enough judgment and good sense to repair our 
 own education. In pursuing this study methodically 
 and intelligently, we shall also give ourselves a slight 
 superficial view of the History of Music, and become 
 a good reader at the piano, which, to a certain extent, 
 will supply the place of solfeggio. 
 [319]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Of elementary Theory, we shall learn only what is 
 strictly necessary in order to undertake Harmony : 
 some ideas of the intervals, scales and keys. With re- 
 gard to Harmony, a teacher is indispensable, even if 
 we intend to restrict ourselves to a simple knowledge 
 of its rules, which can be acquired in eighteen months 
 or two years of work ; but it is probable that once 
 started, we shall not stop there, but will appreciate 
 the necessity of carrying this study to the very end. 
 Here, there would be no great harm done, beyond the 
 last years, and the consequent almost impossibility of 
 becoming a veritable virtuoso, which is very im- 
 portant, since Harmony, being a science as much as 
 an art, can be studied at nearly any age. 
 
 Let us now imagine an entirely opposite case: a 
 very good reader, but a bad piano player, which 
 annuls his talent, by preventing it from revealing 
 itself. Here, naturally, it is the mechanism that must 
 be worked for, but the first thing will be completely to 
 suppress reading at sight, for the practice of it can 
 only tend to maintain and develop the faults. In do- 
 ing this, there need be no fear that the quality of 
 sight-reading will be atrophied: this faculty is never 
 lost; whether it is natural or acquired, it can be very 
 rapidly recovered even after a cessation of cultiva- 
 tion for several years, unlike most of the other studies. 
 As for the study of mechanism, it must be resumed 
 very far back, from the very first exercises, and with a 
 scrupulous conscientiousness, devoting to it as many 
 hours a day as patience can bear, and obstinately in- 
 sisting upon each difficulty that arises before going 
 [320]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 on to another, and constantly returning to those that 
 seem to have been vanquished. In order to acquire at 
 a late period a certain mechanism, an excellent and 
 curious work is the Rhythm des doights, by Stamaty, 
 who, I believe, was the only teacher of Saint-Saens, 
 which may suffice for his posthumous glory. We may 
 use many others, but always choosing them among 
 those, which like the above, contain inexhaustible com- 
 binations of exercises upon all possible and imaginable 
 difficulties, from the most elementary to the most 
 transcendent. For exercises, keep to those of Cramer 
 and the Gradus of Clementi, having the perseverance 
 to devote to each all the time that is necessary to play 
 it irreproachably, with flexibility and without any 
 difficulty whatever. It is absolutely useless to study 
 pieces: if, however, you must do so, choose them 
 among those that demand qualities of style and in- 
 terpretation rather than virtuosity; do not select dif- 
 ficult ones, and then push their study to the highest 
 degree of perfection attainable, just like the studies, 
 upon which it would be wiser to concentrate your ef- 
 forts entirely. But above all, I insist that there 
 should be no return to reading at sight for a long 
 time, that the desire should not be indulged even for 
 amusement though only for a few pages ; this would 
 be opening the door again to the bad habit and to 
 lose in a few moments the good work of many 
 days. 
 
 What we have just said of a pianist who is a very 
 good reader and a very mediocre executant applies 
 [321]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 naturally, in the works cited here, to every instru- 
 mentalist who finds himself in the same condition. A 
 distinction must always be made between an execution 
 that is simply insufficient because it is unskilful, re- 
 sulting most frequently either from lack of study or 
 studies carelessly performed, and a more profoundly 
 defective execution. The latter is the result of false 
 principles received, which are more deeply rooted the 
 longer and more confidently they have been cultivated. 
 Such are, for the violinist, a wrong holding of the 
 body, the violin and the bow ; for the player of a wind 
 instrument, a bad embouchure; for the pianist, the 
 habit, that certain teachers still commend, of holding 
 the wrists low and the fingers elongated, etc. We are 
 confronted here with veritable vices of execution 
 which must be eradicated. One means that is often 
 successful is to leave the instrument alone and never 
 touch it at all for several months, and upon resuming 
 the studies, give almost exclusive attention to correct- 
 ing the vicious habits and to carrying the opposite 
 qualities even to exaggeration. For pianists and those 
 who play instruments of strings and bow, one excellent 
 thing, during these months of suspension, is to prac- 
 tice every day some gymnastics for the arms, dumb- 
 bells, the trapeze, and still better, fencing with both 
 hands. From these exercises, the effect of which is 
 to make them forget the old habits up to a certain 
 point, the arms and wrists are strengthened, and the 
 muscles, having become more vigorous and supple, are 
 in a better condition to accommodate themselves to the 
 new and more normal use to which we want to train 
 [322]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 them ; and if any stiffness remains in the joints of the 
 fingers, the sole inconvenience that is to be feared, it 
 will rapidly disappear. 
 
 Let us pass on to another frequent case, that of a 
 singer endowed with a good voice (without this, it 
 is useless to concern ourselves with him), who already 
 knows how to use it well, but is ignorant of every- 
 thing else in music because it was thought quite suf- 
 ficient to teach him to sing. Sooner or later, there 
 always comes a moment, and let us hope for his own 
 sake that it will come as soon as possible, when he will 
 be sensible of the embarrassment caused by this lack 
 of instruction in musical technique, and will seek for 
 the means of remedying it. Given an age when we 
 will suppose that he already has a voice, not only 
 formed, but trained, the means to be employed for 
 him are exactly contrary to those that suit the child. 
 With the child, we can count upon intuition, instinct, 
 memory and the spirit of imitation, and reasoning has 
 very little to do with the case ; but here it is the rea- 
 son that stands before everything else; and, in con- 
 sequence, the order of studies has to be inverted. 
 The intelligent pupil should therefore, first of all, 
 without giving up any of his vocal work, set himself 
 to work courageously on the Theory of Music, not 
 in an abridgment, nor in any other book intended 
 for infantile schools, reduced to a kind of catechism 
 by questions and answers in which he would not learn 
 anything, but in a serious and analytical work, of 
 which, moreover, there are many good ones, that con- 
 [323]
 
 tain questions and problems to be solved at the end of 
 a complete account of the principles of music. This 
 is the hardest of all, and cannot be well accomplished 
 without the aid of a teacher ; for on the one hand there 
 is no time to lose, and on the other, the question is 
 not one of acquiring superficial or illusory ideas, 
 which amount to almost nothing, but a complete 
 knowledge of Theory as a whole and in its smallest 
 details, that permits no gap to remain in the mind. 
 The same teacher can, very probably, initiate his pupil 
 at the same time into a summary knowledge of the key- 
 board, so that without actually being able to play the 
 piano he may help himself in his studies of singing, 
 and not have to be perpetually dependent upon and 
 at the mercy of his accompanist. It is in this way 
 that he will first feel the benefits of his tardy in- 
 struction. But he must not stop there ; it will now be 
 fitting to devote himself to solfeggio, to reading in 
 every key, to reading at sight melodies with words, 
 etc. ; and all those exercises that we have presented as 
 elementary in the case of a study conducted normally 
 and progressively will become for the singer, being 
 given inversely, complementary and perfecting exer- 
 cises that present no serious difficulties and are very 
 pleasant. He should however keep watch, and his 
 teacher with him, against anything that might be of a 
 nature to displace his voice or fatigue it, which is al- 
 Avays easy to avoid either by singing softly or by trans- 
 posing an octave higher or lower those low or high 
 notes that are beyond his compass. Moreover, every 
 singer who really desires to perfect his artistic educa- 
 [324]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 tion, with regard to his ear and his musical intelligence, 
 should eagerly seek every opportunity of taking 
 part in ensembles, or choruses. This is just as useful 
 for him, and he must understand it if he is really 
 artistic at heart, as it is for the instrumentalist to par- 
 ticipate in orchestral performances. One cannot truly 
 call oneself a musician without having done this, more 
 or less frequently, but the oftener the better. Not 
 to squander the voice but to manage it carefully, if 
 it is precious or fragile, is merely legitimate prudence ; 
 but to know how to act as a musician and to be con- 
 sidered as such, taking a part in Duos, Trios, or 
 Quartets and also ensembles is indispensable ; and this 
 is the thing that will always be most appreciated by 
 true artists. If he intends to be a teacher, he will do 
 well to read very attentively and without prejudice a 
 great number of methods, first the most celebrated 
 ones, and then the others ; for even in those which at 
 first sight seem the most insignificant, and even 
 ridiculous, one is often surprised to find a sensible idea 
 or a new procedure which may be employed in some 
 rare case. Notes should be taken of all this, so as to 
 be able, when occasion requires, to turn without hesi- 
 tation to the work in which one has seen such or such 
 an ingenious exercise, or practical counsel to apply at 
 the proper time. This is the basis of the experience 
 which alone makes real teachers. 
 
 A young violinist who, although playing his in- 
 strument pretty well, has not the qualities of brio 
 and communicative warmth so necessary to a soloist, 
 [325]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 or one who although having a very complete talent, 
 loses command of his instrument when he plays in 
 public, can first endeavour to make a specialty of the 
 more sober and at least as elevated class of chamber- 
 music; and certainly there is nothing derogatory in 
 this. Here, particularly if he begins by playing the 
 second violin, which is less in evidence, he will have 
 opportunities of getting accustomed to the public and 
 of losing his timidity. If this does not suffice, he can 
 take up the viola, good players of which are rarer 
 and always in great demand. This will not be in the 
 least hurtful to his talents as a violinist, for, as we 
 have already said, the best study for a viola player 
 is to cultivate the violin and the viola simultaneously. 
 From that time, his career will be as follows: viola in 
 the Quartet and Orchestra, and the violin in lessons 
 of accompaniment. For these lessons, it will be use- 
 ful for him to know thoroughly the entire classic 
 repertory of Sonatas for the Violin and Piano, as also 
 to become familiar with fine contemporary works, not 
 only by working over his part if he has not already 
 acquired this in the course of his studies, but by hear- 
 ing them played as often as possible by great artists, 
 so as to be able to transmit their spirit and traditions 
 as purely as possible to his pupils. 
 
 Another type: a musician who is irresistibly at- 
 tracted to composition, but who has not been through 
 the necessary studies. This is exactly the case in which 
 Dalayrac found himself. He had. felt his vocation 
 from his earliest years, but he was opposed and pre- 
 vented from following it for a long time by his fanv 
 [326]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ily, particularly his father, who had decided at first 
 to make him a magistrate, and then an officer, sys- 
 tematically suppressing every inclination for musical 
 study, even as an amateur. There is no doubt but 
 that he would have risen infinitely higher without 
 these grievous obstacles, considering his astonishing 
 facility of melodic creation, his exquisite taste, his ex- 
 cellent dramatic instinct and an imagination as varied 
 as abundant. What saved him was his good sense; 
 having reached an age when at last he had the right 
 to direct his life as he pleased, he took his lack of 
 knowledge and erudition into account and knew how 
 to limit himself to works of an amiable, light, gra- 
 cious and easy style, in which his genius shines not- 
 withstanding all kinds of awkward writing, against 
 which he would have been broken if he had ventured 
 to attempt works of more elevated character and 
 higher flight. In this, he set a noble and good ex- 
 ample, worthy of imitation, but which few are suf- 
 ficiently modest to follow. We may remark, in fact, 
 that intuitive composers who lack technical instruc- 
 tion, never forming an exact idea of the difficulties, 
 in their unreflecting ardour are nearly always carried 
 away with the desire to begin with some long work, 
 such as an Opera, or, at least, a Symphony, some work 
 in fact that is absolutely impossible to achieve with- 
 out long preliminary studies. In this they resemble 
 the students who in their desk, between a paper of 
 Mayflies and a box of silkworms, produce a tragedy 
 in five acts and who would never dream of properly 
 balancing a quatrain of cross rhymes. This is the 
 [327]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 fearless and sympathetic courage of one who is ig- 
 norant of danger. 
 
 The best advice to give these is to read carefully 
 the very complete (I believe) plan that we have traced 
 of studies that are desirable for the erudition of com- 
 posers, eliminating from it what seems to them super- 
 fluous, or, with greater reason, what they find that 
 they have already studied with some other end in 
 view, and to make choice, according to the degree of 
 their knowledge or ignorance, of the branches in 
 which it is advisable to make their first efforts. To 
 be sure, they must choose branches which are within 
 their reach, and beware of putting the cart before the 
 horse; for example, by studying Orchestration with- 
 out first knowing something about Harmony, to which 
 we often see them singularly inclined, doubtless not 
 understanding that in order to orchestrate something, 
 that something must exist, and be normally built, and 
 that it is in the parts of Harmony or Counterpoint 
 that the embryo of the orchestral designs is found. If 
 they should commit any such indiscretion, it would be 
 disastrous, for it would be simply starting again on 
 a wrong road. Therefore it is a very good thing to 
 commit oneself, if it is possible, to the direction of 
 some musician well instructed in all of these things, 
 a composer or Kapelmeister, who would always be 
 more apt and in a better position than ourselves to 
 judge sanely of our own situation. If circumstances 
 do not permit of consulting one, then act prudently 
 and distrust the very natural and easily explicable 
 propensity that one always has of going too fast, a 
 [328]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 dangerous propensity against which one has to strug- 
 gle energetically, while regarding it as a symptom of 
 excellent augury in itself. If the student-composer 
 has need of going back to the very sources of tech- 
 nical instruction, of pure theory and notation, it is 
 very probable that he can do this by himself by 
 means of some full and methodical work. But for the 
 study of Harmony or Counterpoint, he will not be able 
 to dispense with a teacher any better because he is 
 already behind, quite the contrary. It is otherwise 
 with all that concerns Instrumentation and the study 
 of forms, for which the reading of strongly written 
 works and special Treatises will suffice for a mind 
 open to ideas of analysis and accustomed to reflection. 
 
 During the time that these studies last, the stu- 
 dent is not forbidden to compose ; that would be put- 
 ting his patience to a too severe and useless trial. But 
 he would act wisely in knowing how to limit himself 
 provisionally to productions of restricted length and 
 generally of slight development, in which he can ap- 
 ply his new science in proportion as it grows ; or again, 
 if he is forced by his temperament, throwing off on 
 paper simple sketches and rough draughts, postpon- 
 ing their complete extension and definite form till the 
 day when he will have acquired the necessary talent 
 and skilfulness in writing. 
 
 Let us add, however, that it is in Composition that 
 the most unforeseen exceptions may present them- 
 selves; a veritable vocation, allied with an energetic 
 character and an iron will, can triumph over all ob- 
 stacles. There are several examples that show that 
 22 [ 329 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Genius can sometimes divine or invent what it has 
 not learned. Therefore we must never despair and 
 abandon what has once been begun. 
 
 Another way of being led astray is to have accom- 
 plished all the laborious studies of a composer from 
 beginning to end and to perceive finally that the in- 
 spiration is defective, that there is a lack of original- 
 ity and that all the talent acquired can never end in 
 anything but the production of estimable works, 
 doubtless also honourable and well-written, but with- 
 out the slightest trace of personal genius. Let us say 
 first that the mere fact of realizing this situation of 
 relative impotence, after having devoted many years 
 to an absorbing woi'k and having nursed ourselves 
 with ideas of glory, denotes an extraordinary intelli- 
 gence and self-knowledge. When one is endowed with 
 such great judgment, one may, while renouncing 
 totally or partially the seductive career dreamed of, 
 see another one opening out before one, which though 
 shining with less splendour, is neither less beautiful 
 nor less worthy of everybody's respect: one can de- 
 vote oneself to teaching, and become a professor of 
 the first order. In the evolution of art, one will play 
 the part of an organ of transmission. All the knowl- 
 edge acquired, all the materials collected, all the riches 
 of art which one has accumulated in and for oneself, 
 one transmits, refined and amplified by the work of 
 the mind, to a new generation of young artists full 
 of ardour, among whom will be found a few privi- 
 leged ones, who, more happy, profiting by them, will 
 realize the dream. Unable to be the flower that un- 
 [330]
 
 folds in the sunshine, one will be the branch that 
 supports and nourishes flowers and fruits. 
 
 The greatest joy of a teacher, when he possesses 
 the real love of teaching, is to see his pupils surpass 
 himself; it is like that of the happy father of a fam- 
 ily who has succeeded in creating for his children a 
 superior position to his own. The pupils are the 
 professor's artistic descendants ; and, although most 
 frequently he reaps nothing but ingratitude, his heart 
 beats and rejoices at the success of each one. Out- 
 side of teaching, or by its side, an erudite and non- 
 producing artist can also assume a very responsible 
 and very often badly -filled post, that of a critic ; 
 we will even say that he seems made for this. " An 
 excellent critic should be an artist who has much 
 knowledge and taste, without prejudice and without 
 envy," Voltaire has said. Is not this exactly the case 
 with him of whom we are speaking? The knowledge 
 and the sentiment of the beautiful he must have ac- 
 quired in the course of his studies ; and he has no 
 reason to have prejudices, nor jealousy, as he is not 
 producing himself. Is Voltaire alone in this opin- 
 ion? It seems not. This is what Villemain thinks: 
 " To be a good critic, one should be capable of being a 
 good author." This is what Proudhon thinks : " The 
 mission of a critic does not imply the obligation to 
 produce masterpieces and discover the truth." This 
 is what La Bruyere thinks : " A critic is not formed 
 until after many years of observation and study." 
 And I could cite many others. What are these ob- 
 servations and studies of which La Bruyere speaks? 
 [331]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 If we are only thinking of musical critics, they are 
 exactly the same as those through which the composer- 
 student has had to pass. Here then is a way entirely 
 open. In saying above that this post is often badly 
 filled, I was thinking of those occasional critics, who 
 are not really scarce, and who, by the single fact that 
 they can hold a pen, think they have the right to 
 judge everything and to speak of everything ex 
 cathedra; who would be just as ready to accept lit- 
 erary criticism to-morrow ; and, the day after that, of 
 the picture galleries, provided they kept their pen, 
 which is generally a goose-quill. It is to them, 
 and to them alone, that we may apply the famous line 
 of Destouches : " Criticism is easy and art is hard," * 
 so often attributed to Boileau, doubtless on account 
 of its conciseness and incisive form. For in truth, 
 Criticism, as it should always be practised, and as it 
 is practised in our days by those who are masters of 
 it, is not such an easy thing. First of all, it demands 
 a very broad general culture joined to complete tech- 
 nical knowledge of the special subject under treat- 
 ment : " There are many kinds of ignorance, the 
 worst of all is that of the critics " ; it is again Vol- 
 taire who says this. It next demands a somewhat large 
 amount of eclecticism, permitting one to choose, se- 
 lect and recognize what there is of good in every sys- 
 tem, and to reject nothing on account of a precon- 
 ceived idea ; broad ideas are necessary. Finally, it 
 demands a literary turn exempt from pedantry, and a 
 certain dose of amenity and indulgence which should 
 * Destouches, Le Glorieux, Act II., Scene V. 
 
 [332]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 attract, if he has a well-constructed mind, him who 
 has good reasons to know the difficulties of art, and 
 which will permit him, when necessary, to coat the 
 too bitter pills with a little sugar. A critic is not 
 a reporter; he is an initiator and a guide, an edu- 
 cator and a professor; his pupil is the public. This 
 is why the two professions can join forces and mu- 
 tually complete one another so well. 
 
 A pupil who has had the misfortune to lose his 
 time in studying an instrument which is not suitable 
 to his conformation, and upon which he cannot hope 
 to attain the desired skill, can go back to one of those 
 instruments which we have mentioned as capable of 
 being taken up at the adult age, the double-bass, for 
 example, or the brasses. The benefit of the anterior 
 studies will not be entirely lost, and more than once 
 he will be able to turn some of this acquired knowledge 
 to advantage. It is the same with a singer who has 
 lost his voice ; if he is a good musician, he can look for 
 an instrument that suits him. 
 
 There is no quality so trifling that one cannot de- 
 rive from it, if not a profession of an artistic charac- 
 ter, at least a more or less lucrative occupation 
 bordering upon and indirectly allied with art. A 
 good reader, who is something of a harmonist, can 
 make himself useful as a proof-reader for a music- 
 publisher; even he who can do nothing but write a 
 beautiful manuscript can become a copyist. More- 
 over, he can perfect himself, learn to transpose and 
 [333]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 correct the careless mistakes in the manuscript of ama- 
 teurs. There are some who have even succeeded in 
 creating veritable bureaux of copying, with numerous 
 employees, and have built up a good business. Many 
 composers like to have duplicate copies of their work 
 before sending it to press, and keep a regular copyist 
 for this. Rossini had one who wrote a beautiful hand, 
 but who had a mania for adding flats. He called 
 him and said : " Tell me, my friend, why have you 
 again put in this flat?" "I don't know, Master," 
 stammered the other, somewhat disconcerted, " but it 
 seemed sweeter to me that way!!! " Rossini did not 
 get angry; he took up a great eraser and scratched 
 out the flat. 
 
 We feel that this chapter might be indefinitely pro- 
 longed by introducing new cases that are much easier 
 to imagine than the numerous examples that present 
 themselves daily, alas! But what is the use? They 
 would only be variants of the preceding ones, and it 
 would be better for us to occupy ourselves with the 
 amateurs. 
 
 IL SUGGESTIONS FOR AMATEURS 
 
 All the same types of defective or incomplete pre- 
 liminary instruction, begun too late or badly directed, 
 that we have passed in review in studying the most 
 proper means that can be employed for some profit 
 to be gained, all these same types, we repeat, are nec- 
 essarily and still more frequently found among the 
 [334]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 amateurs. It is very natural that they should be more 
 pronounced with the latter, and with more character- 
 istic faults; for, originally at least and with rare ex- 
 ceptions, the study of amateurs must have been, by 
 the very logic of things, more neglected. Particularly 
 in the case of young people, they have been forced 
 to give precedence to the principal studies, being 
 justly considered as accessories and luxuries, to be 
 undertaken at odd times, in moments of rest and rec- 
 reation. Now, unless there is some precocious and 
 extraordinarily pronounced inclination, encouraged 
 and approved by the parents, it is very seldom that a 
 young boy, having to choose between a game of foot- 
 ball and a music lesson, will not give the former the 
 preference. My opinion is that he is right. It is 
 a little different with regard to young girls, in whose 
 general education a much larger part is given to what 
 are called " accomplishments," and who have to learn 
 with good will or by force a little music, drawing and 
 dancing. But in the Lycees, Colleges, Convents, and 
 other educational establishments, it is seldom that one 
 can find the necessary time at one's disposal under 
 the existing conditions, and also seldom that well- 
 trained teachers are to be found, or those who have the 
 necessary means of training at their disposal. The 
 so-called accomplishments are therefore drudgery 
 and it is only on holidays that one could indulge in 
 them. And on those days, one would much rather take 
 a walk or visit friends. This again is a very natural 
 thing. In reality, only the child who is educated by 
 teachers and tutors under the paternal roof, who, if 
 [335]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 his instinct leads him to it and it is the wish of his 
 parents, can devote himself at an early age to the se- 
 rious and profitable cultivation of the art of music, 
 and have the necessary guides for this purpose. 
 
 This explains the practical state of inferiority in 
 which even the most highly endowed amateurs find 
 themselves, in comparison with professionals of a very 
 ordinary grade. They totter at the base; they lack 
 the elementary instruction, or they have treated it too 
 lightly, attaching no importance to it, except in the 
 cases described above, which require a rare combina- 
 tion of happy circumstances. 
 
 It is here also that may be found, putting aside all 
 idea of a career, the veritable line of demarcation be- 
 tween the professional artist and the amateur artist, 
 the line that seemed to us difficult to define clearly at 
 the beginning of the first chapter : the one has to make 
 art his constant preoccupation, since he must live by 
 it ; while the other is only bound to it in an intermittent 
 fashion and according to his caprices; whence it re- 
 sults that, intelligence, gifts and all things being 
 equal, the advantage and superiority will remain with 
 the professional. 
 
 To return to our subject, from which I have inten- 
 tionally wandered a little, it is important to consider, 
 and this will now appear clear, that the advice that I 
 have given above, having in mind unfinished artists, 
 who feel the need of improving themselves, cannot be 
 addressed to amateurs who find themselves in the 
 same case unless they would be pleased to treat them- 
 selves as rigorously as those who have to seek their 
 [336]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 means of existence in this art. In my opinion, if they 
 want to continue to cultivate music in the quality of 
 amateurs, they can do better and otherwise. 
 
 The amateur instrumentalist seeks only pleasure in 
 art, his own pleasure first and then, by extension, the 
 pleasure that he can give to those around him. Now, 
 unless he possesses a great talent and a complete 
 virtuosity, which puts him outside the category which 
 we are studying here, and, moreover, necessitates a 
 considerable discussion, there does not exist, either for 
 him or for those with whom he is pleased to share his 
 pleasures, any artistic satisfaction comparable to that, 
 or to all those, that may be derived from a veritable 
 skill in reading, I mean here expert reading, intrepid 
 reading, that is frightened by nothing. 
 
 For every society man or woman, who already plays 
 the piano fairly well, particularly the women, the men 
 having generally less leisure, this so desirable talent 
 can be obtained much more easily than may be imag- 
 ined. It is quite sufficient to pursue this with a perse- 
 verance pushed to obstinacy, setting aside all other 
 aims. By this means, one may be certain of succeeding, 
 in a greater or less amount of time, in accordance with 
 the degree of individual natural capacity, but success 
 is always infallibly attained, and of this it is well to 
 be thoroughly convinced. As for the means, they are 
 extremely simple, demanding not more than three 
 hours a day of very agreeable work, which however 
 must be regular and uninterrupted ; this is an almost 
 indispensable condition of success. First of all, a spe- 
 cial arrangement must be made with, I do not say a 
 [337]
 
 professor, but simply a young artist who is a good 
 reader, in whose company the student should read at 
 sight every day for two consecutive (important) 
 hours, first four-hands, then on two pianos. This work 
 should be performed even more scrupulously than ever, 
 according to the principles that I have already laid 
 down in detail in the chapter on the Study of In- 
 struments, and of which I will repeat a summary of 
 the principal points: slowly, strictly in time, with the 
 shadings, and never stopping. For each four-hand 
 piece, the first part should be played first and then 
 the second; this is better than the converse, as it al- 
 lows the melodic memory less chance of coming into 
 play. The repertory for sight-reading should consist 
 principally of classical String Quartets transcribed 
 for four hands, the Symphonies of Haydn and Mozart 
 and later those of Beethoven and Mendelssohn, and 
 all the classical works of these composers or others 
 written or arranged by them for four hands; col- 
 lections of classics or modern etudes for four hands; 
 then pieces of any style and period whatsoever, even 
 entire scores of Operas or Operas-comiqties, tran- 
 scribed for four hands without the vocal parts (the 
 old Italian and German ones particularly are pro- 
 curable, nowadays such transcriptions are no longer 
 made) ; finally, anything that may be desired, pro- 
 vided that it is good music and that it is not too dif- 
 ficult to be read at sight correctly without any great 
 effort. 
 
 After some time at this exercise and stili continuing 
 it, it will be indispensable to procure a second piano 
 [338]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 for the new study that follows: having two scores, 
 vocal and piano, absolutely identical (same edition) 
 of any Opera, we should read at sight the piano part, 
 that is to say the transcription of the orchestral score, 
 on one of the instruments, while on the other piano 
 the artist-tutor plays the vocal parts, which, by the 
 way, is far more difficult than it appears to be, partic- 
 ularly in the ensembles; it is understood that he must 
 play the tenor-part in the real octave, not the notes 
 written. Here the repertory is inexhaustible, as it em- 
 braces all the operas of the past, present and future. 
 In the Overtures, Entr'actes or Airs de Ballet, where 
 there are no vocal parts, the tutor must not be idle ; 
 he should double the bass or the principal melodic 
 designs, improvize any part of reinforcement, or beat 
 the time like an orchestral conductor ; in fact, preserve 
 in some manner his part of commander. At first, the 
 scores should be selected, naturally, from those that 
 are clearest and easiest, and the greatest care should 
 be taken that the progressive difficulty of them should 
 be perfectly graduated, not letting ourselves be car- 
 ried away by the temptation to read prematurely more 
 attractive but too difficult works, from which flounder- 
 ing would result. 
 
 Of course, when the student is capable of it, these 
 pleasures may be varied; pieces specially written for 
 two pianos may be even read at sight ; but it must be 
 remembered that they are generally written for virt- 
 uosi. For works for two pianos, one should first read 
 the second piano part, and afterwards the first, in- 
 versely to what we have said for the pieces for four 
 f339]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 hands. Reasons for acting otherwise do not exist 
 here, for generally the first piano part contains more 
 difficulties. 
 
 As I have already said, four-hand sight-reading 
 should not be abandoned. One of the two consecu- 
 tive hours may be reserved for the latter, and the 
 other devoted to the reading of two piano scores. 
 The third hour, which should be separated from the 
 others, will be devoted to mechanical work: scales, 
 exercises and studies of medium difficulty, which can 
 even be always the same if desired. It is no less nec- 
 essary than the two others. 
 
 The basis of the system, be it understood, is never 
 to read at sight alone ; to have always a solid support, 
 which never allows the slightest time for stopping or 
 beginning again. It is therefore necessary to choose 
 for these functions of a clockwork pendulum only 
 an artist who is an excellent musician and endowed 
 with an impeccable feeling for rhythm. 
 
 By proceeding thus conscientiously and not neglect- 
 ing the slightest detail, not even the hour of mechani- 
 cal work, I maintain that any amateur will rapidly 
 become a perfect reader. By rapidly, I mean in a few 
 years. 
 
 We must not be astonished nor discouraged if at 
 first progress is slow and almost inappreciable. It is 
 generally thus. On the other hand, when once the gear 
 is well started, progress marches with giant's strides, 
 astonishing even to ourselves. 
 
 An excellent auxiliary, be it understood, would be 
 Chamber-Music and the ensemble lesson; but not at 
 [340]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the beginning, only when a certain sureness has been 
 acquired. 
 
 The kind of talent thus acquired, I repeat, is cer- 
 tainly by far the most agreeable of all for an amateur 
 pianist of intelligence. What would be the use of 
 his aiming at high perfection and an irreproachable 
 finish and what great pleasure would he gain from it ? 
 On the contrary, the study of sight-reading, so se- 
 ductive in itself, since it bestows the knowledge of so 
 many things, brings everything within our reach in 
 every class of music, for, outside of the profusion of 
 great and beautiful things inspired by the piano, 
 there docs not exist a single masterpiece, so to speak, 
 that has not been transcribed for it, often indeed in 
 many different ways. Moreover, this is the most so- 
 ciable species of talent, the one that will always be 
 most appreciated in society, the one that best enables 
 us to make ourselves agreeable to everybody. Still 
 further, and this is an eminently precious thing, it is 
 the one species of talent that is never lost ; even after 
 several years of interruption, we shall recover it in- 
 tact, since a few weeks of training at most is demanded 
 to get it all back. 
 
 He who has become a brilliant reader by employ- 
 ing the procedure that I have indicated, will find that 
 he has acquired at the same time a good share of the 
 qualities that constitute the best accompanist ; a lit- 
 tle custom will do the rest. If it pleases him to add 
 to this the study of transposition, the principles of 
 which may be learned in a few hours, and afterwards 
 require only practice, he will thereby acquire consid- 
 [341]
 
 erable prestige among singers. And if he has a suf- 
 ficiently perspicacious mind to know how to use his 
 ability as a reader, by keeping abreast with all that 
 appears, with the new opera, and has a good enough 
 memory to retain by heart its principal fragments, 
 and the ballet, if he does all this simply and without 
 pretension, with grace and good humour, he will soon 
 become the favourite of the drawing-rooms where mu- 
 sic is held in honour. 
 
 In the same order of ideas, every amateur who has 
 some little voice, should, if this voice is true, consider 
 it a duty to cultivate it, not with a view to singing 
 grand arias, which does not always escape ridicule, 
 but to be able on every occasion to take a part without 
 singing out of tune in a vocal ensemble, to read a score 
 at sight in company with a pianist who is a good 
 reader, and all without awkwardness in seeking the 
 notes by picking with one finger in the treble of the 
 piano, but with such ease and certainty that the re- 
 sult is as great a pleasure for himself as for his partner 
 and for an audience of intimate friends. This is a 
 result that is easily attainable by any young girl wlro 
 has some notions of music, and one that will often find 
 its application. 
 
 The amateur who plays any other instrument than 
 the piano should also always set highest the qualities 
 of a reader but less absolutely, because he cannot 
 hope for the same intellectual enjoyments; a score 
 cannot be read on the violin. In compensation, it is
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 just to consider that the effort is infinitely less for 
 him and only exacts a little will and perseverance. 
 
 Nevertheless, if he wishes to work seriously and 
 specially at sight-reading, he can procure an accom- 
 panist, whose mission will be never to allow him to 
 stop or hesitate, and with whom he will proceed very 
 nearly as we have indicated above for the pianist. But 
 this is not at all indispensable for him. He would 
 do far better to initiate himself into the mysteries of 
 the String-Quartet, in which, after having passed 
 the inevitable trials and liberated himself from the 
 awkwardness that must always be gone through at the 
 beginning, he will find one of the noblest and most de- 
 lightful pleasures that the cultivation of the art of 
 music can afford. 
 
 III. THE STRING-QUARTET 
 
 Of all forms of composition, the String-Quartet 
 is the only one that presents the peculiarity of never 
 admitting any kind of padding or accompaniment. 
 Each of its four parts is concerted, that is to say that 
 each possesses its own individual interest, equal to that 
 of the three others ; and if all produce solidarity with 
 regard to the effect of the whole, yet each preserves 
 its liberty and personality for the interpretation of 
 the thousand details with which the work swarms. 
 This is the reason that the intellectual pleasure expe- 
 rienced in executing a work thus conceived cannot be 
 compared to any other pleasure of interpretation, the 
 intensity of which it is almost impossible ,to imagine 
 [343]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 without having tasted it. Another peculiarity result- 
 ing from the same cause, is that the sum of the pleasure 
 of the interpreters is infinitely superior to what they 
 can communicate to their hearers, for they alone can 
 penetrate into the interior of the work, comprehending 
 its intimate structure, touching the wheels and making 
 them move, and experiencing the strange sensation of 
 themselves forming a part of it, identifying themselves 
 with it and giving life to it. 
 
 It is a little like Whist ; I beg pardon if this some- 
 what brutal comparison is ill chosen, having never 
 touched a card in my life ; but it seems to me that even 
 those who know the game take less interest in follow- 
 ing a hand than is experienced by the partners who 
 are playing it. 
 
 Nevertheless, hearing this kind of music strongly 
 captivates some amateurs, witness Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, better known as a general than as a dilettante, 
 remarking to the celebrated violinist Baillot that for 
 himself, from the very first notes, a Quartet takes 
 hold of you, absorbs you, and " changes the dispo- 
 sition of the soul in an instant." * 
 
 In order to make the interest belonging to this 
 study, which is worthy of every elevated mind, better 
 appreciated, I think I should not resist the desire to 
 cite in extenso several paragraphs from a little work 
 in which this question is treated by a master hand. 
 
 " Two Violins, a Viola and a Violoncello ! But let 
 
 us not be deceived ; this little orchestra contains within 
 
 itself a mysterious power that one would hardly sup- 
 
 * Bonaparte, premier Consul, a la Malmaison. 
 
 [344]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 pose. These four voices are at once four spirits that 
 sing, talk, dispute, or agree, according to the influ- 
 ence that dominates them. 
 
 " To the first violin belongs the choice and respon- 
 sibility of the movement, the indication of the gen- 
 eral character of the work and the initiative of the 
 phrase. All of these are conditions on which depends 
 essentially the moral and material effect of the 
 Quartet as a whole. 
 
 " He must, like an orchestral conductor, dominate 
 the others, hurrying- them along or holding them 
 back, but yet being always ready to abdicate at any 
 required moment and take up the part of accom- 
 panist. Without this suppleness of authority on 
 the part of the first violin, a quality much rarer than 
 is thought, the Quartet is no longer a conversation, 
 but turns very quickly into a quarrel, in which, led 
 away by the example of the leader, each player, crush- 
 ing, overwhelming and dominating his neighbour, 
 egotistically triumphs over the ruins of the work ! 
 
 " The second violin, the natural confidant of the 
 first, notwithstanding its modest role, is called upon 
 at a moment's notice to dominate the musical conver- 
 sation in his turn. This part, formerly played upon 
 a much larger instrument than the French * violin 
 used by the first violin, and of a less brilliant tone, 
 was easily distinguishable in the ensemble; but to- 
 day the tone of the two instruments being identical, 
 infinitely more tact and discretion are required from 
 the player to keep this part in its place, and greater 
 
 * An interesting and little known detail. 
 23 [ 345 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 attention from the listener, in order to follow this 
 delicate part which alternately appears and disap- 
 pears according as it is entrusted with an interesting 
 figure or with a secondary accompaniment. 
 
 " As for the viola, or alto, this part in the Quartet 
 is entirely conciliatory ; tuned a fifth lower than the 
 violin, it seems, by the very nature of this accord, 
 brought here to bind the shrillness of the violin with 
 the deep tones of the bass. Its sweet and expressive 
 voice participates in the roundness of the one and 
 the lightness of the other, while perfectly preserving 
 its individual timbre. To it are confided those notes 
 whose plaintive sensibility cannot be translated by the 
 dominating voice of the violin nor the firm power of 
 the bass; it seems to be to the Quartet what the bas- 
 soon is to the Orchestra. How many examples might 
 be cited in which this instrument seems to have in- 
 spired the phrase entrusted to it for rendering! 
 
 " Lastly comes the violoncello, which presents itself 
 under the double aspect of the low bass of accompani- 
 ment, as Haydn uses it in a great number of his 
 Quartets, or a singing part embracing the entire 
 compass of the diapason, and as fully entrusted with 
 passages as the other voices of the Quartet, as Mozart 
 and Beethoven have treated it, and all the modern 
 composers with them. It is upon this part that the 
 harmonic edifice rests, as if it were the keystone of 
 the arch, and its importance in giving assurance to 
 the Quartet modulations, etc., almost equals that of 
 the violin. 
 
 " From the modest amateur Quartet to the most 
 [ 346 J
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 brilliant interpretation that a skilful artist can ef- 
 fect before a large audience that he charms and in- 
 structs, the pleasure of the Quartet presents itself 
 under many different aspects and in very different de- 
 grees. Let us say, however, that the best condition 
 for the enjoyment of this kind of music is in the in- 
 timacy whose charm is so well allied to the natural 
 and the simple which the masters whom we have cited 
 knew how to preserve." * 
 
 Its name defines it : chamber-music. " This it is that 
 leaves to the executant, with liberty of choice, aban- 
 don, the unexpected, spontaneity and self-forgetful- 
 ness in the work. This it is also that permits us to 
 play without any mental reservation of certain 
 beauties in which science dominates and which we 
 might often fear to compromise in the presence of a 
 too numerous audience." * Let us add : or an audi- 
 ence containing some profane individuals, for really, 
 to give all your heart and soul to a performance of 
 this nature, and seeing in front of you only indifferent 
 or bored faces is suffering ; it freezes you. 
 
 Returning to our lover of a stringed instrument, 
 and to the means by which such an artistic satisfaction 
 is accessible to him, apparently the simplest course is 
 to form a group of two violinists and a 'cellist, all 
 three amateurs knowing how to use their instruments, 
 and to hire as professor and guide a good violinist who 
 is accustomed to and experienced in chamber-music. 
 Each of the amateur violinists can play alternately the 
 second violin and the viola, unless each prefers to keep 
 * Eugene Sauzay, Etude sur le Quatuor (1861.) 
 
 [347]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 constantly to the same part, which is perhaps more 
 reasonable to begin with. When he feels strong 
 enough, the second violin can also take the place of 
 the first from time to time, in order to get accustomed 
 to the command; the 'cellist alone remains riveted to 
 his instrument. In this way, one or two regular meet- 
 ings a week can be organized, between which each can 
 read his part and study the difficult passages. It is 
 not a bad thing to have some substitutes and super- 
 numeraries, so that the meeting can still be held on the 
 day when one of the members happens to be absent. 
 This also makes it possible to have Quintets occasion- 
 ally. The materials for this study are certainly not 
 lacking, for, without mentioning the most recent 
 works, we find as a basis, Haydn, seventy-six Quartets ; 
 Mozart, ten Quartets and ten Quintets; Beethoven, six 
 Trios, seventeen Quartets, and three Quintets. Then 
 there are also Boccherini, Onslow, Mendelssohn, etc., 
 and the moderns. 
 
 Begun coldly and almost like a mere trial, this study 
 will take hold of you and captivate you in a singular 
 way; four ardent artists, understanding to what 
 height the philosophy of music may ascend, accus- 
 tomed to play together, mutually to support and to 
 reply to each other, " forming but one soul and pene- 
 trating together into those mysterious beauties, raise 
 themselves and their hearers into the highest regions 
 of art. Such is the charm of the Quartet, which 
 nothing can explain so well as itself." * 
 
 It seems to me superfluous to insist any further 
 * Eugene Sauzay, fftude sur le Quatuw '1861.) 
 
 [348]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 upon this. I will add only that the amateur who is 
 well broken into the difficulties of the String-Quartet 
 will be perfectly at his ease in every kind of ensemble 
 music, especially at the piano, which will permit him, 
 while procuring therefrom new artistic delights, to 
 render himself useful and agreeable in many circum- 
 stances. 
 
 IV. THE DILETTANTE 
 
 As for the amateur composer, we will not devote a 
 special paragraph to him, because he is subject to the 
 same laws as the artist ; and, truth to tell, there is no 
 real difference between them. The public has no rea- 
 son to be more indulgent to one than to the other. 
 
 But we will say a few words about a very particular 
 and rather large class of amateurs : those who do not 
 know how to compose, sing, or play any instrument at 
 all; and who, not even trying to do so, are none the 
 less sensitive to the beauties of music, greedily seek 
 opportunities to hear them, know how to judge and 
 appreciate them at their real worth, and are really fine 
 connoisseurs, to the same extent as lovers of painting 
 or sculpture, who, generally speaking at least, not 
 painting nor modelling themselves, turn naturally to 
 collecting. They may be defined as the dilettante 
 type,* those who delight in the admiration and pas- 
 sionate contemplation of a work of art. 
 
 These are perhaps the happiest of all ; although, or 
 because they are perfectly selfish. They somewhat re- 
 * From the Italian, Dilettare, dtlecter, deliyht. 
 
 [ 349 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 semble the Orientals, who do not understand why we 
 should take the trouble of dancing ourselves, when it 
 is so easy to watch somebody else frisking before us. 
 Yes, he is indeed the happiest, since he shares in all 
 the joys of the artist and knows only by hearsay the 
 miseries and painful side of the career, not even the 
 little troubles of an inferior and secondary order 
 which the militant-amateurs have to encounter. 
 
 If, however, the dilettante desires still to increase 
 his share of contemplative pleasures, he can do so by 
 enlarging his erudition, by simply reading good 
 {esthetic works, and by a deep study of musical history 
 and the lives of the great musicians, which will make 
 him understand them in a more intimate and complete 
 manner. 
 
 To know how to listen intelligently, without losing 
 anything, is a veritable art ; an art that has to be 
 learned and has its value. " Everybody hears, but few 
 listen, and a still smaller number comprehend. It is 
 safe to say that the conditions for perfect hearing 
 are as numerous as complicated ; and so much more 
 difficult to fulfil since they exact a kind of self- 
 abnegation. A listener who is attentive, educated 
 without pedantry, without prejudice either of ad- 
 miration or repugnance, sensitive and sympathetic to 
 the beauties of the work, entering into the spirit of 
 the performer so as to stimulate his eloquence, listen- 
 ing attentively for himself without imposing his ideas 
 upon others, enthusiastic and discreet, is, from the 
 point of view that we are considering, a perfect mu- 
 sician, a rare type which alone can be produced by a 
 [B50]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 happy mixture of instinct and experience." * There- 
 fore, as we see, he is highly appreciated by true artists. 
 
 But a duty incumbent upon him is to show himself 
 always affable, gracious and kind towards those to 
 whom he is indebted for so many elevated pleasures, 
 and who work to procure them for him ; he owes them 
 aid and protection quite as much as esteem and friend- 
 ship. It is only thus that he may obtain pardon for 
 his sybaritism. 
 
 And if it happens that he gets the idea of working 
 in his turn, one day taking up the pen of a critic, 
 which unfortunately is forbidden to nobody, it should 
 be with the most extreme circumspection, and only 
 for the sake of showing his personal impressions to 
 others without ever trying to impose them upon 
 anybody, and abstaining systematically from the 
 abuse of those technical terms which he does not fail 
 to use, with a comical conviction, entirely incorrectly. 
 Jules Janin has said, I do not know exactly where, 
 that " Every man who meddles with criticism without 
 having produced anything is a dishonest man." This 
 is excessive. That he has produced nothing would 
 not be detrimental; but it is necessary that he should 
 possess the sum of the value and the knowledge of 
 those who produce and whom he pretends to judge ; as 
 Voltaire, Proud'hon and La Bruyere, who can scarcely 
 be suspected of having consciously agreed, have per- 
 emptorily established. One can accept the judgment 
 of his equals and superiors only ; and this is what 
 would render it notorious presumption on the part 
 * Engine Sauzay, iZtude sur le Quatuor (1861). 
 [351]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 of a dilettante to pose as a professor of art and to 
 formulate advice as to what people should do; but if 
 he knows how to limit himself, considering himself, 
 with some reason, as the representative of the elite of 
 the public, its most intelligent portion, guiding the 
 great mass of this same public towards the works or 
 the artists that are the objects of his greatest admira- 
 tion, then he will render service to art and do es- 
 timable work. By keeping himself within these just 
 limits, not only in his writings but also in his speech, 
 he can contribute in his sphere of action to the devel- 
 opment of dilettanteism, and favour the expansion of 
 art by this very course to an appreciable extent. 
 
 It seems that we have thoroughly examined all the 
 cases that may present themselves among amateurs 
 whose studies have been insufficient or incomplete. 
 There still remains one more, however, perhaps the 
 most interesting of all, often also a very sad one, which 
 it would be prudent always to foresee. The reader 
 divines it. How often we see a man or woman of the 
 world, more often a woman, sometimes indeed a young 
 girl, obliged by some reverse of fortune to seek some 
 resource, temporarily or permanently, in the exercise 
 of an art that has never been studied except in the 
 quality of an amateur ? 
 
 It is here particularly that the inconvenience of 
 superficial studies is sadly felt, as also the danger of 
 family and social adulations. The individual be- 
 lieved himself or herself to be the possessor of real 
 talent, accepted all the compliments as sterling, took 
 pleasure in deceiving himself as to his proper value, 
 [352]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and on the day when the necessity arose of making 
 use of it, he saw it all vanish in smoke. Shall he 
 launch out as a virtuoso? That is the first thing 1 
 thought of, because it is the most brilliant and the 
 most lucrative, when success is with us, but the ex- 
 amination is not a long one. It very soon becomes evi- 
 dent that he possesses nothing that is needed, and 
 least of all the repertory, the qualities of endurance, 
 solidity and assurance which can only result from 
 long training. That is the first deception. Quite 
 naturally, the next thought is of teaching. But to 
 be a teacher, scholars are needed ; and to attract 
 scholars, unless we can make ourselves heard and ap- 
 plauded, we must be able at least to give some proof 
 in some way of our qualifications for teaching, or 
 show pupils already formed; but, in order to show 
 them, we must have some ! Then, distressed and dis- 
 illusioned, he turns in a fruitless circle, from which 
 only a happy chance, upon which he must not count 
 too much, can deliver him. He thought he had a 
 tool in his hand, and it was only a plaything. 
 
 For this sad state of things, I do not know any 
 remedy. 
 
 But there exists one means of avoiding this, which 
 I have already hinted at, and this is to be trained for 
 teaching in advance. I know personally, which 
 makes me suppose that the case is not very rare, sev- 
 eral fine examples of young women of the best so- 
 ciety, having what is called " a fine amateur talent," 
 and whose position with regard to fortune seems to 
 be, as far as is possible, sheltered against all eventuali- 
 [353]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ties, who devote several hours every day, gratuitously, 
 of course, to the musical instruction of young boys or 
 girls whose parents could not pay for the luxury of an 
 accomplishment. Some give them courses in sol- 
 feggio, often quite numerous ; others give in the true 
 meaning of the word, piano lessons; and there are 
 others who teach singing, the violin, or the harp, and, 
 far from keeping to the elementary stage, conduct 
 their pupils quite far. 
 
 Do they do this from a sentiment of pure charity? 
 We may be permitted to doubt it, for their scholars 
 do not belong for the most part to the indigent class, 
 but are recruited rather from the lower middle class. 
 In doing this, however, they accomplish an unques- 
 tionably beneficent act which it would be bad taste to 
 disparage, for they give these children access to a 
 class of studies which may lead them to a career 
 which would remain closed to them without this in- 
 tervention. 
 
 Do they do this with an idea of calculation and 
 foresight into the future and the sorry surprises that 
 it may have in store for them ? I do not know, having 
 never asked them about it; but where would be the 
 harm ? 
 
 What is very certain is that whatever their in- 
 centive may be, there is nothing here but what is es- 
 sentially honourable; and if the days of adversity 
 should come, they will find themselves quite differently 
 armed for the struggle from those who have never 
 done anything to prepare for it; for not only will 
 they have thus acquired the experience of teaching, 
 [354]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 upon the importance of which we have already in- 
 sisted under all circumstances, so that there is no need 
 to return to it here, but they have the means of justi- 
 fying their qualifications for teaching by the exhibi- 
 tion of the results obtained, by making their little 
 pupils heard, which is the best of all diplomas and 
 ought to aid them strongly in recruiting from those 
 about them the nucleus of a little following. 
 
 And if they should never need to have recourse to 
 this resource, which I hope may be so, they will be re- 
 warded in another way for the sacrifice that they have 
 made of their time and trouble. One never knows any- 
 thing so well as that which one has tried to teach to 
 others; and by this benevolent practice of teaching 
 they will see their own talent develop and acquire 
 quite an individual solidity and an assurance which is 
 not the usual stamp of amateur talent. 
 
 Outside these cases and several others quite as rare, 
 in which by the force of circumstances he is trans- 
 formed into a veritable artist-militant, the intelligent 
 amateur, whatever his degree of culture may be, and 
 even if in some things he surpasses, or thinks he sur- 
 passes certain professionals, would always act in good 
 taste by not trying to rival or enter into contest with 
 them. The artist, on his side, will do well to avoid 
 all occasions which may give rise to comparisons 
 that are unbecoming, as unpleasant for the one as for 
 the other. They should not encounter save with the 
 noble and elevated aim of fraternal collaboration, and 
 with the desire of completing one another and lend- 
 [355]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ing mutual support. An ill-understood and petty 
 antagonism lowers and weakens both, while by re- 
 maining each in his own province, or in not asso- 
 ciating except with the idea of co-operating in the 
 work of art, they directly attain their common end, 
 which is the contemplation or the production of the 
 Beautiful. 
 
 If I have succeeded in making myself well under- 
 stood up to this point, the reader can now conceive the 
 strict solidarity that should exist between the amateurs 
 and artists who are equally fond of matters of art. 
 The artist's life could not be understood without his 
 desire of being appreciated by the public which is 
 composed of amateurs. On the other hand, the ama- 
 teur could not exist unless the artist were there to go 
 before and show him the way. But, if their ideal is 
 identical, it is otherwise with the ways and means by 
 which they can or should pursue it. This is why, in 
 the course of this chapter, dealing with the ways of 
 rectifying an imperfect education or of making the 
 best possible use of it, I have had to give different ad- 
 vice for apparently analogous cases, according as they 
 are addressed to one or other of these two categories. 
 It is for everybody to judge for himself in which he 
 should place himself, and to act accordingly, for his 
 pleasure or for his profit, ad majorem artis gloriam. 
 
 I will only add here for the use of those unfortu- 
 nate young artists or amateurs who see their studies 
 stopped on account of the impossibility of procuring 
 the advice of a teacher, a hint of a charming method 
 that I have frequently seen succeed and which is 
 [356]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 called sympathy: this is the exchange of lessons. It 
 is within the reach of everybody, with the exception 
 of the absolutely ignorant, those who have never 
 learned anything, not even their own language. 
 Really, two things only are necessary for this : first, 
 you must know something, it does not matter what, 
 but something, whether a language, or drawing, or 
 history, or even some branch of music, and this well 
 enough and thoroughly enough to be able to teach it. 
 Then you must try to get into communication, by the 
 aid of mutual friends or relations, or by some other 
 means, even such as advertising in the papers, with 
 some advanced student-musician who is in an analo- 
 gous though inverse condition, being desirous of ac- 
 quiring what you are able to teach him. And you 
 may believe that this is not as difficult as one might 
 suppose, for I have seen the exchange of Violin les- 
 sons for lessons in Harmony ; Piano for Violin ; Sol- 
 feggio for German, and even Mathematics for Coun- 
 terpoint. I saw one of my pupils frequenting a 
 Fencing-school for three years by giving a little 
 course on the Flute to the master and his assistant; 
 and very recently I saw another, a good harmonist 
 and organist, learning English and Grecian history 
 at the same time by teaching the Organ to a young 
 Englishman, and Harmony to a pupil in the Ecole 
 Normale; all concluding to the mutual satisfaction 
 of the contracting parties, who afterwards generally 
 remained excellent friends. This is mutual instruc- 
 tion without opening the purse. 
 
 The danger here lies in the inexperience of one or 
 [357]
 
 other of the Student-Professors ; to remedy this they 
 will have to make voluntary efforts, and struggle to 
 divine what is incompletely explained to them, and 
 more particularly to have that good faith which con- 
 sists in recognizing without silly self-conceit when 
 they are wrong. They will also act prudently in not 
 making use of any books for study except those that 
 have been used for their own instruction, and which 
 they are likely to know how to make the best use of; 
 or, if there is any reason why they should have re- 
 course to other methods, these should be chosen with 
 the most suspicious circumspection, and only from 
 those that have been proved and have passed into the 
 rank of classics. In a case of this kind, we should 
 never venture to make experiments ; and here more 
 than ever it is important to follow only the best 
 known and most frequented paths. People could 
 scarcely believe the harm that is done to instruction 
 by bad works of enticing titles and full of fallacious 
 promises: The Violin Learned without a Master; The 
 Piano in Fifteen Lessons; The Art of Composing 
 Brought within the Reach of All; these are all fool- 
 traps which we must guard against as pickpockets. 
 Absolutely nothing can be learned in music without 
 the necessary amount of time, or without a guide, 
 unless it is the accordion or the ocarina.
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 V. HELPFUL BOOKS AND METHODS 
 
 I had no intention of giving a catalogue of 
 didactic works here ; but since several friends have re- 
 marked that, particularly in considering the employ- 
 ment of this mutual teaching by novices in pedagogy, 
 without it there would be a gap in a work which aims 
 to be practical above everything else, I have drawn 
 up the one that follows. But I must carefully ex- 
 plain its exact scope and intent. 
 
 I have attempted to make it a collection of works 
 that by themselves suffice for musical instruction in 
 every branch. I have proceeded as if I were charged 
 with forming economically the nucleus of a scholar's 
 library for the use of some new establishment that in- 
 tended to train musicians of every kind: Composers, 
 Singers and Instrumentalists. 
 
 Therefore, if I have forgotten nothing, as I hope 
 is the case, everybody will find in it what is necessary 
 for starting his studies, and even for carrying them 
 up to a somewhat advanced stage. But I do not at all 
 mean to assert that these are the only works worthy of 
 confidence, nor even that they are the best ; this as- 
 sertion would necessitate a knowledge of every one 
 that has ever been written, and a belief in my own 
 capability of judging them, two things in which I 
 am equally lacking. My sole intention is to indicate 
 in some measure, for any given field of musical study, 
 at least one work that is serious, complete and con- 
 scientiously written, selected from those that I know 
 and whose excellence nobody disputes. 
 [359]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 No one will be astonished if I have added a few of 
 my own ; it would be strange if after having made 
 them I should think them bad. But I have always 
 been careful to mention similar ones side by side with 
 them, so as not to seem to be advertising my pub- 
 lishers. 
 
 For SOLFEGGIO: 
 
 Batiste. Petit solfege melodique (Heugel). 
 
 Panseron. A B C (2 volumes) (Hachette). 
 
 Panscron. Solfeges d'artiste (Hachette). 
 
 Solfeges d'ltalie. 
 
 Solfeges du Conservatoire. 
 
 Cherubini. Solfeges ( Menestrel ) . 
 
 Lavignac. Solfeges manuscrits (6 volumes) (Le- 
 moine). 
 
 Ambroise Thomas. Solfege mamiscrit (2 vol- 
 umes) (Menestrel). 
 
 There are, as I have said elsewhere, an infinite num- 
 ber of good works on the study of Solfeggio, signed 
 Panseron, H. Duvernoy (Leduc and Benoit), Roug- 
 non (Noel and Gallet) between which we are embar- 
 rassed in making a choice ; the important thing is not 
 to make use of any but those that have a clearly mu- 
 sical and artistic character. 
 
 For ENSEMBLE SOLFEGGIO: 
 
 Chelard. Symphonies vocales a 3 et 4 "voix {men, 
 women, or children), a work that is little known, 
 but which is extremely musical (Lemoine). 
 [360]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 For THEORY: 
 
 A. Savard. Principes de la musique (Hachette). 
 
 M. Simon. Cours complet des principes de la 
 sique (Mackar). 
 
 In these works, which are also abridged for those 
 who only want a superficial knowledge (which is al- 
 ways a mistake), the theory of transposition is also 
 described. 
 
 For DICTATION : 
 
 Lavignac. Cours complet de Dictee musicale 
 
 (4483 dictations) (Lemoine). 
 Duvernoy. 200 Dictees, en deux livres (Benoit). 
 
 For HARMONY : 
 
 Reber. Traite d'Harmonie (Gallet). 
 
 Th. Dubois. Notes et etudes complement indis- 
 
 pensable du Traite de Reber (Heugel). 
 Fr. Bazin. Cours d'Harmonie (Lemoine). 
 Of the last two works, Bazin's is the simplest and 
 clearest, as well as the easiest. Reber's, with the 
 addition of Dubois's Notes, initiates one much 
 more completely into the combinations of modern 
 harmony. 
 
 Th. Dubois. 87 Lecons d'Harmonie (Heugel). 
 
 A. Barthe. 90 Lemons d'Harmonie (Leduc). 
 
 Ch. Lenepveu. 100 Lecons d'Harmonie (Le- 
 
 moine ) . 
 
 Lavignac. 208 Lecons d'Harmonie (3 volumes) 
 (Lemoine). 
 
 24 [ 361 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 For COUNTERPOINT AND FUGUE: 
 
 The most complete and practical work is the last 
 that has appeared: 
 
 Th. Dubois. Traite de Counterpoint et Fugue 
 (Heugel, 1901). 
 
 Before the appearance of this book, the one used 
 almost exclusively was that of 
 
 Cherubini. Cours de Counterpoint et Fugue 
 (Heugel). 
 
 From the point of view of erudition or archaeologi- 
 cal research, it is well to read the treatises of Fux 
 (1660), Marpurg (1754), and Albrechtsberger 
 (1790). 
 
 For the study of MUSICAL FORM : 
 
 Hugo Riemann. History of Musical Forms. (One 
 of a series of Musical Catechisms.) 
 
 Jadassohn. Der Lehre vom Kanon und von der 
 Fuge (Berlin, 1884). 
 
 Die Forman in den Werken der Tonkunst analy- 
 siert (1885). 
 
 For ORCHESTRATION: 
 
 Gevaert. Traite d'Instrumentation (Lemoine). 
 Gevaert. Cours methodique d'orchestration (Le- 
 moine). 
 Berlioz. Grand Traite d'Instrumentation et d'Or- 
 
 chestration moderne (Lemoine). 
 Guiraud. Traite pratique d 'orchestration. 
 j(Durand-Schoenwerk), a charming little element- 
 ary work and yet very complete. 
 [ 362 ]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 For the MILITARY ORCHESTRA: 
 
 Gabriel Pares. Traite d' 'Instrumentation et d'Or- 
 chestration militaires (Lemoine). 
 
 There are little elementary methods for all the wind 
 instruments by the same author. 
 
 For MUSICAL ACOUSTICS: 
 
 Tyndall. Lectures on Sound (London, 1867). 
 Helmholtz. Sensations of Tone. Translated by 
 Ellis (London, 1875). 
 
 For the study of the HISTORY OF Music : 
 
 Felix Clement. Histoire de la musique (Hach- 
 
 ette). 
 
 H. Lavoix fils. Histoire de la musique (Quantin). 
 Fetis. Biographic des musiciens (8 volumes) 
 
 (Firmin-Didot). 
 
 A. Pougin. Supplement a Vouvrage precedent. 
 Gevaert.- Histoire et Theorie de la musique 
 
 grecque (Ghent, 1875-1881). 
 Lavoix et Lemaire. Histoire du Chant (Heu- 
 
 gel). 
 Lavignac. La musique et les musiciens (Dela- 
 
 grave), a work which is a sort of encyclopaedic 
 
 resume of all knowledge useful to musicians. 
 
 MUSICAL DICTIONARIES: 
 
 Hugo Riemann. Musik Lexikon (1882; English 
 
 ed., 1893-'6). 
 
 Paul Rougnon. Dictionnaire musicale des locu- 
 tions eir anger es usitees en musique (Paul Du- 
 pont). 
 
 [363]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 For SINGING: 
 
 M. Garcia. Traite complet de VArt du chant 
 
 (Heugel). 
 
 J. Faure. La Voix et le Chant (Menestrel). 
 Crosti. Le Gradus du Chanteur (Girod). 
 Duprez. Methode complete du Chant (Heugel). 
 Delle-Sedie. L'Art lyrique (Leduc). 
 
 For HYGIENE OF THE VOICE: 
 
 Dr. Mandl. Hygiene de la voix (1879). 
 Dr. Castex. Hygiene de la voix parlee et chantee 
 (1894). ( Gauthier- Villars. ) 
 
 For the PIANO : 
 
 There are a multitude of excellent methods that 
 everybody knows; I mention only two, which do not 
 seem to me to be known as much as they deserve : 
 Louis Koehler, op. 80. Methode de piano avec 
 explications theoriques et pratiques, et plus de 
 100 exercises et morceaux originaux (Siegel a 
 Leipzig). 
 
 Villoing (who was Rubinstein's teacher). Ecole 
 pratique du piano (Heugel). 
 
 Stamaty (who was Saint-Saens's teacher). Le 
 
 Rhythm des doights (Menestrel). 
 Czerny. The whole collection of his exercises for 
 
 every degree (Leduc, Costallat, etc.). 
 J. B. Cramer. Etudes (2 volumes) (Lemoine). 
 Clementi. Gradus ad Parnassum (3 volumes) 
 
 (Richault). 
 
 [364]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 J. Seb. Bach. The Well-Tempered Clavier (2 vol- 
 umes). 
 
 Moscheles. Etudes ( Benoit ) . 
 
 Hummel. Etudes (Costallat). 
 
 Stephen Heller. Etudes (10 volumes) (Maho, 
 Lemoine, etc.). 
 
 Chopin. Etudes (2 volumes) (Lemoine). 
 
 Liszt. Etudes after Paganini (Breitkoff & Har- 
 tel, Leipzig; Costallat, Paris). 
 
 For READING ( 4 hands ) : 
 
 Marmontel. L'art de dechiffrer (elementary) 
 
 (Heugel). 
 Lemoine. Ecole de la mesure et de la ponctuation 
 
 (Lemoine). 
 
 For the HARP : 
 
 R. Martenot. Methode de Harpe (Enoch). 
 
 For the ORGAN : 
 
 Lemmens. Ecole d'orgue (Schott). 
 
 Cl. Loret. Cours d'orgue en 4 livres (Loret et 
 
 Freytag). 
 
 J. Seb. Bach. Preludes and fugues for the organ. 
 Mendelssohn. Six Organ Sonatas (Peters). 
 
 For the HARMONIUM : 
 
 Lefebure - Wely. Methode pour rharmonium 
 (Parvy). 
 
 [365]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 For the VIOLIN : 
 
 De Beriot. Methode elementaire de Violin 
 (Schott). 
 
 Baillot. Uart du Violin (Heugel). 
 
 Kreutzer. 40 Etudes (Peters). 
 
 Fiorillo. 36 Caprices (Peters). 
 
 Rode. 24 Caprices (Peters). 
 
 Campagnoli. Divertissements a toutes les posi- 
 tions (Litolff). 
 
 For the VIOLA: 
 
 Bruni. Methode pour V Alto Viola (Enoch). 
 Martinn. Nouvelle methode d'Alto (Costallat). 
 
 For the VIOLONCELLO : 
 
 Baudiot. Grande methode de Violoncelle (Costal- 
 lat). 
 
 Romberg. Methode complete de Violoncelle (Cos- 
 tallat). 
 
 Chevillard. Methode complete de Violoncelle ( Cos- 
 tallat). 
 
 R&bsLud. ^Methode complete de Violoncelle (Cos- 
 tallat). 
 
 For the DOUBLE-BASS : 
 
 Labro. Methode de Contrebasse (Gallet). 
 Gouffe. Traite sur la Contrebasse (Costallat). 
 Bottesini, G. de. Methode complete de Contre- 
 basse (Ricordi). 
 
 [366]
 
 RECTIFYING A MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 For the FLUTE : 
 
 Berbiguier. Methode complete pour la Flute (Co- 
 
 telle). 
 Quantz. Versuch einer Anweisung, die Flote 
 
 traversiere zu spielen (1752). 
 
 For the OBOE: 
 
 Brod. Methode de hautbois (Lemoine). 
 Verroust. Methode pour le hautbois (Costallat). 
 
 For the CLARINET : 
 
 Beer. Methode complete de clarinette (Leduc). 
 Klose. Methode pour clarinette (Leduc). 
 
 For the BASSOON: 
 
 Cokken. Methode de basson (Leduc). 
 Bremond. Exercises et arpeges (Evette). 
 
 For the HORN : 
 
 Dauprat. Methode de cor (Lemoine) French 
 
 horn. 
 Bremond. Exercises (Leduc) Valve horn. 
 
 For the TRUMPET: 
 
 Dauverne. Methode pour la Trompette (Mille- 
 
 reau) simple Trumpet. 
 Guilbaut. Methode pour la Trompette a pistons 
 
 (Margueritat) Trompette a pistons. 
 [367]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 For the CORNET A PISTONS : 
 
 Forestier. Methode complete theorlque et prati- 
 que pour le cornet a pistons (Bernard Latte). 
 
 Arban. Methode de Cornet et de Saxhorn (Le- 
 duc). 
 
 For the TROMBONE: 
 
 Dieppe. Methode complete pour le Trombone 
 
 (Joubert) Trombone a coulisses. 
 Delisse. Opuscule Rudimentaire et classique (Mil- 
 
 lereau) Trombone a pistons. 
 
 Wherever possible, I have added the name of the 
 publisher, in order to facilitate search in book -shops 
 and to avoid confusion. When no name is given, it is 
 because the work in question is a classic that belongs 
 to the public, of which many editions exist and which 
 is easy to find.
 
 PART VI 
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION: IN- 
 DIVIDUAL, CLASS AND CONSERVATORY 
 INSTRUCTION
 
 PART VI 
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION: IN- 
 DIVIDUAL, CLASS AND CONSERVATORY 
 INSTRUCTION 
 
 I. PRIVATE TEACHING 
 
 It now remains for us to consider for the last time 
 Musical Instruction in its entirety, but from a dif- 
 ferent point of view from all that has gone before. 
 
 One of the most serious questions must in fact pre- 
 sent itself to parents who want their children to study 
 music, as it will later to the pupils themselves, when 
 they have reached an age at which they can them- 
 selves decide upon the guidance > of their studies. It 
 is this : of the two kinds of teaching : individual or in 
 classics, which should be chosen? Or, what is merely 
 the same question put differently, which produces the 
 best result with an equal sum of effort or money ex- 
 pended? Here a distinction .. must be made. 
 
 In principle, we may reply that private teaching 
 is the best for learning an instrument, or learning 
 singing, which comes to the same thing, the voice hav- 
 ing to be considered, in all that concerns musical 
 [371]
 
 studies, as nothing but a living instrument. The rea- 
 son is simply that the teacher has not so much time, 
 as is customary devoted to a private lesson, to ob- 
 serve his pupil carefully, to look out for his faults, 
 to try to develop his good qualities, to give him ap- 
 propriate examples, to make him understand and re- 
 peat these and to be engrossed with him exclusively 
 without any outside foreign preoccupations to dis- 
 turb him ; also because, to tell the truth, two pupils 
 absolutely alike do not exist, and it can never be 
 proper to treat both exactly in the same way, nor 
 with identical means. 
 
 II. CLASS INSTRUCTION 
 
 On the other hand, the classes are preferable in all 
 that concerns pure technique, that is to say, Solfeggio, 
 Theory, Dictation, Transposition, Harmony, Coun- 
 terpoint, Fugue, Composition, everything, in short, 
 whose rules or immutable laws are invariably the s,ame 
 for all, and have nothing to do with the character, 
 or special qualities of each individual, which should, 
 on the contrary, outside of these rules, and especially 
 in all that concerns Composition, preserve its inde- 
 pendence and individuality. 
 
 I think it may be useful to enter into a few details 
 regarding other reasons which make me prefer class 
 teaching in each of these branches of musical tech- 
 nique. 
 
 Solfeggio: a pupil cannot sol-fa for a whole hour 
 at a time, it would be much too fatiguing ; but he can 
 [372]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 thoroughly profit by a Course of Solfeggio that lasts 
 two hours by taking interest in the work of the other 
 pupils and in following the music, when he himself 
 is not singing. We may even conclude a priori that 
 the largest classes are also likely to be the best, for 
 they permit of ensemble solfeggio of several parts, 
 one of the most perfect studies that exists for expand- 
 ing the musical intelligence and perfecting the edu- 
 cation of the ear. 
 
 Theory: this is spoken instruction, which can be 
 given at the table (and there it is also accomplished 
 the best), followed by questions or problems for the 
 pupil to solve in writing. 
 
 Dictation: exactly the same time is required to 
 give dictation, whether the pupils number one or 
 hundreds. So it wastes the time of a teacher and gives 
 him useless fatigue when he is required to give indi- 
 vidual dictation, and is of extra advantage to nobody. 
 
 Transposition: the same reasons hold as for Sol- 
 feggio and Theory, whether the exercise is in trans- 
 position by reading, or by singing at the piano, or 
 whether it is done by writing; nearly as much is 
 learned by seeing it done, by watching intelligently, 
 of course. 
 
 Harmony: here the motives of my predilection are 
 of quite another nature : there is an advantage in be- 
 ing able to compare our own work with that of our 
 comrades, whether their standing is absolutely abreast 
 of our own, or ahead, or even behind (without too 
 great a difference, however). This develops judg- 
 ment and the spirit of analysis; but, contrarily to 
 [373]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 what we have said regarding Solfeggio, there is no 
 advantage here in the class being large ; from four 
 to ten pupils is well enough, that is a good proportion, 
 for it is necessary for every one frequently to have a 
 finger in the pie. 
 
 Counterpoint: the same considerations hold good 
 here as for harmony, but in a much higher degree. It 
 is at least as instructive to see the faults in the work 
 of fellow-pupils sought for, and to participate in this 
 search, to criticize, and to take sides for or against 
 a certain interpretation of strict rules of this severe 
 species of composition, as it is to see the work that 
 we ourselves have written, minutely examined and dis- 
 sected. 
 
 Fugue and Composition: here, again, my motives 
 are of a new order. Nobody can be sure of producing 
 any composition, fugue or anything else, by a certain 
 day and hour appointed. We must wait for the in- 
 spiration, or, if that word seems too big, wait until 
 we are in the mood, till the idea arrives. Under these 
 conditions, how can an individual lesson be set for a 
 fixed day and hour? It may very well happen that 
 we have nothing ready ; or, on the contrary, we 
 hurry, and carry in only a bad piece of work, a 
 patched-up task that is too hasty, and devoid of in- 
 terest. In a class, on the contrary, among the whole 
 number of pupils, there will be one or two who will 
 have produced something, and that something, what- 
 ever it is, will be sufficient to furnish material for the 
 lesson, and at least serve as a point of departure. 
 
 Then a lesson in composition is first of all a dis- 
 [374]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 cussion about aesthetics, sometimes indeed a debate, a 
 conversation and an exchange of ideas, and there is 
 no reason why it should be addressed to a single per- 
 con. 
 
 Such are the motives that lead me to find class- 
 teaching superior to individual teaching in everything 
 that relates to general technique, from the beginning 
 to the end, while preserving a marked preference for 
 individual teaching in all that concerns the study of 
 singing, or of any instrument. 
 
 Now we must examine the exceptional cases, which 
 do not seem to me excessively numerous. 
 
 The first that comes into my mind is that of a very 
 backward pupil, who needs to be fed by double mouth- 
 fuls and to receive numerous explanations. For the 
 latter, the private lesson is necessarily imperative, 
 whatever the branch of study may be. It is the same 
 with one who, on account of his other work, has only 
 a little time to spare ; it is also the same with a pupil 
 whose studies have a faulty foundation, which forces 
 us to go back frequently, to consolidate incomplete 
 ideas, a thing that is inadmissible in a class. Again 
 in the case of a slow pupil (which does not mean that 
 he makes bad progress, therefore those are often the 
 ones that best assimilate the precepts that are taught 
 to them patiently) who would hinder his comrades 
 whose progress is normal. In all these cases and in all 
 those where the pupil is not found under ordinary con- 
 ditions, the private lesson, it stands for itself, is the 
 one to be recommended. 
 
 More delicate is the position of a pupil afflicted with 
 [375]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 extreme timidity. If our aim is particularly to van- 
 quish this timidity, it seems that the class, with its in- 
 evitable promiscuous intercourse, is the self-evident 
 remedy ; but if we want above all else to obtain rapid 
 progress, notwithstanding this timidity, we shall more 
 easily succeed by means of frequent lessons by a 
 teacher who knows how to inspire confidence. It is a 
 ticklish problem. 
 
 Perhaps, in this case, the two systems might be tried 
 alternately. 
 
 I see that I have forgotten to speak here of the 
 study of chamber-music. For this, there are two dif- 
 ferent courses; one special to pianists, the other 
 preferable for instrumentalists in general. It is al- 
 ways an advantage for the pianist to begin with a 
 certain number of private lessons in order to acquire 
 flexibility, the qualities of abnegation, renunciation 
 of personal effect and that very special sentiment of 
 courteous condescension which constitutes one of the 
 most delightful and elegant charms of this kind of 
 music, to become, in a measure, sociable and get rid 
 of the habit of too great independence. But just as 
 soon as this end is nearly attained, the class is better 
 and more profitable for him; there the pupil works 
 with his fingers but a part of the time, it is true, but 
 he listens as at an instructive concert, for, as we have 
 already said, one of the great attractions of this study 
 is the magnificence and the multiplicity of the mas- 
 terpieces with which the greatest composers have en- 
 dowed the library of instrumental ensemble music. As 
 it is impossible for the student to play everything 
 [376]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 himself, he should endeavour to hear as much as pos- 
 sible and to furnish his mind. For the other instru- 
 mentalists, they can instantly take their part in the 
 class, without inconvenience, but they must be in com- 
 plete possession of the mechanism of their instru- 
 ments, and be good enough readers to read their part 
 at sight very fluently and without the least difficulty, 
 which is not generally demanded of pianists, and 
 could not be reasonably required of them, their part 
 being infinitely greater than the others. 
 
 Such are, to my mind, the motives which should de- 
 termine the preference, according to the circum- 
 stances, and when we have absolute freedom of choice 
 for class teaching or for private teaching. 
 
 Each has its own advantages, and it is by thor- 
 oughly understanding these that the reader will be 
 able to complete the above sketch for each particular 
 case. 
 
 But another coefficient must also be taken into se- 
 rious consideration when the question arises of choos- 
 ing a system of instruction, and even, in certain cases, 
 it must prevail over all preceding considerations ; this 
 is the ability of the teacher. 
 
 In reality, if, in any of the branches for which we 
 have recognized the superiority of private lessons, 
 there should be found some eminent teacher, who, for 
 reasons connected with his method, or his procedure, 
 or simply his habits or propriety, has a marked pre- 
 dilection for classes or collective lessons, and if this 
 teacher inspires confidence in a higher degree than his 
 brethren, it is to him that we must go, and thenceforth 
 25 [ 377 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 accept his ways without question. If, on the con- 
 trary, in one of those cases where teaching in classes 
 seems to us the best, we do not find it practised in our 
 neighbourhood by able masters, while we can obtain 
 private lessons from a very good teacher who does 
 not teach in classes, because he does not like them, 
 preferring the other system, it would be better to re- 
 nounce the idea of a class and apply to the very good 
 teacher and leave him free to act as he pleases. In a 
 word, the quality of the master should stand above 
 and be placed before all other considerations; and 
 when once we have placed ourselves under his direc- 
 tion, we must leave him the liberty to proceed accord- 
 ing to his own will and custom. To try to impose 
 our own ideas upon him would irritate him, without 
 doing any good. 
 
 It is only in small localities, or towns of a sec- 
 ondary order, that we can experience such hesitations. 
 In all the great intellectual and artistic centres, there 
 are well-arranged- courses, and good teachers abound ; 
 the only embarrassment is that of selection, and in 
 that case we can allow ourselves to be guided by such 
 general considerations as the preceding. 
 
 Then, in most of the large cities also, there are Con- 
 servatories, of which we have not yet spoken, but 
 which constitute a powerful element of expansion in 
 musical instruction for the amateur as well as for the 
 professional. 
 
 [3781
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 III. CONSERVATORY INSTRUCTION 
 
 Instruction in the Conservatories and other large 
 schools is something quite peculiar to itself. It is 
 collective teaching inasmuch as all the pupils belong- 
 ing to the same class are united in the same place ; 
 it participates in the nature of private teaching, 
 since every pupil receives his personal share of the 
 lesson, even if it is only a few minutes, besides hear- 
 ing the lesson of his fellow-students, who, likewise, 
 hear his and can derive profit from it. It is not ab- 
 solutely theoretical, since the explanation of the prin- 
 ciples is always accompanied with practice; neither 
 is it principally practical for the same reason; it in- 
 cludes all this, and it is something more besides. 
 Above everything else it is dogmatic, and that is its 
 most appropriate qualification. The professor is 
 considered there as impeccable and infallible, what 
 he says must be accepted as an article of faith, and 
 the example that he sets must be servilely imitated. 
 If he is a singer or instrumentalist, he teaches his 
 pupils to sing or play like himself, in his particular 
 manner, to breathe, to pronounce and to hold the bow 
 as he does. He communicates to them something of 
 his own style, and fashions them in his own image ; so 
 that when anyone hears one of them he will say with- 
 out a moment's hesitation: that is a pupil of so-and- 
 so. This is what is called forming a school. I do not 
 mean to say by this that all the pupils are run into 
 the same mould, for this would be a great mistake. 
 When the master is a truly great artist, he knows how 
 [379]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 to leave to each what is necessary to constitute in- 
 dividuality, and devotes himself principally to de- 
 veloping the innate qualities ; but there remains, not- 
 withstanding, a family resemblance, which, without 
 in the least excluding originality, binds together the 
 members of the same school and makes them recog- 
 nized as surely as if they bore a trade-mark. This 
 is not a fault, it is quite the contrary, indeed, in the 
 case of a great master. In the matter of composi- 
 tion, with even greater reason, the master inculcates 
 them with his ideas and methods of orchestration, 
 making them share in his admirations or antipathies, 
 while yet having the very sincere general intention of 
 allowing them the greatest latitude, merely prevent- 
 ing them from straying; and, in reality, he often 
 communicates to them, not his genius, which, alas ! is 
 untransferable, but much of his method, his talent, 
 his sleights of hand, or familiar formulae. The latter 
 also forms a school, certainly ; but the soils upon 
 which his seed is scattered are so varied that in most 
 cases their products present no apparent analogy 
 and do not seem to spring from the same species; so 
 that, even when informed, the trained eye of a pro- 
 fessional has great difficulty in recognizing their 
 common origin. In the courses of harmony, counter- 
 point and fugue, discussions between the scholars are 
 strongly encouraged, each one giving practical ex- 
 amples of points in theory which he pleases to defend 
 or attack, seeking the why and wherefore of the es- 
 tablished rules and proposing exceptions or new 
 rules, more or less revolutionary. Often three or four 
 [380]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 opinions, about equally tenable, are advanced at the 
 same time ; the arguments accumulate on all sides, the 
 texts of treatises are consulted, points of comparison 
 are sought for in the scores of celebrated composers, 
 the result generally being that no one succeeds in 
 convincing his adversaries, who remain more deeply 
 rooted than ever in their first point of view. Then 
 only intervenes the professor, who has listened im- 
 partially to everything; he sums up the debate, 
 analyzes the question, weighs the arguments, argues 
 with the pupils in his turn, and finally announces his 
 opinion, which all blindly accept. 
 
 This momentary deference will not prevent them 
 later from judging their masters in their turn, re- 
 jecting or modifying certain of their doctrines, and, 
 in a word, creating their own system, sometimes a 
 very different one, which is strictly their right and 
 even their duty; for the servile imitation of one style 
 would infallibly lead them to platitude and lack of 
 originality. Moreover, this would be the negation 
 of artistic evolution. It is only on the school benches 
 that this respectful discipline is necessary; after- 
 wards, everyone is free to treat his masters as old 
 fogies, which will not entail any consequences, nor 
 annoy them in the least. 
 
 From all this friction, which can only occur in the 
 large official schools and with which private classes, 
 though profitable, as we have already said, cannot 
 be compared, the pupil issues more robust and bet- 
 ter armed for the incessant struggle that constitutes 
 the career of a composer. He learns there some- 
 [381]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 thing, however little, of the difficulties of the life 
 that he has chosen. Instrumentalists and singers, on 
 their part, generally find in these large establishments 
 all that contributes to the development of their talent 
 and helps them to acquire the serious qualities of a 
 musician, from the classes in solfeggio to the ensemble 
 classes, whether vocal or instrumental, and finally the 
 orchestra classes in which all the divers elements are 
 found grouped. 
 
 The intercourse with a large number of comrades 
 studying the same specialty, the habit of judging 
 them, the fact of following their progress and com- 
 paring it with their own, all the lessons being given 
 in common, the facility of meeting and conversing 
 with pupils who have embraced other branches, and 
 belong consequently to other classes, all contribute 
 strongly to developing in the young artist a lot of 
 technical knowledge of which private teaching would 
 never have given him an idea even, and which may be 
 very profitable to him. 
 
 Many professors practise that excellent system of 
 mutual teaching which consists in raising several of 
 their best pupils, those of the last year, for example, 
 to the rank of tutors, and in confiding to their care 
 one or several of their young fellow-students, whose 
 monitors they become, and whom they teach how to 
 work, as they themselves have been taught by their 
 seniors, and as their young pupils in their turn will 
 teach those who come after them. This procedure, 
 apart from the charming side it has in making the 
 class a sort of artistic family of which the professor 
 [382]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 is the head, and of establishing bonds of reciprocal 
 sympathy, gratitude and solidarity between pupils of 
 the same master, affords the incomparable advantage 
 of teaching the pupil how to teach, and transforms 
 the Conservatory into a normal school of teachers. 
 And this is not a thing to be neglected ; for, to be a 
 good teacher, it is not sufficient merely to know one's 
 profession as an artist perfectly and to be capable of 
 giving good examples. One must accustom oneself to 
 presenting things with clearness and method, not use- 
 ing technical terms too often, nor intermingling ex- 
 planations difficult to grasp with familiar comparisons 
 or images more within the grasp of the young pupils. 
 One must know how to discern whether a subject 
 should be treated exhaustively to-day, or whether it 
 would be better only to graze it and return to it an- 
 other day. One must have great firmness without al- 
 lowing it to appear, for in that case it is mistaken 
 for harshness and irritates the pupil. One must 
 know how to let the pupil divine certain things and 
 believe that he has discovered them for himself, some- 
 times spurring and sometimes restraining him. 
 Teaching is a true art, which is not acquired in a day 
 and into which one is never initiated so well and so 
 quickly as by first practising as a subordinate, under 
 the patronage and responsibility of a serious and ex- 
 perienced master; and it is hard to get this kind of 
 exercise except in a Conservatory, which seems to me 
 the best of all ways, and renders these schools veritable 
 nurseries for teachers, from which the latter are often 
 recruited. 
 
 [383]
 
 Still another very good feature of these large es- 
 tablishments, whatever may be their denomination 
 Musical Institute, Academy, whether of official or 
 semi-official character, is that they require, as a final 
 sanction of the studies, Examinations or Competitions 
 at the end of the year, when the worthiest pupils 
 carry off prizes, accessits, in fact, diplomas, under 
 one form or another. 
 
 This of course must not be carried to abuse. How 
 often we have seen one strong in his exercises obtain 
 all the prizes at the College and Lycee, and then after- 
 wards, when once launched upon his career, allow 
 himself to be outstripped by the most obscure, by 
 those who seemed to be of all his old comrades the 
 least worthy of consideration. What is true every- 
 where else is true with us ; these prizes and diplomas 
 do not always prove much as to the future. But if 
 we must not overestimate their importance, neither 
 must we scorn them. 
 
 We have said elsewhere, at the beginning of this 
 book, that it was difficult to make any difference, with 
 regard to special education, between the amateur and 
 the professional artist ; later, however, we have had 
 to establish certain lines of demarcation ; there is 
 still another to recognize here. The practical artist 
 must gain his means of existence from his art, in a 
 word, the means of gaining money the priest must 
 live by the altar while the amateur, for whom it is 
 a luxury, will more often find it an occasion for 
 spending. If, therefore, it is perfectly legitimate 
 for him who has decided to make art at once his aim 
 [384]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 and his means of livelihood to try to gain these di- 
 plomas, which will be credentials for him and which 
 will open doors and aid him in making a place for 
 himself, we must regard it as a frivolous satisfaction 
 in those who possess other financial resources. If 
 they have any need of this stimulant, it is because 
 they have not the real love of art, and treat it too 
 much as a simple sport. Exception should be made 
 for very young children who have a right to regard 
 music as only a pleasant game of mind and skill, in 
 which they can win or lose; this conception is suf- 
 ficient for their age. But as soon as it is a question of 
 the higher studies, emulation seems no longer neces- 
 sary, and it seems to me that encouragement or 
 rewards arising from the contests of pupils should 
 pass into the background and that the true satisfac- 
 tion of the artist should consist solely in penetrating 
 more and more deeply into the secrets of his art, and 
 in the intimate consciousness that every day he takes 
 a step nearer to perfection, and that he will mount by 
 work and perseverance higher towards the idea of the 
 Beautiful. 
 
 IV. EUROPEAN CONSERVATORIES 
 
 Without any doubt, Italy was the cradle of the 
 first Conservatories, very different at first from 
 those of to-day. The most ancient establishment bear- 
 ing this name of which I have found any certain trace, 
 is the Conservator di Santa Maria di Loreto, which 
 seems to have been founded in Naples, about 1537, 
 by a learned and also a celebrated Flemish musician 
 1.385]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 named Jean Tinctoris ; then, almost immediately, 
 and certainly before the end of the century, also in 
 Naples, at least three others appeared, the Conserva- 
 torio del poveri di Gesu Christo, the Conservatorio 
 di San Onofrio, and the Conservators delta pieta 
 de Turchini. These establishments had as much the 
 character of refuges, asylums, orphanages and hos- 
 pitals as of schools strictly speaking; however, in 
 these, music was taught to the children who seemed to 
 show some aptitude, just as they were taught any 
 other trade, with the aim of giving them a means of 
 providing for their living. It was thus that one of 
 these houses, directed by the Jesuit Fathers, supplied 
 the whole region with strolling and begging mu- 
 sicians; it was called the Conservatorio del pauperi 
 scoli, the Conservatory of the Poor. 
 
 Such was their origin; they were therefore pious 
 and philanthropical foundations. 
 
 Since that time, Conservatories have greatly multi- 
 plied in Italy and throughout the entire world. Find- 
 ing myself in possession of some official data regard- 
 ing many of the most celebrated and important ones, 
 I think it may be of interest for me to inform the 
 reader of their workings, without vouching abso- 
 lutely for the small details of a secondary order, 
 which, moreover, may be modified from year to year 
 by a simple revision of rules or statutes. Such as it 
 is, although brief and often incomplete, this informa- 
 tion will at any rate give the general aspect of the 
 teaching of music in the majority of civilized coun- 
 tries, and may be useful under many circumstances. 
 [386]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OP INSTRUCTION 
 
 Taking, then, Italy for our starting-point, we will 
 first mention the Conservatory of Rome, dependent 
 upon the Academy of St. Cecelia (1566), an estab- 
 lishment of the greatest importance, notwithstanding 
 the relatively restricted number of its pupils, about 
 200, who receive the advice of 35 professors, all of 
 the first rank. To gain admission, an application 
 must be sent in from September 1 to October 20, the 
 age must be 9 years at the minimum and 11 to 22 
 years at the maximum, according to the classes, and 
 proofs must be furnished of the capacity for the 
 course that is desired. If at the end of a year, the 
 pupil does not appear to possess the aptitude re- 
 quired, and if it is recognized that he has no chance 
 of success, he is struck off the rolls. 
 
 At the Conservatory of St. Cecelia, an establish- 
 ment subsidized by the government, and the most cele- 
 brated in Italy, the pupils first pay an admission fee 
 of 15 lire, and afterwards an annual fee of 60 lire. 
 The teaching, which is very complete, comprises the 
 following branches : * 
 
 Composition,! counterpoint, harmony, solfeggio and the- 
 ory ; singing, ensemble choral ; piano, organ, harp, and all 
 the instruments of the classic orchestra, J trombone, and per- 
 
 * For the state of clearness, I adopt here a uniform order in the 
 nomenclature of the classes of similar establishments : Technical 
 and theoretical studies ; singing ; dramatic studies ; instrumental 
 studies ; literary and scientific studies, and the study of languages. 
 
 f In many schools the word " composition " includes the study 
 of form and of orchestration. 
 
 t I mean by this, in abridging these names, the fundamental in- 
 struments of the orchestra in the days of Haydn, Mozart, and 
 
 [387]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 cussion instruments ; history of music, aesthetics of music, 
 rights and duties. (According to the annual schedule, the 
 following additional courses may be undertaken : Declama- 
 tion and gesture, history and geography, musical paleog- 
 raphy, dramatic and jx>etic literature, arithmetic, Latin, 
 French, Italian, and other living languages.) 
 
 At the Royal Conservatory of Naples (1537), also 
 supported by the State, and possessing additional 
 revenues, there are several categories: day -scholars 
 who pay $12 per annum, from which the needy are 
 exempt; boarders who have to pay $36 entrance fee 
 and $80 per annum ; and there are other boarders, 
 called gratuitous, who pay only the entrance fee. 
 
 One can be admitted from the age of 9, except for 
 the singing-classes, in which the age of 16 is the least 
 required for women, and 17 for men; a good physical 
 constitution and a certificate of study are required ; 
 moreover, an elementary proof of aptitude for the 
 chosen class must be furnished. There are every year 
 about 300 pupils distributed among 36 professors. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, and harmony, military instru- 
 mentation, solfeggio and theory ; singing ; scenic art ; 
 piano, organ,* harp, all the instruments of the classic or- 
 chestra, and trombone ; ensemble for piano and instru- 
 ments, for quartet, and for wind-instruments ; history of 
 
 Beethoven : violin, viola, violoncello, double-bass, flute, oboe, clar- 
 inet, bassoon, horn, and trumpet, which are necessarily taught 
 everywhere. 
 
 * In Catholic countries the study of the organ is generally com- 
 bined with that of improvization ; in Protestant countries, they 
 are independent, and the organ is considered solely as an instru- 
 ment. 
 
 [388]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 music, modern history, geography, arithmetic, poetry, and 
 dramatic literature ; French and Italian. 
 
 The Royal Conservatory of Milan (1807), called 
 " Verdi Conservatory," receives about 250 scholars 
 and distributes them among the various classes and 
 various grades, according to ability, by means of ex- 
 aminations that take place every October, and for 
 these one has to put one's name down in advance, 
 producing certificates of good conduct, good consti- 
 tution and literary studies; one also has to prove a 
 knowledge of the Italian language. New pupils are 
 not accepted until there are vacancies. Candidates 
 for examination in composition pay 170 lire; in all 
 the other branches the price is 150 lire. This estab- 
 lishment has 46 professors and is supported by the 
 State. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint and fugue, harmony, military 
 instrumentation, theory, singing ; piano, organ, harp, all 
 the instruments of the classic orchestra, trombone, cornet. 
 
 That of Florence (1860) (Regio Istituto mn- 
 sicale), which, in addition to its subsidy, possesses a 
 rich endowment, counts 26 professors and more than 
 200 pupils. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint and fugue, reading of scores, 
 accompaniment of figured bass, solfeggio and theory ; sing- 
 ing ; piano, organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic 
 orchestra, trombone ; aesthetics. 
 
 At the Royal Conservatory of Palermo (1615) 
 supported by the town and State, there are 28 pro- 
 [389]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 fessors and an average of 150 scholars, who are not 
 received until the age of 10 or 12 ; an application has 
 to be addressed before September 15. There is an 
 entrance fee of 50 lire for each ; then the annual pay- 
 ment is 400 lire for some, and 200 for others ; there 
 are also some free places. 
 
 Composition, military instrumentation ; singing, choral 
 ensemble ; piano, organ, harp, all the instruments of the 
 classic orchestra ; trombone. 
 
 There is also a little Royal Conservatoire in Parma, 
 which takes pupils from 9 to 24 years, according to 
 course, and collects a very modest annual fee: 15 
 lire, or even as low as 8.50 for poor pupils. Besides 
 these, there are boarders who pay 600 lire, and wear 
 a uniform. The applications for admission are re- 
 ceived up to October 1. There are 12 professors and 
 a hundred pupils. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, harmony, solfeggio, theory, 
 dictation ; singing ; piano, organ, all the instruments of 
 the classic orchestra, trombone ; history of music. 
 
 I believe that there are no other Government schools 
 in Italy. These that follow are solely dependent upon 
 the Municipalities. 
 
 The Istituto Musicale of Turin (1865) is di- 
 vided into three schools: preparatory, principal and 
 complementary. Pupils are admitted from the age 
 of 8 to 20, always according to the classes, if the re- 
 quest is addressed before October 6. The provisional 
 [390]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 admission is 5 lire; that of definite admission is 10 
 lire, to which 10 lire must still be added for the enrol- 
 ment fee. The price of the courses varies from 10 to 
 100 lires, and the examination fee for a degree costs 
 20 lires. 
 
 The number of pupils is determined each year by 
 the Director, according to the schedule. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint and fugue (obligatory in the 
 classes of composition and organ), harmony (obligatory for 
 the organ class), solfeggio spoken, solfeggio sung, theory, 
 rhythmical and melodir* dictation (obligatory for all) ; sing- 
 ing, choral singing ; piano (obligatory for all the instru- 
 mental classes), organ (obligatory for all the composition 
 classes), harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 trombone, string-quartet, ensemble (obligatory for all) ; 
 history, geography, Italian. 
 
 The Liceo musicale of Bologna (1864) numbers 26 
 professors for about 200 pupils. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, harmony ; singing ; piano, 
 organ, harp and all orchestral instruments. 
 
 At Genoa (1829) the Civico Istituto di musica, 
 where 200 pupils, paying an annual fee of from 10 
 to 50 lire, according to the course, receive lessons 
 from 17 professors, being admitted at the age of 9, 
 if they prove their qualifications. 
 
 Harmony, solfeggio, elementary theory ; singing, choral 
 singing ; piano, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 trombone, piccolo. (Courses planned for organ and harp.) 
 
 [391]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 There are still a number of other schools, having 
 an official or semi-official character, notably in Fer- 
 rara, Lucca, Perugia, Padua, which are not without 
 interest. . 
 
 At the Liceo Civico Benedetto Marcellc of Venice 
 (1877), which receives no aid, they collect: 5 lires 
 to pass the examination for admission ; then a fee of 
 20 lire for final matriculation. The price of the 
 courses, according to their importance, varies from 20 
 to 100 lire a year. The pupils are received from the 
 age of 8 (solfeggio) up to 22 (singing, men). There 
 are 19 professors and about 146 pupils. 
 
 The Liceo confers two kinds of diplomas ; the nor- 
 mal diploma, which is a certificate of study ; and the 
 higher diploma, which may even be given to candi- 
 dates who are not pupils of the Liceo, who for this 
 purpose undergo a special examination. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint and fugue, harmony, solfeggio 
 and theory ; singing ; piano, organ, harp, all the instru- 
 ments of the classic orchestra, trombone, bombardon. 
 
 The Conservatory of Pesaro (1883), one of the 
 most recent in Italy, was founded by a legacy of 
 Rossini, whence comes its name of Liceo Musicale 
 Rossini; it is placed under the communal administra- 
 tion. According to the testator's wish, composition 
 and the art of singing are specially taught there. 
 
 The minimum age is 9 years ; the maximum from 
 
 12 to 18 for instrumentalists, and 20 to 21 for 
 
 singers ; the rules require a certain degree of primary 
 
 instruction, talent and a good constitution. They 
 
 [392]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 specify that neither the blind * nor deaf-mutes f 
 shall be admitted. The teaching is gratuitous; how- 
 ever, a fee of 120 lire is collected for the examina- 
 tions of the complementary subjects, literature, etc., 
 etc. There are 23 professors and about 110 pupils, 
 a few of whom receive scholarships. 
 
 Diplomas are given for composition, licence of in- 
 struments or singing, military music and teaching. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, harmony ; singing ; piano, 
 organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 trombone. 
 
 This will suffice to give us a view of the official 
 teaching in Italy. As may be seen, these various 
 schools, although having points of contact and re- 
 semblance, differ as greatly in their programmes of 
 study as in their importance, tariff, and conditions of 
 admission. 
 
 GERMANY possesses large and remarkable Schools 
 of Music, scattered far and wide. We can cite here 
 only a small number, but these will be sufficient to 
 show that they present, independently of their indi- 
 vidual worth, a homogeneity that does not exist 
 among the Italian schools. 
 
 First of all, there is in Berlin, largely subsidized 
 by the State, the Royal Academy of Musical Art 
 (1822), which is, in some measure, a normal school, 
 for it has no elementary classes, and the pupils, who 
 
 * This may be wrong, for they are often well endowed musically 
 t Here they are certainly right. 
 
 26 [ 393 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 have to be at least 16, are not admitted until after 
 an examination in which they have to make proof of 
 a certain degree of instruction. They are taught by 
 45 eminent professors, and number approximately 
 280, paying a contribution of from 30 to 300 marks, 
 according to the classes. 
 
 The Royal Academy of Fine- Arts is divided into 
 several sections: the Royal Institute of Church Mu- 
 sic, which gives gratuitous instruction to 20 pupils; 
 the Institute for pupils in Compositior ; and the In- 
 stitute for the practice of music, of which this is a 
 summary of the programme: 
 
 Composition, scoring, theory ; singing, physiology of the 
 voice, hygiene for singers ; declamation, dramatic art ; 
 piano, organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic or- 
 chestra, trombone, ensemble music, military music ; acous 
 tics, history of music, Italian. 
 
 The Leipzig Conservatory (1843), has for a long 
 time stood at the head of all establishments of this 
 kind in Germany, and justly retains its renown, for 
 it has produced, in every branch, most remarkable 
 artists. It is not subsidized, but it possesses a guar- 
 antee from the State and from the city of Leipzig. 
 The number of professors is 41 ; that of the pupils 
 may be estimated at 900; they are received after ex- 
 amination and pay a fee of 360 marks if they wish 
 to follow all the courses, 10 marks more for the ex- 
 pense of enrolment, and 1 mark for a card of 
 identity. 
 
 [394]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Composition, form, instrumentation, counterpoint and 
 fugue, harmony, scoring ; singing, chorus, declamation, 
 dramatic and scenic art, opera ; piano, organ, all the instru- 
 ments of tha classic orchestra, cor anglais, trombone, quar- 
 tet and orchestra, ensemble ; history of music, aesthetics, 
 metre ; Italian (the piano is obligatory for all pupil? in 
 singing). 
 
 At Dresden, the Royal Conservatory (1856), 
 holds examinations for admission twice a year, April 
 1st and September 1st. Natives and strangers have to 
 pay first 50 marks for the right of registry, then 
 from 200 to 500 marks according to the classes, plus 
 the expenses of examination. However, several schol- 
 arships, complete or partial, are reserved for Germans 
 and citizens of Dresden. There have been as many as 
 1,286 pupils; the number of professors attached to 
 this establishment, which receives at once subsidies 
 from the King, the State and the City and from a 
 Society of patronage, is also respectable, about 125. 
 Certificates and diplomas of honour are given after 
 the examination at the end of the year. 
 
 Composition, form (historical development of forms of 
 composition), counterpoint, fugue, harmony, scoring, con- 
 ducting of orchestra, accompaniment, study of teaching 
 (theory, piano, singing), theory ; singing, chorus, opera, 
 opera-comique and other kinds, declamation, oratory, en- 
 semble and mise en scene for the opera and theatre ; piano, 
 organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 tuba, ensemble, chamber-music, orchestra, orchestra and 
 chorus ; history of music, literature ; French, Italian- 
 [395]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Important also is the Conservatory of Cologne 
 (1850), subsidized at the same time by the State, 
 Town, and Province, with 40 professors and more 
 than 500 pupils, who are received after examination 
 and must be at least 13 years old; for the singing- 
 classes the women have to be 16 and the men 18. 
 There is an entrance fee of 20 marks and the cost of 
 the classes is from 60 to 450 marks a year ; moreover, 
 there are some rehearsals and supplementary classes. 
 
 Composition, instrumentation, counterpoint, harmony, 
 scoring, sight-reading, theory, solfeggio, dictation ; singing, 
 vocal ensemble, choral ensemble ; declamation, scenic art, 
 opera ensemble, acting ; piano, organ, harp, all the instru- 
 ments of the classic orchestra, string quartet, ensemble of 
 wind-instruments, instrumental ensemble, orchestra ; his- 
 tory of music, liturgy, pedagogy, literature ; Italian. 
 
 The Royal Conservatory of Stuttgart (1856), 
 presents a peculiarity that we have not met with else- 
 where: it is divided into a School to produce artists, 
 which is the Conservatory proper, and another school 
 of music for amateurs; and the artists have to pay 
 more for their education than the amateurs, for whom 
 it is probably thought a more summary education is 
 sufficient. For artists, the price of the classes is 60 
 marks and 80 marks for the higher classes of sing- 
 ing. (Four scholarships are reserved for indigent 
 pupils.) For amateurs, the price is only from 4 to 
 50 marks. If one wants to attend all the classes to- 
 gether, it is 360 marks. 
 
 There are about 40 professors and 500 pupils, but 
 [396]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OP INSTRUCTION 
 
 I am ignorant of the proportion of artists and ama- 
 teurs. 
 
 This establishment, which receives feeble help from 
 the King, State and the Town, to which is added a lit- 
 tle capital provided by Queen Olga of Wiirternberg, 
 has particularly formed excellent pianists. 
 
 Form, instrumentation, counterpoint, harmony, reading 
 of scores, theory, musical dictation ; singing, choral en- 
 semble ; declamation, scenic art ; piano, organ, all the in- 
 struments of the classic orchestra, ensemble of strings, en- 
 semble of strings and piano, orchestra ; history of music, 
 aesthetics of the piano, aesthetics and literature, Italian. 
 
 The young Conservatory of Hanover (1897), 
 which is supported only by the municipality of that 
 city, has adopted a similar plan ; the price for artists 
 is from 45 to 200 marks, while for amateurs it is re- 
 duced to from 6 to 60 marks. There are already 550 
 pupils for 32 professors. 
 
 Syntax (harmony and counterpoint), scoring ; singing, 
 choral ensemble ; drama, lyrical drama ; piano, organ, har- 
 monium, harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 trombone, instrumental ensemble, orchestra ; history ol 
 music ; Italian. 
 
 Another important school is the Conservatory of 
 Munich (1867), its real name being the Royal Acad- 
 emy of Music, with 300 pupils and 36 professors. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint (obligatory for the organ 
 pupils), scoring and conducting, harmony (obligatory), 
 [397]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 theory ; singing, chorus (obligatory) ; dictation, theatrical 
 art, opera ; dance, fencing ; piano (obligatory), organ, harp, 
 all the instruments of the classic orchestra, cornet, trom- 
 bone, kettledrums, chamber-music, quartet, orchestra ; his- 
 tory of music (obligatory), liturgy ; Italian. 
 
 Moreover, schools of music exist in most of the 
 large cities, such as Frankfort (I860), Carlsruhe 
 (1884), Weimar (1872), Hamburg. 
 
 The Swiss government seems to be completely un- 
 interested in the fate of schools of music, which have 
 to be self-supporting. The State, however, in 1856, 
 gave the land on which is built the handsome edifice 
 of the Conservatory in Geneva, which was established 
 in 1835, thanks to the generosity of some rich philan- 
 thropists of Geneva who were great lovers of music. 
 Each branch is divided into three grades, and, more- 
 over, there is a finishing class, called normal class, the 
 pupils of which are compelled to take lessons in com- 
 position, fugue, transposition, history of music and 
 pedagogy. The price varies from 20 to 200 francs a 
 year. 
 
 This Conservatory, which employs 52 professors 
 and 20 substitutes, gives instruction to 1,250 pupils, 
 who receive after annual examinations rewards con- 
 sisting of silver and bronze medals and accessits. A 
 so-called honour-prize can be accorded to the pupil, 
 who, during a succession of years distinguishes him- 
 self exceptionally. Here is the condensed pro- 
 gramme : 
 
 [398]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Composition, improvisation, instrumentation, harmony, 
 accompaniment, solfeggio, theory ; vocalization and art of 
 singing, reading at sight (singing) ; lyrical diction, decla- 
 mation ; piano, organ, harmonium, harp, all the instruments 
 of the classic orchestra, reading at sight (instrumental), 
 quartet, orchestra ; history of music, history of form and 
 musical styles. 
 
 Although of far less importance and not to be com- 
 pared to it, we must note the existence of the Acad- 
 emy of Music (1886), also in Geneva, a private es- 
 tablishment, the pupils of which vary in number 
 between 100 and 200, with a variable number of pro- 
 fessors, and sometimes virtuosi who are passing 
 through and who are seized in their flight for a series 
 of lessons, which has its interest ; at the present mo- 
 ment, it seems to have about 16 stationary ones on 
 duty. The tariff of the courses varies from 50 to 300 
 francs a year. Reports of study and diplomas are 
 given at the end of the studies. 
 
 Composition, instrumentation, counterpoint, harmony, 
 solfeggio; singing, vocal ensemble, diction, orthophonie ; 
 piano, organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic or- 
 chestra, guitar (!), reading at sight, ensemble of violins, 
 instrumental ensemble ; history ; Italian, 
 
 At the "School of Music," in Berne (1815), 
 which has only 11 professors for 300 pupils, the pro- 
 gramme is infinitely more restricted than one would 
 expect in a city of its importance, and in a country 
 where musical instinct is far from being deficient. 
 [399]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 This establishment, which is quite old, lives, however, 
 by means of its own resources. 
 
 The pupils pay from 10 to 140 Frs. according to 
 the classes (10 for chorus classes and 140 for ad- 
 vanced piano). 
 
 Harmony, singing, chorus ; piano, organ, violin, violon- 
 cello (the programme provides for courses in quartets, 
 ensemble and wind-instruments when the state of the 
 funds permits). 
 
 There are other schools, especially in Bale, Zurich 
 and Lausanne, but I am not sufficiently informed 
 about them. 
 
 In AUSTRIA, the Conservatory of the Society of the 
 Friends of Music in Vienna (1817), receives grants 
 from the Emperor, the State, the Provinces of the 
 North-East, the Commune, and the Court Theatre. 
 Pupils are admitted from 10 to 24 years of age ac- 
 cording to the classes ; they have to be well consti- 
 tuted and know how to speak German. The payment 
 varies, according to the importance of the class, from 
 40 to 400 kronen. There are 61 professors for 950 
 pupils. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, harmony ; singing, dramatic 
 art, dramaturgy general, diction, opera ; acting, dancing, 
 fencing and gymnastics ; clavier, piano, organ, harp, all 
 the instruments of the classic orchestra, trombone ; history 
 of music ; French, Italian. 
 
 [400]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Hungary possesses at Budapest the Royal and 
 National Academy of Music (1874), where children 
 are received from 8 to 12 years, and singing pupils 
 from 18 for the men and 15 for the women. There 
 is an examination for admission, in which evidence 
 must be given of a little knowledge of the specialty 
 to which the pupil is destined ; however, for the harp, 
 the Cembalo * and the wind-instruments, no previous 
 knowledge is exacted, and the course begins with the 
 most elementary grades. 
 
 One has to pay, first, 10 crowns for the right pf 
 enrolment, which is renewed every year; then 50 or 
 60 crowns up to 200, according to the rank of the 
 class. However, the teaching is gratuitous for the 
 viola and wind-instruments; there are also scholar- 
 ships for the pupils who appear to be gifted, unfortu- 
 nate and whose parents are interesting. At each pe- 
 riod of study a pupil may be turned out if he does not 
 progress. 
 
 There are 38 professors, two auxiliaries for the 
 scenic studies, and about 350 pupils. 
 
 The Academy of Music receives many grants from 
 the State and City, and others from individuals, foun- 
 dations, etc. 
 
 Composition,! theory ; singing, chorus and solfeggio ; 
 declamation, dramatic singing, opera ; dancing, fencing, 
 scenic exercises ; piano, organ, harp, cembalo, all the in- 
 struments of the classic orchestra, trombone, chamber- 
 
 * Instrument peculiar to Hungary, 
 
 f Including orchestration, counterpoint and harmony. 
 
 [401]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 music, ensemble of wind-instruments, orchestra, course of 
 teaching the piano ; history of music, liturgy, pedagogy, 
 aesthetics, poetics, methods; history of Hungarian litera- 
 ture ; Italian. 
 
 The Conservatories of Roumania are entirely un- 
 der the charge of the State. In that of Bucharest 
 (1865), one can be received between 10 and 18 years, 
 after proving some literary knowledge as well as 
 qualifications for the classes desired. The price of 
 these classes ranges from 20 to 100 francs for the 
 Roumanians and from 40 to 200 for strangers, but 
 many dispensations are granted. The number of 
 pupils is 380, who receive lessons from 25 professors. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint; harmony, theory ; singing s 
 solfeggio, choral ensemble ; declamation and lyrical drama, 
 piano, organ, harp, instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 trombone. 
 
 At the Conservatory of Jassy (1860), the condi- 
 tions of admission and the fees are identical, on ac- 
 count of the limited number of professors, who are 
 only 12 for 350 pupils ; admission is granted by means 
 of a competition, which takes place September 1. 
 
 When their resources permit, the best pupils of 
 these two establishments generally go to Vienna or 
 Paris to finish their studies and perfect themselves. 
 
 Harmony, theory and solfeggio ; singing ; declamation ; 
 piano, instruments of the classic orchestra, trombone. 
 
 There is only one Conservatory in Greece, that of 
 Athens (1871), which receives pupils from the whole 
 [402]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Orient. It is not subsidized by the State, which, 
 nevertheless, takes an interest in it and directs it ; it 
 owes its existence to two very rich Philhellenes and 
 to certain Greek colonies in other countries that have 
 given large sums of money to the Hellenic Govern- 
 ment for this purpose. They have 20 professors, 
 each of whom has an assistant ; the number of pupils 
 is now more than 300, of whom 50 receive gratuitous 
 instruction ; for the others, the expenses amount to 
 from $9 to $36 a year, and there are in addition cer- 
 tain fees for admission and $6 for a diploma. 
 
 At the examinations for admission, which take place 
 in September, the pupil has to give proof of certain 
 musical knowledge; the limit of age is from 9 to 19 
 for men and 9 to 17 for women. The distribution of 
 rewards is very intelligently arranged : at the exami- 
 nations at the end of the year the pupils whose studies 
 are considered as complete receive diplomas, the num- 
 ber of which is not limited, and which constitute a 
 kind of baccalaureate-in-music ; but beyond that there 
 is a special competition for three gold medals, and 
 still another competition to obtain the scholarships 
 for the academic year; and then, as a means of en- 
 couragement, 1st and 2d prizes and 1st and 2d ac- 
 cessits are bestowed. 
 
 Composition and counterpoint, harmony, reading of 
 scores, orchestration, solfeggio and theory ; singing, en- 
 semble vocal music; declamation; dancing, fencing, gym- 
 nastics ; piano, organ, harp, all the instruments of the 
 classic orchestra, trombone, tuba, ensemble instrumenta? 
 music, orchestra ; history of music, history of the theatre^, 
 [403]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Aesthetics, mythology, psychology, the art of costume, 
 rhythm and metre, literature ; French and Italian (obli- 
 gatory for pupils for the stage). 
 
 The principal Conservatory of RUSSIA is that of 
 St. Petersburg (1862), which receives from the State 
 (Minister of the Interior) a fairly good subsidy, be- 
 sides which numerous scholarships (more than 200 
 in 1898-9) are liberally distributed by the Emperor, 
 the Empress, grand dignitaries of the State, by the 
 Department of the Navy, the Department of War, 
 by other establishments and by the Conservatory 
 itself, which reduces the number of pay pupils to a 
 small enough fraction of the whole. For those, the 
 annual due is 200 roubles. 
 
 The total number of pupils is about 800, who re- 
 ceive instruction from 89 professors or substitutes. 
 Here is the way in which this very complete instruc- 
 tion is divided and taught by the celebrated masters 
 of the Russian school : 
 
 Composition, instrumentation, conducting of an orches- 
 tra, harmony and counterpoint, theory, solfeggio ; singing, 
 church singing, chorus ; declamation, opera, preparation 
 for the stage, scenic ensemble, dancing ; piano, organ, harp, 
 all the instruments of the classic orchestra, cornet, trom- 
 bone, tuba, instruments of percussion, quartets, many 
 classes of ensemble instruments, string and wind, with 
 or without piano, orchestra ; religion, history of music 
 and aesthetics, history and geography, mathematics, phys- 
 ics, calligraphy, general literature ; Russian, German, 
 Italian. 
 
 [404]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 In the second place comes that of Moscow (1864), 
 elegantly installed since 1898 in a beautiful edifice 
 that unites all the qualities of a comfortable school, 
 sheltering a body of 60 professors and 600 pupils 
 aged from 10 to 30 years, who pay 200 roubles a 
 year. There are a certain number of scholarships 
 destined for poor scholars and exclusive talents. 
 
 This establishment is subsidized by the State. 
 After having terminated the complete course of his 
 specialty and that of the accessory subjects and the 
 scientific course, the pupil obtains a diploma or a cer- 
 tificate. 
 
 Composition, form, orchestration, fugue, counterpoint, 
 harmony (obligatory), theory (obligatory), .solfeggio (obli- 
 gatory); singing, piano, harp, all the instruments of the 
 classic orchestra ; musical encyclopaedia (obligatory), his- 
 tory of music (obligatory), scientific classes (the programme 
 of which corresponds to that of the five classes of the Rus- 
 sian gymnasium), history of art and literature. 
 
 The oldest of all is that of Warsaw (1821), which 
 bears the title of " Institut Musical " and comprises 
 37 professors for 500 pupils approximately. Here 
 pupils are received from the age of 12 to 20 years ; an 
 exception is made for those of remarkable talents. 
 
 The expenses of study are from 50 to 100 roubles 
 a year. A modest sum is granted by the Treasury. 
 
 There are three kinds of examinations: the exami- 
 nation of admission ; examinations at the end of the 
 year; and examinations at the end of study. The 
 programme is of somewhat small compass : 
 [405]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Composition ; solo singing ; piano, organ, stringed in- 
 struments ; flute, clarinet, bassoon, cornet, horn, trombone. 
 
 The Institute of music in Helsingfors (Finland) 
 is divided into a preparatory school and an advanced 
 school, where admission is by means of examinations; 
 in the first one pays 125 francs a year; in the second 
 200 or 250. 
 
 The pupils of the preparatory school have to fol- 
 low at the same time the course of the Lycee, or to 
 pursue their education in some other manner. 
 
 To a somewhat large grant from the Russian Gov- 
 ernment, is added some aid from the Musical Society 
 of Helsingfors. This establishment, the programme 
 of which announces elevated tendencies, includes only 
 15 professors and about 150 pupils. 
 
 Composition and instrumentation, counterpoint and 
 fugue, harmony (given theme), harmony (in general bass) 
 (obligatory), theory general and analytical (obligatory), 
 solfeggio and dictation (obligatory) ; singing, vocal en- 
 semble and chorus ; dictation ; stage deportment ; piano, 
 organ, violin, viola, violoncello, brass instruments, chamber 
 instruments ; history of music (obligatory) ; theory and 
 practice of musical teaching. 
 
 If we pass into BOHEMIA, we find a very fine Con- 
 servatory in Prague (1808); good faith forces me 
 to say that my information is of the date 1858! But 
 this is none the less interesting, for it shows how very 
 far advanced the studies were at this period ; the pro- 
 gramme might have been made yesterday, and I have 
 [406]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 good reasons to believe that it has not deteriorated, 
 but that it has kept in the line of progress. 
 
 Now in that far-away period, they had already at 
 the said Conservatory of Prague 19 professors * and 
 138 pupils,f who paid an entrance fee of from 4 to 
 20 florins according to the classes, and were subject 
 to various other fees in addition to money fines, a 
 proof of severe discipline. They were admitted be- 
 tween 10 and 13 years,:): by proving a good consti- 
 tution, musical aptitude (a correct ear), and some 
 primary instruction. After 6 years of study, they 
 are admitted to a final examination. 
 
 They had even then grants and resources of divers 
 natures, which have suffered modifications, but what 
 is really remarkable is the programme of study, 
 which was already very complete, and which has even 
 improved since then. They taught there: 
 
 Composition, theory ; singing, choruses ; lyric declama- 
 tion, theatrical declamation ; dancing and theatrical de- 
 portment ; piano, harp, all the instruments of the classic 
 orchestra, trombone, cornet a pistons ; history of music, 
 instrumental and theatrical literature, history, prosody, 
 mythology, aesthetics, style, Catholic religion, geography, 
 arithmetic, calligraphy ; French, German, Italian. 
 
 There are at least three Conservatories in HOL- 
 LAND, but to my great regret I lack data regarding 
 one of them, that of The Hague (1826). 
 
 * Now there are 2ft. 
 
 f Now there are from 350 to 400. 
 
 J Now 14 years and knowing something already about music. 
 
 [407]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 The most important is that of Amsterdam (1862), 
 dependent upon the great " Society for the Devel- 
 opment and Protection of Music," which receives 
 funds from the Province, the City and individuals; 
 they do not reckon, however, more than 80 pupils for 
 26 professors; but it must be observed that by the 
 side of the Conservatory there is a School of Music 
 that includes more than 700 pupils, and serves as a 
 kind of nursery for it. At the Conservatory itself 
 none but pupils about 17 years of age are admitted, 
 who study as artists and who are already sufficiently 
 developed to enable one to judge of their talent and 
 of their future. 
 
 The fees of registration amount to 200 florins ; 
 for singing lessons, 250; preparatory course, 150; 
 solfeggio, 40. . . . Some partial or even total 
 reductions are granted on the request of the director. 
 At the end of three years, a certificate of detailed 
 studies may be obtained. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, harmony, solfeggio, theory ; 
 singing, solfeggio and chorus ; declamation, diction, deport- 
 ment ; piano, organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic 
 orchestra ; history of music ; French, German, Italian. 
 
 The Conservatory of Rotterdam (1845), which 
 modestly enough calls itself School of Music, is placed 
 under the protection of the same big society. Its 
 statutes are not, however, similar: there pupils can 
 be received at the age of 8 years, and, at the end of 
 the year, , diplomas for performers and teachers are 
 distributed. There are 21 professors and 672 pupils: 
 [408]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, harmony, solfeggio ; singing, 
 chorus ; piano, organ, stringed instruments, wind instru- 
 ments, chamber-music, orchestra ; history of music. 
 
 I believe that DENMARK possesses only one Con- 
 servatory, that of Copenhagen (1867), which does 
 not seem very important. It receives some paying 
 scholars, whose expenses may amount to from 22 to 
 264 kronen, but it admits gratuitously those who are 
 unfortunate and well endowed. The number of pro- 
 fessors is 18 and there are about 72 pupils. The 
 school is supported by a testamentary legacy, ac- 
 cording to the terms of which the pupils cannot num- 
 ber more than 50 ; a grant of the State allows it to 
 extend this number. 
 
 Analysis and form, instrumentation, counterpoint, har- 
 mony, musical theory ; singing, chorus ; piano, organ, vio- 
 lin, violoncello, double bass, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, 
 horn, ensemble music and orchestra ; history of music ; 
 German, Italian. 
 
 In SWEDEN, at the Royal Conservatory of Stock- 
 holm (1881?) pupils are received from the age of 12 
 to 20 years ; however, this limit can be extended up 
 to 25 years for candidates for the classes in compo- 
 sition, organ and singing. The courses are paying, 
 and the admission fee is 7 florins; there are some 
 scholarships for indigent pupils. The funds are pro- 
 vided by the State, which largely subsidizes it. The 
 Royal Theatre adds a small sum for the support of 
 the classes in opera and lyric art. The average num- 
 27 [ 409 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ber of scholars is about 170, with 27 professors. 
 There are public competitive examinations and di- 
 plomas for organists, maitres de chapelles, leaders of 
 military fanfares, professors, etc., etc. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, form, instrumentation, mili- 
 tary instrumentation, scoring, harmony, musical divine ser- 
 vice, accompaniment, solfeggio and church singing; singing, 
 chorus, vocal ensemble ; declamation, opera, scenic art, 
 study of roles; deportment, plastic arts, gymnastics, bal- 
 let ; piano, organ, harp, stringed and wind instruments, 
 ensemble, orchestra ; history of music, acoustics, Italian ; 
 organ and piano tuning. 
 
 NORWAY, a very musical country, has the Conser- 
 vatory of Christiania (1865), which has 28 pro- 
 fessors and 450 pupils. The price runs from 5 to 25 
 kronen a year, according to the course ; certain 
 gratuitous places are reserved for poor and well en- 
 dowed pupils. One can be admitted between 12 and 
 20 years, by means of examinations that take place 
 in January and September. The rewards consist of 
 books of music. 
 
 The State as well as a special society furnishes a 
 subsidy ; the King gives some scholarships. 
 
 Composition, instrumentation, counterpoint, harmony, 
 practical modulation, musical theory ; singing, chorus ; 
 declamation, deportment ; piano, organ, harmonium, all 
 the instruments of the classic orchestra, ensemble ; tuning 
 of the piano and organ. 
 
 [410]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 England seems to possess in London, and in the 
 Guildhall School of Music (1880), the most colossal 
 school of music in the world, at least with regard to 
 space and the number of pupils, which is not less than 
 3,100. I believe I saw somewhere that in 1896 there 
 were 4,000 ; in comparison, the number of professors 
 is restricted enough, only 147. 
 
 Into this establishment, subsidized by the City, the 
 pupils are admitted without any age limit, on the 
 sole condition of paying a fee that varies, according 
 to the classes and periods of study, from one to 
 six guineas a quarter, then five shillings more for 
 an entrance fee, and five shillings deposit. Each 
 pupil, no matter who he is, must pay two shillings 
 and five pence each term. Medals of gold, silver and 
 bronze, and diplomas are distributed. 
 
 Composition, form, analysis, orchestration, counterpoint, 
 canon, fugue, harmony, scores, harmonization at first sight 
 on the piano, figured bass at first sight on the piano, ac- 
 companiment for church service, conducting of orchestras 
 and chorus, improvisation, solfeggio, theory, dictation ; 
 singing, choruses, choral ensemble ; declamation; gestures, 
 deportment, choregraphy, fencing ; piano, organ, harmo- 
 nium, harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 trombone and euphonium, tuba, cornet, kettledrums, guitar, 
 mandolin, chamber-music of strings and of wind, vocal, 
 orchestra, military music ; acoustics, history of music ; 
 French, German, Italian. 
 
 There are many other schools in London ; I will 
 mention only two more: the Royal Academy of Mu- 
 [411] '
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 sic (1822), where one is received for examination in 
 September, November, January, February, April 
 and June. For this examination one guinea is first 
 collected ; then the price of the course varies from one 
 guinea to eleven pounds one shilling. The main- 
 tenance is assured by a private society and certificates 
 of study are bestowed. There are 131 professors and 
 about 500 pupils. 
 
 Composition, harmony and counterpoint, theory, solfeggio 
 and dictation ; singing, chorus, choral ensemble ; diction 
 and declamation, drama, opera ; deportment, fencing and 
 physical exercises, dancing, choregraphy ; piano, organ, 
 harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, ensemble 
 instrumental music, instrumental and vocal, orchestra, 
 military music ; French, Italian, English, German. 
 
 The Royal College of Music (1876), is supported 
 by a fund and diverse gifts. Admission is by exami- 
 nation and without limit of age. Each pupil pays 
 twelve guineas quarterly ; the entrance fee is 2 gui- 
 neas, and one has to deposit 5 guineas for the 1st 
 and the 3d examinations and 2^ guineas for the 2d. 
 A certain number of prizes, some of which owe their 
 origin to special funds, are given at the end of the 
 yearly examinations. There are 69 professors and 
 450 pupils. 
 
 Composition, orchestration, harmony, counterpoint, anal- 
 ysis, accompaniment, scores, solfeggio, transposition, dicta- 
 tion and theory ; singing, chorus ; theatrical art, declama- 
 tion, opera, diction ; deportment and choregraphj ; piano, 
 [412]
 
 organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 trombone, kettledrum, and drum orchestra, military music, 
 chamber-music strings and wind, vocal ; history of music ; 
 French, Italian, German. 
 
 None of these English schools seem to have pro- 
 duced, unless by exception, great artists that have 
 made a sensation; generally speaking, their pupils 
 who have futures finish their studies on the continent, 
 in Germany, Belgium or France. 
 
 Before leaving England, I will mention the Royal 
 College of Music in Manchester, whose programme 
 offers a few interesting peculiarities. There are 33 
 professors ; I do not know the number of pupils. One 
 has to pay 30 pounds a year and 3 guineas more for 
 the orchestra. 
 
 Composition, harmony (obligatory) ; singing, chorus ; 
 diction ; piano, organ, harp, all the instruments of the 
 classic orchestra, cor-anglais, trombone, double bassoon, 
 ensemble, quartet, orchestra ; history of music ; Italian. 
 
 The piano is obligatory for singers, for all the instru- 
 mentalists, for organists, and for pupils in the composition 
 classes ; moreover, the pupils in composition are obliged 
 to learn a stringed instrument ; Italian and diction are 
 obligatory for the pupils of singing ; the ensemble is 
 obligatory for all the instrumentalists, and also the or- 
 chestra. 
 
 The most important school in SPAIN is the Con- 
 servatory of Madrid (1830), subsidized by the State, 
 where 55 professors give instruction to nearly 1,600 
 [413]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 pupils. To be admitted, it is necessary to have a lit- 
 tle primary instruction, to know at least how to read 
 and write, and to have a correct ear. To enter the 
 classes in solfeggio one must be over 9 years ; to 
 enter the classes for singing and declamation the 
 women must be at least 15 and the men 16. They 
 pay a fee of 15 pesetas for the right of enrolment 
 and 5 pesetas for the examinations, which can be dis- 
 pensed with in the case of indigence. Certificates are 
 given at the end of study, 1st, 2d and 3d prizes, and 
 diplomas of master-composer, for which 150 pesetas 
 have to be paid to the State. 
 
 Counterpoint, fugue and composition, harmony, solfeggio 
 and theory ; singing, vocal ensemble ; lyrical declamation, 
 declamation ; piano, organ, harmonium, harp, all the in- 
 struments of the classic orchestra, cornet a pistons, trom- 
 bone and ophicleide, chamber-music ; history and phi- 
 losophy of music, grammar and literature ; French, Italian. 
 
 Another considerable establishment is the Conser- 
 vatory of Barcelona, dependent on the Lycee of Her 
 Majesty Isabella II., where each pupil pays a small 
 monthly fee, which they try to make as small as pos- 
 sible and which may even be entirely suppressed 
 when there are vacancies, and in favour of interest- 
 ing pupils who are poor. This school, which is sup- 
 ported by the shareholders of the Grand Theatre, the 
 Municipality and the Province, numbers 42 profess- 
 ors and more than 1,000 pupils, who receive medals 
 and crowns of gold, silver, and bronze ; there is also 
 a competitive examination for a professor's diploma.
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Composition, harmony, transposition, theory, solfeggio t 
 dictation ; singing, declamation ; piano, organ and har- 
 monium, harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 cor-anglais, trombone, bass-clarinet, bugle and bass tuba, 
 guitar, string-quartet ; acoustics and history of music ; 
 French, German, English, Italian. 
 
 Less important is the School of Music in Sara- 
 gossa, whose number of scholars rarely exceeds 250 
 or 300, with 14 professors and 5 or 6 assistants. 
 The examination fee is from 5 to 10 pesetas and the 
 price of the course varies between 20 and 80 pesetas. 
 One must be 8 years of age for the general classes, 
 and 15 for those of singing. The town furnishes a 
 slight support. They bestow diplomas, and 1st and 
 2d prizes. 
 
 Foreign pupils can present themselves at this 
 school to pass examinations called " free instruc- 
 tion," by submitting to the official programme, by 
 means of a fee of from 12 to 32 pesetas ; these exami- 
 nations give no rights to the rewards of the school. 
 
 Composition, harmony, solfeggio ; singing ; piano, organ, 
 harmonium, violin ; French, Italian. 
 
 The most recent of the Spanish Conservatories is 
 that of Valencia (1879), slightly aided by the 
 municipality and the provincial deputation ; the sum 
 for matriculation is 30 pesetas for solfeggio, and 35 
 pesetas for all the other classes. There is, moreover, 
 an examination fee of 2.50 pesetas; the candidates 
 have to know how to read and write. There are at 
 present not more than 8 titulary professors, and two 
 [415]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 assistants, and 260 pupils; the prizes and accessits 
 consist of diplomas. The teaching there is still quite 
 limited. 
 
 Composition, harmony, solfeggio ; singing, piano, organ, 
 harmonium, harp, instruments played with the bow, flute, 
 clarinet. 
 
 If we pass into PORTUGAL, we shall find at Lisbon, 
 the Royal Conservatory, which is very important, of 
 whose foundation date I am ignorant, but it is surely 
 anterior to 1835, and whose expenses, which are very 
 considerable, are entirely paid by the State. It em- 
 ploys 32 professors, and the number of pupils, rela- 
 tively small, is about 300; they have to pay only a 
 fee of registry, which is from 2.50 francs to 6 francs, 
 according to the classes or courses. The lowest age 
 for admission of both sexes, for foreigners as well as 
 for the Portuguese, is 9 years; however, none can be 
 admitted into the classes of singing or declamation 
 before 14 years for the women and 15 or 16 for the 
 men. The courses are held from October to June, 
 and the year ends with competitive examinations, 
 when diplomas of honour, prizes and accessits are 
 given. The programme of study is remarkably com- 
 plete : 
 
 Composition, counterpoint and fugue, harmony, piano 
 accompaniment, scores, transposition, theory and solfeggio ; 
 singing ; theatrical song, choruses ; theatrical art, lyrical 
 declamation, tragedy, drama, comedy and farce, diction 
 and declamation, recitation, study of roles, mimicry, art 
 of costume, theatrical gymnastics, fencing ; piano, organ, 
 [416]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, trom- 
 bone, saxophone, cornet, chamber-music, orchestra ; his- 
 tory of music and musical literature, universal and national 
 history, history of the ancient and modern theatre, poetics, 
 psychology, general grammar, aesthetics, reading, geog- 
 raphy, general and Portuguese literature ; Italian (obli- 
 gatory for pupils in singing and composition). 
 
 In BELGIUM, there is first of all the Conservatory 
 of Brussels (1813), very serious and important, to 
 which one is admitted by an examination that takes 
 place in September, if a primary instruction and a 
 satisfactory conformation arc proved ; the natives 
 pay a small annual sum of 5 francs, which for for- 
 eigners is raised to 200 francs. The number of pro- 
 fessors, tutors or monitors is about 70 ; that of the 
 pupils, 600. At the examination prizes, mentions 
 and accessits are distributed. 
 
 Counterpoint and fugue, harmony, plain-chant, solfeggio 
 and theory ; singing, vocal ensemble, choral ensemble ; 
 declamation, deportment and mimicry ; clavier, piano, 
 organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, 
 trombone, saxophone, chamber-music for strings and wind, 
 orchestra. 
 
 At the Royal Conservatory of Liege (1827), the 
 conditions of admission and the prices of instruction 
 are the same as at Brussels. There are 35 professors 
 for 500 pupils. The admission day is in October. 
 
 Composition, fugue, harmony, solfeggio ; singing ; piano, 
 organ, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, cornet 
 & pistons, trombone, tuba, chamber-music. 
 
 [417]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 It is about the same at the Royal Conservatory of 
 Ghent (1833), which employs 47 professors and in- 
 structs 550 pupils aged seven years at the lowest. 
 There also they exact primary instruction, and the 
 pupils have to follow it up and bring proof with cer- 
 tificates. The price for the class in solfeggio is 
 % fr. 50 quarterly, and for the pupils of instru- 
 ments, 5 francs. A certain number of free places are 
 reserved for privates in the army, pupils in the classes 
 of Netherlandish singing, children of destitute pa- 
 rents, etc. At Ghent and Liege the examinations 
 give prizes, accessits, and medals of silver and enamel. 
 
 Composition, plain chant, practical and written har- 
 mony, reading and transposition on the piano ; Netherland 
 singing, French and Italian, vocal ensemble ; scenic art, 
 French declamation, Netherland declamation ; deport- 
 ment, mimicry, calisthenics ; piano, organ, all the instru- 
 ments of the classic orchestra, cor-anglais, saxophone, 
 trombone, tuba, cornet and bugle, chamber-music, string- 
 quartet, ensemble. 
 
 At Antwerp (1867) the Royal Flemish Conserva- 
 tory unites the respectable number of 1,200 pupils 
 under the direction of only 43 professors. The maxi- 
 mum payment is 5 francs for the natives and 50 
 francs for foreigners. 
 
 Counterpoint and fugue, harmony, solfeggio ; singing, 
 vocal ensemble ; Netherland declamation, lyrical declama- 
 tion ; piano, organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic 
 orchestra, trombone, chamber-music, orchestra ; ancient 
 music, Flemish literature. 
 
 [418]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 The Belgian Conservatories, large and fine schools 
 that have furnished an ample harvest of celebrated 
 or remarkable artists, all receive the triple subsidy 
 of State, Province and Town. 
 
 Finally, in France, we have the Conservatory of 
 Paris (1795), subsidized by the State, or, to speak 
 more correctly, belonging to the State, whose univer- 
 sal renown is such that we can dispense with all com- 
 mentary, where one cannot gain admission save by 
 a series of eliminating examinations which take place 
 every year in the month of October, and for which it 
 is necessary to furnish proofs of a certain knowledge 
 suitable to the age. The age for admission in theo- 
 retical or instrumental classes extends from 9 to 22 
 years. For singing, men can be received from 18 
 to 26 years, and women from 17 to 23. 
 
 There 800 pupils, in round numbers, receive gra- 
 tuitously the care of a body of 81 professors or 
 tutors ; and at the end of a scholastic year, examina- 
 tions, some of which are public and others private, 
 are held, and the successful ones receive prizes, ac- 
 cessits or medals, by way of encouragement. 
 
 Composition,* counterpoint and fugue, harmony, ac- 
 companiment, improvization (at the organ), solfeggio ; \ 
 singing, ensemble vocal ; dramatic declamation, lyric dec- 
 lamation, opera, opera-comique ; piano, organ, harp, all 
 the instruments of the classic orchestra, trombone, cornet 
 & pistons ; chamber-music, orchestra ensemble ; history of 
 
 * Including the orchestra and the study of form, 
 f Including theory and dictation. 
 
 [ 419 ]
 
 music, history and dramatic literature ; deportment and 
 dancing ; fencing ; stage laws, 
 
 The Conservatory of Paris has branches in the De- 
 partments, at the present time there are 26: at 
 Lille (1826), Toulouse (1826), Dijon (1845), 
 Lyons (1874), Nancy (1884), Nantes (1884), Per- 
 pignan (1884), Rcnnes (1884), then more impor- 
 tant ones, under the title of Ecoles Nationales, 
 Aix (1884), Bayonne (1884), Boulogne-sur-Mer 
 (1884), Caen (1884), Chambery (1884), Digne 
 (1884), Douai (1884), Le Mans (1884), Nisme 
 (1884), Roubaix (1884), St. Omer (1884), Valen- 
 ciennes (1884), Cette (1885), Tours (1885), An- 
 gouleme (1887), Montpellier (1889), Amiens 
 (1891), Moulins (1893), the number of professors 
 varying from 4 (Digne) to 32 (Lille and Toulouse). 
 These receive subsidies from the State and the Muni- 
 cipality at the same time. 
 
 Of course, owing to the varying resources of the 
 different localities, these branch-schools do not all 
 have the same value. There are, however, a few of 
 them, particularly among the oldest, which have sent 
 out some very good pupils, who often come to Paris 
 to finish their education. In a volume published in 
 1872, Ernest Reyer, the composer of Sigurd, Sa- 
 lammbo and La Statue, remarked that in the Depart- 
 ments there are " some music-schools that are consid- 
 ered as branches of the Paris Conservatory, but 
 which, in reality, are merely communal schools sup- 
 ported by the town, and which are placed under the 
 [420]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 authority, sometimes a little too arbitrary, of a muni- 
 cipal council. . . ." And he added : " We might 
 wish that our provincial music-schools, being at- 
 tached to the Ministry of the Beaux-Arts by serious 
 bonds, could acquire the right to call themselves, 
 otherwise than by the vain formula, branches of the 
 Paris Conservatory." * It has always been very much 
 the same: the connection of these schools with the 
 Ministry of the Beaux-Arts began in 1826, with 
 Lille and Toulouse, and there were already four of- 
 ficial branches at the time when the above lines were 
 written ; the number was gradually increased until 
 1893, when the branch of Moulins was created, which 
 is still the youngest. Their directors are nominated 
 by a ministerial order, their professors by the Prefct, 
 they are subjected to periodical inspection, but they 
 are not dependent, as is often believed, upon the 
 Paris Conservatory; they are under the direct juris- 
 diction of the Ministry. Their programmes are re- 
 ductions of that of Paris ; from that of one of the 
 oldest and that of the one most recently created, we 
 can gather a sufficient idea: 
 
 Lille : 
 
 Harmony, solfeggio ; singing, vocal ensemble ; lyric 
 declamation, diction ; piano, organ, harp, all the instru- 
 ments of the classic orchestra, trombone, cornet, saxo- 
 phone, chamber-music, orchestra. 
 
 Moulins : 
 
 Solfeggio : piano, all the instruments of the classic or- 
 chestra, saxophone. 
 
 * E. Reyer, Notes de musique (edit. Charpentier). 
 [421]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 In .all these French schools, as in the case of the 
 Paris Conservatory, entrance is gained by examina- 
 tions in October, and the instruction is entirely free, 
 that is to say, there is nothing whatever to pay, 
 either for the right of entrance, nor for examina- 
 tions, nor diplomas, nor for anything at all and this 
 holds good for foreigners as well as for natives, a 
 fact peculiar to France. 
 
 And we must regard this complete gratuity, which, 
 as a consequence of its admirable philanthropic side, 
 excludes all idea of exploitation, and allows the pupils 
 to be sorted out, and only those to be admitted who 
 show qualities or very certain predispositions, as well 
 as the power of dismissing them when they do not 
 fulfil their promises, I say, we must regard this as one 
 of the elements of superiority, but not the only one, 
 of the Conservatory of Paris, which, without pretend- 
 ing to realize the ideal of perfection, is certainly the 
 model normal school, and justly attracts students 
 from all parts of the world. 
 
 From this little circular trip that we have just 
 made through the Conservatories belonging to the 
 majority of the countries of Europe, and from the 
 notes that we have been able to make upon a certain 
 number of them on the way, the sagacious reader can 
 deduct many instructive things, simply by taking the 
 pains to look for them and making comparisons for 
 himself. 
 
 The number of classes and their nomenclature is 
 not the principal thing to take into consideration. 
 We see very plainly, in each of the schools that we
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 have just passed under review that stand at the head 
 of musical instruction in their country or district, 
 as well as in all other analogous establishments, to 
 whatsoever nation they may belong, there always 
 exists a certain foundation programme of study 
 that is the same everywhere, forming the very basis 
 of the teaching, its indispensable part, and which, 
 moreover, could hardly vary. Thus in all of them, 
 even the least important, it is necessary to learn to 
 sing, and to play the piano, as well as all the instru- 
 ments constituting the symphonic orchestra ; it is also 
 demanded that solfeggio and theory shall be taught, 
 under whatever head, and some elements of harmony, 
 without which there would no longer be any schools of 
 music. This is not the real interest. 
 
 What is instructive to study, is the balance and 
 the weighing of the divers studies, agreeing always 
 with the national tendencies and local aspirations, re- 
 vealing these when they do not sanction them ; it is 
 their correlation with or divergence from the im- 
 portance of the establishment that is manifested in 
 the number of professors who teach in them and of 
 the pupils who follow the course, and the relation be- 
 tween these figures and those of the population shows 
 the degree of musical civilization of every country. 
 There are also many other things that can be di- 
 vined, and that would take a long time and be 
 profitless to enumerate in detail. There is certainly 
 a distinction to be drawn between those schools that 
 limit themselves strictly to instructing their pupils 
 in matters of pure musical technique, and those that, 
 [,423]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 surveying the education of an artist from a higher 
 standpoint, introduce into their programmes courses 
 of History of Music, Literature, General ^Esthetics, 
 Prosody or Metrics, Acoustics, or foreign languages 
 (the knowledge of one or two foreign languages, in- 
 dependently of their utility to singers and their con- 
 venience to every artist who is called upon to travel, 
 is one of the most powerful elements of literary and 
 aesthetic instruction). In others, there will be no- 
 ticed a greater concern for exercises that develop 
 physical strength or gracefulness, such as Dancing, 
 Choregraphy, Fencing, even Gymnastics and Calis- 
 thenics (a group of exercises that are excellent for 
 the physical culture of young girls). This shows 
 that special care is taken to form artists for the 
 stage; these can ill afford to neglect the subject of 
 deportment and the plastic arts. A knowledge of 
 History, Mythology and Psychology are indispen- 
 sable to the composer and also to the actor, and if 
 they do not acquire these at their Conservatory, they 
 will be obliged to learn them elsewhere, and at their 
 own expense. So, nothing of all this is immaterial: 
 far from it: Paleography itself (the study of ancient 
 writings), of which we have found but one chair, in 
 Rome, allows the initiated to read at sight old forms 
 of musical notation now fallen into disuse, and may 
 lead to archaeological discoveries. What is most to 
 be regretted is that these extra-musical courses, 
 which, as we have already shown, are so helpful in 
 developing the artistic sense by a general elevation 
 of the mind, are not more widely extended, made 
 [424]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 obligatory everywhere and practised continually. In 
 many schools, we are forced to admit that even if 
 they do figure on the programme, they are only there 
 after an intermittent fashion ; indeed they are some- 
 times suppressed, on account of pecuniary reasons, 
 and often for consecutive years, to the great detri- 
 ment of serious students. The intention is mani- 
 fested, nevertheless, and this we must take into ac- 
 count. 
 
 We may be allowed, on the other hand, to regard 
 as superfluous or puerile, certain courses in the 
 piccolo, kettledrums, and harmonium, etc. . . 
 instruments which really do not require any special 
 teaching and do not raise the level of the school in 
 the slightest degree ; and, from another point of view, 
 those of Geography, Arithmetic and Calligraphy, as 
 going, perhaps, a little too far astray from the 
 principal aim; but before condemning or turning 
 them into ridicule, we ought to know exactly the so- 
 cial conditions of every country and the mean degree 
 of intellectual culture of the candidates. Then, 
 doubtless, in most cases, there would be a reason and 
 normal explanation for everything. But what ought 
 to be required everywhere, as we have seen it clearly 
 formulated in Leipzig, Manchester, Lisbon and 
 other places, being elsewhere implied and as a mat- 
 ter of course, is that every student of singing should 
 be compelled to study the piano, and to become, ipso 
 facto, a musician. Many other things, often unex- 
 pected, can be learned by turning over these notes, 
 which I should have liked to make complete if I had 
 28 [ 425 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 felt sure that everybody would be interested and had 
 not feared that to many they would be tedious. 
 
 It is very evident that there are strong contrasts 
 to be established between all these various establish- 
 ments created for instruction in music and for popu- 
 larizing it with the masses, as we shall now see. But 
 there is one point that is common to all and which 
 should attract the attention of all those who are 
 seeking practical advice of various kinds in this 
 book: it is that within their sphere of action they 
 attract the highest class of teaching and the safest 
 and most famous professors in their district. This 
 is their duty to the inhabitants and to their own 
 interest as academic establishments. Moreover, on 
 account of the number of pupils that pass through 
 their hands, the numerous opportunities they have in 
 examinations and other exercises to control their 
 course and study their temperament, the professors 
 of a Conservatory are in a far better position than 
 any others to increase their experience and to verify 
 the correctness of their methods. We may then ad- 
 mit, a priori, and in the absence of verification, that 
 among them we shall have the best chances, with- 
 out going beyond the radius of any given locality, 
 of finding the safest and most trustworthy guides; 
 whether we attend their classes in the Conservatory, 
 or prefer to consult them privately on account of 
 any personal or social considerations, with which we 
 have nothing to do here. Their official position 
 marks them for confidences. But this must not, by 
 [426]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 any means, be taken as an absolute rule ; for very 
 often, especially for the special study of any particu- 
 lar branch, we find masters of altogether superior ex- 
 cellence in the fields of free teaching. 
 
 But when the question is one of a number of. 
 studies that we want to carry as far as possible, a 
 very good combination, the surest and at the same 
 time, the most agreeable, to my mind, consists in 
 following the Conservatory courses, taking them as 
 a general line of conduct, yet without depriving our- 
 selves of the aid of a private teacher who acts as 
 tutor, and is willing to play this secondary role and 
 conscientiously limit himself to it. In all Conserva- 
 tories of the first rank, there is no professor who 
 would object to this combination; indeed many of 
 them would be the first to advise it, on the judicious 
 condition that the tutor should be known and agree- 
 able to them. Sometimes, but rarely, the regulations 
 are jealous and finical enough to oppose this, stipu- 
 lating that the pupil, on penalty of expulsion, shall 
 take no lessons outside the school. One must know 
 how to get around such rules ; it is always to be man- 
 aged somehow. 
 
 Generally speaking, the classes of purely musical 
 instruction are held two or three times a week and 
 last two hours ; that is about the length of time that 
 is universally adopted ; moreover, the hours are ar- 
 ranged so that every pupil can participate simul- 
 taneously and without fatigue in the different classes 
 that may be useful to him. 
 
 The auxiliary courses, those whose aim is the 
 [427]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 moral and intellectual instruction of the artist, such 
 as History of Music, the Stage, ^Esthetics, Litera- 
 ture, etc., are often in the form of lectures, and take 
 place at longer intervals, every week or fortnight, or 
 even once a month; frequently listeners are admitted 
 who do not belong to the school. If they are good, 
 such attendance cannot be too highly recommended 
 to amateurs interested in matters of art. This is the 
 same custom as is followed in many Universities, 
 notably in Germany and England and also at the 
 College of France and the Sorbonne in Paris. 
 
 Very frequently such questions as these are asked: 
 Are all these Conservatories useful? Is not the lib- 
 erty of art restricted by the exigences of official 
 teaching? Does not the artist lose something of his 
 spontaneity by being thus put into a regiment, as it 
 were, and subjected to a kind of musical drill? 
 
 I will try to answer these collectively. 
 
 First, I will remark that the same fears might be 
 expressed regarding all the Government Schools 
 where are taught the Fine Arts painting, sculpture 
 and architecture the usefulness of which seems to 
 me to be demonstrated by the mere fact of their ex- 
 pansion in every country of the globe, without excep- 
 tion, and I ask why music alone should be subject to 
 other laws. If the Conservatories did not supply a 
 real need, we should not have seen them multiply as 
 they have; we should not see new ones springing up 
 every day ; if their results were negative, we should 
 see them die; or, at least, some would disappear. 
 Now, we have never heard of a single one that has 
 [428]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OP INSTRUCTION 
 
 closed its doors : they are born, they grow, sometimes 
 they amalgamate with other similar schools that were 
 established first as rivals, and that always end by 
 uniting with them ; but not one has been accused of 
 decline, nor is in jeopardy of perishing. Such is their 
 history up to date. 
 
 Are they then established simply to make the fort- 
 une of the directors and teachers? If this were the 
 case, they would fail in their purpose; for every- 
 where, except in England where they are remune- 
 rated royally, if they accept and seek these posts, it 
 is far more for the honour and love of the art than 
 from pecuniary calculation, for such positions very 
 frequently bring with them impediments to an in- 
 dividual career, and the salaries can only be regarded 
 as indemnities. Do the Governments, Municipalities 
 or protecting societies gain any large profits by 
 them? No, for they subsidize them or support schol- 
 arships and never touch anything in return. 
 
 To what then shall we attribute their growth and 
 their vitality, if not to the artistic results, hoped for 
 at first, and finally realized and established? 
 
 It must be thoroughly understood that the teach- 
 ing in the large Conservatories, I mean by this those 
 that have reached their complete development, is far 
 from possessing that rigidity publicly attributed to 
 them by some people who never go to see them and 
 who have formed this idea of themselves. Apart from 
 certain principles, as unchangeable as the laws of 
 logic or geometry, each maintains its own freedom of 
 judgment, at least in the classes of composition and 
 [429]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 those that border it ; and if the instrumental classes, 
 which, however, produce virtuosi each having his 
 own and very distinct personality, may sometimes be 
 treated as " musician factories " and " schools of 
 drill," that is only a semi-evil. The musician of the 
 orchestra may be perfectly well compared to a sol- 
 dier, without any loss or harm done to the dignity of 
 his modest career; and, like him, be subjected to a 
 rigorous discipline. Interrogate orchestral musicians 
 upon this subject, and you will find that the best and 
 the most sought after among them, those upon whom 
 the conductor feels that he can rely, are products of 
 the Conservatories. 
 
 But there is still another and most important thing 
 to be considered with regard to the greater number 
 of the large Conservatories of which we have just 
 spoken. This is the sincere spirit of good comrade- 
 ship and cordial fraternity that reigns in them and 
 makes them essentially sympathetic. Setting aside a 
 few bitter and petty rivalries which only arise in cer- 
 tain classes that are purely feminine and do them no 
 honour, it gives us great pleasure on the contrary to 
 see established among the promoted schoolfellows 
 and comrades a kind of tacit Masonic bond of true 
 metal, analogous to that which exists between the 
 pupils of the other Fine Arts schools, such as the 
 Normaliens and the Polytechniciens, which prompts 
 them to seek and help each other in after life, like 
 the good and loyal brothers-in-arms they are. 
 
 The great objection made by the detractors of of- 
 ficial education is the following, which seems to them 
 [430]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 to be of great weight: " The great masters of the 
 past whom we venerate formed themselves without the 
 aid of any Conservatory " This is their principal 
 battle horse, their unanswerable argument. 
 
 However, this is how we may reply to them : " It 
 must indeed be acknowledged that our great masters 
 did not come out of the Conservatories, but this docs 
 not prove that they are useless, nor that they have 
 done nothing for the progress of musical art. The 
 principal duty of a music-school is to increase the 
 number of trained musicians. The diffusion of mu- 
 sical art, which is always increasing, renders the 
 foundation of Conservatories and Music-Schools nec- 
 essary. When we think of what a veritable army 
 (choirs, orchestras, soloists, conductors, music-teach- 
 ers, etc..) that the art of music demands for its pres- 
 ent needs, we realize that private teaching would 
 be altogether insufficient to provide for it. More- 
 over, the Conservatories and music-schools offer in- 
 contestable advantages. Therefore the musical at- 
 mosphere of the Conservatories alone is helpful to 
 youth, just like the stimulus that is found in all col- 
 lective teaching." * As we have already shown this, 
 it is needless to return to the subject. 
 
 It is very certain that Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Bee- 
 thoven, Mendelssohn and Weber did not issue from 
 German Conservatories, but this is explained when 
 it is remembered that there were none in their time, 
 since the oldest of all, that of Leipzig, was created in 
 1843. This did not prevent Mendelssohn from be- 
 * Rubinstein, La Musique et ses reprdsentants. 
 
 [431 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ing a brilliant professor there, nor Rossini and 
 Rubinstein from founding two others, by different 
 means, one in Pcsaro, the other in St. Petersburg; 
 thereby showing plainly that they did not despise the 
 principle, and that they, perhaps, would have been 
 glad to have had done for them in their youth, what, 
 in their old age, they considered good to do for 
 others. I think these are authorities; and many 
 others might be cited. 
 
 Still again, it might be well to examine somewhat 
 closely and see whether by chance a few artists of 
 lofty flight have not come out of these so greatly vil- 
 lified Conservatories ; but people never think of that. 
 Their adversaries, when maintaining that the ma- 
 jority of great geniuses have been despised in their 
 lifetime, and that they have had to carve their way 
 through a thousand hardships and acquire their in- 
 struction with incessant struggle against winds and 
 waves, might just as well and just as sagely pro- 
 claim that the best and most fertile of all schools is 
 that of adversity. This will always be open, alas! 
 and their proteges can always be admitted free with- 
 out examinations or age limits. 
 
 The two advantages that are to be sought in mak- 
 ing application to a Conservatory are: economy and 
 safe guidance. The first is always to be found ; the 
 second, nearly always ; that is to say, with the excep- 
 tion of establishments of an inferior order, easily rec- 
 ognized. With regard to the superiority of the in- 
 struction in any given branch, that depends upon 
 too many local and personal circumstances for us to 
 [432]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 be able to form any advance judgment, and may just 
 as well be found, as we have already said, in independ- 
 ent teaching. 
 
 V. AMERICAN CONSERVATORIES 
 
 Never having had occasion to visit the United 
 States, it is impossible for me to express a personal 
 opinion of the numerous schools of music that are 
 found in every large city, or as to their absolute or 
 relative value. I have to rely upon what has been 
 told me by my friends who live in America, and by 
 French artists who have frequented those establish- 
 ments and communicated their impressions to me. 
 
 From this sum of information, confirmed by an 
 attentive reading of the rules or programmes of 
 study that I have been able to procure, I think I may 
 conclude that there would be no interest in establish- 
 ing a parallel between the Conservatories or other 
 large schools of music in America and the Conserva- 
 tories on the Old Continent; and this for the very 
 simple reason that they are essentially different, and 
 do not spring from the same ideas. 
 
 In Europe, the Conservatories have kept from their 
 origin a certain philanthropical character, and their 
 aim, even when they demand a modest pecuniary 
 equivalent, is principally that of spreading artistic 
 instruction as much as possible among the masses, 
 which is very justly considered a moral and intel- 
 lectual benefit, and a high element of civilization. 
 Moreover, the philosophers of every age have thought 
 [433]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 this. If sometimes, which is exceptional, the dues 
 rise to a somewhat exaggerated figure, we immedi- 
 ately see the appearance, as a corrective, of a new 
 rule that offers gratuity to those who have absolute 
 need of it. Also, almost everywhere, we see the Gov- 
 ernment patronizing these establishments, supporting 
 and aiding them with funds, believing that from them 
 will be turned out musicians who will make the artistic 
 glory of their country ; which, moreover, often hap- 
 pens. 
 
 In America, at least according to my information, 
 which comes from different sources, from corre- 
 spondents too intelligent for me to be greatly in 
 error, we must regard them rather as private enter- 
 prises having a commercial character, not destitute 
 of artistic aims, that goes without saying, but more 
 especially preoccupied by augmenting their receipts 
 than by elevating the level of national art. It is true 
 that this conception allows the professors an infinitely 
 larger remuneration than our European schools, but 
 this is a secondary result. 
 
 One thing is certain, and that is that although the 
 taste for music is as pronounced among the Ameri- 
 cans as in any other nation in the world, which they 
 show by their very just appreciation of talent of 
 every kind, yet there does not exist, properly speak- 
 ing, an American School. It is only in an exceptional 
 case that we can cite a Composer, a Singer, or an In- 
 strumentalist of great worth who has been musically 
 educated exclusively in his own country ; and we can- 
 not take these rare and honourable exceptions as a 
 [434]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 basis. On the other hand, if a young and gifted 
 artist comes to Europe to study and spend several 
 years under good guidance, we see him return home 
 equipped with all the elements of success: examples 
 are not lacking. This certainly proves that aptitude 
 is not wanting, for study can not create but only 
 develop it. Hence I think I may conclude that those 
 vast and immense musical institutions of the New 
 World, that have thousands of pupils, and try above 
 all else to please and tempt them, in order to attract 
 many more, should be considered especially as schools 
 for amateurs, young men and women of society who 
 want to amuse themselves with music, rather than as 
 schools productive of true artists. 
 
 One thing that confirms me in this conviction is 
 the brevity of the studies which is almost the univer- 
 sal rule; they want to get on too fast, much too fast, 
 and they seem to be ignorant that a number of years 
 is required to form a musician of real value. Scarcely 
 has a pupil passed through a course of two or three 
 years, when they think of bringing him before the 
 public. This may have certain advantages sometimes, 
 but it must necessarily be prejudicial to the continu- 
 ity of serious studies, as they are understood with us. 
 
 If anyone is really anxious to discover some re- 
 semblance between these institutions and the Euro- 
 pean establishments, it is in England that this com- 
 parison must be sought. There also, the pupils are 
 admitted by an examination for simple classification 
 and are never refused on account of lack of aptitude, 
 nor because they are too young or too old. When- 
 [435]
 
 ever it pleases them to pay the established tariff for 
 their lessons, they are always acceptable and accepted. 
 It is for them to determine whether they are capable 
 or not of profiting by the instruction that is offered 
 to them, and not enrolling themselves if it is likely 
 to be a useless expense. Nothing is obligatory, and 
 they are refused nothing that they demand. They 
 are admitted at their own risk and peril. 
 
 As we see, this is an entirely different conception. 
 I do not criticize either of them here; I simply state 
 the fact, as I would also state, if I were in a geog- 
 raphy class, that Europe and America are not sit- 
 uated on the same side of the Atlantic Ocean ; and I 
 simply conclude that just because of a similitude in 
 the name we must not imagine that what is called 
 " Conservatory " in the United States and England 
 is identical with what we understand on our Old Con- 
 tinent. This is very important, although, it may be, 
 really, only a simple question of words. But, for a 
 clear understanding, it is again necessary for us to 
 discuss meanings. 
 
 What is called " Conservatory " in America is 
 known to us as an " Ecole libre," a school composed 
 of a body of professors, each acting on his own ac- 
 count and associated with the aim of attracting a 
 clientele, and constituting an important and numerous 
 organization, as well as forming brilliant pupils. 
 
 The most flourishing establishment for musical in- 
 struction in the United States seems to me to be the 
 Musical College of Chicago (1867). Pupils can 
 enter it at any age and at any time of year, but 
 [436]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 they are not admitted for less than a term, which 
 means ten weeks; the charge for a term varies from 
 $20 to $300, according to the nature of the studies. 
 However, semi-gratuitous and even gratuitous pupils, 
 who have to be recommended by some responsible per- 
 son, are received. The number of these is determined 
 at the beginning of each year; from these, naturally 
 enough, proofs of ability are required. 
 
 The prodigious number of pupils, about 3,000, is 
 unsurpassed throughout the whole world except by 
 the " Guildhall School " in London, yet I see only 
 61 professors, which seems somewhat out of propor- 
 tion. 
 
 At the end of the examinations and competitions, 
 they distribute certificates for teaching (diploma of 
 graduation); bachelor of music (diploma of artist); 
 a nd master of music with a decoration ( ! ) . I do not 
 believe that this exists anywhere else. 
 
 Composition, form, counterpoint, fugue, canon, har- 
 mony, theory, solfeggio ; singing, chorus ; diction, opera, 
 dramatic art ; deportment, dancing and choregraphy, pan- 
 tomime, fencing ; piano, organ, violin, violoncello, flute, 
 clarinet, bassoon, cornet, ensemble ; history of music, 
 analysis of pieces ; French, German, Spanish, Italian. 
 
 There is also in Chicago the American Conserva- 
 tory (1886), which accepts all pupils, even beginners, 
 who pay from $5 to $80 for a term of six weeks, that 
 is to say from $20 to $320 for a year of four terms, 
 according to the classes and the grades. 
 
 There are 68 professors and about 1,200 pupils. 
 [437]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 A certificate of study costs $5 ; a teacher's certificate, 
 $10; a diploma, $15. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, harmony, orchestration, sol- 
 feggio ; singing ; diction, declamation, deportment, pan- 
 tomime, fencing, the art of costume ; piano, organ, harp, 
 violin, violoncello, flute, clarinet, cornet, trombone, man- 
 dolin, guitar, banjo, ensemble ; church music, oratorio ; 
 normal class ; literature ; French, German, Italian. 
 
 After the Musical College of Chicago, I believe we 
 must place the Conservatory of Music in Boston 
 (1867), where 86 professors instruct 1,960 pupils, 
 who are received at any time of the year and at every 
 degree of advancement, and have to pay from $5 to 
 $300 for a term of ten weeks, according to the classes. 
 There are frequent examinations, twice a term ; a cer- 
 tificate only costs a dollar; a diploma, $5. 
 
 Here also we find, at a price of from $4.50 to $9, 
 rooms and board for young girls, who for meals, rent- 
 ing of pianos, academic supplies, etc., have a special 
 tariff. 
 
 The programme is formidable, and not only em- 
 braces music, but extends to the arts of design. 
 
 Composition and analysis, conducting, orchestration, 
 instrumentation, harmony, solfeggio, theory ; voice, sing- 
 ing, chorus ; lyric declamation, dramatic art, opera, dic- 
 tion, psychology of the voice, hygiene of the voice and 
 the ear, phonetics, anatomy ; physical exercise ; piano, 
 organ, harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra ; 
 cor-anglais, tenor-horn, alto-horn, euphonium, baryton and 
 trombone tuba, saxophone, drum, kettledrums, string 
 [438]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 quartet, ensemble, orchestra, military music, church music 
 (oratorios and choruses) ; tuning, acoustics, rhetoric, 
 mathematics, reading (obligatory, an hour a day), litera- 
 ture ; school of professors ; French, Latin, Italian, Ger- 
 man ; stenography, Fine-Arts, drawing, painting, portraits, 
 wood-carving, art-embroidery. 
 
 Very considerable also is the Conservatory of 
 Philadelphia, accommodating 2,500 pupils, with 
 dormitories and a boarding-school for young girls, 
 for which a body of 55 professors suffices. 
 
 All kinds of pupils are admitted, even those who 
 know nothing; the academic year is divided into four 
 terms of ten weeks, for each of which it is necessary 
 to pay from $5 to $10. Those who have terminated 
 their studies satisfactorily pay $15 for a diploma; 
 certificates at the end of the year are $5 ; those pupils 
 who have not remained so long receive a simple 
 voucher, which seems to be gratis. 
 
 Composition, harmony and theory, conducting of or- 
 chestra, analysis, forms, interpretation and orchestration, 
 solfeggio, dictation ; singing, vocal ensemble ; oratorio, 
 opera, dramatic art, declamation, diction ; piano, organ, 
 harp, all the instruments of the classic orchestra, trom- 
 bone, tuba, cornet, alto-horn, cor-aiiglais, saxophone, kettle- 
 drums, drum, xylophone, bells, mandolin, guitar, lute, banjo 
 (sic), ensemble instrumental, orchestra and military or- 
 chestra, symphonies (eight hands) ; history of music ; lit- 
 erature ; living languages ; piano tuning. 
 
 The National Conservatory of Music in America 
 in New York (about 1885), although dependent 
 [439]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 upon a private enterprise, comes nearer to the Euro- 
 pean establishments, by the spirit of its rules ; pupils 
 are received there without distinction of age or na- 
 tionality, but on the condition that they give proof 
 of a certain degree of aptitude; and certain free 
 places are reserved for pupils who have promising 
 talent. The others have to pay from $15 to $250 for 
 an academic year of eight months. 
 
 During the summer (May to August) classes are 
 held for the benefit of the students in schools situated 
 outside the city, seminaries, etc. 
 
 Composition, counterpoint, harmony, accompaniment, 
 theory, solfeggio ; singing, chorus ; opera, oratorio, dic- 
 tion, scenic art, fencing ; piano, organ, harp, all the instru- 
 ments of the classic orchestra, trombone, cornet, cor- 
 anglais, chamber-music, orchestra ; history of music ; 
 Italian. 
 
 In Baltimore, the Peabody Conservatory (1868), 
 which bears the name of its founder, comprises two 
 schools, one of which is preparatory and absolutely 
 elementary and employs 37 professors. The pupils 
 number approximately 700, who pay, according to 
 the classes they attend and the number of lessons, 
 from $15 to $105, and after examination receive cer- 
 tificates of study, diplomas and honourable mention. 
 
 Composition, harmony, solfeggio; singing, chorus ; piano, 
 reading at sight on the piano, organ, harp, violin, violon- 
 cello, flute, clarinet, oboe, cornet, ensemble music, orches- 
 tra ; acoustics, history of music ; French, Italian, German. 
 [440]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OP INSTRUCTION 
 
 Outside of the United States, in Mexico, the Na- 
 tional Conservatory of MEXICO, seems to be of some 
 importance, since it employs 62 professors. In its 
 programme, we find the names of classes the utility of 
 which I do not see very clearly: 
 
 Harmony and composition, solfeggio, theory, graphic 
 music ; singing, choral singing ; piano, harp, orchestral 
 instruments, psaltery, chamber-music, acoustics and phonog- 
 raphy ; French, Italian. 
 
 I know of but two schools of music in SOUTH 
 AMERICA: the Conservatory of Bogota (New Gran- 
 ada), with 28 professors, which is a large number for 
 86 pupils, and a somewhat petty programme: 
 
 Counterpoint and fugue, harmony, solfeggio and theory; 
 vocalization and singing ; piano, organ, all the instruments 
 of the classic orchestra, trombone, orchestra ; Italian. 
 
 Meaner still, and also incomplete, seems to be that 
 of the Conservatory in Buenos Ayres (Argentine 
 Republic), which does not include more than 12 pro- 
 fessors and 6 assistants. They give prizes, however, 
 consisting of medals and little sums of money, even 
 diplomas of teaching. 
 
 Harmony and composition, solfeggio ; singing ; piano, 
 harmonium, violin, viola, violoncello, flute ; history and 
 aesthetics of music. 
 
 Finally, we must point out the existence in Aus- 
 tralia of the little Conservatory of Sydney (1894), 
 39 [ 441 ]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 founded by a committee of patronage, where I find 
 several names of artist friends, of great excellence. 
 Here the entrance fee varies from 6 shillings to 1 
 pound 1 shilling, and they do not hesitate to offer to 
 the pupils a Grand Diploma of Merit, . . . 
 probably relative enough. 
 
 Orchestration, counterpoint, fugue, harmony, theory, 
 solfeggio ; singing, piano, violin, violoncello, reading both 
 instrumental and vocal. 
 
 Doubtless there exist, in South America and even 
 in Australia, establishments that are of more im- 
 portance and organized with more advanced ideas; 
 but we must limit ourselves ; and, moreover, it is not 
 likely that their knowledge would bring to our study 
 any new elements. We can then stop here, without 
 scruple, considering the end pursued. I regret, how- 
 ever, very greatly, that I have no information re- 
 garding Canada. 
 
 In looking over them superficially, it is natural 
 that these various programmes should appear very 
 much alike, offering very slight differences; we must 
 regret, however, those in which we see figuring be- 
 side serious studies those of the Banjo, the Drum, 
 the Xylophone, the Bells, and the Cithara, in- 
 struments which, although occasionally utilized by 
 composers for picturesque reasons, as are also the 
 Castanets and the Crotales, in pieces of a descriptive 
 nature, and consequently exceptional pieces, are noth- 
 ing more than simple toys, which any pupil can learn 
 to handle alone while amusing himself during the 
 [442]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 months of vacation. These are not like the Guitar 
 and Cembalo, for example, national instruments of 
 Spain and Hungary, which give us pleasure to see 
 holding an honourable place in the programmes of 
 study in Barcelona and Budapest, where their ab- 
 sence would make a regrettable gap. 
 
 The real interest, as we have already said, regard- 
 ing European schools, is in studying the regulations 
 of each one, in penetrating into the spirit without at- 
 taching too much importance to the letter and thereby 
 gathering its value and tendencies, in order to become 
 capable of judging what degree of confidence these 
 (or others) are worthy to inspire. 
 
 It is thus that everybody with the help of the con- 
 siderations of every kind that are set forth in this 
 last chapter, the numerous documents accumulated 
 here, and the special advice on every case contained 
 in the preceding chapters, will be able to discern with 
 freedom and certainty what opportunity there is for 
 him in whatever place and under whatever circum- 
 stances he may find himself, and to choose between 
 the different methods of Individual Instruction, In- 
 struction in Classes, or Instruction by the Conserva- 
 tories, and also how to obtain the most certain, best 
 and the most artistic results according to the end de- 
 sired, which is the sole object of this book. 
 
 I believe (and I hope I am not mistaken) that I 
 have neglected nothing that is of interest to those 
 who have to consider Musical Education seriously, 
 that is to say teachers and parents, as well as what 
 may be useful to the pupils themselves outside of 
 [443]
 
 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 direct teaching, with the exception of one last point 
 which seems to me to possess much more interest than 
 anyone dreams of: it is that of the Vacation, the em- 
 ployment or non-employment of the vacation. 
 
 Few persons, in reality, apart from those who make 
 teaching the object of their permanent care and sus- 
 tained observation, can realize exactly how much a 
 pupil can manage to forget during three months of 
 complete mental inactivity and a total separation 
 from the habitual subject of his daily occupations. 
 
 Now, in all schools, Lycees, Colleges and other in- 
 stitutions for general instruction, as well as those that 
 look, like the Conservatories, towards a special goal, 
 there are annual vacations, which last about three 
 months. Moreover, in the course of the academic 
 year, there are holidays of several days, at Easter, 
 the New Year, etc. 
 
 It will be readily believed that I, the sworn enemy 
 of overwork, am not hostile to holidays and to the 
 general stoppage; on the contrary, I regard them 
 as being the best opportunity and the most propitious 
 moment for travelling, that is to say, for self-in- 
 struction by distraction. I consider them useful and 
 indispensable. It is for this reason that I should 
 strongly disapprove of a pupil who, having worked 
 nearly normally and as he should have done during 
 the academic year, should propose, through excessive 
 ardour, not to take advantage of the rest and should 
 wish to pursue his work as usual. This would be ab- 
 solutely senseless. Particularly in the case of a child 
 or a youth, the mind should not be kept perpetually 
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 VARIOUS KINDS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 on the same ideas ; and these seasons of rest constitute 
 wise measures. 
 
 But all exaggeration is faulty, and no watchful 
 teacher has failed to observe, particularly in all that 
 concerns art-studies, that on returning after the va- 
 cation the pupils have lost something of their acquired 
 skill, and that several weeks of work are necessary 
 before they get back to the point they had reached 
 before the interruption. This is to be noticed not 
 only in the study of singing, or of an instrument, 
 matters which always partake somewhat of the quality 
 of gymnastics, but quite as much in the purely in- 
 tellectual and mental studies of harmony, counter- 
 point and everything that touches composition. The 
 mind has lost something of its suppleness, and a cer- 
 tain period of training is necessary, just like the 
 mechanical side, to recover in their plenitude those 
 faculties that were developed in the study before. 
 Here then is another rock upon which people must 
 frequently strike. 
 
 Both of these can be easily avoided by inducing 
 oneself, without allowing it to harm the needed rest, 
 to consecrate one hour a day, not more, to keeping 
 in good condition. This is always feasible, with a 
 little good-will, even while travelling, and still better 
 if sojourning in the country. An instrumentalist can 
 employ this hour simply in playing scales and ex- 
 ercises ; a harmonist or a fuguist, in reading treatises 
 or solving a few short problems on paper; as for 
 the singer, half an hour of vocalization will suffice 
 to keep his voice from getting rusty. There should 
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 MUSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 not be a total interruption ; it is a great mistake to 
 imagine that, in severing ourselves entirely from mu- 
 sic for two or three months, we can return to it after- 
 wards with still more ardour and profit. This is false 
 reasoning, which can be held by those only who do 
 not possess a love for the art, but make music as they 
 would make boots. As for the others, those who have 
 the souls of artists, it will be a genuine satisfaction 
 to realize that, while not trying to make any progress, 
 since this is a period of rest, they are not losing 
 ground, that they are sleeping on the field they have 
 won, and that when the time comes, they will take 
 up the march forward at the point where it was in- 
 terrupted. This is the truly intelligent way of re- 
 garding vacations, and this does not prevent them in 
 the least from producing the effect of relaxation and 
 recreation that we have the right to expect from 
 them. 
 
 And now, let us briefly recapitulate: 
 
 All that belongs to music considered as a Language 
 is best learned by frequenting the society of those 
 who know how to speak it, and by rubbing against 
 others who study it ; it cannot be learned too young. 
 
 All that belongs to music considered as an Art is 
 best learned by contemplation and by all that can 
 elevate the mind, by literary studies, travel and con- 
 tact with great artists ; virtuosity, whether vocal or 
 instrumental, demands quiet but prolonged toil. 
 
 All that belongs to music considered as a Science 
 is best learned by observation and reflection, by the, 
 [446]
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OP INSTRUCTION 
 
 analytical and deep study of the musical civilizations 
 of the past ; one is fitted for this at any age. 
 
 Teaching in classes seems to be the best for all the 
 elementary and infantile studies, and then for every- 
 thing connected with theory, even the highest. 
 
 Individual Teaching is preferable for the student 
 of Singing and Instruments. 
 
 Teaching in the large Conservatories has the ad- 
 vantages of both. 
 
 With regard to the normal duration of the studies, 
 it is as variable as aptitude and temperament, but 
 the studies must be long if we want them to be good. 
 This Art being infinite, it is the same as with every 
 other form of artistic study, and the excellent Schu- 
 mann, whom I quote here for the last time with regret, 
 expresses a high philosophical truth when he says: 
 " One never stops learning." 
 
 (&) 
 
 FINIS 
 
 [447]
 
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