JK 274 .^ n Iv— ^>4_ Southern Branch of the University of California Los Angeles Form L-1 t This book is DLIK on the last date stamped beloi JAN 2 3 1928 m 9 I9^a OCT 2 S 1929 DEC 7 1931 wJUH 1 1 '^^* ^9 1939 1 .vuv c^ i^^^ NOV 1 \^^ «^AIf 1 5 136a, Fonii l,-9-10m-3,'27 • LOYAL CITIZENSHIP fainting by tdu-ard Liunmons Fig. 1. Justice, the spirit of America. LOYAL CITIZENSHIP BY Thomas Harrison Reed, \.P>., LL. V>. Professor of Municiixil (lovrrnnirnt Univcrsily of California Aullior of '"Form and Funclions of American Governmenl" Ilhistraird irilli }'2-2 ciKirmiiKjs from pli()l(Mjraphs and drawiiuj:; . The family was one of the Jirst associations that existed among human beings, and it remains the most important one into ivhich they enter (Fig. 2). Dependence upon the family lasts nuich longer among human beings than it does among the lower animals, whose young soon become self-supporting. Until a girl is eighteen and a boy twenty-one. they are regarded by the law as "minors" and nnist obey the commands of their parents; and some young people are supported and cared for by their families until after they are grown men and women, gradu- ates, often, of universities or prolessional sciiools. 1 2 Loyal Citizenship Cooperation. The purpose of the family is to increase the welfare of its members. It accomplishes this through cooperation. The father earns the living in shop or office or on the farm. The mother manages the house, cooks or sees to the cooking, and cares for the young children. The children help here and there with errands, chores, or small earnings. In the well- conducted family, all work together for the common (jood. Authority. If every member of a family always acted as he pleased without regard to the rest, the usefulness of that family would be lost. In most cases natural affection and a common purpose bring about agreement, especially among the grown mem- bers of a family. Children, however, are not always wise enough to appreciate the wisdom of their par- ents. For them there must be, to keep the family acting in harmony, the authority of parents. When hungry wolves were poking their noses into the chinks of the family hut, there was no chance for debate as to what each member should do. In primi- tive times, therefore, prompt family cooperation was obtained through the unlimited authority of the father. This was the situation with the early Romans, among whom the father had even the power of life and death over his children. There is no longer need for such extreme power in the hands of one parent: milder authority over the children is now sufficient, and it belongs to both parents jointly. Family as a type of government. When a boy's mother tells him to wear his rubbers on a rainy day, The Family 3 he is subject [o governmcnl. His parents' coriiiiuitKls are law to him; when he was younger, they NNcrc his only law. Tlie necessity for such law and sncli authority arises from the fact thai all llic nicnihers of a family arc nol ('ar of it to make Ihem obedient to even the best rules. There are parents wiio say that they never "force" or "punish" I heir children, meaning that they never whij) them. All parents, however, make use either of superior })hysiial or mental force to secure obedience. Witliin (he family we find proof of the fact that force is necessary (o make govern nienl and law ejfeclive. Liberty and restraint. Above all other things, people appreciate liberty — the freedom to go and to do as they please. Liberty is one of the ])rincipal elements in any one's happiness, and those who are deprived of it sufTer severely, regardless of their material comfort. Unrestrained liberty, however, would be impossi- ble even among savages. It would at once destroy the usefulness of the family, which is the first social unit (Fig. 3). If, for example, when the family sat down to dinner, the father as the strongest helped himself to all that was best on the (able, and if each other member grabbed and kept wlial he could, the weakest would get very little, and there would be an end of the family as a provider of ft)od. There 4 Loyal Cilizenship should Ije ill the family and in society generally as much liberty for even the least member as will not Fig. 3. The family is the social unit about which all government centers. interfere with successful cooperation. Liberty must be restrained in order to secure orderly and safe living conditions; all the more so, because wilhout restraint liberty would come to he anarchy and true liberty would be lost to all. QUESTIONS What are two of the chief purposes of the family? In the state where you live, how long must children go to school? At what age do boys and girls of your acquaintance begin to earn a living? In 77/p iamdy 5 what respects is family life j)referal)le to lif<' in an in>tilutiunal home? What is cooperation? Give examples of it inside the home; outside the home. What reason exists f«)r parental authority? What light does this throw on government and law? NMiy nmst there he force behind authority? What is liberty? Can any one have all the liberty he wants? \\hy? \\ hat are the limits of liberty in the home? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Look up "government," "liberty," and "law" in any gr>od encyclopedia or in any of the standard texts such as (iAiiiNKM. J. \\ ., Inlroducliun to Political Science; Gkttell, R. G., Inlroduction to Political Science; Leacock, S., Elements of Political Science. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Let each of the pupils resolve to do at home s(jme lirlpfid thing that he has not been told to do by his parents. Suggested activities for boys: 1. Install an electric bell and care for it. 2. Clean the windows of your house or apartment. 3. Make a useful device for the home. 4. Bait the h(jok, and catch, clean, and cook a fish. 5. Make a set of practical playthings for a child three years old. 6. Weed the garden or clean up the back yard. 7. Cut and rake the grass. 8. Clean up the barn or other outbuildings. 9. Chop a quantity of kindling wood and i)ile it neatly in its proper place. 10. Inspect your home and see whether there is any carpentering that needs to be done that a lH)y can do; if there is, do it. Suggested activities for girls (adapted from Home Craft Honors for the Camp Fire Girls) : 1. Gather two quarts of wild berries or fruits and make them into a des.sert. 2. Wash and iron a dress. 3. Clean the ice chest thoroughly twice a \Ncik fur two weeks. 4. Put away clothing, rugs, furs, or blankets for a season. 5. Cook the dimier for the family so as to give your mother u rest. Loyal Citizenship 6. Take care of the baby or amuse the younger children on rainy days. 7. Tell a bedtime story to your younger brother or sister. 8. Gather a group of four or five little children together and teach them Safety First. 9. Do the dusting without being asked to do so by your mother. Cy CD c:>TD 'cy TIZ H hsl S V\V? LEADEI^SHIP SER.VIC,E \ COOPERATION / \ OBEDIENCE Fig. 4. Steps to good citizenship. Each of these must be climbed. There is no short cut to good citizenship. CHAPTER TWO From Family to Nation Family and clan. Tf huiiiari rooporalion had stopped ^vith the family, we sliould still he poor savages, often suffering from eold and hunger. l>ut ages hefore the beginning of history, larger groups of kinsfolk came to he formed. These groups, known as clans, afforded belter protection than the family could give against wild animals and savage men. The conduct of clan members toward one another was governed by rules or laws that, for the most part, grew naturally out of the experiences of elan life. These laws might be preserved in the memories of the elders or priests and applied by an assembly of the people or of the w arriors. Those w ho broke them were in many cases put to death or thrust out of the clan to perish in the wilderness. Old laws were harsh. Keeping alive was a difficult matter for primitive men, and no one could be allowed to endanger the clan's chance to survive. The nation. As time went on, clan groups be- came tribes and tribes merged into nations. As the areas ivithin which law ruled became wider, the security of individuals became greater, and they could belter practice the arts of peace and civilizalit)ii. After centuries of struggle, only a conij)arativ('ly small number of nations have survived, and not more than six of these are of the first importance. Within a nation men cooperate to secure peace. Thus, as Americans, we regulate our dealings with one another by laws, and join witli all our country- 7 8 Loyal (Aiizenship men to repel attack from the outside. That our laws may be fair, well understood, and obeyed, we have legislatures to make them, courts to interpret them, and executive officers to enforce them. Our government has been a wonderful success. It is over a century since the last armed soldier of a hostile for- eign power departed from our country. We are safe in our homes, on the streets, and in the schools. There are, of course, persons of crimingd tendencies who seek to injure others, but they are few and are able to do comparatively httle harm. In the earliest times the enemy lurked just outside the circle of the family camp fire. In clan days he was kept back only by the village stockade. With the growth of nations, visible danger has been thrust back farther and farther, until today it is a long way from most of us. This does not mean that life is now altogether easy and safe; but the citizen can at least lie down at night reasonably confident that he will awaken to find his possessions safe and those he cares for unharmed. Cooperation for peace and safety within a nation is the greatest political achievement of man. Further progress will lie in the direction of more perfect cooperation among nations. Authority and the growth of individual rights. Cooperation among many people distributed over a large area cannot be secured without the exercise of a good deal of authority. In fact, in the develop- ment of nations there were long periods when abso- lute or nearly absolute power was wielded by one man, the king. There were then few, if any, rights of From Foniilv to \a(ion ( )|]l ! " 111- ninpil'- - ti,! Im.mI \ be questioned here. aking peoj)les, the riijlils of the individual against authority were lirst stated in Magna Charta (1215), reaffirmed in the Bill of Rights (1689), newly stated in America in the Declaration of Independence (1776), and made the highest law of tiie United States in our Constitution, particularly in the first ten amendments. 10 Loyal Citizenship Liberty and authority in government. Definite limits for liberty and for authority are not easy to indicate. Other things being equal, the larger the group brought together for any purpose, the more authority there must be if the members of the group are to work together in an orderly manner. A com- mittee of three, for example, can discuss a question without a presiding officer or any rules for debate. If all do talk at once, httle harm is done. But in a meeting of over a thousand, like a national party convention, there will be required a whole book of rules, a strong chairman armed with a gavel to inter- pret and declare them, and a sergeant-at-arms with deputies to enforce authority. The 105,000,000 peo- ple of the United States today need more laws than did the 3,000,000 of 1787. In considering how far it is right to restrict liberty, these points should be remembered : For Liberty For Authorily 1. Liberty is an important ele- 1. Absence of restraint alone nient in every person's happi- does not give real liberty. We ness. cannot be wholly free except 2. Liberty is necessary to pro- under circumstances that make gress. A slave has no incentive life unattractive. to improve anything. A people 2. Liberty must stop short of kept in bondage can have no the point where it imperils soci- free interchange of ideas, with- ety, for society makes the enjoy- out which there can be little ment of liberty possible. The progress. happiness of the people as a 3. It is through liberty alone whole is infinitely more impor- that people can prepare for tant that the happiness of any liberty. No man can learn self- individual. control, except by controlling 3. The hberty of one person himself. No people can learn must not conflict with the self-government except by gov- liberty of another, erning itself. From Family to Nation 11 Liberty and self-government. We have earned the ricfhl (o be called a free people, no! so niucti by lessening the aulhorily that may he exercised over us as by self-government. Even severe rules do not seem oppressive when we make them for ourselves. Stu- dent self-government, some form of whieh now exists in most colleges and in many other schools, is suc- cessful hecause students so willingly suhmil to disci- pline of their own making. The Americans of the Revolutionary period refused to pay a trifling tax on tea because it was laid by a Parliament in whieh they were not represented; but they were ready to Fig. 6. TJiore ran 1m* no rij^ht without ii correspoiidiii^ duty. l'iil»'s.s all have duties none have rifjhts. The e\en halance between rights and duties gives true liberty. 12 Loyal Citizenship submit to heavy taxation when it was imposed by their own representatives. It frequently happens that we are called on to obey laws that we did not wish to have passed, and we obey them. Since there are bound to be dif- ferences of opinion, it is only fair that final authority should rest with the majority. On no other basis could our liberties be maintained. It is only through doing our duty as citizens — obeying lawful authority —that we can cooperate to maintain the privileges of citizenship. QUESTIONS What advantages did clan life give? How were clans governed? What relation does the size of the areas in which men cooperate for peace bear to civilization? How does tlie dictionary define "govern- ment"? Wherein, in your opinion, has the United States government been especially successful? What has become of the enemies that used to threaten every family? What did kings have to do with the growth of nations? W hat are the principal landmarks in the history of liberty in English-speaking countries? Why are more rules necessary for the guidance of a large body of people than a small one? What arguments can you give for hberty? for authority? How would you apply these principles to an actual case? How does self-government reconcile us to authority? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The government and way of life of the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons before they invaded England, and the development of the English nation out of these invading tribes, will make interesting subjects for reports. These reports will illustrate concretely the change from clan to nation which the text describes in general terms. Material may be found in Green's Short History of the English People or in any other standard English history. CIVIC ACTIVITIES A liberty hour. The program should include the recitation of extracts from Magna Charta, the English Bill of Rights, the Declara- From Family to Nalion 13 tion of Indcpendonce, lht> Hill of i?i^,'lits, the Constitution of the United States (first ten amendments), and the similar j)rovisions of the state constitution. Such numl)ers may he inlersjKTsed with patriotic songs and selee the first paragraph under "Civic Activities" at the end of Chapter 10. Fig. 7. The great seal of the Cnited States. Besides its flag, each of the nations has a device that stands for it:* so\ereigiit y. Similarly, in primitive times each clan had its totem. CHAPTER THREE Cooperation in Work Work. No good thing can be had without work, except the free gifts of nature, such' as hght and air. Behind the food we eat, the clothing we wear, and every comfort we enjoy, is ivork. You could not stretch yourself in an easy-chair, except for the fact that some one had labored to build it. Most men and women work hard, and it is necessary that they should, for there is scarcely enough food in the world to go round. Fortunately, work is not in itself an evil, although too much of it may be. Many people rather shrink from work; but in reasonable quantities it makes people stronger, better, and happier than they would be without it. Every one should uiork at least enough to pay his own way. The tramp, the criminal, and the loafer — whether rich or poor — are all dead weights to be carried by the rest of us; they do not cooperate. Division of occupation. There was a time when each family was self-supporting. The game and fish it ate, the skins it wore, the wood it burned, the rude hut that sheltered it, were all produced by the family itself. If cooperation had never gone any farther than the family, we should have scanty food, clothing, and shelter, and few other material advan- tages. With the spread of cooperation to a larger unit, the clan, came the opportunity for division of occupation. If one man proved to be an exceptionally good maker of arrows, he could make more than he 14 Cooperation in Work l.'j r. .s. /;. .1. Fk;. }). C.ounlinp slii'rp on a W tslcrii ranch. The (.oiiperation of inori everywhere — of workers with hand and brain — is necessary to pro- duce the food we eat and the clothing we wear. needed for himself and exchange the extra ones for game, fish, skins, or whatever else he could get. Another clansman might devote himself to making hammers, and hecause of his skillful l;il)or the com- munity would have a better sujjply of liamniers llian it had before. Thus, division of occu})ation increased until the common trades we know today came intc being, as carjxMitering, blacksniithiug. and masonry. Society was better off because a given number of persons, each skilled in a particular task, could accomplish more than an equal number of Jacks-of- all-trades. As the areas of peace and order grew, there was still further division of occupation. One village had clay for bricks and exchanged its bricks for an- 16 Loyal Citizenship American M'ouhii Coinpan>/ Fig. 9. Sorting and grading wool at a mill in Massachusetts. The occupation of these expert judges of wool is very different from that of the ranchers, yet it contributes to the same end. other village's salt fish or yet another's tanned hides; and so cooperation among men has extended until today the very clothes we wear are the product of every clime and represent the labor of ten thousand hands. The story of a woolen suit. Up on the highlands of southern Wyoming are a lonely sheep herder and his flock. We shall not try to trace the career of the sheep herder, although it took the cooperation of many people to get him and his outfit on the range. At dipping time he drives the sheep to the dipping vats; at shearing time to the shearing pens. Here the brawny hands of others are brought into action. Cooperalion in Uor/c I, II I omjn Fir,. 10. Sj)inninp; woolen yarn. Those inlricatP and costly spinning frames eU'ect an enormous economy of lahor. Tlieir product enters into the clothinj; of millions of people. We could not have such machines if it were not for capital. The sheared wool, in bags, is carried perhaps fifty miles by motor truck to a railway station. There the bags are loaded on a car, which in turn becomes part of a train, and the sliipinenl starts for Ciiicago or Boston. A multitude of brains and hands help to run the series of railroads over which the wool journeys. Once arrived at the railroad terminal, the bags of wool are bumped over the pavements, again by truck, to a great wool warehouse. Thence the bags go to a woolen mill, perhaps in Massachusetts, where the wool is ptit lliroiigli processes wliicli make it first into varn and tlien into cloth. There are 18 Loyal Citizenship American Woolen Company Fig. 11. Weaving the woolen yarn into cloth. The modern world could scarcely be clothed if we depended on the old-time weaver at his hand loom. dippings, dyeings, spinnings, weavings, the work of delicate machines directed by skilled hands. Away goes the finished cloth to a New York clothing manu- Cooperation in llo/Zc 19 facturer, and once more many flying' fiiifjcrs are set to work. Designers, cutters, slilehers, and finishers bend over it until the suit is produced and starts on its journey to the retail store. There a clerk sells it, a cashier takes the money and records the trans- action, and finally a man delivers it at the purchaser's door. Kinds of work. The many kinds of work thai are required to supply a suit of clothes, to furnish a meal, or to build a house are all honorable because they contril)ute to the welfare of humanity. Some labor is done chiefly wUh the hands, some chiefly irifli the head. It is ])erha])s difTicult to realize that the Fio. 12. Tlie nianufiicturo of cloth Into clolhini;. Soiik^ of those men Barring accident, the best runner — the one with a combination of natural running ability, good training, strength of will, quickness of wit. Why all this effort to find out who is fastest at 440 yards.^ Why not have a debate on ('.oopcndion in Work 21 Fig. 13. Tlie liiiish ul" a hind raco. Tlu' spirit of KHiiiHlilion lias caused each runner to do his best. the subject followed by vote among the peoj)U' in I lie stands.^ l^aeing is hard and painful for the racers, but it is the only way to delerniine the best runner. Compeliiion is necessary to bring out the })esl efforts of all of us. Il is through competition thai the leaders in business and industry' are selected. In no other way can their abilities be proved. Rut competition, however vigorous, ought to be fair and even generous. Roosevelt said, "Don't flinch, don't foid, and hit the line hard!" Success cannot be won by indiil'er- ence, lazniess, and cowardice, but only by putting forth our best effort — by steady and honest work. Work, capital. Theprinci])les of co()perMlion and competition, o})posed as they may ap})ear to be, are essential to successful work. To make both of these principles most highly effective we need another economic force — capital. 22 Loyal Citizenship QUESTIONS What things are to be had without work? Is work good or bad for us? Is there any reason why each person who is able to do so should not pay his own way? What is meant by division of occupa- tion? Give examples. IIow has division of occupation progressed? Why is most work honorable? Does the brain worker really work? In what sense is the carrying of responsibility work? What is meant by competition? What effect does it have in developing energy? Why is not the process of election always as good a means of picking men as competition? What danger is there in competition? How can it be avoided? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The history of other familiar articles, as hats and shoes, may be traced as we have traced the history of a woolen suit. The trades in your community may be made the subject of reports. Information concerning these can be obtained through business men and labor officials. There are no books dealing with the fundamentals of economics in which the facts are simply enough stated for ordinary presenta- tion in the eighth or ninth grade. The nearest approach is probably Ely and Wicker, Elementary Principles of Economics. The teacher will find valuable for personal use the standard works on Economics, such as those of Taussig, Seager, Mill, Walker, Hobson, and Mar- shall. Approach to economic fundamentals may frequently be best achieved by way of economic history. See Bogart, E. L., Economic History of the United States; Cheyney, E. P., Industrial and Social History of England; Coman, K., The Industrial History of the United States. CIVIC ACTIVITIES A visit to a local factory in which division of labor is easily observa- ble will help to make clear this and succeeding chapters. There is frequently some much-needed piece of work about the school or community that a vigorous group of young people can very quickly perform. If possible, arrange to have the class do it in such a way as to illustrate the worth of cooperation and division of occupation. A work report (anonymous) might be handed in by each pupil. It should state what work the pupil has done during the preceding week, the hours, and the compensation, if any, received. The teacher should combine the reports into one, with suitable comments. CllAPTi:i{ FOUR Capital, thi; Pahtmih of La boh The beginnings of capital. There was a time when men })ursued their ^'ame Ijarehaiuled or >villi sticks or rocks that tliey clianced to fiiul. In time, liovvever, some savage made a stone hammer, and later, perhaps, another made a spear. To make these weapons took a great deal of labor, both of mind and body, but once they were made, game was more easily taken (Fig. It). These primitive weap- ons were capital. Attracted by the flavor of a wild plant, some barbarian collected its seeds and saved them for planting in the spring. These seeds were capital, like the hammer and spear. Where any- thing is created or saved for the purpose of using it as an aid to further production, that tiling is capital. Capital and wealth. At the time when the sim- plest forms of capital were created other articles were being accumulated: some for utility, like earthen jars; others for luxury, like beads and rings. These contributed directly to the satisfaction of their owners, as capital contributed indirectly. To- gether with capital they made up the wealth of early men. Every useful tiling, except sucJi things as light and air which belong freely to all, is wealth. Capital is wealth, though many articles of wealth are not capital (Figs. 15 and 16). Property. Anything that is owned is property. Next to life and limb, property early came to be the thing most carefully jirotected. "Thou shall not steal" was one of the first laws, and as the areas of 23 Loyal Citizenship David C. Lithyow Fig. 14. An Iroquois worker in stone. The weapons that he made for use in the hunt were capital. cooperation for purposes of government have ex- tended, property has been made more and more safe. It sometimes seems that property is not dis- tributed among men very fairly— it is certainly not Capilal, the Parlnci\ of Labor -:.) distributed evenly; and lliere are persons wlio Ix'lieve that there should be no sucfi thing as individual property, that all \Nealth should be owned by the community, share and share alike. The most impor- lanl of the many reasons why the right of property should l)e respected is that this right encourages men to create more useful things than they can immediately use. Thus the comnmnily's stores of wealth and capital are increased, and the well-being of all men is promoted. The reward of labor and saving. It takes some- thing besides labor to create capilal. In ihe lime a savage fisherman spent at making a dug-out canoe, he could have caught many fish from the bank. In Fig. 15. Articles of luxury, such as these, iire beautiful, hut they do not lieli) in the produc- tion of other g(M)(ls. They are wealth, but not capital. Fig. 16. T(K)1s. materials, and iiiachines that are used in pro- (hiclion are both wealth and capilal. 26 Loyal Citizenship order to make the canoe, he had to give up the present enjoyment of his leisure or of the fish that he might have taken. This was abstinence (which amounts to the same thing as saving). The inducement he had for digging out the canoe and abstaining from enjoy- ment was the prospect of a better supply of fish after he got the canoe built. The fact that the canoe would be his property and that he would get the benefit of its use greatly encouraged the fisherman in the crea- tion of this piece of capital. It is still with a view to encouraging the creation of capital that inventions are allowed to be patented. When the government grants a patent, the inventor is given for a term of years the exclusive property right in his idea. A man will work hard to make a discovery if he knows that he will be allowed a property right in it that will reward him for his labor and thought. The rights of authors and composers in their works are protected by copyright, as inventions are protected by patent, and for similar reasons. Capital and division of labor. Labor and capital are really partners in production, one being as necessary as the other. Division of labor and the use of capital have grown side by side. No man alone could have invented and built the comphcated and expensive machinery that is used to cut the wool off a sheep's back and finally turn it into clothing. When, how- ever, division of labor had been carried to the point where each worker did some simple task, it was easier to invent a machine to do that task. The use Capital, the Partner of Laltor Fk;. it. An okl-limc (■()l)l)lor. wln) worked with- out much iissistiiiuc from iai)ital. His output was small, and so was his reward. of capital niado ])ossil)le the incrcasod (li\ision of labor and the building of the niaehinery al.-o. To- day few workers ever make the whole of anything. In a shoe factory, for example, one man does notliing but nail on heels, day in and day out. This is nmeh less interesting for him than il would be to make whole pairs of shoes. lie has ceased to buy leather, make it up into shoes with his own tools, and to })ay himself by selling the ])roduct. The appliances for shoemaking are now costly machines, too expensive for 28 Loyal Citizenship the individual irorker to oum; and they can he used economically only by many specialized workers. More shoes are made in a factory and at less cost than would be possible by hand labor. The worker in the shoe factory gets more articles in return for his labor than did the old-time shoemaker (Fig. 17). In the first instance, however, he gets his pay in the form of wages. Paying for capital. To do his part in modern in- dustry, the capitalist must provide the raw materials to be made up; the supplies, such as coal and oil, that are consumed in the work; the tools and ma- chinery with which the work is done; and the wages of labor employed upon it. It is clear that if he is to continue in business he must sell the product for enough to pay back the cost of the materials and supplies used and the wages paid to get the work done. If he only got that much, however, it would not be enough. We know that an automobile that was bought a year ago for $1,500 will not be worth $1,500 today. It has been driven perhaps 10,000 miles, and if all injuries have been repaired carefully it wiU be worth maybe $1,200. The next year it will be worth still less, and so on until it can be sold for nothing but the price of its metal as junk. Similarly, depreciation takes place in the tools and machinery in a factory. The product must sell for enough more than its immediate cost to offset depreciation — to pay for necessary repairs and to enable the capitahst to lay by something with which to replace buildings and equipment when the old are worn out. (Capital, the Partner of Ijihor 29 Even if a capitalist wore assured of ^'ettiii^ out of an industry all that he put into it, that assurance alone would scarcely induce him to work and save in order to create ca[)ital. The savajje who made the canoe gol more fish as a reward for his labor and sacrifice while building. The modern capitalist must get a reward too. That reward we call interest. Interest induces men to give up present enjoyment for the sake of greater power of enjoyment in the future. The term "interest" is commonly used to describe the sum a borrower pays for the privilege of a loan — the use of capital. When a capitalist receives a greater reward than he could get for lending his capital to some one else on good security, we call that excess over interest " profd.'' The hope of getting l)ack all that he invested plus interest will not induce a man to put his savings into an uncertain enterprise. For that he must have the prospect of unusual rew ard — profit. Most new enter- prises are uncertain, and if profit were done away with, there would be little or no business progress. If a capitalist puts his own time into the management of a business, he, like other workers, is entitled to wages for that service in addition to interest or profit. Getting capital. So far we have l)een speaking of capital as " things,*' which it really is. In everyday life and speech, however, it is represented as money. We do not speak of the capital of a railroad as so many engines, cars, and miles of road. \\ e speak of it as so much money which represents the worth of the engines, cars, and road. It was the accumulated 30 Loyal Citizenship National City Company Fig. 18. Hidden wealth helps no one, but money properly invested aids industry the world over. savings, in money, of many people, that provided the capital for the railroad. Capital for a modern enter- prise is not provided by saving actual tools or ma- chines for future production. The money that repre- sents the value of the tools or machines required for production is saved largely from the incomes of individuals, and we speak of "saving money," rather than "saving capital." Banks. Hidden savings are not capital, but money deposited in a bank becomes capital when it is lent to persons who use it productively. A commercial bank Capital, Ihr Parlrwr of Lalfor 3 1 receives money on deposit and lends money lor sliorl periods on I lie note (promise to pay) of the borrower. Such a bank is formed by several persons joining together and paying in a sum of money to create the bank's "capilak"' I liis they lend to others, who may use it in buying tools or machinery . In addition to its capital, the bank receives de- posits from persons w ho have more money than they care to keep on hand. If a dozen men de})osit a total of $50,000, the bank must be prepared, on demand, to pay back to eacli one of them the amount of his deposit. As a matter of fact, experience has shown that they will not all come at once for their money, and that if the bank has ten or twelve thousand dollars on hand it will be enough to meet actual de- mands. The rest the bank lends. Perhaps a bank lends twenty thousand dollars to a man who is starting a new factory. As soon as the factory begins to sell its goods a new lot of deposits flow in from the factory and its employees. In this manner banks grow and become increasingly able to aid industry . They are of immense im])ortance, too, in promoting thrift. QUESTIONS How is "("ipilJil" (Icfitifd? \\ hat oxiuiiploraii von pivc of primitive capitalP \Miat are some other examples of eapitalP W hat is wealth? Clive examples of wealth (hat are not capital. What is property? What reasons can you jjive for respecting the rifjht of projH'rty? How is capital produced? Why do men produce it? What has the right of property to do with the process? W hy are patents granted on inventions? Why are copyrights granted on Inxiks and musical compositions? IIow has the use of capital promoted division of 32 Loyal Citizenship labor? Can you give an example? What effect has division of labor had on the position of the worker? What must the capitalist provide? From what is he repaid? What items must be included in the payment? What is interest? What is profit? How do we ordinarily speak of capital? What is a commercial bank? How does it aid industry? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Patents and copyrights; banks; and the various stages in the development of industry as outlined in such books as Ely and WHICKER, Principles of Economics, are the best subjects for student reports. See list of references, last chapter. CIVIC ACTIVITIES The organized class should take up the question of protecting school property, such as books, desks, chairs, walls, stairways, and playground apparatus. Such property is all capital — community capital — invested in education. Its preservation can be helped by class action. Rules, with penalties for breaking them, should be made by the class. Offenders should be tried and punished by the class or a committee. It would be very helpful at this point to have a local banker or merchant give a talk to the class on banking and its relation to capital and industry. CHAPTER FIVE Getting Capital: Thru t Thrift. To make (he best use of time, strength, and money, Ihal is thrift. A thrifty (•itiz(Mi is one who uses liis iiicoino wisely. I his iisimlly nicaiis that he spends something less than liis intonic and saves the difTerence. People throujj;!) wliose hands money slij)s easily are not so much generous as careless. W hen a real occasion for generosity comes they are likely to have nothing to he generous with. But going without all the comforts and })lcasurcs of life is not tlnift — that is waste of opportunity, and waste is the opposite of thrift. Thrift means wise spending as well as wise saving. Thrift and capital. We usually think of thrift as a purely private virtue, hut it is of the utmost impor- tance to the community. We have already seen how capital can he created or increased only hy saving. Some saving is done hy companies that set aside part of their revenue to replace worn-out capital and to extend their husiness. However, a very targe part of tlie increase in capital must come from indiriduat savings out of individual incomes, hecause conunand over most things that are produced passes (juickly into individual hands in the form of interest, profit, and wages. Without new capital tiie prospi'ril\ of the comnmnity cannot increase. Thrift and the rainy day. We have seen that every one siiould work, hearing his j)arl in produc- tion, hut work alone will not certainly keep one from some day becoming a charge upon the coinnuniity. 33 34 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 19. Two pages from the actual bank account of a thrifty carpenter. Five entries of interest, computed at 4 per cent, are shown as follows: $8.5.3, $9.16, $9.32, $16.1.5, $21.20. Note that there were three withdrawals of small sums during a period when there were no deposits. Perhaps the carpenter was out of work then and had to fall back on his savings account. After six years, the balance of this account was about $3000 — the reward of per- sistent saving. Saving for future needs seems a dreary performance to most young people. Full of health and vigor, they find it hard to realize that there will ever be a time when they cannot earn a living. Yet accident, ill- ness, old age, and death visit every family. Unem- ployment, whatever its cause, may stop any one's earnings. For these reasons thrifty persons seek to lay by something for a " rainy day.''' Savings banks : interest. It is chiefly through our many savings banks that the opportunity to secure Celling Capilal: Thrift 35 Baltimore Puhlic SchouU Fig. 20. The work of this school savings bank is done by pupils se- lected through roiuprtition. Thfir accounts arc checked by the prin- cipal and by the ollicers of tlie re;jular l);uik wliere the money of the school bank is kept. Tlie pupils arc paid interest on their deposits, which total many hundreds of dollars. interest on small savings is offered to people gener- ally. Savings banks receive deposits as small as one dollar, and they lend money on long-term notes, usually secured by real-estate mortages. Thry pay inleresl on cleposils. This interest is usujilly com- pounded semiannually; that is, the interest is added to the principal, thus making a new principal on which interest is paid (Fig. 19). At four per cent interest, compounded semian- nually, a sum of money will double in seventeen years. If when you are fourteen years old you have 36 Loyal Citizenship one hundred dollars in the bank and simply leave it there, you will have two hundred when you are thirty-one, four hundred when you are forty-eight, and eight hundred when you are sixty-five. The gain will be made without any effort on your part; you will only have to leave the money in the bank. Inter- est is a good friend to have working for you. When you have saved a few hundred dollars, you can buy with it shares of stock in a business enterprise. Any boy or girl can by thrift and until tJie help of a savings bank become an owner of capitat (Fig. 20). The thrift stamps of the United States are a means of encouraging saving in small amounts. The postal savings banks of the government give perfect security for savings, and they pay a low rate of interest. Owning a home. Of all forms of permanent property that are used for our immediate comfort and enjoyment, the most important is a home. Family life cannot be enjoyed to the full unless there is a place for it. Even a humble dwelling that belongs to those whom it shelters may be a fitter place for a home than the finest rented house (Fig. 21). When one owns the place where he lives, he takes a pleasure in beautifying it, in planting flowers and shrubs, and in caring for the lawn and the walks, that he could not otherwise take. Home-owning citizens are desirable citizens. When men come to own homes, they are more sober of judg- ment and less ivilling to consider destructive theories in government or economics, for they have property at stake. The ownership of a home gives a man a (icUiiuj Capilul: Tliriji 37 Fig. 21. Birthplace of Julm llu-.wnJ Pnvnc. autliur -I Sweet Home," Easthanipton, lx)ng Island, ISew York. 47878 38 Loyal Citizenship definite place in the community in which lie lives. Laying money aside to buy a home is one of the best forms of saving. A person can deposit money in a bank until he has enough to buy a home outright, or he can invest his savings in a building and loan association. When he builds or buys a home he can borrow money to pay for it from his own building and loan association and, in effect, pay some of the interest on the loan to liim- self. He can, too, buy a house by making a cash payment of a few hundred dollars and paying the rest of the purchase in monthly installments. It costs a little more to buy a home on payments, but many people would never save enough to buy one outright for cash. The fact that they have to meet a payment every month makes saving compulsory. Insurance. For the great majority of persons even hard work and thrift together are not enough to assure independence under all circumstances. Sick- ness and death strike when least expected. There was a father, for example, who died of typhoid fever, leaving two children aged five and two, a home partly paid for, and only a few dollars in the bank. The heavy bills for his long illness and the expense of bur- ial came just at the time when his earnings stopped. The result was, as is often the case, that the family had to be taken care of tlirough charity. There is a better way of meeting misfortune than by depending upon charity, and that is by insurance. No one can foretell just when the head of any family will die. But a study of statistics of mortality will (icdiiKj ( kipilal: 'JliriJ't 39 Fig. 22. "(lliiise 'I'hciu AwaN," a iiew.spaptT cartoun by Harry IMiir|)liy. ((lop>Tifj;hU'd, 1920, by the Star Com- pany. Reprinted by permission.) lell almost exactly how many men of a •^iveii a^e will die ill a given length of time. 1 1 is possible, therefore, to tell just how much each man out of a hundred or a thousand must ])ay every year in order to create a fund big enough to })ay a thousand dollars to the family of any one of the group who dies. By creating such a fund (he risk of dculii is distribiiled among all who contribute. That is nndual insurance. There are also corporations that sell 40 Loyal Citizenship policies or contracts of insurance for profit. The great old-line insurance companies are about equally di- vided between the two types. Besides the old-line insurance companies there are fraternal societies, whose chief purpose is to furnish insurance at a low cost to members. Insurance can be had to cover any of the risks of life, such as accident, illness, old age, or unemployment. Social insurance. Many people believe that taking out insurance should not be left to the voluntary action of individuals, but that certain forms of it, at least, should be compulsory. They further contend that a matter of such great social importance as providing insurance should be the care of the govern- ment, and that it should not be left to depend upon private business enterprise. Most of the countries of the world have adopted some form or other of social insurance to make pro- vision for working people against accident, illness, or old age. The cost of the insurance may be apportioned among the insured, his employer, and the government. A compulsory systern of social insurance involves a limitation of liberty that only extreme necessity can justify. Forcing people into thrift cannot make them really thrifty. The adoption of social insurance in our country will be much discussed during the next few years. Gellina dapilul: Tlirijl 1 1 QUESTIONS How do you (lislirifiuisli thrift from stiiigincss; from niiscrlin«'s.s? What part (lo(>s thrift play in the creation of new rapitali' U hat is the social importance of savin-,' for a "rainy day "i* NN hat is the func- tion of a savings bank.' How does it diller from a commenial bank? Give an example of the earning |H>wer of money at comixnind interest. How is the interest on thrift stamps paid? What soc-ial value is there in having citizens own their own homes? How does home ownership benefit the individual? How can you get a home on small savings? \N hat is the eirecl of misfortune on a workman's family? What is insurance? Explain how it works. \\ hat is social insurance? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Savings banks; building and loan associations; thrift stanifts; postal .savings banks; social insurance in the several countries of the world. These topics, except the last, can best be investigated through personal interviews with bankers, real-estate men, and postal oflicials. A student assigned to interviewing a business man whom he may not know perst)nally, should go with a lettLT of introduction from the teacher, or the interview should be arranged for by correspon- dence begun by the student. The student should have well outlined in his mind the questions that he wishes to put. and inunediately after the interview he should make notes of all that was sjiid on the subject discussed. The interviewer should remember that the time that a business man can spare from his work is very limited and that he will appreciate brevity. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Found a thrift club among the meml)ers of the class. Have an olTicer of a local savings bank talk to the class alnnit siiving and let him suggest a plan to be used l)y the club. CHAPTER SIX The Function of Money Three terms that should be distinguished. In our previous discussions, especially of capital and thrift, we have repeatedly spoken of money, without con- cerning ourselves about what money really is. We speak of the prices of desired articles in dollars and cents, and we compare the values of merchandise offered at different stores. But ordinarily we do not make clear distinctions between the terms "value" and "money" and "prices." It is impor- tant, nevertheless, that we should do so. Value. When a primitive man wanted a pair of skin shoes, he might have made them himself, or he might have exchanged for them something that he already possessed. The big question for him, as for us under similar circumstances, was what he should have to give for them. This would have depended on the supply of shoes and on the need for the articles he was prepared to offer in exchange. If there were not enough shoes for the feet of the village, he would have had to give more for them than if shoes were plenty. If he had spears to offer and these were rare and much desired, he could have got more for them than if a dozen of the kind leaned against the door of every hut. This would have been true regardless of the fact that it may have taken more labor to make shoes than spears, or that one of these articles may have been essentially more useful than the other. The worth of one commodity expressed in terms of 42 The Function of Money \'.\ another commodity is value. The value of any article is (k'lcrniiiK'd by the deiiiaiul for it and the siJi)|)l\ of it. We cannot inidcrslaiid fiillN the working' of this rule until uc liavo learned soinclliin;: of the funetion of money in exchange. Money. Every one is familiar with (lie corninorui forms of money. There are gold, silver, nickel alios, and bronze coins; and besides these we have bills, which are as readily accepted as coins. 1'he coins all bear the stamp of the United States and are made at its mints. Gold is the })asis of our wliole system of currency, and the value of all forms of money is expressed in terms of standard gold. The best way to get information about our different [ . S, (injoj/iitd Surriy Fig. 23. Plaror niininj: noar Nomo, Maslva. (inld rcprt'siMits IalM>r. The world's slock of ^'old lias Ik-cii sfciirfd at a sast i'\|M'ndi(ur<' of capital, labor, and lifo. 44 * Loyal Citizenship issues of paper money is to read carefully the matter printed on the bills themselves. There are three kinds of notes issued by the United States: (1) gold certificates and (2) silver certificates, each of which bears evidence that the United States has in its vaults a given amount of gold or silver that it will exchange for the note; (3) Treasury notes, which are simply the promises of the United States to pay to bearer stated amounts of money. These forms of notes are declared, like gold and silver coins, to be legal tender; that is, the law requires that they be received at their face value when tendered in payment of any debt between individuals. Bank notes, which people seldom take the trouble to distinguish from legal- tender notes, are issued, under very strict govern- ment control, by National and Federal Reserve banks. They are the promises of the banks to pay the amounts printed on them. Money a medium of exchange. If a savage had a spear that he w ished to part with for a pair of shoes, he had first to hunt up a man with shoes to spare. This might well have caused him a good deal of bother, and when he found a man with shoes, that man might not have wanted a spear at all. If, how- ever, the man with the spear could have exchanged it for some article that other people generally were willing to take in exchange for their possessions, it would surely have been good business for him to do so. In fact, that is what he did ; and some generally accepted article or articles early became the medium through which exchanges were made. The I' unci ion of Money Fig. 21. NNainjxim mikI cowrii" shells, \y.irs of s;ilt, (.itllr. jukI weights of iiR'tnl hiivo .served as currency. Cowrie shells are slill ii-^i.l as money in parts of Afriea and .\sia There have l)eeii iiiaiiy siuli acreplal)le articles or forms of money. The >,orth Amerieaii Iiulians used strings or belts of waiiipuiii jjiirplc and white pieces of shells, made into hollow, polished cNlindcrs. Among Ihe early settlers in this country, heas rr skins and tobacco, as well as wampum, often serv«'d as money. We are told that the people of Sparta, in ancient Greece, used iron as money; and the Ho- mans at first used large weights of copper as cin- rency. Gold and silver, however, were more con- venient to handle than the baser metals, as a small amount of them had a nmch larger purchasing i)()\\ er. Therefore, in time, they displaced all other metals as standard money. Finally, gold alone came to be the standard money everywhere excei)t in China and India and a few other places. 46 Loyal Citizenship Our silver, nickel alloy, and bronze coins are only tokens useful in making change. Like our paper currency, they represent values fixed in gold. When paper currency is not readily exchangeable for gold, its value falls at once. That is why the paper currency of many European countries has such a low exchange value in comparison with United States money. Checks as money. Depositors in banks generally have checking accounts. Instead of withdrawing actual money from banks and paying all their bills in currency, they simply give their checks. This prac- tice is very convenient and has increased rapidly in the last twenty years. When the manufacturer men- tioned in the chapter on "Capital" got a loan of $20,000, he did not receive $20,000 in coin or paper money. He received merely a credit to that amount on the books of the bank. Against this credit he drew his checks to pay for machinery, coal, electric current, water, raw materials, and wages. These checks, after some circulation perhaps, were depos- ited in banks (Fig. 25). WeSTCHESTERTrUST CoMRVNY SO-S3 l/^^-^^^-t^ .^J?. ^fi^AtCZ*^' TXuid y^. Fig. 25. A bank check. By writing his name on the back of this check, the man to whose order it is drawn can make it payable to another person. The Funclion of Money i: Fio. 26. Tho cloarinp lionso for tJio hanks of a frroat city. Karli banks representative has hrouf^ht the outside cheeks that his hank has taken. He will exchange these for checks drawn on his hank. If a check was deposited in the l)ank on which it was drawn, all that happened was that one man's account was charged and the other man's account was credited willi the amount of the check. 'I he medium of exciianf;e in that transaction was hank credit represented by a check. If tlie coal dealer, for example, deposited his check willi aiiolhcr hank than the one on which it was drawn, the result would not have been very different. A clerk from the coal dealer's bank would simply have taken the check to the clearing house along with the rest of tin* cliccks on other banks received diu-ing one business day. At a clearing house the clerks of all the l)anks of a cil^ bring together "outside checks." They then ex- 48 Loyal Citizenship change checks with one another, and only small balances are settled in cash. The quantity of medium of exchange is thus very much enlarged by the use of bank credits represented by checks (Fig. 26). Prices. The value of anything expressed in money — what you have to pay to get it — is called its price. Money is therefore a measure of value as well as a medium of exchange. If you shorten a measuring stick, the stick will have to be laid down more times to cover a given distance. If the value of the dollar is reduced, more dollars will be required to make any purchase, and we say that prices rise. An increase in the supply of money lowers its value and raises prices just as an increase in the supply of spears, among primitive men, would have lowered the barter value of spears. The high prices in this country following our en- trance into the Great War were largely due to the issuance of vast quantities of Federal Reserve notes and to an enormous expansion of bank credits, which, as we have seen, often take the place of money. All together, the result was to reduce the value of money about one half — in effect, to double prices. In Ger- many so much paper money was issued that it took fourteen marks to buy what one mark had bought before the war. There is great temptation for a gov- ernment when hard pressed for money to issue a billion dollars or so in printed currency, declare it legal tender, and pay it out to its creditors. There can, nevertheless, be no escape from the rule that the more money there is the less it is worth. The gold The Function of Money InltThnrnugh Rufi't Trinsil Cumpany Fig. 27. "The Shrunken Nickel." \\ Iit-n- 61 nickels «(miI(I I.iin :i ton of coal before Ainericii entered the war, tliev would l>ii\ oiiIn half a ton in 1919. produced each year is so little in comparison \\'\[\\ that already in existence that gold is by far the steadi- est measure of value. QUESTIONS What is value? How is it determined? Ciive iin example. N\ hat different kinds of United States money are there.^ What is meant by the expression, "Money is a medium of exchanpe".^ Why is such a medium necessary? Mention some tliiufrs that have In'en used as money. Why has pold become the iini\ersal money? In what sense are checks money? What eirect has their u.se had on the quantity of money? Explain the statement. "Money is a measure of value." What are "prices"? What relation has the quantity of money to value and prices? Give examples. Why is gold such a steady measure of value? 50 Loyal Citizenship TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Money in colonial times; Continental cnrrency; Confederate paper money. Prices after the Civil War. The demand for the free coinage of silver as expressed in the presidential campaign of 1896. Prices in European countries during and after the Great War. The prevailing exchange rates for pounds, francs, marks, lire, expressed in terms of our currency. It is not to be expected that some of these topics can be more than touched upon. The best work for reference on money is Bullock, C. J., Monetary History of the United States. See also general works on Economics previously referred to, and Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapter 34. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Have the class, with the help of mothers and fathers, compile and put on the blackboard a table showing about what were the retail prices of common articles of home use fifteen years ago, and what they are today. E. a. Fig. 28. Ancient Greek money. A four-drachma piece with head of Alex- ander the Great. CHAPTER SEVEN Demand, Supply, and Competition Demand. We have noted that the value of any article, including money, is determined by the de- mand for it and the supply of it. It ^vill repay us to consider more carefully how this j)rinciple works out. The first few hundred boxes of great "Black Tartarian" cherries hurried by express from a California orchard to the INew^ York market brings a fancy price, for the demand is far greater than the supply. As the season progresses and larger and larger shipments arrive, the commission merchants have to lower the price to move the j)iles of boxes from their warehouses. A few^ people, who have the means, will buy the earliest and highest-priced cherries; but most of us, before buying, have to consider carefully whether other things will not be more useful to us than cherries. There is a limifed demand for cherries at a dollar a pound, and there is a very great demand for them at ten cents a pound. The ten-cent price will usually pre- vail when it becomes necessary to make that low- price in order to sell enough cherries to dispose of the stock on hand. Then all j)urchasers will pay ten cents, including those who might be willing, if cherries were scarce, to {)ay one dollar. Where a reduction of a few cents in the })rice of an article will vastly increase its consumption or a rise of a few cents correspondingly decrease it, the de- mand for that article is said to be elastic. Where great iluctuations in price are met by only slight 51 52 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 29. These cantaloupes were raised in a hothouse at Fairbanks, Alaska ; and they sold there for five dollars apiece. At Muscatine, Iowa, they would have sold for perhaps five cents apiece. Gold mining is the principal business at Fairbanks, and the supply of home-grown melons is extremely hmited. At Muscatine, however, melons are raised in great quantities, and a good many of them must be offered in exchange for a quarter of an ounce of minted gold. changes in demand, the demand is said to be inelastic. The demand for luxm:-ies — California cherries, for example — is very elastic. The demand for neces- saries is inelastic. We need bread so regularly and so much that we will pay what we must to get it. Supply. When men cultivated the soil by scratch- ing it with sharp sticks, they received a small return from it. As they applied better tools and came to work more steadily, the land responded and brought forth more abundantly. There comes a time, how- ever, when a farmer who has been getting about twenty bushels of wheat to the acre finds that it will Demand, Supply, and Compcldioii 5!^ lake as iimcli lahor and caj)!!;!! to increase llic \ii'l(l by ten bushels as it did to j)roduce the orij,niial twenty. 'Jliis illustrates what is known as the law of dinunisldng returns. It applies not only to agri- culture but also to the production of such things as coal, iron, and oil, which come out of the ground. Unless there are new discoveries or iii\ eiilioii>. lite supply of those Ih'uujs which come directly from the earth, within a given producing area, can he in- creased only at an increasing cost for each unit cf production (the bushel of wheat or ton of coal will be more costly). On the other hand, most manufactured articles obey a contrary' law, that of increasing returns. I'o make one chair by hand is an expensive job. It costs much less, for each chair, to make many hun- dreds of chairs in a factory. The more chairs a fac- tory makes, the cheaper it should be able to sell them, up to the point where the business becomes unwieldy. In the case, then, of manufactured articles it is gener- ally true that production on a greater scale lowers the cost for each unit of production. The lower the cost, the lower may be the selling price; and the lower the selling price (under normal conditions), the greater the demand. Monopoly. dood stone arrowheads were made chielly from flint, and the most suitable Hint was to be found only within limited areas. Suppose that a wandering savage stumbled on the first suj)ply of this stone in the experience of his tribe and that he kept its location a secret. He alone could supply 54 Loyal Citizenship arrowheads of the most desired inalerial. He would have a monopoly of their produelioii and could fix the barter price to suil himself. If he fixed it very high, he could sell only a few of them. If he fixed it low enough he could sell to every hunter in the tribe. He would, if shrewd enough, fix the barter price at ihe point where the price multiplied by the number of sales would give him the largest return in wampum or food or such articles as shoes. That point would be determined according to wliether the arrowhead-making industry obeyed the law of diminishing or of increasing returns and ivhether the demand was elastic or inelastic. If there was only a little of the desired flint in sight and more could be obtained only by tireless searching, the man w ith the flint monopoly w ould fix the barter price high, because the law of diminishing returns would apply to his enterprise. If the flint was plenti- ful and his skill in making grew with practice, he would probably fix the price low, because the law of increasing returns would apply. If the arrowheads of this particular flint were necessary to a hunter's success and on that success depended the food of the hunter and his family, the man with the flint monopoly could get a much higher price (the demand being inelastic) than if there were good substitutes for his arrowheads or if there were abundant suppHes of other foods than game (the demand for the arrowheads being elastic). The same principles operate in the case of a mod- ern monopoly. Monopolies are most dangerous when they control a necessity or near necessity of life, the Demand, Sii/)/}ly, (uid ( ^oiiifx'lilioii .)) production of wliicli ol)c\s the hiw ol" (liiiiiiii>liiiig returns. Competition. Now let us supjjosc llial llicNslidlr tribe knew where to find an al)un(laiit sup|)l\ of the favored stone. livery tribesman skilled in chip})ing ilint would be free to use this material. He would offer his product in coinpelilion with the work of all the rest. ICaeh would try his best to make belter arrowheads than his competitors. 'I he price would be determined by the free operuliou of the laws of supply and demand. In the lonj; run, each man would be willin*; to take a barter })rice that would repay him for the trouble of gettinj; the flint. for his labor in fashioning; the arrowheads, and for the labor and saving represented by the rude imple- ments in his workshop. In modern industry these price factors would correspond to the value of raw materials, the wages of labor, and interest on the capital invested. Taken together, they constitute the cost of production of any commodity. If the price of any article rises much above this level, new capital and labor will be put to work at producing it because of the prospect of profit. Thus the supply will be increased and the price lowered. If, however, the price falls nmch below the cost of j)roducti()n, labor and capital will go into other channels until the supply has been decreased and the priie raised (Fig. 29). Competition, within reasonable limits, maki's for good service and for well-made goods. \\ herever it exists, it is an automatic regulator of prices. "Cut- 56 Loyal Citizenship throat competition," however, never results in permanent advantage to consumers. The waste and loss involved in such competition must in the end fall upon consumers. Often such competition has paved the way for monopoly, as when producers have entered into combines to escape ruinous com- petition among themselves (in spite of laws designed to prevent them from doing so). Wages and labor. When a worker using his own tools and materials makes or finishes a usable article, he pays himself for his labor by using the article or by selling it. But in these days of modern industry, with its minute division of labor and its large use of machinery, few men work with materials and tools of their own and turn out a completed article. Each man does a bit towards production, as in the case of the woolen suit. The Wyoming sheep herder and the Massachusetts spinner are paid out of the price of the suit, but this is done very indirectly. If each of them had to wait for the long process of production to be completed before he got his share of the product, he would starve. Employers — capitalists — besides providing the outfit and sheep in the case of the herder, and machinery and wool in the case of the spinner, advance out of their capital weekly or monthly money payments to the workers. Such advances are called ivages. In some form or other every worker of w hatever grade receives wages. Wages, under natural conditions, are determined by the supply of and demand for labor. In this respect labor is a conunodity like cotton, wool, or iron. It Demand, Sujjply. and (.onijjclitiorL ')' Library of Congms Vu:. 30. "Labor," a painting by Charles SpraRiic IVarco. Thi- reward of such workers was iiieaf^cr. differs from other commodities, however, in llial the laborer is iiuiivisibly uiiilcd lo his labor. We cannot safely disregard this factor or treat human labor as if it were a thing merely to be bought as cheaply as the law of supply and demand will allow. Wages can not long remain either less than will enable the worker to live, or more than the value irhich his labor adds to the thing on wliich he uorks. In this country there has been a great aihance in the standard of living during the last (.iilury. Real wages (wages measured by what they nsIU buy) have increased greatly, and the general welfare of workers has been permanently raised. If labor were to be regarded merely as a conunodity, this would be a misfortune to ever>' user of labor or of the things that labor makes, lint a general iin- 58 Loyal Citizenship U. S. Bureau of Farm Management Fig. 31. Reaping and binding wheat with modern farm machinery. The reward of these men is vastly more than was that of primitive agricultural workers. provement in the condition of most people cannot be regarded as a misfortune. With better food, better hving conditions, and better education, work- ers have become, on the whole, more efficient than before. Rent. Where a family does not own its home, it pays "rent" for the house or apartment in which it lives. Part of this payment, of course, represents interest on the capitai invested in the building. The rest is for the use of the land on which the building stands. For our present purposes only the part paid for the use of the land is properly termed rent. Rent is what is paid for the use of land or other natural resources such as water power. If there are two farms of the same size, equally distant from a good market, Demand, Supply, and Conipelitum 59 but one of llicin having a rich, wcll-walcrcd soil, llic other having a thin, stony soil, subject lo (hougiit, you certainly would prefer the first one. If with equal expenditure of labor the first farm would produce $3,000 worth of grain, and the second i)ut $1,500 worth, you could pay any amount less lliaii $1,500 as rent for the furst farm and still make more money than on the second, rent free. There are always some farms that just repay the labor and capital wliidi are used in cultivating tliem, leaving nothing for rent. The difference between wliat such a farm ivill yietd and ivfiat a better farm iritt yietd is tlie thing your rent pays for. If you own your farm. you still enjoy this advantage; but you paid the rent all at once in the purchase price. Some people argue that rent is an unfair reward for mere good fortune in getting a favorable site, and that rent ought to be taken away from those who receive it, by a tax — '' tlie singie tax." Most people who own land that produces a high rent, however, have bought that land at a high ])rice. We may say that by so doing they have paid the rent in advance. To them the single tax would be extremely unjust. QUESTIONS How doos loworinj? llio price of a commodity afTcct the demand for it.^ What is meant I)y elastic demand; inehistic demand;' For what classes of connnodities is demand elastic? (Jive examples. For what cla.sses is it inelastic.^ Give examples. \\ hat is the law of diminishing returns.^ To what sources of production does it apply? What is the law of increasing returns? \\ tiere does it apply? What is monopoly? Give examples of monopoly. What considerations 60 Loyal Citizenship govern a monopolist in fixing the price of his commodity? In what circumstances will he fix it at a relatively low point? When are monopolies most dangerous to the public welfare? How will prices be determined if competition exists? What has the cost of produc- tion to do with prices under competitive conditions? Why? How is labor now paid? Why is this necessary? In what respects is labor like other commodities? In what respects is it different? Can we afford to neglect these points of difference? What are the bottom and top limits of wages, in the long run? Is improvement in the prevailing standard of living a good thing? Why? In what sense is the word "rent" used in this chapter? What is the reason for differences in rent? By what kind of sites is the rent of all other sites measured? Who gets the rent if you own the land you use? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Construct the demand curve for any commodity in the local market, such as strawberries, green corn, and potatoes. Students will need the aid of their parents or of local dealers in securing data for constructing this curve. See which pupil can bring in the longest fist of articles that are sold under conditions approaching monopoly. Wages in your city and the single tax will be interesting topics. See general works previously mentioned. On the single tax see FiLLEBROWN, C. B., The A, B, C of Taxation, who favors it, and Plehn, C. C, Introduction to Public Finance, who opposes it. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Have the city or county assessor or some other qualified person talk to the class on land values (which are usually proportionate to rents) and the reasons for differences in values. PART TWO THE FUNDAMENTALS OF CITIZENSHIP Liberty and Democracy It is a capital error to fail to recognize the vital need of good laws. It is also a capital error to believe that good laws will accomplish anything unless the aver- age man has the right stuff in him. Theodore Roosevelt CHAPTER EIGHT > 'J Hi: I'lUN n,i:(;i;s of Crri/.i;Nsnip Americart Jiberty. WehavesecMi llial two princi- ples — liberty and cooperation — are at the basis of human happiness. Like the two (hid" j)arls of a ina- rhin(\ they must ]»' nicely adjusted lo one anollicr. If there be too nnich of one, tliere cannot l)e enouj^li of the other. This country of ours was established on a higher ideal of freedom than the world had known before. The Declaralion of Imlrpeudeiwc stated that "governments were instituted among men" to secure certain "inalienable rights," among which were "life, liberty, and the })ursuit of happi- ness." Thus the principles of our country were de- clared at its birth, and to those principles it has remained true (Figs. 32 and 33). The United Slates assures each of its citizens all the freedom that he can enjoy without interfering ivith some one else's freedom. Of course, conduct that breaks down the coopera- tion of our citizens for common ends or which con- flicts with the general welfare cannot be justified in the name of liberty. Citizenship. Children born in the United States, of American parents, are by reason of that fact citi- zens. So are children born of foreign parents, unless when they reach the age of twenty-one they choose to retain the nationality of their parents. Any white foreigner (or person of African descent) can be naturalized after five years of residence, if he can establish that he is of good moral character and understands our system of government. In most 63 64 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 32. A beach patrol of , I Guard Life-Saving Service. Directly and indirectly, our country constantly protects the lives, liberty, and property of its citizens. evening schools there are naturalization classes in which those who have declared their intention to become citizens — ^who have "taken out their first papers" — are prepared for citizenship. Except for the right of participating in the government, most of the benefits of citizenship are enjoyed by every resident of our country. Protection from foreign enemies. The United States defends its citizens and their possessions from foreign enemies. In tliis respect it does not differ The PrivUeges of Ciiizcusluf) 65 from oUkt coiintrii's; hul in iiiakiiif,^ il cilecliNC, llie United Stales has been successful above most nations. We should not cease to be grateful for the security which we enjoy. Protection from internal disorder. Our coutdry also preserves peace and order wilhiii i(s borders, ll protects our lives and ])r()j)('ity from the violence or treachery of the criminally disposed elements in the population. Through courts, judges, and police and military forces it assures that safety without which there can be no real lil^Tty. Protection of personal liberty . Our country not only protects us against other people. By provisions of the Constitution of the I nited States, and by similar provisions in the constitution of the states, it protects the individual against possible tyranny by government itself. This is what makes American freedom so secure and so precious to us all. da.n(;i:hs to navi(;\ti().\ (Reported by HyJrofjriipliir Olliir) April 9— Lat. 10. 10 Ion. 16. .■?:. a d.'nli. t three-masted schooner on lire and ahaiidoncd: crew rescued. March 29— Lat. 16.22 Ion. .30.1 1, a derelict about 100 feet long and awash. April 9— Lat. 12.17 Ion. 19.29, nn icoberg ■100 feel long and l.'i feet high. A|)ril 10— Lat. •ll.:52 Ion. 1«. 10, in between two bergs and ten growlers in a line, north and south, and 1 miles distnnt on ea( h side of the ship. Fig. 33. Such information, which helps to prevent loss of life and property at sea, is regularly supplied to the newspapers of sea[)ort towns by the hydro- graphic ollice of the Navy Department. 66 Loyal Citizenship The first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States are known as our Bill of Rights. These amendments and several clauses in the Con- stitution as originally ratified specify the safeguards of individual liberty. Some of these are, in effect, as follows : (a) Freedom of speech, press, and worship. All citizens are assured the freedom to worship God in their own way, to speak or print their opinions, and peaceably to meet for the discussion of pubhc ques- tions. Freedom of worship is an inestimable blessing which a century ago belonged to the people of only a few countries. Freedom in speaking and publishing are necessary to real government by the people of a country (Fig. 34). Fig. 34. Free speech on Boston Common. \Mthout free speech there can be no free government. The Privileges of (utizcnshijj 67 WniT OP HABCAS CORFUS- .^fcrieof 3llmm»,l j^^ PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF ILLfNOIS Peona County J TO. .. .Itaat lA»n, S^■•r^ff of IsorU Countj. llMnoU. QREET/NQ Ymt au htrehy commandAi to hai< 0\{ body of VlUlMB D* McClucACO^ b? you impruoned and detained, at tt ts laid, totether uuK the Dnv dnJ comjc o^ shc^ m^vuonnuTU ami dftmnon. by uhatxri'eT name the laid UUlam D. MoCluCSCB^ ihaU be called o' cha'ceJ. before the Ci'ruii Coun 0/ uiiJ Pnmj Coun/7. at the Conn Houae m Ptona, in laid Covnrj. ..on..Iburaill7,.Jaiuiaii7 .AUlA^.D. .1921, «L 10^'claek.XJU immediauty after Ivint ktvoI uilfi idu wnt, u iw doill uy)nica)>dmt to law And kut yon then and there thu thereon oi your doinfi m the ItrmiieiL^^ ', WITNESS. >* Clerk oi taid Circuit Court, and the Seal thereof, at Peona, tha day of A. D. loa ... B> „ Deprr, To R«nry T.-ljaiB^aar-Cotciier-, toilii»r Fig. 35. A writ of haboas rorpus. Exropt for such a writ, a person ronfined in an asylum or jail mif,'ht be held indefinitely without just cause. (h) Securify of properly. \o man may bo arbi- trarily deprived of liis property, lie abvays has a chance to defend his rifjhts in court. Even if the government takes property for necessary j)iiltHc purposes, it must pay what the property is worth as determined by a jury. (c) Trial by jury. One accused of crime is ent itled to trial by a jury of twelve of liis fellow citizens, chosen by lot. (d) Habeas corpus. No man can be held long in prison without trial. His friends can secure from a judge an order known as a wrU of habeas corpus which obliges his jailer to produce him in court. If 68 Loyal Citizenship he is being improperly held, the judge will order his release (Fig. 35). (e) Other safeguards. No excessive hail may be demanded or cruel and unusual punisJiment imposed. Even officers of the government may not search one's house without a warrant. The crowning privilege of citizenship. We have enumerated a few of the advantages of living under the flag of the United States, which are extended even to foreign residents. We have yet to mention the crowning privilege of citizenship — a privilege which only citizens twenty-one years of age or over can exercise — the right to vote. The fact that those who make and carry out our laws hold their places by the will of the people assures our freedom. The idea of the importance of the baUot is well expressed in a stanza by John Greenleaf Wliittier: Not Ughtly faU Beyond recall The written scrolls a breath can float; The crowning fact, The kingliest act, Of Freedom is the freeman's vote. QUESTIONS What is the announced purpose of our government? Who can be citizens of the United States? Why do we take the privileges of citizens for granted? What does our country do to protect us from foreign enemies? from internal disorder? How are we protected against governmental tyranny? What limitations may there be on the rights of public assembly and freedom of speech and of the press? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Naturalization (see Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, pages 50, 104, 106, 297). A day's record of the police The Privilnjes of ( Uliicnshifj ()^) in protetling tlic |)iil)lic, as sliowii hy llic station lilollcr. Th*: Declaration of Indeix'ndfnc*'; the Hill of Mif^lits of the Constitution of the United States; the l>il| of Mi;;hts of sour state; Magna Charta; the Knglish Hill of Hi^dils of l(,m. CIVIC ACTIVITIES I^t dilTerent nienilxTs of a (-oniniittee of pupils inter\ iew a lawyer, a newspap<'r rei)orter. a clergyman, a teacher, and a l)nsin«'ss man, and ask: "Should anarchists l)c all (lniirliT for ;i(lriii~ ■ ilie public ^'olf links at \\ iisliiiifitoii. D. C. Our Presiih-iit i>. iilt. r .ill. one of tilt' people and must submit to the laws and repilations wliii li apply to other citizens. Italy the head of the government is a kinj^, who i.s not an actual ruler. Sueh goverinnents are called constiluliomil or liniiU'd nionarchics. lii tliciii lite real power lies in the represenlalives of liie jn'oplc, and they are in many respects as democratic as is (lie government of the United States, IVaiuc. likf I lie United States, has at the head of its government an elected officer, the President. Such governments are calKnl repuhlirs. Responsibility of the individual citizen. Vah\\ American citizen should have a .^ense of personal responsibihty for the welfare of his country, lint too often he feels that his duties are shared bs so many others that he need not concern himself about 72 Loyal Citizenship them. It is clear, however, that if every one said, " I do not need to fulfill my duty as a citizen because others will," no one would ever fulfill his duty. The duties of the citizen and voter are: First, to obey the law and the lawful commands of those in authority; second, to act wisely and understandingly in the election of other citizens to represent him in the conduct of the government; and third, to stand ready to defend his country with his life (Fig. 37). The increasing complexity of government. There was a time when government concerned itself about httle more than furnishing protection against foreign enemies and maintaining peace within its territories. The needs as well as the duties of the citizen were then comparatively simple. But as civilization has become more complex the individual has become more and more dependent on government for ser- vices that are vital to him. For example, take the case of water. If you live in the country and have your own well, you can, perhaps, take measures that will protect you against impurities in the water. If, however, water comes to you and thousands of others tlirough miles of pipe from a source you never saw, you will be quite unable to keep your water supply free from contamination or to determine whether or not it contains germs such as those of typhoid fever. In like manner you will be unable to determine the true contents of the bottle of milk that is left at your door each morning, or of the can of goods from the grocer's. To protect you in such matters, inspectors are employed by the government. Tlie wider its ser- The Duties of (Utizenship Mtirt}jHth.titn }fit.frur. Fig. 37. The snproiiio sorvico of loyiil cili/crisliip. "('.;irr\ On, " a cdebraU'd |K)sler by Edwin Hlnshfit-ld. vices, the more hiffhJy govcrnmenl niusi be orqauized and the more intelligently it needs to be nuuHujed. T\w citizen must keep himself \\e\\ informed in order tliat he may do his duty as a volcr. 74 Loyal Citizenship You are now entering the Palisades Interstate Park. It is a Public Park, extending at this point from the river's edge to the top of the cliffs in a northerly and southerly direction for a distance of twelve and a half miles. The trees and shrubbery in Ihis Park are of priceless value to the public. They must be preserved. We ask you to refrain from picking autumn leaves or branches. We know how much you enjoy them but if you pick them today, you will deprive others of the pleasure of "seeing them tomorrow and you will disfigure the Park. Will you please follow these suggestions as to your own action and where you see others picking leaves or breaking branches be good enough to use your influence in persuading them not to do so? Your cooperation will be appreciated. Fig. 38. An effective printed appeal to the cooperative spirit of visitors to a great park. No loyal citizen would disregard it. Loyalty. We can sum up all of the citizen's duties in the one word loyalty. If you want a reason for being loyal, you can find one in this fact: that your country can give you opportunities for freedom and cooperation only tlirough good government, which depends upon the loyalty of citizens. // is to your interest to be loyal. It is also to the interest of your fellow citizens that you, as well as they, should be loyal, in order to secure for all the benefits of a well- governed country; but after all, loyalty to one's country is something more than loyalty to one's own interests, or even to the interests of his fellow citi- zens. Your country's ideals and the blood that has been shed to achieve them have given it a personality which is worthy of the deepest devotion. QUESTIONS WTiat is democracy.'^ What is an autocracy? Give examples. What is a limited monarchy? Give examples. What is a republic? The Duties of Citizenship 75 Name ten inipurtunl republics. W Iml ;ire three extremely im[Kjr- tant duties of citizenship? Give as many examples as you can of the services rendered by government. What reasons can you give for being loyal? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION This is a good place to begin the study of comparative government by a.ssigning as topics for report the governments of countries men- tioned in the text. Comparisons miglit well be made between the governments of France and the United States and of France and Great Britain. Some possible sources of information are Wilson, WooDROw, The Slate (Revised Edition, 1918); Ogg, F. A., The Governmenis of Europe; S.\it, E. M.. Government and Politics of France; KrIjger, F. K., Government and Politics of the German Empire (old system); Brooks, R. C, Government and Politics of Switzerland; Doud, W. E., Modern Conslilutiuns (contains the con- stitutions of all the principal countries of the world down to 1909). Any good encyclopedia will be very useful, as will files of Review of Reviews, Literary Digest, and Curreid History. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Have a loyalty hour, with a patriotic program by the class. Include the reading of a portion of the Declaration of Independence, and let several examples of loyalty to home, school, or country be reported by members of the class. One of the best exaniples — of devotion to humanity — was the act of several members of the United States Public Health Service who allowed themselves to be bitten by Stegomyia mosquitoes in order to determine whether or not they were the carriers of yellow fever. Dr. Jesse Lazear died as a result of this experiment. CHAPTER TEN Elections The ballot box. The central device in our repub- lic consists of a very large number of boxes of many shapes and sizes, in which our citizens place their ballots at election time. Our government can never be any better than the votes recorded on the ballots which go into these boxes; its wisdom cannot be greater than the wisdom of its citizens as expressed at the polls. Our representatives can never be any better than we, the people, choose them to be. Since government in the United States is carried on almost altogether by representatives, our chief business as citizens is to select them. Who may vote. In order to vote at a national election, one must be a citizen of the United States, at least twenty-one years of age. In some states the voter must pass a very simple educational test; in Fig. 39. The ballot box — a symbol of the rule of the people. 76 Elections 77 Fig. 40. An rlprtinn scene. Secret votinp; represents a pre ""e Square at the Right of Name FOE ALDERMAN TO BE DIRECTOR OF DEPARTMENT ''. OF PUBLIC PROPERTY. (Two Year Term) i, VOTE FOR ONE FOR SCHOOL COMMITTEE (Two Year Term) VOTE FOR TWO THOMAS F. GREENE, > JOHN A. FLANAGAN, 6s.„»..t„ | [; DANIEL H. KELLEHER, ,=.^s, MICHAEL F. SC ANLON, «, ..^ s, | 1 DANIEL F. MALONEY,.A.w.s, 1 ; WALTER T. ROCHEFORT. i. To Vote On the Following IJnestions Mark a Cross X u" ""e Square at the Rigbl of "Yes' or "No ' FOR ALDERMAN TO BE DIRECTOR OF DEPARTMBHT , OF PUBLIC HEALTH AND CHARITIES s (Two Year Term) VOTE FOR ONE i. "Shall licenses be granted for the sale of ceruin non-intoxjcatiug bever ages in this city?" Yes No EDWARD C. CALLAHAN,' ; r WILLIAM H.D.VOSE, o,p„u,s, 1 ••Shall Licenses be Granted for the Sale of Intoxicating Liquors in this ', City?" Yes No 1 \ Shall Chapter 240. Acts of 1920, ; entitled. "An Act To Permit. Under Public Regulation and Control, Cer- tain Sports and Games on The Lord's Day." be accepted? Yes No 1 * » ' ■- "^ Shall Chapter 619. Acts of ISBO, en- 3* * ' - tilled. -Aji Act to EstabUsh a State Yes 1; \ " ~ ^"""'"^' Department of PubUc Safety," be ac- cepted? No Fig. 45. Section of a non-partisan Ijallot. To vote on such a ballot, the elector must find out beforehand something about the candidates. non-partisan nominations and elections, in which the party of the candidate is not shown on the ballot, are becoming more and more common in local govern- ment (Fig. 45). Polilical rurlii's 89 QUESTIONS Name as many as yon can of IIh* |H)lili(-al parlies lliat have rxistcd in tliis country. \N liat is a {>oliti(al party? What is a |x>liti('al machine? \Miat is a |)arly boss? Why are parties necessary? How many f,'reat parlies are there in the I 'nitetl Slates? Why is that a good tiling? What is the proper allilude of a glalform may he very hrief and simple, huf it should coxcr the principal points of community betterment which will form the siibjeit of the lessons in Part .'5. CHAPTER TWELVE Nominations Caucuses and conventions. At an election the voter is practically obliged to make his choice be- tween the candidates whose names appear on the ballot. He may, it is true, write in any other name in a blank space provided for that purpose; but it is almost impossible to elect any one by this means. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that we con- sider houj the names of candidates get on the ballot. A few years ago all parties nominated their candi- dates by what is usually called the convention system. The voters of each party met in ward or town or precinct caucuses or primaries and elected delegates to city, county, or congressional district conventions. These caucuses and conventions nominated candi- dates for city and county offices, for the state legis- lature, and even for the national House of Repre- sentatives. The county or the congressional-district conventions elected delegates to a state convention, and the state convention did the same for the na- tional convention. [Two delegates to Republican conventions were elected by each congressional-dis- trict convention.] This method of nomination still prevails in several states (Fig. 46). The direct primary. In a majority of the states the convention system has been abandoned, and the direct-primary system has been substituted. Conven- tions failed really to represent the voters of each party because the caucuses were poorly attended and unfairly conducted. The direct primary works like 90 Nontinalioiis 91 g> r..;^ 92 Loyal Citizenship this: A substantial citizen, John Jones, desires to become democratic candidate for governor. He must first secure the signatures of a specified number of Democrats (usually a small per cent of the party's vote for governor at the last election) to a petition proposing him for nomination. He files this petition with the secretary of state a fixed length of time before the primary. His rivals within the Democratic party must follow the same procedure, and so must those desiring the Republican or other nomination, each, of course, securing signatures of men of his own party. The ballots are then prepared for the pri- mary of each party. Jones thereafter carries on a campaign among his fellow Democrats to secure their votes (Fig. 47). The primaries of all parties are generally held on the same day. As each voter presents himself at the polling place, he is given the primary ballot of his party. In some states he must, when registering, have declared his party preference, if he is to be regarded as a member of that party at the primary. In others he may declare his party at the primary polls. The primary is conducted almost exactly like an election, and the same provisions against dishonesty are in force. The ballots of each party are put in a separate box and are counted separately. If John Jones has more votes tliroughout the state than any other Democratic aspirant for governor, his name is placed on the ballot at the state election as that party's candidate. If you ask Mr. Jones what has particularly im- Nominations 93 OFFICIAL BALLOT FOR THH PRIMARY LLECTION OF THt REPUBLICAN PARTY. WESTCHESTER COUNTY, SEPTEMBER 14. 1920 SECOND ASSEMBLY DISTRICT TOWN OF BEFORD FIRST ELECTION DISTRICT CAJIDIDATES FOR NOKUIATIOII FOR FUBUC OFFICE CAmOATES FOR lOMHATIOI FOR mUC OFFICE GOVERNOR CVou Icr 00«) /DST1CE O^THEJirnEia conxT 1 ■ATHAJI L HILLEB J9 20 J09EFH HORKHADm 1 2 OEOROE F. THOMPSOII ISAAC > uau 2! UEDTEHAHT-OOVERJiOR (VM, tor osi) B 4 WILLIAM IL BEKNETT I a lErUIEITATITE Dl COIOREM IVot«ror oul SECRETART OF STATE 1 ivcitloronel | J^ IAMI8 W. HURZD s ■ 1 6 ROBERT R. UWSOH nATZ SDATOR (Vou for OBtt d- OEOROE T. RVRLDIO COHFT&OLLER 1 7 JAMES A. WENDELL MEMBER OF ASSEMBLY IVot. foros.1 n WALTER WORTH ■^- WALTER W. WESTAU ■ Fig. 47. A direct-priiiuiry ballot. On this ballot l^cpiiMic an voters expressed their choice of the persons to hecome caiKJidatcs of their party. Note the .similarity to the Massachusetts linal-eleclioii l)allot (Fig. II). Note also that for each of several offices there was only one candidate. pressed him in his campaign for llic nomination, he will, if he is quite frank, speak of the hard work and the expense of it. This indicates the weakness of the direct primai^, at least for slate offices; the expense of a campaign makes it very difficult for a poor man to be nominated. Importance of the primary. \o ])riiiiarA system furnishes any guarantee tliat noiiiiiialions will be wisely or even honestly made. There is a great tendency on the part of the tliouglitless citizen to forget all about the primary. He will go shooting, fishing, on a business trip, or, as is even more com- 94 Loyal Citizenship mon, just go about his ordinary work or play and neglect the primary. The result is that incompetent, unrepresentative, or even corrupt men receive nom- inations. Of course, as is often the case, if no good candidates have sought to have their names placed on the primary ballots, the case is hopeless anyway. If there is indifference about voting at primaries, there is far more indifference about getting good candidates to run for nomination at the primaries. An active citizen's duty requires his interest in both these matters. He ought even to be willing to be- come a candidate himself, if necessary. The final election is only the third line of defense. The first and second line trenches are the petition and primary election stages. It would be a bad general who would give the enemy his first two lines of defense and try only to hold them at the third. QUESTIONS Describe the convention system. What was its weakness? What is the direct primary? Trace the steps by which a nomination is secured. What criticism can be made of the system.^ Do you think that this matter could be remedied? What is meant by "non-partisan nominations"? Illustrate the importance of not forgetting the primary. TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The history of nomination methods in this country is told with many references in Reed, T. H., Form and Funclions of American Government, Chapter 7. See especially Merriam, C. E., Primary Elections. CIVIC ACTIVITIES A debate on the relative merits of the convention and direct- primary systems of nominating. CHAITKU TlllirrEEN l^s n M A Ti \ ( ; Ci A M )i I ) A 1 1 ;s Getting information about candidates. As the first step loward ri;j:lil voting, we must {ry to find out all we can about the fitness of the candidates and about the issues for which they stand. In some cases the question of personal Jitness will i)e uppermost ; in other cases the polilical principles of candidates should be the subject of especially careful inquiry. In national campaigns there are available as sources of information, first of all, the party plat- forms. Then there are the speeches of acceptance made by the candidates for President when they are officially notilied of their nomination. These are always published in full in all the principal news- papers. The newspapers report not only the speeches of candidates, but also those of their })rincipal sup- porters, and they publish a great deal of other matter concerning the issues of the campaign. ITnfortunately, newspapers are not always wholly reliable. One expects to find the views of the pub- lisher expressed in the editorial columns; but too often the publisher's special policy leads to the per- version and even to the suppression of news. It is only by reading two or more newspapers whose inter- ests differ that you can arrive at the truth in many matters. It is nnich the same with the great weekly and monthly magazines. Using the Congressional Record and other docu- ments. ^ ou can learn from the Congressional Record jnst how each Senator or H(^pres(Mitative 96 Loyal Citizenship SIXTY-SEVENTH CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION. Toi.«i. WASHINGTON, SATURDAY, JULY 9, 1921. «*. 7l SENATE. Satoodat, Jii2y 9, 1921. ?iiaff^ wos not id scssi Monday. Joly 11, 1921, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Saturday, July 9, 1921. The House was c«llpd to order nt 11 o'clock a. m. by Mr. ■ Dro tenirx Shera Montgomery, D. D., ottereO I Speaker pro tempore. The Chaplain. I(ev ■ the followlos prayer: Our Heavenly Father, Thou art the ci Uglit nnil uar divine guurdlao through tli Bight seaaon. Therefoi tabors to give Tbt* pral ibe Dilnlstriea oC their lo tor of the morning still watches of the al the threshold of our idences are so cenerous in We tliank Thee for Thy dependents of one of the elected officers of the House, Appftr- enlly the precedents nre that the practice lias been to pay a year's salary to the widow or dependents of cterlia at th« rtesk. Including the OfTiclal Reporters of the House. The precedents are not numerous. The inst lime on officer or clerk at the desk died was In 1887 A reading clerk died and tbc House proceeded to pay the widow of the reading clerk one year'n salary Prior to that time Mr. HIncks. one of the Official Re- porters of the House, died, and the Committee on Accounts Old not ret-ommend a year's salary, but the House lncrensee year's salary, and the Hou»e so voted, and he wt^ I brought Hernidn Pliltlips here to the House nearly 24 yeara ago as assistant Journal clerk. Shortly afterwards be bci-ainii Journal clerk of the House. From then on he was Journal clerk during all of the time except when the Damocrallc side of tlie Bou^e WHS in coutrol of tlie Bouse . Be. bad a ioog aod Fig. 48. The Congressional Record contains a full report of every sp)eech made in either house of Congress; also the vote of each member on all roll-call votes. One fifth of the members present may demand a roll-call vote. voted on various measures. You can obtain from the secretary of state or the clerk of the senate or house of representatives of your state legislature copies of the journal of that body and find there the vote of every member on every bill. Where a candi- date has not served in Congress or the state legisla- ture, you can make inquiries concerning his past record ; but you should be careful to hear from both his friends and his opponents so that you may not be governed by biased information. In city elections you can depend to some extent on published reports of the city government. In some states and cities there are good-government organizations which give out information and make recommendations. These are of great assistance. The short-ballot movement. The very large num- ber of candidates makes it difficult to find out as Edimaiitm Candidates 97 much as wp should al)()iit iIkiii. Tlicn' are usually several candidates for each ofhce, and liiere are many offices to be filled by election. Not only are the important offices elective, as the offices of President, governor, or members of Confjress. in filling Avhich the people are deeply interested. l)ul a ^'real nurnbrr of lesser offices, about which peojjle ordinarily jjive themselves Httle concern, are elective. // Uir higher KiG. 49. This ballot from ;» Middle \\ cslcrii -I..I. has six party columns and an additional coluiMn for independent voting. It requires the elector's decision on filling .'Vl oHices, from United States President to township assessor. 98 Loyal Citizenship BALLOT PAPER 1 NETTLEFOLD. (John Sutton Nettlef old, Winter- bourn, Edgbaston Park Road, Edgbaston, Gentleman.) 2 TUNBRIDGE. (William Stephen Tunbridge, Rocklands, Woodbourne Road, Edgbaston, Solicitor.) Fig. 50. The official ballot used in an English city election. The elector was required to choose a person to fill a single office, councilor from his ward. He had the opportunity of making an intelligent choice. officials only were elected, and if these officials appointed men to the minor positions, the ballot would be much shorter and the citizen could mark it far more intelli- gently. Such different men as Woodrow Wilson, William H. Taft, and Theodore Roosevelt, have urged the necessity of making the voter's task easier by making the ballot shorter. As we study local and state govermnent, we shall come back again and again to the subject of the "short ballot." It is cer- tainly unfortunate to have so many elective offices as to discourage the citizen from trying to fmd out about the many candidates for them (Figs. 49 and 50). A candidate's appeal. In considering the merits of any candidate, you should lay more stress upon his record than upon his promises. You must always try to find out whether or not he is sincere. This is a Estimating Candidates 99 difTinilt (liinj; lo do. l)ecause many politicians are as clever as ^'ood adors in s«'(Mniiifr tf) be siiiccrc. Wlicn a candidate talks almost altogether about his party's history or points with pride to the achievements of Thomas Jefferson or Abraham Lincoln, it is probably because he has very little to say for himself. When a candidate appeals to sentiment and prejudice rather than to reason, you may ivell distrust him as a dema- gogue. What constitutes a good representative. A repre- sentative should be a })erson of reputabte private tife, with a clear record for sobriety and honesty. He should, other things being equal, have an education superior to the average in the connnunity. On the other hand, he should not be removed by any per- sonal advantage that he may possess from a true sympathy ivilh the peopte. Social position, wealth, and education do not necessarily remove a man from such sympathy, but they sometimes do. A representative should be a man of some force and personatity, able to impress his ideas on others. Without these qualities he may be an honest and intelligent representative, but he will not be a very effective one. He must have courage, particularly moral and intellectual courage. He should not merely reflect the wishes of his constituents; he should use his best judgment for the benefit of all. He should not be an extremist or a person given to fads or notions, but he should be open-minded and ready to lead in securing the adoption of new ideas that are worth while. 100 Loyal Citizenship Finally, a representative should be a man who has not been inlimalely associated with any corrupt poli- tical machine. Such political machines have often made use of men of reputable life, good ability, and fine reputation, upon whom they had some secret hold or upon whom they could for some reason de- pend to serve their ends — an arrangement that sug- gests the fable of the wolf that wore the coat of a sheep. QUESTIONS What is the proper attitude toward party? How can we obtain information about candidates? Why must we be on our guard with reference to newspapers? How can we use the Congressional Record? the journal of the state legislature? What is the short- ballot movement? Why should we distrust candidates' promises? What qualities must a good representative have? What qualities must he not have? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The character of any truly great American politican will, if analyzed, illustrate and enforce the truths brought out in the text. Different students may each be asked to describe an ideal repre- sentative by making a composite list of the outstanding characteris- tics of two such contrasting personages as Hamilton and Jefferson, ' John Quincy Adams and Jackson, or Clay and Webster. These composite characters, as "Alexander Jefferson" and "John Quincy Jackson," may afterward be placed in nomination at a mock national convention. The short-ballot movement is a splendid topic. Write the National Municipal League, 261 Broadway, New York City, for information. See also Reed, T. H., Government for (he People, pages 95-107; and Childs, R. S., Short-Ballot Principles. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Let the class assume the role of the city or county central com- mittee of a good-government candidate for mayor, district attorney, or other office. The class may prepare a campaign speech or circular for general distribution, telling what kind of representative the can- didate would make. CHAPTER FOT RTKFA' The CiTizKN as L\\\m\ki:h Voting directly on propositions. Ilic citizen iiol only has lo select represent at Ives, but also, with in- creasing frequency, he has lo vote "Yes" or "No" directly on proposed measures. Changes in state constitutions are practically always passed upon by the people. Amendments lo city charters, proposi- tions to borrow money by the sale of bonds, and other matters in many cases have to be ratified by popular vole. Fmthermore, in several stales and many cities the people possess the power of iniliative and referendum. By " initiative'' is meant the potter of proposing laivs by petition. A constitutional amendment, a law, an ordinance, or a charter change is proposed by some individual or committee. If a certain specified num- ber of voters attach their names to the proposition, it is submitted at an ensuing election. If a majority is in favor of the measure, it becomes law. By ''referendum'' is meant the submission to the people of a matter that has already been enacted as taw. The referendum is instituted by petition. \\ iiere the right of referendum exists, the operation of all measures except "emergency" measures is suspended from thirty to ninety days to allow those opposed to it to circulate petitions. If enough signatures are secured, the measure remains suspended and is placed on the ballot at the next election. We speak of the use of the iniliative and referendum as direct legislation. 101 102 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 51. The citizen rulers of ancient Athens listening to their great statesman Pericles, who led them through the power of persuasion. Legislation by the people themselves is the dis- tinctive feature in direct democracy as contrasted with representative democracy. The ancient Athenian citizens, when they met in a single body and made their laws, were practicing direct democracy, and the citizens of some New England towns are still doing this in local affairs (Fig. 51). Our republic is a representative democracy. The vastness of modern populations has compelled the resort to legislation through representatives. However, through the de- vices of the initiative and the referendmn there has been a return in recent years, in some measure, to direct democracy. Serious business for the voter. In many states, voting on propositions has become a very serious The (yilizefi as Lawmaker io;i part of llio cilizon's husincss. For example, in De- cember, 191 1, the ])('()ple of California voted on fcjrty- eiglit questions. 1 lie text of the ])ropositions and arguments for and against them, which the law re- quired to !»' placed in the hands of each voter. Aiiiendments to Constitution Proposed Statutes Arguments Respecting the Same To be SubmillcJ lo ihc EIrrtora of the Stale of CaliforsU •! tbe Ccoeral EIrctioD oo TUESDAY. NOXTMBER 2, 1920 ]o(lrv. ballot lilies with Dumber*, •od crrtiAcale Bpp«*r ta lul pa|«< I'ropotcd cbiogri ia prot~*iooi ur priolrd in bUck facrd lyp* Pn>ri«t9iu propoM^ to be repealed arc printed la itaUca Fig. 52. A booklet like this is sent to every voter in Cali- fornia before each state election. It };i\es all })ro[K)sitions to be Noted upon, together with arfinnients for and against them. This particular book contained ()l pages, 38 of these being double-colunm pages of smull type. 104 Loyal Citizenship amounted to a volume of 112 large, closely printed, two-column pages containing over 175,000 words — nearly twice as many as in this book. This is an extreme example, but voting on propositions is common in many states and the custom is spread- ing to others. Advantages and disadvantages of the initiative and referendum. In voting on propositions the voter has the advantage of being able to study each question at his leisure, beforehand. Yet many of the measures submitted are long, complicated, and diffi- cult to understand. They are, of course, always the work of an individual or a committee, who may make mistakes. The purpose of a law may be admirable, and yet the law itself may be very bad. There is, of course, no opportunity for amendment. We can only say "Yes" or " No " to what is put before us. On the other hand, the initiative with the referendum gives the people a check on their elected representatives which may prove very valuable. Deciding how to vote. In many localities civic organizations appoint committees to study propo- sitions submitted and to make recommendations. Sometimes they invite men of ability and repute to describe the measures and instruct the people con- cerning their effect. Joint debates, too, are often held. If election day finds a voter still in doubt on any proposition, he will usually vote "No." Bad laws have such a serious and lasting effect that it is best not to adopt a new law until you are sure that it is a good one. The (aHzch as lAunuakcr 103 A word of caution about signing petitions. Many voters will sign a pclilioii jiisl to aNoid Ix-ing bothered furllicr l»y the persons circulatini: it. I hey sign withoul much ihouglil as lo what they are signing. Sometimes the eirculalor gets ten eents for every name signed, and people will sign just to help him out. In this way many measures that do not deserve it get a })laee on the ballol. Sneli unworthy measures lengthen the l)allot, to the eonliision of the voters, and are a hindrance to good governnicnt. The citizen should be as careful irilh his signature as ivith his vote. QUESTIONS What kind of measures do (he people have to vole on in your slale.^ What is meant by the "initiative"!* by tlie "referendum"!' How may voting on propositions beeome a burden to voters? What danger may there be in proposed laws whose pur{M)sc is gtKjd? How can the voters be Instructed on propositions submitted? N\h;it is the duty of the good citizen with regard lo j)efitions? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The initiative and referendum provisions of your own state constitution or city charter, and what has been accomplished under them. See Ui:i:i). T. II., Fund ions of American Governnicnt. pages 1 13-152, especially references on page 1.51. CIVIC ACTIVITIES In the class, discuss and vote on some proposition recently sub- mitted to the people of your state or locality, or alM)ut to be sub- mitted to them. Draw up a measure you would like to see adopted as a school policy. Prepare and circulate a petition in accordance with your state law or city ordinance, getting signatures among your fellow students. Then file the petition with the proper .schtw)! authorities. (Remember that your petition has no legal effect.) PART THREE THE CITIZEN AND THE LOCAL COMMUNITY Cooperation and Self-Government I say the mission of government in civi- lized lands is not authority alone (not even of law), nor the rule of the best man — but to train communities through all their grades, beginning with individuals and ending there again, to rule themselves. Walt Whitman CHAPTER Flin KE\ The Local Community The origin of community life. We have already noted how priiiiilive men gol loj^'etlier in little bands for self-proteetion. They l)iiih their luits elose to- gether and defended them willi rude fortifications, often with palisades. Such were tlie hrst villages. Men soon learned that these villages served other purposes, as well as their original one of affording protection. They permitted a higher degree of co- operation. Division of labor was carried further than it could have been among wandering men or cave dwellers, and hfe was enriched through increased association. The growth of cities. As villages grew in popu- lation, they became better places in which to live and work; neighborhood barter developed into trade with other villages, and the matter of getting an ade- quate and steady supply of food became a more and more complex problem. To grow, any place nmst have an increasing market for its products and an increasing supply of food from outside its limits. The extent of the area in which it can sell its goods and buy its food depends on means of transportation. We need not be surprised, therefore, lo find lliat Ihc greatest cities are those most favorably situated with regard to transportation. In the last hundred years, tlu'ee factors have united to promote the growth of cities, to an extent un- thought of in earlier times. Marvelous inrentions have made the industries of cities a htnuhcd-fold 109 110 Loyal Citizenship The Local ('omm unity 1 1 1 more productive; improrenwnfs in agricultural methods and machinery now eiial>le one man to do what forty men could barely do in 1750; the steam railroad and the steamship have given every city a world market and have brought to it the foodstufTs of the world (Fig. 53). New York an example. In 1661, when the Eng- lish first captured New Anislerdain, the town occu- pied only the southernmost portion of the island of Manhattan. Its most important trade was with the Indians and with the Netherlands, furs being ex- changed for trinkets and firearms. As the country along the Hudson and on Long Island filled up with farmer settlers, the population of the city slowly increased. Its merchants sold the manufactured goods of Europe to the settlers, buying in turn the products of their clearings. New York City, how- ever, did not much surpass Philadelphia and Boston until the construction of the Erie Canal brought the products of western New Y'ork, Ohio, and the country about the Great Lakes to its doors. The full effect of the canal had hardly been felt before railroad building made New York's mag- nificent harbor the port of the whole countr>\ Fast as the United States has grown, New York has grown faster. Not only is it now the largest city in our country, but it disputes with London the right to be considered the largest city in the world. At its docks the contents of freight cars are endlessly stow ed into the holds of great steamers, and the cargoes of unloading steamers are packed into cars. Hun- 112 Loyal Citizenship New York Historical Society Fig. 54. New York dock in 1679. London and Paris were many centuries old when New York had its beginnings. Compare Figures 53 and 72. dreds of thousands of its people are engaged directly or indirectly in the exchange and transportation of goods. Other hundreds of thousands are engaged in manufactures. City growth in the United States. In 1830 there were only six cities in the United States with popula- tions of more than 30,000. All together they held not quite four per cent of the total population of the country. In 1919 over 33 per cent of our people lived in 227 places of more than 30,000. In 1790 the largest city was New York, with 33,131 people. Philadelphia, with 28,522, had only recently lost first place. In 1920 New York had 5,621,151 people, and there were eleven other cities of more than half a million. The United States has become a land The Local Coinmuiiilv 113 of cities, and the niassiruf of fK-opJc has created tre- mendous problems ( ^'i^^ .").")). How communities develop. Evcr>' conmiiinily has had its first selllcTs. Pcrliaps the very first one came trudging in with a j)ack on his hack and an ax on his shoulder and pitched iiis camp on the hank of a stream. Soon the chips were flying and a log cahin rose under the shadow of the forest. Then a second traveler settled close hy for company. Another and another followed, usually with wife and children. A grist mill was huilt, and a general store was opened. About this time the settlers awoke to the fact that they were a comnmnity. The first thing that sug- gested the fact to them was the need for a school for their cliildren. They held a meeting in the loft al)ove the store and agreed to build a scliool and employ a teacher. On a day appointed they came with their 1830 )y;^y///^;^:\ U. ■'>. liuTcnu of Cfnsu.1 Fig. 53. ITow jxjpuliilion in cilios of (ti»> Unilod Slatis luiv iiifi .'50.000 or more inhiil)il;iiils compiir^-d wilti p()[nilalioii oiilsidc siicli cilifs, from |}!.'50 to 1*)1'>. Tlic heavily sliadfd |>arl of t-ach line indicates the city {)opulatioii. 114 Loyal Citizenship tools and oxen and "raised" a log schoolhouse. Then they sent to the older settlements and secured a teacher. The teacher boarded around among the parents, and at the end of a period of service the settlers turned over to some one of their number their shares of the teacher's salary. After a while, under the laws of a state or a territory, the people organized a school district. As the people grew in numbers, they found that they needed a constable, and then streets and sidewalks, lights on the corners, and rules for the keeping of cows and pigs behind fences. The first settler was self-sufficient. He needed little besides his keen ax and the strength of his arms. The growing group of settlers needed some- thing more, and that was the means for community action — cooperation. Under the laws of every state or territory some means is provided for satisfying this need: toivn government in New England, county government in the far West and South, and township or village and county government in most other parts of the country. If these methods of local organiza- tion had not been provided, the comnmnity would have had to find its own. The state or territorial government organized the county as a unit, primarily as a means of enforcing its laws and preserving order. But among other things, the county made it possible for the several communities to build and maintain the connecting roads that they needed so badly. As a town or village grows, its needs expand to include sewers, paving, a public library, parks, fire The Local Community 113 U. S. Geological Surrey Fio. .'56. A picinoor comniiinity at Valdez, Alaska. Such scenes have marked the settlement of America from Jamestown and Plymouth to Seattle and Cape Nome. protection, and a real police department to replace the constable; indeed, its wants seem endless, never satisfied, and always increasing. It must have greater powers, and it is incorporated as a city. Community spirit. The steps in the founding and growth of a community were never followed exactly as we have described. But they have ])een followed, in substance, thousands of limes in the history of our country. Our account indicates how community needs grow and how connnunity government nmst be created and extended to satisfy litem. Through all the changes that we imagined, from settlement to city, there never ceased to be a true connnunity. There continued to be common needs thai had to be met tln-ough the joint action of I he people. The 116 Loyal Citizenship complex problems of the city were just as real as were the simple problems of the early settlers, and their solution called for a spirit of cooperation just as truly as did the raising of that first log school- house. The community spirit — a common purpose to further the public welfare — is the quality essential to successful community life. In a growing community there are often forces that tend to weaken community spirit. Perhaps a new factory brings in a force of foreign workers. These, while they remain un-Americanized, may fail to get together in spirit with the older population. As group of immigrants follows group, — Italians, Slavs, Jews, and Syrians, — each as different from the others as from the original American stock, the maintenance of common ideals among the whole people becomes more difficult. Then, too, as cities grow, the extremes of wealth and poverty tend to stand out more and more. Class feehng, strikes, and all sorts of misunderstandings often develop. The community suffers because its community spirit is weakened. Under such circumstances community spirit must be dehberately cultivated by every means in our power. QUESTIONS What are some of the benefits of community life? What are some of the causes of the growth of cities? Which do you think most important? Why? How is this illustrated in the case of New York City? How many cities in the United States had over 30,000 people in 1790? What was the largest city? What was its population? How large was New York City in 1920? What proportion of the total population of the United States lived in cities of over 30,000 The Ijjcal Cotuninnily 117 in 1830? in 1919? How do coiimninitii's f^jrow !' \\ li;it iiiiinmr of beginning a roiiiiminily, otlu-r than i\u', one iiidicatt-d in the tcxl, can you iiiiagincP \\ Jiat is the priiiie essential of roiiiimniity life? How uiuy Aiiiericani^salion work {)roriiote this essential thing? TOPIC FOR INVESTIGATION Tlio origin nnd dfvclopiiicnl of your own coinnuniity, with sjM'cial reference to examples of eoniniunily coiiperation. CIVIC ACTIVITIES The class organi/alion can begin the discussion of conmuniity needs with a view to singling out one need that it can and will do something about. CHAPTER SIXTEEN City Government The city. There are cynical people who will tell you that the city is hopelessly corrupt and that the best you can do is to let city politics alone. Do not believe them. They are willing to enjoy all the advantages of city life and then slander the source of those advantages. There is much, even in the worst city, to admire if one has eyes that can see what is good. At any rate, for all the advantages that your city gives you, it is entitled to your gratitude and service. You should be concerned about its faults chiefly with a view to helping remedy them. The Ephebic oath. A high ideal of citizenship was attained in ancient Athens. There, every eligible youth of eighteen entered the Ephebia or military college for two years of training. But first he took a splendid oath of allegiance to his city. You can do no better for your city than firmly to resolve, in the manner of the Ephebi, — "To bring no disgrace to the city by dishonest act. To fight for the ideals and sacred things, alone and with many. To desert no faltering comrade. To revere and obey the laws, and to incite reverence and respect in those above us who are prone to annul or set them at naught. To strive unceasingly to quicken the public sense of civic duty. To transmit this city not less but better and more beautiful than it was transmitted to us." The city as a business corporation. The city is a corporation — what lawyers sometimes call "an arti- 118 Cily Government 119 /',// and CorbcU, ArchilfcU Fig 57 The ctouh of nuiniripal l.nildinps in Court Square. Spring- panile) is the audiluriuiu; to the right is the aduiimslrulion building. 120 Loyal Citizenship ficial person" ; the state has given it the power to own property, to sue and be sued, and not only to govern within its boundaries but to engage in many business undertakings for the benefit of its people. Judged by the services it renders, it is little other than a business corporation. Paving streets; digging sewers; estab- lishing and maintaining parks, playgrounds, and pubhc baths; and providing water, light, heat, and transportation for its people generally are essentially business tasks. Also, in strictly govermnental matters such as the police and fire departments, the actual work of management is much Uke that in a private business. Legislation and administration in city govern- ment. In every government and in every business a distinction is drawn between deciding what to do and doing it. In government, deciding what to do is legislation, and doing it is administration. In our state and national governments, legislation includes the making of many decisions of great and lasting importance regarding such matters as the relations of capital and labor, divorce, damages for personal injuries, and the conduct of interstate com- merce and banking. In city govermnent, legislation requires decisions on such questions as these: "Shall we build this bridge, sewer, or street? Shall we buy this park, estabhsh this pubhc bath, or found that playground? How much money shall we spend on police or fire protection, on cleaning the streets, and on the pubhc-health service?" The importance of administration, as compared with legislation, is much (uty Govcnimeiil 121 (jrealer in cily (joverninenl than in nalional or slalc yovernnwnl. Legislation — the poirer of decision — should be in the hands of the people or their represenlatives. Tliat is tlie essence of democracy. In a city government there should be several legislators — enough so tiiat lliey may deliberate over the questions tlicy have to de- cide. There should not, however, be so many as to make discussion dillicull. I'liere should be among them at least some representative of every important group of people in the community. But adnunistraiion — carrying out the decisions of the people — should Ije intrusted to men of executive ability and special training regardless of political consideration, for the more expert an executive is, the better the wishes of the people w ill be carried out. In a city, for example, if a man is to be in charge of a department of public works, it does not make any difference whether he is a Republican or a Democrat, a single-taxer or a nmnicipal-ownershi]) entliusiast. He may be as he pleases, provided he is a competent engineer and a ca})able executive — the best-cpialified man obtainable for the place, (iood executives, however, are hard to get by election, especially to fdl nmnicipal offices. Forms of city government. Hiere are three forms of city governnieni, whicii \Nitli variations are in general use in our country. These city governments are by (1) mayor and council, {2) commission (3) manager (Fig. 38). Under government Ijy mayor and council legislation 122 Loyal Citizenship is usually in the hands of a single, fairly numerous body or council, subject to a veto by the mayor. Executive power is in the hands of the mayor. He is elected by the people and holds office usually for a term of two or four years. Sometimes there are elective executive officers besides the mayor, each of whom exercises independently a part of the executive power. Under the commission plan of city government aU power, both legislative and executive, is in the hands of a commission, usually of five men, elected at large. For executive purposes each member is given inmie- diate charge of a department or a group of depart- ments. The commissioners receive salaries and usually give practically all their time to the work. Under the city-manager plan legislation is intrusted to a small council whose members receive little or no sgdary, while executive authority is exercised by a manager appointed by the council and removable by them at any time. He receives a fairly large salary and devotes aU his time to the city's business. QUESTIONS Is it right to live in a city and keep out of its afTairs? How does the dictionary define the word "politics"? In what respects may a city government be regarded as a business enterprise? What is the distinction between legislation and administration? Wherein are the problems of state and national government different from those of city government? In which of these is administration relatively more important than legislation? What are the qualities of a good lawmaker? of a good executive? Can good city executives usually be chosen by popular election? Should executive power be given to a body or to an individual? What are the chief characteristics of mayor and council government? of commission government? of manager government? City Government 123 ^ Tnt. PtUFLt, JLLDICV\RY 1 — — _— — 1 CITT COAAMISSION | COMM'R.OF FINANCE <& REVENUE COMM'R.OF PUBLIC WORKS COMM'ROF PUBLIC AFFAIRS COMM'R. OF PUB. HEALTH &> SAFETT COMM'R. OF SUPPLIES Fit;. .'>8. C.ity organization under the mayor and council, the com- mission, and the city-manager plans. 124 Loyal Citizenship TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Details of the government of your own city (in a country school, of your nearest city) should be investigated and made the subject of reports in class. There should be a report on the charter of your city or on the municipal-corporations act of your state. Members of the class might well interview city officials. For this purpose they should have letters of introduction from the teacher. They should state their business briefly and clearly, take notes, and not stay too long. The mayor and council form of city government; the commission form; the manager form. See Beard, C. A., American City Govern- ment and Digest of Short Ballot Charters; The City Manager Plan (pubhshed by the Short Ballot Organization, New York City); Debaters' Handbook Series, The City Manager Plan; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapter 16; and recent magazine articles. CIVIC ACTIVITIES A debate on the proposition: Resolved, That the manager form of government is best suited to the conditions of American cities. The organized class may test the relative merits of committee and single-head management by applying them in different matters that it may be interested in. A talk by the mayor or some other city official will be helpful. If possible, arrangements should be made to have the class as a whole attend a meeting of the city council. The class may perhaps desire to take the Ephebic oath. CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Town and Township Government The town or township. The early scttlcnioiits in New Enfiland were usually made by groups of set- tlers, each group already organized as a church and going in a body to occupy lands that had been granted it. All New England thus came to be a patchwork of irregularly sfidpcd lowns of varyinff area and population. But west of the Alleghenies, Con- gress divided the country into townships, every one six miles square and with boundaries running always north, south, east, and west. These Congressional townships did not correspond at all willi (he natural lay of the land, and this fact kepi (hem from develoj)- ing a really vigorous community life. The New England town. The New England set- tlers were very independent peoj)le, who governed themselves in a town meeting of all the voters. They had no very clear idea of any limits to their author- ity, and they attended to matters as varied as buying a dress for a poor widow and defying the king. The town meetings were "not only the source but the school of democracy." They are no longer so glori- ously indejxMident as in colonial times, but they are even yet the most democratic governments within our country. Many of the larger towns have become cities, so that the towns of the present day are usually small in po])ulation; l)ut a surj)risingly large number of comnmnities have clung to town government long after becoming big enough to be cities. The town meeting. The governing authority of 126 Loyal Citizenship i^^fiitJM m ^^L ^^M ^. —w^jiit^^rsiimm§ Fig. 59. Scene from the Pilgrim Tercentenary pageant held at Plym- outh, Massachusetts. It represents the signing of the Mayflower Compact, which is regarded as the first of written constitutions. It provided for the government of the first New England community. a New England town, as we have seen, is the town meeting, an assembly of all the voters. It is held annually in the town hall, and special town meetings may be held when there is occasion for them. The regular meeting receives the reports of the various officers for the year preceding, passes on their accounts, elects their successors, adopts such by-laws or ordinances as seem necessary, and makes appro- priations and levies taxes for the ensuing year. It lasts all day. The morning is usually spent in ballot- ing for officers, and the afternoon is devoted to the discussion of reports which have been previously printed and placed in the hands of the voters, and to other business specffied in the "warrant" or call for the town meeting. Generally town meetings are well Town and Township Government 127 attended. Any citizen present is free to speak. There is a good deal of debating, and the discussions are likely to be very intelligent. No better method of controlling the conduct of j)ul)lic servants has ever been discovered. The principal officers of the town are the board of selectmen, who may be said to be the deputies of the town meeting. There are commonly three of them, but sometimes more. They are usually elected for one year and are often reelected. Between meetings they have authority to do almost anything that the town meeting itself can do, except to levy^ taxes. Each town has a town clerk who keeps the minutes of the town meeting and all other town records. He is in many cases reelected year after year. There are also town treasurers, constables, etc. To be thoroughly successful, the town-meeting system requires a popu- lation of not more than five or six thousand thor- oughly American or Americanized people. A failure in community spirit is even more fatal in its results in a New England town than in a city governed by a represent alive council. Township government outside New England. In fifteen states outside New England — New York, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma; also, Pennsyl- vania, Ohio, Minnesota, Iowa, North Dakota, and South Dakota — townships are organized for general purposes of local self-government. In some of them town meetings are held, although these are by no means as important as in New England. 128 Loyal Citizenship In the first nine of the fifteen states named, the executive business of the township is in the hands of a single officer called a supervisor, trustee, or town chairman. In addition, there is usually an elective township board of three members, which has charge of the financial affairs of the town. In the last six states named the principal township authority is a board of three members elected by the people. The people in either case usually elect a clerk, assessor, treasurer, justice of the peace, and constable. In the other states of the Union the township is of no prac- tical importance as a unit of government, although it is used as a district of the county for administrative purposes. QUESTIONS What constitutes a town in New England? What is a Congres- sional township? What effect has the Congressional township had on the development of local government west of the Alleghenies? Why is the New England town worth studying? How has it been a school of self-government? What is the board of selectmen? What are the powers of the selectmen? Does the organized township exist outside New England? Is the township used in your state? If so, for what purpose? What are its officers? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The New England town meeting. See Fiske, John, American Political Ideals; Fairlie, J. A., Local Government in Counties, Towns, and Villages; Munro, W^ B., Government of the United States; and Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapters 17 and 18. Your own town or township should be investigated if it is of any importance as a unit of local government. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Turn the class into a miniature town meeting, including in the "warrant," or call for the meeting, questions directly affecting the affairs of the class. CHAPTER EIGHTEEN County Government The county. Every stair in I ho Ignited States is divided into counties, except Louisiana, wlicrc the division corresponding to the county is knoun as tlie parish. Counties vai^ ^^reatly in size and j)opula- tion. Outside New Enj^land they are the principal unit of rural local governnieriL and they are tlie sole unit where there is no town or lownsliij) orfranization. Cities situated within a county are ^^enerally inde- pendent of its autliority. Tlie inhabitants of the city are, however, taxed to maintain the connly ^'ov- ernment, and they take part in electing its oflicers. The people of cities ordinarily pay little attention to their county govenmient, and machine politicians sometimes take advantage of this circumstance. The county board. The principal authority in the county is vested in the county board. To the board belongs the duty of making aj)])ro})riations and levying taxes for the support of the county govern- ment; building and maintenance of highways; poor relief; and the conduct of other matters. There are two main types of county boards. Tho first type con- sists of from three to live (occasionally more) ntern- hers elected by districts or by (lie voters tlirougltout (lie county as a wtiole. With many variations it is found in most of the states. The second type is a large \x)ard made up of supervisors, one of whom is elected from each town — or ward of a city-\Nilhin the county. This type of board prevails in New ^ ork New Jersey, Illinois, Michigan, and \\isct)nsin. 129 130 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 60. Tlic comihoiise at \\ illiainsliurg, \ iryinia, a ty{>i('al old Southern county-government building. It was honestly built, accord- ing to a simple and dignified plan, in 1769. Officers. Besides the county board there are nu- merous other county officers, all of whom are usually elected by the people, once in two or foiu- years. The judges are in some states county officers, and the district (or county) attorney almost always is such. The sheriff is the head pohce officer of the county as weU as an agent of the courts. He has charge of the county jail and is looked to for the preservation of order and the detection and suppression of crime. The coroner, with the assistance of a jury of six men, holds inquests over the bodies of persons who die un- der circumstances that need to be investigated. The county clerk keeps the records of the county, including those of its principal court, and he sometimes has duties in connection with the registering of voters. County (lorcrnnicfil 131 The recorder or registrar of deeds is llie ofTiccr under whose supervision transfers of real estate are re- corded. Tlie auditor is the county bookkeeper. The assessor estimates the value of properly ^^ithin the county for })ur])oses of taxation. The fax colleclor sees to it that taxes are gathered, and tlie treasurer keeps the county funds. The surveyor or engineer is in charge of county public works. The superintendent of schoots is the chief educational ofhcer in the county. Tliis is not a complete list of all the officers elected in counties, but it includes those usually met with. Criticism of county government. It is in county government that tlie long ballot has its worst results. Each of the county officers is elected independently of the rest, and the salaries of county officers are in many places fixed by state law, whicli the county board nmst obey. Tliere is no head to county govern- ment, and cooperation among county officers is left to chance. On the whole, it is remarkable that they get along together as well as they do (Fig. 61). County government has advanced little from the condition in which our forefathers brought it from seventeenth-century England. The scheme was fairly satisfactory^ under the simple conditions of frontier life, but it is not suited to the needs of mod- ern America. There has been some movement to- ward a reform of county goverrmieiit. but it has not progressed very far. In a few states, including (Cali- fornia, counties are now permitted to adopt charters for themselves. Los Angeles and other California 132 Loyal Citizenship counties have adopted charters providing for the sliorl ballot and a better-arranged administration. A unit of state administration. There is another aspect of the county that must be kept in mind. The county exists only partly as a means for giving the people local self-goverimient. It is mainly a dislrid for the execution of state lousiness. The judges, prose- cuting attorney, and sheriff are almost wholly en- gaged in the enforcement of state laws. The county PEOPLE OF THE COUNTY COUNTY- COMMISSIONER AUDITOP- Fig. 61. A suggestion fur an directive organization of county government. Try to diagram the actual govern- ment of your county, and then compare the organization of your county with the organization suggested in this figure. doiinfy fiorrrfinirnl ]?}'.\ clerk is a xcvy iniporlaiil link in I lie election systrrn of the slale. in inosl stales llir assessor, tax collec- tor, and treasurer are Iar;j:ely en^'a<;e(l in collecting' taxes for the slale ^a)\crnrnenl. ^ el onci' llieir' conduct llic stale has (tlniosl fto cofilrol. Iheir onl\ re- sponsibility is toward the })eople \Nho elect them to office. This makes the enforcement of stale laws very difficult, if local jniblic oj)inion does not favor their enforcement. A county attorney, for examj)le. is likely to prosecute men who sell liquor unlawfully or not to prosecute I hem. according to the wishes of the people who elected liini to oflice. In a few states the governor has pow er to remove a sherilf or prosecul ing attorney who neglects his duty, but in most states the governor has no power lo interfere until ciicuni- slances arise that justify the use of the militia. QUESTIONS Wliat is a county!* How does ttu* presence of cities witliin a coi:nty affect county goxernnienl? Wluil, in {general, are the powers of the county l)oard? W tiat two types of county hoards are there;' How is ttie county hoard made up in your county? Tell what you can of tlie duties of the sheriff, coroner, recorder, auditor, assessor, treasurer, tax collector, and surveyor. Which of these officers do you ha\ e in your county? What other officers does your county have? \\ hat defects can you point out in county fjoverruuent ? To what extent is the county a unit of slate achuinislralion? How much control has the state over county ollicers? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The government of your county, ("oimly government is nearly as various as city govermueni, and it will he necessary to iii\estigate local details. Each ollice will furnish a lopic. I'lrsoiiai inters lews may be used here to great advantage. 134 Loyal Citizenship Any especially interesting phases of local county history. See Fairlie, J. A., Local Government in Counties, Towns, and Vil- lages; GiLBERTSoN, W. S., Countj Government; Munro, W. B., Government of the United States; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapters 17 and 18. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Attend a meeting of the county board. If such a meeting cannot be attended, the prosecuting attorney or some other county official may be invited to talk to the class about county government. CHAPTER M\ETEE\ Local Management of Schools The county and the schools. In most of tlic states each couiily lias ils su/H'riiift'ndcnl of scIkhjIs. who is usually eleeted by the ])('oj)l('. With city schools he has practically iiotliiii^' to do. It is his l)usiness to visit rund schools, to fjel local authorities to adopt the right methods, and to secure good teachers. It is also his duty to see that the laws with regard to school attendance and the course of study are carried out. He has a great deal to do in the collection of statistics, the payment of teachers' sala- ries, and the apportioiunent of state and county funds. Once each year he is expected to hold an institute which all teachers are required to attend in order that they may be instructed in the latest edu- cational methods. The position of county superin- tendent is very laborious and diflicult, and it re- quires a high degree of expert knowledge of schools, never failing tact, and genuine courage. In some states the county superintendent is assisted by a county board of education, among whose duties is the examination of teachers. In a few of the Southern states the county board is really in charge of the schools of the county, but this is not generally the case. In many states the schools are largely sup- ported by taxes levied by the county board and ap- portioned among the several districts. School districts: their control. The actual man- agement of school matters is left to the school district, except in some of the Southern and W estern states 135 136 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 62. A rural school. Tlie playground equipment is to be com- mended, but the building and grounds might well be made more attractive. The pupils here would have a fine opportunity for civic cooperation in improving the appearance of their school. where it remains in the county. Each city, town, or township usually also constitutes a school district, but as a district it is a separate corporation having its own property and its own officers. The rural dis- trict is almost everywhere governed by an unpaid board of trustees, usually of three members elected by the people. In New England and in some other parts of the country, rural and village schools are grouped into districts. A joint school committee meets once a year, appoints the superintendent of the district, and fixes his salary. In this way one man may superintend the schools of from two to five towns. The powers of local bodies for the control of schools include the appointment of teachers, provid- Local Maiuujcitienl of Schools 1!>7 in» school l)uil(linf;s and all llicir ('{|uij)iii('iil. and levying local taxes for school purposes. In sornc states such bodies have a measure ol" conlrol over courses of study and the broader questions of edu- cational policy. In other slates the school laws are most minutely detailed and leave little discretion to local school ofTicials. City control. City school l)oards or "boards of education" vary much in size, powers, and terms of office of members. New York has a board of seven members, and Chicago a board of twenty-one. The tendency is toward smaller boards, and five members may be safely taken as the typical number. The members are usually elected, but in a few cities they are appointed by the mayor. They seldom receive salaries. 1 .'.'(.. r, .Irchitccl Fig. 6.3. The MiKinloy Wv^h ScIkioI. Si. I.oiiis. Missouri. An exitiii- ple of modern school architecture of a kind that relleels credit iiik)ii a city. 138 Loyal Citizenship It is the rule for all city boards of education to appoint a city superintendent of schools to whom is intrusted the direct management of the schools. The superintendent is presumably a trained teacher of executive ability who understands educational problems. He is usually given a free hand in the management of the schools, so long as the board of education has confidence in his ability. The board of education rarely interferes in the details of his work. QUESTIONS What are the duties of the county superintendent of schools? What is a county board of education? To what unit, in most states, is the local management of schools left? In your state, how is a rural school board made up? a city board? What are the powers and duties of a city superintendent of schools? What is his relation to the board? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The management of your own schools; county board, county superintendent, local school board, and school finance. Information can be obtained by personal investigation, interviews, and study of the laws. CIVIC ACTIVITIES The opportunities for direct observation are here present to the highest degree. The students will probably want to see the county or city superintendent and perhaps hear him give a talk on school government. They may also want to see the school board in session. CHAPTEU 1 WENTY Police and Ftri: Protection The prime function of government. The j)rotoc- tion of life and properly nnus the first duty of ^govern- ment, and even now it is its most important duty. Whatever government may or may riot do witli respect to schools or other matters, it must preserve order, protect property, and preveid or piinisli crime. The rules or laws which are necessary to regulate the conduct of all members of the conununity are mostly made by the states. The states also provide the system of courts, a large part of whose work con- sists in the trial of lawbreakers. The immediate task of keeping order, of preventing crime, and of catching criminals is left to the locid conununity. It does this work through a police force. The need for a police force was made clear by what happened in Boston in September, 1919, when the greater part of the police force went on strike. All the ruffians and thieves at once came out of hiding and looted and nuirdered unhindered. Whole stocks of goods were loaded in drays and carted away. No one's life and property were safe until the governor brought in the militia, declared martial law, and posted soldiers in ever>' part of the city. Policemen assigned to different duties. The policeman with whom you arc most familiar is the patrolman who walks his beat in rain or shine and sees that order is preserved. \ou are familiar, too, with the traffic police men and with the motorcycle officers, who enforce the laws against automobile 139 140 Loyal Citizenship speeding. Less familiar are the pkuii-clolhes men, who keep in touch with those classes of people among whom crime is most likely to occur and who detect crime or, if possible, prevent it. They are not the romantic creatures that you read about in detective stories. They have no marvelous powers of reasoning such as those which Conan Doyle describes in " Sher- lock Holmes." But by visiting pawnshops and sec- ondhand stores to secure information, and by mak- ing use of the records that are kept in the bureau of identification, they manage to make a surprising number of captures. The bureau of identification. The bureau of identification is one of the most interesting features of the police department. Here are kept records, including photographs, of all persons who are arrested for serious offenses (felonies) . These records include what are known as the BeriiUon cards, on which are noted the height and weight, the length and thick- ness of the head, and many other measurements of arrested persons. More important still are the finger- print records. Science has discovered that the minute lines on the tips of one's fingers never change, and that they are never alike in two people; so finger prints are an absolute means of identification. Rec- ords are exchanged with the police departments of other cities and with state's prisons, so that in a good bureau a great many thousands of cards are on file. When a person is accused of crime it becomes much easier, if a record of him is found, to trace his move- ments and to determine whether or not he is guilty ; Police and Fire Protection ill Fig. 61. Aluking a finger-print record ut i jkI rogues' gallery at the left. Note the also, the police may be able to deteniiine whether or not lie is being souglit for crime commitlcd cisewliere. Police organization. At the head of tlie police department in most large cities is a civilian police commissioner or a board of cortiniissioners. (>ither ap- pointed 1)\ llie mayor or ehn'ted b\ tlie people. (The head of the police department is appointed by the governor of the state in the cases of St. Louis. Bos- ton, Baltimore, Kansas City, Missouri, and a few 142 Loyal Citizenship other cities.) A board of police commissioners has usually not worked well, and to elect its members is clearly a violation of the short-ballot principle. Below the civilian head of the department comes a chief of police, who is a member of the uniformed force. Below the chief, the force is organized in a military manner with captains, lieutenants, and ser- geants. Large cities are divided into precincts, each of which is usually in charge of a captain. In smaller cities the organization is much simpler, and the chief of police is generally the head of the department. Personnel. A pohceman, of course, should be strong, brave, honest, and intelligent. Patrohnen, especially, should be good natured and obliging, so that they may be on good terms with the law- abiding people on their beats. Detectives and iden- tification officers need shrewdness and special train- ing in their duty. The selection of officers is clearly a very important thing. Men should not be made policemen because they have served or will serve some political boss. Personal favoritism should have no place in a police department. Competitive mental and physical examinations furnish the only safe method to determine who shall be policemen. Most large cities use this method, but not always very carefully and thoroughly. The very best men obtainable are required for such important duties as those of policemen. The men should be paid good salaries, given reasonable hours of work, and treated on all hands in such a way that good and capable men will want to join the force. Police and Fire Protection li:i Fire protection. Fire constitutes a danger to life and property that is just as real as the dangers against which the jmlice protect us. The aimual fire loss in the United States is about $215,000,000, and the annual cost of insurance and of keeping up fire de- partments is as much more. Fire constitutes one of our greatest national irastes. We have in the United States by far the best fire departments and also the largest fire losses in the world. The success of a fire department depends upon its swiftness. Its greatest triumphs are not won at the big spectacular blazes, but in the fires it puts out dur- ing their first five minutes. The organizat ion of a fire department must be so arranged that there will be Amrrican-I.a France Fire Enginr Co., Inc. Fig. 65. \ piocp of inndorn firo nppanitus. a punipinf; onpino iisiiif: gasoline. Tho motor wlii
  • vilh it. Tl cannot he said that any one of these systems of disposal is I lie best for ail cities. The citizen does most wisely to a(hnil Ihal lie knows nolhin^^ about sewage disposal and to insist on the city csew York's daily supply of 500,000,000 gallons comes a distance of 110 miles. Only the largest cities can afford to spend the vast sums necessary' for such works. If a clean source of supply cannot be secured, the water must be filtered. In some sections a sufficient quan- tity of good water can be secured from w ells. W ater is supplied in most of the large cities of the United States by the cities themselves. It is usual for them to charge a rate for the water that w ill pay all operat- ing expenses and cover the interest and installments on the principal of the money invested in the works. Milk supply. A supply of pure milk is about as essential as a su})})ly of pure water. It is almost the only food of all children during the first few years of life. As it comes fresh from healthy cows, it is usually very wholesome. A city's milk supply, how- ever, cannot come fresh from the cows. It is from twelve to forty-eight iiours old before it reaches the consumer. Unless I lie greatest precautions are 156 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 69. Testing samples of milk in a public-health laboratory. Small samples are taken from cans of milk that are in the hands of distributers. If any sample is not up to standard, the dairyman who is responsible will be notified. taken to keep it clean and cool, bacteria will multiply in it until it becomes dangerous to infant life. Milk is often Pasteurized — heated without boiling — to get rid of bacteria. Many epidemics of typhoid fever have been traced to infected milk. City and sometimes state health departments in- spect dairies and see to it that they are run in a cleanly manner. Cows are tested for tuberculosis, and if found diseased are in some cases killed. Sam- ples of milk are analyzed, and if they show too many bacteria or too small a percentage of butter fat, the dealer is obliged to remedy the condition or quit selling. In too many places the testing of dairy cattle is still left to the owner's discretion. Preservation of Health .)i Food inspection. There are many oilier foods lie- sides luilk that should he inspected to prevent dis- ease. Many dealers are too careless ahout exjjosing their fruits, vegelahles, and pastry to dust and flies, and a few who are unscrupulous do not hesitate to sell contaminated goods to unsuspecting customers. Constant vigilance on the part of health officials is needed to prevent ads and remedy conditions that may endanger the puhlic health. The health department. In most American cities there is a board of health serving without ])ay. A ma- jority, at least, of its members are physicians. By P"lG. TO. A scliool \ i^iliriLT nurse cxaniininfi pupils. If she liruis t'\f trouble, luionoids. iiiiVclcd tonsils, had teeth, or iiiuler-iiourishiiu-nt. she notes (his on the child's health-report card, and measures are taken to i^et the case attended to. 158 Loyal Citizenship the laws of the state it has broad powers conferred upon it with regard to quarantine, vaccination, en- forcement of sanitary laws, and milk and general food inspection. There is also usually a heallh officer, who is the executive of the board. He generally receives a salary and has assistants in proportion to the size of the city. In many states there is a county health officer, appointed by the county board. Rural sani- tation, however, has been a good deal neglected, and any effective rural health work has, as a rule, been conducted by state authorities. Much effective assistance has been given to local health authorities throughout the country by the United States Public Health Service. QUESTIONS Why is it your duty to keep wellP To what extent can you keep yourself welll* Name some diseases that have been practically stamped out by modern science. What is meant by quarantine? What is our duty with regard to it? What are carriers? How does a public-health laboratory help to prevent disease? What part do drinking cups and roller towels play in spreading disease? What do you think about vaccination? Why should the community require that sewer connections be made to all houses? How should garbage be kept? stable refuse? W^hat can you tell about methods of sewage disposal? Why should a city consult engineers before deciding on a method of sewage disposal? W hat can you tell about garbage disposal? What relation have dark rooms to tuberculosis? Why is the water supply so important? How can we get a pure supply? How important is it to have pure milk? How can we be sure of a pure supply? What has milk to do with tuberculosis? Why should other foods be inspected? What is a board of health? a health oflicer? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The local boaird of health and its activities; milk and food regu- lations. The local water supply; systems of sewage and garbage Preservation of Heallfi 139 disposal, including, if possible, r.|(>v("liuKl civic center its j)liinii("(l. In the forcf^roiincJ is the roof of tht> [jroposcd I'nictn Passcnf^cr Station. Ilic [)riiicipal public huihlinjjs arc to he f,'roiijti'(l about a park. In furtherance of this e.xceilent plan, a jiood deal of land has hec-n cleared of old build- ings and some new buildings have be<'n erected. tiling in liis power to preserve and increase the beauty of his city. Young people can do much toward keep- ing up the appearance of a town by seeing to it that their yards are tidy, caring for lawns, and never throwing litter in the streets or parks. The civic center. In every city the principal public buildings should be grouped with reference to an open area — a civic center — where the citizens may meet for public purposes. Wherever possible, this civic center should be approached by wide radiating streets down which vistas of beautiful buildings may be seen. Even a small town may have its square or green, made beautiful with w ide-spreading trees. Housing. Every city has building laws which are designed to protect the health of occupants of build- Loyal Citizenship Fig. 17. A model of the Roman Forum in its present condition. The held and the fate of men and nations iiigs and to guard against the danger of fire. These laws, however, can never solve the housing problem. Men with money to invest must be induced to build good homes for working people. New York State now has a law under which municipalities may encourage the building of dwelling places tlu^ough a remission of taxes. This measure was meant to be a temporary one. The wisdom of giving such direct aid to private enterprise and of remitting taxes is open to serious question. The matter of assuring proper housing conditions may be greatly simplified by right city planning. A city may be so laid out that there will be many short lots on which it will be impossible to build long, airless tenement houses. Zoning. No one would like to have a soap factory or a laundry established very near his home. Yet Cornniiin ily Plan n ing 6<) Mdropotilan Museum of Art Forum was the civic center of ancient Rome. Here elections were was decided by the Roman people. such things frequently happen, and as a result much good residence property loses value. In almost every city there are \vhal are called hVujIded disfricls. spoiled for residence purposes by the coming of a railroad line or factories and not yet needed for business purposes. Then, loo, there may be ver>^ great loss of efficiency in the hit-and-miss location of industries. There must be places in every conununity that are especially well adai)ted for industries. Inisiness houses, hotels, apartments, or large or small resi- dences. By zoning is meant the setting apart of each district of the city for its particular best use. Zoning ordinances have been adopted in only a few localities, but much attention is being given to the subject. There is no more important phase of city plaiiiiiiig than this one of zoning, the ()l)jecl of whicli is to get the most for ever> purpose of hfe out of llic city's site. 170 Loyal Citizenship Transportation. City growth is dependent upon transportation, and right city planning is necessary to secure the best facihties for transportation. The correct location of railroad lines, especially of their stations for freight and passengers, is very im- portant. Where there is a river or harbor, its im- provement by deepening or widening the channel and providing suitable docks and wharves may vastly increase the prosperity of the city. Los Angeles, situated eighteen miles from the sea, has spent millions in developing a harbor for ocean-going ves- sels and has annexed a strip of territory to connect the city with its port. Means of transporting people from their homes to their work are absolutely neces- sary in any really large city. Good street-car service at reasonable rates, by extending the area within which people may live, helps to avoid overcrowding and so to lessen the housing problem. QUESTIONS Why are plans necessary for every big piece of work? Have American cities generally been planned? What can you say about some of the early streets in Boston? What criticism can you give of the checkerboard plan for a city? Why are diagonal streets usually busy streets? Give examples. What can you say of the plan of Washington? What is community planning in the broader sense? Has there been much comnmnity planning in the United States? What are some of the consequences of failure to plan? What limits are there to the usefulness of outlying parks? AA hat effect have playgrounds had upon the conduct of children? What should be the community's pohcy with regard to acquiring parks and play- grounds? What is the relation between civic beauty and civic loyalty? What is the value of a civic center? W'hat was the civic center of Rome? What use do the Spanish-Americans make of the plaza? How do badly constructed tenements contribute to the Conuniuiily Plufuiiiuj 171 spread of lubernilosis? What are some of the means by which belter housing conditions ran be secured:' What elft'ct may the shape and size of lots liave on liousing? What is the result of putting a factory in the heart of a residence district? What is meant by zoning? What trans[)()rtali()n needs must he piaruicd for in a conmuinitN .' TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The topics suggested by this chapter are almost endless, including street plans, park systems, playgrounds, civic centers, housing, and zoning. These topics .should be considered with j)articular reference to your own city. Good material illustrating this chapter may be found in Bkard, C. A., Anieriran Cily Gurcrniurnl; Minho, W. B., Principles and Mrtliodfi of Municipal Adrninislralion; Howe, F. C, The Modern Cily and Its Problems; Zi fbi.in, C, American Municipal Progress; Nolen, John, lieplanninrj Small Cilies; Addams. Jane, The Spiril of Youth and the City Streets; Riis, Jacob, The Children of the Tenements and IIoiv the Other Half Lives; Kokster. Frank, Modern City Planning and Maintenance; Robinsoiv, C. IVI., Tfie Improvement of Towns and Cities; The Sun^ey; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapters 29 and 39. CIVIC ACTIVITIES The class will be interested in doing what it can toward beautifying the conuiiunity. If a garden or back-yard contest can be arranged in which a small prize is offered for the best work, it will greatly stimulate interest. This may be done, perhaps, with the assistance of the Rotary Club, Chamber of Commerce, or a sinnlar organization. The class should be ready to take action against any of its members who throw j)aper or refuse about the school yard or damage the school building. Similarly, it should conmiend those who are conspicuous in preserving \hv ticMnessof the school yard and building. Some of th(^ members of the class may wish to form a civic camera club to take photographs of places that do credit to the community and places that need improvement. CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE Public Utilities Public-utility monopolies. Since an abundance of pure water is necessary to public health, cities have from early times taken great precautions to make sure of their supplies of water. Ancient Rome was served by a wonderful system of aqueducts. During the last century gas, water, street-railway transporta- tion, and telephone service have also become essen- tial (Fig. 78). All these services are known as public utilities: first, because they are necessary to so many people, and second, because they are supplied by means of pipes, poles, wires, or rails which are con- ducted through the public streets. The right to use the streets for public-utility pur- poses is known as a. franchise. Poles, rails, and wires are not in themselves desirable in public streets. The less of them the better after the necessary ser- vice has been provided for. It has, therefore, been unusual to allow two or more utilities serving the same end to occupy the same street. This means that the holder of a franchise usually has the exclusive right to furnish a particular form of service to the public. The individual can do nothing by himself to control the quality or price of these services. Competition cannot be depended on as a regulator. It is not strange, therefore, that the public-utility problem is often a serious one. Since we cannot do without these utilities, the community must either control them or own and operate them. 172 Public LtiUlies 173 Am. Til. and Tel. Co. Fig. 78. "Weaversof Spocch. " Tin- work of olliio, farrn. and factory could hardly go on without the ti'li'phonc. the public utility which has made of the United Stales a compact cotruuunits. Public ownership. Many persons believe that it is wroii^' to maul to any individual or corporation an exc'hisive right to tlie use of a piibhc street. 1 hey hold that all public utilities should be owned and operated by the coinnuniity. Other persons beheve that pul)lic ownership and operation should never be undertaken so long as private enter{)rise can supply the service. They argue that ])iiblic ownership and operation will bring careless, inellicient. and corrupt managenii'iil; liiat jobs will be used to strengthen the power of party machines; and that taking "util- ities" away from private ownership unwisely limits the opportunities for private enterprise. Each side is partly right and partly wrong. Private enterprise has given us many utilities that would never have Ix'cit begun with public finids be- 174 Loyal Citizenship cause of the risk of loss. On the other hand, pubHc ownership is often a practicable means of handling a public utility. It has been proved by experience in many places that a community can conduct an estab- hshed utihty without corruption and with reasonable efficiency. Private ownership, however, is somewhat more efficient in operation; and where a privately owned utility is giving good service at reasonable rates it is unnecessary to place upon the conununity the additional burden of running that utility. Where there is public ownership, there is little inducement to invent new methods or to adopt improvements of any kind. The question of pubhc ownership should be settled separately for each utility in each conmiunity. The -HN'-AkrfBW.-.i. f'^ ■mA «v^'- it-ia iAl0SSUSSmi^^SBSS^ H^^ : *¥' J^Hk- :•-. '^V' ■ ^m L ri f » '' ..KI^He^K: .-■^iJ^i: ^S -^Z ■' !M^ *^Tfl M rrt ^v5"~^^fr'''v'""^^---- P^ i ^t| ^ ■^^^Bi M 'If ' 1 Fig. 79. The highest point on the New York elevated railway sys- tem. Elevated lines, surface cars, and subways are hardly sufficient to solve New York's transportation problem. Public Utilities 175 fundamental principle on which it should be decided is this, tliat freedom should be alloived to individual enterprise so long as it does not interfere with the highest welfare of the community. Water supply. Of all public utilities the water system is tiie one most conunonly owned and oper- ated by the comnmnity. The absolute necessity of the service, the wish to keep the price low so that all the people may enjoy the full benefit of it, and the imperative need for purity, are all strong argu- ments in favor of public ownership and operation. Even the business arguments are in this case favor- able to public ownership. The construction of a great water-supply system is too vast an undertak- ing for private capital; a reasonable price for water would hardly allow an adequate return on the money invested. Wliere waterworks are once con- structed, however, their operation is very simple, requiring the employment of comparatively few men. The importance of these facts will be clearer if we contrast water supply with milk supply, the nature of the dairy business being such that public owner- ship and operation would not be practical. Gas and electricity. Conditions in cities make the supply of gas and electricity almost as essential as the supply of water. Electricity has largely taken the place of gas as a means of lighting, but the use of gas as a fuel has vastly increased in recent years. There have been very few municipally operated gas plants in this country, and they have not generally been successful. The manufacture of gas is a some- 176 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 80. A high-tcnsiun power line. U\ er such lines, millions of horse- power generated by the fall of water are carried for hundreds of miles to centers of industry. what difficult and intricate chemical process, and it requires a very costly j^lant. Gas can be economi- cally produced only on a large scale. This, of course, does not apply to natural gas. Where that is avail- able, conditions may be different. Electric current can be produced with a fair degree of economy in small units, and a great many of our cities, especially the smaller ones, have adopted the policy of supplying electricity to the public. Of late years the supplying of electric current has fallen more and more into the hands of great corporations Public I tUitles 177 which serve many eilies, and wliieli iiianuraelurc the current eilher in large steam plants or by the use of water power (Fig. 80). Transportation. Tlie j)rinci})al means of transpor- tation in American cities is tlie electric street railway. From 1890 to 1910 such lines were extensively built all over the country, and for a while they were profitable. But at the beginning of the year 1921 practically every street railway in the United States was in financial distress. Higher fares usually mean fewer passengers, and although rates were raised to ten cents in Boston and to six, seven, or eight cents in many cities, they have only partly relieved the situation. San Francisco and Seattle have under- taken to own and operate street-car lines. San Francisco's municipal railway, operating under ex- ceptionally favorable conditions, has been a financial success and very satisfactory from the i)oint of view of service. Seattle has not been so fortunate. Regulation of public utilities. There are two solutions of the public-utility problem: one is public ownership, the other is strict public regulation. Up to a few years ago regulation was left entirely to the local communities. In granting franchises, the comnnmities tried to provide for a degree of control by themselves, and they sometimes included pro- visions for low rates in the franchises. Some com- panies, however, did not hesitate to secure favorable frajichises by corrupt means. Local control was not generally satisfactory. In recent years the power of regulating rates and 178 Loyal Citizenship service has been frequently intrusted to state public- utility commissions. These commissions first deter- mine the value of the company's property, then fix a rate that will yield a fair return upon that value. Justice and common sense require this. If a fair return is not allowed, men with capital will make no further investment in the utility. Up to the entry of the United States into the Great War, the commis- sions had been steadily reducing rates. War condi- tions led them to increase the rates for many utilities. The public were very well satisfied with the rate reductions. The real strain on the system of com- mission regulation began with general rate increases. If the public loses confidence in the commissions, there may be no solution except public ownersliip. It must be remembered throughout all the dis- cussion of regulation and public ownership that the community cannot have the service of any utility without paying for it, if not in rates or fares, tlien in taxes. Rural public utilities. There are naturally fewer public-utility enterprises in rural conamunities than in cities. But many country districts Eire served with water, electric light and power, telephone, and trolley or auto-stage lines. A rural community can, of course, do very little to help itself either by owner- ship or regulation, because it usually covers only a small part of the area served by any utility. It has to depend on the state for the control of pubhc- utility companies. Some states provide by law for the creation of districts comprising several towns or even counties Public I til Hies 179 Reclamation Scrricc Fig. 81. A great irrigation ditch on the Rio Grande project in New Mexico. Beyond the bridge are the head gates for the control of the (low of water. for public-utilily purposes. In the states of the Far West where water is required for irrigation, districts are organized comprising all the land to be irrigated. The affairs of an irrigation district are managed by a board of directors elected by the residents or prop- erty owners of the district, and the cost of the necessary works — sometimes very large — is assessed against the land benefited. Similar districts, in otlier parts of the country, provide for the drainage of swamp lands and the construction and maintenance of levees. By such means portions of the country that would otlierwise have remained waste have been made fertile and prosperous. .180 Loyal Citizenship QUESTIONS Why are public utilities usually monopolies? What effect has4his upon the ability of each individual to protect himself in matters of rates and service? What is the chief argument for public ownership? against it? Why is the water system usually owned by the public? W by are electric-Ught plants more commonly owned by the public than gas plants? Why have street-railway profits declined? Are these causes permanent? What had franchises to do with corruption in city politics? What will be the test of the success of commission regulation of public utihties? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The utilities of your own city; rates and service. The regulation of utilities by your own city and state should also be looked up and reported on to the class. The material will, of course, have to be suggested by the teacher. On the general subject see Beard, C. A., American City Government: Munro, W. B., Principles and Methods of Municipal Administration (on water supply); Howe, F. C, The City the Hope of Democracy; King, C. L., The Regulation of Mu- nicipal Utilities; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapter 26. There is a great deal of periodical literature, including, besides general magazines, such periodicals as Annals of the American Academy and National Municipal Review. CIVIC ACTIVITIES A debate on the proposition that any one of the local public utilities should be owned and operated by the people. In rural schools the subject may have to be made more general. Two pupils should be assigned to the affirmative and two to the negative. Not more than eight minutes should be allowed to each speaker, with four minutes for each side's rebutted. CHAPTER TWENTY-FOLR Charity Poverty and its causes. I'overty is one of the great problems ^^ilh Avhich government has to deal. Its causes are as numerous as the accidents and fail- ures of life itself. Great disasters like fires, Hoods, or earthquakes always bring with them a train of mis- ery, which forlunately is in most cases temporary. Sickness is (he most prolijic cause of poverty. Many families spend all they earn in order to live, and even a brief illness on the part of the head of such a family means its reduction to want. The use of alcoholic liquors has frequently brought about weakness of body and mind; it has wasted the family income and at the same time destroyed its earning power. Then there are persons who, through no fault of their own, are not competent to earn a living. Seasonal un- employment is a cause of some poverty, especially during the winter, when many outdoor industries are suspended. There is want, also, during limes of business depression when factories are shut down. Public poor relief. The burden of ])oor relief falls usually upon the town or township in states where those units are fully organized, and elsewhere upon the county. The relief is administered either by orerseers of the poor elected in the town or township for this particular purpose, or by tiie county board. The relief is sometimes furnished in supplies of food and clothing or money. This is known as outdoor relief. Otherwise the poor are taken care of at a 181 182 Loyal Citizenship Children's Aid Society, New York Fig. 82. These anemic children were brought back to health at Goodhue Home, New Brighton, Staten Island. New York. town or county poor farm, where those who are able to work are required to do so. Associated charities. Generally speaking, public poor relief has not gone beyond the point of reheving immediate necessity. It has done little toward seek- ing out and removing the causes of poverty. The same was for a long time true of private charity. The fact that a great deal of money was being wasted by various charitable enterprises covering the same ground, and that nothing was being accom- plished to remove the causes of poverty, led to the establishment in all considerable cities of organiza- tions usually known as the Associated Charities. Charity 183 These attempt to bring all charitable enterprises into harmony and to do constructive work. Asso- ciated Charities workers investigate each case that comes lo the attention of the organization and recom- mend the kind of help that will most quickly make a family self-supporting. Removing the causes of poverty. The community has done a great tleal lo remove the causes of poverty in ways that we do not ordinarily associate with poor relief. For example, better housing means better health and less poverty. Sickness, the chief cause of poverty, is reduced through such measures as the following: taking precautions to prevent the spread of contagious diseases; the maintenance of free clinics and hospitals in which the poor may be promptly restored to health; the medical inspection of school children; and the removal of adenoids and infected tonsils. The abolition of the liquor traffic throughout the United States has removed another cause of misery and want. The social-reform laws of the last twenty years were designed to strike at the roots of poverty. These include laws providing compensation for men injured while at work, laws regulating sanitation in factories, eight-hour laws for women, and child-labor laws. The individual and poverty. It is right that we should look upon poverty as a social problem and upon well-directed public charity as a means of relieving it. But we should remember that poverty, at bottom, is caused by the imperfect co(Jperation of the members of the community. The effective rem- 184 Loyal Citizenship Cleveland Society for the Blind Fig. 83. The result of intelligent charity. This blind boy has been taught to operate a lathe and so has been made self-supporting. edy for poverty lies in better cooperation for the removal of its causes (Fig. 83). This does not mean that we should stop helping individuals who are in distress. In general, it is those who are most kindly disposed toward individual cases of suffering who are most ardently searching out and removing the causes of suffering. Charily 18.3 QUESTIONS What ari" the principal causes of povertyP Wfiich is the most important of these causes? To what extent do you think the causes of poverty can be removed? By what methods? What units of local government administer poor relief in the United States? \\hat methods do they use? NN hat were tlie reasons for the establishment of Associated Charities? How do they proceed when a case comes to their attention? \\ hat is tlicir aim in the work that they do? \\ hat criticism is made of them? \\ hat is the individual's duty with regard to poverty? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Your local charities and institutions. Rc[)(jrts and personal inter- views will have to be the cliief means of information. There is no book on the subject suitable for other than ad\ance(l students. See Reed, T. H., Form and Fniuiiotis of American Government, Chapter 30. T/«' Surrey will prove a valuable source of material. CIVIC ACTIVITIES A definite charitable activity. A smidl committee, say of three, from the class may confer on the subject with the secretary of the local Associated Charities or other charity workers. The conmiittee should visit the local charitable institutions and, if possible, should visit with a charity worker some of his or her cases. The committee should then report to the class and recommend a form of charitable activity. The activity should be within the power of the class. It should be constructive, and the class should be made to reaUze its far-reaching possibilities. CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE Training Citizens Expenses and sacrifices for education. The peo- ple of this country spend over five hundred million dollars a year on education. In most states children are required to go to school for several years — usually for a period long enough to take them through the grammar grades. Besides the payment of taxes, parents make in the aggregate tremendous sacrifices to give their children an education; and hundreds of thousands of self-sacrificing men and women devote their lives to teaching. What is the purpose in all of this.^ The purpose of the individual parent is fre- quently httle more than to give his children the best possible opportunities in the battle of life; but the community as such has in mind the training of citi- zens. Some of the immediate purposes of education. Our educational system aims to make the citizen economically sufficient — able to earn the best living and to do the best work of which he is capable. By offering commercial, mechanical, and agricultured courses, the schools aim to give to each pupil the chance to prepare definitely for a calling; and the knowledge that many girls and boys make mistakes in choosing callings has given rise to the study of vocational selection. Each pupil is studied, his or her capabilities are noted, and an attempt is made to get each one interested in a suitable occupation (Fig. 84). Since the maintenance of health plays such an im- 186 Training Citizens 187 ^^^^^H tft^^MSP IH i^^l^H^I^HK''' mmfm OtT :iijJEg^ n — ^ WCl si JloS I^^^Cd ^B^K y ^»»\/ y. jj UJq ■J^^^HiVV 1 "ml^l ^^^.-' -^-^g^^^B WSm^ . -' ^P Hhbj Fig. 81. A class in woodworkiiij,'. Tin- si lii-ois t.l today ofTer much greater advantaj^cs limn did the schools of a generation ago. portant part in success, schools give a great deal of attention to the physical welfare of their students, and to tliis end they teach hygiene and sanitation, promote athletics, and provide for the physical in- spection of students and the correction of the bodily defects thai inspection may reveal. Americanization. The fact that our country has been sought as a lionie by millions of the less fortu- nate people of Europe has created a serious educa- tional problem. Newly arrived immigrants have settled in great masses in our large cities. In some instances they have settled whole sections of our country. They have had their own newspapers in their own language, and their own schools in which English, if taught at all, was only incidental to other 188 Loyal Citizenship subjects. When the time came for the United States to enter the Great War, most of these people, from whatever country, turned without hesitation to the support of America. There were enough, however, who did not do so, to make us reahze that we had been facing a great danger. In the United States there can be but one native tongue, the Enghsh tongue, and all teaching should as far as possible be carried on in it. People who are unlikely ever to become Americanized should be and are largely excluded from entrance into the United States. The practice of foreigners of particular nationahties settling in close groups of their own should be discouraged. Americanization is now being furthered by means of night schools for adults, with classes especially for Fig. 85. A night class for adult aliens. The pupils are being taught the procedure that is followed at elections. Training Citizens 189 American Museum of Sat. Uist. Fig. 86. School rhildron looking at tho fossil skeleton of a dinosaur, an ancient lizardlikc ariiiual, in the American .Museum of Natural History, New York. The museums of this country, through their in\ estigations, do much for the advancement of liberal education. foreigners; through the activities of patriotic organi- zations thai })rovi(le free inslniclion; and by pubHc lectures. Each of us, individually, can aid in tliis great work by being as considerate of the foreigner who is trying to learn our ways as we would have him be of us in reversed circumstances. \Ye should recognize the fact that men from many nations have helped to enrich our nationat life. Bui our country has given niuch to them, and for thai and for its sclf- preservalioii il must have their undivided allegiance. We can be tliankful that most of the people who come to America to make it their home realize this. In- 190 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 87. The main building of the College of William and Mary in Virginia. Sir Christopher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's Cathedral in London, designed the building. The college, which, after Harvard, is the oldest one in the United States, has been training citizens since 1693. deed, it is gratifying and often helpful to our native citizens to hear some of our newer citizens state the very good reasons that they have for an unwavering loyalty to our country. The social value of education. The school is our chief agency for making young citizens and many of our new citizens socially adaptable — willing to co- operate to the highest degree. The Golden Rule lies at the foundation of a useful social hfe. The educated man knows thai the welfare of his fellowmen is insepa- rable from his own welfare. He has at once a proper sense of humihty with regard to his personal merits and a proper sense of his dignity as a human being. "Education" that simply makes a citizen more ca- pable in providing for his material wants is largely Training Citizens 191 wasted. Unless his capabilities are developed and used for the good of all, his schooHng has missed its point. To play well his part a citizen must not only be able to earn a living but he nmst also have a right social attitude. He must enter into the spirit of his counlr\'s traditions and purposes and have an intelligent interest in its problems. QUESTIONS How iniK li do file people of the United States spend each year on education? Wliat sacrifices do individuals make in the cause of education? Why do they make them? W hat is meant hy economic sufhciency? ^\hat vocations do schools f)repare for directly? \\ hat help can a school give in selecting callings for its pupils? What is the prohlem of Americanization? What justification, if any, is there for the puhlication in our country of foreign-language news- papers? for schools taught in foreign languages? \\hat are some of the means hy which Americanization can he effectively promoted? W^hat is meant hy social adaptahility? What part should the Golden Rule play in one's social relations? Why nmst you know the frame- work of yoin- gONcrnmcnt? Can you he the most desirable kind of citizen and not understand the problems of the community? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The various occupations open to boys and girls in your community may each be assigned to a pupil for investigation. His report should cover such matters as length and character of preparation, either as student or apprentice, qualities of mind and body required, oppor- tunities in the way of salary, and possible satisfaction in the work itself. CIVIC ACTIVITIES An Americanization exercise. Some members of the class should prepare statements showing the advantages of American citizenship. Other members should tell why they or their people chose this country as their home. The class may wish to {)resent an Americanization pageant to the whole school. PART FOUR THE CITIZEN IN STATE AND NATION Liberty and Law The State, as Aristotle says, having begun as a means of making Hfe possible, continues as a means of making life prosperous. When once the necessary basis of authority is estab- lished, that authority becomes with each generation more impartial and more absolute, protecting the laborer as well as the soldier and politician. Arthur T. Hadley CHAPTER TWENTY -SIX Constitutional System Colonial government. The settlers of the F^nglish colonies in North America brought wilh them from ti)e mother country their ideas of government ; and the English Bill of Rights of 1689 fairly ex]3ressed these ideas. The Bill of Rights provided in sub- stance that laws should be made and repealed and that taxes should be laid only with the consent of the representatives of the people (Parliament) ; that the election of members of Parliament should l)e free, and that freedom of speech should prevail in that body; that subjects had the right to petition the king; and that excessive fines should not be imposed. In each of (he Thirleen Colonies there was a represen- lalive body elected 6y the people, ivhich made laws and laid taxes. In all but Pennsylvania and Delaware there was an "upper house,'' the members of which were usually appointed by the king. The consent of this upper house was necessary to the making of any law. In each of the colonies there was a governor, usually appointed by the king, who exercised execu- tive pOW(T. Early state governments. When the War for Independence began, it became necessary for the colonies to provide for their own govermnent. Con- necticut and Rhode Island, which had enjoyed a very large measure of self-govermnent under liberal colonial charters, continued to use their old charters, making only a few verbal cluinges. The rest of the states between 1775 and 1780 adopted constitutions. 195 196 Loyal Citizenship These constiiiit ions specified how the stale was to be governed, and declared that certain rights of the citizen might not be interfered with. If the legisla- ture passed any measure in conflict with the state constitution, the courts would not enforce that measure. The form of govermnent under these con- stitutions was much like that of colonial days. Articles of Confederation. Colonies had some- times acted together during the wars with the French and the Indians; but no effort at union was success- ful until the outbreak of the struggle with the mother country. Then intercolonial committees of corre- spondence were organized, and several congresses were held. It was the second Continental Congress that began the war and declared independence. This Congress also undertook to draw up a formal plan of union under a central goverimient. The result was the Articles of Confederation, which were adopted in 1778 and were finally ratified by all the states in 1781. The central government, under the Articles of Con- federation, consisted of a Congress whose members were elected by the legislatures of the states. Through coimiiittees it directed the conduct of the war and exercised other executive functions. Each state had one vote in the Congress, and in important matters the agreement of nine states was necessary. The Congress was very weak because : 1. It could pass laws on a few subjects, but it was unable to enforce them. It issued its commands to the states, which obeyed them or not, much as they pleased. Consliltdiotud Sv.slcrn 197 Fig. 88. "Signinp of tho ( :wii->iiiiiiiw.i .,i I iii;>>! m.i;.>."" ;i study- sketch by Rossitcr. The ('.oiistiliilioiinl ( lonvoritiori iiict in the hall where the Deciiiriilioii of IndepeiKlciuo was sij^iicd. Without the ConstitutioFi, in(le{)enderice might have proved a sad experiment. 2. It Jiad no power to tay taxes. It could only decide how iiiiicli money it needed, apportion lliis amount among the several states, and wait for them to pay. They were so remiss in making payments that the revenues of the Confederation after the Revolution dropped to as little as $500,000 a year. There was a great deal of trouble, also, because each state regulated commerce wdth other states and for- eign countries in its own way. This led to disputes between states and prevented Congress from making commercial treaties with other countries. In fact, under the Confederation each state remained prac- tically an independent powder. The Constitution. After the Revolution the United States passed through a very unliappy period. There was nnich poverty, and discontent was some- times expressed in acts of violence, as in "Shays's RebelHon" in Massachusetts. The Confederation 198 Loyal Citizenship ' was entirely unable to deal with the situation. There was real danger that the Union would break up and independence be lost, and people began to see the need for a really strong central government. In 1787 the state legislatures sent delegates to a Convention at Philadelphia to prepare amendments to the Articles of Confederation. The Convention was presided over by George Washington, and it included the wisest men of the country, among them Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison. The delegates de- cided to abandon the Articles of Confederation as hopeless and to draft an entirely new Constitution. This they did so admirably that with very little change the form of goverimaent they created for 3,000,000 people on the Atlantic seaboard now serves the needs of a nation of 110,000,000 people covering a continent. The Constitution was to become effec- tive as soon as ratified by conventions in nine of the states. This took place in 1788, and George Wash- ington was elected President. He was inaugurated on March 4, 1789, the ceremony taking place in New York City. The Federal system. The new government was much stronger than the Confederation. It was given the power to lay its own taxes and to enforce its own laws directly upon the citizen. The Constitution of the United States was declared to be the supreme law of the land, and in its own sphere the central government was able to act quite independently of the states. The states, however, were left all the Consi'didiotial Sysiein L99 powers not expressly granted to the United States, and these were by far the larger part of all the powers that governments ordinarily exercise. The most significant increase in the authority of the central govermnent was the grant to it of power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, the states being forbidden to lay taxes on imports. States-rights doctrine. Early in the history of our government the idea was advanced in different quarters that the Constitution of the United States was merely an agreement between independent states, and that a state might disregard national laws if it chose to do so. Later the doctrine was advanced that a state might even withdraw from the Union (secede). These ideas took firmest hold in the Southern states, whose interests then differed widely from the interests of the other states. Seven of them withdrew from the Union in 1860 and 1861. Four years of warfare resulted in the restoration of the Union. Everybody now agrees that we are one people and that the union of states can never be dis- solved. Implied powers. The eighth section of Article I of the Constitution gives a list of the powers granted to Congress and then declares that Congress shall have power "to make all taws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Con- stitution in the government of the United States or any department or officer thereof." At the begin- ning of W ashington's first administration Alexander 200 Loyal Citizenship Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, wanted to have created a bank of the United States in which government money might be deposited and which would assist the government in financial matters. He declared that Congress had an implied power (under the clause of the Constitution that has just been quoted) to charter the United States Bank. Thomas Jefferson contended that Congress had no implied power to create a bank because a bank was not necessary in the sense that it was indispensable. Hamilton's view was accepted by Washington, the bank was created by act of Congress, and the Su- preme Court declared the act constitutional. The phrase "necessary and proper" has since been treated as if it read "necessary or proper." Growth of the powers of the United States. Since the adoption of the Constitution the authority of the Federal Government has increased very much, while the authority of the states has, by comparison, diminished. The growth of interstate commerce and the extension of the doctrine of implied powers have had much to do with this. In 1788 there was little commerce between the states. Stretches of wilderness separated most of the settlements, and transportation was slow and expen- sive. The fact that Congress had power to regulate commerce between the states was of little importance under such conditions. But now, with our wonderful means of transportation, most of the articles we use are brought to us by interstate commerce — regulated by Congress. The result is that the Federal government Con stitut ion a I Syslrm 201 I . ■*^. .1. Sijjnat I'orps Fig. 89. Our Fedoriil {loverninont centers in the Capitol at Washing- ton. Tht' hiiildin},' itself servos as a symbol of the nation. This ph()l<)f,'rii[)h was taken on the night when war was declared, April 6, 1917. now controls many mailers formerly left to the states — for example, railroad rates (even between points within a state), and the preparation of foods and drugs that enter into interstate commerce. QUESTIONS What ideas of liluTly and government did tlic settlers of the English colonies in America bring with ihem.^ What was the general scheme of government in the Thirteen Colonies.^ What was a colonial eharterP \\ hat did the colonies do with regard to govern- ment whi'n the War for Independence began.^ What were some of the changes from colonial government.^ What is a constitution.^ How does it dilfer from an ordinary law.^ Can you name any of the pre-Uevolutionary attempts at union? What were the Articles of 202 Loyal Citizenship Confederation? How was Congress elected? How many votes did each state have? What were the chief causes of the weakness of Congress under the Confederation? What was the Constitutional Convention of 1787? Name some of its members. What can you say of the permanency of its results? In what way was the new central government strengthened? What was the most significant increase in its powers? What is meant by "implied powers"? On what theory was the idea of the right of secession based? What effect did the war between the states have on this theory? Explain the growth in the power of the Federal government as compared with the power of the states. Give examples. TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Study the Constitution itself. Do not try to consider matters of fine distinction, but make yourself familiar with the document in its main outlines. The Constitution is printed at the back of this book. Each of the powers of Congress enumerated in the Constitution may be made a subject for report. The powers specifically denied the states or Congress may also be reported on. The government of any one colony furnishes a good topic. See Kimball, Everett, The National Government of the United States; Mltnro, W. B., The Government of the United Stales; Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics; Reed. T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapters 1 to 4 inclusive. For the Constitution and for documents other than the Consti- tution of the United States see MacDonald. W., Charters and Other Documents Illustrative of American History; Beard, C. A., Readings in American Government and Politics. Thorpe,, F. N., American Charters and Constitutions, contains all the charters and constitutions of each of the states. The Articles of Confederation may be found in American History Leaflets No. 7 and in Reed's Form and Functions of American Government. CIVIC ACTIVITIES An exercise commemorative of the adoption of the Constitution. This may take the form of a brief pageant or a tableau showing the scene in Independence Hall when the Constitution was signed. If such an effort is too elaborate, members of the class may recite extracts from the Constitution and from the great tributes to the Constitution by our statesmen and poets and by foreign observers like Gladstone and Brvce. CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN Making Law Three departments of government. The constitu- tions of tlie Lnilod Slates and llie several states make a very clear separation between the officers or bodies that exercise legislative (law-making), execu- tive (law-enforcing), and judicial (law-applying) powers in our government. The purpose in this is to keep supreme power from falling into the hands of one department, the better to protect our liberties. We shall consider the legislative, executive, and judi- cial departments of our government in order; but first we need to get a clearer idea of what laws are and how they originate. Our laws. Laws are those rules of conduct which are enforced by the government of nation, state, or community. The earliest laws were founded on custom, and to this day Ihe very core of our laiv is based on custom expressed in the decisions of judges. In old- time England, when the courts had decided a case based on a given state of facts, they decided all similar cases in the same way. Thus in the course of centuries a great body of "judge-made law " came to be established. This law, founded on reason and the authority of earlier cases ("precedent" or custom), is known as the common law. It prevails throughout the English-speaking countries, and the courts are still making law by their decisions. Other laws are made by statute; that is, by the action of law-making bodies such as the Congress of the United States or the state legislatures. 203 204 Loyal Citizenship Fig. 90. The senate chamber of the state of Texas. Then; are 31 members of the Texas senate. This body is small enough for calm and thorough consideration of public measures. The state legislature. All our state legislatures consist of two houses, a larger or lower one called the "house of representatives" or the "assembly," and an upper house called the "senate." A bill must be passed by both houses to become law. There is no difference in the power of the two houses, except that laws appropriating money or levying taxes must usually begin in the lower house. The upper house is generally more influential than the lower house. The term of a senator is usually four years, while that of a representative is usually two years. The members of the senate, being fewer in number, are elected from larger districts. The senate being smaller, the individual members have greater op- jjortunity to express themselves. All these cir- MakiiKj Law 205 cuinstaiices help lo make the senate ai» aljler body Ihaii the house. The legishiture meets every two years in most states. In a few it meets ever>' year. Special sessions may 1)0 called hy the {jfovernor, and these can tcike u}) only the business that the governor specifies in his call. The people, iwforfunafely, do not lake enough inferesl in Ihe eleclion of slule senalors and represenlatives. Their work is of the highest importance, and it could be done a great deal better than it is now. For one thing, our legishitors make too many laws and make them in too nmch of a hurny'. It is not unusual in the larger states to have eight or nine hundred laws passed in a session lasting about one hundred days, about three fourths of them being passed in the last fifteen days. Haste makes waste in law-making as in everything else. The members of both houses receive small salaries, varying from $1500 a year in New York and Pennsylvania to three dollars a day in Kansas and Oregon. Many people believe that a single house of thirty or forty well-paid members could do the work of state law-making more cheaply and more ejfectirely than it is now done. (Jenerally speaking, state legislators are fairly representative of the peo- ple. Most of them work hard and try to do what is right. The Congress of the United States: The Senate. The Congress of the United States is likewise com- posed of two houses. The iipju'r house or Senate was intended by Ihe framers of the Constitution to represent the states as such. Tor this reason each state 206 Loyal Citizenship was allowed two Senators. Originally these were chosen by the state legislatures; but since the adop- tion of the Seventeenth Amendment they have been elected by the people. The Senate was also intended to serve as a protection against hasty action following sudden changes of opinion by the people. For this reason the term of a Senator was fixed at six years, and the temis w ere so arranged that one third of the membership changes every two years. The Senate has proved to be much more powerful than the House of Representatives. 7/^ consent is necessary to the ratification of treaties (for this purpose a two- thirds vote is required) and to the making of important appointments by the President. But it is the long senatorial term and the small size of the body which really account for its superiority. The House of Representatives. The House of Representatives began with sixty-five members. The Constitution provides that the number of represen- tatives from each state shall be fixed every ten years, immediately following the census. The number of members has been steadily increased until there are now over four hundred. The House has to meet, therefore, in a very large room, so large that it is difficult for any one except a trained public speaker to be heard by the other members. The great size of the House has made it necessary to have rules for its procedure which very greatly limit the power of the indi- vidual member. The House of Representatives is made up of men who, on the average, wiU compare favorably with the English House of Commons or the Making Law 207 French Chamber of Deputies. There are, liowever. very few really great men in the House of Repre- sentatives. This is due chiefly to the fact that a man cannot become a leader in the House except by being a member of it for many years. Places on the impor- tant committees, which as we shall see do most of the work, are given on the basis of length of service. How laws begin. Laws begin as bills (proposed laws), and each member of a legislative body may prepare and introduce them. Legislators are willing, also, to introduce bills that are prepared by private individuals or organizations. Some of the more important bills, in which the great political parties are interested, are carefully prepared by experienced members of the legislature or by officers of the goverrmient. Legislative reference bureaus. The bills prepared by ordinary members and by private individuals and organizations are often carelessly drawn. In this way a good many loose and ineffective laws, and some really bad ones, have been adopted. To correct thi§ evil many states have established legislative reference bureaus. These bureaus are in charge of experts who gather material on the subjects in which members are interested and help them in the prepara- tion of bills. This has done a great deal toward im- proving the quality of our laws. The conimittee system. So many bills are intro- duced in our legislative bodies that it would be impossible to consider them all before each house. Furthermore, it is not possible for any member to 208 Loyal Citizenship study all the bills. Each house, therefore, is divided into committees for the consideration of different im- portant classes of legislation. Upon these committees the party in power always has a safe majority of members. The committees in state legislatures are usually appointed by the presiding officer. In both the United States Senate and the House of Representa- tives committees are, in name, appointed by the body itself. In practice, in the Senate the majority and the minority party each hold a caucus. Each caucus then appoints a Committee on Committees, which names tlie members of its party that are to serve on committees of the Senate. In the House of Representatives the caucus of the majority party appoints fourteen and tJiat of tJie minority seven members of the Committee on Ways and Means, which suggests to the House a "slate" of all the other com- mittees. The members of each committee are usually per- sons interested in the particular subject to which its attention is devoted. Thus the judiciary committee is always made up of lawyers, and the committee on agriculture, as far as possible, of farmers. Committee chairmanships and places on the more important committees usually are given to the oldest members in point of service. Each bill, as soon as it is in- troduced, is referred by the presiding officer of the house in question to the appropriate conmaittee. The committee hears every one who is interested in the defeat or passage of the bill and finally, after Making Imw 209 Kk;. 01. A lii'jiriiif,' bcfon- a Consrossioiml coiiiinitti'c. This boy, on lu'liiilf of 60. ()(»() school cliildrcn. iiijidc a plea before ihii House Coni- iiiittee of the District of ( '.ohiiiibia for an appropriation to promote nature study in tiie Wasliington schools. careful considoralion, votes to report or not to report it. If the coiiiiiiiltee does not report the bill, it goes no farther; if the committee does report the bill, it stands a good cliance of passage by ihe house. The bill in the house. In all our legislatures bills are recpiin'd to 1)C "read three limes." Before the practice of printing bills became common, these readings were actual readings. The first reading takes place when llie bill is introduced, and consists simply in reading its title. It is then without debate or vote referred to a connnittee. After it comes from the connnittee it is "read" a second time and voted upon. If there are enough votes to pass it, it is read a third time and voted on once more. In most state 210 Loyal Citizenship legislatures the second and tliird readings are by title only. In the national House of Representatives the second reading is in full, clause by clause, for the purpose of debate and amendment. The third read- ing is by title, unless a member requests that the bill be read again in full. In the national House there is also a vote on final passage. The discussion which is given bills in legislative bodies is not very thorough. On some extremely important bills there will be a number of rather loud political speeches, but no member's opinion is likely to be influenced by them. Members of the state legislatures and of the national Congress make speeches not so much for one another as for the people who elect them. The real consideration of legislation takes place in committee. The veto. After a bill has passed through both houses, it is sent to the governor or President, as the case may be, for his signature. If he does not approve of the measure, he may send it back to the house in which it originated, stating his reasons for disap- proval. This is the veto. Once vetoed, a bill can be- come law only if it is passed over again, usually by a two-thirds vote (in some states by a tliree-fifths vote). The signature of the chief executive will not be re- quired if a bill is passed over his veto. (In North Carolina the governor has no veto power.) Bills that reach the executive so close to the end of the session that he cannot send them back within the time allowed him for their consideration (ten days in the case of the President) he may kill, except in a few H. R. 2499. Making Law nBUC...M-2-C 67«h CONGRESS.) 211 ^Dds-sthndb Cmtgrtss of l^t ®niltb ^taltj of ^ramta; ;]Vt the 5""** ^casiom. Aisr A.CT To provide for Ihc icquisilion by tbo United Stales of privtU; rigiiU of fitbeiy in tad liiout PeaH Harbor, Territory of Hawtii. Be it enacted by the Senate and BoMae oj Iieprt»entative* o/ the United State* o/ America in Conj^rvji nssernbled. That tbo &«er«tvy of the N'try u hereby mithori2C in Pearl Harbor, island of Oabu, Temtcry of Hawaii, from an imaginary line from Kaak PoiDt to Beckoning Point, both within iald harbor, to the seaward, and the privately owned ngbta of fiahery in and about th« entrance channel to said harbor, and to enter into negotiationi for tbo purrhaM of the aaid right* and, if in his judgment the price for such right* it reasonable and sal iiif^ lory, to make contracts for the purchase of same subject to future ratification and appropriation by Congress; or in tho event of the inability of the Secretary of the Navy to make a tatisfact«r>' contract for tho voluntary purcha*e of tbo said rights of fishery, he is hereby authorized and directed through tho Attorney General to institute and carry to completion proceedingv for tho condemnation of said rights of fishery, the acoeptaocc of the award in said prweedings to be subject to the future ratification and appropriation by Congress. Such condemnation proceedings shall be instituted aud conducted in, and jurisdiction of said procoodinp! is hereby given to, tlo district court of tho United States for the district of Iluwaii. substantially as provided in "An Act to authorize condemnation of land for iites for publi<: buildings, and for other purposes," approviMi August 1, 1888. and the sum of $5,000 is hereby authorized to bo appropriat4?d, to be immediately and ooDtinuouily available until expended, to pay the necessar)- costs thereof and expenses in connection therewith. The Secretary of tho Nary U further 'authorized and directed to report the proceedings hereunder to Congra*. ,A^ riet I'etnJent oJ Of Cniltil Slaf^aM /^-y^^.-^pK^-i •rwdml'. %l Ikt Srnalr. Fig. 92. An act of Congress as it ap[>ears of r('ct)rd. Ob- serve the signatures of the Speaker of the House of F\ej>resentali\es aiui of tlie Vice President, which show thai the hill i)asse(l eacli liouse. and tht> aj)proN al of the IVesident, whicli finailv made tlie hill law. 212 Loyal Citizenship states, by simply neglecting to sign them. This is known as the pocket veto. In many states the governor has thirty days after the adjourmnent of the legislature, in which to make up his mind on bills. The veto power has in recent years been very much used both in national and state affairs. QUESTIONS What is a law? Describe the part courts play in making laws. What is meant by "law-making bodies"? How many houses are there in a state legislature? Is there any difference in their powers? in their influence? What was the United States Senate intended to represent? Why is the Senate more powerful than the House of Representatives? W hat difficulties does the large size of the House of Representatives present? How is a law proposed? Explain the importance of the committee system. How are committees appointed in state legislatures? in Congress? What is meant by the "three readings" of a bill? What is the veto? What is a pocket veto? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The personnel of legislative bodies. The teacher may assign to each member of the class the duty of examining the biography of a number of members of the legislature or of the Congress of the United States. Such biographies can be obtained from the Congres- sional Directory and from a similar book published in most states and obtainable from the secretary of state. The results may be tabulated so as to show the occupation, education, and previous political experience of the members of each body. The organization and procedure of the legislature of your own state and of the Congress of the United States may be divided into a number of topics. The use of the veto in your own state and in the national government are excellent topics. See Munro, W. B., Government of {he United States; Kimball, Everett, The National Government of the United Stales; Beard, C. A., American Govern- ment and Politics; McCall, S. W., The Business of Congress; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapters 11, 12, 21, and 22. Tables showing terms of state legislatures and salaries of members, etc., may be found in the World Almanac. See also the American Year Book. Making Law 213 CIVIC ACTIVITIES The class organiziition should now he turned into a legislative body. By using copies of l)ills, files, and journals, which can usually be obtained from the secretary of stale at your state ca[)ital, the class can be made to grasp concretely what the text necessarily describes so generally. A visit to th(^ state legislature, if it is in session, will be found to repay even a considerabh^ journey. If such a visit is iiiiijracticable, do not forget that city councils, county boards, and boards of education are legislatives bodies, and that their procedure is essen- tially the same as that of the larger bodies. A talk on legi.slative methods and procedure by a present or former member of the state legislature will be helpful. Fig. 9.3. The mace, the symbol of authority in the national House of Representatives. In the hands of the sergeant-at- arms of the House it indicates that he is prepared to use force to restore order. CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT Carrying Out the Law The executive. Laws of themselves are ineffec- tive. There must be some machinery for carrying them out. The courts interpret and apply the law; but the decisions of courts cannot be effective unless there is back of them the force of government. This force is commanded by the executive. The President of the United States is the commander-in-chief of our army and navy. Similarly, the governor of a state controls its militia. The management and direction of aU the activities of government, from conducting a war down to cleaning our streets, is the work of the executive. The state executive. The principal state execu- tive is the governor. He is elected by the people and has a great deal of influence and prestige because, in the state goverim:ient, he is the representative of the people as a whole. Several important branches of executive power, however, are not under his control at all but are directed by officers who are also elected by the people, such as the secretary of state, the state treasurer, the auditor or controller, and the attorney- general. Our states maintain a great many public institu- tions such as universities, normal schools, hospitals for the insane, prisons, and reformatories. They regulate pubHc utilities, banks, insurance companies, and building and loan associations; and in recent years they have undertaken, among other things, to promote agriculture and forestry, to study the prob- 214 ( '.urrviiKj (Jul 1 1 if, Ijur \\ eiicli (l;il)iiiel iiieiiiber eonie a series of divisions, bureaus, and ollices so arranged as to give the J^resideiiL through his Cab- inet officers, complete control. The President by his power u[ jn-cscid'uu] messages to Congress and by his ])o\ver of relo has a very large shareinlaw-niaking. So long as his party has a major- ity in both houses, his prestige as the representative of all the people is so overwhelming that a vigorous President is able to guide the act ion of Congress. Ikit when his party ceases to have control of either house of Congress, there is likely to be much bickering and little achievement. Position of the President. The President occu- pies the greatest position in tiie gift of the people of this country. He holds no court as do kings. He dresses and lives like an ordinary American citizen, and when his term of oflice is over he slips back into the ranks of his fellow^ countrymen. IVevertheless, every good man tnid woman in the T'niled Slates regards the President with a respect that is, if any- thing, greater than that shown to a king by his sub- jects. Even those who disagree with him most pay him the respect that is due his office as the representa- tive of the people. QUESTIONS What departinciil (■oiiunands the force of governmontP ^^ hy is its help neeessary to make eoiirt deeisions elleetive;' \\ liat is the distinction l)etween lef,'ishition and administration!' W liat wcidi- nesses are tlierc in the position of ttie governor as state executive.^ How would the short-ballot principle work if applied in the cases of 220 Loyal Citizenship state officers other than governor? How is the President of the United States elected? What is the practical effect of this system? What is a national convention? How does the losing side behave after an election? What makes the position of the President so very important? Say what you can of the organization of the executive side of the national government. W hat is the President's Cabinet? Explain the influence of the President over Congress. TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The National Convention of any party; a party platform; the presidential campaign; the biographies of any of our greater Presi- dents; relations of the President to Congress. A report on each of the executive departments of your state government or of the national government will be very helpful. On conventions and other matters relating to presidential elections see MuNBO, W. B., Government of the United States; Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics; Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth; Ray, P. O., Introduction to Political Parties and Practical Politics; Johnston, Alexander, American Politics. On the powers of the President, in addition to Munro, Beard, and Bryce, see Haskin, F. J., The American Government; Taft, Wm. H., Our Chief Magistrate and His Poivers and The Presidency: Its Duties, Its Powers, Its Opportunities, and Its Limitations. On the executive departments of the national government see Haskin, F. J., The American Government; and Cyclopiedia of American Government (consult under name of each department). On the governor and state administration, besides Beard, Munro, and Bryce, see Reinsch, P. S., Readings on American Stale Government, and Reed, T. H., Government for the People. On all these subjects more extensive reading suggestions may be found in Reed's Form and Functions of American Government. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Appoint a committee to introduce in the class, organized as a legislative body, a proposal for a brief amendment to the state constitution. Let the amendment provide for the grouping of the various executive departments, the head of each department to be a Cabinet member under the governor. Let the committee prepare charts of the organization of the state executive as existing and as reorganized under the proposed amendment. GH AITKIN T\VENTY-MNE Interpreting and AppLYiN(i tin; Law Courts. Our Coiislilutioii, as we have seen, care- fully (iisliii^aiislies and separates legislative, execu- tive, and judicial power. An early king, however, was legislator, executive, and judge. His decree be- came a i)arl of I he law; he eoninianded the soldiers through whom law was enforced; and he sal in the gateway of his city or palace to apply it — to settle disputes and to order the punishment of offenders. When a king's duties as judge came to be burden- some, he appointed lesser judges to hear all but the greatest cases. Then a system of courts developed in place of tlie single courl of the king. But men were allowed, under i)roper circumstances, to appeal from the decision of a minor judge to a higher judge, and filially to the king. Courts are so arranged today. Civil and criminal cases. Often there is a dispute belween individuals concerning their rights under the law or concerning the facts that affect their rights. Either of the parties may bring the dispute into court for settlement. The courl hears the plaintiff or "complainant" and the defendant, and their Avit- nesses. It then decides which party is right under the law and giv(>s or refuses to give the damages or other relief asked for. Such cases are known as civil cases. Persons charged with crime are also brought before the courts, and they are there given fair trials. If a court finds them guilty, it fixes punishment in accordance" with law; if it finds them iimocent, it sets thcui free. Such cases are known as criminal cases. 221 222 Loyal Citizenship Rights which the law protects. There are three great rights which the law and the courts must pro- tect. The first is the right of personal safety. If any one does you bodily injury, either intentionally or carelessly, you can demand payment for damages from him. The second is the right of properly. If any one by force or fraud, or even by mistake, takes or injures your land or your goods, or in any other way causes you to suffer personal injury in a right that has money value, you may bring an action in court for the payment of money dsunages or for the restoration of particular property. The third right that the courts will enforce is the right of contract. If any one in return for some valu- able article or service that you have given him promises to give something to you or do something for your benefit, you can recover the amount of the damage that his failure to keep the contract causes you. But that is not all. The courts will, in a proper case, make a party actually do what in justice he ought to do. Crimes and their punishment. There are acts that are regarded as offenses against the community itself, even though they are directed against indi- viduals. Murder, robbery, counterfeiting, and ar- son, if unchecked, w ould reduce the country to ruin. Therefore the law provides severe punishments for such acts (crimes). It will not allow the injured party or his family or friends to let a criminal off by forgiving him. Such matters are not private affairs. The community's interest comes first. Interpreting and Applyiny Law 223 Fig. 97. A courtnjoin sctTio. Tho yomif; womui -r is being tried on n criMiiiial cliiirire. d at llie table Sometimes, when a shocking crime has taken place, a niol) lynclics tlic person susj)ected of connnitting it. Lynching is murder. It nmrders not only its human victim but the law itself. The principle that no one can be punished for a crime except after a fair trial is one of ihe fimdamenlals of American liberty. Trial courts. In each stale there is a system of courts for the trial of civil and criminal cases of every description. These systems of courts differ somew hat in details. In most states each town or township has a justice court presided over by a justice of the })eace elected by the people. This court has power to try civil cases involving not more than a few hundred dollars and the less serious criminal cases known as misdemeanors. A person dissatiFfied with the deci- 224 Loyal Citizenship sion in a justice court may question this decision before a higher court (appeal his case). For the trial of the more important civil and crim- inal cases there is in some states a court for each county. In several states the district may be larger than a single county. In a few states, like New York, there is one court for the county and one for a larger district, the most important cases being re- served for the latter. The jury. Every person accused of crime is en- titled to trial by jury, and in most civil cases juries are employed. In securing a jury, a list of persons (panel) is smn- moned to appear at the time set for the trial. From their number twelve are selected by lot. Either party to a case can cause the rejection of a person so selected by showing that he might not be fair- minded. Either party can also reject a number of jurors without giving any reason. It is the duty of the jury, after listening to the evidence, to decide the facts of a case. The judge instructs the jury on the law of the case. In criminal cases the deci- sion must be unanimous. Several states now provide for decision of civil cases by less than a unanimous vote, — usually three fourths, — and one or two states provide for an alternate juror to take the place of one of the twelve jurors should one fall ill. Jury duty is not very pleasant, and some cases take a long time to try. In a great murder case the jury may be kept together, with no chance to go home, for several weeks. Many of the really intelligent, busy fnterpretinfi and Applyiivi Lair 223 people of llie eofiiinunily inana^fe lo ^^el excused iroiii jury duty. If (his duty is left to idle, uneducated })eople, the jury system becomes very unsatisfactory. It nuist, however, he maintained, because it is one of our chief safei^uards a.u'ainsl possible tyranny. Feir dalles of the citizen are more iruporldul IIkui jary daly. Judges. Jn(l;,n^s are usually elected l)y the people, but in some slates they are appointed by the gov- ernor. Except for justices of tlie peace, they are always lawyers. They are almost always honest and fair-minded men, who feel keenly the sacredness of their duly. There is a (j(H)d deal of difference of opin- ion as to whether they slioald be elected or appointed. 1 1 is generally admit led that the salaries of trial judges are too low. Long terms and good salaries help to make judgeships attractive to good lawyers. Lawyers and trials. Our system of trying cases would nol work al all without lawyers. They are, of course, paid Ivy tiie pai'lies whom they represent, but they are, nevertheless, really officers of the court. A trial is a kind of debate between the plaintiff and the defendant or Ivetween the slate and the accused. Each side is supposed to try, honorably, to present its case in the most favorable ligld. The attorney for the plaintiff or the district attorney ojkmis the trial with a statement of the case of his client. He then calls the witnesses for his side. Witnesses can testify only in answ(T to questions. When the attorney for the plaintiir has finished questioning each of his wit- nesses, the attorney for the defendant "cross-exam- ines" him. A clever cross-examiner can make it very 226 Loyal Ciiizenship iinconifortable for a witness \\\\o tries to conceal the truth. When the witnesses for the plaintiff have all been examined, the attorney for the defendant states his case and calls his witnesses. W hen he is through, the attorney on each side argues his case to the jury. Out of this contest comes the truth. A criminal case is conducted much the same as a civil case, the public being regarded as the plaintifT. Many a case that gets into court might have been settled between the parties themselves, if either one or both of them had been well advised. A large part of the w ork of lawyers consists in advising their cli- ents how to keep out of court. The lawyer's profession is a very noble one if he wishes to make it so. The grand jury. When a person is arrested for a serious crnne, he is first "arraigned" before a justice of the peace (or police judge), who if he believes there is sufficient evidence to justify the charge sends the accused back to jail. Except in murder cases the accused may be released on hail. This consists of money or of a bond made secure by the signatures of men of property. A bond provides that a specified sum of money will be forfeited to the state if the accused does not appear when wanted. The evidence against him is then, in most states, presented to the grand jury for preliminary investigation. This body consists of from twelve to twenty-three persons more carefully selected than trial jurors ordinarily are. If the grand jury believes there is probable cause of guilt, it returns a true bill or indictment. It also investigates on its own initiative any matter within Inlerpreling and . [pplyiny Law 227 the c'oiinly about which there is a suggestion of crime. Parlicukirly, the grand jury goes over tlie work of all county and other public oflicers, and if it finds anything wrong calls allenlion to the matter in its report. If there has been grafting, it indicts the guilty oflicial. The grand jury, therefore, is a very important means of preventing bad government. In somestates the district attorney deciders whether or not to prosecute without action by a grand jury. Courts of appeal. There is in each state a highest court, which is usually known as the supreme court, though it is sometimes called the "court of errors" or the "appellate court." This court has the last word on all questions of law that are made the subject of appeal from the decisions of lower courts. (The jacls are finally settled in the lower courts.) Some- times there are lesser courts of appeal between the trial court and the highest state court. Courts of appeal consist of several judges, all of whom may take part in rendering the decision. Supreme-court and other appellate judges are usually elected by the people, but the terms are long and nu'leclion is very common. The position of a supreme-court judge is a very dignified and honorable one. The Federal courts. The Constitution and laws of the L niled States being the supreme law of the land, it is tlie duty of slate courts to a{)ply them in every case where they are involved. The United States, however, does not depend entirely upon the state courts. Any case arising under the Constitu- tion, laws, or treaties of the United States may be 228 Loyal Citizenship p 20 CA3 u 2 U! Q Q is Interpreting and Applyuuj Law 229 begun ill I lie Federal courts hy I he plaint ifT, as may any case between citizens of dilTerent stales; or the defendant may liave any sucli case transferred from a state court to the proper Federal court. Admiralty cases — that is, cases involving navigation — are al- ways tried in the Federal courts. Ihe lowest United States court is known as the district court. It is the trial court for practically all Federal cases. There is at least one such court in each state. For each United States district court there is a district judge (or more than one), a district attorney, and a United States marslial. The latter is an officer corresponding to the sherifT. Above the district court comes the United States circuit court of appeals, and its decision is final in all cases except those involving extremely important matters. (There are nine United States circuit courts of appeals.) Tlie Supreme Court of tiie United States stands at the head of the judicial branch of our government. It consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. It is our highest court of appeals, and it has the final word in every case whose settlement requires an interpretation of the Constitution of the United States. The judges of all United States courts are ap- pointed by the President for life and. like the Presi- dejit, can be removed only on inipeacluuent and con- viction. An impeachment is begun by resolution of the House of Representatives, and trial takes place before the Senate. '2'M) Loyal Citizenship The Supreme Court and the Constitution. The Supreme Gourl is I he chief guardian of the Constitu- tion of the United States. It has repeatedly held that an act of Congress in violation of the Constitu- tion simply did not become law. It does not hesi- tate to declare provisions of state constitutions or state statutes void if they conflict with the Constitu- tion. If a state court upholds a state law as against the Constitution, an appeal may be taken to the Supreme Court. Furthermore, the Supreme Court exercises the power to compel a state court to transfer to it any case involving the Constitution. There is, therefore, no danger that the Constitution of the United States may mean one thing in one state and another in another, or that the local sentiment of a state may affect the interpretation of the national Constitution. Such a power as is possessed by the Supreme Court is absolutely necessary to safeguard the Constitution and to prevent the confusion that would arise through conflicting decisions in ttie courts of dif- ferent states. Respect for law. We have already seen that obe- dience to law is one of the principal duties of a citi- zen. Respect for the law and for the courts which apply it is absolutely necessary to the peace and good order of our country. If laws are bad, they should be repealed or amended. If judges are corrupt, they should be replaced by honest men. The means for doing this is in the hands of the people. The final responsibility for bad laws or bad judges rests with them. InlerpreliiKj anil \jjplyin(j Ldir '2'M QUESTIONS Explain I he iuifKirtance of having courts. \N hat is the dilFerencc between a civil and a criminal case? W hat three great rights does the law protect ■> What remedies do the courts give for injury to these rights:' W hat is a crimeP Why does the law punish criniinals? Why is lynching murder!* \N hat is its ell'ect ufM)n law? \\ hat is a jury? \\ hat is the part of the judge in a trial? How are state judges chosen? Iv\j)lain the i)art of the lawyer at a trial. Describe the duties of the grand jury. \\ hat are courts of appeal? W hy does the United States have courts .separate from those of the states? Name the Federal courts. How do Federal judges obtain their positions, and for what period may they hold them? Explain the relation of the United States Supreme Court to the Constitution. State why respect for law is so im{)ortanl. TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The judicial organization of your own state should be the subject of several topics. See Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics; MuNRO, W. B., The Government of the United Slates; Rein.sch, p. S., Readings on American Stale Government; Bryce, James, The American Commonweallh; Wilson, Woodrow, Conslila- lional (jovcrnmenl in the United States; Reed, T. H.. Form and Functions of American Government, Chapter l.'J. On the actual working of trials see Wellman, F. L., The Art of Cross Examination and .1 Day in Court; Train, Arthur, Courts, Criminals, and the Camorra. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Visit a court actually engaged in trying a case. A mock trial in which the essential features of court procedure are observed will be interesting and profitable. It will not be dillicult to get the assistance of a lawyer, whom some member of the class may know, to act as adviser in planning the trial. CHAPTER THIRTY Territories and Dependencies — The District of Columbia The Ordinance of 1787. The United States has always had under its control lands and peoples not comprised within the limits of any state. The first territory to be organized was the Northwest Terri- tory, lying west of the Alleghenies and north of the Ohio River. The Congress of the Confederation in 1787 passed an Ordinance for the govermnent of this territory, which has been a model for territorial government ever since. This ordinance provided that the territory should have a governor, a secre- tary, and three judges, to be appointed by the central government; also that as soon as the population had increased sufficiently there should be estabUshed an elective territorial legislature. It further guaranteed to the people of the territory religious freedom, the privilege of habeas corpus, and trial by jury. Attitude toward territorial government. For nearly a century, as our people pushed westward, territory after territory was organized. Only two of the Western states, Texas and California, came into the Union without having been organized as terri- tories. Territorial government ivas regarded merely as a preparation for statehood, and for this reason the people were willing to submit to a government in which their governor and judges were appointed by the President. Of course, in territories that had been organized for any length of time the people chose their own legislatures. The entire area of the United 232 Territories and Dependencies 233 States on tiic coiillnent of \ortli America, except Alaska, lias now been made into states. Later expansion. It is only since the purchase of Alaska in lo67 that the I nited States has come to exercise aulhorily over distant lands. Hawaii was annexed in 1898, Alaska and Hawaii are governed as territories. As a result of the war with Spain the United States acquired Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. In 1900 we obtained possession of Tutuila, one of the Samoan Islands, In 1901 the Canal Zone became essentially a part of the United States. In 1914 we bought the ^ irgin Islands from Denmark, the people voting in favor of the change in sovereignty. Porto Rico. In Porto Rico the governor is ap- pointed by the President, and he in turn appoints the heads of most of the executive departments. The two houses of the legislature are elected by the people. The governor has a veto which may be overcome by a two-thirds vote of both houses. All laws passed over his veto must be submitted to Washington, where the President has the power to annul them. The people of Porto Rico elect one detegate to our House of Representatives, who, liowever. has no vote. In 1898 practically all the people of Porto Rico spoke Spanish. The American govermnent has installed a splendid system of public schools for the island, and its people are being trained in the English language and in democratic ideas, and are being prepared to take charge of tlieir own govern- ment. 234 Loyal Citizenship " 6C>-H Territories and Dependencies 2'^7> Philippine Islands. The Philippine Islands are a very large archipelago inhabited by a number of nearly related groups of Malayan people. In the Philippines, as in Porto Rico, the greatest achieve- ment under the American government has been the establishment of an admirable system of schools. We have recognized that there is no way in which a people can be prepared for freedom so well as by education. In the Philippines there is a governor- general appointed by the President. He appoints the heads of the executive departments (except the Insular auditor, who is appointed by the President). The governor-general possesses a veto power which the legislature cannot override without the approval of the President. 1 he senate consists of twenty-four members elected by the people and two (from non- Christian districts) appointed by the governor- general. The lower house is made up of eiglity-one elected and nine appointed members. Two delegates from the Philippines, without votes, sit in the House of Representatives at Washington. The actual direction of affairs in the PhiHppines has latterly- rested largely with a Council of State consisting of the heads of departments and the })resi(liiig ofhcers of the two houses. They are all Filipinos and belong to the majority party in the legislature. In this way the people have been given a form of self- government. In Tutuila the government is in the hands of a naval officer appointed by the Secretary of the ?savy. The same system exists in Guam and in several 236 Loyal Citizenship U. S. N. Official PhotograpU Fig. 100. The naval governor of Samoa, and some of the people over whom he rules in the name of the United States. very small islands that we hold in the Pacific. The Virgin Islands also are under the care of the Navy Department, Among the important questions before the Ameri- can people today are those concerning the disposition of some of our dependencies, particularly of the Philippines. Our government is founded upon the idea that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. How can it, then, consistently rule over subject peoples.^ Such depen- dencies, however, came to us in a way that did not permit us to avoid caring for them. To turn them adrift before they were prepared to govern themselves ^ would be to shirk our clear duty. The District of Cotumbia 237 The District of Columbia. The founders of our goveriiineut llioujzlit ihat il would be umvise for the capital of the United States to be ivithin tlie territory of any state. They, therefore, provided in the Con- stitution for a Federal district in which there should be no authority except that of the United States. This district was created by the cession from Mrginia and Maryland of a piece of territory ten miles square lying on both banks of the Potomac. The lower portion of the original district was afterward given back to Mrginia, so that the present District of Columbia represents only the cession from Maryland. Its laws are made and its taxes are levied by Congress itself. The carrying out of these laws is left to a commission of three members appointed by the Presi- dent, each of whom has charge of a group of depart- ments of the government. The people living within the District have no voice in even theu- local affairs and cannot vote for President of the United States or for members of Congress. They are not satisfied with this situation, and there is a movement on foot to have it remedied. QUESTIONS What was the Northwest Territory? Tell about the Ordinance of 1787. What is the diireronce between the old expansion of the United States and the expansion since 1867? \\ hat form of govern- ment have Alaska and Hawaii? Describe the government of Porto Rico. Describe the government of the Philippine Islands. How are Guam, the Virgin Islands, and Tutuila governed? Why is the question of the disposition of some of oiu- dependencies a diflicult one? How was tlie District of Columbia formed? Describe its government. 238 Loyal Citizenship TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION Your own state's history before it became a state. The several dependencies: their geography, people, history, and government. There is a dearth of up-to-date books on the government of our dependencies, but there is a good deal of magazine literature on the subject. See Kimball, Everett, The Nalional Government of the United States; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapter 26. CIVIC ACTIVITIES The following subject will be an excellent one for debate in your legislatively organized class: Besolved, That the United States should within one year grant complete independence to the Philippine Islands. PART FIVE SOINIE PROBLEMS OF LARGER CITIZENSHIP Cooperation for the Common Good My city and country, so far as I am Antoninus, is Rome, but so far as I am a man, it is the world. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus CHAPTER THIRTY-OXE Problems of Labor The marketability of labor. If a farmer with a thousand busliels of wheat to sell cannot get wliat he considers a fair price for it, he may liold it for a better market. If he sells his wheat six weeks later, even for the price originally offered, his loss will be but slight: there will be the loss of interest for six weeks, and perhaps a little shrinkage in the grain. A worker, however, who holds back his labor sulTers a total loss of wages. Labor not used can never be recovered, and few workers have money savings that will enable them to remain long unemployed without suffering. Consequently, the individual worker cannot bargain with an employer for wages as a trader can bargain with his customers. Unless there is an actual shortage of the kind of labor he can perform, the laborer must — in a free labor market — accept the terms that are ofTered him. This is peculiarly true of the least skilled workers. The individual worker in a shoe factory who is trained only to fasten on heels is helpless, because there are relatively few places that demand his special services. Unions. The weakness of workers in bargaining as individuals has led to the formation of "unions" tlirough which workers may bargain collectively or as a unit. It makes little difference to a large employer if a single worker quits because the wages, hours, or working conditions do not satisfy him. If, however, all his employees quit at once, it is a 241 242 Loyal Citizenship different matter. He may have orders to fill which if not filled will mean great loss, perhaps ruin, to him. He may have on hand partly worked or perishable materials which will be wasted if the factory must shut down. Such concerted quitting is called a strike, and it is the commonest weapon of organized labor. The earliest unions were associations of men of the same craft or trade. Such associations are still the usual fonn of union in the United States. The local unions in each trade are united with all the other locals in the same trade in great national organiza- tions like the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers. All the unions in a city usually are represented in a central labor council which looks out for common union interests in the city. Most of the trades are united in the American Federation of Labor, or, like the railway brotherhoods, work in harmony with it. Some progress has been made in recent years in organizing all workers, especially the unskilled, in unions for each industry irrespective of the trade or kind of work of each man. These industrial unions are much more radical than the trades unions. They are not generally afTiliated with the American Federation of Labor. Most radical is the movement which proposes to organize all workers in "one big union." Its object is the overthrow of our govern- ment and social order by a general strike or other violent means. Unions and labor monopoly. The trades unions Problems of Labor 213 Cartoon by J. .V. Darlimj Via. 101. W lion ("qjitiil iuid labor quarrel both sulTer, and so docs the whole conimunity. are always trying lo gel a monopoly of the supply of labor in their respective trades. To this end they sometimes limit the number of apprentices (boys who are to learn the trade), and they often demand that none but union men be emj)loyed in th rva^ai "iSSfe??^. r%**^. ^ L'. .S. R(ftamalion Service Fig. 10."). iNOl niiiiiy >('ius aj^o the Sail Hiver country in Arizona was a desert. The Camel Back Mountains are shown in the distance. mufut #v #r;vf \% ijM5w5i.^fV^^^ Fig. 106. The sagebrush land .shown in Figure 10.") has become a vast farm as a result of the Salt River irrigation project. 258 Loyal Citizenship persons, who in many places cut and destroyed the forests on the liillsides. Rains then washed the soil away, leaving bare rocks in place of trees. Instead of being held by the forest to seep into the rivers, the waters from spring rains and melting snows poured into the valleys in destructive floods. Moisture dried quickly out of the unprotected ground and by midsummer the land was parched. Not only did the lumbermen cut merchantable timber, but they broke down the young timber, and left great quantities of waste from lumber upon the ground. When dry, this waste became the starting point of terrific fires that destroyed more forests than did the ax and the saw. Forest conservation. In 1905, Congress, acting upon the recommendation of President Roosevelt, created a Rureau of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture, and Gifford Pinchot, a far-seeing and public-spirited man, was appointed Chief Forester. The United States has set aside about two hundred million acres of land in forest reserves. In these reserves only the full-grown timber is cut, and the cutting is done under restrictions which prevent waste. Another ten million acres have been set aside by the states in similar reserves. Rut the forest area owned by individuals is at least four times as great as that owned by the public, and only a few private owners are really careful in the use of their property. Forest fires. Forest fires in the United States produce a loss of about fifty million dollars a year. Conservation of Natural Resources 239 U. S. FuTC.ll Senicc Fig. 107. A fire in the Olympic National Forest, Washington, at night. Forest fire losses in the United States averaged more than 17 million dolltirs a year from 1*)16 to 1020 inclusive. There were 160,318 lires, and .56, 188, .307 acres were burned over. They always start as small fires. Somebody tlirows a match into a pile of brush, or somebody leaves a campfire burning. The United States Forest Service has prepared excellent rules for the prevention of forest fires. These are posted in public places near the forest reserves. On the summit of a mountain commanding a view of hundreds of miles of forest will be a Jire lookout or "observatory." Members of the forest service 260 Loyal CAiizenship v. S. Forest Service Fig. 108. An observer watching for fires from a lookout tower on Marties' Peak, California. keep watch there day and iiight. Telephone wires run from the lookout to the stations of the forest rangers. As soon as a suspicious smoke is seen, the alarm is given and the rangers hurry to the location that the lookout has indicated. Volunteers are called upon to help fight the fires, equipment being supplied by the rangers. Recently the forestry service has instituted airplane patrols as a further means for the prompt discovery of fire. Conservation of wild life. Much has been done by pubhc-spirited individuals and by the government toward saving the native wild fife of our country. Game sanctuaries, the greatest of which is Yellow- Conservation of Natural Resources 261 stone National Park, have been I he means of pre- serving to us native American animals liiat have been threatened with extinction. Laws |)rf)tecting fish, bird life, and game sliould l)e strongly enforced. Metals. The supply of some metals, like gold, silver, and })latiiium, is very limited, and they are so highly })rize(l that the greatest care is always taken in mining them. But the more abundant and cheaper metals, which are much more necessary to human welfare than are the precious metals, are often mined in a wasteful manner. The temptation is to remove from the earth only the higher-yielding ores, leaving the rest in place, where it may never become available. Our government parted with most of its mineral lands for a mere trifle, retaining no control over them. The base metals should not l)e wasted. Wlien they cease to be useful in one form, they should be saved, melted dow n, and used again. Coal. There is just so much coal to be taken from the ground, ajid the amount available can be esti- mated with reasonable accuracy. According to some authorities coal is being used at a rate that w ill exhaust the total supply of the United States in about 150 years. We who are living now will never be without coal, but future generations may have very little of it. In the last few years seventy-five million acres of supposed coal land have been set apart by the government, including most of the ver^' valuable coal lands of Alaska. Tliis coal now belongs to the public, and it probably \\\\\ be mined under 262 Loyal Citizenship government regulation, so that all the coal can be removed without waste. The use of water power wherever available will help tremendously in the conservation of coal. Oil. The increased use of crude petroleum as a fuel and of gasoline for driving automobiles is rapidly depleting our total stock of petroleum. At our present rate of consumption, the natural supply of the United States may be used up within the life- time of some of us. Oil should never be wasted — no matter what the price. Only the most economical methods of getting it from the ground should be used. Already the naval powers are in competition for the control of oil fields everywhere. Sea power depends upon petroleum, for the most effective v/arships must have it as fuel. Natural gas. Natural gas has been more wantonly wasted than any other of our natural resources. Up to a few years ago the waste was fully equal to the use. Natural gas is usually found in connection with oil wells, and oil operators have been grossly careless about what happened to the gas they in- cidentally opened up. QUESTIONS What is meant by conservation? What has been the policy of the United States with regard to pubhc lands? What is meant by se- clamation? What has been the efTect of recklessly cutting off our forests? Who was Chief Forester under President Roosevelt? What has the United States done toward forest conservation? What is being done to prevent forest fires? to preserve our native wild life? Is there danger of exhausting our suppUes of coal, oil, and metals? What has the United States done toward their conservation? What are some of the things that we,- as individuals, can do to help in conservation? Conservation of Natural Resources 263 TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION l']jirh of f)ur [)riiici|);il ii;iliiriil n'scjiirccs will furnish jrood iii;it(TiMl for a coiiscrN alion rt-porl. McjMJrts may also lie made on the {)ul)li(- land polity of the United Stales, the ]>rin(-ipal provisions of the Homestead Law, the Land Ollice, and the Heclaniation Service. See Beahd, C. A., American Governmenl and Politics; Young, J. T., The New American Governmenl; Cronan, R., Our Wasteful Nation; Pinchot, Cikkohd, The Fight for Conservation; Fairbanks, IL W., Conservation Header; Reed, T. H., Form and I'^unclions of American (iovernriient, Cha}>ter 33. The bulletin of the General Land Ollice on the Homestead Law and bulletins of the United States Reclamation Service can be had, ujion request, of the Depart- ment of the Interior at Washington. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Let the class decide upon some conservation project that the members can carry out, such as the saving of metal or the cultivation of vacant lots or unused spaces in back yards, the proceeds to be used in buying or helping to buy some object to beautify the school- room. The class might, as a project to conserve civic beauty, undertake the removal of some unsightly object in the vicinity of the school; but permission should first be secured. CHAPTER THIRTY-FOUR Deaelopmknt of Communications The need for easy transportation and communi- cation. To get the greatest benefit out of our widely spread natural resources — to conserve them through right use — we need the best possible means of trans- portation. We need, too, the highest development in mail, telegraph, telephone, cable, and wireless service, in order to promote the free interchange of ideas. The better our means of communication, the easier it is to make and keep the American people a social and political unit. The Romans understood this principle and acted upon it when they followed up each new extension of their territory by building a good road. Highways. The veins and arteries of the economic American Musciiin of Nat. Hist, Fig. 109. Progress in ocean transport. The "Mayflower" of 1621 compared with the "Leviathan" of 1921. 264 Development of Coniniunirations 265 V. S. Bureau of Puhlu- Roads Fig. 110. Buildinp; a conrrote road l)Ol\veen Heading and Allcnlown, Pennsylvania. life of our country are its highways: roads, railroads, rivers, lakes, and canals, and now even ils air huies. It is comparatively cheap to move goods by rail, still cheaper to move them by water, and comparatively expensive to haul them on trucks or wagons. It may cost less to bring Hood River apples from a railroad station in Oregon to a railroad station in the Middle West than it does to h.aul them to one freight ])lat- form and away from the other. The cost of trucking depends very nmch on the character of the roads. Dirt roads are frequently either so muddy or so dusty as to make transportation difiicult, and macadamized roads are soon torn to ])ieces by swift- moving automobiles. But over smooth concrete roads great ten-ton motor trucks roll with ease. 266 Loyal Citizenship U. S. Bureau of Public Ruaih Fig. 111. A section of the Lincoln Highway between Kingston and New Brunswick, New Jersey. Such a well-built concrete road is easily maintained, and it greatly reduces the cost of motor trans- portation. One of the things that the people of our country most need to do is to establish a fine system of paved higJiways. But it is beyond the means of any except the more thickly settled localities to pay for paved highways, and a large part of the expense must be borne by the state and national governments. State aid for roads was begun by New Jersey (1891), quickly followed by Massachusetts (1892), Cahfornia (1895), and New York (1898). Now every state is engaged in good-roads work. On conditions laid down in the Federal Aid Road Act, the United States will bear as much as fifty per cent of the cost of actual con- struction of roads within a state. The fundamental principle of road building is Development of Commiinicalions 267 .. Il_'. lilt' A[i|)i;in \\,i\ u;iv liid mil vir:iiir}it aiul le\('l in the fourtli century, B. C J*;uts of it. liki- the scitiun sliDwn liere, have been in use ever since. summed up in the old saying, "The best is the cheapest." The most famous road in history, the Appian Way, was paved by the Romans, and many portions of it are still in })late. The Romans built their roads to endure. It is the high cost of main- tenance and repair on inferior roads that takes loo ninch of the taxpayers' money. Natural waterways. Water transportation is nmcli cheaper than any form of land transportation. For all low-priced, bulky, non-perishable articles it is to be preferred if available. The prosperity of our country has been largely due to thewonderful natural waterways that are available to it. The waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean, and the Great Lakes are tlie most imjiorlant of these. 268 Loyal Citizenship liirrr Ininsporldh'on on \hc ^real Mississippi sysleni has declined in ini}K)rlaiK'e. bul it has a great future. The works that will protect the adjoining lands from flood will deepen and straighten the chainiels of the streams. The United States spends vast sums every year on the improvement of harbors and deepening and more plainly marking channels. Through the Coast and Geodetic Survey it surveys and charts the coasts for the benefit of mariners. The Lighthouse Service maintains lighthouses, lightships, and buoys to make navigation safer. The Bureau of Navigation and the Steamboat Inspection Service enforce laws for the safety of vessels (including the examination and licensing of pilots and officers of steamships). The Life Saving Station Service rescues the passengers and crews of vessels in distress. Canals. Before the day of raikoads, canals were built as a means for the cheap transport of freight and even passengers. The most famous of our early canals was the Erie, which ran from Buffalo to Albany and connected the Great Lakes with the Hudson Biver. A glance at the map will show what a large part of the United States it served. Canals within our country have lost much of their early importance. Nevertheless, the state of New York found it worth while to spend nearly $150,000,000 in building a barge canal over much the same route as the Erie, the work being completed in 1918 (Fig. 113). A similar canal from Albany to the lower end of Lake Champlain was completed in 1916. Development of Communications 269 Fig. 11;'>. A scdion (.1 lli. \, „ ^ wi k Darge Canal. A giant, car float, huill in a shipyard on the (iroat Lakes, is being towed through the canal for use in New \ Ork harbor. These canals will accommodate vessels drawing twelve feet of water. There are several important ship canals connecting large bodies of water, such as the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, which unites Lakes Superior and Huron, and the Cape Cod Canal. The Panama Canal brings the east and west coasts of the United States close together for commerce and defense. Up to the present time it has cost the United States not far from $500,000,000. It was completed under the direction of General Goethals of the United States Army. 270 Loyal Citizenship Railroads. The railroads of this country were built by private capital, sometimes with govermnent assistance. For a long time they did as they pleased with regard to their rates and the character of the service they gave. But they discovered that com- petition in rates and service was cutting off their profits, and they came to make agreements about rates. This left the shipper and the traveler at their mercy and led, in turn, to government regulation. Now state railroad or public utility commissions regu- late railroad business within each state, and the Interstate Commerce Commission regulates interstate railroads. War measures. WTien we entered the Great War, it immediately became apparent that the railroads of our country must be operated as a single system if we were to get the most out of them in moving troops and war materials. The govern- ment wanted its freight to go by the most direct routes irrespective of railroad ownership. After an attempt on tlie part of the railroads to get together, which failed partly because of legal restrictions on combinations of lines, tJie President was authorized by Congress to take over all the railroads of the country. This was done, and during the war period they were operated by a director-general, appointed by the President. The American telegraph lines and cables were also temporarily taken over by the government as a war measure. They were operated under the Post Office Department. Transportation Act of 1920. By this act, which Developmenl of Comiunnicalioni Fig. 111. The terminal yards of the West Shore Ihiilroad at W ec- liiiwkcMi, INcw .IcrscY. jtist across the Hudson from New York. The river brings hirge sliips immediatelv n[) to the yards. was signed by the President on February 28, 1920, the railroads were returned to their o^vners two days later. Tiie United Stales undertook to adjust losses occurring as a result of government management and to make up any failure in revenue during the six months following March 1, 1920. The act provides for the settlement by a Labor Board of disputes between employers and employees that cannot otherwise be settled williout a strike. This board consists of nine members, three representing the organized workers, three the railroad manage- ment, and three the general public (the last ap{)()inled by the President of the United States). The inter- state Connnerce Commission is given power to make plans for the consolidation of the railway lines of the 272 Loyal Citizenship country into a limited number of systems, and to authorize consolidation if any railroads desire it, according to these plans. No one thinks that the question of the management of our railroads has been definitely settled by the Act of 1920, and various plans for the management of the railroads have been urged before Congress. Air transportation. The possibilities of transpor- tation by airplane and dirigible balloon are very great. Passenger air service is now conducted between different cities by private companies, and the United States government operates air-mail routes, one of them connecting New York and San Francisco. As air transportation develops, new problems of traffic regulation will arise. Postal service. Our need for communication facil- ities is not fully met by the construction of railroads, highways, or canals or even by the establishment of stage, railway, steamship, and air lines. There must be methods for swiftly and safely forwarding letters or packages from one part of the country to another — often over several such lines — and for delivering them to the proper party at the end of the journey. This service is rendered by the Post Office Depart- ment, one of the most important branches of the Federal government. For two cents the Department will carry a letter from New York to Seattle and deliver it at the door of the person to whom it is addressed. For a very moderate charge packages (within certain limits of size and shape) will be carried anywhere in the country. The free delivery Developincnl of ( 'omtiiiim'cdliofis '2~'.) i)[ mail in rural dishicls, (>ri' satisfactoi^. The telephone and telegraph services are bound in the long run to be })raclical monoj)olies, and the same 274 Loyal Citizenship principles apply to their regulation as to other public utilities (see Chapter 23). QUESTIONS Explain the importance of transportation. Why are well-paved highways so necessary? When and where did the system of state- aided highways begin? W hy do portions of the Appian Way still exist? Should roads be owned by the public? Give your reasons. What does the United States do to make water transportation safe and convenient? What hope is there for a revival of river traffic? Why was the Erie Canal important? To what extent are canals still important in New York State? Name some of the important ship canals. Should canals be publicly or privately owned? Why? What bodies have been established to regulate such matters as raikoad rates? For what reason? Why were the railroads taken over by the government during the Great War? W hat are the principal features of the Transportation Act of 1920? \\ hat are some of the services rendered by the Post Office Department? by express com- panies? What principles should govern regulation of telephone and telegraph companies? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The Esch-Cummins plan for the management of railroads (em- bodied in part in the Transportation Act) ; the highway system of your own state; the history of the Erie Canal, or of another canal that may be more closely related to your locahty; the raikoad commission of your own state; the Interstate Conmierce Commis- sion; the various bureaus and services of the national government that are mentioned in the text. The "Plumb plan" for the manage- ment of railroads might be made the subject of a report. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Appoint a committee to study and report on the highways of your locality, locating them on a map and describing their condition. A debate: Resolved, That the railroads of the United States should be owned and operated by the national government. CHAPTER THIRTY-FI\T. Footing the Bills Government costs money. W ar materials, public buildiiifijs, and all the stTvicos ol" ^^ovcrnmoiil cost money — much money. Our public servants, from President to street sweeper, have to be paid for their work. While the in(Hvi{hial salaries are generally not large, all of them together make a vast sum. We cannot have armies, navies, post oflices, police and fire departments, and schools without paying for them. We miisf undcrsland fhal ivhen (he cily, county, slate, or nation spends money, it spends the citizens'' money. Since income tcLxes have been imposed by the Federal and several of the state goverimients, many people have come to realize this as they never did before. How government gets money. Governments get money })rincipally in tliree ways: (1) By o])liging people to make payments toward the support of goverimient. The forms of these payments are many, but they are all called taxes; (2) by charging a small sum for such services as filing petitions at law and recording deeds, these charges being called fees (postage may be regarded as a fee); (3) by selling gas, water, electric current, or street-car rides, receipts from such sources being called prices. Through fees the individual pays at least part of the extra expense that goverimient bears on his account. When he buys electric current or water from a city, he pays for it exactly as if he were dealing with a private corporation. Taxation is the method 276 Loyal Citizenship U. S. Bureau of the Census Fig. 115. The total payments for all government costs of 146 cities in the United States compared with those of the Federal government, during specilied years. by which we cire all obliged to help pay for the gen- eral cost of government. Who spends the most money. Just now it is the national government that spends most of the public money, but this is because we have so recently been at war. In ordinary times the state and local gov- ernments taken together spend much more money than does the national government. It is just as important to watch their expenditures as it is to watch those of the govermnent at Washington. Taxes on imports. The United States derives its revenue from duties on imports, and from inter- nal revenue, inheritance, income, and other special taxes. Almost every article imported into the United States from foreign countries is taxed, usually highly taxed. Of course, the consumer really pays this /'OoluHf (he Hills 277 iinporl lax. lot' I lie itiijiortcr adds ciioni:!! lo his selling price to n-imhiitsc liiinscir. The list of iniporl taxes is called a kiriJJ. A tariff may be for revenue only, or it may he protect ire. The United States generally has a high protective tariff. The purpose of such a tariff is largely to exclude many foreign ])roducts. If it costs us more to produce cut- lei-y or raisins or paper pulp than it costs foreigners to produce them, we place a high enough duty on these articles to make the foreign products more expensive than the American. In this way our pro- ducers are "protected." There are many people who on princi{)le oppose the protective tariff. 'Jliey say it is not fair to make everybody in this country pay more for many articles merely to benefit a small part of the people. Others argue that the prosperity of our farmers, miners, and manufacturers makes every- body else more prosperous, and that a high tariff makes possible the payment of high wages. It is argued, too, that a high tariff is necessary to preserve industries that may become essential to victory in war. The tarilf cpiestion has always been an issue between the political parties of the country, and it is apparently as far from settlement as it was a century ago. Internal revenue. Every package of tobacco or playing cards has a stamp on it which must be broken to open the ])a(kage. Tliat stamp was bought by the manufacturer frc)m the Lnited Stales and repre- sents a tax. Stamps are now required on many legal papers, and taxes are collected from every one who 278 Loyal Citizenship attends a theater or who buys an autoniol)ile or an expensive dress. These are merely examples of some of our sources of internal revenue. Inheritance, income, and profits taxes. When any one dies leaving more than a few thousand dol- lars, any inheritance from his estate is subject to a Federal tax and often to a state tax. The rate of the tax is higher as estates are larger. The rate is also higher for distantly related heirs or strangers than it is for near relatives. Thus, a wife or a child pays a smaller tax than does a nephew. Every unmEirried person with an income of more than $1000 a year, and every married person with an income of more than $2500 a year, is required to pay a tax on any income above $iOOO or $2500, as the case may be. (But an exemption of $400 is allowed for certain dependent members of a family, other than wife.) This tax begins with 4 per cent for small incomes and increases to 65 per cent for an income of a miUion dollars or more. Such a tax is called a pro- gressive income tax. Very heavy taxes were also im- posed on the extra liigh profits that many corpora- tions were able to make on account of war conditions. The national income tax was provided for by the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. State and local taxation. A few states derive their income from taxes on the gross receipts of public utility corporations, banks, and insurance compan- ies. Many of them get some revenue from poll taxes (payment of a few dollcirs by each voter or adult inhabitant) and income and inheritance taxes. The Fooling the Bills 279 great bulk of the revenue of city, stale, and local governments comes from I he (jcncnil j)r()f>rrly tax. All property, real and personal, is assessed hy I he city, town, or county assessor to del ermine its value. Then the state, county, town, or city, having settled how much money it must raise, levies a tax that will produce this sum. The rate of the tax is fixed at so many " mills on the dollar " — so many tenths of a cent for each dollar of valuation. In practice, real prop- erty — lands and houses — is usually assessed at about 60 per cent of its value, and most personal property escapes local assessment altogether. In order to be fair, the assessment must be very carefully made by well-trained assessors. Unfortunately, it is too rarely made in that w ay. How we all help to pay local taxes. We hear a good deal in local politics about the rights of the tax- payer. We have taxpayers' associations and tax- payers' candidates. In some states only taxpayers vote on proposals to borrow money, and some nmnici- pal reformers have suggested that only taxpayers should have the right to vote for mayor and council- men. When we speak of "taxpayers" we usually mean property owners, and we assume that these really pay all the taxes. As a matter of fact, they do not. If a family lives in a rented house, part of the rent money goes to pay the landlord's taxes. The grocer's rent pays his landlord's taxes, and when the family buys groceries it pays a share of the grocer's rent. The actual burden of taxation is borne by the whole community. But most of us pay the larger 280 Loyal Citizenship pnrl of our share in a very indiiTct way, and unfor- tunately we do not realize to what extent we are bearing taxation. We are too much inclined, therefore, to be careless with regard to increased public expenditures. Budgets. .4 budget is a plan for spending in- come. It is a very good thing for young people who earn money regularly or who have allowances, to make budgets for themselves : so much for saving, so much for books or clothes, and so much for amuse- ments. A budget is a very great aid to family and individual thrift. If the budget is a good thing for the individual, it is almost indispensable for the city, county, state, and nation. In no other way can these avoid spending more than they have or being left with idle money in the treasury. A good budget is the first step toward governmental economy. Many cities and a few states have excellent budget systems. But, strangely, the United States government with its enormous expenditures did not adopt a budget system until 1921. Increase in government expenditures. Entirely apart from the war and its effects, governmental ex- penditures have been steadily increasing. We de- mand, for example, more and better roads, public institutions, and parks than we did ten years ago. Many people regard increased expenditures with alarm. There would be no reason for this if the additional money were spent wisely. Governments do not exist to save money, but to expend it in such a way as to secure the greatest possible benefit to Fooling the Bills 281 all oi' lilt' people. 11' (he object is good and the people get full value for each dollar spent, thai is enough. Kduiii Marcus in Sew York Times Fig. 116. "Stop the Le;iks!" There are always politic ians and others whose sehemes lead to }^o\ eminent extravagance. Onr citizens must be on the alert to prevent any waste of go\eriniient funds. The kind of increase in expenditure that we need to fear arises from waste and })oor jiidgineuL We sJiouId require of our republic of Voncziida to the city of New York, in token of good will toward the United Slates. It represents Simon BoHvar, the South American Liberator. quently discussed in connection with the League of Nations was its probable effect on the Monroe Doctrine. Foreign relations. Our relalions with foreign coun- tries are handled by the President through the Secretary of State. In the Slate Depart moiil tliere are numer- ous bureaus or offices devoted to tlie diplomatic serv- ice. At each of the principal capitals of the world we 288 Loyal Citizenship keep a diplomatic representative known as an ambas- sador: at less important capitals, a minister. At Washington are similar representatives from all the principal countries of the world. The embassy, as the official residence of an ambassador is called, is re- garded as part of his home country. Ambassadors and ministers are not subject to the laws of the country to which they are sent, and they cannot, according to established custom, be arrested or pun- ished in any way by it. If a country is dissatisfied with the conduct of the ambassador of another coun- try, it asks for his recall. This was what the United States did in the case of Dr. Dumba, the last ambas- sador of Austria-Hungary, who was found to have been plotting against the peace of the United States. For the purpose of looking after the business inter- ests of our people abroad, an American consul is stationed in every important city of the world. Con- suls are appointed by the President, but candidates must first show that they are fit for appointment by passing an examination. They supply this country with information concerning commercial conditions in the countries in which they are located, and they assist American sailors and travelers, often sending home those who have met with difficulties abroad. International law. During the course of many cen- turies, nations, like individuals, have developed rules for the guidance of their conduct toward each other. These rules are known as international law. They are founded upon reason and old custom and upon agreements between nations or groups of nations. Oiif I* (ace in Ific W orld 2H^) 'I he rules relating lo the coikIucI of" war have been agreed upon in a number of international gatherings. The Declaration of Paris in l«i')6 laid down rules for the conduct of war at sea. Since 1899 a number of international conventions have been held at The Hague, their purpose being to promote peace and to lessen the horrors of war. The status of tlic l^ed Cross has been fixed by international law. International law differs from the law that prevails w ithin a counlry (domestic law) chiefly because there has been little or no organized provision for its enforce- menl. Nations have had to fight to assert their rights. But since the days of the prophet Isaiah, men have longed for a time when wars shall cease. The League of Nations. The peace conference Fig. J 19. I lie fir.st session of the I^eiif^iie of Nations mI ( nne\ a, Switzerlaiul. 290 Loyal Citizenship that met after the Great War included in the Treaty of Versailles the Covenant of a League of Nations. The League was joined by many of the principal countries of the world ; but the United States finally decided to remain out of it. Each member nation has one vote in the Assembly of the League, while the Council, which is much more powerful, consists of representatives of five great powers and of four smaller powers selected by the Assembly. The mem- ber nations are bound by the terms of the Covenant to arbitrate any disputes likely to lead to war or else to submit them to the Council of the League. The members agree also to respect the territorial integrity and political independence of each other. The control of weak and backward peoples left with- out proper direction at the end of the World War has been assigned by mandates of the League to one and another of its members. The League, according to a provision of the Covenant, has established an inter- national court at The Hague. The offices of the League are at Geneva in Switzerland. All together the League of Nations promises to be an influence for good, though under existing conditions it cannot be expected to guarantee the world against war. National defense. So long as there is uncer- tainty as to the success of any efforts to prevent war, it wiU be wise for our country to be prepared to defend itself. This is especially true because there are delicate questions between the United States and other powers, which may at any time develop seriously. We know something of the Oar Place in the }\orld 29 Fig. 120. "The Foundations of I'eato," a newspajxT cartoon by Nelson Harding. friglitful cost of war in lives and money, bul costly as even victory is, it is by no means as costly as defeat. The Washington Conference. The United States has taken the lead in gellinfjj the principal naval powers to adopt a practical plan for the reduction of naval armamenls. As a result of a conference held at Washington at the close of lO'^l, the Amer- ican, the British, and the Japanese navies are hence- forth not to exceed a toiniage definitely fixed for each. Under their agreement the tliree nations 292 Loyal Citizenship have " scrapped " many great war vessels, and for the future they will spend on their navies much less than in the past. France and Italy have also agreed to limit their navies. Eternal credit will belong to the United States for generously offering to make the largest reduction in her own fleet. While the agreement was being made for the limitation of naval armaments, the four powers principally interested — Great Britain, France, Japan, and the United States — agreed to settle in conference any serious disputes arising out of Far Eastern and Pacific questions. Every American citizen has a right to be proud of the unselfish way in which his country has used her power and influence to lead the world toward peace. Patriotism in peace. Awful as war is, it has some good results. It arouses a spirit of patriotism and self-sacrifice in the people. When our nation is at war, men and women are ready to give up everything for their country. No sacrifice is too hard. They give their money, they submit to regulation in a hundred ways, and they send their sons to battle. If we main- tain as high a spirit of cooperation and sacrifice in peace as in war, there is no limit to the future pros- perity of our country and to its influence for the good of aU mankind. QUESTIONS Why did Washington advise against entangling alliances? How were we drawn into the War of 1812 ? How did the Monroe Doctrine originate ? What does it mean to America ? What department of the national government handles our relations with foreign countries? What are ambassadors and ministers ? Describe the duties of consuls. Our Place in (he World 293 How arc lrcalie« made? What is international law? How lias it generally haH to be enforced? Describe liow the League of Nations is organized. \Miat do the members of the League agree to do if ■.\ dispute arises? How are peoples incapable of entire self-govern- ment to be taken care of? Should we be j)repared to defend our- selves? How far should we go in preparedness for war? What part did the United States play in the reduction of naval arma- ments? What elements of the war-time spirit should we {)reserve in times of peace? TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION The Monroe Doctrine. The army. The navy. The League of Nations. The Washington C.onference. Material on the Monroe Doctrine can be found in any of tiie standard histories of the United States. For timely information concerning the army and the navy we nmst depend upon periodicals, government reports, and publications like the American Year Book. Periodicals should be consulted on existing foreign relations. The World Almanac, too, will prove useful for reference. CIVIC ACTIVITIES Introduce either or both of the following resolutions in the legis- latively organized class, and allow them to be discussed : Resohed, That the League of Nations has proved itself a success. Resolved. That the United States should maintain a navy as large as her treaty arrangements permit. American Sumismatic Society APPENDIXES APPENDIX ONE Reference List General Works on American Governmenl Beard, C. A. American (lovernmenl and Polilics. Bryce, James. TIw American ('ummomveaUli. Young, J. T. The IS'riv American (iovernmenl. ]\IuNRO, \\'. B. The Government of the United Slates. Kimball, Everett. The National Government of llie L nited Stales. High School Textbooks Reed, T. II. Form and Functions of American Government. A.SIILEY, The New Civics. Magruder, American Government. GuiTTEAU, Government and Polilics in the United Stales. General Works on Political Science Garner, J. W. Introduction to Political Science. Leacock, S. J. Elements of Political Science. Gettell, R. G. Introduction to Political Science. Works on Comparative Government Wilson, Woodrow. The State. Governiiient Ilandhook Series, edited by David P. Barrows and Thomas II. Reed: Brooks, R. C. Government and Politics of Switzerland. PoRRiTT, E. Evolution of the Dominion of Canada. Kruger, F. K. Government and Politics of the German J-rnpire. Sait, E. M. Government and Polilics of France. The Executive Departments Haskin, F. J. The American Government. Municipal Government Beard, C. A. American City Government. MuNRO, W. B. Government of American Cities. Principles and Methods of Municipal Administration. Cook, M. L. Our Cities Awake. Zueblin, C. American Municipal Progress. Howe, F. C. The Modern City and Its Problems. Addams, Jane. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. 297 298 Appendix One Riis, Jacob. Ifow the Other Half Lives. Mabie, H. W. City Manager Plan (Debaters' Handbook Series). Short Ballot Organization. City Manager Plan. Rural Local Government GiLBERTSON, W. S. Coiinty Government. Elections, Parties, Etc. Ray, p. O. Introduction to Political Parlies and Practical Politics. Merriam, C. E. Primary Elections. Johnston, Alexander. American Politics. Childs, R. S. Short Ballot Principles. Economics — General Works Ely and Wicker. Elementary Principles of Economics. Taussig, F. W. Principles of Economics. Finance and Taxation Plehn, C. C. Introduction to Public Finance. Economic History BoGART, E. L. Economic History of the United States. Labor Laws Commons and Andrews. Principles of Labor Legislation. Periodicals The most necessary of periodicals is a good review of current news like the Literary Digest, Current Opinion, or Revieiv of Reviews or Current History (which is particularly strong on world politics). On the social subjects of the course the Survey will be found most useful. On city government the American City will prove interesting. It is profusely illustrated. Of the general reviews, World's Work and the North American Revieiv contain the largest proportion of articles of civic interest. The literary periodicals only occasionally have articles which will be available for class use. Many of the most readable articles on public questions appear in the Saturday Evening Post. For the use of teachers in keeping abreast of the subject the following are recommended: American Political Science Review, Political Science Review, Political Science Quarterly, National Munici- pal Review, and Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science. APPENDIX TWO Constitution of the United States PREAMBLE We the people of the United States, in order to form n more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran(juillily, provide for tlie conunon defense, promote tlie general welfari;, and setnire the bless- ings of lil)erty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I Legislativk Powers Ve.sted in Congress Section L All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Composition of the House of Representatives Sec. 2. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the sineral States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. Qualification of Represenlalives. 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Apportionment of Representatives and direct taxes — Census. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apjwrtioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, accord- ing to their respective numbers, wliich shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to serv- ice for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, tliree fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shtdl be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and w ithin every subsequent term of ten years, in such man- ner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six. New Jersey four, Permsylvaiiia eight, Delaware one, Maryland six. Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 299 300 Appendix Two [This clause has been superseded, so far as it relates to represen- tation, by Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Consti- tution.] Filling of vacancies in represenlalion. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. Seleclion of officers — Power of impeachment. 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Of the Senate Number of senators. Sec. 3. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years, and each Senator shall have one vote. [See Seventeenth Amendment.] Classification of senators — Filling of vacancies. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expira- tion of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legis- lature, which shall then fill such vacancies. Qualifications of senators. 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of the State for which he shall be chosen. Vice-President to be president of senate. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. Selection of officers — President pro tempore. 5. The Senate shall choose their officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exer- cise the office of President of the United States. C.onsiiUdioii of United Stales 301 Senale lo try inipcaclinierits. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try ail inij)oants of (lifTcront States, aiid hetween ii State, or the citizens ihiTt'of, and forcif^n States, citizens or subjects. Original and appclhiU- Jiirisdiclion of Snprrrnc Court. 2. In all cases aU'ectinf^ ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and tho.se in which a State shall be |)arty. the Supreme Court shall have (jrif^inal jurisdiction. In all the other cases befi^n? mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, lK)th as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under sucti regulations as the (Congress shall make. [See also Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Amendments.] 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes .shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. [See also Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Amendments.] Treason Treason defined. Sec. 3. 1. Treason against the United Slates, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. Conviclion. 2. No person shall be convicttxl of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. Punishmenl for treason. 3. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishmenl of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood. or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV The States and the Federal Government Each Stale to give full faith and credit to the public acts and records of other States. Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner 312 Appendix Two in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. [See also Fourteenth Amendment.] Interstate privileges of citizens. Sec. 2. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. Extradition between the several States. 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having juris- diction of the crime. Persons held to labor or service in one State, fleeing to another, to be returned. 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Admission of new States. Sec. 3. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shaU be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the con- sent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as weU as of the Congress. Control of the property and territory of tite Union. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Con- stitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Republican government guaranteed. Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature can not be convened) against domestic violence. Consiiliiiioii of I niled Slates 313 ARTICLE V Amendments Amendmenls, Iiow proposed and adoplrd. SEtrnoN 1. The Congress, whene\('r Iwo lliirds of Loth houses sliall (leeni it necessary, shall projKJse aiiiendnienls to this Con- stitution, or, on the apphcalion of the Legislatures of two thirds of tlie several States, shall call a convention for pro|Kjsing aniend- nients, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and pur- IK)ses, as j)arl of this Constitution, when ratified l)y the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourtlis thereof, as the one or the other mode of ralihcation may be projxjsed by the Congress; Provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI Promiscuous Provisions Debts contracted under the (Confederation secured. Section 1. L All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. [See also Fourteenth Amendment, Section 4.] Constitution, laivs, and treaties of the United Slates to be supreme. 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in j)ursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of tlie land; and the judges in every Slate shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. Wlio sliall take const ilutional oatli — No reliyious test as to o^icial qualification. .3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial oflicers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or aflirmation, to sup|K)rt this Constitution; but no religious test sliall ever be required as a quaIifi<'ation to any oflice or public trust under the United Slates. 314 Appendix Two ARTICLE VII Ratification of Constitution Section 1. The ratification of the conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names, GO: WASHINGTON— Pre5jd7. and Deputy from Virginia. Attest William Jackson, Secretary. new hampshire John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. MA SSA CHUSETTS Nathaniel Gorham, RuFus King. connecticut Wm. Saml. Johnson, Roger Sherman. NEW YORK Alexander Hamilton. new jersey Wil: Livingston, David Rrearly, Wm: Patterson, Jona: Dayton. pennsylvania B. Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, RoBT. Morris, Geo. Clymer, Thos. Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouv. Morris. DELAWA;RE Geo: Read, Gunning Bedford, jun., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jaco: Broom. maryland James McHenry, Dan of St Thos. Jenifer, Danl. Carroll. virginia John Blair — James Madison Jr. north carolina Wm. Blount Richd. Dobbs Spaight. Hu Williamson south CAROLINA J. Rutledge Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEORGIA William Few Abr Baldwin. Consiiiulioii oj L niled Slates 313 AMENDMENTS ARTICLE I Freedom of Religion, of Speech, of the Press, and Right of Petition Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting th(' free exercise thereof; or abridging tlie freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. [Proposed Seplefiiber ?5, 17Hi); in effect December 15, 179l.\ ARTICLE II Right of People to Rear Arms not to be Infringed A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, tlu; right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. \ld.\ ARTICLE III Quartering of Troops No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. [/(/.] ARTICLE IV Persons and Houses to be Secure from Unreasonable Searches and Seizures The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or aflirmation, and particularly describ- ing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. [ld.\ ARTICLE V Trials for Crimes — Just Compensation for Private Property Taken for Public Use No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Crand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor .shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb: nor shall be compelled in any c riminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be depri\e(l of life. lilxTly, or j)roperty. without due i)rocess of law; nor shall i)rivale projx^rty be taken for public use, without ju.st compensation. [/(/.] Appendix Two ARTICLE VI Civil Rights in Trials for Crimes Enumerated In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtain- ing witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. [Id.] ARTICLE VII Civil Rights in Civil Sihts In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the com- mon law. [Id.] ARTICLE VIII Excessive Rail, Fines, and Punishments Prohibited Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. [Id.] ARTICLE IX Reserved Rights of the People The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. [Id.] ARTICLE X Powers not Delegated, Reserved to States and People Respectively The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. [Id.] ARTICLE XI JtJDiciAL Power of United States not to Extend to Suits against a State The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted Conslilution of United Stales 317 against one of tlic I iiitcd States hy citizriis of itiiothcr Stale, or by citi/cns or subjects of any foreign State. [I'ropoxcd Sfplcnther 5, 17i)'4; in effect January 8, 1798.] ARTICLE XII Election of Pkesident and Vk.k-Phksidknt The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vole by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhahilanl of the same State witli themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;— The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;— The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the Ust of those voted for as President, the House of Representa- tives sludl choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the Presid(Mit, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the State, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the Mouse of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve u|X)n them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.— The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice- President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors api>ointed; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a (piorum for the jnirpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number .shall be necessary to a choice. Rut no person constitutionally ineligible to the oflice of' President shall be eligible to that of Vice- President of the United States. [Proposed December /?, 1S03; in effect September 25, 180'i.] 318 Appendix Two ARTICLE XIII Slavery Prohibited Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. [Proposed February i, 1865; in effect Decem- ber 18, 1865.] ARTICLE XIV Citizenship Defined — Privileges of Citizens Citizenship. Section 1. AJl persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Apportionment of Representatives. Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of Electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representa- tives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participa- tion in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Disquatification for office — Removal of disability. Sec. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- gress, or Elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legis- ConsliluiionoJ I iii led Slates 319 laturc, or as an exoculivo (jfTiccr or jiidkial olliccr of any Slato. to siijyport the (".(jristitutioti (jf llic I iiiled States, sJiall have cnKafred in insurrection or reheliion aj^ainst the same, or f^iven aid or comfort to tlie enemies thereof. But Confjress may by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. Public iMl not It) be qiiesi ionrd — Paymenl of debts and rlainis incurred in aid of rebellion forbidden. Sec. 1. Tfie vahdity of the pubHc debt of the United States, authorized by hiw, inchidiiif,' debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in sup[)ressing insurrection or rebelhon, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or oblifjation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obliga- tions and claims shall be held illegal and void. Power of Congress. Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. [Proposed June 16, 1866; in effect July 28, 1868.] ARTICLE XV Elective Franchise Right of certain citizens to vote, established. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude— Power of ( '.ongress. Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. [Proposed February 27, 1869; in effect March 30, 1870.] ARTICLE XVI Income Taxes Authorized The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on in- comes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 320 Appendix Two ARTICLE XVII United States Senators to be Elected by Direct Popular Vote The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Sen- ators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The Electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. Vacancies in Senalorships; when governor may fill by appointment. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. ARTICLE XVIII Traffic in Liquor for Beverage Purposes Prohibited 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manu- facture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for bever- age purposes is hereby prohibited. 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the Legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. ARTICLE XIX Suffrage Extended to Women 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appro- priate legislation. INDEX l.\DEX Accidents, iFisiiraiicc covering, 10; compensation to workmen for, 217-218. Adniinist ration, compared with lef;islalit)n, in city f,'overninerit, 120-121. Agriculture, waste of land in, 236. Air, transportation by, 272. Air-mail routes, 272. Airplane patrols, instituted Ly Forest Service, 260. Alaska, gold mining in, 43; gov- ernment of, 2.'5.'5; coal lands in, 261. Ambassador, position of, 287-288. American Federation of Labor, 212. Americanization, work of, 187- 188; taught in night schools, 188-189. American Railway Express, opera- tion of, 273. Anarchy, the exercise of liberty without r(!straint, t. Animal life, conservation of, 260— 261. Appeal, courts of, 227. Appian Way, famous highway, 267. Arizona, irrigation in, 257. Armaments, reduction of naval, 291-292. Arrow Hock dam, Idaho, 2.").'j, 236. Articles of Confederation, adop- tion of, 196; superseded by Constitution, 198. Assessment of property, 279. Associated charities, work of, 182- 183. Athens, law-making in aiiciciil. 102. Athletics, promotion ol'. in schools, 187. Authority, of j)arenls. 2; in nation, 8-9; governmental, and rights of th(! iii(ii\idual, 8-9; liberty and, in govermnent, 10; exer- cise of, by the majority, 12. Authors, rights of, j)rote(trd by copyright, 26. Autocracies, countries called, 70. Ballot, importance of, 68; secrecy of, 77, 79; forms of, 78, 79, 81; counting of, 80; a non-partisan, 88; use of, in primary system of nomination, 92-9.3; moven.ent for short, 96-98; an English, 98. Ballot box, symbol of people's rule, 76. Baltimore, IVld., jjolice commis- sioner in. 111. Banks, function of. 30-31 ; savings, 31-36; notes issued by, 11; checking accounts at, 16-18. Barge Canal, New York, 268, 269. I'lTtillon cards, 1 10. Bill of Bights, Engli.sh, 9, 195; American, 66. Blind, institutions for the, 253. Board of education, county, 135; city, 137-1.38. Bolivar, Simon, statue of, 287. Bonds, public loans ellected through sale of. 282. Bosses, political, 8.3. Boston, Mass., j)olice connnis- sioner in. Ml; lack of street planning in, 160; the Connnt)n in, 162. Boston Common, free speech on, 66. Boycott, u.se of, 215. Brotherhood of l^)comoti\e En- gineers, 212. Budgets, making of, 280. Building and loan associations, 38. liuilding laws, need of, 151, 167- 168. Bush Terminal Docks, 110. 323 324 Index Cabinet, the President's, 217. California, voting in, 103; char- ters for counties in, 131-132; state aid for roads in, 266. Canals, transportation on, 268- 269. Candidates for office, importance of means of estimating, 9.5-99; qualifications of good, 99-100. Cape Cod Canal, 269. Capital, an economic force, 21; beginnings of, 23; and wealth, 23; the partner of labor, 23; and division of labor, 26-28; paying for, 28-29; interest the pay- ment for use of, 29; profit an unusual reward for, 29; obtain- ing of, 29-30; a bank's, 31; thrift and, 33. Carriers of contagious diseases, 150. Caucuses, nomination by, 90. Character of political candidates, 99-100. Charity, public, 181-184. Checks, as money, 46-48. Chicago, 111., board of education in, 137; playgrounds and recrea- tion centers in, 164-165. Child labor, laws regulating, 246. Children, position of, in family, 2. Cities, growth and development of, 109-111; New York an example of growth of, 111-112; statistics of growth of, 112-113; increasing wants of, in develop- ment from villages, 114-115; government of, 118 ff.; viewed as business corporations, 118- 120; legislation and administra- tion in government of, 120-121; forms of government of, 121- 123; relation to counties in which located, 129; manage- ment of schools in, 137-138; planning of, 160-170; public utilities in, 172-179; costs of government of, 276; indebted- ness of, and of United States government, 282. Citizenship, good, 6; duties and privileges of, 11-12; meaning of American, 63; how acquired, 63-64 ; privileges of, 64-68 ; right to vote the crowning privilege of, 68; duties of, 70 ff.; respon- sibilities of, 71-72; loyalty the chief essential of, 74; duties of, in elections, 76-81; duties of, toward political parties, 85; law-making duties of, 101-105; duties relating to preservation of health, 148-158; training for, 186-191; jury duty one of im- portant responsibilities of, 225. City-manager plan of city govern- ment, 121-123. Civic beauty, attention to, 165- 167. Civic centers, 167. Clan, as social group, 7; progres- sion from, to nation, 7-8. Clearing house, work of, 47. Cleveland, Ohio, civic center in, 167. Closed shop, defined, 243. Coal, conservation of, 261-262. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 268. Coins, modern and ancient, 43, 45- Collective bargaining, 241-242. Combines, avoidance of competi- tion by, 56. Commission plan of city govern- ment, 121-123. Committee system in legislative bodies, 207-209. Communications, development of, 264-274. Comnmnity, the local, 109-116; process of development of, 113- Index 32: 115; forcos tcndiiifj to weaken, 116; and health, 118; planning of, 160-170. Conuiiunity spirit, an essential quality, 'lir)-116. Competition, benefits of, 20-21; good and evil effects of, in rela- tion to jjfices, 55-56. Congress, United States. 205-212; relation of President to, 219. Congressional conanittees, 207- 209. Congressional Record, as source of information about political candidate, 95-96. Congressional townships, 125. Conservation, meaning of, 255; progress in, 255-262. Constabulary, state, 1 16. Constitution of United States, 9; provisions of, 61-68; drafting and adoption of, 198; Federal system under, 198-199; implied powers of, 199-200; Supreme Court chief guardian of, 230; text of, 299-320. Constitutional system, the, 195- 201. Constitutions, state, 19.5-196. Consuls, duties of. 288. Contract, i)rotection of right of, by law, 222. Conventions, national, 216-217. Convention system of nomination, 90. Cooperation, in the family, 2; liberty and, 1; within a nation, 8; in work, 14-21; poverty traceable to imperfect, 183- 181. Copyright, reason for, 26. County, governmental division, 129; government of, 129-133; and the schools, 135; health ofllcer in, 158. Courts, fun(ti (1.; hoards and olliccrs of, ].'J7-1.'>8. Highways, hiiildiiif^'of. 261-267. Ih)ly Mliaiicf. \h)riro(i Doctrino an oll'sct Id. 2«.'). IIoiiios, owniuf? of. '.]6~'M]. Housirif^ in cities, {jrohlcin of. l.ll; helped hy right city j)lanning, 167-168; relation to poverty, 18.3. Identification, Bureau of, in police department, 1 10-141. Illinois, township government in, 127; county hoards in, 129. Immigrants, elVcct, of, on connnu- nity sj)irit. 1 16; Americanization work for. 187-190. ImpeachmcFit of judges, 229-230. Imports, taxes on, 276-277. Incineration, disposal of garhage hy, 1.>1. Incomes, taxation of, 27."). 278. Increasing returns, law of. .'53. Indiana, township government in, 127. Indictment of [lersons charged with crime. 226-227. ludi\idual, rights of the. 8-9. Inheritances, taxation of, 278. Initiative, the. defined, 101; ad- vantages and disadvantages of referendum and, 101. Insane, care of the, 2.'J2-2.53. Institutes, teachers', 13.j. Insurance, advantages of, 38 10; forms of, 10. Interest, d«>(ined. 29; i)aid hy savings banks, 3iS-36. Internal revenue taxes, 277-278. liilrrrialioiial law. 288-289 Interstate ( lonunerce t'.onunis- sion. regulati(jn of railnjads hy. 270. 1 in en I ions, patenting of, 26; eifect of. on gnnslh of cities, 109, 111. Iowa, township government in. 127. Irrigation, woik of, 2.")."), 2.")7. Irrigation districts. I 78 1 79. .ludges, election or aj)pointment of, 22.5; supreme-court and appellate. 227; of l'\'deral courts. 227, 229; of United .States Su- j)reme Court, 228. 229. Judicial department of go\ern- ment, 221-231. Jury, trial hy. 67, 224-225. Justice courts, 223-221. Ju\enile courts, creation of, 2.51- 252. Kansas, township government in, 127; pay of legislators in, 205; Industrial Court in, 216. Kansas City. Mo., jiolice conuuis- sioner in, 1 11 ; park system in. 161. King, position and |K)wer of. 8-9. Lahor, wages and, 56-58; proh- lems of, 2 1 1-248. Sec also \\ ork. Kahoratories. jxihlic-health. 150- 151; testing of milk in. 156. Lal)or Hoard, creation of, 271. Lahor unions. 211-212; and lalxjr nionoj)oly. 2 12-2 II. Land, reclamation and conserva- tion of. 179. 255-2.56. Latin-American states, responsi- bility of United States for, 286. Law, as exemplilied in the family. 3; force nece.s.sary to make ef- fective, 3; the making of, 203- 328 Index 212 ; carrying out the, 211-219 ; interpreting and applying the, 221-230; respect for, and obe- dience, to, 230 ; affecting labor, 245-248 ; international, 288-289. Law-making by citizens, 101-105. Lawyers, work of, 225-226. League of Nations, 289-290. Legal tender, defined, 44. Legislation, administration and, in city government, 120-121. Legislative reference bureaus, 207. Legislatures, state, 204-205. Liberty, and restraint, 3-4 ; with- out restraint becomes anarchy, 4; authority and, in govern- ment, 10 ; and self-government, 11-12 ; guaranteed to American citizens, 63 ; protection of, by provisions of Constitution, 65. Life Saving Station Service, 268. Liglit house Service, 268. Lincoln Highway, section of, 266. Lindsey, Judge Ben, and Denver juvenile court, 251-252. Loans, public, by means of bonds, 282. Local government, 109-116. Los Angeles, charter for county of, 131-132; water supply of city, 155 ; harbor of, 170. Louisiana, parishes in, 129. Loyalty, supreme requisite to good citizenship, 74. Lynching, viewed as murder, 223. Machines, political, 83. Magazines, as sources of informa- tion about poUtical candidates, 95. Magna Charta, significance of, 9. Majority, plurality and, 83-81. Mandates of the League of Na- tions, 290. Marcus Aurelius, quotation from, 240. Massachusetts, ballot used in, 78, 79 ; Shays's Rebellion in, 197 ; state aid for roads in, 266. Mayor and council plan of city government, 121-123. Metals, conservation of, 261. Michigan, township government in, 127 ; type of county boards in, 129. Milk, securing of pure, 155-156. Minimum wage, the, 246. Ministers, United States, at for- eign capitals, 288. Minnesota, township government in, 127. Missouri, township government in, 127. Monarchies, government in, 8-9; autocratic, 70 ; constitutional or linaited, 71. Money, representation of capital as, 29-30 ; use of, by banks, 30- 31 ; function of, 42 ff. ; distinc- tion between value and, 12-43; forms of, 43-44; a medium of exchange, 44-46 ; checks as, 46-48; methods of raising, by governments, 275-276. Monopolies, working of, 53-55; public-utility, 172. Monroe Doctrine, origin of, 285- 286; extension of principle of, 286 ; dear to American people, 286-287. Mortgages, real-estate, 35. Nation, development of the, 7-8. Natural gas, waste of, 262. Naturalization, attaining of citi- zenship by, 63-64. Nebraska, township government in, 127. New England, town government Index 329 in, 12.'); schools iiiul sc-liool tlis- trirts in. 1.56. New Jrrsey, count N hoiirds in. 12'); stale aid for roads in, '2h(). Newspapers, as sources of infor- mation alxinl political candi- dates, 93. New ^Ork ("ily, an exain|)le of growth of cities, 1 1 1-1 12; hoard of education in, l.>7; street plan of, 162, 16:5; elevat(>d railway system in, 171; American Mu- seum of Nat lual History in, \i\9. New York Stale, lownshij) j,'o\ - ermneni in, 127; county hoard in, 129; pay of law-makers in, 205; state aid for roads in, 266; canals in. 268-269. Nomination. syst<>ms of, 90-91. North Dakota. townshi|» j;overn- ment in. 127. Northwest Territory, organizii- tion of, 2:?2. Notes, |>romissory, 31; money lent by banks on, ."55; treasury, 41. Nurses, school, 137. Occupation, rlalion on, 261, 267. Ohio, township piNcrnrMcnl in, 127. Oil, conser\alion of, 262. Oklahoma, township ^'overrnnent in, 127. Old-age insmance. 10. Olympic National I'oresl, Wash- ington, lire in, 2.'')9. Ordinance of I 787. 2:52. Oregon, pay of legislators in. 205. Outdoor poor relief. WW. Ownership, jniblic and private, 173-175. I':iri,iiiia ( ati.il. iiiiililing of. '2<>'>. I':ii i^li. go\ ernmcnlal di\ ision, 129. Parks and plaxgrounds, cil>, 162, 163 16.-,. Parlies, political. }!:5 <'5«. Patents, reason for. 26. Patriotism, spirit of, aroused by war, 292. Payne, John lloNNartl. hosnc* of. .37. Pennsylvania, township govern- ment in, 127; state constabu- lary in, 116; pay of law-makers in, 205. Personal safely, right of. 222. Petitions, signing of, 105. Philippine Islands, go\ernment of, 2:5 1, 2:55. l*ickeling by strikers, 215. Pinchot. (iilford, ("hief Forester, 258. Plarming. conununity, 160-170. Playgrounds. Sec Parks and play- grounds. Plurality, defined, 83. Police, protection of life and prop- erty by, 139; classes of, 139-1 10; organization of, 111-112; jx'r- sonnel of, I 12; protection by, in rural conununiti(>s, 1 15-1 16. Polling j)laces in elections, 77. Poll taxes, 278. Poor relief. .Sec Poxcrty. I'opulation of cities, i 12-1 1:5. Porto Hico. go\('rnment of, 233. Postal sa\ ings banks. ;56. I'ostal service, govcrmuent, 272- 273. Post Ollicc Depart menl. 272. Poverty, causes of. 181; public relief of, 181-182; removal of causes of, 183. President of United States, duties of, 211; election of, 216-217; jx)wers of, 217-219; messages 330 Index of, to Congress, 219; position of, 219. Press, freedom of the, 66 Prices, distinction between money, value, and. 42-13; defined, 48; rise and fall of, 48-49; effect of demand, supply, and competi- tion on, 51-56. Primary system of nomination, 90-94. Prisons, reformatories and, 251. Probation, of convicted persons, 251. Production, importance of keeping up, 244-245. Profit, defined, 29. Profits, taxes on, 278. • Property, defined, 23; rights of, 23-25; security of, 67; protec- tion of rights of, by law, 222; taxation of, 279. Protective tarifTs, 277. Public charges, care of, 250. Public Health Service, 158. Public ownership, arguments for and against, 173-175. Pubhc-utility commissions, 177- 178; regulation of railroads by, 270. Quarantine, necessity for, in cases of contagious disease, 149- 150. Railroads, relation of, to growth of cities. 111; correct location of lines, in city plaiming, 170; regulation of, 270; provisions of Act of 1920 affecting, 271- 272; various plans for manage- ment of, 272. Reclamation of waste lands, 178- 179, 255. Reclamation Service, United States, 255. Recreation centers. See Parks and playgrounds. Referendum, defined, 101; advan- tages and disadvantages of initiative and, 104. Regulation of public utilities, 177-178. Rent, defined, 58-59; and the single tax, 59. Representatives, state, 204-205 ; United States, 206-207. Republics, governments called, 71. Restraint, fiberty and, 3-4. Rights, protection of, by law, 222. Rio Grande irrigation project, 179. Rivers, transportation on, 268. Roads, construction of, 264-267. Rome, Italy, Forum of, 168-169. Roosevelt, T., quoted on compe- tition, 21; on good laws, 62. Rural schools, 136. St. Louis, Mo., McKinley High School in, 137; pohce commis- sioner in, 141. Salt River irrigation project, 257. Samoa, naval governor of, 236. San Francisco, Cal., street plan in, 160; municipal ownership of street-car Unes in, 177. Sanitation, progress in, 152, rural, 158. Saving, meaning of, 26; relation of thrift to, 33; necessity for, 33- 34. Savings banks, function of, 34^36 ; postal, 36. Schools, local management of. 135-138; health examination of pupils in, 157; attention paid to physical welfare in, 186-187; Americanization work in, 188- 189. School savings banks, 35. Index :VM Seattle, Wash., iiuiiiicipal street railway in, 177. Selectmen, board of, in towns, 1:27. Self-government, liberty and, 11- 12. Senators, state, 201-20."r, United States, 20.5-206. Sewers and s(>waf?e disposal in cities and towns, 1.^2-1.53. Short -ballot movement, 96-98. Sickness, chief cause of poverty, 181; measures for reducing', 1H;5. See Health. Silver certificates, 41. Single tax, theory of, .'S9. Smallpox, vaccination against, 151-152. Social insurance, 10. Social-reform laws, 18.3. Soldiers, vaccination of, 151-152. "Soo" Canal, 269. South Dakota, township govern- ment in, 128. Speech, freedom of, 66. Springfield, Mass., niuniripal buildings at, 119. State, Department of, 217. States, the county a unit for ad- ministration of business of, 132- 133; early goNcrnmcnts in, 195- 196; powers of, under the Con- stitution. 198-199; legislatures of, 201-205; duties of governors as executives of, 21 1-216. States-rights doctrine, 199. Steamboat Inspection Service, 268. Street-car .service, provision of good, 170; a public utility, 172, 177. Street planning, 160-162. Strike, weapon of organized labor, 242. Student self-government, 11. Success, achieved by work, 21. Suit, story of a, to show coiJjM'ra- tion in work. 16-19. Su[)piy, demand and, 51-53. Supreme (".ourt. 1 iiited States, 228, 229; chief guardian of Con- stitution. 2.30. Swamjjs, dr linage of, 179, 255. TarilVs. kinds of, 277. Taxation, raising money by, 275; of imjKjrts, 276-277; internal revenue, 277-278; of inlicri- tances, incomes, and profits. 278; state and local, 278-279; burden of, born<» by whole com- munity, 279-280. Telegraph service, regulation of. 273-274. Telephone service, a public utilit y, 172, 173; regulation of, 273- 271. Territories, government of, 232- 236. Texas, senate chamber of state of, 201. Thrift, defined, 33; and capital, 3!5; necessity for, 33-31. I'hrift stamps, encouragement of saving by, .36. Towels, tlangers of ])ublic. 151. Towns. 125; in New luigland, 125; officers of, 127, 128. Townships, organization and gov- ernment of, 125-128. Trades unions. See Labor unions. Transportation, relation betw(>en growth of cities and, 109-111; facilities for. to be included in cormnunity planning, 170; pulw lic vs. private ownership of means of, in cities. 177; im|)or- tance of easy means of, 261; by highways, 261-267; by water, 267-270; bv raih-..a(Is."270; by air, 272. 332 Index Transportation Act of 1920, 270- 272. Trees. See Forests. Trial by jury, 67, 224. Trials, proredure in, 22.5-226. Tuberculosis, due to crowding of people. 151; testing cows for, 156. Tutuila, government of, 2.35. Typhoid fever, vaccination against, 151-152. Unemployment, insurance cover- ing, 40; as a cause of poverty, 181. Unions, labor, 241-242; and labor monopoly, 242-214. United States, development of constitutional system in, 195- 200; growth of powers of, 200- 201; departments of govern- ment of, 203 ff. ; relations with Europe. 281-287. United States courts, 227-230. Utilities, pubUc, 172-179. Vaccination, a duty of citizenship, 151-152. Value, distinction between money, prices, and, 42-43. Veto, use of, by governor or Presi- dent, 210; pocket, 212. Vigilance required of citizens in elections, 81. Villages, life in the first, 109; growth of cities from, 109-111. Virgin Islands, purchase of, 233; government of. 236. Vocational selection, study of, 186. Voting, as a right of American citizens, 68; quaUfications for, 76-77; forms of ballot for, 78, 79; at primaries, 90-94; first step in, the proper estimating of candidates, 95-100; initiative and referendum, 101; coming to a decision in, 101; in town meet- ings, 125-127. Voting machines, 80. Wages, 28; facte rs determining, 56-57; modern increase in, 57- 58. Wampum, use of, as money, 45. War measures, appUed to lines of communication and transporta- tion, 270. Washington, D. C, street plan of, 161; Capitol at, 201. Washington, George, constitu- tional convention presided over by, 198; elected President, 198; sword of, 285. Washington Conference of 1921, agreements between nations at, 291-292. Water, transportation by, 267- 270. Water supply, need of pure, 155 ; an example of public utility, 175. Waterways, natural, 267-268. Ways and Means, Committee on, 208. Wealth, relation of capital and, 23. Weehawken, N. J., railroad yards at, 271. Wharves, planning for suitable, 170. Whitman, Walt, on the mission of government, 110. Whittier, J. G., quotation from. 68. Wild life, conservation of, 260- 261. William and Mary, College of, in Virginia, 190. Williamsburg, Va., courthouse at, 130. Wisconsin, township government in, 127 ; county boards in, 129. Index 333 Work, necessity for, 11; division of. 11-16; kinds of, 19-20; com- petition essential to successful, 20-21; needful to success. 21; capital t lie partner of. 21, 2.?-;}|. \\ orknien's compensation, 2 17- 248. \\orsliip. freedom of, 66. "Yellowstone i\'alit»nal Park, a fiiune sanctuary, 260-261. Zoninp, importance of, in city planning, 168-169. BOOK NOTICES Diiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiii MiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiniMiiiriiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilllie THE AMERICAN SPIRIT A BASIS FOR WORLD DEMOCRACY Edited by Paul Monroe, Th-D., LL.D. g„j Irving E. Miller, Ph.D. Columbia University Bellingham Normal School THE American Spirit, like the American people, is a composite. The mingled qualities of discoverer, ex- plorer, colonist, pioneer, frontiersman, and immigrant, have left a heritage of independence, initiative, dissatis- faction with existing attainments, a forward look, a con- fidence in the powers of the common man, and an ideal- istic faith in his worth and destiny. Self-government, achieved through patriotic struggle and made secure through hard experience, confirms the heritage. Democ- racy in government, preserved from corruption only by constant vigilance and continual practice, goes hand in hand with democracy in society; the two lead to ideals of industrial democracy yet in the process of attainment. Through civil war, ideals of national unity were achieved and the national destiny was made sure. An enlightened diplomacy committed the nation to a policy of humanity and generosity towards the weaker nations, and the war of 189S made it clear to the world that that policy would be upheld at any cost. The crisis of the World War afforded the supreme test of the American spirit, and in that crisis it was not found wanting; the heroism of the sons was found worthy of the sacrifice of the fathers. How the varied traits of the forefathers have blended to make the American spirit a basis for world democracy is briefly told in this volume. Cloth. XV -f 336 pages. Price $140 WORLD BOOK COMPANY YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NeW YORK 2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago niiiiiiiiillllillliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiir; |iiiiiiiniiJtiiiii II iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiii iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii n i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiie I FORM AND FUNCTIONS OF | i AMERICAN GOVERNMENT I j By THOMAS HARRISON REED | I ^ I ^HE outgrowth of nine years' experience in teaching I I J_ government and of a lifelong interest in politics. f I It is intended primarily for that great majority of I I pupils who go no farther than the high school. 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