UC-NRLF W^^' B M 3DS M7D mMM Y~- r' h--^ RICAN B O O K ". O M F> A N Y .^ ^^, M^^ »itKll| LIBRARY UNJVfR.MTY Of CALIrOi?N{A (J^_A^c)^ <) y^-JJ^^ • COMPLETE ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR COMMON AND HIGH SCHOOLS BY E. J. HOENSHEL, A.M. LATE PRESIDENT OF KANSAS NORMAL COLLEGE, AND AUTHOR OF "PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH" o>Hc NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY ftWXfSYCH j3C/3Ck o,n) Copyright, 1895, 1897, 1907, By E. J. HOENSHEL. HOBNSHEL ENG. GRAM. E - P 8 H [. u PREFACE This text-book of grammar has been thoroughly revised and entirely reset in new type. It forms a complete book, containing in one volume the work usually found in books on language lessons and English grammar. The book is divided into four parts, each of which is a course by itself. The first three parts treat of the same subjects, but each gives a more comprehensive treatment than the preceding. The work of the ordi- nary school is completed in Part Three. Part Four deals only with the most difficult topics and those about which authors do not agree. The author has no sympathy with the notion that technical terms in grammar should not be used until the pupil has reached the upper grades. He can see no reason why children cannot learn and understand the terms 7to?in and verd, for instance, as easily as name- word and action-word. Therefore, technical work will be found in Part One, gradually becoming more diffi- cult as the pupil advances, until in Part Four will be found about all the technical work required for any examination. 3 7297 4 PREFACE It is believed that pupils should begin this book about the beginning of the Fifth Grade. During the first four years, the work in language may be combined with the work in other studies, or it may be given in special oral lessons. The distinguishing characteristics of the book are : — 1. The division into four parts, or courses. 2. The combination of language lessons and grammar. 3. The careful development of definitions and statements. 4. The use of brief and terse language in definitions and rules. 5. The logical models for analysis and parsing. 6. The simplest and most comprehensive system of diagram known. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS This book combines both the practical and the theoretical. To be in harmony with its spirit, much writing will be required of the pupil. But few subjects and outlines for composition work are given. It is believed that each teacher can select topics better suited to the capacity and surroundings of his pupils than the topics selected by any author. Letter-writing should be introduced early in the course, and should be continued until the pupil can write a neat and correct letter. It will be noticed that the pupil is required to write sentences illustrating many of the definitions and prin- ciples given. This part of the work should not be omitted. It should be increased rather than dimin- ished. These illustrative sentences written by the pupils may be used for additional work in analysis and parsing, if the teacher thinks those given in the book are not sufficient. The book is divided into lessons, but many of these lessons contain material sufficient for two or three recitations. The models for parsing should not be neglected. 5 6 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS Long experience in schools of various grades has con- vinced the author that parsing pays when it is well done, and that there cannot be good parsing unless a definite and logical order is used. Attention is called to the diagrams. The system is simple, yet comprehensive. It comes nearer indicating the part of speech of every word than any other system known to the author. The aim should be, not to dia- gram the sentence, but to analyze it. The diagram is only an aid to analysis. The pupil that has mastered the first three parts of this book will have a fair knowledge of grammar. Part Four is intended only for advanced students. CONTENTS PART ONE PAGES Suggestions to Teachers 5 Index II Nouns 21,22 Names and Initials 22, 23 Name and Address . . 24, 25 Statements with Is, Are, Was, and Were . . . . 25, 26 Nouns Meaning More than One 27 Review . 28 Have and Has 29, 30 Review 3° Months and Days 3^ Review 32? 33 Dogs (essay) 33 Abbreviations 34 The Question 35 Nouns, Proper and Common 3^ Punctuation 37 Review • • 37> 3^ The Cat (essay) 3^ The Verb 39-41 The Command 4^ Sentences — Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative . . 42 Review, and Essay . • 42 Punctuation 43 The Adjective 44 Punctuation 45? 4^ Skating, and Riding a Bicycle (essay) .... 46 Review 46,47 Subject and Predicate 48>49 The Schoolroom (essay) 5° The Object SO, s^ The Sentence (essay) 5^ The Verb 52 Review 53 7 CONTENTS The Pronoun . 54 The Adverb . • 55. 56 Review . • 5^ The Phrase 57 Review 5^ The Preposition 59 The Conjunction ........ 60 The Interjection 61 Quotation ......... 62 Review. — Essay (The Cow) 63-65 Diagrams 65,66 City or Country (essay) . 67 PART TWO Classes of Nouns Capitals and Punctuation Gender . Person Number . Review . The Nominative and Objective Case The Possessive Case Review . Classes of Phrases . Parsing . The Noun (essay) . Classes of Pronouns Correct Forms of Pronouns Parsing . Review . The Pronoun (essay) Capitals and Punctuation Classes of Adjectives Rules for Comparison Review Classes of Verbs Voice Mode Review . Tense Person and Number of Verbs — The Infinitive 68, 69 69- -71 71- -73 73 74 75 -78 78 79 80 80,81 82 -84 84 85 ,86 87 87 -90 91 ,92 92 .93 93.94 94 95 96- 100 100 lOI, 102 103- 106 106, 107 108, 109 no III- 113 113. 114 CONTENTS 9 PAGES Verbs — Parsing 114^115 Review 11 5-1 18 The Verb (essay) "8 Corn (essay) 1^8 Classes and Comparison of Adverbs .... 1 19-122 The Preposition 122, 123 Review . . . 123, 124 The Conjunction and the Interjection .... 125 Review. — Analysis and Parsing. — Diagraming . . 126-129 Grammar (essay) 129 PART THREE Classes of Sentences 130-132 The Adjective Clause 132-134 The Adverb Clause 134-136 Analysis 136 The Noun Clause 1 37-139 The Compound Sentence 14° Classes of Phrases 141,142 The Noun 143-^45 Person and Number 146-148 Case 148-151 Apposition. — Review 15^-^54 The Possessive Case 154-^57 The Pronoun 157-167 The Adjective 168-174 Review 175 The Verb i75-i79 Voice . . . . • 179-181 Mode 182, 183 ^Tense, Person, and Number 183-185 Verb and Subject 185-188 Some Special Verbs 188-191 Conjugation 191-198 Review ^99 The Infinitive 200-204 The Participle 204-209 Review 209-211 The Adverb 211-216 The Preposition 216-218 The Conjunction 218,219 10 CONTENTS PAGES Correlatives 220-222 Interjections 222 Review 223-225 Words as DiiTerent Parts of Speech 226, 227 Punctuation 227-229 Review 229-231 PART FOUR Varieties of Compound Sentences as to Form Varieties of Complex Sentences as to Form Varieties of Dependent Clauses Phrases Classified .... Peculiarities of Gender and Number Cases after Intransitive and Passive Verbs Difficult Case Constructions Peculiar Possessives Verbs with Two Objects . Outline of Noun .... Sixteen Different Constructions of the Noun Possessive Pronouns Restrictive Clauses .... Use of That ...... As and But as Relative Pronouns . Compound Relatives Agreement of Pronouns with Antecedent Analysis and Parsing Adjectives Correcting and Parsing . Verbs Shall, Will', Should, Woidd . Subjunctive Mode .... Agreement of Verb with Subject Infinitives and Participles Outline of Verb .... Modal Adverbs Classified Conjunctive Adverbs Improper Omission of Prepositions . Uses of As, Than, and Or Difficult Sentences Analyzed and Parsed Analysis and Parsing Composition , . . . - 232 233 234, 235 235^ 236 236-239 239, 240 240, 241 241, 242 242-244 245 246 248 249 249 250,251 251,252 253, 254 255-257 258-260 261 262-276 265-267 267, 268 269-271 272-274 274, 275 276 276, 277 279 279-281 282, 283 283-288 289-291 INDEX Aj as a preposition Abbreviations Abstract nouns Active voice . Adjective clauses Phrases Pronouns . Adjectives Classes of . Comparison of Definitive . Descriptive Interrogative Modifying another Numeral Parsing of . Predicate . Pronominal Proper Adverb clauses Phrases Adverbs Classes of . Comparison of Conjunctive Interrogative Modal Parsing of Phrase Relative Simple Agreement — Pronoun Verb with subject Among and between adjecti with 44, 45 55 96 119 antecedent lOI, 84, 168- 113, 114, 148, PAGES 242, 280 34, 70 68, 144 06, 107, 180 133' 134 22, 141, 281 88, 89, 158 175, 258-260 96, 168 97-99, 169, 170 96, 168 96, 168 164 258 168 45, 100 66 158 96, 168 36, 234 22, 141 15, 276, 277 19, 211, 212 19, 120, 212 211, 276 211 212, 276 121 213 277 211 91, 158, 253 85, 269, 270 217 211 134 84, 12 INDEX PAGES Analysis 126, 136 Antecedents . . 87, 157 Agreement of pronouns with 91 Appositive adjectives 172 Clauses .... 152 Appositives, cases of . . . 151, 152 Articles 100, 168, 258 As, conjunctive adverb . . . . 278 Preposition .... 279 Relative pronoun 250 Attribute complement . .80, 138, 281 Objective 150 Auxiliary verbs .... . . . 176 Be, auxiliary in passive voice 180 Conjugation of . 191-194 Followed by objective 150, 239 Between and among 217 But, as relative pronoun 251 Capitals .... 2 2, 23 26, 31, 36, 41, 62, 69, 95 Can and May 117 Cardinal numbers . 168 Case . 7< ^-82, 148-157, 241-244 Absolute .... 240 After intransitive verbs 148, 149, 150, 239 After interjections 244 Factitive object . 243 Nominative 79, 148, 149, 240 Objective .... 79, 149, 150, 242-244 Possessive .... . 80, 81, i54-i57» 241, 242 Two objects 242, 243 Christian names . 23 Clauses, adjective . 133, 134 Adverb .... 134-136, 234 Dependent 131, 132, 233, 234 Independent 131 Noun 133. 137-139 Principal .... 131 Restrictive and non-restrictive . . . 133; 249 Subordinate 131, 233, 234 Collective nouns . . . 68, 143 Comma, use of . 24, yj, 41, 43, 45, 62, 133' I35» 138, 149, 292 Command .... 41 INDEX Common gender Common nouns Comparative degree of adjectives Of adverbs . Comparison of adjectives Of adverbs Complements of incomplete verbs Of passive verbs Of transitive verbs (active) Complete verbs Complex phrases Sentences . Composition . Compound personal pronouns Phrases Predicates . Propositions Relative pronouns Sentences . Subjects Verbs Concessive clauses Conditional clauses Conjugation . Oibe Of love Emphatic form of Progressive form of Conjunctive adverbs Conjunctions . Classes of . Coordinate . Subordinate Copulative verbs Correlatives, uses of Declarative sentences . Declension of pronouns Defective verbs Definitive adjectives Demonstrative pronouns Dependent clauses Descriptive adjectives . . 72, 144 • 36, 68, 143 97, 169-174 119, 120 97- J 100, 169-174 19, 120, 212 262, 263 239, 262 262 262 235 131- 139' 233-235 289-291 88, 157 . 236 131 123, 216, 279 157, 250-252 140, 232 131 216, 262 135 135 191-198 191-193 194-198 . . 198 . . 198 211, 276 *6o, 125, 218, 219 218, 219 218, 219 219 262 220-222 .42, 130 .87, 158, 159 . . 176 . .96, 168 . . 158 131^ 132, 233, 234, 277 . . .96,168 14 INDEX Diagrams 65, 66, 83, 86, 128, 134, 135, 136, 61, 72, 145' 140, 142, 150, 151, 152, 159, 174, 203, 210, 221, 225, 230, 233, 247, 255, Difficult sentences analyzed and parsed Diminutive nouns Double relative Each other Emphatic form of verb Exclamation . Exclamation point Exclamatory sentences Expletive Factitive object Feminine gender . Fewer and less Finite verb . Future-perfect tense Future tense . Gender 71 Common . Feminine . Masculine . Neuter Gerunds Homonyms .... 32, 34, 46, Imperative mode . In first and third persons Sentences . Imperfect tense Impersonal verbs . Improper omission of prepositions /;/ and into . Incomplete verbs . Indefinite pronouns Indicative mode Infinitives As adjective As adverb . As noun Parsing of Subject of Initials . 49? 44. 72, 50, 114, PAGES 138, 139 207, 208 275, 278 282-285 144 157 284 198 222 223 130 124 243 145 125, 222, 7h H4, 260 176, 263 144; 60, 74. 184 183 237 144 144 144 237 273 77, 78 09, 182 263 112. 103 236: 72; 71 71 236; 42, 08, -204, 200 201, 200, 150, 130 263 176 279 217 262, 158 182 272 -201 202 201 202 272 23 INDEX 15 Inseparable phrases PAGES . 236 Interjections '61, 125, 222 Interrogation point 35 Interrogative adverbs 211 Adjectives . 164 Pronouns 88, 158, 252 Sentences 42, 130 Intransitive verbs 105, 176 Have no passive 180 May have objective case after them 150. 239 Irregular verbs . .... 104, 176, 129 Learn and teach 117 Less 2ir\6. fewer 260 Like, uses of ..... . 260 Many a, parsed together .... 260 Masculine gender ..... 71, 144, 145 Material nouns ...... 144 May and can 117 Members of compound sentences 232 Modal adverbs 212, 276 Mode 108-110, 182, 183, 267, 268 Imperative ...... 109, 182 In first or third person .... . 263 Indicative ...... 108, 182 Potential 109, 182 Subjunctive ...... . *i82, 267, 268 More and 7nost, in comparison • 97, 169, 258, 259 Multiplicatives ...... 168 Name and address 24 Names . 21-23 Christian 23 Surname ...... 22 Need, does not add s in negative sentences . 270 Neuter gender ....... 72, 144, 236, 237 Verbs . 176 No, yes ....... 277 Nominative case . . 79. 148, 149 Absolute 240, 241 By direct address 240, 241 By exclamation ...... 240, 241 By pleonasm ....... 240, 241 By subscription 240, 241 i6 INDEX Non-restrictive clauses Noun clauses Noun phrases Nouns Abstract . Collective Common . Diminutive Material . Parsing of Participial Proper . Verbal . Number of nouns and pronouns Of verbs . Numeral adjectives Classes of Object, factitive . Of passive verb Of preposition . Of verb . Objective attribute Objective case After interjections After intransitive verbs Subject of infinitive . Without a governing word Or^ sometimes not a connective Ordinals .... Ought, not used with auxiliaries Parsing of adjectives Of adverbs Of infinitives . Of nouns Of participles . Of pronouns Of verbs . Participles As adjectives . As adverbs As nouns In passive voice of verb 22, 68 27, 75-78 59: 149: 79; 103 104, 143 PAGES 133' 249 133. 137-139 141 157, 236-248 . 68, 144 • 68, 143 36, 68, 143 144 144 . 85, 86 144 36, 68, 143 144 146-148, 237-238 84, 185, 269, 270 168 168 243 243 122, 149, 216 50, 79, 149 150, 243 239, 242-244 244 150, 239 150 149, 242 280, 281 168 190 100 121 200, 201 85, 86 205 . 92, 93 114, 115 204-210, 272, 273 205, 206, 273 272, 273 206, 273 180 79. 150, INDEX 17 Participles — In progressive form of verb Parsing of . Passive voice Formation of Past tense Past-perfect tense Period, use of Person of nouns and pronouns Of verbs Personal pronouns Compound Declension of Personification Phrase adverbs Phrases Adjective . Adverb Complex Compound . Infinitive . Inseparable Noun Participial . Prepositional Separable . Simple Pleonasm Plural number Plurals of letters, Of titles Of words ending in/and/^ Of words ending in o Of words ending vay Positive degree of adjectives Possessive case In joint ownership Of appositives . Of compounds . Of compound terms Possessive pronouns Potential mode hoenshel's eng. gram, figures, etc 23 57: 27. 75 80 24, 26, 34 84, -78 81 41, 84, 146- 54 . 205 107, 180 180 103, 183 Ilj 112, 183 \, 4 h 43 70 73 74, 146 13. 184, 185, 87, 157, 158 .88, 157 .87, 158 144, 145 213 42, 235. 236 22, 141, 281 84, 122, 141 . 235 . 236 , 141 . 236 . 141 . 141 122, 141 236 235 240, 241 -148 , 237 -239 147 238 .76, 147 147 ^65, 146 .97, 169 157, 241 242 154 155 155 157 248 109 , 182 INDEX PAGES Predicate 48 Complex . , 235 Compound . 131 General 235 Logical 235 Predicate adjectives 45, 66 Predicate nouns 80 Prefix . 98 Prepositional phrase 122 Prepositions . 59, 122, 123, 216-218, 279 Compound 123, 216, 279 Ending in i7ig . 216 Improper omission of 279 Present tense 103, 183 Present-perfect tense III, 112, 183 Progressive form of verb . 198 Pronominal adjectives . 158 Pronouns 54, 87-94, 157- -167, 248-257 Adjective . 88, 89, 158 Antecedent of . •B7, 157 . Compound personal .88, 157 Compound relative . 157, 251 Declension of 87, 158, 159 Demonstrative . . 158 Double relative . 157 Indefinite . . 158 Interrogative 88, 158, 252 Parsing of . • 92. 93 Personal . 87. 157, 158 Possessive . 248 Relative . 89 90, 132, 157^ 159' 161, 162, 249-254 Proper adjectives . 96, 168 Proper nouns. 36, 68, 143 Propositions . 130. 131 Punctuation . 69, 70, 227- 229, 292-294 Question 35 Quotations . 62 Redundant verbs . 176 Regular veibs 104, '75 Relative adverbs . 277 Relative pronouns . . 89 , 90, 132, 157. 159, 161, 162, 249-254 Restrictive clauses 249 INDEX 19 PAGES Rules for spelling . . • • • 75^ 7^. 98, 99' '46, 147 Senator^ in different constructions 246 Sentences 42, 130-140 Complex 131-130. 233-235 Compound 140, 232 Declarative 42, 130 Exclamatory ^IP Imperative 42, 13° Interrogative 42, 13° Simple 126, 131 Separable phrase 236 Series .....•••••• 37 Shall ^nd Will, Should Tind Would . . 117,193,265-267 Simple adverb 211 Simple sentence . . • • • • • • 126, 131 Simple phrase 235 Specification, clause of 234 Spelling, rules for 75^ 76, 9^, 99^ H6, I47 Statement 26 Subject, complex 235 Compound ^3^ General • . • 235 Logical 235 Subject of sentence 4^ Of infinitive 150 Subjunctive mode 182, 267, 268 Subordinate conjunction 219 Subordinate proposition 13^ Suffix 98 Superlative degree 97» 169-174 vSurnames .....••••• 22 Synopsis of verb ^9^ Teach and learji ^ ^ 7 Tense 103, iii-ii3> 183, 184 Future io3' 183 Future-perfect in, 112, 184 Imperfect 263 Past I03' 183 Past-perfect 1 11, 112. 183 Present 103^ 183 Present-perfect 1 11, 112, 183 Uses of 264 20 INDEX PAGES Than, as a conjunctive adverb I74 As a preposition 280 With comparatives 221, 259 That, uses of 161, 162, 249 The, as a conjunctive adverb 278 There — expletive 124 To-day 277, 278 Transitive verbs 105, 176, 239 Uses of Tenses 264 Verbs 39, 40, lo, 52, 103-118, 175-210 Active and passive 106-108, 179-181 Agreement with subject .... 113-115, 269, 270 Auxiliary 176 Complement of 262 Complete and incomplete 262 Compound 216, 262 Conjugation of 191-198 Copulative 262 Correct forms of 1 88-191 Defective . 176 Finite 176, 263 Impersonal 176 Infinitives . . . . . . . 114, 200-204, 272 Intransitive 105, 176, 239 Mode of 108-110, 182, 183, 267, 268 Neuter ... 176 Number and person of . . 113, 114? i84» 185, 269-271 Parsing of 114, 115 Participles 103, 104, 204-210, 272 Progressive form of 198 Redundant 176 Regular and irregular . . . 104, 175, 176, 177-179 Tense of 103, 111-113, 183, 184 Transitive 105, 176 Synopsis of 198 Voice of 106-108, 179-181 Voice, active and passive 106-108, 1 79-1 81 What, double relative 157 What a, parsed together ....... 260 Will 2ind shall, Would 2in6. should . . 117, 193, 265-267 Words as different parts of speech .... 226, 227 Ves, no 277 PART ONE LESSON I NOUNS 1. Write your name. 2. Write the names of three of your friends. 3. Write the name of the city or town in or near which you Uve. 4. Write the name of some other town in your county. 5. Write the name of some place you would like to visit. 6. Write the names of three things you see in the schoolroom. 7. Write the names of three things you have at home. 8. Write the names of three animals. 9. Write the names of three things you can eat. 10. Write the names of two things a boy carries in his pocket. 21 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Some words are the names of persons, some are the names of places, and some are the names of things. The name of a person or place should begin with a capital. Names are called nouns. 11. Write three nouns that are the names of coun- tries in Europe. 12. Write three nouns that are the names of cities in the United States. 13. Write four nouns that are the names of persons of whom you have read. 14. Write four nouns that are the names of things seen in a city. 15. Write two nouns that are the names of towns in your state. LESSON II NAMES AND INITIALS 1. Write your full name. 2. Write the name of your father. 3. Write the name of your brother or sister. Which part of the names you have just written is the same for all the members of the family? The last name is called the family name or surname. NAMES AND INITIALS 23 The first name is called the given name or the Christian name. A person may have more than one Christian name ; as, William Henry Khig, Oliver Hazard Perry Fulton. 4. Write the name of some one that has two Chris- tian names. 5. Write the name again, using only the first letter of each part of the Christian name. 6. Write the name of the most populous State in the United States. 7. Write it again, using only the first letter of each part of the name. The first letter of a word is called its initial When initials are used instead of the name of a person or place, they should be capitals, and a period should be placed after each. 8. Write the name of the smallest State in the United States. 9. Write it again, using only the first letter of each part of the name. 10. Write the initials of your name. 11. Write the initials of the Governor of this State. 12. Write the initials of the President of the United States. 13. Write the initials of some railroad near you. 14. Write the name of some city, state, or county that has two words in the name. 15. Write the initials of the name you have just written. 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON III NAME AND ADDRESS I. Write your name and address ; thus, iSiA/rnA/ru^Jixvyvv, i ;ou>cu. Notice the use of the period and comma in writing the address. 2. Write the name and address of some one who does not Hve in your town. 3. Write the name of some one, and draw one hne under the Christian name and two Hues under the sur- name. 4. Write the initials of your father's name. 5. Write the names of five schoolmates, and point out the given name and surname of each. 6. Name the materials of which the following ob- jects are made : a shoe, a bottle, a coat, a hat. NAME AND ADDRESS 25 7. Write the names of five materials of which cloth ing is made.* 8. Write the names of three materials of which money is made. 9. Write five nouns that are names of things that grow in the ground. 10. Write the initials of these names : John Henry Green, Richard Grant White, Henry Ward Beecher, Robert Johnson. 11. Write your name and address. 12. Write your teacher's name and address. LESSON IV STATEMENTS WITH IS, ARE, WAS, AND WERE 1. Name an animal, and tell something about it ; thus, " The dog barks." 2. Tell something about — a cat, a horse, birds. 3. State something about — a tree, a book, boys. * In writing the nouns asked for, pupils should not use the same noun twice. In all written work, repetition should be avoided as much as possi- ble. In trying to think of new words, they will be learning to think, will be increasing their vocabulary, and will be learning to spell. 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR A group of words so arranged as to tell something is a statement A statement should begin with a capital and close with a period. 4. Write a statement about — flowers, chalk, a fish, a squirrel, a river. 5. Write a statement about yourself. What word did you use instead of your own name ? The word /, used for your own name, should be a capital letter. 6. Use the word /, and make a statement telling — 1 . Three things you saw on your way to school. 2. Two things you like to do. 3. One thing you like to eat. 7. Write two statements, using the word is in each statement. 8. Write two statements, using the word are in each statement. 9. Write two statements, using the word was in each statement. 10. Write two statements, using the word zuere in each statement. 11. Write a statement about corn and wheat, using is or are. 12. Write a statement about Henry and James, using 7(jas or were. Use is and was when speaking or writing of one. Use are and were when speaking or writing of more than one. NOUNS MEANING MORE THAN ONE 2^ LESSON V NOUNS MEANING MORE THAN ONE 1. Write a statement about — 1. Something that swims. 2. Something that lives in the air. 3. Something that burrows in the ground. 4. Something that a farmer raises. 5. Something for which your state is noted. 6. Something seen in the sky. 7. Something found in the mountains. 8. Something found in the forest. 9. Some animal that has different homes for winter and summer. 10. A useful metal. 2. Change these nouns to mean more than one : boy, girl, bird, flower, apple. What letter did you add to make them mean more than one ? 3. Copy the following : one box a dress one inch two boxes several dresses many inches What was added to the above nouns to make them mean more than one? To nouns ending in s, sh, ch, or x we add es to make them mean more than one. 4. Change these nouns to make them mean more than one : fox match bench , glass dish church watch bush 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON VI REVIEW 1. Fill these blanks with is or are: 1. These peaches not ripe. 2. This pencil too short. 3. John and Robert good boys. 4. The dog or the cat in the house. 5. The birds singing. 6. the birds singing ? 7. the apples ripe ? 8. The book lost. 9. The trees tall. 2. Write the above statements again, filling the blanks with was or were. 3. Change is to are, and are to is, and write these statements correctly : 1. The apple is sour. 2. The benches are long. 3. These men are sick. 4. The gate is made of iron. 5. Those oxen are black. 6. The man is rich. 7. The bunches are too large. 8. The stove is made of iron. 4. Change was to ivere, and were to was, and write these statements correctly : 1. The boys were sick. 2. The mouse was afraid of the cat. 3. The ducks were swimming in the pond. 4. The man was a soldier. HAVE AND HAS 29 5. The egg was in the nest. 6. The bridges were old. 7. Was the stone in the water ? 8. Were the geese white ? LESSON VII HAVE AND HAS 1. Copy these statements, and notice carefully the use of have and has : 1. The girl has a doll. 2. Girls have dolls. 3. He has torn his book. 4. They have torn their books. 5. I have a knife. Use has when speaking or writing about one. Use have when speaking or writing about more than one, or about yourself. 2. Use have or has^ and make a statement about — children, men, coach, sled. 3. Write three statements, using the word has in each, 4. Write three statements, using the word have in each. 5. Fill these blanks with have or has: 1. Birds claws. 2. The little girls gone to school. 3. I three books. 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4. The boy gone home. 5. Lucy or Mary come back. 6. Lucy and Mary come back, 7. the doors hinges ? 8. the lion a mane ? 6. Change have to has^ and has to have^ and write these sentences correctly : 1 . The book has leaves. 2. The ships have sails. 3. The child has been crying. 4. The boys have gone. 5. The chicken has feathers. 6. Has the boat arrived ? 7. Have the mice been caught ? LESSON VIII REVIEW 1. Use is or are, and write a statement beginning with — we, she, he, they, you, it. 2. Write the statements again, using zvas or zvere. 3. Use have or has, and make a statement beginning with — I, you, we, they, apples. 4. Fill each of these blanks with three of the follow- ing words (one at a time): is, are, has, have, was, were. Complete the statements by adding other words. 1. A tall tree . 2. Many beautiful flowers . MONTHS AND DAYS 31 3. A dog and a cat - 4. My mother and I 5. The bicycle . 6. The street cars — LESSON IX MONTHS AND DAYS 1. Write the names of — 1. The days of the week. 2. The four seasons. 3. The three winter months. 4. The three spring months. 5. The three summer months. 6. The three fall months. The names of the months and the days of the week should begin with capitals, but the names of the seasons should not. 2. Write a statement about — 1. This month. 2. This season of the year. 3. The first month of the year. 4. The last month of the year. 5. The shortest month. 6. The hottest month. 3. Write a statement naming the different parts of a penknife. 4. Write statements telling the use of each part. 5. Write a statement telling the use of a knife. 6. Combine your statements so that they will form a story or essay about a knife. \ /■ 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON X REVIEW 1. Write a statement, using a noun that is the name of — a flower, a bird, a fish, an insect, a tree, a vegetable, a fruit, a mineral. 2. Write a statement about something that is made of — iron, leather, wool, cotton, bone, gold. 3. Use each of the following words in a statement. Use a different noun for each statement. high, low, green, white, black, blue, yellow, red, brown, long, short, slow, swift, straight, crooked, useful, hot, cold, beautiful, sharp, square, gentle, sweet, bitter, sour. LESSON XI REVIEW 1. Use these words correctly in statements : ate, eight ; do, dew ; new, knew ; blue, blew ; lore, four ; beech, beach ; knows, nose ; pane, pain. 2. Try to use each pair of the above words in one statement ; as, *' The boy ate eight walnuts." jL^Crty^ ESSAY 33 3. Give four rules for the use of capitals. 4. When should you use is ? arc ? was ? were ? has ? have ? 5. Write a statement telling something that you learn — by seeing, by hearing, by tasting, by feeling. 6. Use each of these words in a statement, telling what each is, or to what it belongs : claws sole fur wrist gable fleece mane horns paws bill spur belfry LESSON XII DOGS 1. Write one or more statements telling something about — 1. The size. 2. The color. 3. The different kinds. 4. The covering of the body. 5. How they defend themselves. 6. Their use. 7. A dog you have seen or heard of. 2. Arrange and combine all your statements so that they will form a story or essay about dogs. 3. After you have combined your statements, rewrite your story as plainly and as neatly as you can, paying particular attention to your spelling. hoenshel's eng. gram. — -x iM 34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XIII ABBREVIATIONS 1. Use these words correctly in statements : bow, bough ; stake, steak ; here, hear ; him, hymn ; so, sew sow ; die, dye ; some, sum ; to, too, two. 2. Fill each of these blanks with to, too, or two : 1 . He went the door. 2. The girl is sick go. 3. This lesson is long. 4. The man was old walk miles. 3. Fill these blanks with here or hear : 1. My father was to-day. 2. Did you the organ ? 3. I will stand and what you say. 4. Sometimes we use more than one letter of a name, instead of using only the initial. This shortened form is called an abbreviation. 5. A period should be used after each abbreviation. 6. Learn these abbreviations : Jan. Apr. Oct. Feb. Aug. Nov. Mar. Sept. Dec. Note. —May, June, and July should not be abbreviated. 7. The following are the abbreviations for the days of the week : Sun. Tues. Thurs. Sat. Man. Wed. Fri. THE QUESTION 35 LESSON XIV THE QUESTION 1. Copy tliese questions, and examine them closely : 1 . Was Mary here ? 2. Can Henry read? A question should begin with a capital and close with a ques- tion mark (interrogation point) . 2. Write a question about — a bell, a tiger, the sun, glass, school. 3. Write a question using the word — is, are, have, was, were, I, he, they, you. 4. Change these statements to questions using the same words : 1. This little boy is asleep. 2. His name is Victor. 3. He will not sleep long. 5. Change these questions to statements, using the same words : 1. Is the man at home? 2. Has a bird wings? 3. Are China and Japan at war? 6. Write a question (make a problem) asking for the cost of — 1. Three pencils at five cents each. 2. Four bushels of wheat at $1.25 a bushel. 3. Seven primers at twenty cents each. 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XV NOUNS, PROPER AND COMMON 1. Copy these statements : 1. A dog can run. 2. Towser can run. Are dog and Towser both nouns ? What is the diiference be- tween them ? * A noun that belongs to some particular one is di proper noun; as, Towser, Robert, Chicago. A name that belongs to any one of a class is a common noun ; as, dog, boy, city. A proper noun should begin with a capital letter. 2. Copy these names, placing the proper nouns in one column and the common nouns in another : 3- London dog month girl boy city Susan May Thursday horse Elmer Jack Write a proper noun that is the name of — I. A city in your state. 5. A river. 2. A sled. 6. A dog. 3. This day. 7. A horse. 4. This month. 8. Our national holiday 4. Copy these statements, and examine them care fully : 1 . Robert and Mary are good children. 2. Robert, Mary, and Lizzie are good children. * Lead the pupils to decide that Towser means some particular dog, while dog may mean any dog. PUNCTUATION 37 3. The farmer raises wheat and corn. 4. The farmer raises wheat, corn, and oats. You will notice that in the first and the third sentence there are two words used alike, while in the second and the fourth there are three words used alike. Three or more words used in this way are called a se?'ies. More than two words of the same kind following one after another are called a series. A comma should be placed after each word of a series, ex- cept the last. The word and should be used only between the last two words of a series. 5. Write a statement about — 1. Five things used in a kitchen. 2. Four kinds of trees. 3. Three things that are black. 4. Two things a farmer raises. LESSON XVI REVIEW 1. Write a question about — 1 . Three winter amusements. 2. Five domestic animals. 3. Five wild animals. 2. Write a statement about five things that are kept in a grocery. 3. Write a statement about five things that are used as playthings. 38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4. Write a statement about five things that are kept in a hardware store. 5. Write a statement about six quadrupeds (four- footed animals). 6. Write a statement about six kinds of trees. 7. Write a statement about six kinds of birds. 8. Write a statement about four kinds of materials used in building houses. 9. Write a question about six things that are used for food. 10. Write a statement about four kinds of meat. 11. Write a question about two things that are kept in a drug store. 12. Write a question about two things that are used for drink. LESSON XVII THE CAT Write an essay about the cat, using the following outline : 1. The size. 5. The claws. 2. The color. 6. The covering of the body. 3. The eyes. 7. How they defend themselves. 4. The ears. 8. Their use. 9. How they watch for their prey. THE VERB 39 LESSON XVIII THE VERB 1. Copy these statements : 1. Birds sing. 2. The wind blows. 3. Frogs jump. Which of the above words are nouns ? Which words express action? Words that express action are called verbs. 2. Supply verbs for these nouns : 1. Monkeys . 4. Water . 7. Wasps . 2. Fire . 5. Indians . 8. Lions . 3. Snow . 6. The cars . 9. Kites . ' 3. Supply nouns for these verbs : 1. bloom. 5. crawl. 9. cackles. 2. leap. 6. roars. 10. neighs. 3. chirp. 7. purs. 11. laughs. 4. climb. 8. hisses. 12. dives. Select the verbs and nouns in these statements : 1 . The spider soon caught the fly. 2. The sun shone brightly on the lake. 3. The sailors sang joyfully. 4. Heavy masses of fog floated across the mountains. 5. The visitor passed through the gate. 6. Swallows build nests under the eaves of houses. 7. I walked to the church. 8. The river flows down the valley. ^. The child met me on the road. 10. The blind man fell into the river. 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XIX CORRECT FORMS OF THE VERB 1. Copy these statements, and examine the verbs carefully : 1. Birds sing. 5. I read. 2. The birds sing. 6. You read. 3. John and Mary go. 7. He reads. 4. John goes. 8. They read. Verbs add s or es in statements and questions about one. Verbs do not add s or es when used with / or you in state- ments and questions about one. 2. Write three statements about more than one. 3. Write three statements, using a verb that ends in s. 4. Write two statements, using a verb that ends in es. 5. Are any of these statements incorrect } 1. Judith and Lucy goes to school. 2. I see you. 3. The children play ball. 4. The boys does not study. 5. The horse trots slowly. 6. Change these statements and questions so that they shall speak of more than one : 1. The man walks fast. 2. The child goes to school. ^ 3. Does the boy study? THE COM iM AND 4 1 4. The lamb plays. 5. Does the eagle fly? 7. Change these statements and questions so that they shall speak of only one : 1. Do the Germans like music? 2. Indians hunt. 3. Monkeys chatter. 4. Do geese live in the water? 5. The mice go into the trap. 06 7K€ri?c4^ LESSON XX THE COMMAND 1. Copy these groups of words : 1. Bring me your knife. 2. Do not swear, boys. , Do these groups state something ? Do they ask a question ? Do they order or request something to be done? A group of words that orders or requests something to be done is a command. A command should begin with a capital and end with a period. 2. Copy these commands and questions, and notice carefully the use of the comma : 1 . Stella, close the door. 2. Obey your parents, children. 3. Come and see me, Samuel, whenever you can. 4. Mother, may I go with you? 5. Who wrote to you, Alice? 6. Can you, Jennie, solve this problem? 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. Write two commands and two questions using a proper noun for the first word of each. 4. Write two commands and two questions using the name of the person addressed for the last word of each. 5. Write two commands and two questions placing the name of the person addressed in the middle. Statements, questions, and commands are all called sentences- A statement is a declarative sentence. A question is an interrogative sentence. A command is an imperative sentence. LESSON XXI REVIEW 1. Write a declarative sentence, an interrogative sentence, and an imperative sentence, with each of these words : books Albert truth children mother ink APPLES 2. Write sentences about apples, telling : 1. Where they grow. 4- Their colors. 2. What is outside. 5. Their size. 3. What is inside. 6. Their use. PUNCTUATION 43 LESSON XXII PUNCTUATION 1. Notice the punctuation of these addresses : 1. 1235 Vine St., Lincoln, Lancaster Co., Neb. 2. Henry Long, Esq., Room No. 5, Burr Block. No. 356 Kansas Ave., Topeka, Kans. 2. Copy the following, and punctuate correctly : 1. Rev Mr Smith called on Prof R P Brown 2. Mendon Westmoreland Co Pa 3. No 14 La Fayette Ave Charleston 111 4. Office of Supt City Schools Covington Ky 5. Mr James P Longwell Bridgeport N Y 6. James L Murdock Room 21 Portland Building Boston Mass 3. Copy the following sentences, and punctuate correctly : 1. Mr Jones may John be excused from the room 2. Children are you always obedient to your teacher 3. Charles can see hear feel and taste 4. The little girl loves her father mother brothers sisters 5. March April May are the three spring months 6. He she it hifjt and they are small words 7. Where are you going my little friend 8. Sing your best song little bird before I go 9. Tell me boys where you have been 10. Wait for me uncle 1 1 . Boys always speak the truth without fear 12. Have you seen Charles Samuel and Robert lately 13. Girls have you learned when to use the question mark 4. Name the nouns in the preceding thirteen sen- tences, except the 6th. 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XXIII THE ADJECTIVE 1. Copy these sentences : 1. The tree was tall. 2. The apple is sweet. What word tells what kind of tree is meant ? What word tells the kind or quality of the apple? A word that tells the kind or quality of an object is called an adjective. The adjective often precedes the noun ; as, a sweet apple. 2. Name the adjectives in these sentences : 1 . Pretty girls and brave boys are found in many coun- tries. 2. A large, tall, green tree is standing in the beautiful meadow. 3. The baby has blue eyes, red cheeks, and curly hair. 4. Fresh water is a pleasant drink. 5. Dear, patient, gentle Nell was gone. 3. Write eight sentences, using a different adjective with each of these nouns : snow grass sky ball paper knife wood ice 4. Copy the following words, placing the proper nouns, the common nouns, the verbs, and the adjec- tives in separate columns : pretty garden girl weeps cat Tom beautiful hears Carlo sour long Springfield soft sweet goes hard Rover blue chews cow PUNCTUATION 45 5. Write a sentence containing a proper noun, a common noun, an adjective, and a verb. -^ 7 / ■ LESSON XXIV PUNCTUATION 1. Copy these sentences, and notice the use of the comma and the word a7id : ^ I. A long, crooked path leads to the woods. " 2. The path is long and crooked, 2. Write sentences, placing two adjectives (using no adjective twice) * before each of these nouns : chair peach apple stove 3. Write your sentences again, placing the adjectives after the nouns. 4. Write sentences, placing three adjectives before each of the nouns : lions bees mountains a ball 5. Write the sentences again, placing the adjectives after the nouns. * When the pupil is required to select and use a list of words of any part of speech, it is not expected that he will use the same word twice. If teachers will insist on this, they will soon see a large increase in the vocabulary of their pupils. ENGLISH GRAMMAR 6. Combine each group of statements into one Gold is heavy. ^ A pig squeals. Gold is yellow. ^ A duck quacks. I Gold is solid. i A hen cackles, f A fish swims. U sheep bleats. •I A bird flies. ( A book is on the table. I A frog jumps. 5. -! A bell is on the table. I The dog barks. ^ ^ ^^^ '' °^ ^^^ ^^^^^- 1 The cat mews. LESS0N XXV SKATING, AND RISING A BICYCLE Write afeeut these tw© sp«rts, telling fully what each is, when practiced, the pleasures ©f each, the ®bjecti©ns t© each. Close by telling which you prefer, and give the reasons f©r y©ur choice. LESSON XXVI REVIEW Use each pair of these words in a sentence : be, bee ; through, threw ; meat, meet ; hear, here ; week, weak ; wood, would ; know, no ; deer, dear ; son, sun ; right, write ; hour, our ; flour, flower ; buy, by ; heal, heel ; beat, beet. REVIEW 47 2. Here are two lists of nouns. Select two words, one from each list, and use them in a sentence so that the word from the second list will tell of what some object in the first list is made ; thus, ** Flour is made of wheat." (I) (2) calico wheati a saw cotton I linen horn » shoes wool ■• flour leather! flannel flaxi combs flour' bread steel/ LESSON XX vn REVIEW 1. Write a declarative sentence about — 1. Three things that are sour. 2. Three things that are sweet. 3. Three things that are hard. 4. Three things that are soft. 2. Write an interrogative sentence about — 1 . Three things that are heavy. 2. Three things that are light. 3. Three things that are beautiful. 4. Three things that are dangerous. 3. Use three adjectives to describe — a boy glass a doll snow a cat the horse ice the sea 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4. Name the nouns, verbs, and adjectives in these sentences : 1. A fairy workman hides in every dimpled finger. 2. The wealthy merchant bought many nice present* for his daughter. The tall elm bends. The turbid torrent roared. The vivid lightning flashes. The brave leader fell. The great Napoleon was conquered. The victorious army of Alexander marched a long distance. LESSON XX vm SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 1. Copy these sentences : 1. Fire burns. 2. The dog is black. 3. My old cat ran into the house. You will see that each sentence has two parts. The first part *.ells what we are speaking about, and the second part tells what we say about the first part. The part of the sentence that tells what we are speaking about is called the subject, and the part that tells what we say about the subject is called the predicate. 2. Use each of these words in a sentence, and draw a vertical line between the subject and the predicate : Chicago, town, marble, mountain. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 49 3. Supply subjects for these predicates : I. climbs mountains. 5. will come. 2. is gray. 6. was here. 3. are white. 7. were here. 4. are rough. 8. has left. 4. Supply predicates for these subjects : 1. The train . 4. Greenland and Iceland . 2. An old man . 5. George Washington . 3. The soldiers . 6. Asia and Africa . 5. Supply two predicates for each of these subjects; thus, "The dog bites and barks " : 1. Foxes . 4. Kittens . 2. Bears . 5. Apples . .'^'^ 3. Teachers ^ — . 6. Pupils . 6. Supply three predicates for each of these subjects: I . Washington . 2. The watchful dog . 3. The studious pupil . 4. A good clerk . 5. A wise man . 7. Supply three subjects for each of these predicates : 2. broke the windows. 3. received prizes. 4. howl. 8. Use each of these words in a sentence, and draw a vertical line between the subject and the predicate : ball, bawl : flea, flee ; knot, not ; bell, belle ; grown, groan ; male, mail ; bare, bear ; hare, hair ; ore, oar. hoenshel's eng. gram. — 4 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XXIX THE SCHOOLROOM 1. Write an essay on the schoolroom, using the fol- lowing outline : the size, the doors, the windows, the table, the desks, any other furniture there may be in the room, the appearance of the walls, the appearance of the floor. 2. Use each pair of these words in one sentence : done, dun ; hole, whole ; tale, tail ; pale, pail ; one, won ; LESSON XXX THE OBJECT 1. Are these sentences complete ? 1. Henry struck . 2. The cat caught . 3. We wear . Some verbs that express action require a word to complete their meaning. This word is called the object of the verb. 2. Write the words that are used as objects in these sentences : 1. We wear clothing. 2. Henry struck Charles. 3. The cat caught a mouse. THE OBJECT $1 4. The eagle saw me. 5. The orator made a speech. 6. Washington gained victories. 7. The Romans captured Carthage. 3. Use each of these words as the object of a verb : honey, copper, us, her, cat, me, stockings, them, basket. 4. A verb may have two or more objects; as, *'We saw mountains, hills, and valleys." 5. Write sentences in which each of these verbs shall have two obj^- ts : chops, choo? ts, drink, sells, study, drives. LESSON REVIEW QUESTIONS Name the three different kinds of sentences. With what should every sentence begin? What should be placed after a declarative and an imperative sentence? What should be placed after an inter- rogative sentence? How many parts has a sentence? What is the subject? What is the predicate ? THE SENTENCE 1. Write the definition of — a sentence ; a declarative sentence ; an interrogative sentence ; an imperative sentence ; the subject ; the predicate. 2. Combine your definitions so as to form a con- nected essay on The Sentence, 52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XXXII THE VERB 1. Examine this sentence: The field is large. In this sentence the word is is a verb, but it does not express action. It simply asserts existence or being. A word that expresses action or being is a verb. 2. Sometimes a verb consists of more than one word ; as — 1. Mary can read. 2. The train has gone. 3. The letter should have been written. 3. Name the verbs in these sentences : 1 . Leaves fall to the ground. 2. I know it. 3. Where is he? 4. We are reading about the lion. 5. The colt has been running through the meadow. 4. Use each of these verbs in a sentence : has been, is running, should learn, can be seen, will choose, shall be chosen. 5. Write three sentences, each having a verb com- posed of two words. 6. Write three sentences, each having a verb com- posed of three words. 7. Try to write a verb composed of four words. y^-otrr^ crw ^^^^^a.^ u? o REVIEW 53 LESSON XXXIII REVIEW -< Name the subject, predicate, and object of each of * these sentences, and pick out the nouns, verbs, and adjectives : 1. He sang the songs of his boyhood. 2. The fire burns cheerily. 3. You will lose your place. 4. The orator received great applause. 5. The lofty Andes rise above the clouds. 6. Animals and plants live and grow. 7. A band of robbers plundered the caravan. 8. Crusoe's companions were all drowned. 9. The brave sailor managed his boat skillfially. • 10. Did you see that beautiful bird? An interrogative sentence should be changed to a declarative be- . , fore the subject, predicate, and object are picked out. This sentence y will become " You did see that beautiful bird." "^ II. Did he hear the song of the skylark? 12. The crowd cheered heartily. 13. The crowd cheered the speaker. 14. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean. 15. Josephus wrote a history of the Jews. 16. The Swiss scenery is beautiful. 17. The wind is never weary. 18. Palm trees grow in Asia, Africa, and South America. 19. Lakes are supplied with water by rivers, brooks, or springs. 20. Eagles do not catch flies. 21. A good girl wrote a long letter. 22. The meadow^ is covered with grass and flowers. 23. Mabel has a beautifiil pet squirrel. 24. The vessel struck a hidden rock. 54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XXXIV THE PRONOUN 1. Examine these sentences : 1. John learns because he studies. 2. I go to school. In the first sentence, is he the name of anything ? Is it a noun ? Who studies ? What word is used instead oijohi f In the second sentence, who goes to school ? Is the word / a noun ? The word / is used instead of what word ? (It is used instead of the name of the speaker.) The words / and he are pronoims. A word used for or instead of a noun is a pronoun. 2. Copy the pronouns in these sentences : 1. They are good boys. 2. Henry has his book. 3. The children study their lessons. 4. She scolded him. 5. Can you see us ? 6. Here is the boy who was hurt. 7. He is the man whom you saw. 3. Fill each of these blanks with a pronoun : 1 . are my friends. 2. is my friend. 3. went to . 4. The teacher told to go. 5. The pupils have lost books. 6. must go with and . 4. Write three declarative, three interrogative, and three imperative sentences, using a different pronoun in each sentence. THE ADVERB 55 LESSON XXXV THE ADVERB 1. Copy these sentences : 1. He writes well. 2. The pitcher is here. What word tells how he writes ? What word tells where the pitcher is ? Well and here are adverbs, modifying the verbs writes and is. 3. The apple is very sweet. 4. You came too soon. What part of speech is sweet .■ What word tells how sweet ? What does soon tell ? What part of speech is soofi ? What word tells how soon ? In these sentences very and too are adverbs. A word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is an adverb. 2. Write a sentence with each of these adverbs : early rarely very often quietly nicely always bravely never kindly gently boldly 3. Write three sentences in which an adverb modifies a verb. 4. Write two sentences in which an adverb modifies an adjective. 5. Write two sentences in which an adverb modifies an adverb. 56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 6. Copy these adjectives and adverbs : Adjectives Adverbs Adjectives Adverbs quick, quickly; bright, brightly; bold, boldly; bad, badly; nice, nicely ; sweet, sweetly ; rapid, rapidly; careless, carelessly. How are the adverbs in the above list made ? 7. Write a sentence containing two adjectives and two adverbs. LESSON XXX vr REVIEW Name the si;^ct, predicate, and object of these sentences. Pick out the nouns, pronouns, verbs, ad- jectives, and adverbs : V. Frank and I were laughing heartily. s. She and I sat at the window. jg. The task was soon accomplished. 4. A man is easily known by the company he keeps. j. Pronounce your words distinctly and correctly. 6. The men worked hard and fast, and the rocks were soon removed. f. How long did you remain in the city ? %. The traveler walked slowly because he was very tired. 9. This topic will be fully discussed later. i*-^ I ate dinner hurriedly yesterday. w. A winter so cold has never been known before. 18. We all laughed very heartily. If. The birds chirp merrily. 14. The boat glides very gracefully. THE PHRASE 57 {x.*.vt A^-^ ■^7 n LESSON XXX vn THE PHRASE ? I. Examine these groups of words : 1. Ripe apples. ' 3. A truthful child. 2. In the house. 4. Under the tree. Are the above words properly put together .? Does each group express a complete thought ? A group of words properly combined but not expressing a thought is a phrase. All the examples given above are phrases, but many authors do not call the first and the third phrases in grammar. i. Copy the following groups of words. Write the sentences in one column, the phrases in another, and those which are neither sentences nor phrases in a third : 1. Fell heavily. 7. There was a heavy rain. 2. Covered with snow. 8. To the city. 3. The grass is tall. 9. Speak the truth. 4. City to the. 10. The ground was covered with 5. Over the barn. snow. 6. Careful thinking. 11. Grass tall. |. Add phrases to these sentences : . I. The birds fly . 2. Axes are made . 3. The house stands . 4. The largest city is . 5. The lambs play . 4. Write five sentences, each containing a phrase. 58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XXX VI IT REVIEW 1. Add to each of these sentences at least one adjec tive, one adverb, and one phrase : 1 . Boys study. 2. Waves dashed. 3. The soldiers wore uniforms. 4. The speaker was applauded. 5. Houses are built. 6. Books should be read. 7. The sun is shining. 8. Snow falls. 9. The visitors will be here. ID. The deer fled. 2. Enlarge these sentences by adding several modi- fiers to each. Example: "Birds liy." "At the ap- proach of cold vi^eather, many birds fly toward the south in search of a v^armer climate." 1. The horse drinks. 2. The boy was punished. 3. The whole earth smiles. 4. That dog growls. 5. Those books have been read. 6. Locomotives whistle. 7. The boat glides. 8. Columbus discovered America. 9. Stars shine. 10. Lions roar. 11. The tree was struck. 1 2 The boy wrote a letter. 13. The rain fell. 14. The wind blew. \ THE PREPOSITION 59 LESSON XXXIX THE PREPOSITION 1. Copy these sentences : » 1 . The cat is in the house. 2. The cat is on the house. 3. The cat is under the house. In these sentei ces the words /;/, 07t^ and under ?,\\ovj the situation of the cat in rela.ion to the house. We might say the cat is by before, beside, or behind, the house. The words in, under, on, before, etc., are relation words, ox prepositions. 2. Write six sentences, each containing a preposition. 3. Write a sentence containing the preposition : at, through, across, toward, upon, during, by, over, among, between. You will notice that a preposition is nearly always followed by a noun or pronoun. The noun or pronoun is called the object of the preposition, and may be modified by one or more adjectives ; as, " He went to a good school." Here school is the object of the prepo- sition to, and has two modifiers, a and good. 4. Write sentences in which each of these words shall be used as the object of a preposition : them keg neighbor ■ him coachman pond her piano ice it 5. Name the prepositions in these sentences : 1. The stranger came from a large city. 2. The farmer came to town with a load of corn. 3. It was early in the morning. 4. A place of safety was found for him. 60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XL THE CONJUNCTION 1. Examine these sentences. 1. Mary and Lucy read. What word connects Mary and Lncy ? 2. Mary reads and Lucy writes. How many thoughts or assertions in this sentence? What word connects the assertions? 3. Mary studies and Lucy recites. What word connects the two thoughts? 2. Name the connecting words in these sentences : 1. Mary learns because she studies. 2. Walter writes well but slowly. 3. She or I will go. 4. The laborer worked, although he was sick. Connecting words are called conjunctions. 3. Fill these blanks with conjunctions : 1. He will neither go send anybody. 2. He works hard he is old. 3. I will go you will. 4. The merchant became rich he was careful. 4. Write five sentences, each having a conjunction. 5. Use each pair of the following words in a sen- tence. Name the conjunctions in the sentences you write : all, awl ; bow, beau ; flew, flue ; reed, read ; sole, soul ; steel, steal ; toe, tow ; weigh, way ; seem, seam. itaxSi THE INTERJECTION 6l LESSON XLI THE INTERJECTION 1. Examine these sentences: 1. Hurrah! It snows. > 2. Ah ! What a disaster that was. ^ ^*^ 3. Alas! I cannot go. 4. O, look at the sun! What words in these sentences are used to express feeling or emotion? A word used to express strong feeling or emotion is called an interjection. Notice the punctuation in the above sentences. 2. An exclamation point (!) should be used after every interjection, except O. 3. Write five sentences, each containing an interjec- tion. 4. Write three sentences, each containing a preposi- tion and a conjunction. 5. Try to write a sentence containing a noun, a pro- noun, an adjective, a verb, an adverb, a preposition, and a conjunction. 6. Write sentences illustrating two rules for the use of the comma. 7. Write sentences illustrating three rules for the use of the period. 8. Write sentences illustrating three rules for the use of capital^, 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XLII QUOTATIONS 1. Copy these sentences : 1 . The man said, '-' You must not take my apples." 2. " I wish I had a kite/' said Clarence Reed. 3. " Come, Fannie," said Julia, •' and go with me." Who said part of the first sentence ? Of the second ? Of the third ? Words and sentences borrowed from another are called quotations 2. In the quotations just used, observe : 1. The marks that inclose the quotations. 2. That in the third sentence the quotation is broken in two, and the quotation marks inclose each part. 3. That the quotation is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. 4. That when a quotation expresses a complete thought, it should begin with a capital.* 3. Copy these sentences, and place quotation marks where necessary : 1. Watch my horse, and Pll give you a dime, said the soldier. 2. The cat said, I'll catch you, little mouse. 3. I know, said Charles, what you want. 4. The boy said, Come here, Towser. 4. Write five sentences, using quotations. * It is not thought best to speak of direct or indirect quotations in this place. J REVIEW 63 5. Imagine two boys, Ralph and Arthur, talking about the Fourth of July. Write what they might say to each other, using quotation marks where necessary. LESSON XLIII REVIEW Point out the nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions in these sen- tences. Tell whether the nouns are proper or common. Name the subject, predicate, and object. 1. Roses delight us with their color and fragrance. 2. The music of the organ resembles the roar of the thunder. 3. Charles Dickens was buried in Westminster Abbey. 4. Swallows sometimes build their nests in chimneys. 5. Dates grow on palm trees. 6. Ciiesar gained very many victories. 7. A large basket was filled with ripe peaches. v 8. People often make mistakes. \ 9. The inhabitants of Switzerland are very industrious. 10. He is an exceedingly careful workman. ^ J<. The careless boy lost his coat and his cap. 12. The wind and the rain delayed our journey. 13. Sooner or later we must pass away. > 14. I never before saw a more beautiful sight. 15. The weary father gently kissed his sick child. 16. A terrible storm passed over the city. 17. A man of good habits generally has health. 18. Silvery clouds fringed the horizon. .' 19. A beautiful lake lay in front of the iguse. 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XLIV THE COW 1. Write one or more sentences telling something about — 1. The size. 2. The color. 3. The covering of the body. 4. How they defend themselves. 5. The different kinds. 6. Their use. 2. Arrange and combine all your sentences so that they will form a story or essay about the cow. LESSON XL V REVIEW I, Name the nouns, pronouns, etc., as in Lesson 43 1. Some very large diamonds were bought. 2. The birds and flowers have now appeared again. 3. Bad habits are seldom overcome. 4. Good mei> are very frequently abused by bad men. 5. Some mountains are high and grand. 6. Every man should carefully think for himself. 7. We saw many beautiful works of art. DIAGRAMS 6S 2. Insert commas, capitals, and quotation marks, when necessary, in these sentences : I. Longfellow says learn to labor and to wait. He also says art is long and time is fleeting. Hard work said he is the key to success. Night is the time for rest says the poet. The child is father of the man writes Wordsworth. How many are you then said I if they two are in heaven ? 'Tis only noble to be good says Tennyson. He said to the wild sea be still. LESSON XL VI DIAGRAMING I. farmer J plants 2. The 5' corn spring r the 4- Elephants tigers are found Asia Africa. Pupils study arithmetic p^ grammar. flew bird I ( A small very hoenshel's eng. gram. — 5 66 5- ENGLISH Sugar 1 is GRAMMAR , — sweet. mountains | are — high 6. 1 : ^ — J : 3 : CX Some - grand. 7- Mary Lilly X : 1 1 live Kate -i here. EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAMS The subject and predicate are written on heavy horizontal lines. The subject and predicate are separated by a short vertical line. The object is placed after the predicate and a little below it.* Adjectives and adverbs are placed under the words they modify. An adjective in the predicate is separated from the verb by a dash. In the seventh diagram, the word and is omitted between Mary and Lilly. Its place is marked with a cross ( x ). Other points in the diagrams need no explanation. 8. Diagram the sentences in Lesson 43 (except the loth). LESSON XLVII 1. Diagram the sentences in paragraph i, Lesson 45. 2. Diagram these sentences : 1. Shakespeare wrote plays and poems. 2. Gates, Arnold, and Wayne fought in the Revolutionary War. 3. Our teacher has traveled in Europe, Asia, and Africa. 4. The short, dreary days have come. * The object is placed below the predicate because it really modifies the predicate. Some call the object an objective modifier. ESSAY 67 5. Man suffers for every wrong deed. 6. Pupils should always obey cheerfully. 7. Quite long lessons are sometimes given. 8. The birds have come back rather early. 9. An education is not acquired in a short time. 10. A large tree stands on the top of the hill. LE^SSQN ^L VIII CITY OR COUNTRY Write an essay, telling whether you would rather live in the city or in the country, and give reasons for your choice. Be careful about your spelling and punc- tuation. PART TWO /j LESSON I I CLASSES OF NOUNS 1. A Noun is the name of anything; as, London, city, man, hope. 2. A Proper Noun is the name of a particular per- son, place, or thing ; as, Charles, London, Towser. 3. A Common Noun is a general name, and can be applied to any one of a class ; as, boy, city, dog. Some nouns are the names of groups of persons or things ; as. audience, fleet. Such nouns are called Collective Nouns. 4. A Collective Noun is a name applied to a group of objects; 2,^, flock, swarm, compa7iy. Some nouns are applied to qualities or conditions of persons or things ; as, wisdom, cold, heigJit. We can think of wisdojn, cold, and height without reference to any particular person or thing as having these qualities or conditions. Such nouns are called Abstract Noims. 5. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, not of a substance ; * as, beauty, virtue, wJiite^iess. Collective and abstract nouns are common nouns. * A ?ubst^nce is anything that has weight. 68 CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 69 6. Name the subject, predicate, and object of these sentences. Copy all the nouns, placing the proper, the common, the collective, and the abstract nouns in separate groups. The collective and the abstract nouns will be written twice ; they will be written with the common nouns and also in groups of their own. 1. The Legislature adjourned at ten o^clock. 2. The Mississippi river has a length of four thousand miles. 3. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 4. Honor and shame from no condition rise. 5. Who wrote Paradise Lost f 6. Time had worn deep furrows in his face. 7. The lilac bears long clusters of flowers. 8. A gang of thieves was captured by the police. 9. The bravery of the soldier was remarkable. 7. Diagram the sentences in paragraph 6. LESSON II CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION I. A capital letter should be used — Ji^ For the first letter of every sentence. N^^ For the first letter of every proper noun. 3. For the first letter of every line of poetry. A<;^1 4. For the first letter of every direct quotation. ^l 5. For initials that represent proper nouns. '^<4>' For the words / and O. p^^ 7; For the first letter of all names applied to the Deity. ^■""^ )^ For the first letter of the days of the week and the \ months of the year ; but the names of the seasons , should not begin with a capital. i^ 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. A letter or letters are often used for a word of which they are a part ; as, Gen. for General, dos, for dozen. These shortened forms are called Abbreviations. 3. A period should be used — 1. At the close of each declarative and imperative sen- tence. 2. After each initial. 3. After every abbreviation. 4. A comma should be used — 1. To separate the name of the person addressed from the remainder of the sentence. If the name is not at the beginning or end of the sentence, two commas must be used. 2. To separate the words of a series. The word and is seldom used except between the last two of a series, but if and is used between every two, no comma should be used. Examples : The farmer raises wheat, corn, and oats. The farmer raises wheat and corn and oats. 5. The interrogation point should be used at the close of every interrogative sentence. 6. Write a sentence containing a noun that is the name of — 1. A class of animals. 2. A class of trees. 3. A class of buildings. 4. A class of flowers. 5. A special animal. 6. A special building. 7. A special book. 8. A class of books. / GENDER 71 7. Write a sentence containing a noun that names a collection of ^^ri[\ 1. Bees. -^'^^'^V^^^ ^ 5. Fish. 2. Soldiers. -loa^^r-^-^S--^ -' 6. Wolves. 3. Sailors. '\JkX'^ >. 7- Chickens. 4. Buffaloes. ^^ -O . 8. Thieves. 8. Write a sentence containing an abstract noun meaning nearly the same as — I. Beautiful. 6. Strong. 2. Cheerful. 7- High. 3. Sweet. V 8. Wide. 4- 5. Deceive. lo- Wise. u^^ Sweet. y o- vvme. Proud. //VlAAiL 9. Hard. J. Deceive. %, LESSON III y; ^ GENDER Several parts of speech are subject to changes in form and meaning; as, boy, boy's; girl, girls; large, larger; read, reads. Such changes of form or meaning are called Pr(j^erties or Modi- fications. \ '. 1. Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns in regard to sex. 2. Nouns and pronouns that refer to males are of the Masculine Gender ; as, father, he, Henry, ki?ig. 3. Nouns and pronouns that refer to females are of the Feminine Gender ; as, sister, she, Mary, qtieejt. 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4. Nouns and pronouns that refer to objects neither male nor female are of the Neuter Gender ; as, tree^ city^ it, JioiLse. 5. Nouns and pronouns that refer to either males or females, or both, are of the Commoji Gender ; as, parent, bird, they, children. 6. Notice these nouns : brother, sister ; lion, lioness ; manservant, maidservant. You w^ill notice that the gender is shown in different v^fays. yy. The gender of nouns is shown in three ways : by using different words, by using different endings, and by placing different words before a noun of the com- mon gender. 8. Copy these masculine nouns, and opposite each write the corresponding feminine form : bachelor husband uncle emperor boy king man Mr. brother nephew- actor he-goat father son tiger landlord ^ Name the gender of each noun in these sentences : 1. The Greeks were brave soldiers. 2. Idleness is the parent of vice. 3. The actress was weeping bitterly. 4. The moon receives its light from the sun. 5. Solomon had sheep, oxen, menservants, and maid- servants. 6. The teacher took the child in her arms. 7. The last ray of sunshine departed. 8. I sat beside the cheerful fire. 10. Write two sentences having masculine subjects and feminine objects. PERSON 73 11. Write two sentences having feminine subjects and neuter objects. 12. Write two sentences having nouns of the com- mon gender for subjects. The tendency of modern writers is to omit the feminine ending from many words to which it was formerly attached. This tendency should be encouraged, for we have no need of such words as author- ess^ editress., and itistructress. LESSON IV PERSON 1. Examine these sentences : I. I. John, am sixteen years old. 2- Henry, you are sixteen years old. 3. William says he is sixteen years old. You will observe that / 3.\idJohn in the first sentence refer to the speaker, that Henry and you in the second sentence refer to the person spoken to, and that VVilliajn and he in the third sentence refer to the person spoken of. This change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called Person. 2. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of. 3. The First Person denotes the speaker ; as, " /, Pauly am an apostle." V V ^"^ 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4. The Second Person denotes the person spoken to ; as, ''Jajnes, come here." ''Mr. President, I second that motion." 5. The Third Person denotes the person or thing spoken of ; as, ** Ccesar was a general!' '' I heard the thunder roar." 6. Name the gender and person of the nouns and pronouns in these sentences : 1. Friends, I am glad to see you. 2. Are these trees old ? 3. Are you here too, Brutus ? 4. The citizens believe that they are not in the wrong. p 5. Queen Victoria was Queen of England. 6. When Lucy had solved the problem, she said, " I have it." 7. Write a sentence having for its subject — 1 . A proper noun, masculine, third person. 2. A pronoun, masculine, second person. 3. A pronoun, feminine, second person. 4. A pronoun, neuter, third person. 5. A pronoun, masculine, first person. 6. A common noun, feminine, third person. 7. A common noun, common gender, third person. %. Write a sentence having for its object — 1. A noun, masculine, third person. 2. A pronoun, second person. 3. A pronoun, first person. 4. A noun, feminine, third person. 5. A pronoun, neuter, third person. 9. Use each of these words in sentences : fir, fur ; hose, hoes ; pray, prey ; in, inn ; peace, piece ; rode, road, rowed. NUMBER 75 LESSON V NUMBER 1. Examine these nouns and pronouns : book, books ; box, boxes ; I, we ; he, they. You will observe that some of them mean one, and some mean more than one. This change in meaning is called Nutnber. 2. Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun by which it denotes one or more than one. 3. The Singular Ntimber dQnotQs but one. 4. The Plural Number denotes more than one. 5. Most nouns form the plural by adding s to the singular ; as, tree^ trees ; eagle^ eagles. 6. Notice these singular and plural nouns : dress, dresses ; bench, benches ; fox, foxes ; dish, dishes. If you add s to these singular nouns, you will find that you cannot pronounce them without making an additional syllable. The plural of such nouns is formed by adding es. 7. Nouns ending in s, ^, x, s/i, and c/i form the plural by adding es. 8. Examine these singular and plural nouns : boy, boys ; lady, ladies. What letter precedes / in 6oy ? Is it a vowel or a consonant ? What letter precedes / in lady ? Is it a vowel or a consonant ? 9. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form the plural by adding s. Nouns ending in y preceded by 'je ENGLISH GRAMMAR a consonant form the plural by changing y to i and adding es. 10. Most nouns ending in/ and /^ form the plural by adding s. The following change / and fe to v and add es. beef, calf, half, knife, leaf, life, shelf, self, thief, wife, wolf. 11. Write the plural of each of the following nouns, and give the rule. latch body brush county safe sky circus pony proof roof berry ferry wife chief ' city baby daisy half turkey buggy LESSON VI NUMBER ome nouns form their plural irregularly ; : child, children ; goose, geese ; foot, feet ; man, men ; mouse , mice ; ox, oxen ; tooth. teeth ; woman, womei 2. A few nouns have the same form in both numbers : as, one deer, several deer ; one sheep, many sheep. 3. Some nouns have no singular ; as, ashes, scissors, tongs, cattle. NUMBER yy 4. Change the nouns of these sentences from the sin- gular to the plural, and write the sentences correctly : 1. The alley is narrow. 2. The branch is long. 3. The army has marched a long distance. 4. The monkey is a cunning animal. 5. A fly is on the plate. 6. My pony is black and my ox is brown. 7. The thief stole a muff and a calf. 5. Examine these sentences : 1. This man is old. 2. That boy is skating. 3. These men are old. 4. Those boys are skating. 6. TJiis and tJiat are used with singular nouns, and these and those with plural nouns. 7. Use these instead of this, and those instead of that, and rewrite these sentences : 1. This lady has a bonnet. 2. That ox is large. 3. That tooth is decayed. 4. This knife has two blades. 5. Was this penny made in 1894? 6. That wild goose is going south. 8. Fill these blanks with this, that, these, and those, in turn, and write the sentences correctly : 1 . I do not like kind of apples. 2. sort of berries is not sweet. 3. The teacher likes to have kind of boys in his school. ^)^Use each of these words in a sentence having a singular subject : fair, fare ; seller, cellar ; sent, cent, scent ; gate, gait ; red, read; sees, seas, seize. 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 10. Use each of these words in a sentence having a plural subject : lie, lye : tax, tacks ; pare, pair, pear ; sell, cell ; ware, wear ; to, two, too. LESSON VII REVIEW 1. Write the plural of each of these words: body gallery copy dairy lily kidney journey donkey pulley poppy child truth gulf valley chimney trout 2. Write the singular of these nouns : oxen mice wages salmon series measles mumps shears feet swine juries thanks 3. Change the nouns of these sentences from the singular to the plural, and rewrite the sentences : 1. The lady sang a song. 2. My pony has white feet. 3. The leaf of the palm tree is large. 4. One family lives in that old house. 5. A large salmon was caught in the river. 4. Name the gender, person, and number of eacli noun in these sentences : 1. The topaz is a beautiful gem. 2. The traveler delighted us by singing a solo. 3. My friends, why do you return so soon ? 4. I, John, saw all these things. 5. The deer were admiring themselves in the brook. 6. The farmer was breaking prairie with three yoke of oxen. 7. Mr. President, I rise to ask a question. 5. Diagram the sentences in paragraph 3. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE CASE 79 LESSON VIII THE NOMINATIVE AND THE OBJECTIVE CASE 1. Examine these sentences: 1. The man is sick. 2. I know the man. 3. The book belongs to the man. 4. I have the man's hat. You will observe that a noun (or a pronoun) may have differ- ent offices in a sentence. It may be the subject, it may be the object of a verb or preposition, or it may denote possession. These differ- ent offices of nouns and pronouns are called Cases. 2. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a sen- tence is in the Nominative Case. 3. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a verb or preposition is in the Objective Case. 4. Give the case of all the nouns in these sentences : 1. The dog caught the pet kitten. 2. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. 3. The Second Continental Congress convened at Phila- delphia. 4. The temple of Jupiter was in Rome. 5. The dog ran under the house. 6. Can the deer run ? 7. Have the men returned from the city ? 8. Education gives power. 9. Necessity never made a good bargain. 10. No man can hide his shame from heaven. 5. Write two sentences, each having a noun in the objective case, object of a verb, and a noun in the ob- jective case, object of a preposition. 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 6. Examine this sentence : Milton was a poet. Ispoe^part of the predicate? Does it mean the same person as Milton? Does the verb was express action? Can poet be the object of was / 7. When a noun forms part of the predicate and de- notes the same person or thing as the subject, it is called a Predicate Noun, or Predicate Nominative^ and is in the same case as the subject. The predicate nominative may be a pronoun ; as, '^ I am he." The predicate nominative is sometimes called Attribute Com- plement. 8. Name the predicate noun in each of these sen- tences : 1. Caesar was the conqueror of Gaul. 2. Harvey was the discoverer of the circulation of the blood. 3. Grant was the leader of the army. 4. Defoe was the author of " Robinson Crusoe." 5. They had been friends in youth. 6. Washington has been called the Father of his Country. LESSON IX ^ THE POSSESSIVE CASE 1. A noun or pronoun used to denote possession is in the Possessive Case. 2. In these sentences examine the nouns that are in the possessive case : 1. The boy's hat is torn 2. The boys' hats are torn. 3. The child's books are new. 4. The children's books are new. THE POSSESSIVE CASE Si 3. Singular nouns, and plural nouns not ending in s, form the possessive by adding the apostrophe (') and s. Plural nouns ending in s form the possessive by adding the apostrophe only. When you wish to write the possessive plural of a noun, write the plural first, then examine it before you decide whether to add the apostrophe only or the apostrophe and s. 4. Write the possessive singular, the plural, and the possessive plural of these nouns ; thus — Pos. Sing. Plural Pos. Plural boy's boys boys' bird, man, child, dog, lady, woman, box, horse. 5. Change these expressions to the form of the pos- sessive case; thus — The hat of the lady — The lady's hat. I. The hats of the ladies. 2. The store of the farmers. 3- The shoes of the children. 4- The feathers of the bird. 5- The feathers of the birds. 6. The wings of the butterflies. 7. The tails of the monkeys. 8. The records of the ball players. 9- The decision of the judges. ID. The words of the speaker. II. The words of the speakers. 12. The clothing of the men. 13- The horns of the ox. 14. The horns of the oxen. 15- The bridle of the pony 16. The bridles of the ponies. 17- The books of the pupil. 18. The books of the pupils. HOENSHEL'S ENG. GRAM. 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON X REVIEW I. Name the case of each noun in these sentences : 1 . The teacher and pupils heard the girl's song. 2. December's cold and dreary days are here. 3. Caesar conquered Gaul. 4. Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood. 5. Grant led the army. 6. Defoe wrote " Robinson Crusoe." 7. The Romans conquered the civilized world. 8. The grim sexton now made a gesture with his staff. 9. The waves rush in on every hand. r^ Grandfather's chair stood by the fireside. 11. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 12. Franklin invented the lightning rod. 13. Fulton was the inventor of the steamboat. 14. The people of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are called Scandinavians. 15. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. 16. Lee surrendered his army to Grant. "^.^Use each of these nouns in six sentences: First, in the nominative case, subject; second, in the nominative case, predicate ; third, in the objective case, object of a verb ; fourth, in the objective case, object of a preposition ; fifth, in the possessive singular ; sixth, in the possessive plural. squirrel, coward, pony. 3. We now see that the modifications of nouns are gender, person, number, and case. ^ ^ DIAGRAMS 83 LESSON XI DIAGRAMS I. Notice this diagram : My brother's friend is an author. friend [ is = author. brother's My EXPLANATION A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is placed as a modifier of the word denoting the thing possessed. A noun or pronoun in the predicate is separated from the verb by two dashes. 2. Diagram the sentences in paragraphs 4 and 8, Lesson 8; and paragraph i, Lesson 10. LESSON XII REVIEW ""y^ 1. Mention two or more nouns that denote smaller classes of the objects denoted by each of these nouns ; thus: books — readers, grammars; flowers — roses, lilies. books mechanic building grass flower mineral insect quadruped fruit vegetable bird tree 2. Name the gender, person, number, and case of each noun in these sentences : 1. On Christmas, Robert received a beautiful present from his uncle. 2. The Esquimaux endure severe cold in winter. r 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. My friend's horse was killed by hard work. 4. The wisest men sometimes make mistakes. 5. The eagle can carry a lamb in its talons. 6. Spring's pleasant days are here. 7. The hero of the story should be a brave man. 8. The visit to the park was a delightful event. 9. Temperance is a virtue. 10. Tadpoles become frogs. 1 1 . The eye is the organ of sight. 3. -^iagram the preceding sentences. LESSON XIII CLASSES OF PHRASES 1. A modifier may be a phrase ; as — 1. The strength of the lion is great. 2. The President lives m Washijigton. You will notice that of the lion modifies the noun strength, and in Washington modifies the verb lives. 2. A phrase modifying a noun or pronoun is an Adjective Phrase^ and a phrase modifying a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is an Adverb Phrase. 3. Copy the phrases in these sentences. Place the adjective phrases in one coUimn, and the adverb phrases in another : 1 . The sun sets in the west. 2. The house on the hill is large. 3. Hannibal was a general of great renown. 4. The train of emigrants went slowly over the prairie. 5. The university stands on a hill. 6. The water of the ocean is salt. PARSING 85 7. A large number of bushels of wheat was carried on a train of twenty cars. 8. The city of Philadelphia is on the Delaware River. 4. Write three sentences containing adjective phrases. 5. Write three sentences containing adverb phrases. LESSON XIV PARSING 1. Parsing a word is naming the part of speech, the class or subdivision to which it belongs, all its modifica- tions, and its relations to other words.* 2. The following is the order for parsing nouns : noun, class, gender, person, number, case, syntax. (By syntax is meant the office of the noun in the sentence.) EXAMPLES Columbus was a sailor, and had three ships in his fleet. Columbus is a noun, proper ; masculine gender, third person, sin- gular number, nominative case, subject of the verbs was and had. Sailor is a noun, common ; masculine gender, third person, sin- gular number, nominative case, in predicate with the verb was. Ships is a noun, common ; neuter gender, third person, plural number, objective case, object of the verb had. Fleet is a noun, common ; neuter gender, third person, singular number, objective case, object of the preposition i7i. Remark. — At first pupils should say, "masculine gender, third per- son, singular number," etc., but after they are familiar with the order they may say " masculine, third, singular," etc. * It is essential, in good parsing, to have a regular and systematic order, and to follow the same order all the time. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. The following is a model for written parsing of the noun: aass Gen- der Per- son Num. ber Case Syntax Columbus sailor ships fleet proper common common common mas, mas. neu. neu. third third third third sing, sing, plural sing. nom. nom. obj. obj. subject of was and had. predicate with was. object ot had. object of in. 4. Name the subjects, predicates, and objects in these sentences. Pick out the adjective and adverb phrases, and tell what word each phrase modifies. Tell what part of speech each word is. Parse all the nouns ac- cording to the preceding model. I . A pretty shawl, warm and white, was wrapped around the baby. Young persons should take exercise in the open air. Time and tide wait for no man. Hollanders can skate fast and well. After breakfast the traveler started on his way. Examine the teacher's solution carefully. The West Indies are islands in the Atlantic Ocean. Honesty is the best policy. The workman did a good day's work Wit is not always wisdom. Notice this diagram : Study your lessons carefully and thoughtfully. 2. 3- 4. 5- 6. 7- 8. 9- 10. 5- X 1 stud] ^ and lessons your thoughtfull y- ca refully As the subject (you) is not expressed, we put a cross ( x ) in its place. 6. Diagram the sentences in paragraph 4. THE NOUN 8; LESSON XV THE NOUN Write an essay on the noun, telling all you can about its classes and properties, and giving at least one exam- ple after each definition. LESSON XVI CLASSES «F PRONOUNS < 1. A Pr^nsun is a ward used instead of a n^un. 2. The Antecedent »f a pr©n«un is the w«rd f»r which it stands. S»me fr^nouns, as /, ymi^ and he, sh»w liy their i%xm. whether they stand far the speaker, the person spoken t», ©r the person spoken ^. They are called Personal Pratimins. 3. A Personal Pronoun is one that indicates its per- son by its form. 4. The following are the personal pronouns: SINGULAR Nominative I thou you he she it Possessive my thy your his her its OBjECxrvE me thee you him her it PLURAL Nominative we ye, you they Possessive our your their Objective us you them 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR The possessive forms given above are used with nouns, but the forms mitie, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs are used v^^hen no noun follows the possessive ; as — That is my pencil. That is mine. The nominative forms should not be used as the object, nor the objective forms as the subject or predicate nominative. 5. Sometimes self or selves is added to the personal pronouns. They are then called Compoimd Personal Pr07lOH7lS. The Compound Personal Pronouns are myself, thyself, yoursef hijnself hersef and itsef, in the singular, and the plurals ourselves, yourselves, and the?nselves. 6. Examine these sentences: 1. Who has my book ? 2. Which is right ? 3. What have you ? In these sentences who, which, and what stand for the names that represent the answers to the questions ; therefore, they are pro- nouns. They are used to ask questions ; therefore, they are called Interrogative Pro7iou7is. 7. An Interrogative Pronoun is one used in asking questions. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. Whose is the possessive form of who and which, and whom is the objective form oiwho. 8. Examine these sentences: 1. Some (men) are rich. 2. Each (pupil) must study for himself. 3. This book is yours, that (book) is mine. In these sentences, if we use the words in parentheses, the words some, each, and that are adjectives. If we omit the words in parenthe- ses, the words some, each., and that take their place, or stand for them. Therefore, they are called Adjective Frojiouns. i RELATIVE PRONOUNS 89 9. An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of an adjective and a noun. 10. Point out all the pronouns in these sentences, and tell whether they are personal, interrogative, or adjective : 1. Who defeated Napoleon? 2. Many do not obtain their wishes. 3. Who is he ? 4. I heard her request. 5. These are white, but those are black. 6. I saw them when they did it. 11. Write two sentences, each containing — 1. A personal pronoun. 2. A compound personal pronoun. 3. An interrogative pronoun. 4. An adjective pronoun. ^^ V. LESSON XVII RELATIVE PRONOUNS T. Many sentences contain more than one statement, as you will see by examining the following : 1. The owner of the house, who is a rich man, lives in New York. 2. This animal, which is a lion, was captured in Africa. 3. The book that lies on the table is a reader. In these sentences the words luho, which, and that are used instead of the nouns owner, animal, and book ; therefore they are pronouns. The antecedent of who is owner, the antecedent of •which is animal, and the antecedent of that is book. 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR You ^will observe that each of these pronouns is a connective, connecting the two statements in each sentence. Such pronouns are called Relative Pronouns. 2. The pronouns ivho, which, and that, when not used in asking questions, are Relative Pronouns. 3. Name the relative pronouns in these sentences : 1. I know the man who built this boat. 2. The figs which we ate came in a neat box. 3. The storm that came so suddenly did much damage. 4. The evil that men do lives after them. 5. None knew the sorrow that she felt. 6. The eye, which sees all other things, cannot see itself. 7. He who cannot read needs a teacher. 8. He that has bad luck usually gets bad treatment. 4. Write three sentences, each containing a relative pronoun. "Y'-Name all the pronouns in these sentences, and tell whether they are personal, interrogative, adjective, or relative : 1. Who built the first house in this city? 2. These books are large, those are small. 3. The little girl went with her mother. 4. Boys often injure themselves while they are playing. 5. The boy who threw the stone has not been caught. 6. What did he say? 7. That is the same story that you read yesterday. 8. He will fulfill his promise. 9. We respect those v^^ho respect themselves. 10. We ourselves are to blame. 11. This is wrong. 6. Since pronouns take the place of nouns, they have the same modifications as nouns. FORMS OF PRONOUNS 91 LESSON XVIII CORRECT FORMS OF PRONOUNS 1. Examine these sentences : 1. John learns because he studies. 2. The lady supported herself hy sewing. 3. All men must do their duty. You will notice that he agrees with / grassy bed. 4. The Spanish gentleman has departed. 5 Courageous men are needed. 6. Wooden spoons were once used. 4. Add phrases to these sentences : 1. I shall go to school . 2. We have a holiday . 3. Cotton is grown . 4. Tea is brought . 5. Columbus sailed . 6. Houses are built . 5. Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in these sentences : 1. The knife was sharp and keen. 2. To-morrow we shall be gay and happy. 3. The day is long and dark and dreary. 4. Frank will sometime be a famous man. 5. The audience at the concert was respectful and atten- tive. Why is no comma required in the third sentence? 6. Diagram the sentences in paragraph 5. THE VERB 103 LESSON XXVIII CLASSES OF VERBS 1. A Verb is a word that denotes action or being. 2. Examine these sentences : 1. The boys walk. 2. The boys walked. 3. The boys will walk. What time is expressed by the first sentence? By the second.'' By the third ? In speaking of the time expressed by verbs, we use the word tense instead of the word time. We say a verb is in the Present Tense, Past Tense, or Future Tense. Which tense denotes present time.? Past time? Future time? 3. Examine these sentences : 1. The boys walk. 2. The boys are walking. 3. The boys walked. 4. The boys have walked. In what tense is the verb of the first sentence? Of the second? Of the third? What is the past tense of walk ? How is it formed from walk ? What form oiwalk is used with are in the second sentence? With have in the fourth sentence ? 4. The form of the verb ending in mg and the form used with have are called Participles. Walking is the present participle and walked \s \.\iQ past participle of the verb walk. 5. Write opposite each of these verbs (i) its present I04 ENGLISH GRAMMAR participle, (2) its past tense, and (3) its past participle. Watci your spelling : chop, play, hop, cry, study. You will observe that the past tense and the past participle of all the above verbs end in ed. Such are called Regular Verbs. 6. Write opposite each of these verbs its present participle, its past tense, and its past participle : write, see, do, go, catch. You will notice that the past tense and past participle of these verbs do not end in ed. Such are called Irregular Verbs. 7. A Regular Verb is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present, in ac- cordance with the rules of spelling.* 8. An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present. 9. Copy these verbs, placing the regular ones in one list, and the irregular in another : blow fly jump sail whip know break say fight work destroy enjoy wear travel run take pity give call pray see do bind draw 10. Write opposite each of the preceding verbs its present participle, its past tense, and its past participle. * Some authors say " by adding d or ed.'''' The above definition is better, because it is true. CLASSES OF VERBS 105 LESSON XXIX TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 1. You have already learned that some verbs require an object to complete their meaning, and some do not ; as — 1 . The dog caught . 2. The dog barks. The meaning of the first sentence is not complete ; we need a word to name the object that the dog caught. The meaning of the second sentence is complete without adding another word. 2. A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object to complete its meaning. 3. An hitransitive Verb is one that does not require an object to complete its meaning. 4. Pick out the verbs in these sentences, and tell whether they are regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive : 1. The boy threw the ball. 2. A poor man wants some things. 3. A covetous man wants all things. 4. Some roses bloom early. 5. The rain moistened the ground. 6. This industrious boy received a suitable reward. 7. Many wild beasts inhabit Africa. 8. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 9. Industry leads to wealth. 5. Diagram the preceding sentences. I06 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 6. Write three sentences, each containing — 1. A regular, transitive verb. 2. An irregular, transitive verb. 3. A regular, intransitive verb. 4. An irregular, intransitive verb. 7. We have now learned that verbs are divided into classes, as follows : I. According to form ( Regular. I Irregular. (Transitive. 2. According to Meaning , ^ ^ * * ( Intransitive. LESSON XXX VOICE 1. Examine these sentences : 1. Columbus discovered America. 2. America was discovered by Columbus. In the first sentence, does the subject denote the actor? What virord denotes the actor in the second? Notice that the form of the verb in the second sentence is not the same as in the first. This change of the form of the verb to indicate whether the subject denotes the actor or the receiver of the act, is called Voice. When the subject denotes the actor (as in the first sentence), the verb is in the Active Voice. When the subject de- notes the receiver of the action (as in the second sentence), the verb is in the Passive Voice. 2. Voice is that modification of a verb which shows whether the subject denotes the actor or the receiver of the action. 3. The Active Voice is that form of the verb which shows that the subject denotes the actor. VOICE 107 4. The Passive Voice is that form of a transitive verb which shows that the subject denotes the receiver of the action. If you examine the two sentences given at the beginning of this lesson, you will see that the object of the first sentence is the subject of the second. Now, as only transitive verbs can have an object, it follows that only transitive verbs can have the passive voice. 5. Name the voice of the verbs in these sentences : 1. John reads the lesson. 2. The lesson is read by John. 3. Mary loves Ina. 4. Lulu is esteemed by all the girls. 5. Corn is planted in the spring. 6. Ships carry heavy burdens. 7. Wendell is loved by his mother. 8. Mary writes carefully. 9. The letter was written with care. 10. Galileo invented the telescope. 11. The hurricane destroyed a large barn. 12. The little porch was covered by thrifty vines. 13. The burglars were driven from the house by a police- man. 14. The fox ran toward the south. 6. Change these sentences so that the verbs in the active voice shall be passive, and those in the passive voice shall be active. Do not change the meaning of the sentences : 1 . Washington gained the victory. 2. The boy plowed the field. 3. The shoe was repaired by the shoemaker. 4. The carpenter built the house. 5. The tinner made the bucket. 6. The letter was written by him. 7. The tailor made the coat. 8. The lesson was recited by Lloyd. I08 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 7. Write three sentences, each having — 1 . A verb in the active voice. 2. A verb in the passive voice. 3. An intransitive verb. LESSON XXXI MODE 1. Notice these sentences : 1. Henry studies. 2. Henry can study. 3. Henry, study. In the first sentence, the statement is made that Henry studies. In the second sentence, it is not said that he studies, but that he can study, or has the ability to study. In the third sentence, he is ordered or commanded to study. You will notice from the above that verbs change their form or meaning to express action or being in different manners, or modes. This modification of the verb is called Mode. 2. Mode is that form or use of the verb which shows the manner in which the action or being is expressed. 3. The Indicative Mode is used to assert a fact or an actual existence ; as — 1 . General Grant went to Europe. 2. Oliver Wendell Holmes is dead. 4. The Indicative Mode is also used in asking a question ; as — 1. Did he go to Europe? 2. Has the letter been written? MODE 109 5. The Potential Mode asserts the power, necessity, Uberty, or possibility of action or being ; as — 1. He can read. 2. He must read. 3. He may read. 4. He might read. The sign of the potential mode is may^ can, must, might, could, would, or should. 6. The Potential Mode is also used in asking questions ; as — 1. May I go? 2. Must the lessons be learned? This mode is so called because the word potential means able, having power. 7. Tell whether the verbs in these sentences are in the indicative or the potential mode : 1. Must all the sailors perish? 2. He should have departed long ago. 3. Some authors have written many books. 4. All hail, Macbeth ! that shall be king hereafter. 5. Romulus founded Rome. 6. There must have been a heavy rain last night, for the creek is very high. 7. An old man was walking slowly down the lane. 8. Many wise proverbs were written by Solomon. 8. The Imperative Mode is used to express a com- mand, a request, or an entreaty ; as — 1. Men, lay down your arms. 2. Come and see me. 3. Do not leave me alone. The subject of the verb in the imperative mode is nearly always the pronoun _y LESSON XLIII THE INFINITIVES 1. The infinitive is that form of the verb which ex- presses action or being without affirming it ; as, to write^ to have written ; to exist. 2. The following are the infinitives of the verb see : Present Present-Perfect Active : to see, to have seen. Passive : to be seen, to have been seen. The infinitive has the progressive forms to be seehig and to have been seeing. Of course an intransitive verb has but the two active infini- tives. The names present and present-perfect do not have reference to the time expressed by the infinitive, but to its form. The time depends on the finite verb of the sentence. The sign of the infinitive is to. This sign is omitted after the verbs bid^ dare, feel, hear, help, let, make, see, and some others ; as, " Let him coine.'' " See the birds fly:' When to is omitted, it should be suppHed in parsing. 3. The infinitive is used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 4. The following is the order for parsing an infinitive : 1. *'To work is. not always pleasant." To work is a verb, regular, intransitive, active ; infinitive, pres- ent ; it has the construction of a noun, nominative, subject of the verb is. 2. "The lesson to be learned was very difficult." To be learned is a verb, regular, transitive, passive ; infini- tive, present ; it has the construction of an adjective, modifying lesson. THE INFINITIVE 20I 3. "He went to school to study grammar." To study is a verb, regular, transitive, active ; infinitive, present ; it has the construction of an adverb, modifying went. Construction means the same as office. 5. In the following sentences the infinitive has the construction of a noun : 1 . As subject : a. To learn requires application. b. To clijnb trees is dangerous. 2. As object of a verb. a. I like to walk. b. The thief desires to escape. 3. As attribute complement : a. To see is to believe. b. To study is to learn. 4. In apposition with subject : a. It is useless to inquire. b. It is a sin to speak deceitfully. 5. As object of a preposition : a. I was about to write.* b. They had no choice but to go. 6. In the following sentences the infinitive has the construction of an adjective : 1. Not used in the predicate : a. Flee from the wrath to come. b. Leaves have their time to fall. 2. Used in the predicate (attribute complement) : a. The house is to be sold. b. The governor's authority is to be supported. 7. In the following sentences the infinitive has the construction of an adverb : I . Modifying a verb : a. Music was ordained to refresh the mind. b. They fought to defetid their country. * In such sentences, about may be called an adjective, meaning nearly the same as ready or prepared. The infinitive, then, would have the construc- tion of an adverb, modifying about. 202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. Modifying an adjective : a. These apples are good to eat. b. The industrious boy is anxious to work. 3. Modifying an adverb : a. He is too young to enlist (modifies too^. b. It is ripe enough to eat. {To eat modifies enough. Enough is an adverb, modifying ripe.') 8. Parse the infinitives in all of the preceding sen- tences marked a. A model for written parsing can easily be arranged by teacher or pupil. 9. Write the infinitives of these verbs : lie, sit, choose, tear, do. LESSON XLIV INFINITIVES I. Point out the infinitives in these sentences, and give the construction of each : 1. They had the good fortune to escape. 2. The student has a license to preach. 3. The cuckoo tried to steal the nest. 4. She is sad to see her sister faihng. 5. I have come to hear you sing. 6. You have a problem to solve. 7. I am prepared to hear you. 8. You were kind enough to aid. 9. These men were sent to rule a distant province. 10. He is old enough to vote. 11. The pupil forgot to study his lesson. 12. Not to save my right hand would I do it. 13. I come not here to talk. THE INFINITIVE 203 14. It is useless to inquire. [ to inquire. It (I) I is — useless 15. To obey is better than to be punished. 16. It is better to strive for the right than to rail at the wrong (is good) . 17. To hesitate is to be lost. 18. To rob a caravan is a crime, but to steal a continent is glory. 19. Every one should strive to be an ornament to his pro- fession. 20. One stumble is enough to deface the character of an honorable life. 2. Diagram the preceding sentences. LESSON XLV REVIEW OF THE INFINITIVE 1. Usually, no word should come between to and the verb ; thus, *' to rapidly walk " should be " to walk rapidly." Some authors do not hesitate to disregard the above rule. 2. The present-perfect infinitive should not be used after verbs of wis/mig, expecting, etc. We should not say *' He wished to have gone, " but " He wished to go- 3. Write a sentence having — 1. An infinitive, present, active. 2. An infinitive, present, passive. 204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. An infinitive, present-perfect, active. 4. An infinitive, present-perfect, passive. 5. An infinitive without to. 4. Write a sentence having an infinitive with the construction of — 1 . An adjective, not in the predicate. 2. An adjective, in the predicate. 3. A noun, subject. 4. A noun, object. 5. A noun, attribute complement. 6. A noun, object of a preposition. 7. A noun, in apposition with a subject. 8. An adverb, modifying a verb. 9. An adverb, modifying an adjective. 10. An adverb, modifying an adverb. LESSON XL VI THE PARTICIPLE A Participle is a word derived from a verb, partak- ing of the properties of a verb and of an adjective or a noun. 2. There are three participles : the Present, the Past, and the Past-Perfect. The Past is sometimes called the Perfect, and the Past-Perfect is sometimes called the Compound Participle. 3. The following are the participles of the transitive verb see : Present Past Past-Perfect Active : seeing, seen, having seen. Passive : being seen, seen, having been seen. An intransitive verb has only the three active participles. THE PARTICIPLE 205 Some grammarians do not consider the past participle in the active voice a separate participle, because it has the same form as the past participle in the passive voice. While it is true that they have the same form, there is often quite a difference in meaning. The active participle is used with an auxiliary in forming many of the tenses in the active voice ; thus, in '' I have seen the parade," have is the auxiliary and seen is the past participle, active. In " I have been seen," have bee7i is the auxiliary and seen is the past parti- ciple, passive. In " The animal seen on the mountain was a bear," seen is the past participle, passive. 4. Write all the participles of these verbs : write, choose, walk, go, do, try, sit. 5. A participle always has the construction of an adjective or a noun. No word is a participle unless it is derived from a verb ; thus, in " He was unknown in the community," unknown is not a participle, because there is no verb unknow from which it can be derived. 6. The following is the order for parsing a participle : 1. "The lesson learned yesterday was not recited." Learned is a verb, regular, transitive, passive; participle, past ; it has the construction of an adjective, and modifies lesson. 2. "By learning the lesson he won the approval of his teacher." Learning is a verb, regular, transitive, active ; participle, present ; it has the construction of a noun, the object of the preposition by. 7. In the following sentences the participle has the construction of an adjective : I . Not used in the predicate : a. Wealth obtained dishonestly soon disappears. b. Having walked 2. long distance, the soldier is tired. c. The policeman found the criminal concealed in the bushes. 2o6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. Used as attribute complement : a. Truth lies wrapped up and hidden in a well. b. Cincinnatus was found plowing. c. The general lay wotmded on the field. 8. In the following sentences the participle has the construction of a noun : 1. In the nominative case : a. Riding a bicycle is good exercise. b. This reirinding me of your kindness is repj'oving me. c. My admitting the fact will not affect the argument. 2. In the objective case : a. We obtain information by reading good books. b. Light minds undertake many things without com- pleting them. c. He could not resist taking the apple. 9. Parse the participles in the preceding sentences. LESSON XLVII THE PARTICIPLE I. Point out the participles in these sentences, and give the construction of each : 1. Pardon my asking if you like to read. 2. Avoid keeping company with the depraved. 3. The Indians ran screaming in pursuit. 4. Many have amassed wealth by living economically. 5. Attempting much and doing little is a common cause of failure. 6. Pocahontas was married to an Englishman named John Rolfe. 7. The philosopher sat buried in thought. 8. Instead of reasoning more forcibly, he talked more loudly. 9. Our united efforts could not prevent his going. THE PARTICIPLE 20/ 10. He spent hours in correcting and polishing a single couplet. 11. Nature is best conquered by obeying her. 12. The child stood weeping. (^F< a IS — sweet The infinitive to have done, with all its modifiers, is in opposition with it. After ought, to have done which, is understood. 20. We always may be what we might have been. 21. We are made happy by what we are^ not by what we have. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. Honor or reputation are dearer than life. The house stood on rather a narrow strip of land. The remonstrance laid on the table. HOENSHEL'S ENG. GRAM. — I5 22. 23- 24. 25. 226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON LXI Diagram the sentences in Lessons 59 and 60. LESSON LXII WORDS AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 1. Since it is the use of a word in a sentence that de- termines its part of speech, it follows that many words may be used as different parts of speech. Above, for instance, can be used as four different parts of speech ; as — 1. He lives above the bridge. (Preposition.) 2. The eagle soars above. (Adverb.) 3. The sentence above is correct. (Adjective.) 4. It comes from above. (Noun.) 2. Write a sentence, using all — 1. As an adjective. 2. As an adjective pronoun. 3. As an adverb. 4. As a noun. (I have lost my all.') 3. Write a sentence, using before — 1. As a preposition. 2. As an adverb. 3. As a conjunctive adverb. 4. Write a sentence, using but — 1 . As a conjunction. 2. As a preposition. 3. As an adverb. PUNCTUATION 22/ 5. Write a sentence, using fast — 1. As a noun. 2. As an adjective. 3. As a verb. 4. As an adverb. 6. Write a sentence, using since — 1. As a preposition. 2. As an adverb. 7. Write a sentence, using that — 1. As an adjective. 2. As an adjective pronoun. 3. As a relative pronoun. 4. As an introductory conjunction (introducing a sub- ordinate clause) . 8. Write a sentence using till — 1. As a noun. 2. As a verb. 3. As a conjunctive adverb. LESSON LXIII PUNCTUATION I. Notice the punctuation of these sentences : 1. Washington, who was born in Virginia, was our first President. 2. He was looking out of the window and, therefore, did not see me entering the room. 3. " I will come," she said, " if I have time." In the first sentence the clause, who was born in Virginia^ is par- enthetical ; that is, it can be omitted without spoiling the sense. The same is true of therefore^ in the second sentence, and of she said, in the third sentence. - • 228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. Parenthetical expressions are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 3. Notice the punctuation of these sentences : 1 . We shall begin our work next week. 2. Next week, we shall begin our work. 3. We, next week, shall begin our work. An adverb phrase is out of its natural order when it begins a sentence, or when it stands between a verb and its subject. 4. When a phrase is out of its natural order, it is usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 5. Punctuate the following sentences : 1. My brave men the general said charge for the guns. 2. London the largest city in the world is in England. 3. Paris which is situated on the Seine is the capital of France. 4. With merry hearts we wandered through the beautiful meadows. 5. The date which is a kind of food grows on a palm tree. 6. The minstrel sang a song played a tune and danced a jig- 7. No no no you cannot go. 8. A youth a boy or a mere child could answer that question. 9. By industry and perseverance we obtain knowledge. 10. My friend will you give me a dollar ,-* 6. Notice the punctuation of these sentences : 1. My uncle Joseph is a sailor. 2. Joseph, my uncle, is a sailor. 7. Appositives, unless short and used as part of the name, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. PUNCTUATION 229 8. Punctuate these sentences : 1. Superintendent Saylor has charge of the schools of Lincoln. 2. Saylor the superintendent has charge of the schools of Lincoln. 3. Chancellor Snow lives in Lawrence. 4. Tennyson the poet wrote " In Memoriam." 5. Bryant the American poet wrote '^Thanatopsis." 9. Write and punctuate a sentence containing — 1. A series of adverbs. 2. A parenthetical word. 3. A parenthetical clause. 4. A phrase out of its natural order. 5. A quotation divided into two parts. 6. An appositive that should be separated from the rest of the sentence. 7. An appositive that should not be separated from the rest of the sentence. 10, Give two different meanings to this sentence by punctuating differently : Mary Helen and Julia have gone. LESSON LXIV ANALYSIS AND PARSING Diagram these sentences, and parse the verbs, parti- ciples, and infinitives : 1 . Talk not too much, nor of thyself. 2. He loves not other lands so much as that of his adop- tion. (^As is a conjunctive adverb, connecting the dependent clause to so.) 3. It is not known how the Egyptians embalmed their dead. 230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9- The English language has undergone many changes since Shakespeare lived. A few tattered huts stand among shapeless masses of masonry where glorious Carthage once stood. A room hung with pictures is a room hung with thoughts. The greatest luxury I know, is to do a good action by stealth and to have it found out by accident. We venture to say that no poet has ever had to struggle with more unfavorable circumstances than Milton. From the lowest depth there is a path to the loftiest heights. I was never less alone than when by myself What we traly and earnestly strive to be, that, in some sense, we are. ( What is not a double relative here, because its antecedent is expressed.) Do noble things, not dream about them all day long. If I should neglect to use my right hand, it would forget its cunning. (The subordinate clause often precedes the principal clause.) Instead of saying that man is the creature of circum- stance, it would be nearer the mark to say that man is the architect of circumstance. that ^ to say '11 man | is : = architect circumstance. saymg ) I would be that man | is : = creature X mark the the circumstance Some would call Clearer an adjective. REVIEW 231 LESSON LXV REVIEW Correct when necessary, and give reasons : 1. In his pocket are a knife and a top. 2. My! don't that deer know how to run! 3. Two weeks' vacation are too much. 4. There is a man and a woman on the bridge. 5. These kind of people will never succeed. 6. Have you any new children's shoes? 7. This child is real sick. 8. Who will you vote for? 9. Him from my childhood I have known. 10. Whom do you think was with me? 1 11. A speech should be judged by its argument. 12. Many a captain, with all the crew, have been lost at sea. 13. There appear to be many others interested. 14. I intended to have gone yesterday. 15. This is in accordance to my plans. 16. Milton is more sublime than any of the poets. 17. This opinion never has and never can prevail. 18. It not only has beauty but utility. 19. We saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose. ' 20. He seems to have the universal esteem of all men. 21. How can we tell whom to trust ? 22. There is plenty of molasses in the jug. 23. Neither the army or navy was represented. . 24. Two of the boys have swam ashore. 25. Hadn't we ought to go? 26. The farmer went to his neighbor and told him that his cattle were in his field. (Use direct quotation.) 27. Has the second bell rang? 28. He owned an old and new house. 29. The old and the new governor are sitting in the carriage side by side. 30. Either he or I am right. PART FOUR LESSON I COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 1. The clauses of a compound sentence are some- times called Members. 2. The clauses of a compound sentence may be of different classes, according to their form. If the sen- tence has but two clauses, the following varieties may be found : 1. Both clauses simple: America was discovered by the Northmen, but they made no permanent settlement. 2. One clause simple, the other complex: America was discovered by the Northmen, but they made no settle- ments that were permanent. 3. One clause simple, the other compound : America was discovered by the Northmen, but they made no per- manent settlement, nor did they conquer the Indians. 4. One clause complex, the other compound : America was discovered by people who came from the northern part of Europe, but they made no permanent settle- ments, nor did they conquer the Indians. 5. Both clauses complex: The Northmen discovered the country that is now called America, but they made no settlements that were permanent. 6. Both clauses compound : In the tenth century America was discovered by the Northmen, and many of these bold navigators crossed the Atlantic; but soon all accounts of the discovery were forgotten, and America was again unknown to Europeans. If the compound sentence has more than two members, many more varieties may be found. 232 ^Lcn?^(jw/v3o^^V3 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 233 3. Write two compound sentences of each of the six varieties mentioned. 4. The clauses of a complex sentence may be of dif- ferent classes, according to their form. If the sentence has but two clauses, the following varieties may be found : 1. Both clauses simple: Rhode Island was settled by Roger Williams, who had been expelled from Mas- sachusetts. 2. One clause simple the other complex : Milton did not educate his daughters in the languages because he believed that one tongue is enough for a woman. 3. One clause simple, the other compound : When thy wealth has taken wings, and when thy companions have deserted thee, the true friend will still remain faithful. 4. One clause complex, the other compound : When thy wealth has taken wings, and thy companions have deserted thee, the friend that is true will still remain faithful. 5. Both clauses complex: When Lot had selected the valley through which the Jordan flows, Abraham dwelt on the hills that lie west of the river. 6. Both clauses compound : Christ came and the new era began when Greece had lost her greatness and the seeds of decay had been planted in the Roman Em- pire. 5. The following is the diagram of the third sentence in paragraph 4 : friend I will remain — faithful. true The I still wealth [ has taken thy when wmgs. companions I have ;; deserted thy when 234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 6. Write one complex sentence of each of the six varieties just mentioned. LESSON IT COMPLEX SENTENCES I. According to the use of the dependent clause (or clauses), there are many varieties of complex sentences. The dependent clause may be — 1. An adjective clause. 2. An adverb clause of time. 3. An adverb clause of place. 4. An adverb clause of degree ; as, " He writes as well as he reads.'" 5. An adverb clause of concession. 6. An adverb clause of purpose ; as " We eat that we may live." 7. An adverb clause of cause. 8. An adverb clause of condition. 9. An adverb clause of specification : as, " We are anx- ious that he may succeed." 10. A noun clause used as subject. 11. A noun clause used as attribute complement. 12. A noun clause used as object. 13. A noun clause used as object of a preposition; as, " The prisoner has no idea of why he was arrested." 14. A noun clause in apposition with the subject. 15. A noun clause in apposition with the object ; as, " The young man obeyed the commandment, ' Honor thy father and thy mother.' " 16. A noun clause in apposition with the attribute comple- ment. In the ninth example, many authors would supply ^'for this thing'''' after the word anxious^ and make the clause in apposition with things but it is better to consider the clause an adverb modify- ing the word anxious. Other clauses of specification are found in PHRASES 235 these sentences : " We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the North Pole." '' The invalid is confident that he will recover.'' It will be noticed that all these clauses of specification modify adjectives. 2. Write one complex sentence of each of the sixteen varieties just mentioned. 3. Write two complex sentences, each having two subordinate clauses. LESSON TIT PHRASES 1. The subject with all its modifiers is called by some the General Subject, by others it is called the Complex Subject, and by still others it is called the Logical Sub- ject. In the same manner we have the General, Com- plex, or Logical Predicate. 2. Phrases are sometimes divided into Simple, Com- plex, and Compound. 3. A Simple Phrase is a single phrase. A simple phrase may have one of its principal elements com- pound ; as, ''To Boston and New York." "Into and out of the house." " By reading books and magazines." 4. A Complex Phrase is one having one of its parts modified by another phrase; as, '* On the Mount of Transfiguration." " Reading a book of poems." 236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5. A Compound Phrase is two or more phrases con- nected ; as, "Going in and looking out." ''To Boston and to New York." 6. Phrases are also Separable and Inseparable. 7. A Separable Phrase is one whose parts, or words, can be parsed separately. 8. An Inseparable Phrase is one whose words can- not be parsed separately; as, *'at once," "at all," "in vain." 07ice is not the object of at, but the two words should be parsed together. Infinitives are inseparable phrases. 9. Write a sentence containing — 1. A participial phrase. 2. An infinitive phrase. 3. A noun phrase. 4. A simple phrase. 5. A complex phrase. 6. A compound phrase. 7. A separable phrase. 8. An inseparable phrase. LESSON IV THE NOUN I. When a noun usually masculine or feminine re- fers particularly to a word and not to a person, it is of the neuter gender ; as — 1. Man is masculine, because it denotes males. 2. Her name is Lizzie. NUMBER 237 Man is neuter, because it refers to the word man and not to a person. Lizzie is neuter, because it refers to the name and not to the person. 2. Nouns taken from foreign languages without change generally retain their original plurals. Singular Plural Singular Plural alumna, alumnae ; focus. foci ; formula, formulae ; radius, radii ; nebula, nebulae ; stimulus. stimuli ; vertebra, vertebrae ; terminus. termini ; automaton. automata ; amanuensis, amanuenses ; curriculum, curricula ; analysis. analyses ; datum, data; axis. axes; erratum. errata ; basis. bases ; genus. genera ; crisis. crises ; gymnasium. gymnasia ; ellipsis. ellipses ; phenomenon. phenomena ; hypothesis, hypotheses ; stratum. strata ; parenthesis, parentheses ; alumnus. alumni ; thesis. theses. 3. Some nouns from foreign languages have both an EngUsh and a foreign plural. Singular English Plural Foreign Plural beau. beaus. beaux ; cherub, cherubs. cherubim ; formula. formulas. formulae ; focus. focuses. foci; gymnasiun 1, gymnasiums, gymnasia ; memorandum, memorandums, memoranda ; medium. mediums. media ; radius. radiuses. radii ; spectrum. spectrums. spectra ; vortex. vortexes, vortices. and some others. 4. Compounds of man form the plural by changing man to me7i ; as, Englishman^ Englishmen. The nouns, German, Mussulman, talisman, and Turkoman, not being compounds of the noun ma?t, form the plural by adding s. 238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5. Compound words and combined words used as nouns pluralize the base or principal word of the expression. Son-in-law — sons-in-law. Duke of Wellington — dukes of Wellington. King of England — kings of England. Such nouns as the preceding add the sign of possession to the last word; as, "son-in-law's house," "Duke of Wellington's career," " somebody else's book." 6. Compounds ending in ful form the plural by add- ing j; as — Cupful, cupfuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls. What is the difference between " three cupfuls of vinegar " and " three cups full of vinegar " ? 7. When a noun plural in form refers to some word and not to objects, it is in the singular number ; as — 1 . Books is a common noun. 2. Boys is plural. Books and boys are both singular, because each refers to a single word. 8. Some nouns, though always plural in form, are either singular or plural according to the meaning intended to be conveyed. Such are odds, meanSy amends, wages, and some others. 9. In forming the plural of proper names with a title, some authors pluralize the title ; as, the Misses Brown. Others pluralize the name ; as, tJie Miss Browns. The latter method seems the better ; but if the title belongs to each of two names, it should take the s in forming the plural ; as, Drs. Scott (2r» Smith. CASE 239 10. Parse the words in italics in these sentences : 1. How do you parse the word boys f 2. She is a personal pronoun. 3. His title is Duke of Marlborough. 11. Write the possessive singular and the possess- ive plural of these nouns : brother-in-law, queen of England, captain of the ship, lieu- tenant colonel. LESSON V CASE I. Intransitive verbs and their participles, and tran- sitive verbs in the passive voice, have the same case after them as before them when both words refer to the same person or thing. (This rule will explain predicate nominative.^ 1. Pocahontas was married to an Englishman named John Rolfe. John Rolfe is in the objective case, to agree with Englishman. 2. I want him to be governor. Governor is in the objective case to agree with ///;;/, the objec- tive subject of to be. 3. To be right is better than to be President (is good). President is in the objective case, to agree with one or person understood, the objective subject of to be. There i§ a curious exception to the rule just given. A participle with the construction of a noun may have the possessive case before it and the nominative case after it ; as, '' His being a scholar secured 240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR the situation." Scholar is in the nominative case although it and his refer to the same person. " Its being he should make no difference." He is in the nominative case after the intransitive participle bemg^ while its is in the possessive case before the participle. 2. Appositive and predicate nouns need not agree with the principal term in gender, person, or number ; as — 1. I am he. 2. He was eyes to the blind. 3. The Greeks, a synonym for brave men, gained a great victory over the Persians. 3. A noun may be in apposition with a phrase or clause, and a phrase or clause may be in apposition with a noun. 1. Her aiding me, a kindness I can never forget, was the cause of my success. 2. She aided me in procuring a situation, a kindness I can never forget. 3. This task, to teach the young, has its pleasures. In the second sentence, kindjtess is in the nominative in apposition with the preceding clause, although the clause is not a noun clause. 4. A noun used independently is in the nominative — 1. By direct address ; as, '•'■ John^ come here." 2. By pleonasm ; as, " Cleveland^ he was President." 3. By exclamation ; as, " What a pleasure ! " 4. By subscription (as when signed to a letter or other written production). 5. Absolute ; as, " The snow melting, the river rose." In order to be in the nominative absolute, the noun or pronoun must be placed before a participle and must be independent of the remainder of the sentence. 5. Each of these sentences contains a noun or pro- noun in the nominative, used independently. Pick out CASE 241 each one, and decide whether it is nominative by direct address, pleonasm, exclamation, subscription, or in the nominative absolute: 1 . The Pilgrim Fathers, where are they ? 2. Great and manifold are thy works, O Lord ! 3. Mr. President : I rise to ask a question. 4. None but the brave deserve the fair.— Dryden. 5. The Lord of the Universe, he will hear their com- plaints. 6. What joy, what happiness! 6. Write a sentence having — 1 . A noun in apposition with a phrase. 2. A noun in apposition with a clause. 3. A phrase in apposition with a noun. 4. A clause in apposition with a noun. 5. A pronoun, objective after an intransitive verb. 6. A noun, nominative by direct address. 7. A noun, nominative by exclamation. 8. A noun, nominative by pleonasm. 9. A noun, nominative by subscription. 10. A noun, nominative absolute. 11. A pronoun, nominative absolute. LESSON VT CASE 1. In forming the possessive the additional s is some- times omitted when its use would cause several succes- sive sounds of s ; as,/ used as a relative pronoun after such, many, and same. 1. I love such as love me. (We might say "who love me," but as sounds better than who. 2. Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth. — Milton. 3. I shall not learn my duty from such as he. 4. As many as were called responded. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 25 1 2. Give the construction of the relative as in each of the preceding sentences. 3. But, when equivalent to that not, is sometimes used as a negative relative pronoun. 1 . Where breathes the foe but falls before us ? 2. There is not a man here but knows it. 3. There is no wind but soweth seeds of a better life. 4. The relative pronoun is frequently understood. 1. All the wealth he had ran in his veins. 2. Men will reap the things they sow. 3. Let not harsh words mar the good we might do here. 4. Take the goods the gods provide thee. 5. The orator we heard is from Kentucky. 5. The antecedent of a relative is sometimes under- stood. 1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. Whom the gods love die young. 3. Let him be who he may. 6. Parse the relative pronouns found in the sentences under paragraphs 3, 4, and 5. 7. In Part Three the compound relatives whoever and whosoever were declined, giving the forms whosever, whosesoever, whomever, and whomsoever. Not all authors agree to this. Maxwell says, ''Whosoever is the only compound relative declined." Harvey says, "Compound relatives are^ indeclinable." Notwithstanding the assertions of these eminent authors, I believe that the possessive and objective forms of whoever and whosoever are good English. As a compound relative always performs two offices (its own, and that of its unexpressed antecedent), some persons have difficulty in deciding whether to use the nominative or the objective form when 252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR one office is nominative and the other objective. Take this sentence : " We shall purchase from whoever sells cheapest. '^ Whoever is the object of from and the subject of sells. As all relative pronouns are found in subordinate clauses, it is the office of the compound relatives in the subordinate clause that determines its form. In the above sentence whoever is the subject of the subor- dinate clause, and therefore should have the nominative form. The understood antecedent is the object oi from in the principal clause. If we supply the antecedent, the compound whoever should be changed to the simple who ; thus, " We shall buy from him who sells cheapest.'' In the sentence, " Whomever you select will go," the subordinate clause is " Whomever you select," and whomever is the object of select] therefore, it has the objective form. The principal clause is, " He (or that one) will go." 8. Fill these blanks with the proper form of the compound relative : 1 . Select youwish. 2. Give it to wants it. 3. lives long will find trouble. 4. The prize is for wins it. 9. Observe that a relative pronoun is always in a de- pendent, adjective clause, and is always a connective. In the following sentences, who is a not a relative, but an interrogative : 1. I know who did it. 2. Who is the legal speaker of the house has not yet been determined. 3. It has not yet been decided who discovered America. There is an indirect question in each of the above sentences. 10. Give the construction of the relative out in each sentence of paragraph 3. 11. Write a sentence having a compound relative in the objective case. 253 REVIEW LESSON XI REVIEW 1. In the following sentences the pronouns agree with their antecedents. Examine carefully : 1. He is one of the best men that live in the city. 2. Every boy and girl must depend on himself. 3. All boys and girls must depend on themselves. In such sentences as " It is you that will succeed," some gram- marians say that // is the antecedent of that^ and others say that you is the antecedent. Change the sentence to " It is you that (is, are) in the wrong." If that agrees with it, the verb is is correct ; but li that agrees with yoie^ the verb are should be used. I believe that the relative clause is restrictive and limits it, telling which particular // is yo7i. At the same time, I believe the majority of good writers and speakers would use are as the predicate of that in the given sentence. 2. Select the correct sentence from each of these pairs : . f It is I ' lit is I that am standing here, that is standing here. f It is they that were responsible. [ It is they that was responsible. 3. Fill these blanks with the proper personal pro- nouns : 1. Neither of us is willing to give up claim. 2. John and I have lessons. 3. John and you have lessons. 4. Each member of this class must have own book. 5. Two or three of us have finished work. 254 ENGLISH GRAiMMAR 6. The mother, as well as the father, must do part. 7. If you should find my horse or cow, please bring ■ to me. 4. Correct where necessary : 1. This is a friend which I love. 2. Thou art the man who has done the crime. 3. Take that book to the library, which I left on the table. 4. There was a bird caught by the fox, which was web- footed. 5. The prisoner was sentenced by the judge, who com- mitted the crime. 6. This is the vice that I hate. 7. Jamestown was the first permanent settlement which was made in the United States by the English. 5. Correct the case forms where necessary : 1 . Who will you select for secretary ? 2. Let (he, him) be (who, whom) he may. 3. A gentleman entered who I afterward learned was the governor of the state. 4. A gentleman entered who I afterward found out to be the governor of the state. 5. Who shall I go to ? 6. She who studies, the teacher will commend. 7. Give the letter to Henry, (he, him) who is standing by the gate. 8. I refer to Newton, he who discovered the law of gravi- tation. 9. You may guess who it is. 10. You may guess whom they elected. 11. Whom did you say was chosen? 6. Write a sentence having a compound relative in the nominative case. 7. Write a sentence having a compound relative in the possessive case. 8. May any one of the pronouns Jiis, her, our, be correct for the blank in sentence i, paragraph 3? PARSING 255 LESSON XII I. PARSING Parse the nouns and pronouns in these sentences : 1. He granted my request, an act for which I greatly esteem him. 2. He that formed the ear, shall he not hear? 3. He waited an hour, staff in hand. He I waited staff hour L (being) 5* hand. 4. Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. 5. Whosoever will, let him come. 6. Whomsoever the governor selects shall receive the appointment. 7. Give the prize to whomever you deem most worthy. The following is an outline of the pronoun : personal Classes J simple. y compound. f I simple. relative \ double. interrogative, adjective . . . compound. f demonstrative. 1^ indefinite, possessive. 3. Write an essay on *' The Pronoun," using the out- line just given. 256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XIII DIAGRAMING AND PARSING Diagram these sentences, and parse the words in italics : 1 . The noblest soul is that which choses the right, not for gain or glory, but because 'tis right. 2. All prize most what they do not possess. 3. Happy is the man who has mastered the most difficult of life's problems, na?nely, iho. problem of living wisely and well. 4. We teach much when we are not teaching at all : un- conscious influence. 5. Do and be, so nearly as in you lieth, what you would have your pupils do and be. 6. Education is the debt the present owes to future generations. 7. The comprehensive law of education is, " Exercise gives development." 8. I would rather be right with the few than wrong with the tnany. Rather is an adverb, the comparative of an obsolete positive, rath^ or rathe. 9. Friendship! mysterious cement of the soul, sweetener of life and solder of society. ID. My mind to me a kingdom is. 11. There is nothing great on earth but man', there is nothing great in man but mind. 12. Aristotle tells us that a statue lies buried in a block of marble. 13. I heard that that man that was expected has arrived. 14. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills 2iprey, Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 15. Blessed is the man whose God is the Lord. REVIEW 257 LESSON XIV REVIEW 1. Correct where necessary, and analyze these sen- tences : 1. Let not him boast that puts his armor on, but he that takes it off. 2. Oh, no, my child 'twas not in war. And him that kills a single man his neighbors all abhor. 3. Let none touch it but they who are clean. 4. He is the man who was thought to be you. 5. He is the man who you were thought to be. 6. His is the language of the heart. 7. The time of prosperity will come : who doubts it? 8. I can make it clear that I am innocent. 9. Bring such books as will be needed. 10. Whom do people say won first place in the contest? 11. Gentle reader, let you and me walk in the paths of virtue. 12. All, save I, were pleased. 13. Tell me, in confidence, whom is she you love. 2. Write a sentence in which as is a relative pronoun. 3. Write a sentence in which but is a relative pro- noun. 4. Write a sentence in which a relative pronoun is understood. 5. Write a sentence containing a restrictive relative clause. 6. Write a sentence containing a non-restrictive rela- tive clause. hoenshel's eng. gram. — 17 258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XV THE ADJECTIVE 1. When the article is used with two or more adjec- tives belonging to different nouns, the article should be repeated ; as, '' a large and a small house " (two houses). When the article is used in comparative expressions with than, if the nouns before and after than both refer to the same person or thing, the article should not be repeated ; as, " He is a better soldier than statesman." 2. One adjective sometimes limits another; as, "a deep blue color." 3. An adjective sometimes modifies an adjective and a noun combined; as, "a good old man." 6^^?^^ modi- fies old man. Notice the difference in the meaning of these expressions : " a good old man," and " a good, old man." 4. In such expressions as "two hundred bushels," some authors claim that hundred is a noun, modified by the adjective two, and that bushels is the object of the preposition of understood. I see no reason why two hundred cannot be parsed together as one adjective, just as we parse seventy-five. Three, six thousatid, four dozen, etc, all answer the question, "How many?" and should be treated as simple adjectives. THE ADJECTIVE 259 5. When adjectives are compared with more and most^ nearly all authors consider 7nore and most adverbs. In more Joyful, if we ^2x?>% joyful as an adjective, is it not in the positive degree ? Do not all agree that tnore joyful is the compara- tive degree of the adjective/^///^// If both words are required for the comparative degree, why not parse them together? If we parse 7nore by itself, why not parse er in older by itself ? I prefer to parse 7nore joyful and tnost joyful together. 6. When the comparative degree of a word is fol- lowed by than, the positive degree of the same word is understood in the subordinate clause, and than is a con- junctive adverb connecting the two clauses. In " He is older than I am," old is understood after am, and the dependent clause. " I am old," is an adverb clause of degree, modify- ing older. Than connects the clauses and modifies old. 7. Good writers and speakers sometimes use the superlative when comparing only two objects, although such use is contrary to the rules of grammar. 8. A degree below the positive is sometimes made by adding ish ; as, blackish, greenish. 9. When two or more adjectives are connected by conjunctions, the shortest and simplest should gener- ally be placed first; as, ''This tree is larger and more useful than that." When adjectives thus connected are compared differently, some authors say they should be arranged as stated above, and that fitore or most should be placed before the first ; as, " A more noble and righteous cause never existed." I believe it is better to say, '' A nobler and more righteous cause never existed." 26o ENGLISH GRAMMAR 10. The word like, when used appositively or after an intransitive verb, is often an adjective, although some grammarians prefer to call it a preposition. In " He is like his father," like is an adjective, modifying he, and father is the object of to or unto understood. Here, like has the meaning of sitnilar. In " He, like the brave man he was thought to be, firmly held his ground," like is an adjective, used apposi- tively and modifies he. In "She can run like a deer," ///^^ is an adverb, modifying ca7i run, and deer is the object of to understood. When like is an adverb, it means similarly, or in a similar manner. I do not think that like is ever a preposition. The words unlike, near, nigh, and opposite should be treated just as the word like. 11. Less should be applied to nouns of magnitude (bulk), and fewer should be applied to nouns of mul- titude (many) ; as, less money, less water ; fewer dollars, fewer gallons. 12. Many a and wJiat a should often be parsed to- gether as one adjective ; as, " Many a flower is born to blush unseen." " What a crash that was ! " What a is sometimes an adverb ; as, " What a large parade that is ! " What a is an adverb, modifying large. 13. Old has two forms for the comparative (older, elder), and two for the superlative (oldest, eldest). Elder and eldest are appUed only to persons, but older and oldest are applied to persons, animals, or things. 14. Further and furthest come from forth (an ad- verb), and farther and farthest come from far. REVIEW 261 LESSON XVT REVIEW Correct the errors, and parse the words in italics ; 1 . Washington was a better statesman than a general. 2. This man of all others is most to be pitied. 3. The Russian Empire is more extensive than any natios on the globe. 4. He is a better disciplinarian than teacher. 5. The banner of the United States is a red, a white, an(? a blue flag. 6. Fire is a better servant than a master. 7. A rosy-faced and pale girl were seen sitting side by side. 8. A rosy-faced and a pale girl was seen in the company. 9. The pen is a mightier weapon than sword. 10. He was such a criminal, that a few persons mourned his death. 1 1 . Although he was unpopular, yet he had few friends. 12. Grief made her insane. 13. He was struck dead. 14. A good farmer keeps his horses /<2/^. 15. All went merry as a marriage bell. 16. The hunter was so badly frightened that he turned pale. 17. Great is truth, and mighty above all things. 18. Unheard., because our ears are dull, Unseen., because our eyes are dim, He walks our earth, the Wonderful, And all good deeds are done to Him. 19. Give him this memoranda. 20. Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. 21. This is a better furnished room than any in the house. 22. Noah and his family outlived all the people that lived before the flood. 262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XVII THE VERB 1. A verb is sometimes combined with a preposition ; as, " This must be attended to!' This combining does not often occur in the active voice. In " The mayor must attend to this matter," to is a preposition, and attend IS intransitive. In "This matter must be attended to by the mayor,'' to is part of the verb, and ?mist be attended to is a com- pound verb, transitive, passive. The verb attend will not take an object in the active voice, and is passive only with the aid of the preposition. Other examples are : 1. He was laughed at by the boys. 2. The property was taken possession of. (Better : " Pos- session was taken of the property.") 3. The carriage has been sent for. 4. That should have been thought of. 2. A verb that, when joined to a subject, will form a complete predicate by itself, is called a Complete Verb ; as — 1. The baby sleeps. 2. Birds fly. 3. A verb that, when joined to a subject, will not form a complete predicate by itself, is called an Incom- plete Verb. The word used with an incomplete verb is called the Comple- ment. Most intransitive verbs are complete. The intransitive verbs appear^ be, become, seem, etc., are incom- plete, and require complements. These verbs are sometimes called Copulative Verbs. THE VERB 263 The complement of a transitive verb in the active voice is its object. A transitive verb in the passive voice often takes a com- plement ; as, '' He was considered brave.'''' 4. A Finite Verb is any mode or tense of the verb except the infinitives and the participles. The definition for a finite verb might be, " any mode or tense that changes its form to agree with its subject." Finite means changeable — not infinite. Infinitives and participles do not change their form to agree with their subjects or the words they modify. For this reason they are not finite. 5. Ca7i have is usually given as one of the signs of the potential, present-perfect ; but its use is very rare. 6. The so-called past tense of the potential mode does not express past time, but either present or future. This tense is called past because in early English, or Anglo- Saxon, fnight, could, would, and should meant past time. 7. The imperative m©de is conjugated only in the second person, but may be found in either the first or the third person ; as — 1 . Turn i^e aside and rest awhile. 2. Be // resolved by this society. 3. Blessed be he that first invented sleep. 8. In some grammars the past tense, progressive form, is called the Imperfect (not finished) Tense ; as, " He was walking y 9. Sometimes a progressive form is used in the pas- sive voice ; as, " The house is being built." " The lesson was being recited." Some authors object to some such forms, and prefer to use the active progressive ; as, " The house is building.'' In these examples it is better to use the passive form (cumbersome as it is) than the 264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR active. A few active forms have become so common that they can claim the sanction of good usage ; as, " Wheat is selling for a dollar a bushel." 10. When we speak of a past action or event, and no part of the time in which it took place remains, we should use the past tense ; but if there still remains some portion of the time in which it took place, we should use the present-perfect tense. Examples : 1. Science has made great advancement this century. 2. Many battles were fought during the eighteenth century. 3. I have been reading this morning. (It is not yet noon.) 4. I read this morning. (It is past noon.) 11. When two past actions or events are referred to, one of which must have occurred before the other, this sequence of time must be observed in the use of the tenses. Examples : 1. I went, but I have returned. 2. After Lee had been defeated at Gettysburg, he retreated into Virginia. 3. Napoleon reigned one hundred days after he had re- turned from the Island of Elba. 12. Statements always true or always false should be expressed in the present tense ; as — 1 . Galileo believed that the earth moves. 2. Our fathers asserted that all men are created equal. 13. Correct where necessary, and parse the words in italics : 1 . He was well taken care of. 2. The actor was looked at by thousands. 3. Be\\. k7iown to all men. 4. Corn is gathering all over the country. 5. I have built three houses last year. 6. I built three houses this year. 7. After we visited Paris we returned to the United States. 8. It was proved years ago that the air had weight. SHALL, WILL; SHOULD, WOULD 265 LESSON XVIII SHALL, WILL; SHOULD, WOULD In many cases the correct use of these words is dififi- cult to determine. It is a well-established fact that good writers and speakers do not agree in their use of these words. Where one good writer will use wotild, you can find another equally as good using should. Yet, a certain writer on English grammar boldly makes the assertion that carelessness or ignorance is the only excuse that can be offered for not using these words correctly. What that grammarian calls correct usage, some standard author may call incorrect. Of course, in the more common uses of these words, the observing student need have but little trouble. The primary meaning of will is purpose or determi- nation, and the primary meaning of shall is obligation. Shall in the first person and will in the second and third simply foretell. Will in the first person expresses determination. / will go means that I am determined to go. Shall in the second and third persons means an obligation not controlled by the subject, but by some external influence. Yoti shall go means that the act of going is not controlled by yourself. You shall not assist me means that you will be prevented by some one. 266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR In interrogative sentences, shall denotes that the sub- ject is under some external influence, and will denotes that the act is controlled by the subject. *' Shall you be there ? " might be answered by "■ Yes, if I am not pre- vented by circumstances." " Will you be there ? " might be answered by " No ; I do not care to go." Hill's Rhetoric gives the following forms in inter- rogative sentences : Future of Expectation Future of Deter 7mnation Shall I (we) go? Shall I (we) go? Shall you go? Will you go? Will he (they) go? Shall he (they) go? Should and would follow in general the same rules as shall and will. Would \^ often used to express a strong wish ; as, " Would that I were at home ! " The following is from Richard Grant White : To my readers I shall venture to say that if they express hoping and wishing and the like with will and would, and command, demand, and mandatory desire with shall and should — for example, '^ I hope that Mrs. Unwin will invite them to tea," and " I wish that Mrs. Un- win would invite them to tea " ; but " He commands that Mrs. Unwin shall invite them to tea," and " He desired that Mrs. Unwin should invite them to tea"; and, impersonally, "It is wished that no per- son shall leave his seat," and " It was requested that no persons should leave their seats " — they will not be far from right. I. The following uses of shall, will, shouldy and would are correct : I. I fear we shall have rain. . 2. I fear he will neglect his business. 3. I shall enjoy the visit. 4. It is requested that no one shall leave the room. 5. I shall be obliged to discuss this subject. THE SUBJUNCTIVE 267 6. Where shall you be next week ? 7. When shall you go ? 8. It was intended that the army should march the next day. 9. We should be happy to see you. 10. I told him to stay, but he would come. 2. Fill each of these blanks with shall, will, should, or would, and give reasons. 1. He knew who betray him. 2. What I do ? 3. When we finish this book ? 4. I pay him to-day if he demand it. ^^ We be pleased if you favor us. 6. He was afraid that he not succeed. 7. It probably rain to-day. 8. he be allowed to go on ? ^. If we go to the concert, we hear good sing- ing? 10. that Crete were free ! LESSON XIX THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE I. The subjunctive mode has but one tense, the pres- ent. In the verb be two subjunctive tenses are found, the present and the past. Probably authors differ more in their discussion of the subjunc- tive mode than in the discussion of any other part of grammar. Some give this mode six tenses, some four, some three, some two, and some only a small piece of a tense. In the classic languages, mode is a change of form ; that is, the verb has a different form for the different modes. Some gramma- rians adhere to this principle in English, while others claim that mode is a change of meaning, not a change of form. 268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR If we examine the verbs in the sentences " I had gone " and " If I had gone," we shall find that the verbs are the same, and that the difference is made by the little word if. Now, as // is not part of the verb, some say the verb in both sentences is in the same mode, the indicative. I believe this is the correct view of the matter. It certainly has the merit of simplicity. Taking the view that mode is a change of form, there are but two subjunctive forms in each verb (except the verb to be) : " If thou go," and " If he go." These are both in the present tense, singU' lar ; but, as not all persons and numbers of the tense are included, we can correctly say there is only a piece of a tense in the subjunc- tive. If we drop the zf in the above sentences, go in the first must be changed io goest, and in the second to goes. "If he walks" is indicative, and "If he walk" is subjunctive. The s is omitted from the verb in the subjunctive because the aux- iliary shall or should is understood. " If he walk " means " If he shall (or should) walk." The subjunctive present denotes future time, and should not be used to denote present time. " If it rains " is indicative present, and denotes present time. " If it rain " is sub- junctive present, and denotes future time. In the verb to be there are two subjunctives : " If I be," and " If I were." The first is called present tense, but denotes future time ; the second is called past tense, but denotes present time. As the passive voice always has in it some form of the verb to be, verbs in the passive voice can have two subjunctives, a present and a past ; as, " If I be seen," and " If I were seen." 2. Write three sentences, each having a verb in the subjunctive — 1 . Active, present. 2. Passive, present. 3. Passive, past. 3. The subjunctive is sometimes used in expressing a wish ; as, " Would that my father were here." In the above, were is subjunctive, past, but denotes present time. AGREEMENT OF VERB 269 LESSON XX PERSON AND NUMBER OF THE VERB I. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective noun should have a singular or a plural verb to agree with it. Collective nouns denoting persons are more frequently considered plural than those denoting things. It is better to say " The public are invited " than to say " The public is invited." If the individuals perform the act separately, or in groups, it is better to have the verb plural ; as, '•'■ A number of soldiers (at various times) have passed to-day, and the number at the fort is becoming large." 2. When a verb has two subjects taken separately, differing in number, the verb agrees with the subject nearest. In such cases it is better to place the plural subject next to the verb ; as, " Neither the captain nor the soldiers have arrived." 3. In such sentences as " John and his sister too is going," or ^']Q\ixv and his sister also is going," the verb should be singular. It will be observed that the speaker does not intend to convey the information that two are going. The hearer already knows that John is going, and the speaker adds that his sister is going also. 4. When two singular subjects connected hy and 2iXQ in apposition, the verb is singular ; as, *' The philoso- pher and statesman has gone." The same is true when the subjects are not in apposition, if the latter is added to make the former more emphatic ; as, " The head and front of my offense is this." 270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5. Often the number of the verb depends on the idea in the mind of the speaker rather than on the words he uses ; as — 1. Why is dust and ashes proud? 2. Seven hours is a long time to wait for a train. 3. Six dollars and seventy-five cents is too much. In the first sentence, the speaker had in mind tnan, although he said " dust and ashes.'"' In the second sentence, the seven hours are thought of as one con, tinuous period of time. In the third sentence, the dollars and cents are thought of as one price. 6. As a rule, the phrase modifying the subject has no influence in determining the number of the verb, but in some cases it has. This is especially true when the subject is a fraction. 1. Nine tenths of the men were lost. 2. Nine tenths of the wheat was lost. Both of the preceding are correct. In the first, 7nen is a noun of multitude (composed of individuals) ; while in the second, wheat is a noun of magnitude (bulk). In like manner we have " Two thirds of the water is unfit to drink," and " Two thirds of the apples are rotten." 7. The verb need, when followed by not, forms the third person singular without adding j ; as " He need not go." The verb dare is sometimes used in the same manner ; as, " The prisoner dare not speak." 8. Correct where necessary : 1. Neither he nor you was there. 2. To reveal secrets or to betray one's friends is perfidy. 3. Eight horses is no part of twelve cows. 4. Eight is what part of twelve? 5. There was not a little tact and shrewdness in the transaction. REVIEW 271 6. He and his father were on the lost steamer. 7. He and his father too were on the lost steamer. 8. He as well as his father were on the lost steamer. 9. One or more names are omitted from the list. 10. Seven eighths of the pupils are girls. 1 1 . Three fourths of his hair are gray. 12. Two hundred bushels of potatoes are often raised from one acre of ground. 13. Forty bushels of wheat is sometimes obtained from one acre of ground. 9. Write at least two sentences to illustrate each of the first six paragraphs of this lesson. LESSON XXI REVIEW 1. Correct where necessary, and parse the verbs : 1. To thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man. 2. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 3. If he is a scholar, he is not a gentleman. 4. Had you come earlier, you could have seen him. 5. Whether he be poor or rich, he shall be punished for his crime. 6. Were he my own brother, I should not excuse his fault. 7. Although he is my brother, I would not trust him. 8. Unless a farmer sow, he must not expect to reap. Notice that when a sentence begins with the subordinate clause, the pronoun will be in the principal clause and the antecedent in the subordinate clause. 9. I wish that he was wealthy. 10. We not only found the questions easy, but very di- verting. Notice that questio?is is not the object oi found. 2. Diagram the preceding sentences. 2/2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LESSON XXII INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES 1. The infinitive is sometimes used independently ; as, '* To tell the truth about the matter, I was not paying attention." 2. Not all infinitives are parsed as having subjects. In " I have a book to read," to read is parsed as having the construction of an adjective, and nothing is said about its sub- ject. ■ 3. The infinitive has the construction of an adjective in such sentences as " I want my watch to run." 4. In Part Three it was stated that the names present and present-perfect, as applied to infinitives, do not have reference to the time expressed by the infinitive, but to its form. The time of the present infinitive is the same as that of the finite verb in the same sentence, and the time of the present-perfect infinitive is previous to that of the finite verb. You will often hear such expressions as " I hoped to have gone." Now, the finite verb hoped expresses past time, and, in accordance with the preceding rule, the present-perfect infini- tive expresses time previous to the time the hoping was done; but we know that when the hoping was done, the going had not yet been done. The sentence should be, " I hoped to go." 5. Participles do not have the construction of ad- verbs, although they sometimes seem to modify the predicate. THE PARTICIPLE 273 In "The Indians ran screaming in pursuit/' screaming has the construction of an adjective (in the predicate), modifying /ndiafis, but in sense it seems to modify ran. The same is true in " He came running to me.'' Running is an adjective, belonging to he, although it appears to tell the manner in which he came. In the classic languages, participles always have the con- struction of adjectives, and have the same gender, number, and case as the nouns or pronouns to which they refer. 6. When a participle is preceded by the article the, it seems to become a mere noun, and will take neither an object nor an adverb modifier. We can say, " By reading good books we improve the mind." Books is the object of reading. But if we insert the before reading, we must use a preposition to govern books ; as, " By the reading of good books we improve the mind." We can say "By walking rapidly," but we cannot say "By the walking rapidly." 7. The past participle, used in forming the passive voice, really has the construction of an adjective, modifying the subject. In " The lesson was studied," studied belongs to lesson ; it was a studied lesson. In parsing, however, was studied should be parsed together as the indicative, past, passive of study. Was can be parsed separately as the indicative, past, of be, and studied as the passive participle, past, of study, having the construction of an adjective, modifying lesson. 8. When a participle has the construction of a noun, and at the same time may have an object or an adverb modifier, it is called a Gerund by some authors. 9. Write two sentences, each containing a gerund. 10. Write a sentence having a participle with the construction of — 1. An adjective, not in the predicate. 2. An adjective, in the predicate. hoenshel's eng. gram. — 18 274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. A noun, having an object. 4. A noun, having an adverb modifier. 5. A noun, preceded by //^^. 6. A noun, used as subject. 7. A noun, used as object of a verb. 8. A noun, used as object of a preposition. 11. Write one sentence for each of the constructions mentioned in paragraph 10 (except the fifth), using in- finitives instead of participles. 12. Write a sentence containing an infinitive used to modify an adverb. LESSON XXIII REVIEW I. The following is the outline of the verb As to form ... regular, irregular. As to meaning . -J transitive, intransitive. neuter. defective. ., redundant. impersonal. [ Other classes . . compound. auxiliary. complete. incomplete. Infinitive ' present. * 1 pres. -perfect finite. . infinite (?)... ' present. Participle . \ past. past-perfect. PARSING 275 Voice Mode Properties \ Tense Person and number f active. I passive. f indicative. I potential. imperative. ! subjunctive. r present. I present-perfect. J past. past-perfect. future. future-perfect. same as subject. LESSON XXIV PARSING Diagram these sentences, and parse the infinitives and participles : 1 . " Let me make the ballads of a nation," says Fletcher, ''and I care not who makes the laws.'" The clause, who makes the laws, is the object of a preposition understood. Care is intransitive. 2. How glad I am to see you again ! 3. I have more money than I know what to do with. I I have "^"""^ I money (that is — much) than to do I I know what =^ (which) 2/6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4. For a man to give his opinion of what he sees but in part, is an unjustifiable piece of rashness and folly. 5. If you do not wish a man to do a thing, get him to talk about it. 6. Imperial Csesar, dead and turned to clay. Might stop a hole to keep the wind away. 7. Sorrow's crown of crowns is remembering happier things. 8. It is a custom more honored in the breach than in the observance. 9. The tree of liberty only grows when watered by the blood of tyrants. 10. Better to love amiss than nothing to have loved. 11. A sorrow shared is halved ; a joy divided is doubled. 12. The auditorium is capable of seating three thousand people. 13. A persecutor who inflicts nothing which he is not ready to endure, deserves some respect. 14. A mountain rises there, called Ida, joyous once with leaves and streams, deserted now like a forbidden thing. 15. Some poets, before beginning to write a poem, wait to be inspired. LESSON XXV THE ADVERB 1. Modal adverbs may be divided into — 1 . Those of reasoning ; as, hence, therefore. 2. Those of affirmation; 2js>, certainly ^ indeed. 3. Those of negation ; as, not., nowise. 4. Those of doubt ; as, possibly., perhaps. 2. A conjunctive adverb modifies only one word, and that word is in the dependent clause. It is often stated that a conjunctive adverb sometimes modifies two words, one in each clause, but it is much better to consider the entire dependent clause as the modifier of the word in the inde- pendent clause. THE ADVERB 277 3. When a dependent adjective clause is joined to the independent clause by a conjunctive adverb, the adverb is sometimes called a relative adverb ; as — 1. This is the place where (in which) the hero fell. 2. He lived in the land where the orange grows. 3. The Indians were driven to the reservation whence they came. It will be noticed that a relative adverb is equivalent to a prepo- sition with a relative pronoun for its object. 4. The words usually conjunctive adverbs are not always such. In " I do not know where he lives," where is not a conjunctive adverb. It is an interrogative adverb in an indirect question, and modifies lives. 5. Sometimes it is difficult to decide whether a verb should be followed by a predicate adjective or an ad- verb modifier. The following sentences are correct: 1 . The milk tastes sour. 2. The speaker's voice sounded shrill. 3. We arrived safe. 4. The grass looks fresh and green. 5. He appeared prompt. 6. He appeared promptly. (What difference in the mean- ing of these two sentences ?) 7. I feel very bad. 8. The young lady looks sad. In such sentences, when the word following the verb is used to express the condition of the subject, it should be an adjective. In the third sentence, safe does not tell the manner of our arriving, but our condition after we had arrived. 6 The adverbs yes^ no, amen, etc., sometimes mod- ify an entire clause or sentence. 7. The words to-day, to-night, to-morrow, etc., though 2/8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR usually called adverbs, are nouns in the objective case without a governing word. Compare to-tnorrow and Wednesday in " He will come to- morrow,'' and " He will come Wednesday." 8. Such expressions as as long as, as soon as, etc., are not to be taken together as conjunctions. " He came as soon as he could." Soon is an adverb modifying came-, the first as is an adverb of degree, modifying soon; the sec- ond as is a conjunctive adverb, modifying could (come), and connects the subordinate clause to the first as. The subordinate clause is an adverb clause of degree, modifying the first as. In " He reads as well as he writes," as well as is parsed just as as soon as in the preceding sentence. In " He, as well as his sister, is expected," as well as is parsed as a conjunction. 9. The word the is sometimes a conjunctive adverb. In "The more I examined it, the better I liked it," the principal clause is, " I liked it the better." Better is an adverb, modifying liked. The first the is a conjunctive adverb, modifying more and connecting the dependent clause to the second the ; more is an adverb of degree, modifying examined', the second the is an adverb of degree, modifying better ; the dependent clause, " I examined it the more," is an adverb clause of degree, and modifies the second the. 10. An adverb sometimes modifies a preposition or a phrase. I. Fools judge only by events. cr "^ events. only 2. The guard stood just below the gate. 3. The dogs were beaten nearly to death. 4. The sun shines even on the wicked. 5. The speaker went entirely beyond the limits of cour- tesy. PREPOSITION 279 II. Write two sentences, each having — 1. A conjunctive adverb. 2. A relative adverb. 3. An adjective in predicate, denoting condition. 4. As used as a conjunctive adverb. 5. An adverb modifying a preposition. 6. An adverb modifying a phrase. LESSON XVI PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 1. In such sentences as "He came from over the sea," from over is usually called a compound preposition, having sea for its object. Fro^n can be considered a sirnple preposition, having the phrase over the sea as its object. 2. The preposition is frequently incorrectly omitted ; as, "The ball is the size of an orange." As the sentence reads, size is a predicate noun, and must there- fore mean the same thing as the subject, ball. But the ball is not size ; it has size, and is large or small. The sentence should read, "The ball is of the size of an orange." The phrase, '" of the size," is an adjective phrase in the predicate, and modifies dall. Other examples are : 1 . There is no use trying. 2. It was the length of my arm. 3. What use is this to him? 4. He is worthy better treatment. 3. Some authors call as a preposition in such sen- tences as " I like him as a teacher," and " He came as an ambassador." 280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR It seems much better to me to call as in such sentences simply an introductory word. Teacher agrees with hijn in case, ambassa- dor agrees with he. Even in '' His reputation as a teacher is excellent," I believe teacher is in the possessive case, in apposition with his. 4. TJian is sometimes called a preposition, but most authors agree that it is not. In the sentence, " Than whom no one is wiser,'' whom is parsed as objective, used by a figure of speech for the nominative. I prefer to call than a preposition in this sentence, and to parse whom as its object. If we begin the sentence with the subject, the sentence will read, "No one is wiser than he (is)." 5. In such sentences as " Wheat is worth a dollar a bushel," some call a a preposition, used in the same sense as the Latin per. 6. The correct preposition to be used after certain words can be learned only by observing good speakers and writers. A few examples are given : accuse of, confide in, die of, differ from, founded on, rely on. 7. Coordinate conjunctions generally connect similar constructions, such as verbs of the same mode and tense, two infinitives, two participles, etc. I . Running and walking are good kinds of exercise. (Not running and to walk.) 3. To read and to write are the essentials of an education. (Better — reading and writing.) 3. Did he not tell me his fault and asked me to forgive him? (Incorrect — both verbs should have the emphatic form. Correct — "Did he not tell me his fault and ask," etc.) When different modes and tenses are connected, it is better to repeat the subject ; as, " He went, but (he) may return." 8. The word or is not a connective when it intro- duces an appositive, or explanatory word. REVIEW 281 1. Cash or credit is necessary. (A connective.) 2. The Iron Duke, or Wellington, commanded the Eng- lish and Prussians at Waterloo. (Not a connective.) In the second sentence, or is merely introductory, and can be omitted. When or is thus used, I think it ought to be preceded by a comma, but authors do not agree in doing so. 9. Write two sentences in which — 1. A preposition is incorrectly omitted. 2. Some authors would call as a preposition. 3. The two uses of or are illustrated. LESSON XXVII REVIEW 1. In each of these sentences there is an adjective phrase used as attribute complement : 1 . Europe was at war. 2. This lady is of royal blood. 3. Life is of short duration. 4. The passions of some men seem under no control. 5. The whole community is of the same opinion. 6. In slumbers of midnight the sailor-boy lay. Many carelessly parse the phrases in the preceding sentences as adverb phrases. Remember that a preposition shows the relation of its object to the word that the phrase modifies. 2. Write three sentences, each containing an adjective phrase used as attribute complement. 3. Parse the prepositions in the sentences given in paragraph i. 282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR DIFFICULT SENTENCES ANALYZED AND PARSED* 1. The citizens believe that they are not in the wrong. "In the wrong" is a prepositional, adjective phrase, modifying they. In shows the relation of wrong to they. 2. He lived so as to win the esteem of all his neigh- , bors. ' This is a complex sentence, of which " He lived so " is the principal clause, and " to win the esteem of all his neighbors " is the subordinate clause. The predicate of the subordinate clause is understood, the full clause being " to win the esteem of all his neighbors (is, or requires)." The subordinate clause is an adverb clause, modifying the adverb so. As is a conjunctive adverb, modify- ing the predicate of the subordinate clause, and connecting the two clauses. (Some authors may call as a relative pronoun in this sentence.) 3. He fell in love. Fell does not have its usual meaning here, but means nearly the same as beca7ne. In love is an adjective phrase, and forms part of the predicate. 4. He fell to laughing like one out of his right mind. Fell to is a compound verb, used with the meaning of began. Laughhig is the object of fell to. Like is an adverb, modifying laughing. One is the object of to or unto understood. 5. I am done. This idiomatic expression is passive in form, but is not passive in fact. Done is an adjective. 6. I am through eating. Through is an adjective, used as done in the preceding sentence is used. Eating is the object of a preposition (with) understood. *The remainder of the b©ok is not divided into lessons. DIFFICULT SENTENCES ANALYZED. 283 7. It was to me that he spoke. This sentence is correct idiomatic English, but it cannot be dis- posed of by the rules of grammar. It is equivalent to " It was I to whom he spoke," which is easily analyzed. 8. The swans on still St. Mary's lake float double, swan and shadow. Double is an adjective in predicate. Swan and shadow are predicate nouns of another clause — " They float swan and shadow." 9. Be of the same mind, one toward another. Of the same viind is an adjective phrase. One may be parsed as the subject of another clause — " One be of the same mind toward another." Toward another probably modifies fnvid. 10. In order to succeed in any undertaking, one must put heart in his work. In order to succeed means the same as to succeed, and I believe it may all be taken as the infinitive. Some will prefer to call in order a preposition, and parse to succeed as its object. 11. Texas is more than three times as large as Kansas. A complex sentence. " Texas is more " is the principal clause. The subordinate clause, " (Extant) three times as large as Kansas (is much)," modifies more. Than is the connective, a conjunctive adverb. Of the subordinate clause, extent, understood, is the sub- ject, modified by large. Large is modified by as, an adverb of degree. As is modified by times, a noun in the objective case with- out a governing word. As is also modified by the subordinate clause, '^ Kansas (is large)." The second as is a conjunctive adverb, connecting the clause, " Kansas is large," to the first as, and modifying large. Analyze these sentences, and parse the words in italics : I. Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed. 284 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. If the world be worth thy winnings think, oh! think it worth enjoying. Worth is an adjective. 3. My Antonio, I am all on fire. 4. My I Antonio, I am all on fire ! 5. My Antonio, I am standing on fire. 6. It is Setter to be right than to be president \\s, good). 7. It is easier to be (he, him) than to be myself. Many will parse president and 7nyself in the nominative case. Think carefully. 8. A few suggestions will be of practical value. 9. Outward conduct is of little value except as an indication of inward thinking. Except is a preposition, having indication as its object. As is merely introductory. 10. Yet outward conduct jnust be looked to as the most faithful expression of feeling. 11. He fell asleep. 12. The dollars and cents are thought ofdiS ono. price. 13. They love each other. Each may modify other.^ but the better way is to parse it in apposition with they. 14. They love one ajiother. 15. I am a very foolish, fond old man, fourscore and up- ward. 16. The light burns dim. 17. The fisherman stood aghast. 18. To the Dmids, the mistletoe, a parasitic evergreen plant growing on certain trees, seemed especially sacred. 19. For mine own part, I shall be glad to learn of noble men. 20. The less you have to do with firearms, the better. The entire sentence is, " (It is) the better, the less you have to do with firearms." Less modifies some noun (care, attention) under- stood, the object of have. To do has the construction of an adjective, and modifies the understood noun. Some may consider less the object of have. 21. He is expected to come. To come has the construction of an adjective. 22. A beautiful behavior is better than a beautiful /i7r;«. 23. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 24. Orators are like the wind. ANALYSIS AND PARSING 285 25. These are Clan-Alpine's warriors true ; And, Saxon, I am Roderick Dhu. 26. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thmst upon them. 27. What you make of life it will be to you. 28. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 29. True honor, as defined by Cicero, is the concurrent approbation of good men. 30. I remember its bemg done. Being done has the construction of a noun in the objective case. 31. I have found a plant answerifig \o the description. 32. I remember, I remember, the house where I was born. 33. Sifice then, he has resided in Virginia. I& since a preposition ? 34. He who judges least, I think, is he who judges best. 35. I am sorry to hear it. 36. Do not expect to govern others unless you have learned how to govern yourself. 37. The predominant passion of Franklin seems to have been the love of the useful. 38. His conduct was, under the circumstances, in very bad taste. 39. Columbus felt that there was a continent to be dis- covered. 40. That ought to have been thought of. 41. For a man to confess his faults is noble. The object oi for is man to confess his faults. Man is the objective subject of to confess. A noun is not the object of a prepo- sition and the objective subject of an infinitive at the same time. Correct where necessary, analyze the sentences, and parse the words in italics: 1. We should not be overcome totally by present events. 2. He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion. 3. Be so kind as to read this letter. 4. They need not be alarmed. 286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5. He is not poor, but is respectable. When in the course of the sentence we pass from the affirmative to the negative, or the contrary, the subject should be repeated. 6. Anger glances into the heart of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools. Remember that coordinate conjunctions usually connect same cases, modes, tenses, etc. 7. To profess regard and acting differently mark a base mind. vy(^ 8. He was a teacher, but is now a lawyer. 9. It is no more but what he ought to do. 10. Neither good nor evil come of themselves. 11. Trust not him whom you know is dishonest. 12. Trust not him who you know to be dishonest. 13. It is so clear as it needs no explanation. 14. This word is only found in Shakespeare. 15. There are oak trees and walnut trees in that grove ; on the former are walnuts ; and on the latter are acorns. 16. An oak tree and a walnut tree are standing on the hill ; the one bears walnuts, and the other bears acorns. 17. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal blow, spent the night in reading Plato's Immortality. 18. None knew thee but to love thee. 19. Somebody told me, but I forgot whom. 20. Would that my brother was here. 21. I rely on your coming in good season. 22. We learned that the air was composed of two gases. 23. Great benefits may be derived from reading of good books. 24. A fondness for display is, of all other follies, the most ridiculous. 25. No one (beside, besides, except) the immediate family was present at the funeral. 26. Six months' interest are due. 27. He is a friend of the teacher's. 28. You might come for at least a (few, couple of) days. 29. Here is a fresh basket of eggs. 30. If fresh milk seems to make the child sick, boil it. 31 . Slow rises worth by poverty depressed. ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING 287 SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING 1. No man is so wise that he cannot learn more. ni 2. Flowers are like familiar friends that we love to meet. 3. The crocodile is so difficult to kill that people are apt to imagine that the scales have resisted their bullets. 4. He that cannot forgive Others breaks the bridge over which he himself must pass. 5. He that observeth the winds shall not sow, and he that regardeth the clouds shall not reap. 6. The faster you go, the sooner you will reach home. 7. Nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas, produces insensibility. 8. No man is so fortunate as always to be successful. 9. We know what we are, but we know not what we may be. 10. From the lowest depths there is a path to the loftiest height. 11. "Nothing,'' says Quintilian, quoting from Cicero, " dries sooner than tears." 12. We look for a new heaven and a new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness. 13. Murmur not, O man! at the shortness of time, if thou hast more than is well employed. 14. We may not be able to accomplish all we desire, but shall we therefore sit still with folded hands ? 15. It is true that the sun pours down his golden flood as cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace. 16. The Chinese pitcher plant is quite common in Ceylon, where it is called the monkey cup, because the monkeys sometimes open the lid and drink the water when there is no spring of water where they can quench their thirst. 17. 'Tis with our judgments as wdth our watches ; none go just alike, yet each believes his own. 18. It was Watt who told George II that he dealt in an article of which kings were said to be fond — power. 19. Nor is it given us to discern what forged her cruel chain of moods, what set her feet in solitudes. 288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 20. Both Pitt and Wellington were great men; the former in peace, the latter in war. 21. You cannot teach an old dog new tricks. 22. I was told this story while we were traveling in Egypt. 23. He was offered a large sum of money for his vote. 24. And the voice that was calmer than silence said, " Lo, it is I ; be not afraid." 25. Be it ours to hope and to prepare, under a firm and settled persuasion, that, living and dying, we are his. 26. He made no secret of my having v/ritten the review. 27. Teach me to hide the fault I see. 28. The ship was lost sight of in the darkness of the night. 29. All persons are forbidden to trespass on these grounds. 30. At midnight, in his guarded tent. The Turk lay dreaming of the hour When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power. 31. There is no need that she be present. Correct where necessary, analyze, and diagram : 1. All are gone but him and me. 2. He is the man whom I told you about. 3. They came just behind father and I. 4. Richard is himself again. 5. It was the one whom you said it was. 6. God seems to have made him what he was. 7. A horse costs three times as much as a cow. 8. As many as came were satisfied. 9. Such as are virtuous are happy. 10. The fugitive threatened to shoot whomever tried to stop him. 11. I knew the man who the general appointed captain. 12. You cannot reap until after you sow. 13. The higher the bird ^ies, the more out of danger it is. 14. Of all the other Roman orators, Cicero is most re- nowned. 15. I have no other hope but this. 16. A whole month has passed since you have arrived. 17. The Mississippi has been very high this year. 18. The Ohio has been very high last month. COMPOSITION 289 COMPOSITION Our best literary productions are made up of a judi- cious combination of simple, complex, and compound sentences, and of many varieties of each. Too many short, simple sentences break the sense too often, and a succession of complex or compound sentences is tire- some to the reader or the Ustener. Pupils should have much practice in expanding and combining short statements, and in contracting and breaking up long sentences. They should also have much drill in expressing the same thought in different ways. Any reading book or magazine will furnish good material for such exercises. A few examples are given : This old soldier receives a pension. He was wounded. 1 . This wounded soldier receives a pension. 2. This old soldier, having been wounded, receives a pension. 3. This old soldier, having received a wound, draws a pension. 4. This old soldier receives a pension, because he was wounded. 5. Because this old soldier was wounded, he receives a pension. 6. This old soldier was wounded, and he receives a pension. 7. This old soldier, who was wounded, receives a pension. 8. Having been wounded, this old soldier receives a pen- sion. 1. The river was high. It rained very hard. The bridge was carried away. 2. The country on both sides of the lower Mississippi is very low. The country is protected by levees. These levees sometimes break. hoenshel's eng. gram. — 19 290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. We crossed the ocean in a large steamer. We landed at Liverpool. The steamer's name was City of New Yoi'k. Liverpool is in England. 4. A good composition contains many different kinds of sentences. Therefore, pupils should be familiar with many kinds of sentences. Change these simple sentences to complex : 1. Honest people will be trusted. 2. I expected him to go. 3. Quarrelsome persons are disagreeable. 4. With patience he might have succeeded. 5. The manner of his escape is a mystery. 6. The clouds having passed away, the sun shone again. 7. After sunset the rain fell in torrents. 8. I believe him to be honest. 9. By trying to rescue the child, he was drowned. Many books on grammar and composition contain a long Hst of subjects for written work, but every teacher can select topics better adapted to the needs of his class than those selected by any author. For this reason, but few topics are given here. I. THE ADVENTURES OF A PENNY Tell where the material was found. Tell where and when it was coined. Who first obtained it from the mint, and how. How many times it has been spent, and what for. Where it is now, and its probable future. COMPOSITION 291 II. THE LIFE OF A CANARY BIRD Imagine a canary bird telling all about what has happened to him from the first day of his life. Where he has lived. The scenery and climate of his native home. What he has done. What he thinks of some of the people he has seen. III. THREE PEOPLE Imagine three people in a room. Describe and name them. Tell what they are doing, and what they are talking about. Tell some of the things they say. Tell where they go as they leave the room. IV. A BROOK Describe a brook winding about among the meadows and through the woods. Tell where it starts from. What it finds on its way. Describe the flowers and trees on its bank. Tell about a shady pool in one place, and what is found in it. Tell about a shallow place with pebbles on the bottom. Tell how people cross it. What makes it grow larger. Where it finally goes. V. IF I COULD DO AS I PLEASED Imagine that you are now able to do just what you please ; state *•;»' several things that you would do, and give your reasons for doin< them. VI. COLUMBUS Imagine that you w^re a companion of Columbus. Describe his efforts to procure aid, the preparation for the voyage, the voyage, the discovery of land, the appearance of the country and its inhabitants, the return, the reception in Spain. All the preceding subjects require the use of the imagination, but subjects for real description and true narration are easily found. 292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR CAPITALS A capital letter should be used — 1 . For the first letter of every sentence. 2. For the first letter of every proper noun. 3. For the first letter of every line of poetry. 4. For the first letter of every direct quotation. 5. For the first letter of every abbreviation that represents a proper noun. 6. For initials that represent proper nouns. 7. For the words / and O. 8. For the first letter of all names applied to the Deity. 9. For the first letter of a strongly personified object ; as, " Come, O life-giving Hope ! " PUNCTUATION COMMA The comma should be used — 1. To separate the name of the person addressed from the remainder of the sentence. 2. To separate the words of a series. The word and is seldom used in a series, except between the last two, but if ajid is used between every two, no comma should be used. 3. To separate two adjectives modifying the same noun when a7id is omitted. 4. To show omission of a word or words, especially in writing a name and its address," and dates; as, John Wilson^ Boston^ Mass. ; July 4, i8g6. 5. To set off" words, phrases, and clauses out of their natural order, and non-restrictive clauses. 6. To set off" a noun clause used as attribute complement. 7. To set off" a noun clause used as the subject, if it is long, or if it ends with a verb. 8. To set off" parenthetical expressions. 9. To set off appositives, unless short and used as part of the name. 10. To set off" participial phrases and relative clauses when not restrictive. PUNCTUATION 293 11. After as, to wit, namely, etc., when they introduce examples or illustrations. 12. To separate pairs of words joined by conjunctions ; as, "Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote." PERIOD A period should be used — 1. At the close of each declarative and imperative sen- tence. 2. After each initial. 3. After every abbreviation. INTERROGATION POINT The interrogation point should be used at the close of every interrogative sentence. The interrogation point is not used at the close of an indirect question ; as, " He asked me if I knew who wrote the book.''' EXCLAMATION POINT The exclamation point should be used after interjec- tions (except O), and usually at the end of exclamatory phrases and sentences. THE SEMICOLON The semicolon should be used — 1. Before as, to wit, natnely, etc., when followed by ex- amples or illustrations. 2. To separate clauses having parts separated by commas. THE COLON The colon is used — 1. Before a quotation when formally introduced by thus, as follows, etc. 2. Usually after the complimentary address at the begin- ning of a letter ; as, ''Dear Sir: In answer to yours," etc. 294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR THE HYPHEN The hyphen is used — 1. Between syllables when they are divided at the end of a line. 2. To join the parts of a compound word. QUOTATION MARKS Quotation marks should be used to inclose words and sentences taken from another. A quotation within a quotation is inclosed by single marks. Notice the location of the interrogation point and quotation marks in these sentences : 1 . Did you hear the boy say, " Let me go " ? 2. He heard the boy say, " Where am I ? 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