w iH J ViIjTjvV lU'ii-' iljil.SlU' ,>^w SANTA BARBARA ■I TO HIS EXCEILENCY THE RIGHT HON. THOMAS LORD COCHRANE, i!W:arq[Uig of J^atanj^am, AS A TESTIMONY OF EESPECT FOR THE IMPORTANT SERVICES RENDERED TO SOUTH AMERICAN EMANCIPATION, AND TO THE COMMERCIAL INTERESTS OP GREAT BRITAIN, THIS WORK IS (BY PERMISSION) HUMBLY DEDICATED. PREFACE. J. HE interest which the late successful revolution in Spanish America has awakened in Europe renders any genuine account of the new world so highly acceptable to the British nation, that it has become an almost imperative duty in those who may possess original matter to communicate it to the public ; for it may be said, without the least exaggeration, that although the countries thus emancipated were dis- covered in the sixteenth century, they have remained almost unknown till the beginning of the nineteenth. Fully convinced of these facts, and being urged by my friends, when I was on the eve of again crossing the Atlantic, to publish my collec- tion of notes and memoranda — the gleanings of a twenty years' residence — in order to contribute my quota to the small stock of authentic matter already laid before an anxious public, I have been induced to postpone my voyage, and to embody my obser- vations in the manner in which they now appear. VI PREFACE. It is undoubtedly of great importance to be- come acquainted with the features of a country which has undergone any remarkable change in its political, religious, or literary career, before that change took place ; and it is equally important to know the cause of and the means by which the change was effected. I have therefore given a suc- cinct history of the state of the colonies before their fortunate struggle began to germinate, by des- cribing their political and ecclesiastical institutions ; the character, genius, and education of the different classes of inhabitants ; their peculiar customs and habits ; their historical remains and antiquities ; and lastly, the produce and manufactures of the country. My opportunities for obtaining materials for the formation of this work were such as few individuals even among the natives or Spaniards could possess, and such as no foreigner could possibly enjoy at the period of my residence. Dr. Robertson's celebrated history renders any account of the discovery and conquest of America un- necessary; but as the Spanish authors from whom his work was collected always kept in view the necessity of lulling the anxiety of general curiosity with respect to the subsequent state of the countries under the Spanish crown, that work cannot be supposed to be PREFACE. VU better than the materials from which it is formed would allow ; to which I may add, that the different books published by the philosophic Humboldt are too scientific, and enter into too few details, to become fit for general perusal. I am induced to believe, that my descriptions of tribunals, corporate bodies, the laws, and adminis- tration, the taxes and duties, will not be considered unimportant, because the newly-formed governments will follow in great measure the establishments of Spain, modified by a few alterations, perhaps more nominal than real. Indeed, the present authorities have already determined, that so far as the Spanish codes do not interfere with the independence of the country, they are to be considered as the fundamental laws of the different tribunals. The Plates are from original Drawings taken by Don Jose Carrillo, a native of Quito, now in England. Should the following pages merit the approbation of the British public, the author will feel highly gra- tified by having fulfilled his duty in both hemispheres ; nor will this reward in the old world be accounted less honourable than that which he has already obtained in the new. CONTENTS OF VOL. I. PAGE Chap. I. — Arrival at Mocha Some Account of Mayo, one of the Cape de Verd Islands touched at on our Passage. . Description of Mocha, its Productions, &c. . Leave Mocha and land at Tucapel Viejo... . .Description of the Indians, their Dress, &c Indians take me to their Home Description of the House, Family, Food, Diversions. . . . Appearance of the Country What Trade might be introduced. 1 Chap. II. — Leave Tucapel Viejo, and arrive at Tubul.. . Des- cription of our Breakfast on the road Stay at the House of the Cacique of Tubul Some Appearances of Civili- zation Game of Peuca, Wrestling, &c Anchorage, Trade, &c....Face of the Country Arrival at Arauco... Taken to the Commandant, Interview described.. . Town of Arauco Indians who come to barter Weaving of fine ponchos Excursion to the Water-mills on the Carampangue River Entertainments, Mate, &c Visit Nacimiento, Santa Juana, and return to Arauco... Ordered to Conception 20 Chap. III. — Account of Cultivation of Farms, &c. in Arauca- nia Thrashing, &c Produce Cattle .. .Locality ..Topographical Divisions Government (Indian)... Lawsand Penalties Military System. . . . Arms, Stand- ards, &c Division of Spoil — Treaty of Peace Religion Marriages Funerals Spanish Cities founded in Araucania Ideas on New Colonies Commerce 40 Chap- IV. — Valdivia Port Fortifications River City-foundation Revolutions Inhabitants — Gar- rison... Government. . .Rents and Resources.. . Churches... b X CONTENTS. PAGE Exiles Missions in the Province of Valdivia War with the Indians, and Possession of Osorno. . . .Extract from a Letter in the Araucanian Tongue, and Trans- lation 67 Chap. V. — City of Conception de Mocha Foundation Situation Government Tribunals — Bishop Military Churches Houses Inhabitants and Dress Provincial Jurisdiction Produce Throw- ing the Laso Fruit Timber Trees Shrubs Mines Birds... ...Wild Animals. ...Lion Hunt Shepherd Dogs Breeding Capons Return to Con- ception 82 Chap. VI. — Sent to Talcahuano Description of the Bay and Anchorage Plain between Conception and Talca- huano Prospectus of a Soap Manufactory here Coal Mine Town, Custom-house, Inhabitants, &c.... Fish, &c.. caught in the Bay Colonial Commerce — Prospectus of a Sawing Mill . . 118 Chap. VII. — Leave Talcahuano in the Dolores Passage to Callao Arrival Taken to the Castle Leave Callao Road to Lima Conveyed to Prison 130 Chap. VIII. — Lima, Origin of its Name Pachacamac Foundation of Lima... . Pizarro's Palace. .. .Situation of the City Form of the Valley Rimac. ..River Cli- mate Temperature Mists and Rain Soil Earthquakes Produce 143 Chap. IX. — Viceroys and Archbishop of Lima.. . Viceroyalty, Extent Viceroy's Titles and Privileges. . . .Royal Au- dience Cabildo Forms of Law Military Re- ligion Inquisition Sessions and Processes Arch- bishop Royal Patronage Ecclesiastical Tribunals Chapter, CabilJo Ecdesiastico Curates. .. .Asy- lum of Immunity. . . . Minor Tribunals Consulado CONTENTS. Xi PAGE Crusade Treasury Accompts Temporalidades, Protomedicaio 172 Chap. X.— Taxes, Alcavala. . . Indian Tribute Fifths of the Mines Lances Stamped Paper Tobacco.... Media Anata AprovechamientGs Composicion and Confirmacioii of Lands Royal Ninths Venal Offices Estrays Confiscations Fines Vacant Suc- cessions Almoxarifasgo. . . . Corso Ai'mada. . . . Con- sulate Cirquito Vacant Benefices Mesada Ecclesiastica Media A nata Ecclesiastica Restitu- tions Bulls 195 Chap. XL — City of Lima Figure and Division Walls ..Bridge..Houses.. . .Churches — Manner of Building Parishes Convents Nunneries Hospitals Colleges. . . .Plasa Mayor Market Interior of the Viceroy's Palace Ditto Archbishop's Ditto Ditto Sagrario Ditto Cathedral. . . .Ditto Cavildo 210 Chap. XII. — Particular Description of Parish Churches. .. . Of Santo Domingo Altar of the Rosary St. Rosa and other Altars Cloisters Sanctuary of Saint Rosa.... Church of San Francisco.. . Chapels Del Milagro, De Dolores, De los Terceros Pantheon Cloisters, San Diego. . . .San Agustin La Merced. . . .Profession of a Nun, or taking the Veil... . Hospitals of San Andres, of San Bartolome and others.... Colleges of Santo Toribio, San Carlos, Del Principe. . . .University Inquisition .... Taken to it in 1806 . . .Visit to it in 1812, after the Abolition Inquisitorial Punishments Foundling Hospital Lottery Mint Pantheon 23/ Chap. XIII. — The Population of Lima Remarks.... Table of Castes The Qualifications of Creoles Population and Division Spaniards Creoles, W'hite Costume. . . . Indians. . . African Negroes . . .Their Cofra- dias, and Royal Personages Queen Rosa Creole Negroes Mestisos. . . .Mulattos . .. . Zambos — Chinos Xll CONTENTS. PAGE Quarterones and Quinterones Theatre Bull Circus Royal Cockpit Alamedas... . Bathing Places Piazzas Amancaes Elevation and Oration Bells. Processions of Corpus Christi, Santa Rosa, San Francisco and Santo Domingo PubUcation of Bulls Ceremonies on the Arrival of a Viceroy 283 Chap. XIV. — Fruits in the Gardens of Lima — Flowers Particular Dishes, or Cookery Chuno, dried Potatoes Chochoca, dried Maize. . . .Sweetmeats. . . .Meals — Diseases Medical Observations On the Commerce of Lima Profitable SpeciUations 330 Chap. XV. — Visit to Pisco Town of Pisco. . . . Bay of Pisco Curious Production of Salt Huano Huanaes ....Vineyards, Brandy Vineyard de las Hoyas Fruits Chilca, Village of Indians Leave Lima, Road to Chancay Pasamayo House Nina de la Huaca.. ..Maize, Cultivation Use oi Huano Hogs On the Produce of Maize Different kinds of. . . . Time of Harvesting Uses of. . ..Chicha of. . ..Sugar of. . Town of Chancay Colcas Town of Huacho. ... Chacras of the Indians On the Character of the Native Indians — Refutation of what some Authors have said of Manners and Customs of Tradition of Manco Capac Ditto Camaruru Ditto Bochica Ditto Quitzalcoatl These Traditions favourable to the Spa- niards Government of Manco Capac... .Representation of the Death of the Inca Feast of Corpus Christi at Huacho Indian Dances — Salinas 355 Chap. XVI. — Villa of Huara — Description Village of Supe. . . . Ruins of an Indian Town Huacas, Burying Places Bodies preserved entire — Village of Barranca Earthquake in 1806 Barranca River — Bridge of Ropes Village of Pativilca.... Sugar Plantation Produce and Profit Cane cultivated Mills . .Sugar- house. . Management of Slaves. . Regulations &c. of Slaves. 4 1 Ara-ivalat Modia Some account of Mayo, pneofthe Cape de Yer^ Islands touched at on our passage Description of Mocha, its Ptoductions, &c. Leave Mocha, and landatTucapel Viejo Description of the Indians, their Dress, &c Indians take jne to their Home Description of the House, Family, Food, Diversions Appearance of the Country What Trade might be introduced. On the 14th of Febriiiary, 1804, 1 landed on the Island of Mocha, aflter a passage <)f upwards of five months from England, during which we passed between the Cape de Verd Islands, and touched at one of them called Mayo, for the pur- pose of procuring salt, which appears to be the only article of commerce. It is produced by admitting the sea water on flats, embanked next to the sea, during the spring tides, and allow- ing it to evaporate : the salt is then collected and carried off before the return of the high tides, when the water is again admitted, and the same process takes place. The sea water is here strongly impregnated with salt, owing probably to the great evaporation caused by the intense power of the heat, which also aids and hastens the process on shore. The inhabitants 9 TRAVELS IN whom I saw were all blacks, with the solitary ex- ception of a priest, and many of them in a state of nudity, even to an age at which decency if not modesty requires a covering. A small quan- tity of bananas, the only fruit we could procure, and some poultry, were brought from St. Jago's, another of the islands, visible from Mayo. The Island of Mocha, situate in 38° 21' S. and that called Santa Maria, lying about 80 miles to the northward of it, were the patrimony of a family, now residing at Conception, of the name of Santa Maria, who lived on the latter, and sent some people to reside at Mocha, but after the commencement of the war between England and Spain, in 1780, the family, as well as the whole of the inhabitants, were ordered by the government of Chile to quit the islands, under the pretence that these were a resort for smugglers : a pretence derived from the common error, that privacy is preventive of contraband. During the time that Mocha was in the pos- session of the Santa Marias a number of the original indian inhabitants, belonging to the tribe found on it when first visited by the Spaniards in 1549, resided there, but they were also re- moved to Conception. These two islands having been once in- habited, there are yet to be found some few remains of cattle, which have continued to pro- SOUTH AMERICA. & create : on Mocha are horses and pigs, and some barn door fowls. Mocha is about fifteen miles in circumference, hilly in the centre, and slop- ing towards the coast, more so on the western side, where a tolerably good anchorage and a safe landing place, on a sandy beach, may be found. Fresh water flows from several springs; wild turnips, mint and other herbs grow in abundance; the trees on the hilly part are principally the white cinnamon, named by the Spaniards canelo, the magui, the luma, a tree called espino, and others. Here are also apple, peach and cherry trees, with a variety of wild strawberries, and myrtle-berries. Some solitary seals yet remain on the rocks on the south side of the island. I left Mocha after remaining there alone thirty-two days, and landed from the brig Polly at Tucapel Viejo, the residence of one of the Caciques, or Ulmenes, of the Araucanian indians, by whom I was most hospitably treated. The male indians who appeared on the beach were of a reddish brown or copper colour, few of them reaching to the height of six feet. They were finely shaped and very muscular, having a round face, well formed forehead, small black eyes, flattish nose, moderately thick lips and good teeth, but no beard. The whole of the countenance is expressive of a certain portion of 4 f ^AfELS I?!' vividly, and not uninteresting; the hair is black and strong, all of it being drawn behind the head and platted. The women are lower in stature thatt the men, their features similar, and some of the girls, if I be not allowed to call them handsomcy I cannot abstain from saying are very prett}'^/ The females wear their hair long, and platted behind their heads: it is afterwards wrapped round with a tape about an inch and a half broad< to one edge of which are attached a iiumber of small hawks' bells: the plait is allowed to hang down the back, and not unfrequently reaches below their knees. The dress or Costume of the indians at first appeared very singular to me. In the men it consisted of a flannel shirt, and a pair of loose drawers of the same material, generally white, teaching below the calves of the legs ; a coarse species of rug about two yards wide and two and a half long, with a slit in the middle througll which the head was passed : this garment, if so I may style it, hanging over the shoulders and reaching below the knees, is called a poncho. The common ones seemed to be made from a brownish sort of wool, but some were very fan- cifully woven in stripes of different colours and devices, such as animals, birds, flowers, &c. Of the poncho I shall have occasion to speak again, as it is universally worn in all the pro- SOUTH AMERICA. 5 tmces of South America which I visited ; but I must say here, that I considered it as an ex- cellent riding dress; for hanging loosely and covering the whole body, it leaves the arms quite at liberty to manage the whip and reins. The hat commonly worn is in the form of a cone, without any skirts ; for shoes they substitute a piece of raw bull's hide cut to the shape of the sole of the foot, and tied on with slender thongs of leather. The females wear a long white flannel tunic, without sleeves, and an upper garment of black flannel, extending below their knees, the sides closed up to the waist, and the corners from the back brought over the shoulders and fastened to the corners of the piece in front with two large thorns, procured from a species of cactus, or with large silver brooches : it is after- wards closed round the waist with a girdle about three inches broad, generally woven in devices of different colours; very often, however, nothing but the white tunic is worn, with the girdle, and a small mantle or cloak called ichella. The favourite colour among the Indians appeared to be a bluish green, though I saw few of their garments of this colour at Tucapel, but remarked afterwards, at the town of Arauco, that all those who came to sell or barter their fruit, &c. wore it. The females generally have nothing on their heads or feet, b]it have a profusion of silver rings 6 TRAVELS IN on their fingers, and on their arms and necks an abundance of glass bead bracelets and necklaces. The occupation of the men, as in most unen- lightened countries, appeared to be confined to riding out to see their cattle, their small por- tions of land, cultivated by the women, and to hunting. The females were employed spinning wool with a spindle about ten inches long, hav- ing a circular piece of burnt clay at the bottom, to assist and regulate the rotary motion given by twirling it with the finger and thumb at the upper end. They generally sit on the ground to spin, and draw a thread about a yard long, which they wind on the spindle, tie a knot on the upper end, and draw another thread : though this work is very tedious, compared to what may be done by our common spinning-wheels, yet their dexterity and constancy enable them to manu- facture all their wearing apparel. Weaving is conducted on a plan fully as simple as spin- ning. The frame-work for the loom is com- posed of eight slender poles, cut in the woods when wanted, and afterwards burnt; four of these are stuck in the ground at right angles, the other four are lashed with thongs at the top, forming a square, and the frame is complete. The trea- dles are then placed about a foot from the front, having a roller at the back of the frame for the yarn and another in front for the cloth, both tied SOUTH AMERICA. 7 fast with thongs ; the sleys, made of worsted, doubled, have two knots tied in the middle of each pair of threads, leaving a small space be- tween the knots through which to pass the warp. After all the yarns are passed through the sleys the ends are tied in small bunches to the roller, which is turned round by two females, one at each end, whilst another attends to the balls in front; the other ends of the yarn are then tied to the roller in front. The thongs connected with the treadle are fastened one to each of the sleys, and a thong being made fast to the upper part of one of them is thrown over a loose slender pole, placed on the top of the frame and then made fast to the other sley, so that when one treadle is pressed by the foot it draws down one of the sleys, holding every alternate thread, and the other rises, carrying with it the other half of the warp. Instead of a shuttle the yarn is wound round a slender stick, of the necessary length, and passed through the opening formed by the rising of one of the sleys and the falling of the other; the contrary treadle is then pressed down, and a slender piece of hard heavy wood, longer than the breadth of the cloth, is passed across, and the weaver taking hold of both ends drags it towards her and compresses the thread. This piece of wood, shaped somewhat like a long sword, is called the macana, and has often been 8 TRAVELS IN resorted to as a weapon in time of war. The same rude mode of weaving is common, though not universal, in South America. The manner of weaving ponchos I shall describe when treating of the town of Arauco, for what 1 saw here did not deserve attention. Besides the laborious occupation of spinning and weaving, and tlie usual household labour, each wife (for polygamy is allowed, every man marrying as many wives as he choose, or rather, as many as he can maintain) has to present to her husband daily a dish of her own cooking, and annually a 'poncho of her own spinning and weaving, besides flannel for shirts and drawers. Thus an indian's house generally contains as many fire places and looms as he has wives, and Abbe Molina says, that in- stead of asking a man how many wives he has, it is more polite to ask him how many fires he keeps. The females are cleanly in their houses and persons; dirt is never seen on their clothes, and they frequently bathe, or wash themselves three or four times a day. The men also pay great at- tention to the cleanliness of their persons. The females attend to the cultivation of their gardens, in which the men w^ork but little, considering themselves absolute masters — the lords of the creation, born only to command. SOUTH AMERICA. 9 and the women, being the weaker, to obey: sentiments which polygamy supports; plurality of wives tending to destroy those tender feelings of attachment which we find in countries wliere the law allows only one wife. The principal part of the labour of their farms is performed by the women, who often plough, sow, reap and carry to the thrashing floor the wheat or barley, which, when trodden out by horses, is thrown into the air, that the wind may blow away the chaff. I saw no other grain at Tucapel or its vicinity but wheat and barley, in small patches; but I was told that they produced a hundred fold. The care of the offspring is entirely committed to the women. A mother immediately on her delivery takes her child, and going down to the nearest stream of water, washes herself and it, and returns to the usual labours of her station. The children are never swaddled, nor their bodies confined by any tight clothing ; they are wrap- ped in a piece of flannel, laid on a sheep skin, and put into a basket suspended from the roof, which occasionally receives a push from any one passing, and continues swinging for some minutes. They are allowed to crawl about nearly naked until they can walk; and after- wards, to the age of ten or twelve years, the 10 TRAVELS IN boys wear a small poncho, and the girls a piece of flannel, wrapped round their waist, reaching down to the knees. The mother, after that age, abandons the boys to the care of the father, on whom they attend and wait as ser- vants; and the daughters are instructed in the several works which it will ere long become their duty to fulfil. To the loose clothing which the children wear from their infancy may doubtless be attributed the total absence of deformity among the indians. Perhaps some travellers might suggest, that confinement in any shape would be considered disgraceful to the haughty Araucanians, who are pleased to call them- selves, " the never vanquished, always victors." The house to which I was conveyed by the indians was about five leagues from the coast, situated in a ravine, towards the farther ex- tremity of which the range of hills on each side appeared to unite. A stream of excellent water ran at the bottom of the small valley, winding its way to the sea, and fordable at this time of the year, but visibly much deeper at other times, from the marks of the surface water on the banks and on several large pieces of rock lying in the stream. The low part of the ravine (at first more than three miles wide, and gradually closing as we SOUTH AMERICA. 11 rode up towards the house) was cultivated in small patches ; and among the brushwood were to be seen clusters of apple, pear and peach trees, some of them so laden with fruit that their branches were bent to the ground. The sides of the mountains displayed in gor- geous profusion the gifts of nature; the same kind of fruit trees, laden with their ripe pro- duce, enlivened the view, and relieved the eye from the deep green of the woods which covered the landscape, save here and there the naked spire of a rock washed by the rains and whitened by the sunbeams. The situation of the house appeared to have been chosen not so much for its picturesque beauty, as for the fa- cility of defending it: the only approach was the road which we took, it being impossible to descend the mountains on either side — an im- possibility which appeared to increase as we drew nearer to the house. Four or five of the young indians, or mosotoues, rode forward to the house, and when it first opened to our view a crowd of women and children had ranged themselves in front, gap- ing in wild astonishment at my very unex- pected appearance. We rode up to the house, which stood on a small plain, about thirty yards above the level of the stream, and 12 TRAVELS IN alighted amid the din of questions and answers equally unintelligible to me. The wild stare of curiosity, sweetened with a compassionate expression of countenance, precluded all fear, and 1 could not avoid saying to myself. Great Author of Nature, I now for the first time be- hold thy animated works, unadorned with the luxuries, and free, may I hope, from the con- comitant vices, of civilization • The house was a thatched building, about sixty feet long, and twenty broad, with mud walls seven feet high, two doors in the front, opposite to two others at the back, and without windows. The back part on the inside was di- vided into births, the divisions being formed of canes thinly covered with clay, projecting about six feet from the wall, with a bed place three feet wide, raised two from the floor; the whole appearing somewhat like a range of stalls in a stable. Opposite to these births, and running from one end to the other, excepting the spaces at the two doors, the floor was elevated about ten inches, and was six feet wide : this elevation was partly covered with small carpets and rugs, which with five or six low tables composed the whole of the household furniture. The two doors on the back side led to the kitchen, a range of building as long as the house, but SOUTH AMERICA. 13 entirely detached from it : here were several hearths, or fire-places, surrounded with small earthen pots, pans and some baskets made of split cane ; and over each fire-place was suspended a flat kind of basket holding meat and fish, and answering the purpose of a safe : it is called by the indians a chigiia. The horses were unsaddled, and the saddles placed on the floor at one end of the house. The family, or what I conceived to be the family, was composed of upwards of forty indi- viduals. The father was between forty and fifty years old, and apparently enjoyed all the privileges of a patriarch. There were eight women, whom I considered to be his wives, though during my stay he appeared to associate with only one of them, if allowing her to wait upon him whilst eating and receiving from the others their respective dishes (which she placed successively on the small low table) can be called association. The young men eat the food brought to them at different tables, or in diff'erent parts of the house. The women and children adjourned to the kitchen, and there par- took of what was left by the male part of the family. From the first day of my arrival to the last of my stay I always ate out of the same dish with the Cacique, or Ulmen, for his rank U TRAVELS IN I did not exactly know. Our fingers supplied the place of forks, and large muscle shells that of spoons : knives I never saw used at table. Our food chiefly consisted of fresh mutton, jirked beef, fish, or poultry, cut into small pieces and stewed with potatoes or pompions, seasoned with onions, garlic and cayenne pepper, or cap- sicum. Our breakfast, at about sunrise, was com- posed of some flour or toasted wheat, coarsely ground, or crushed, and mixed with water, either hot or cold, as it suited the palate of the eater. This flour is produced or manufactured by first roasting the wheat or barley in an earthen pan placed over a slow fire, until the grain takes a pale brown hue. When cold it is ground on a flat stone, about eight inches or a foot wide, and two feet or more in length, as they can best procure it. This is put on the ground, with the end next the female raised about four inches. She then takes another stone, which reaches nearly across the first, and weighs from six to ten pounds ; this she presses with her hands, and bruises the grain, which is crushed to a state somewhat like coarsely ground coflee. At the lower end of the stone is generally placed a clean lamb skin, with the wool downwards, which receives the flour, called by the indians machica. Our dinner SOUTH AMERICA. 15 (made up of the stews or messes which 1 have mentioned) was generally served at noon in calabashes, or gourds cut in two, being three inches deep, and some of them from twelve to twenty inches in diameter. Our supper, which we took at eight o'clock, was milk, with machica, or potatoes. I cannot refrain from describing a favourite preparation of milk, called by the natives milcow. Potatoes and a species of pompion, zapallo, were roasted, the insides of both taken out, and kneaded together with a small quantity of salt, and sometimes with eggs. This paste was made into little cakes, each about the size of a dollar, and a large quantity was put into a pot of milk, and allowed to boil for a quarter of an hour. I joined the Indians in considering it an excellent dish. Their poultry, fed on bar- ley and potatoes, was fat and good ; their fish, both from the sea and the river, capital ; and their beef and mutton in fatness and flavour were far above mediocrity. The beverage at this time of the year, there being abundance of apples, was principally new cider, but it was sufficiently fermented to pro- duce intoxication, which I had several opportuni- ties of observing among the men : to the credit of the women, however, I must say, that I never saw 16 TRAVELS IN one of them in a state of ebriety. I was informed that at other times of the year they fermented liquors from the maize, the process of which I shall afterwards describe. Their cider is made in the following rude manner : — a quantity of apples is procured from the woods by the women ; they are put into a species of trough, from eight to ten feet long, being the trunk of a large tree scooped into a shape somewhat similar to a canoe. A woman then takes a stick, or cane, nearly the length of the trough, and standing at one extrem- ity, beats the apples to pieces. They are after- wards collected at one end, pressed with the hands, and the juice is received either in large calabashes (dried gourds) or in prepared goats' hides. It is now carried to the house, poured into an earthen jar, and left to ferment. The jars are made by the Indians of baked clay: — some will hold upwards of a hundred gallons, which shews that these people have some skill in pottery. The only in-door diversion which I witnessed among the Indians at Tucapel was what they certainly considered a dance. About sixteen men and women intermixed stood up in a row, and following each other, trotted about the room to the sound of a small drum, which was made by drawing a piece of the fresh skin of SOUTH AMERICA. 17 a kid or lamb over an earthen pot used for cook- ing. This diversion I saw^ but twice, and in both instances after supper. Indeed the indians are not calculated for this kind of amusement. They associate with each other but little. The fe- males are considered inferior to the men, and consequently no harmony or conviviality ap- pears to result from their company. The prin- cipal out-door diversion among the young men is the palican: this game is called by the Span- iards chutca, and is similar to one I have seen in England called bandy. Molina says it is like the calcio of the Florentines and the orpado of the Greeks. The company divides into two sets. Each person has a stick about four feet long, curved at the lower end. A small hard ball, sometimes of wood, is thrown on the ground : the parties separate; some advance towards the ball, and others stand aloof to prevent it when struck from going beyond the limits assigned, which would occasion the loss of the game. I was told that the most important matters have been adjusted in the different provinces of Araucania by crooked sticks and a ball : the decision of the dispute is that of the game — the winner of the game being the winner of the dispute. At Arauco I heard that the present bishop of 18 TRAVELS IN Conception, Roa, having passed the territory be- longing to the inciians with their permission, (a formahty never to be dispensed with) on his visitation to Valdivia, was apprehended in re- turning for not having solicited and obtained a pass, or safe-conduct from the Uthalmapu, or prin- cipal political chief of the country which he had to traverse, called by the indians, the Lauguen Mapu, or marine district. His lordship was not only made prisoner but despoiled of all his equi- page ; and it became a matter of dispute, which nothing but the palica?i could decide, whether he should be put to death or allowed to proceed to Conception. The game was played in the pre- sence of the bishop : he had the satisfaction of seeing his party win, and his life was saved. The propriety, however, of keeping the booty taken from him was not questioned by any one. That part of the country which I had an op- portunity of visiting with some of these kind indians was not extensive, but extremely beau- tiful. The soil was rich, every kind of vegetation luxuriant, and some of the trees were very large : the principal ones were the espitio, the hmia, the maque, and the pehucn. I was informed that the indians have both gold and silver mines, and that they are ac- quainted with the art of extracting the metal SOUTH AMERICA. 19 from the ores. One might presume that there was some foundation for this report from the ornaments made of the precious metals seen in their possession : they are of Spanish manufac- ture, and perhaps either the spoils of war or the result of barter. A trade of no great importance might be es- tablished here. The wool, which is good, and timber, with some gold and silver, would be given in return for knives, axes, hatchets, white and greenish coarse flannel, ponchos, bridle bits, spurs, &c. 20 TRAVELS IN CHAPTER II. Leave Tucapel Viejo, and arrive at Tubul Description' of our Breakfast on the road Stay at the house of tlie Cacique of Tubul Some Apj)ear- ances of Civilization Game of Penes, Wrestliog', &c Anchorage, Trade, &c. Face of the Countrj- Arrival at Arauco Taken to the Commandant, Interview described Town of Arauco Indians who came to barter Weaving of fine Ponchos Excursion to the Water- mills on the Carampangne River Entertainments, J/ate, &c Visit Nacimiento, Santa Juana, and return to Arauco Ordered to Conception. A-t about three o'clock, on a moonlight morn- ing*, in the month of April, I left the house of my kind Toqui, with five indians. We were all on horseback, and travelled till after sunrise, when arriving at what appeared to me to be a common resting place, we alighted, and I wit- nessed a most romantic scene. The indians were habited in their rude cos- tume, the poncho, the sugar-loaf hat, the hide sandals, and spurs with rowels at least three inches in diameter. Their horses were as un- couthly caparisoned : a deep saddle was covered with three or four sheep skins, over which was spread a bluish rug of long shaggy wool, the crup- per with a broad piece of leather hanging across the horse's rump, and a broader strap attached to each side of the saddle passing round the horse SOUTH AMERICA. 21 behind, about midway down the thighs, and fastened to the cross piece to prevent its slip- ping to the ground. These straps were fancifully stamped, and cut into various shapes and devices. The huge wooden box stirrups were large enough to hold the feet of the rider ; and the heavy-bitted bridle had beautifully platted reins, terminating in a lash or whip of the same workmanship, divided at the end into eight or ten minor plaits, forming a tuft resembling a tassel. The spot at which we arrived was enchanting. The branches of a large carob tree extended themselves above our heads, while the beauti- fully green sward was spread under our feet. A small stream of water worked its way among the pebbles on one side, and in the distance on the other the Pacific Ocean, silvered with the rays of the newly risen sun, heightened in brilliancy by the intervening deep green of the woods, presented itself to our view. What an awfully grand collection of the works of nature! He who could behold them without feeling his bosom swell with such sensations of delight as tongue cannot utter nor pen describe, cannot be made by this faint description to partake of what 1 felt at that moment. After the indians had alighted, part of them 22 TRAVELS IN ran to the brook and brought some water, in bullocks' horns, which they always carry with them for this purpose. They divided it among their comrades, each receiving about a pint. Every one now took from his girdle a small leather bag, the skin of an animal of the size of a -cat, and putting a handful of roasted flour into the horn with the water, stirred it about with a small stick and eat it. I followed their example, and this mixture constituted our breakfast. We then pursued our journey. About noon we arrived at Tubul, and went to a large house belonging, as I supposed, to the Toqui, or Cacique. Here are several other houses, forming a small hamlet, all of whose inhabitants are indians. We were regaled with the usual fare at dinner, with the addition of a lamb, which was killed after our arrival, cut into halves, and roasted over the embers. What may be considered as a certain portion of civilization made its appearance at Tubul : the roasted lamb was laid on a large ill- fashioned silver dish, some silver spoons and forks were placed on the Toqui's table: not a knife was to be seen, but the drinking horns had bottoms. Besides the cider some strong ill tasted brandy and thick sweet wine crowned the board. SOUTH AMERICA. 23 My Indian comrades or conductors occa- sioned much sport after dinner, by playing what they call the pcuca, which Molina says serves them as an image of war. Fifteen mosotoneSy young Indians, took hold of each other by the hands and formed a circle, in the centre of which a boy about ten years old was placed. An equal number of young men were then en- gaged in attempting to take the boy out of the ring, in which the victory consists. The Indians forming the ring at first extended their arms as wide as they could, and paced gently round. The others rushed altogether on the ring, and tried to break it, but their opponents closed and the invaders were forced to desist. They then threw themselves into several groups of two or three in each, ad- vanced and attacked at different points, but were again baffled in their efforts, and after many unsuccessful trials to break the ring, and take the boy, they were obliged through fatigue to abandon their enterprise. When the game, which lasted at least three hours, was finished, abundance of cider was brought, and the effects of drinking it were soon visible. Wrestling parties commenced, in which great strength and agility were shown : the first throw decided each contest, and the horns of cider gi TRAVELS IN were freely circulated to cheer the drooping spirits of the youths. The females and children stood in groups to witness these sports, and interest and enthusiasm were strongly marked in their countenances. After a supper of milcow, roasted potatoes, milk, &c. we retired to our beds, which were formed of five or six clean white sheep skins, and some white fiannel. We rose at an early hour the next morning; five more young Indians were attached to my escort, and we proceeded on our way to Arauco. There is a roadstead and good anchorage at Tubul, and in any emergency ships may procure an abundance of bullocks, sheep, and excellent vegetables, in exchange for knives, axes, buttons, beads, &c. The water at the mouth of the riveris salt, but good fresh water may be easily obtained a little way up on the north side, where a rivulet joins the Tubul. Having travelled about six miles, we de- scended to the beach of a very extensive bay, and saw the island of Santa Maria in the hori- zon. At the foot of the promontory which we had crossed was a small stream and three neat cottages with pretty gardens before them. My guides took me. to the first of these cot- tages, where we were received by a white SOUTH AMERICA. 25 woman, the wife of a sergeant stationed here as at a kind of advanced post. The sergeant soon made his appearance, and although I had been so very kindly treated by the good indians, I felt a pleasure at finding myself once again among people of my ov/n colour, similar to that experienced by a person who is relieved from an apprehension of danger, by being satisfied that it does not exist. Some dis- pute arose respecting the indians leaving me and returning home; but it was adjusted by the sergeant sending two soldiers with us, with orders to present me to the commandant, at Arauco. After breakfasting on roasted jerked beef and bread, we proceeded towards Arauco, and arrived there at noon. The country over which we travelled was every where covered with vegetation, the val- leys or bottoms of the ravines with grass and shrubs, and their hilly sides with wood. After descending to the beach, several small ravines opened to the right, containing a considerable number of neat thatched cottages. Quantities of wild vines climbed from tree to tree, laden with grapes as yet green ; and clusters of apple, pear, and peach trees adorned the sides of the hills, while the low land from their bases to the sea side was divided and fenced in with «6 TRAVELS IN branches of trees — cattle, principally milch cows, feeding in the enclosures. On our arrival at Arauco I was immediately taken to the house of the commandant, who or- dered me into his presence, and the soldiers and Indians to return. I was not a little surprised at the extravagant appearance of this military hero, who undoubtedly considered himself, in his pre- sent situation, equal to Alexander or Napoleon, and but for his figure I should have conceived him to be a second Falstaff. He stood about five feet six inches high, was remarkably slender, and had a swarthy complexion, large Roman nose, small black eyes, projecting chin, and toothless mouth. His hair was combed back from his forehead, abundantly powdered, and tied in a cue a la Frederick. He wore an old tarnished gold laced uniform of faded blue, with deepened red lappels, collar and cuffs, his waistcoat and breeches being of the latter colour ; bluish stockings, brown shoes for lack of blacking, and large square brass buckles. A real Toledo was fastened to his side with a broad black leather belt and a brass buckle in front: an equilateral triangular hat covered his head. Such was the visible part of this soldier. His red cloak was on a chair near him, while his wor- ship stood, bolt upright, in his vast importance # SOUTH AMERICA. 2? personak! Never did chivalrous knight listen with more gravity of countenance, measured de- meanour or composed posture, to the cravings of a woe-begotten squire, than did my old com- mandant to my ill-digested narrative- But what a contrast presented itself in his goodly lady, the comandanta, whom I could compare to nothing better than a large lanthorn \ She stood about four feet six inches high, and as nearly as I could conceive measured the same round the waist, which was encompassed by an enormous hoop, at least four feet in diameter, having a petticoat of scarlet flannel, sewed into small folds, the bottom of which was trimmed about a foot deep with something yellow. She wore a green bodice, and the sleeves of her undermost garment just covered her shoulders, and were edged with green ribbon and white fringe. Her hair was all combed back from her forehead, and tied behind with a broad black ribbon. On the top of her head appeared a bunch of natural flowers. It might with pro- priety be said of this goodly dame, that it would be much easier to pass over than to go round her. There were also present the curate of the parish, two Franciscan friars, and some of the inhabitants, one of whom, Don Nicolas del Rio, compassionating the fate of a boy, (for I was 28 TRAVELS IN then only seventeen) asked the commandant to allow me to be his guest. This request being granted, the chief put on his red cloak, walked with us to the house of Don Nicolas, and, not forgetting one iota of etiquette, pre- sented me to the family, composed of the wife of Don Nicolas and three daughters ; their only son being with an uncle, who was governor of Angeles. During the time I remained at Arauco I was treated in evenr respect as one of the family by these kinlfcand hospitable people. Visiting parties to their gardens, or- chards, and vineyards, followed each other daily, and all possible care was taken to render me happy — and not in vain, for I was happy. Arauco is situated at the foot of a rocky hill, accessible only by a winding path from the inside of the walls by which the town is surrounded. On the top of the hill were four brass guns of eighteen pounds calibre, with a breast-work of stone, a large house for the soldiers, forming their barracks or guard-house, and a small watch tower. The town is a square of about six hundred yards, and is sur- rounded by a wall of eighteen feet high on three of the sides, the hill forming the fourth ; two SOUTH AMERICA. 29 small breast-works are raised at the corners. An arched gateway stands in the centre of the north side, with a massy wooden door, which is closed every night at eight o'clock, and opened at six in the morning. From the gateway is a street to the square, or market-place, where the church is erected. There is also a convent of Franciscan friars, which was formerly a Jesuits' college. The garrison consisted of thirty privates with the respective subalterns and officers. The whole population amounts to about four hundred souls. The town is w^ell supplied by a spring in the rock with most excellent water, which falls into a large stone basin, and thence runs through the square, the principal street, and out at the gateway. Fruit, fish, poultry, and cider called chicha, are brought in daily by the indian wo- men, and sold or bartered principally for salt, which is the article most in demand, there being none but what is imported. The greater part used for culinary purposes is from Peru, but a coarser kind is obtained from the coast of Chile, near to Valparaiso. The general sa- lutation of the indians is marry, marry ; and I was told, that when a Cacique or any other chief sends to a Spaniard his marry, marry, it is 39 TRAVELS IN a sure sign that he is at peace with the Spa- niards, though other tribes may be at war with them. I had several opportunities at Arauco of see- ing the indians employed in weaving the fine ponchos, some of which, I learnt, were worth from a hundred to a hundred and fifty dollars. The wool is first washed and picked or combed, for they have no idea of carding. It is then spun with the spindle, as already described, and afterwards dyed the necessary colours, such as blue, green, yellow, red, &c., and if one be wanted which they have not the materials to produce, they purchase a piece of Manchester flannel of the colour required, pick it to pieces, reduce it to wool, and spin it over again, the yarn being required to be much finer than that of the flannel, and always twisted of two or more threads. The pojicho is woven in stripes of one, two, or three inches broad, which are subsequently sewed together. Sometimes, and for the hne,^i ponchos, no loom whatever is used. The coloured threads or yarns are rolled on a round piece of wood ; the weaver ties the other ends of them to her girdle, and lifts and depresses the threads with her fingers, passing the woof rolled on a cane instead of a shuttle, and beating it with the macana. This may undoubtedly be SOUTH AMERICA. 31 considered the lowest pitch of weaving, but the patterns on the stripes are very pretty and ingenious, and the repetitions of the devices are extremely exact. After a few days' rest, it was proposed by Don Nicolas that I should accompany his daughters on an excursion to some of the neigh- bouring towns and villages : a proposal highly gratifying to myself, and apparently not less so to my new acquaintance. A permission or pass- port was procured for me from the commandant, and I was ordered to present it at every military post we might arrive at. Whether there were any necessity for this document I do not know ; but I think it was provided to give me an idea of the authority of the military chief; for I was never asked for it, and when I presented it at any post it was never read ; but a curl of the upper lip showed the contempt with which it was viewed by the subalterns of this great man! Our cavalcade, on as delightful a morning as ever broke on joyous travellers, made a very gay appearance. The three daughters of Don Nicolas were mounted on good horses, with square side-saddles, the upper part of which had rather the shape of small chairs^ having backs and arms covered with velvety fastened with a profusion of brass-headed nails. 32 TRAVELS IN A board about ten inches long and four broad, covered and nailed to match, was suspended on the far side of each horse; so that the rider sat with her left hand to the horse's head, contrary to the custom in England. The bridles, crup- pers and appendages were of exquisite platted work, ornamented with a number of silver rings, buckles and small plates. I rode a horse belong- ing to my good host, with saddle and trappings decorated in the same manner. The saddle was raised about four inches before and behind, and some sheep skins were put on the seat, covered with a red rug of very long wool. Four sumpter mules were laden with bedding and provender, two mosotones, young Indians, were appointed to attend to them, and two females to wait on their young mistresses. We mounted, and at the gate were joined by the commandant's two daughters, who had two soldiers for tbeir guard. JVever did I feel more delighted than when, hav- ing passed the gateway and advanced a few yards, I turned round to view this novel scene, to which, in my mind, a Canterbury pilgrimage was far inferior. Five young ladies in their rigid costume; their small but beautifully wrought jjoiichos ; their black hats and feathers; their hoops, spreading out iheir fancifully coloured coats, ornamented with ribbons, fringes, and SOUTH AMERICA. 33 spangles ; the gay trappings of their horses ; the two soldiers in uniform ; the indians ; the servant girls, and the sumpter mules, which closed the procession ; the merry countenances of all ; the parents, relations and friends, waving their hats and handkerchiefs from the walls of the town ; the sound of the church and convent bells, summoning the inhabitants to mass ; the distant view of the sea on one side, and that of the enchanting plain and mountain scenery on the other — reminded me of fairy regions, and at times caused me almost to doubt the reality of what I beheld. It was predetermined that we should breakfast at a farm-house about two leagues from Arauco. Thither we rode, leaving the indians to follow with their charge. Our arrival was anticipated, and a splendid breakfast had been prepared : roasted lamb, fowls, fried eggs and fish smoaked on the table ; whilst chocolate and toasted bread, excellent butter and cheese finished the repast. We honoured our host by eating heartily, and waited the arrival of the indians : they" were or- dered to follow us to the mills. We shortly reached the bank of the river Carampangue, and after riding about twelve miles came to the mills called de Carampangue. The river is in some places from eighty to a hundred yards 34 TRAVELS IN wide, and in others not above twenty; running slowly towards the sea, into which it empties itself about four miles from Arauco. Its origin is said to be in the Cordilleras. Where the mills are situated the river is twenty-two yards wide, with a considerable fall, and water is drawn from it for their service by channels. These mills are three in number, with vertical water-wheels and one pair of stones to each mill. I was informed that the stones are brought from a considerable distance, and that they cost about one hundred and fifty dollars the pair. They are black, with small white stains, resembling in size and shape the wings of flies, and hence are called ala de mosca. When by any accident they are broken, the only remedy is to procure new ones, the people being igno- rant of any cement with which to unite the pieces; and probably the expense of iron work would amount to more than that of new stones ; nay, I question whether they have a blacksmith in this part of the country who could forge hoops to brace them. The only precaution taken to prevent such accidents is the passing a number of thongs of raw hide, while fresh, round the stones, and when dry they are not perhaps very inferior to iron hoops. The wood-work is as rude, the miller being the carpenter, blacksmith. SOUTH AMERICA. 35 mason, &c. The flour is not bolted, but sifted by hand. This however is no part of the busi- ness or trade of the miller, who is only required to grind the corn ; for the meal is carried home to its owner, and separated from the bran with large hair sieves made by the Indians. We dined at one of the houses, partly on the fare presented to us, and partly on our own, brought by the sumpter mules. The afternoon was spent in rambling about the neighbouring country and picking myrtle ber- ries, which are delicious, and called by the people mutillas. They are about the size of a large pea, of a deep red colour and of a pe- culiarly sweet and aromatic flavour. They are sometimes prepared by crushing them in water and allowing them to ferment for a few days, which produces a pleasant beverage called chicha de mutilla. We found abundance of wild grapes, (which though neither large nor sweet were very palatable) some few plums, and plenty of apples, pears and peaches. On our return to the miller's house we were pre- sented with mate, which is a substitute for tea, and is used more or less in every part of South America, but since the present revolution it has become less prevalent, partly because the custom of drinking tea a la Inglesa is more 36 TRAVELS IN fashionable, and partly because a regular sup- ply of the herb cannot be procured from Paraguay, where it grows, and from whence it derives its name. The mate is prepared by putting into a silver or gold cup about a tea- spoonful of the herb of Paraguay, to which are added a bit of sugar, sometimes laid on the fire until the outside be a little burnt, a few drops of lemon juice, a piece of lemon peel and of cinnamon, or a clove. Boiling water is poured in till the cup is full, and a silver tube, about the thickness of the stalk of a tobacco pipe, six inches long and perforated at the lower end with small holes, is introduced. Through this the mate is sucked, with the risk of scalding the mouth. A cup supported on a salver, most curiously chased, or fili- greed, is commonly used : however a cala- bash, with a fillet of silver round the top, was used on this occasion. One tube serves the whole party, and the female who presides will not unfrequently give a hearty suck when the cup is returned to her, and take another after replenishing it, before it is handed to the company. A great deal of etiquette is observed with the 7nute. It is first offered to the person who is the greatest stranger, or most welcome visitor, a priest, if there happen SOUTH AMERICA. 37 to be one present, which is generally the case. Nothing but the severe indisposition of Friar Vicente at Arauco freed us from his presence : an event which was not regretted by the party until dancing was proposed in the evening, when his ghostly fathership was missed, as no one could play on the guitar so well as he: how- ever one of the soldiers offered his services; the instrument was produced and tuned, the dance named, and the sparkling eyes of the whole com- pany, which had greatly increased since our arrival, bespoke a wish to ''trip it on the light fantastic toe;" but to my astonishment, a young man and woman stepped into the middle of the room, and began to jig to the sounds of the gui- tar, sounds not to be equalled except by thefiling of a saw, or the boisterous singing of the per- former. This I was told was a bolero. They danced about five minutes, and were relieved by two others. In this manner the diversion was kept up until after midnight, with the assistance of cider, chicha de mansana, chicha de mutilla, bad wine, and some brandy made from the wild grape of the country. A hot supper closed the scene, and we retired to the beds prepared for us at the different houses. The following morning after breakfast we mounted our horses, and having crossed the 38 TRAVELS IN river at a ford, pursued our route to Nacimiento, which is a small village surrounded by a wall with four brass guns. The greater part of the inhabitants are Indians, and apparently very poor. We spent the night at the house of the curate, but not so agreeably as we passed the preceding one at the mills. On the next day we went on to Santa Juana, another frontier town, standing on an island formed by the river dividing itself into two branches for the space of about half a mile and again uniting. This river is the Bio-bio, and may with propriety be called the northern boundary of Chile. The towns on the south side of the Bio-bio are under great risk of being sacked by the indians, and are merely kept as advanced posts by the Spaniards. We rested one day at Santa Juana, and returned by a diffe- rent road to Nacimiento, from thence to the Car- ampangue mills, and the day after to Arauco, having spent seven days in this most agreeable excursion. I was exceedingly surprized at being in- formed that war had been declared between England and Spain ; and in a few days after- wards I received orders to proceed to Con- ception. I remained at the house of my friend Don Nicolas del Rio, until my departure, SOUTH AMERICA. 39 enjoying every day more and more the kind hospitality of this worthy South American and his excellent family, whom I left with the most sincere regret, impressed with the idea that I should never see any of them again. I was, however, deceived, for after a lapse of seventeen years we met under circumstances which enabled me to repay a part of their kindness. 40 TRAVELS IN CHAPTER III. Account of Cultivation of Farms, &c in Araucania Tlirasliiiij^, &c Pro- duce Cattle Locality Topographical Divisions Govern-- ment (Indian) Laws and Penalties Military System Arms, Standards, &c Division of Spoil Treaty of Peace Religion Marriages Funerals Spanish Cities founded in Araucania Ideas on New Colonies Commerce. The plough used by the Creoles and Spaniards and adopted by the Indians is a piece of crooked wood, generally part of the trunk and one of the principal branches of a tree. The portion which is intended to move the soil, for it cannot pro- perly be called ploughing, is about five feet long and six inches broad. One end is pointed and sometimes charred; at the other a handle rises about three feet high, forming with the bottom piece an obtuse angle, greater or less according to the will of the maker, or the chance of find- ing a piece of wood suitable for the purpose. One end of the beam is inserted at the angle and is supported about the middle of the lower part of the plough b V a piece of wood passing through it into a mortise made in the lower part, where it is secured, as well as in the beam, by small wedges. The removal of those in the beam SOUTH AMERICA. 41 serves to raise or depress it for the purpose of making the furrow deeper or shallower. The beam is from ten to twelve feet long, the one end fastened as already mentioned, and the other lashed to the yoke, which is tied with thongs just behind the horns of the bullock. Instead of harrows they use a bunch of thorns, generally of the espino. One would imagine that this rude implement had been found in the hands of the indians at the time the coun- try was discovered ; but according to Towns- end's description of the plough used in some parts of Spain, it was one of the improvements carried to America by the earliest settlers. In- deed, rude as it is, it is seen in every part of South America which I visited, having in some places the addition of a piece of flat iron, about a foot long and pointed at one end, attached by thongs to that of the lower part of the plough, and called rtja: probably from the verb r«;V/r, to split or divide. When a farmer selects a piece of ground for cultivation he cuts down the trees, with which he makes a fence by laying them around the field. He then ploughs or breaks the ground, sows his wheat or barley, and harrows it in with a bunch of thorns : here the cares of husbandry cease until harvest. The corn is now cut, tied G 42 TRAVELS IN into sheaves, and carried to the thrashing floor, where it is trodden out by a drove of mares, which are driven round at a full gallop, till the straw becomes hard, when it is turned over, and the trampling repeated two or three times, so as to break the straw into pieces of two inches long. At this stage it is supposed that the grain is freed from the ears. The whole is shaken with large forks, made of wood or forked branches of trees; the chaff and grain fall to the ground, and are formed into a heap, which is thrown up into the air with shovels. The wind blows away the chaff, and the grain remains on the floor. It is now put into sacks made of bullocks' hides, placed on the backs of mules, and carried to the owner's house; but not before the tythe or diesmo has been paid, and one bushel, primicia, to the parson. The straw is occasionally preserved for the horses in the rainy season ; at other times it is burnt or left to rot. For a thrashing floor a piece of ground is selected, and having been swept and cleared, is enclosed with a few poles and canes. It is sel- dom used twice, and the size is proportioned to the quantity of corn to be trodden out. Maize, sometimes called indian corn, is cul- tivated in great quantities in this as well as SOUTH AMERICA. 43 in every other part of South America. Four varieties are to be found here, all of which are very productive and much appreciated. It is sown in lines or rows, two, three, or four plants standing together, at the distance of half a yard from the other clusters. Each stem produces from two to four cobs, and some of them are twelve inches long. The indians prepare the maize for winter, whilst in the green state, by boiling the cobs, from the cores of which are ta- ken the grain, which is dried in the sun and kept for use. It is called chuchoca, and when mixed with some of their hashes or stews is very palatable. Another preparation is made by cut- ting the corn from the core of the green cobs, and bruising it between two stones until it assumes the consistency of paste, to which sugar, butter and spices, or only salt is added. It is then divided into small portions, which are enclosed separately within the inner leaf of the cob or ear and boiled. These cakes are called umitas. The dry boiled maize, mote, and the toasted, cancha, are used by the indians instead of bread. One kind of maize, curugua, is much softer when roasted, and furnishes a flour lighter, whiter, and in greater quantity than any other kind. This meal mixed with water and a little sugar is esteemed by all 44 TRAVELS IN classes of people. If the water be hot the beverage is called cheixhan, if cold idpo. M. Bomare considers the maize as indige- nous to Asia alone, and C. Durante to Turkey ; but Solis, Zandoval, Herrera and others prove that it was found at the discovery of the New World in the West Indies, Mexico, Peru and Chile. Indeed I have opened many of the graves, huacas, of the indians, and observed maize in them, which was beyond all doubt buried before the conquest or discovery of this country. There are two kinds of quinuo, a species of chenopodium. The seed of the one is reddish, bitter, and used only as a medicine. The other is white, and is frequently brought to table. When boiled it uncurls and has the appearance of fine vermicelli. It is sometimes boiled in soup, and is also made into a kind of pud- • ding, seasoned with onions, garlic, pepper, &c. Of the bean, pliaseolus, they have several kinds, which are grown in abundance, constitu- ting both in a green and dried state a great part of the support of the lower classes of Creoles and indians. The bean is indigenous, and was cultivated before the arrival of the Spaniards. Seven or eight varieties of potatoe of an ex- cellent quality are raised, and in some shape SOUTH AMERICA. 45 or other introduced to every table and almost at every meal. Indeed Chile is considered by many naturalists to be the native soil of this vegetable. The small potatoes are often pre- served by boiling them and drying them in the sun, or among the Cordilliras covering them with ice, until they assume a horny appearance. When used they are broken into small pieces, soaked in water, and added to many of their stews. A species called poguy is very bitter, and is considered, with probability, to be poi- sonous. For use it is soaked in water till the bitterness is removed, then dried, and some- times reduced to powder, called chum. For food it is prepared like arrow root, which it resembles. They have the white and the yellow flow- ered gourd. Of the former, generally called calabashes, there are about twenty varieties, but only two of them are sweet and eatable. How- ever, the bitter kinds are remarkably service- able, for when dried and cleaned their shells are substitutes for dishes, bov/ls, platters, bottles, tubs, or trays. The largest serve the purposes of barrels for water, cider, and other liquids, as well as baskets for fruit, butter and eggs. They are sometimes very curiously cut and stained, 46 TRAVELS IN and for certain uses bound or tipped with silver. The yellow flowered, known to us by the name of pumpkin or pompion, and here called zapallo, are excellent food, whether cooked with meat as a vegetable, or made into custard with sugar and other ingredients. That the gourd is a na- tive of South America seems to be supported by several striking circumstances. The seeds and shells are found in the graves, or huacas; the plant was universally met with among the different tribes of indians at the time of their discovery ; Almagro states that on his passage down the Marauon some of the indians had calabashes to drink with ; and lastly, those who bring their produce from the woods of Maynas to Cusco, Quito and other places, always use gourd shells. The pimento, guinea, or cayenne pepper, capsicum, is much cultivated and valued by the natives, who season their food with it. Al- though at first very pungent and disagreeable, strangers gradually habituate themselves to, and become fond of it. There are several varieties, I have been thus particular in mentioning these indigenous plants, because from the slen- der or exaggerated accounts given to the pub- lic no perfect idea can be formed of the native productions of this country. SOUTH AMERICA. 47 European vegetables prosper extremely well in Araucania, and abundance of them are to be seen in every garden. In some parts of the Araucanian territory there is a great stock of horned cattle, which is well grown, and often tolerably fat. The beef is savoury, owing perhaps to the preva- lence of aromatic herbs, more particularly a species of venus' comb, called by the indians loiqui lahuen, by the Spaniards alfikrilla ; and trefoil, gualputa. There is no scarcity of sheep ; but pigs are not much bred, as the indians are averse from eating their flesh : a prejudice which has supplied some fanatical priests with a reason for considering the natives of Jewish extraction I Turkeys, barn door fowls and ducks thrive extremely well. I never saw any geese here, and though they may be found in other parts, the indians have a dislike to them for food. The tract of country which may be properly called Araucania extends from the river Bio-bio in 36° 44' south latitude, to Valdivia in 39° 38', the province of Conception bounding it on the north, and the Llanos or plains of Valdivia on the south. The Cordillera forms the eastern limit, and the Pacific the western. It is divided into four governments, or tetrachates, called nthal mapiis: — 1. /aw^-^^ew wajow, the maritime country; 48 TRAVELS IN 2, klbun mapu, the plain country ; 3, mapire mapu, the foot of the Cordilleras; 4, piremapu, the Andes. Each tetrachate is again divided into nine al/aregues, or provinces, and these are subdivided into nine rcgues, or districts. This division existed prior to the arrival of the Span- iards, but the date of its establishment is un- known. It evinces, however, more wisdom than civilized countries are willing to allow to what tiiey term barbarous tribes, who no doubt return this compliment, by adjudging those nations to be barbarous who observe any rules or laws different from their own. Such is the common characteristic of civiliza- tion and uncivilization ! But can that country be called barbarous which, although its code of laws is not written on vellum, or bound in calf, has an established mode of government for the administration of justice and the protection of property 'I The Araucanians have ever been a warlike race, and yet their government is aris- tocratical. They are prompt to resent an insult, but they possess virtues of a private and public nature, which deny to civilization its exclu- sive pretensions to patriotism, friendship or hospitality. The four uthalniapm are governed by four Toquis, or tetrachs, who are independent of SOUTH AMERICA. 49 each other m the civil administration of their respective territories, but confederated for the general good of the whole country. The Apo- ulmenes are subordinate governors of provinces, under the respective Toquis ; and the Ulmenes, the prefects of the counties, or districts, are dependent on the Apo-ulmenes. All these dig- nities are hereditary in the male line, attending to primogeniture, but when there is no lineal male descendant of the person reigning, the vassals enjoy the privilege of electing a new governor from among themselves, and on reporting their choice to the Toquis, they immediately order it to be acknowledged. The badge of a Toqui is a battle-axe ; that of an Apo-ulmen a staff, or baton, with a ball of silver on the top, and a ring of the same metal round the middle : the Ulmen has the baton without the ring. To the hypothetical historian this aristocracy in the most southern limits of the new, so similar to the military aristocracy of the dukes, the counts, and the marquises in the northern parts of the old world, would prove that the latter was peopled by migrations from the former, at a time beyond the reach of record, or even of oral tradition. The Araucanian code of laws is traditionary, 40 TRAVELS IN (composed of primordial usages, or tacit conven- tions, formed in such general councils as are yet assembled by the Toquis in cases of emergency) and is called aucacoyog. Molina, Ulloa, and other writers are silent upon the curious fact of the pos- session by this people of the (juipus, or Peruvian mode of knotting coloured threads as a substitute for writing or hieroglyphics. That they do pos- sess this art at the present day, the following nar- rative will testify. In 1792 a revolution took place near Valdivia, and on the trial of several of the accomplices, Marican,* one of them, declared, " that the signal sent by Lepitrarn was a piece of wood, about a quarter of a yard long, and considerably thick ; that it had been split, and was found to contain the finger of a Spaniard ; that it was wrapped round with thread, having a fringe at one end made of red, blue, black, and white worsted ; that on the black were tied by Lepitrarn, four knots, to intimate that it was the fourth day after the full moon when the bearer left Paquipulli ; that on the white were ten knots, indicating that ten days after that date the revolution would take place ; that on the red was to be tied by the person who received it a knot, if he assisted in the revolt, but "Orif,nnal manuscript, in the possession of the autlior, found among the archives at Valdivia. SOUTH AMERICA. 51 if he refused, he was to tie a knot on the blue and red joined together : so that according to the route determined on by Lepitrarn he would be able to discover on the return of his chasqui, or herald, how many of his friends would join him ; and if any dissented, he would know who it was, by the place where the knot uniting the two threads was tied." Thus it is very probable, that the Toquis of Araucania preserve their records by means of the quipus, instead of relying on oral tradition. The principal crimes of this people are murder, adultery, robbery and witchcraft. If a murderer compound the matter with the nearest relations of the deceased, he escapes punishment. Such is also the case in robbery and adultery ; the composition in robbery being restitution of property stolen; in adultery, maintenance of the woman. Witchcraft is always punished with death. In murder, however, retaliation is generally called in to decide ; and in most in- stances the injured relatives collect their friends, enter and despoil the territory or premises of the aggressor. These malocas, as they are stiled, are sources of great confusion. When a general council has resolved to make war, one of the Toquis is usually ap- pointed by his brethren to take the command 52 TRAVELS IN in chief; but should the four agree to nominate any other individual in the state, he becomes duly elected, and assumes the Toquis' badge, a war axe — the four Toquis laying down their insignia and authority during the war. The person thus elected is sole dictator. He appoints his subalterns, and is implicitly obeyed by all ranks. War being determined on, and the Tcqui chosen, he immediately sends his messengers, wercjuenis, with the signal; and as all Araucanians are born soldiers of the state, the army is soon collected at the rendezvous assigned. The arms of the infantry are muskets, which from the Spaniards they have learned to use with great dexterity, though bows and arrows, slings, clubs and pikes are their proper weapons. They have also their cavalry, in imitation of their conquerors; and, possessed of a good and ample breed of horses, are very excellent riders. The arms of this branch of their force are swords and lances, their system being to come to close quarters with the enemy as soon as possible. Their standards have a fine pointed star in the centre, generally white, in a field of bluish green, which is their favourite colour. Military uniforms are not used, but a species of leather dress is worn under their ordinary cloth- SOUTH AMERICA. 53 ing, to defend the body from arrow, pike and sword wounds. This is doubtless of modern invention, for before the arrival of the Spaniards they had no animal of sufficient size to afford hides large or thick enough for such a purpose. The whole of the provisions of an Araucanian army consist of the machica, or meal of parched grain. Each individual provides himself with a small bag full, which diluted with water fur- nishes him with sustenance until he can quarter on the enemy, an object of the last importance to the leaders. In the camp or resting-place every soldier lights a fire : a practice which during the first wars with the Spaniards (so beautifully recorded by Ercilla in his Araucania) often deceived the enemy as to their numbers. What Robertson says in praise of the Chileans must be wholly ascribed to the Araucanians, in order to avoid the confusion which would be created were we to consider the present inha- bitants of Chile as the persons spoken of by that author. After a general action or a skirmish the booty taken is equally divided among the indi- viduals who were at the capture. They judi- ciously consider that rank and honours repay the leaders, and that a larger share of the booty would probably induce them to be more atten- 6* TRAVELS IN tive to spoil than to conquest, to personal good j than to national welfare: a policy worthy of the imitation of all nations. Abb6 Molina, in his History of Chile, speaks of sacrifices after an action ; but although I in- quired, when at Arauco in the year 1803, and more particularly in the province of Valdivia in 1820, I never could obtain any account from the natives which gave the least countenance to this assertion. It is possible, however, that during the first wars with the Spaniards the barbarous proceedings of the latter to the captured Indians gave rise to a retaliation which was confounded with sacrifice. Among the religious ceremonies of Araucania human sacrifices are decidedly not included. The independent spirit of the Araucanians prevents their ever sueing for peace. The first overtures have always been made by the Span- iards, who are the only nation with which they have contended; for although the Inca Yupan- qui invaded Chile about the year 1430, the northern limit of his acquired territory was, ac- cording to Garcilaso, the river Maule. When the proposals are accepted by the Indians, or rather by the commanding Toqui, he lays down his insignia, which the four Toquis of the uthalmapus resume, and accompanied bjj. the SOUTH AMERICA. 65 Apo-iilmenes and principal officers of the army, they adjourn to some appointed plain, generally between the rivers Bio-bio and Duqueco. The two contending chiefs, with their respective in- terpreters, meet, and the Araucanian claiming Che precedence, speaks first, and is answered by the Spaniard. If the terms offered to the In- dians meet their approbation, the baton of the Spanish chief, and the war axe of the Toqui are tied together, crowned with a bunch of ccmelo, and placed on the spot where the conference was held. The articles of the treaty are writ- ten, but agreed to rather than signed, and they generally state the quantity and quality of the presents which the indians are to receive. The negociation ends in eating, drinking, riot and confusion. Raynal, treating of the Araucanians, says — *'As these Araucanians are not embar- rassed by making war, they are not apprehen- sive of its duration, and hold it as a principle never to sue for peace, the first overtures for which are always made by the Spaniards." Their religion is very simple. They have a Supreme Being, whom they call Pillian, and who is at the head of a universal government, which is the prototype of their own. Pillian is the great invisible Toqui, and has his Apo-ulmenes and his Ulmenes, to whom he assigns different M TRAVELS IN situations in the government, and entrusts the administration of certain affairs in this world. Meiden, the genius of good and the friend of mankind, and Wencuba that of evil, and the enemy of man, are the two principal subordi- nate deities. Epunamun is their genius of war ; but it appears that he is seldom invoked as a protector, being only the object by which they swear to fight, destroy, &c. These three may be considered their Apo-ulmenes ; and their Ul- menes are a race of genii, who assist the good Meulen in favour of mortals, and defend their interests against the enormous power of the wicked Wencuba. The Araucanians have no places of worship, no idols, no religious rites. They believe that as their God and his genii need not the worship of men, they do not re- quire it ; that they are not desirous of imposing a tribute or exacting a service, except for the good or interest of their servants ; and that they thus resemble the Toquis and Ulmenes, who can call upon them to fight for their country and their liberties, but for no personal offices. They, nevertheless, invoke the aid of the good Meulen, and attribute all their evils to the in- fluence of the wicked Wencuba. The Spanish government has taken great pains to establish the Christian religion among I SOUTH AMERICA. 57 the different tribes of indians in South America, and for the education of missionaries for the conversion of the Araucanians a convent of Franciscan friars, called de propaganda fide, is established at Chilian. These individuals, how- ever, are chiefly natives of Spain, and being ordained presbyters can easily obtain a mission ; and as pecuniary emoluments are attached to the employment, the order has always en- deavoured to preclude Americans. There are also minor convents at Arauco, Los Angeles and Valdivia. As the missionaries only require the young indians to learn a few prayers, attend mass on particular days, and confess themselves once a year, they make some prose- lytes; but in the year 1820, when the Spanish government was overthrown at Valdivia, the indians immediately accused their missionaries of being enemies to the newly-established system, and requested their removal. Another proof of dislike to the priests, if not to the religion, is, that they are generally massacred when any revolution takes place among the indians. Such was the case in 1792 at Rio- bueno.* According to the confessions of those who were taken and tried upon that occasion, * Original >I8. from the archives at Valdivia. I TRAVELS IN their plan was to burn all the missions, and murder the missionaries. Witchcraft and divination are firmly believed by the Araucanians. Any accident that occurs to an individual or family is attributed to the agency of the former, and for a due discovery they consult the latter. Particular attention is paid to omens, such as the flight of birds, and dreams. These are either favourable or otherwise according to the bird seen, or the direction of its flight, &c. An Araucanian who fears not his foe on the field of battle, nor the more dreadful hand of the executioner, will tremble at the sight of an owl. They have also their ghosts and hobgoblins : but is there any nation on earth so far removed from credulity as not to keep the Araucanians in countenance in these matters ? The belief of a future state and the immor- tality of the soul is universal among the indians of South America. The Araucanians agree with the rest in expecting an eternal residence in a beautiful country, to which all will be trans- ferred. Pillian is too good to inflict any punish- ment after death for crimes committed durino- life. They believe that the soul will enjoy the same privileges in a separate state which it pos- SOUTH AMERICA. ,59 sessed whilst united to tlie body. Thus the husband will have his wives, but without any spiritual progeny, for the new country must be peopled with the spirits of the dead. Like the ancients, they have their ferryman, or rather ferrywoman, to transport them thither. She is called Tempulagy, being an old woman who takes possession of the soul after the relations have mourned over the corpse, and who conveys it over the seas to the westward, where the land of expectation is supposed to exist. When an Indian becomes enamoured of a « female, or wishes to marry her, he informs her father of his intention, and if his proposals be accepted, the father at a time agreed upon sends his daughter on a pretended errand. The bride- groom with some of his friends is secreted on the route she has to take : he seizes the girl, and carries her to his house, where not unfrequently her father and his friends have already arrived to partake of the nuptial feast, and receive the stipulated presents, which consist of horses, horned cattle, maize, ponchos, &c. The cere- mony is concluded by the whole party drinking to excess. On the death of an individual the relations and friends are summoned to attend, and weep or mourn. The deceased is laid on a table, and CO TRAVELS IN dressed in the best apparel he possessed when alive. The females walk round the body, chaunt- ing in a doleful strain a recapitulation of the events of the life of the person whose death they lament ; whilst the men employ themselves in drinking. On the second or third day the corpse is carried to the family burying place, which is at some distance from the house, and generally on an eminence. It is laid in a grave prepared for the purpose. If the deceased be a man, he is buried with his arms, and some- times a horse, killed for the occasion : if a wo- man, she is interred with a quantity of household utensils. In both cases a portion of food is placed in the grave to support them and the Tempulagy, or ferrywoman, on their journey to the other country. Earth is thrown on the body, and after- wards stones are piled over it in a pyramidal form. A quantity of cider or other fermented liquor is poured upon the tomb ; when, these solemn rites being terminated, the company return to the house of the deceased to feast and drink. Black is here as in Europe the colour used for mourning. The indians never believe that death is owing to natural causes, but that it is the effect of sorcery and witchcraft. Thus on the death of an individual, one or more diviners are SOUTH AMERICA. G\ consulted, who generally name the enchanter, and are so implicitly believed, that the unfortu- nate object of their caprice or malice is certain to fall a sacrifice. The number of victims is far from being inconsiderable. In my description of Araucania I have in some measure followed Molina's ingenious work ; but I have not ventured to state any thing which I did not see myself, or learn from the Indians, or persons residing among them. The Spaniards founded seven cities in Arau- cania. The Imperial, built in 1552 by Don Pedro Valdivia, generally called the conqueror of Chile, is situated at the confluence of the two rivers Cantin and Las Damas, 12 miles from the sea, in an extremely rich and beautiful country, enjoying the best soil and climate in Araucania. In 1564 Pius IV. made it a bishop's see, which was removed to Conception in 1620. In 1599 it was taken and destroyed by the Indians, and has never been rebuilt. The site at present belongs to the laugiien mapu, or tetra- chate of the coast. Villarica was also founded by Valdivia in 1552, on the shore of the great lake Sauquen, 65 miles from the sea. It was destroyed by the Toqui Palliamachu, and its site forms part TRAVELS IN of the tetrachate of the mapire mapu. Report speaks of rich gold mines in the environs of the ground where Villarica stood and from which it took its name. The climate is cold, owing to the vicinity of the Cordillera. Valdivia bears the name of its founder. Of this city I shall have occasion hereafter to give a circumstantial account. Angol, or La Frontera, was established by Pedro Valdivia in the year 1553. It was razed by the Indians in 1601, and has since remained in ruins. It is now in reality the frontier, though Valdivia little surmised that it w^ould be so when he founded it. The river Bio-bio bounded it on the south side, and a small rapid stream on . the north. The soil and climate are excellent, "^ and the situation was well chosen for a city. Canete was founded in 1557 by Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendosa, and destroyed during the first long -contested war with the Araucanians, by the Toqui Antiguenu. It was built on the site where Valdivia was defeated and slain, and now forms part of the lelbum mapu tetrachate. Osorno is the most southern city in South America, being in 40° 20', at the distance of 24 miles from the sea, and 2 1 2 south of Concep- tion. It was founded in 1559 by Don Garcia SOUTH AMERICA. 6S Hurtado de Mendosa, and destroyed by the In- dians in 1599. It was again founded on the old site, on the banks of Rio-bueno, by Don Am- brose Higgins, who was afterwards president and captain general of Chile, and promoted to the vice-royalty of Peru. Charles IV. confer- red on Higgins the title of Marquis of Osorno, as a reward for his services in Araucania. The first supreme director of the Chilean republic, Don Bernardo O' Higgins, was the natural son of Don Ambrose. Conception is the seventh city founded by the Spaniards, but as it is not included in the Araucanian territory I shall defer any descrip- tion of it for the present. Cesares is a place about which much has been said and written. I have in my posses- sion original mss. 'relating to it, a translation of which will be published. In all the treaties between the Spaniards and the indians one of the principal articles has been, that the latter v^^ere to oppose with force of arms the establishment of any foreign colony in their territory. This stipulation they obeyed in 1638, at the island of Mocha, where they murdered the remains of a crew of Dutch- men, who went to take possession of that is- land after their ship had been wrecked by bad 64 TRAVELS IN weather; and also when the Dutch Admiral Henry Brun attempted in 1643 to form a settle- ment at Valdivia, and met with the same fate : a fate, however, which might have been occasioned by the natural hatred entertained at that period by the natives against all foreigners who at- tempted to obtain possession of any part of their country. This jealousy and hatred of Europeans has always been promoted by the Spaniards, whom the indians stile chiape, vile soldier; but all other foreigners they call moro winca: winca signifying an assassin, and moro a moor. These epithets proceed from the same source; for the Spaniards are in the habit of calling all who are not of their own religion either jews or moors, thus wishing to impress upon the minds of the indians that all foreigners are worse than themselves ! Notwithstanding the late wars, caused by the revolution of the colonies, liave tended very materially to civilize the Araucanians, the greater part of them joined the Spaniards against the Creoles, or patriot forces; but the ejection of the last remains of the Spanish soldiers from Araucania in 1822 has induced the indians to despise them for what they call their cowardice. The new govern- ment of Chile have not availed themselves of this favourable opportunity to conciliate the in- SOUTH AMERICA. 65 dians, by soliciting their friendship, or, after the manner of the Spaniards, acquiring it at the price of presents. Thus the Araucanians, hav- ing become accustomed to some species of lux- uries, find themselves deprived of them by the fall of the Spanish system in Chile, and the nonconformity of the new institutions to the old practices; and thus a chasm has been formed that might be filled by a colony from some other nation, which by attention and courtesy to the Indians might conciliate their good will and obtain from them whatever was solicited. Kindness makes an indelible impression upon the minds of most uncivilized people, while ill- treatment exasperates and drives them to re- vengeful extremities. The existence of gold mines in Araucania is undoubted, although they are not regularly wrought. I have seen fine specimens of ore, some of which were procured from the indians, and others found by accident in the ravines. The soil and climate are very good, and ia some parts both are excellent for grain, pas- turage and European fruits. In trade little could be done at present; but should the indians become acquainted with the use of those commodities which produce real comforts to iBOciety, I have no doubt that white and K 66 TRAVELS IN greenish blue flannels, salt, sugar, tobacco, bridle-bits, knives, axes, hatchets, nails, but- tons, glass beads and other trinkets would be exchanged for hides, ponchos, and some gold. The ponchos, particularly those of good qua- lity called balandranes, would find a ready mar- ket in Peru or Chile. This interesting part of South America is less known than any other accessible portion. Others are less known, but they are interior countries, lying between the range of the Andes and Buenos Ayres, Paraguay, Brazils and Colombia — immense tracts of the earth kept in reserve for the speculations of coming ages! But Araucania, from its locality, climate, and productions, appears destined to become one of the first and fairest portions of the new world ; and should the eyes of philanthropical speculators be directed to its shores, their capi- tals would be more secure in the formation of new establishments than in loans to many of the eld. SOUTH AMESiaAmr 67 CHAPTER IV. Valdivia Port Fortifications River City-foundation.... Revolutions Inhabitant^ Garrison Government Rents and Resources. Churches Exiles Missions in the Province of Valdivia War with the Indians and Possession of Osorno Extract from a Letter in the Araucanian Tongue, and Translation. The following account of the city and pro- vince of Valdivia is partly extracted from mss. in my possession, found in the archives of that city. Valdivia, situated in 39° 50' south latitude, and in longitude 73° 28', is one of the best ports on the western shores of South America : it is also the strongest, both from its natural position and its fortifications. The mouth of the harbour is narrow, and the San Carlos battery on the small promontory on the south, with that of Niebla on the north side, commands the entrance, their balls crossing the passage. There are like- wise on the south side the batteries Amargos, the high and low Chorocamayo, and at the bot- tom of the bay the castle Corral, commanding the anchorage. In the small island ofMansera is a battery for the protection of the mouth of 68 TRAVELS IN the river leading to the city, besides an advanced })ost on the south side at Aguada del Ingles, and two, La Avansada and El Piojo, on the north. At the taking of Valdivia by- Lord Cochrane in 1820, one hundred and eigh- teen pieces of cannon, of eighteen and twenty- four pounds calibre, were found moiuited. Some of them were beautiful brass pieces, particularly two eighteens at Mansera, which measured ele- ven feet in length, were handsomely carved and embossed, and bore the date of 1547. His lord- ship sent them toValparaiso, where I had the mor- tification to see them broken up and converted into grape shot, by the orders of Governor Crus ; who thus deprived Chile of a noble monument of her naval glory, and Chilean posterity of the pleasure of viewing, as their property, part of those engines brought from the old, for the pur- pose of enslaving the new world ! The anchor- age is good, being most completely sheltered, and capable of holding a great number of ships. On the north side of the harbour is the river, which leads to the city. Its banks are covered with trees, suitable for ship-building and many other purposes. Among them are the white and red cedar, alerces ; the jjelUnos, a species of oak, and the luma. The river abounds with fish, particularly the pege rcy, the listty and the SOUTH AMERICA. 69 bagre. At its mouth are caught robalo, corbina, choros, xaibci and apancoras. The city of Valdivia stands on the south side of the river, and is sixteen miles from the port. On the left, ascending the river, are some few remains of the Dutch settlements. The natives call them homos de los Olandeses ; sup- posing that Henry Brun s vessels anchored here, and that these ruins are the wrecks of the ovens built by the Dutch for the purpose of baking their bread. The tradition is quite incredible, for vessels cannot enter the river, there not being above four feet water in some places, and the channel being so extremely narrow, that a launch cannot pass. Indeed at low water the large canoes of the inhabitants have to wait for the tide. The city was built in 1553, and bears the name of its founder. The Indians took it from the Spaniards in 1599, and destroyed it in 1603, when the inhabitants fled to the port, from whence some of them passed to Chile. In 1642 the Marquis of Mansera, Viceroy of Peru, sent the Colonel Don Alonzo de Villanueva as governor, with orders to capture the city, which he effected by a singular ruse de guerre. Land- ing to the southward of Valdivia, he introduced himself alone among the Indians, with whom he 70 TRAVELS IN remained two years, and having gained the confidence and esteem of some of the Caciques,, he sohcited them to appoint him their governor in Valdivia; assuring them that such an election would produce a reconciliation vi^ith the Span- iards, and insure the annual presents. This re- quest was acceded to; and in 1045 the city was rebuilt and repeopled. Some of the inhabitants are descendants of noble European families, but the greater part are those of officers and sol- diers who have been sent at different times to garrison the place ; some are Indians, and a few slaves. The population amounted to 953 in 1765, and in 1820 to 741 : a decrease attribut- able to the emigration to Osorno, and to many being employed in the armies of the contending parties. This census does not include the gar- rison, which in 1 765 consisted of 249 individuals, and in 1820, when taken by Lord Cochrane, of 829, besides a remainder of 780 of the royal army. Under the Spanish regime the government was administered by a military officer, dependent on the President and Captain-general of Chile ; but in 181.*> the inhabitants declared themselves independent of all Spanish authority. They however restored the old government in the year following, and submitted to it until 1820, SOUTH AMERICA. 71 when Valdivia was incorporated with the Re- public of Chile. For the support of Valdivia a sitiiado was annually sent from the royal trea- suries of Lima and Santiago. In the year 1 807 this remittance amounted to 159,439 dollars, and according to the original statement was distributed as follows : — Staff expenses 10210 Carried up 112404 Ecclesiastical state 10530 Supernumeraries 3365 Military expenses 8984/" Presents to Caciques 306 Provisions tor exiles, &c 25000 112404 Total 159439 In 1765 the sitimdo wsls 50992 dollars, and in 1646 it was only 28280. Whilst the Spaniards held Valdivia the re- sources of its government were very limited. Being a close port all foreign commerce was prohibited, and the few taxes collected in the whole province, including the diesmo, never exceeded 500 dollars. In the city there is a parish church, another belonging to the Franciscan convent of mission- aries, formerly of the Jesuits, and a chapel ap- pertaining to the hospital of San Juan de Dios. The ecclesiastical department was dependent on the see of Conception, but the conventual was a branch of the establishment at Chilian, subject to the provincialate of Santiago de Chile. 72 TRAVELS IN Valdivia was a place of exile, presidio, to which convicts were sent from Peru and Chile. Their number was but small, and they were employed in the public works. The province of Valdivia extends from the river Tolten in 38° to the Bueno in 40° 37' south, and from the Andes to the Pacific, being about 52 leagues long and 45 wide. The three prin- cipal rivers in this province are Tolten, Bueno and Valdivia. Their origin is in three separate lakes of the Cordillera, from whence they run in a westerly direction, receiving in their progress several smaller streams and emptying them- selves into the sea. Valdivia river enters the harbour of the same name, which is the only one in the province. This river, after uniting its waters to those of San Josef, Cayumapu, Ayen. aguem, Putabla, Quaqua and Angachi, besides a great number of rivulets and estuaries, be- comes navigable for canoes of 200 quintals or 20 tons burthen. Between the fort Cruces and Valdivia several small but beautiful islands are found : the principal are Realexo, Del Al- muerso, Balensuela, El Islote, De Mota, San Francisco, De Ramon, De Don Jaime and Del Rey, which is the largest, being about seven leagues in circumference. There are besides a great number of smaller ones. In all the SOUTH AMERICA. n streams and ravines in the neighbourhood of the city and port are to be seen the vestiges of gold washings, Uihadtros, which are at present totally neglected. After heavy rains grains of gold as large a« peas are often found, but there are no accounts in the treasury of the working of any mines since the year 1599, when the first revolution of the Indians took place, and the city fell into their hands. At Valdivia I saw two chalices made of the gold thus accidentally collected. "Token el Bajois the northernmost mission. Situated between the rivers Tolten and Chaqui, it extends about four miles along the sea coast, and is one of the largest missions, reduccioncSy in the province, containing about 800 indians. The Tolten rises in the lake Villarica. It has no port, but is navigable with canoes; being too deep to be fordable, it has a bridge, which gives the indians the command of the road between Valdivia and Conception. Horned cattle and sheep are not scarce here ; and maize, peas, beans, potatoes, barley, and a small quantity of wheat are cultivated ; but in general the soil is not very fertile. Though the indians are more submissive than those of some other missions, they are equally prone to the common vices of drunkenness and indolence. Their commerce L 74 TRAVELS IN consists in bartering coarse ponchos for indigo, glass beads, and other trifles. At the annual visit of the cuniisar'w a kind of market is held for such traffic : at this visit the indians renew the parlamento, or promise of fidelity to the King of Spain. The comisario assures them, in a set speech, of the spiritual and temporal ad- vantages which they will derive from remain- ing faithful to their King; and the Cacique, having in a formal harangue acknowledged his conviction of the truth of this assurance, the in- dians, being on horseback, make a skirmish with their lances and wooden swords, macanas, and, riding up to the comisario, alight, and point their arms to the ground, in sign of peace, which is all they ever promise. They worship Pillian, and their ceremonies are the same as those of the rest of the Araucanian nation : for although they call themselves Christians, their religion is reduced to the ceremony of attending at mass, &c. *'Querli extends from Purulacu to the river Meguin, being about 18 miles, and containing 70 indians. Their commerce is an exchange of coarse ponchos, sheep and hogs, for indigo, beads, &c. "Chanchan, which extends about 12 miles, contains 40 indians, produces maize, peas, beans. SOUTH AMERICA. "5 barley, and a little wheat. Owing to the vicinity of the fort de Cruces the indians are more docile and domesticated. "Mariquina is about 54 miles in circumfer- ence, and contains 110 indians. The soil is good, and there is an abundance of apples, some pears and cherries. "Chergue is 42 miles long and 4 broad. It contains 135 indians. Its produce and com- merce are similar to those of the places above mentioned. *'Huanigue is situated near the Cordillera, on the banks of lake Ranigue, the source of the river Valdivia. This lake is about 20 miles in circumference, and is rich in fish, particularly pege, reyes, and a species of trout. In 1729 the indians of this mission revolted, and they have never been sufficiently reconciled to admit of a missionary to offer peace or fealty. The indians of Huanigue wear nothing on their heads : for shirts they substitute a species of scapulary, made of raw bullock's hide, covering it with the poncho. They are expert fishers, and pay httle attention to the cultivation of the soil, which is very fertile. "Villarica. The ruins of this city are yet visible, particularly those of the walls of or- chards and of a church. The town stood on the 76 TRAVELS IN side of a lake, bearing the same name, about 25 miles in circumference, and abounding with fish. The soil is very fertile, and the indians raise maize, potatoes, giwiKo, peas, beans, bar- ley and wheat. Apple, pear, peach and cherry- trees are seen growing where they were planted by the Spaniards before the destruction of the city. The indians neither admit missionaries nor comisario. They have all kinds of cattle and poultry, ^hich they exchange with other tribes for ponchos, flannels, &c. being - very averse to trade with the Spaniards. **Ketate and Chadqui, containing about 280 indians, are at the distance of 34 leagues from Valdivia. There is plenty of fruit, vegetables and cattle ; the soil is good, and the inhabitants docile ; subject to missionaries and comisario. *'Dongele, or Tolten Alto, is on the banks of a rapid river of the same name. It is distant from Valdivia 120 miles, and possesses a rich soil, productive of maize, peas and other pulse, fruit and cattle : there are 80 indians of man- ageable habits. "Calle-calle and Chinchilca, 45 miles from Valdivia, contain some small fertile vallies. The maize grown here is very large; indeed all the vegetable productions are good, and the meat from their cattle is fat and well-tasted. SOUTH AMERICA. 7? They have 70 peaceable Indians, who receive missionaries and comisario. ''Llanos is the most fruitful part of the pro- vince of Valdivia. It is about 48 miles long, from Tunco to the lake Rames, and on an average 15 broad. It produces wheat of an excellent quality, barley, all kinds of pulse, and fruit. The beef and mutton are very fat and savoury. The number of indians residing in the Llanos is 430. They are docile, and not so drunken and indolent as other tribes. From a place called Tenguelen to another, Guequenua, there are many vestiges of gold mines, lahaderos, where at some remote period a great number of persons must have been em- ployed in mining, which is at present entirely neglected."* As any authentic accounts of this almost unknown but highly interesting country cannot fail to be acceptable, I shall here introduce some extracts from the journal kept by Don Tomas de Figueroa y Caravaca, during the revolution of the indians in the year 1792, Fi- gueroa being the person who commanded the * Where the number of Indians has been given it is to be understood as refer- ring to such as are capable of managing a horse and lance and going to war. Of these the province of Valdivia contains about 2150, aad the tottd Indian pupula- tion is estimated at 10500 souls. 78 TRAVELS IN Spanish forces sent against the Indians by the government of Valdivia. "October 3d I left Valdivia with an armed force of 140 men, and the necessary ammunition and stores. We ascended the river Pichitengelen, and the following morning landed at an appointed place, where horses and mules were in readiness to convey us to Dagllipulli ; but the number of horses and mules not being suffi- cient, I left part of our baggage and provisions behind, imder guard, and proceeded with the rest to Tegue, about six leagues dis- tant, where we arrived in the afternoon, and owing to the badness of the road did not reach Dagllipulli before the 6th. I encamped ; and being informed in the afternoon, that some of the rebels were in the neighbourhood, with a party of picked soldiers and horse I scoured the woods, and burned twelve Indians' houses, filled with grain and pulse. After securing what I considered useful for our- selves, I followed the indians in the road they had apparently taken towards Rio-bueno, but on my arrival I learnt that they had crossed the river in their canoes. I therefore immediately returned to Dagllipulli. On the 10th the Caciques Calfunguir, Auchanguir, Manquepan, and Pailapan came to our camp, and oflPered to assist me against the rebels Cayumil, Qudpal, Tangol, Trumau, and all those on the other side of Rio-bueno. — 13th. An Indian who had been taken declared to me that the Cacique Manquepan was acting a dou- ble part, he having seen him go to the enemy at night with hia mosotones. — 1 6th. Burnt twenty-four houses belonging to the indians, and seized thirty-two bullocks. — 19th. I told the Cacique Calfunguir that I doubted the fidelity of Manquepan, and that he had been playing the chueca (a game already described) ; at night an Indian came to my tent and told me that Calfunguir had joined Manque- pan ; that both had gone to the rebels, taking with them their mosotones, and that they would probably return immediately, in the hopes of surjirising me. However this did not occur ; and on the following morning I advanced with part of my force to Rio- bueno, but did not arrive until the two Caciques had taken to a small island in the river, leaving in my possession a number of horses and cattle. Whilst stationed here two Indian women were SOUTH AMERICA. 79 observed to ride full speed towards the river, apparently determined to pass over to the enemy, but some of the friendly indians took one of them, and brought her to me, having killed the other. I questioned her as to her motives for joining the rebels, but received no answer ; when the indians observing her obstinacy, put her and a small child which she had in her arms to death. I retired to my €amp, taking with me the cattle, &c. left by the enemy on the bank, of Rio-bueno. — 21st. The traitorManquepan came again to our camp, and having consulted the whole of the friendly Caciques as to the pu- nishment which he and his comrades deserved, it was unanimously determined, that he and all those who had come with him as spies should be put to death. I immediately ordered my soldiers to secure them, and having convinced them that I well knew their infamous intentions and conduct, I ordered that Manquepan, and the eighteen mosotones who had come with him into our camp as spies, should be shot. This sentence was put in execution in the afternoon of the same day. — 29th. We finished a stackade, and mounted four pede- reroes at the angles, as a place of security in the event of any unex- pected assault. I sent to Valdivia forty women and children, cap- tured at diflferent times in the woods. — Nov. 1st. Three large canoes were brought to our camp, having ordered them to be made, for the purpose of crossing Rio-bueno, should the rebels persist in remaining on the opposite banks, or on the islancte in the river. — 10th. After mass had been celebrated at three a, tvi. and my soldiers exhorted to do their duty in defence of theif holy religion, their king and country, we marched down to the river side, and launched our three canoes, for the purpose of crossi'ng over to one of those islands where the greater number of the rAels appeared to have been collected. I embarked with part of the troops, and arrived on the Island without suffering any loss from the stones, lances and shot of the enemy. " Having landed, I observed a party of about a hundred indians on mount Copigue, apparently determined to attack the division I had left behind, which being observed, the division advanced and routed the rebels. — During the night the indians abandoned their entrenchments on the island, and we took possession of them. — On the 11th, in the morning, I immediately landed part of my force on 80 TRAVELS IN the opposite shore and pvirsued the rebels. At eleven a. m. I came up with part of them, commanded by the Cacique Cayumil, who ■was killed in the skiiraish. I ordered his head to be cut off and buried, being determined to take it on my return to Valdivia. We continued to pursue the enemy, and in the coufse of the day killed twelve indians, one of whom was the wife of the rebel Cacique Qua- pul. As it was almost impossible for me to follow the enemy any further, our horses being tired, and it being insecure to remain here, we returned to our camp on the 13th, taking with us 170 head of horned cattle, 700 sheep and 27 horses, which had been aban- doned by the fugitives. A female Indian was found in the woods, on our return, with a murdered infant in her arms ; she declared that her child was crying, and that being fearful of falling into our hands she had destroyed it. — 21st. We marched to the banks of the Rave, where I had a parhinento with the Caciques Catagnala and Ignil, who, as a proof of their fidelity, offered to surrender the city and territory of Osorno. — 22nd. The Caciques Caril and Palla- niUla, with Ignil and Cataguala and all their mosotones, joined us, and w° marched towards the ruined city of Osorno, and having ar- rived at the square or plasa, I directed the Spanish flag to be placetl in the centiath the captain and pas- sengers, and the eleven days which we were at sea were spent in mirth and gaiety, not a little heightened by the female part of a family going to settle in Lima. The father kindly invited me, should an opportunity present itself, to reside at his house during my stay in that city, an in- vitation of which I should certainly have availed myself had not circumstances prevented it. We were all anxiety to arrive at Callao, the sea- port of Lima, and although I had fewer reasons to wish it than others, still the idea of seeing SOUTH AMERICA. 133 something new is always pleasing, particularly to a traveller in a foreign country; besides, I had been informed on my passage that war had not been declared between England and Spain, and that the conduct of the government was to be attributed to their wish to prevent any English spies from residing at liberty in the country. On the eleventh day after our leaving Tal- cahuano we made the island of San Lorenzo, which forms one side of the bay of Callao. It exhibits a dreary spectacle, not a tree, a shrub, nor even a blade of grass presents itself; it is one continued heap of sand and rock. Having passed the head land, (where a signal post was erected and a look-out kept, which communi- cated with Callao, through other signals sta- tioned on the island) the vessels in the offing, the town and batteries at once opened on our view. The principal fortress, called tlie Royal Philip, Ileal Fdlpc, has a majestic aj^pearance, although disadvantageously situated ; it is on a level with the sea, and behind it the different ranges of hills rise in successive gradations until crowned with the distant prospect of the Andes, which in some parts tower above the clouds. These clouds, resting on the tops of the lower ranges seemed to have yielded their 134 . TRAVELS IN places in the atmosphere to those enormous masses, and to have prostrated themselves at their feet. As we approached the anchorage the spires and domes of Lima appeared to the left of the town of Callao. At the moment of landing, which is the most pleasing to travel- lers by sea, the passengers were all in high spirits, expecting to embrace ere long those objects of tender affection, from whom they had been separated by chance, interest, or necessity. Previous to our coming to an anchorage, the custom-house boat with some others visited our ship, and I was sent ashore in that from the captain of the port. I was immediately conveyed to the castle, and delivered to the Governor. On my landing at Callao, I observed a considerable bustle on what may be called the pier. This pier was made in 1779, during the Viceroyalty of Don Antonio Amat, by running an old kings ship on shore, filling her with stones, sand, and rubbish, and after- wards driving round the parts where the sea washes piles of mangroves, brought from Guayaquil, and which appear to be almost im- perishable in sea water. At the landing place I saw several boats employed in watering their ships, for which purpose pipes have been laid down, three feet under ground, to convey SOUTH AMERICA. 135 the water from a spring ; hoses being attached to the spouts, the casks are filled either floating on the sea or in the boats. The houses make a very sorry appearance; they are generally about twenty feet high, with mud walls, flat roof, and divided into two stories ; the under one forms a row of small shops open in front, and the upper one an uncouth corridor. About a quarter of a mile from the landing place is the draw-bridge, over a dry foss, and an en- trance under an arched gateway to the castle, the Real Felipe. I was presented to the Governor, a Spanish colonel, who immediately ordered me to the caloboso, one of the prisoners' cells : this was a room about one hundred feet long and twenty wide, formed of stone, with a vaulted roof of the same materials, having two wooden benches, raised about three feet from the ground, for the prisoners to sleep on. A long chain ran along the bench for the purpose of being passed through the shackles of the unhappy occupants, whose miserable beds, formed of rush mats, were rolled up, and laid near the walls. I had an op- portunity to make a survey of this place before the prisoners entered ; until then I was left quite alone, pondering over my future lot, for this was the first time I could consider myself a prisoner; however, I consoled myself with the hope of re- 136 TRAVELS IN lease, or if not, a removal to some more comfort- able situation. In this hope I was not mistaken, for before the prisoners, who were malefactors employed at the public works, arrived, a soldier came and ordered me to follow him. He took up my bed, while I took care of my trunk, and in this manner I left the abode of crime and misery in which I had been placed. I was con- ducted to the guard-house, where that part of the garrison oh duty are usually stationed. I now found myself among such a curious mixture of soldiers as eyes never witnessed in any other part of the world ; but I reconciled myself to my lot, especially as it was not the worst place in the castle. In a short time I was sent for to the officers' room. I there found several agreeable and some well-informed young men, with two very obstinate and testy old ones, who, though of superior rank, were heartily quizzed by their subalterns. Such is the ease and frankness of the South Americans in general, that before I had been an hour in the room, one of the otficers, a young lieutenant, and his brother, a cadet, had become as familiar with me as if we had been old acquaintance. They were natives of Lima, both had been educated at San Carlos, the principal college, and both lamented that the most useful branches of science were not taught •SOUTH AMERICA. 137 in the Spanish colleges to that extent, and with that precision which they are in England. The lieutenant also observed, that as the rectors and heads of their colleges were churchmen, the studies were confined principally to theology, divinity and morality, which circumstance, caused them to neglect the useful sciences ; and this he ascribed as a reason why in those studies the students made little progress. But, con- tinued he, our libraries are not destitute of good mathematical and philosophical books, which some of our young men study, and they are at all times willing to instruct their friends. I spent the time in a very agreeable chit chat with my new acquaintance till ten o'clock, when the lieutenant rose and requested me to wait his return, saying he was going to the governor for el santo, the watchword, and for the orders of the night. He returned in about half an hour, pulled off his uniform coat, put on a jacket, and. then told me, in the most friendly manner, that the governor had given orders for my removal to Lima on the following morning ; on which he congratulated me, saying, that as that was a large city I should be more comfortable, although a prisoner, than at Callao; he also informed me that, it being the first day of the month, Sep- tember, 1803, part of the garrison would be re- T 138 TRAVELS IN lieved by detachments from the capital, and that he was included in that number, and would be happy in giving me a seat in the valancin, hackney coach, which he should hire. About twelve o'clock my bed and trunk were carried to his sleeping room, and I remained in conver- sation with him till day broke ; we slept about an hour, and then arose to breakfast, which con- sisted of a cup of very good chocolate for each of us, some dry toast, and a glass of water. At eleven o'clock, the detachment having arrived, we left Callao in a valancin, which is a kind of carriage, having the body of a coach on two wheels, drawn by two horses, one in the shafts and the postillion mounted on the other. The city of Callao, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 174G and swallowed up by the sea, was at a short distance to the southward of the present town. On a calm day the ruins may yet be seen under water at that part of the bay called the mar braba, rough sea, and on the beach a centry is always placed for the pur- pose of taking charge of any treasure that may be washed ashore, which not unfrequently hap- pens. By this terrible convulsion of nature up- wards of three thousand people perished at Callao alone. I afterwards became acquainted with an old mulatto, called Eugenio, who was SOUTH AMERICA. 139 one of the three or four who were saved ; he told me that he was sitting on some timber which had been landed from a ship in the bay, at the time that the great wave of the sea rolled in and buried the city, and that he was carried, cling- ing to the log, near to the chapel, a distance of three miles. From Callao to Lima it is six miles, with a good road, for which the country is in- debted to Don Ambrose Higgins ; but he unfor- tunately died, after being Viceroy three years, leaving this useful work incomplete. The finished part extends only about two miles from the gateway, at the entrance to the city, and has a double row of lofty willows on each side, shading the foot-walk. He also furnished it, at every hundred yards, with neat stone benches; and at about every mile a large circle with walls of brick and stone, four feet high, and stone seats are erected. These cir- cles are formed for carriages to turn in with greater ease than on the road. On each side of the foot- walk runs a small stream of water, irri- gating the willows in its course, and nourishing numberless luxuriant weeds and flowers. It was the intention of the Viceroy to carry the road down to Callao in the same style as it now exists near the city, but only the carriage road 140 TRAVELS IN was finished. It has a parapet of brick raised two feet high on each side, to keep together the materials of the road. On the right hand side, going from the port, may be seen the ruins of an indian village, which was built before the discovery of South America. Some of the old walls are left, formed of clay, about two feet thick and six feet high, and which perhaps owe their present existence to the total absence of rain in this country. To the right is the town of Bellavista, to which parish Callao is attached, being called its anedo. Here is a hospital for seamen and the poorer class of the inhabitants. Half way between the port and the city stands a very neatly built chapj^,' to which is connected a small cloister; it is de- dicated to the Virgin of Mount Carmel, and many visit it to fulfil some vow or other which they have made at sea to this Madonna, she being the protectress of seamen. Near the chapel is situated a house at which are sold good brandy and wine, and it may easily be guessed which establishment has the most customers ! On approaching the city the ([uality of the soil appears to be very good ; large gardens with luxuriant vegetables for the market, and fields of lucern and maize are here cultivated, and close to the city walls there are SOUTH AMERICA. 141 extensive orchards of tropical fruit trees, all irrigated with water drawn by canals from the river Rimac. The gateway is of brick, covered with stucco, with cornices, mouldings, and pil- lars of stone : it has three arches ; the centre one for carriages has folding doors, the two lateral posterns are for foot passengers. The mind of a traveller is naturally led to expect to find the inside of a city correspondent with the appearance of its entrance; but at Lima he will be deceived. The distant views of the steeples and domes, the beautiful straight road, its shady avenue of lofty willows, and its handsome gateway, are contrasted, immedi- ately on passing them, with a long street of low houses with their porches and patios ; small shops with their goods placed on tables at the doors ; no glass windows ; no display of articles of commerce ; numbers of people of all colours, from the black African to the white and rosy coloured Biscayan, with all their in- termediate shades, combined with the mixture of colour and features of the aborigines of America : — the mere observation of this variety of colours and features produces a " confusion beyond all confusions." As a prisoner of war, although the two na- tions were at peace, I w^as conducted by my 142 TRAVELS IN kind friend to the city gaol, car eel de la cindad, where I remained shut up for eight months with about a hundred criminals of the worst descrip- tion. Owing, however, to a recommendation and the promise of a remuneration from my good friend the lieutenant, the alcalde lodged me in a room at the entrance of the prison, allotted to persons of decent families, or to such as had the means of paying for this convenience. I was fortunate enough to find here a native of Lima, an officer in the army, who was con- fined on suspicion of forgery. He was a very excellent man, and conducted himself towards me in a manner which contributed, not only to my comfort whilst I was a prisoner, but finally to my liberation. My first object in my con- finement was to make myself perfectly master of the Spanish tongue, and to obtain some knowledge of Quichua, the court language of the Incas, and used wherever their authority had been established. I was the more desirous of becoming acquainted with this language, because it is spoken in the interior of Peru by all classes of people : the respectable in- habitants, however, also speak Spanish. SOUTH AxMERICA. 143 CHAPTER VIII. Lima, Origin of its Name Pachacamac Foundation-of Lima Pizarro'g Palace Situation of the City Form of the Valley Rimac River.... Climate Temperature Moists and Rain Soil Earthquakes.... Produce. liiMA is the capital of Peru, and derives its name from Rimac, which original name its river still retains ; but the valley was called by the indians Rimac Malca, or the place of witches ; it being the custom among the aborigines, even before the establishment of the theocrasia of the Incas, as well as during their domination, to banish to this valley those persons who were accused of witchcraft. Its climate is very dif- ferent from that of the interior, and having a great deal of marshy ground in its vicinity, in- termittent fevers generally destroyed in a short tinie such individuals as were the objects of this superstitious persecution. It is recorded, that when Manco Capac and his sister Mama Ocollo were presented by their grandfather to the indians living at Couzcou, and were informed by him that they were the children of the sun, their God, the fair complexion of these 144 . TRAVELS IN Strangers, and their light coloured hair, induced the indians to consider them as rimacs, and they were in consequence exiled to Rimac Malca, the place of witches, now the valley of Lima. In September, 1533, Don Francisco Pizarro arrived at Pachacamac, a large town belonging to the indians, where a magnificent temple had been built by Pachacutec, the tenth Inca of Peru, for the worship of Pachacamac, the creator and preserver of the world. This rich place of worship was plundered by Pizarro, and the vir- gins destined to the service of the Deity, though in every respect as sacred as the nuns of Pizar- ro's religion, were violated by his soldiers ; the altars were pillaged and destroyed, and the building was demolished. However, when I visited it in 1817, some of the walls still re- mained, as if to reproach the descendants of an inhuman monster with his wanton barbarity. I wandered among the remains of this temple, dedicated by a race of men in gratitude to their omnipotent creator and preserver : a house unstained with what bigots curse with the name of idolatry ; unpolluted with the blood of sacrifice ; uncontaminated with the chaunt of anthems, impiously sung to the Deity after the destruction of a great number of his creatures ; of prayers for success, or thanksgivings for' SOUTH AMERICA. 145 victory ; but hallowed with the innocent offer- ings of fruits and flowers, and sanctified with the incense breath of praise, and hymns of joyous gratitude. It is difficult to describe the feelings by which we are affected when we witness the ruins of an edifice destined by its founder to be a monument of national glory, or even of personal honor ; but when we contemplate with unprejudiced eyes the remains of a build- ing once sacred to a large portion of our fellow creatures, and raised by them in honour of the great Father of the universe, wantonly destroyed by a being, in whose hands chance had placed more power than his vitiated mind knew how to apply to virtuous purposes — we cannot avoid cursing him, in the bitterness of our anguish. Cold indeed must be the heart of that man who could view the ruins of Pacha- camac with less regret than those of Babylon or Jerusalem! Pizarro having arrived at Pachacamac, and being desirous of building a city near the sea coast, he sent some of jiis officers to search for a convenient harbour either to the north or to the south. They first visited the harbour of Chilca, which, though a good one, and near Pachacamac, was still defective ; the coast was a sandy desert, and the poor indians who lived 146 TRAVELS IN upon it for the purpose of fishing were often forced to abandon their houses, because their wells of brackish water became dry. The commissioners were obliged to look out for another situation, and having arrived at Callao they found that its bay was very capacious, with the river Rimac entering it on the north. They afterwards explored the delightful surrounding valley, and reported their success to Pizarro, who immediately came from Pachacamac, and approving of the situation, laid the foundation of Lima, on the south side of the river, about two leagues from the sea. On the 8th day of January, 1534, he removed to it those Spaniards whom he had left for the purpose of building a town at Jauja. Lima is called by the Spa- niards La Ciudad de los Reyes, from being founded on the day on which the Roman Church celebrates the epiphany, or the feast of the worshipping of the kings or magi of the east. Its arms are a shield with three crowns. Or, on an azure field, and the star of the east; for sup- porters the letters J. C. Jane and Charles, with the motto — Hoc signum vere Regum est. These ' arms and the title of royal city were granted to Lima by the Emperor Charles V. in 1537. •Pizarro built a palace for himself, about two hundred yards from the river, on the contrary SOUTH AMERICA. I4; side of the great square, or plasa mayor, to that where the palace of the Viceroy now stands ; and the remains of it may yet be found in the Callejon de Pttateros, mat maker's alley. He was murdered here on the 26th of June, 1541. According to several Spanish authorities Lima is situated in 12° 2' 51" south latitude, and in 70° 50' 51" longitude west of Cadiz. To the northward and eastward of the city hills begin to rise, which ultimately compose a part of the great chain of the Andes; or rather they are parts of the high mountains which run north and south about twenty leagues to the eastward of Lima. These mountains gradually descend to the sea coast, producing between each row beautiful and fertile valleys, of which the Rimac is one. The chain opening at the back of Lima forms the valley Lurigancho, which closes on its suburbs. That of the greatest height, bordering on the city, is called San Cristobal, and the other Amancaes; the former is 1302 feet above the level of the sea, and the latter 2652. The mountains slope towards the west, and when seen from the bridge appear to have reached the level about three miles from that station, which extremity, viewed from the same place, is the point where the sun disappears at the tinie of the winter solstice. 148 TRAVELS IS To the south west is the island called Scin Lorenzo; more to the south lies Morro Solar, about eight miles distant, where large hills of sand are observed, which, stretching to the eastward and gently rising, form with the Am- ancaes a crescent, enclosing the picturesque valley Rimac, through which the river of that name majestically flows, producing in its course or wherever its influence can be obtained ail the beauties of Flora and the gifts of Ceres. The site of Lima gradually inclines to the westward, the great square, plasa mayor, be- ing 480 feet above the level of the sea. Thus all the streets in this direction, with many of those intersecting them at right angles, have small streams of water running along them, which contribute very much to the cleanliness and salubrity of the city and its inhabitants. The water which runs through the streets, as well as that which feeds the fountains and the canals for the irrigation of gardens, orchards and plantations, which fill the whole valley, is drawn from the river Rimac. This river has its origin in the province of Iluarochiri, and receives in its course several small streams, which descend the mountains, and are produced by the melting of the snow on the tops of the Andes, as well as by the rains which fall in the interior, at which SOUTH AMERICA. 149 time the river swells very much, and covers the whole of its bed, which at other times is in many places almost dry. The water in Lima is said to be crude, holding in solution a con- siderable quantity of selenite, besides being im- pregnated with abundance of fixed air ; hence, indigestions and other affections of the stomach are attributed to it ; but Dr. Unanue very justly asks, " may not these diseases be derived from Cupid and Ceres?" The water is certainly far from being pure ; for the arta.vea, which sup- plies the city fountains, and the pugios, which supply the suburbs, called San Lazaro, are stagnant pools ; both are often full of aquatic plants, which decay and rot in them; they moreover contain water that has been em- ployed in the irrigation of the plantations and farms at the back of the city, and not unfre- quently animals have been drowned in them. The climate of Lima is extremely agreeable; the heat which would naturally be expected in so low a latitude is seldom felt, and those who have been accustomed to the scorching sun and suffocating heat of Bahia, on the opposite side of the Continent, or to those of Carthagena, in the same latitude, are astonished at the mild and almost equable climate of Lima. The fol- 150 TRAVELS IN lowing thermometrical observations, made in the years 1805 and 1810, will evince the truth of what has been asserted : — THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS, MADE AT NOON IN THE SHADE OF AN OPEN ROOM AT LISIA. 1805. 1810. Max. Min. 76 73f 77 74| 77 74f 74f 7li ni 67 66 64 64| 61 63| 61 6ta 64 65| 634 691 65^ 7li 70 Max. Min. January 77 74| February .... 79^ 76 March 78^ 74| April........ 74f 72 May 73| 67 June 65| 65 July 65 63 August 63§ 62f September ... 65 63^ October 65f 63§ November 69^ 65 1 December 73| 69^ Mean height du-\ 7^ IS 'tt' ~6l ring the Year. . J ^ * ___ ^^ The coolness of the climate is occasioned by the wind and a peculiar state of the atmos- phere. The wind generally blows from differ- ent points of the compass between the south west and the south east. When from the former direction, it crosses in its course a great portion of the Pacific Ocean, and when SOUTH AMERICA. 151 it comes from the eastward it has not to pass over sandy deserts or scorching plains, but to traverse first the immense tract of woodland countries lying between the Bra- zils and Peru, and afterwards the frozen tops of the Cordillera, at a distance of twenty leagues from Lima ; so that, in both cases, it is equally cool and refreshing. A northerly wind is very seldom felt in Lima ; but when it blows, as if by accident, from that quarter, the heat is rather oppressive. On the 6th of March, 1811, the wind being from the north, I made the following observations with a Farenheit's ther- mometer, at one o'clock, p. m. In the shade in an open room 80" In the air, five yards from the sun's rays . . 87" In the sun lOG"* Water in the shade from sunrise 74'' Water in a well 20 yards below the 1 , surface of the earth / Sea water at Callao at 4 p. m 64° Heat of the body, perspiring 96"' after cooling in the shade 94° The heat of the sun in summer is mitigated by a canopy of clouds, which constantly hang- over Lima, and although not perceptible from the city, yet when seen from an elevated situation in the mountains, they appear somewhat like the smoke floating in the atmosphere of large 152 TRAVELS IN towns where coal is burnt ; but as this material is not used in Lima, the cause and effect must be dilterent. If I may be allowed to give an opinion different from that of several eminent persons who have written on the climate of Lima, it is, that the vapours which rise on the coast or from the sea are lifted to a sufficient height by the action of the sun's rays to be caught by the current of wind from the south- ward and westward, and carried by them into the interior; whilst the exhalations from the city and its suburbs only rise to a lower region, and are not acted upon by the wind, but remain in a quiescent state of perfect equilibrium, hanging over the city during the day, and be- coming condensed by the coolness of the night, w hen they are precipitated in the form of dew, which is always observable in the morning on the herbage. Lima may be justly said to enjoy one of the most delightful climates in the world ; it is a succession of spring and summer, as free from the chills of winter as from the sultry heats of autumn. Notwithstanding this almost constant equa- bility, some writers have imagined that four seasons are distinguishable. Such persons, SOUTH AMERICA. 153 however, must undoubtedly have either been endowed with peculiar sensibihty, or have been gifted with an amazing philosophy. Not con- tent with the beauties of this climate, some have attached to it the properties which belong to the ultra-tropical countries — ^jealous perhaps of the theoretical comforts from which they are prac- tically free, and in the full enjoyment of a climate the maximum heat of which seldom exceeds 78° of Farenheit's thermometer, and the minimum of which is seldom below 62°, wishing to perfect it by having the maximum at 100°, and the minimum below zero ! Peralta, in his 8th canto, has very quaintly described the beautiful climate of this city : — "■ En su orisonte el sol todo es aurora Eterna, el tiempo todo es primavera Solo es risa del cielo cada hora Cada mes solo es cuenta del esfera. Son cada alien to, un halito de Flora Cada arroyo una Musa lisongera ; Y los vergeles, que el con fin le debe' Nubes fragantes con que el ciclo llueve." One of the peculiarities of this climate, as well as that of the coast of Peru from Arica to Cape Blanco, being a distance of about 16 de- grees of latitude, is, that it can scarcely ever be said to rain. Several theories have been ad- X 154 TRAVELS IN vanced to account for this anomaly of nature. The following facts and explanations will, per- haps, tend to unravel the difficulty. In April or May the mists, called garuas, begin, and continue with little interruption till November, which period is usually termed the winter solstice. The gentle winds that blow in the morning from the westward, and in the after- noon from the southward, are those which fill the atmosphere with aqueous vapours, forming a very dense cloud or mist ; and owing to the obliquity of the rays of the sun during this sea- son the evaporation is not sufficiently rarified or attenuated to enable it to rise above the summits of the adjacent mountains ; so that it is limited to the range of flat country lying between the mountains and the sea, which inclines towards the north west. Thus the vapours brought by the general winds are collected over this range of coast, and from the cause above-mentioned can- not pass the tops of the mountains, but remain stationary until the sun returns to the south, when they are elevated by his vertical heat, and pass over the mountains into the inte- rior, where they become condensed, and fall in copious rains. That rain is not formed on the coast from these mists is attributable, first, to a SOUTH AMERICA. 165 want of contrary winds to agitate and unite the particles, and, secondly, to their proximity to the earth, which they reach in their descent, before a sufficient number of them can coalesce, and form themselves into drops. The figure of the coast also contributes to the free access of the water that has been cooled at the south pole, on its return to the equatorial regions. From Cape Pilares to latitude 18° the direction of the coast is nearly N. and S. ; and from 18° to 5° it runs out to the westward : thus the cold water dashes on the shores, and pro- duces in the atmosphere a coolness that is not experienced in other parts, where the coasts are filled with projecting capes and deep bays; be- cause the current, striking against those, sweeps from the coast, and the water in these becomes heated by the sun, and is deprived by the capes of the current of cold water, excepting what is necessary to maintain the equilibrium, which is diminished by absorption in the bays. The heat increases with astonishing rapidity from latitude 1° south to 10° north ; the Gulph of Choco being deprived of the ingress of cooled water from the south by the Cape San Francisco, and from the north by Cape Blanco. The eastern shores of the south Continent of Ame- 156 TRAVELS IN rica are much warmer than the western, owing to the great number of capes and bays. The atmosphere does not enjoy the coolmg breezes from the pole, which are diverted from a direct course in the same manner as the currents of water, nor the refrigerated winds from the Cordillera. The southern hemisphere is altogether much cooler than the northern : perhaps in the same ratio that the surface land of the northern hemisphere exceeds that of the southern. During the months of February and March it sometimes happens that large stragghng drops of rain fall about five o'clock in the afternoon. This admits of an easy elucidation. The exhalations from the sea being elevated by the heat of a vertical sun, and impelled by the gentle winds during the day towards the in- terior and mountainous parts of the country, are sometimes arrested in their progress by a current of air from the eastward, which, having been cooled on its passage over the snow-top- ped Andes, is colder than the air from the west- ward; and wherever these currents meet the aqueous particles are condensed, and uniting become too heavy to continue in the upper region of the atmosphere, when they begin to SOUTH AMERICA. 157 fall, and in their descent combine with those that fill the lower regions, and hence some large drops are formed. The following table of the weather will per- haps furnish a better idea of the climate of Lima than any verbal description : — 1805. 1810. ' Sun. Cloudy. Variable. 1 Sun. Cloudy. Variable. . Jan. 5 days 10 days 16 days 6 days 11 days 13 day Feb. 8 ... 5 .. 15 ... 7 ... 4 . 17 ... March 12 .. 2 ... 17 ... 13 ... 2 . . 16 ... April 7 ... 9 ... 14 ... 6 ... 10 . . 14 ... May 17 ... 14 ... 1 ... 15 . . 15 ... June 21 ... 9 ... 24 . 6 ... July 28 ... 3 ... 31 . August .. .. 27 ... 4 ... 30 . 1 ... Sept. 3 ... 20 ... 7 ... 2 ... 21 . 7 ... October 2 ... 21 ... 8 ... 2 ... 19 . .. 10 ... Nov. 4 ... 16 ... 10 ... 5 ... 15 . .. 10 ... Dec. 4 ... 18 ... 19 ... 4 ... 7 .. 20 ... During the 1 year j' 45 .. 184 .. 136 .. 46 .. 189 . . 129 .. Sun indicates those days in which the sun was never clouded ; Clovdy, those in which the sun was not visible ; and Variable, those in which the sun was generally clouded in the morning but afterwards became visible. From the foregoing explanations it must naturally be inferred, that the dry season in the interior occurs at the time that the mists or fogs 158 TRAVELS IN predominate on the coast, and vice versa : this is what really takes place. The rivers on the coast are nearly dry during the misty weather, but during the summer heat they often become impassable, owing to their increase of water from the melting of the snow on the mountains and the fall of rain in the interior. The chim- badores, or badeadorcs, men who ford the larger rivers with goods and travellers, know from ex- perience and minute observation, according to the hour at which the increase begins, at what place the rain has fallen. It may be well here to advert to a phe- nomenon which has as yet remained unno- ticed. The heavy rains which fall on the Cordillera of the Andes are the effect of evaporation from the Pacific Ocean, and these rains feed the enormous streams which sup- ply those rivers that empty themselves into the Atlantic. It therefore follows, that the At- lantic is furnished with water from the Pacific; and if, as some have believed, the Atlantida existed between the coasts of Africa and Ame- rica, its western shores being opposite to the mouth of the river Amazon, its inundation may have been occasioned by the heavy rains in the Andes. The vegetable mould in the valley of Lima SOUTH AMERICA. 159 is about two feet deep, and is extremely rich, amply repaying the labour of cultivation. Be- low the mould is a stratum of sand and pebbles, extending about three leagues from the sea- coast; and under this a stratum of indurated clay, apparently of alluvial depositions. The latter seems to have been once the bottom of the sea, and may have been raised above the level of the surface by some great convulsion ; for I cannot suppose with Moreno, Unanue and others, that the water has retired from this coast so much as to occasion a fall of more than four hundred feet in perpendicular height, which the stratum of sand and pebbles holds above the level of the sea at its extreme distance from the coast. May not the same principles account for the general belief, that the surface of the Atlantic on the eastern shores of the New World is above the level of the Pacific on the western shores, notwithstanding the apparent contradiction of the currents running round Cape Horn into the Atlantic? Perhaps the asserted elevation, par- ticularly in the Gulph of Mexico, is owing to the prevailing winds that drive the surface water into the gulf, its free egress by a sub-current be- ing impeded by the range of the Antilles, whose bases may occupy a greater space than their 160 TRAVELS IN surfaces, and also to the existence of rocks under water. Although Lima is free from the terrifying effects of thunder and lightning, it is sub- ject to dreadful convulsions which are far more frightful and destructive. Earthquakes are felt every year, particularly after the mists disperse and the summer sun begins to heat the earth. They are more commonly felt at night, two or three hours after sunset, or in the morning about sunrise. The direc- tion which they have been observed to keep has generally been from south to north, and experience has shewn, that from the equator to the Tropic of Capricorn the most violent con- cussions have taken place about once in every fifty years. Since the conquest the following, which occurred at Arequipa, Lima and Quito, have been the most violent : — AREQUIPA. LIMA. QUITO. 1382 1586 1587 1604 1630 1645 1687 1687 1698 1715 1746 1757 1784 1806 1797 1819 It has been remarked, that the vegetable world suffers very much by a great shock, the SOUTH AMERICA. 161 country about Lima, and all the range of coast were particularly affected by that which hap- pened in 1678. The crops of wheat, maize, and other grain were entirely destroyed, and for several years afterwards the ground was totally unproductive. At that period wheat was first brought from Chile, which country has ever since been considered the granary of Lima, Guaya- quil, and Panama. Feijo, in his description of the province of Truxillo, says, " that some of the valleys which produced two hundred fold of wheat before the earthquake in 1687 did not re- produce the seed after it for more than twenty years ;" and according to the latest information from Chile the crops have failed since the earthquake in 1822. The following shocks were felt in Lima in the years 1805 and 1810 : — 1805. 1810. January 9, at 7§ p. M. f— — January 7, at 9 A. M. ... 10, ... 5 A. M. 11, ... .5 p. M- ... 27, ... 9 p. M. May 3, ... . 7i A. M. February 17, ... 6 p. M. ... 15,.. .5 A. M. ... 21, .. 4^ ?. M. ... 16, .. .7 p. M. March 1, ... ,5 A.M. June 15,.. . 5^ A. M June 4, ... 4| p. M. Nov. 17,.. .5 A. Ml. July 1, ... ,5 A. M. ... 21,.. . 7§ A.M. Nov. 7, .. .8 p. M. ... 24,.. .5 p. M. 9, .. . si p. M. ... 26,., ,. 5i p. M. Dec. 5, .. . 74 P. M. ... 14, .. .. 4i r. M. 162 TRAVELS IN When one or two faint shocks are felt in the moist weather, they are supposed to indicate a change, and the same is expected in the dry or hot weather. The principal produce of the valley of Lima is sugar cane, lucern, alfalfa, maize, wheat, beans, with tropical and European fruit, as well as culinary vegetables. The sugar cane is almost exclusively of the Creole kind : fine sugar is seldom made from it here, but a coarse sort, called chancaca, is ex- tracted, the method of manufacturing which will hereafter be described. The principal part of the cane is employed in making guarapo ; this is the expressed juice of the cane fermented, and constitutes the chief drink of the coloured people ; it is intoxicating, and from its cheap- ness its effects are often visible, particularly among the indians who come from the interior, and can purchase this disgusting vice at a low rate. The liquor is believed to produce cuta- neous eruptions if used by the white people, on which account, or more probably from the vulgarity implied in drinking it, they seldom taste it. I found it very agreeable, and when thirsty or over- heated preferred it to any other beverage. \:-- SOUTH AMERICA. 163 The manufacture of rum was expressly for- bidden in Peru both by the Monarch and the Pope; the former ordained very heavy penalties to be inflicted, the latter fulminated his ana- themas on those M^ho should violate the royal will. The whole of this strange colonial re- striction had for its object the protection and exclusive privilege of the owners of vineyards in the making of spirits — a protection which cost the proprietors upwards of sixty thousand dollars. Great quantities of lucern, alfalfa, are cultiva- ted, for the purpose of supplying with proven- der the horses and mules of Lima ; and not less than twelve hundred asses are kept for the purpose of bringing it from the chacras, small farms in the valley. It generally grows to the height of three feet, and is cut down five times in the year ; it prospers extremely well during the moist weather, but there is a great scarcity in the summer or hot season, because it cannot then be irrigated, for it has been observed, that if, after cutting, the roots are watered they rot; on this account fodder is not plentiful in sum- mer, so that if a substitute for the lucern could be introduced it would prove a source of great wealth to its cultivator. I never saw dried lucern, and on inquiring why they did not dry 164 TRAVELS IN and preserve it, was told, that the experiment had been tried, but that the green lucern when dried became so parched and tasteless that the horses would not eat it, and that the principal stems of the full-grown or ripe lucern very often contain a snuff-like powder, which is very injuri- ous to the animals, producing a kind of madness, and frequently killing them. Fat cattle brought to Lima are generally kept a few days on lucern before they are slaughtered ; the farmers are therefore very attentive to the cultivation of this useful and productive plant. Guinea grass was planted near the city by Don Pedro Abadia, but it did not prosper ; whether the failure were occasioned by the climate, or by ignorance of management, I cannot say, but I am inclined to believe that the latter was the case. Wheat is sown, but no reliance can be placed on a produce adequate to repay the farmer, although the quality in favourable seasons is very good. It often happens, that the vertical sun has great power before the grain is formed, at which time the small dew drops having arranged themselves on different parts of the ear into minute globules, these are forcibly acted on by the sun's rays before evaporation takes place, and operating as so many convex lenses, the grain is burnt, and the disappointed far- SOUTH AMERICA. 165 mer finds nothing but a deep brown powder in its place. I have sometimes seen a field of wheat or other grain most luxuriantly green in the evening, and the day following it has been parched and dry ; this transition the farmer says is the effect of frost ; which will perhaps be admitted to be a correct explanation, if we consider that during the night the wind has come from the eastward, and has passed over a range of the Andes at a short distance. It some- times also happens that the moist season conti- nues for a long period, or that after clear weather the mists return; now should the farmer irri- gate his fields during this intermission, or should the mists continue, the plants shoot up to such a great height that straw alone is harvested ; but in this case, aware of the result, he often cuts the green corn for fodder, or turns his cattle on it to feed. The growth of maize is much attended to, and very large quantities are annually .consumed in Lima by the lower classes, and as food for hogs, some of which animals become extremely fat with this grain, and in less time than if fed on any other kind. Three sorts of maize are cultivated here, each of which has its pe- culiar properties and uses. It appears to have been in very extensive^ use among the Indians 166 TRAVELS IN before the arrival of the Spaniards; for, on digging the huacas, or burying grounds, at the distance of forty leagues from Lima, I have often found great quantities of it. A large deposit was discovered in square pits or cisterns, made of sun-dried bricks, on a farm called Vinto, where no doubt there had either been a public granary, or, as some people imagine, a depot formed by Huaina Capac, on leading his troops against the Chimu, a king of the coasts, about the year 1 420. The grain was quite entire when it was taken up, although, according to the above hypothesis, it had been under ground about four hundred years ; owing its preservation perhaps to the dry sand in which it was buried. Its depth beneath the surface was about four feet, on the ridge of a range of sand hills, where no moisture could reach it by absorption from below, its elevation being about 700 feet above the level of the sea, and 600 above that of the nearest river. I planted some of it, but it did not grow : how- ever its fattening qualities were not destroyed, and the neighbouring farmers and inhabitants of the adjacent villages profited by the discovery. Large quantities of beans are harvested in this valley for the support of the slaves on the estates and plantations, but the market of Lima SOUTH AMERICA. 167 is principally supplied from valles, the valleys on the coast to the northward. Although abundance of tropical and ultra- tropical fruit trees are cultivated in the gardens and orchards belonging to the farm houses, and quintas, seats, in the valley, I shall defer an ac- count of them until I describe the gardens in and about the city. Culinary vegetables are grown here in abundance, including a great part of those known in Europe, as well as those peculiar to warm climates. The yuca, casava, merits par- ticular attention, on account of its prolific pro- duce, delicate taste, and nutritious qualities ; it grows to about five feet high; its leaves are divided into seven finger-like lobes of a beauti- ful green, and each plant will generally yield about eight roots of the size of large carrots, of a white colour, under a kind of rough barky husk. In a raw state its taste is somewhat simi- lar to that of the chesnut, and of a very agree- able flavour when roasted or boiled ; the young buds and leaves are also cooked, and are as good as spinage. It is propagated by planting the stalks or stems of the old crop, cutting them close to the ground after about four inches are buried in the mould, which must be light and rather sandy. Two species are known; the 168 TRAVELS IN crop of the one arrives at full growth in three months, but this is not considered of so good a quality, nor is it so productive as the other, which is six months before it arrives at a state of perfection. They are distinguished by the yellowish colour of the latter, and the perfectly white colour of the former. The disadvantage attending these roots, is, that they cannot be kept above four or five days before they become very black, when they are considered unfit for use. Starch is made from them in considerable quantities, by the usual method of bruising, and subjecting them to fermentation, in order to separate the farina. The mandioc, a variety of this genus, is unknown on the western side of the Continent : thus all danger of injury from its poisonous qualities is precluded. Several varieties of the potatoe are cultivated and yield very abundant crops. They appear to have been known in this part of the New World before it was visited by the Spaniards, and not to have been confined to Chile, their native country. I found this probability on their ha- ving a proper name in the Quichua language, whilst those plants that have been brought into the country retain among the Indians their Spanish names alone. 1 SOUTH AMERICA. 169 Camotes, commonly called sweet potatoes, and by the Spaniards batatas, are produced in great abundance, of both the yellow and purple kinds. I have seen them weighing ten pounds each; when roasted or boiled their taste is sweeter than that of the chesnut, and all classes of people eat them. They become much more farinaceous if exposed for some time to the sun after they are taken out of the ground ; and if kept dry they will remain good for six months. They are propagated by setting pieces of the branches of old plants, to procure which the camote itself is sometimes planted. Although the arracacJia which is grown in this valley is neither so large nor so well tasted as that which is produced in a cooler climate, it is nevertheless an exceedingly good esculent. It is cultivated in a rich, loose soil, and has generally live or six roots, something like parsnips, but of a different flavour; they are not very mealy,and re- quire but little cooking; they are, however, very easy of digestion, on which account they are given to the sick and convalescent; the leaves bear a great resemblance to those of celery. The planta- tion is either from cuttings of the root, like pota- toes, or from the seed ; in the first case the roots are full grown in three months, but in the latter in not less than five. If allowed to remain in the 170 TRAVELS IN erround double the time mentioned the roots con- tinue to increase in size, without any detriment to their taste. Starch is sometimes made from the roots, and used in the same manner as the arrow root is in other countries. Only the white arra- cacha is here cultivated. The arracacha deserves the attention of Europeans; it would, I am pretty certain, prosper in England, because its natural temparature, where it thrives best, is in about 60° of Fahrenheit. The to?nate, love apple, is very much culti- vated, and is in frequent use both in the kitchen and for confectionary, and produces a very agreeable acid. Capsicum, cayenne pepper, aji, is abundant ; I have counted nine different sorts, the largest, rocotos, about the size of a turkey's e^g, and the smallest, which is the most pungent, not thicker than the quill of a pigeon's feather; the quantity of this spice used in America is enormous ; I have frequently seen a per- son, particularly among the indians, eat as a relish, twenty or thirty pods, with a little salt and a piece of bread. One kind called pimiento duke is made into a very delicate salad, by roasting the pods over hot embers, taking away the outer skin, and the seeds from the inside, and seasoning with salt, oil, and vinegar. I SOUTH AMERICA. 171 It is rather a surprising fact, that manure is never used on the farms or plantations. The astonishing- fertiUty of the soil, which has been under cultivation for upwards of three hundred years, and produced luxuriant annual crops, appears to be supported by the turbid water from the mountains, during the rainy season, with which it is irrigated. This water, like that of the Nile, leaves on the ground a slimy film, which is said to contain a considerable quantity of animal matter. 172 TRAVELS IN CHAPTER IX. Viceroys and Archbishops ofLima ^'iceroyahy, Extent Viceroy's Titles and Privileges Uoyal Audience Cabildo Forms of Law Mili- tary Reiijjion Inquisition.. ..Sessions and Processes. ...Archbishop Royal Patronage Ecclesiastical Tribunals Chapter, Cabildo Ecck- siastico Curates Asylum of Immunity Minor Tribunals Consulado Crusade. ...Treasury, Accompts.... Temporalidades, Protome- dicato. Lima is the metropolitan, and the richest city of South America. Under the Spanish regime it has been the residence of forty-three Viceroys, counting from Don Francisco Pizarro to the pre- sent Don Jose de la Serna, who abandoned the capital in 1821, when the patriot army entered. It also enumerates nineteen archbishops, from Don Fray Geronimo de Loaisa, who arrived in 1540, to Don Bartolome Maria de las Heras, who was compelled by General San Martin to retire in 18-21. In the list of Viceroys we find four grandees of Spain, two titled princes, one archbishop, one bishop, and three licentiates ; the rest were military officers, but none of them Americans. Among the archbishops is Saint Thoribio de Mogroviejo, who was presented in 1578, and SOUTH AMERICA. 173 in the exercise of his ecclesiastical duties was so unremitting, that he visited his extensive diocese three times, and confirmed upwards of a million of persons, one of whom was Saint Rose of Lima. He died in 1606, and was canonized by Benedict XIII. in 1727. The Viceroyalty of Peru formerly extended from the south confines of Mexico to those of Chile, including all the Spanish possessions in South America, and what the Spaniards call meridional America. The Viceroyalty of Santa Fe de Bogota was separated from Peru, and established in 1718; that of Buenos Ayres in 1777. The titles of the Viceroy of Peru were His Excellency Don , Viceroy and Captain- general of Peru, President of the Royal Audi- ence, Superintendent Subdelegate of the Royal Finances, Posts and Temporalities, Director- general of the Mining Tribunal, Governor of Callao, Royal Vice-patron, &c. As Viceroy he was the immediate represen- tative of the King, and answerable to him alone as President of the Council of Indies, Cunsejo de Indias : to which tribunal all complaints and appeals were directed, as well as the residen- tial reports. Petitions of every description were presented directed or addressed to him, for the despatch of which he was assisted by a 174 TRAVELS IN legal adviser, called asesor general, whose writ- ten report was generally confirmed by the sub- signature of the Viceroy, but from these there was an appeal to the Royal Audience. It has been the custom of the Viceroys to appoint an hour in the morning, and another in the afternoon, for receiving personally from the hands of the peti- tioners papers addressed to them; but the secre- tary's office was always open for such documents. In his quality of Captain-general he was charged with all political affairs, those rela- ting to fortification, and the defence of the country by land and sea, for which purpose the whole of the military and naval departments were subject to his immediate orders ; but in cases of emergency he usually called a junta de guerra, council of war. All courts martial were held by his orders, and their sentences required his confirmation before they were put in execu- tion, but if he chose he could refer the whole to the revision of the consejo de guerra permanente, in Spain. In the capacity of President of the Royal Audience the Viceroy assisted at the sittings whenever he pleased, and entered at any hour which he thought proper during a session. When he proposed to assist in state, he an- nounced his intention, and a deputation of the judges attended him from his palace to the hall ; SOUTH AMERICA. 175 on his arrival at the door the porter called aloud, the president ! when all the attorneys, advocates and others met and conducted him to his chair; the judges continued standing until he was seated and nodded permission for them to resume their seats. The session being finished, all the members of the audience, re- gent, judges, oidores, and fiscal, accompanied him to the door of his apartment in the palace, the regent walking on his left, and the other members preceding him two and two. The presidency of the audience was merely hono- rary, as the president had neither a deli- berative nor a consulting voice, but all sen- tences of the tribunal must have had his sig- nature, which may be called the veto, before they could be put in execution. On the arrival of any new laws, royal ordinances, or schedules, the Viceroy was summoned by the tribunal to the hall of accords, sala de acuerda, where they were presented to him, and the ceremony of obedience to them performed by his kissing the King's signature and then lay- ing the paper on his head, which act was recorded by the escribano de camara. The Viceroy, as President of the Royal Audience made a private report annually to the King, through the Council of Indies, of the public and even of the private characters of the 176 TRAVELS IN members of the tribunal. He could also direct secret inquiries respecting any member whose conduct might have excited suspicion. All presidents of audiences, as well as the members, were forbidden to marry within the boundaries of their jurisdiction without the ex- press permission of the King; they were like- wise prohibited all commercial concerns, pos- session of personal property, becoming god- fathers to infants, and even visiting any private family. The Marquis of Aviles, Viceroy of Lima, was, before his appointment, married to a native of Lima, but he was never known to visit any of her relatives ; however, Abascal, Mar- quis de la Concordia, judging it to be a prudent and conciliatory measure to break through this restriction during the unquiet times of his government, visited different families, and at- tended at several public feasts, giving others in return. At the expiration of five years, the term for which viceroys, governors, kc. were appointed, and on the arrival of a successor, a commissioner, generally a judge, was nominated by the King, to take what was termed /a reside?2cia. Six months were allowed for all persons who con- sidered themselves aggrieved to lay before this commissioner a full statement of their case, and at the termination of the six months the SOUTH AMERICA. 177 whole of the papers which had been presented were forwarded to the Council of Indies for the inspection of that tribunal. As Superintendent Subdelegate merely pla- ced the Viceroy above all the tribunals, he had no other authority over them, except, indeed, the nomination of the higher officers, who had after- wards to obtain a confirmation from the Kins:: or of confirming- the lower officers nominated by their superior ones. It may be considered an honorary distinction, except that of royal financier, as such he presided quarterly at the general passing of accounts and inspection of treasures. As Royal Vice-patron all collated benefices required his confirmation. The Archbishop proposed to him three individuals, and it gene- rally happened that the first on the list received the confirmation ; but this was optional in the Vice-patron, who could confirm any one of those whom he chose. This prerogative was often the cause of serious disputes between the Viceroy and the Archbishop. As Governor- general of Callao, he visited its fortifications twice a year, for which he had an additional sum of five hundred dollars for each visit. His whole salary amounted to sixty-one thousand dollars. 2 A 178 TRAVELS IN The Royal Audience of Lima was establish- ed in 1541, and composed of a President, Regent, eight Oidores or Members, two Fis- cals, (one civil, the other criminal) Re/atores, Reporters, Escribanos, Scriveners or Recorders, Porters, and an Alguacil Mayor, also two Alcal- des ck Corte. The official costume of the regent and members was a black under dress with white laced cuffs over those of the coat, a black robe or cloak with a cape about three quarters of a yard square, generally of velvet, called the toga; and a collar or ruff having two corners in. front; this was black and covered with white lace or cambric : a small trencher cap, carried in their hands, completed their costume. When divested of their robes they bore a gold-headed cane or walking-stick with large black silk tas- sels and cord, which was the insignia of a magistrate, or of any one in command, and called the baton. The sessions of the audience were held every day, excepting holidays, from nine o'clock in the morning till twelve; and here all cases both civil and criminal were tried, either by the whole of the members or by committees, and there was no appeal, except in some few cases, to the Consejo de Indias. The audience was a court of appeal from any other authority, even. SOUTH AMERICA. 179 from the ecclesiastical courts, by a reciirso de fuersa; but all its sentences required the signa- ture of the Viceroy or President; for the obtain- ing of which, an escribano de camara waited on his excellency every day with all those papers that had received the signatures of the audi- ence and required to be signed by him. Pa- pers addressed to the audience were headed with mui poderoso seno)\ most potent lord ; and the title of the members in session was high- ness, altesa, individually that of lordship, senoria. The Cabildo of Lima had two Alcaldes Ordi- narios, twelve Regidores, a Sindico Procurador, a Secretary, an Algiiacil Mayor and a legal Advi- sor called the Asesor. The Cabildo appointed out of its own members a Justice of Police, Jues de Policia ; a Jues de Aguas, who decided in all questions respecting the water-works belong- ing to the city and suburbs ; also a Fiel Egecutor, for examining weights and measures. The Royal Ensign, Alfei^es Real was another member de qficio, appointed by the King, who held in his possession the royal standard, (the same that was brought by Pizarro) which was carried by the alferes real, accompanied by the Viceroy, a deputation from the audience, another from the Cabildo, including the two alcaldes, and others from the different corporate bodies, in so- 180 TRAVELS IN lemn procession through some of the prin. cipal streets of the city, on the 8th of Jan- uary, being the anniversary of the foundation of Lima. The title of alferes real was heredi- tary in the family of the Count of Monte Mar, y Monte Blanco. The Viceroy was President of the Cabildo. The alcaldes had cognizance in all causes cog- nizable by governors ; their sentences had the same force, and were carried by appeal to the audience. The forms of law in the Spanish tribunals were very complicated, tedious and expensive. The escribano wrote down all declarations, accu- sations, and confessions, and the courts decided on the merits of the case according to what was read to them by the relator from the writings presented ; the client, if in prison, not being admitted to hear his own cause. The tribunals, or judges very reluctantly deprived a man of his life, but they had no regard to his personal liberty ; even a supposition of criminality was sufficient to incarcerate an individual, perhaps for years, during which he had not the power to prove himself innocent. From the facility of imprisonment it was not considered a dis- grace, and a prisoner often received visits from his friends in a jail, which he returned as a mat- SOUTH AMERICA. 181 ter of politeness when liberated. I saw pri- soners here who had been incarcerated for twenty years, some for murder ; their causes were not then and probably never would be finished till death stepped in. The Viceroy visited all the prisons on the Friday before Easter, and two days before Christ- mas, when he discharged some persons who were confined for petty crimes. A surgeon and one of the alcaldes visited the prisons every day, which visits produced much good ; the alcalde de corte examined their food two or three times a week, and attended to any complaints respect- ing the internal arrangements made by the alcaide, jailor. Of the military, not only those who were in actual service, but the mihtia, and persons who had held military rank, and had retired, were tried by their particular laws, or court martials. This exemption was called /^