^OFCALIF0%, ^OFCA1IFO% "^^AHvaani^ j^\WEUNlVER% ^lOSANCElf O %a3AiNn-3v^' ^.vNlllBRARYO/^ -^t-UBRARY6 ''' «FIIWIVFPe/v ..in<: AwrFifp. . rvF.rAiicnR, ^OFCAIIFO/?^ ^OFCA[IFO% '^. AMEllNIVER5-//i Or O ^(?Aav8an-^^ "^^JAavaani^ ^riuonvsoi^'" '^/ia3MNii-3W'^ WlEUNIVERV/v ^lOSANCElfj-^ o ^i'iiJONVsoi^ "^AaaAiNo^vw^ ^^mmy\^ ^^mmy\^ ^WEUNIVERi-//, o ^yVOSANCElfX;^ 1^^ '^Aa3AINIl-3WV' -< ^OFCAjIFOff/)^ ^OFCAIIFO/?^ =o =r ^<9Aav}iani^ >&AHvaaii-^^ ^ILIBRARYQc -s^lUBRARYQ^ \m->s^ %ojnvDJO^ >- ^WEUNIVERS/A .5=^ .\.lOSA}!Ccirr., %a3AINn-3WV^ ^OFCAllFOff^A ^OFCAIIFO/?^ ivaaiH^ ^^Aavaaii^- >- AMEUNIVERS'//i vvlOSAKCFirr o '/^a3AlNn-3WV ■^ aweuniver% ^^^ILIBRARYQ/: W^UIBRARYQ^, ^QlJONVSOl^"' "^AaHAINO 3\\V^ '^30>^ ,lMEUN'IVERy/A vK-lOSANCFlfr.; .OFCALIFO/?^. i.OFCALIF0/?x/. PARAGUAY. PARAGUAY: THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE, NATURAL WEALTH AND COMMERCIAL CAPABILITIES. BY Dr. E. DE BOURGADE LA DARDYE. ENGLISH EDITION, Edited by E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.S. tith JHajj anb JUustrations. LONDON: GEORGE PHILIP & SON, 32 FLEET STREET, E.G. LIVERPOOL : 45 to 51 SOUTH CASTLE STREET. 1892, TO DON BERNARDINO CABALLERO, I.ATF, PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OK PARAGUAY, A GALLANT SOLDIER, WHO FOUGHT BRAVELY FOR HIS NATIVE LAND ; A STATESMAN, WHO DID MUCH TO RAISE IT FROM THE RUIN INTO WHICH IT HAD FALLEN ; THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED, AS AN EXPRESSION OF SINCERE AND DEVOTED FRIENDSHIP, BY E. DE BOURGADE LA DARDYE. V^SOOF. PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. In placing a translation of M. E. de Bourgade's work on Paraguay before the public, the publishers believe they meet a want, as there exists no work of recent date in the English language which sup- plies full and trustworthy information on that South American Republic. M. de Bourgade, a gentleman of culture and scientific attainments, qualified himself for dealing authoritatively with his subject by a two years' residence in the country. He has, more- over, conscientiously consulted the labours of the most able of his predecessors, and his statements deserve, consequently, to be re- ceived with confidence. If the author exhibits some prepossession in favour of a country, the gentle inhabitants of which received him with marked courtesy, this is only what might be expected. This prepossession, however, has not betrayed him into overrating the advantages whicli Paraguay holds out to settlers and men of business. He neither presents us with an overdrawn picture of its natural resources, nor does he over- rate the capacity of the present population, with its limited re- sources, to develop them. His is not an appeal to the masses to take possession of the fertile acres of a thinly populated country, but a sober statement of facts, which men desirous of extending British enterprise, and especially capitalists acquainted with the conditions of life in a subtropical region, would do well to ponder over. The author's statements are borne out by independent witnesses whose impartiality can hardly be doubted, M. Wodon,* the Belgian Consul, who visited the Colony of Villa Hayes in 1891, found his countrymen established there perfectly satisfied with their con- dition, and full of praise of the solicitude which had been shown * Records Consiilaires, 1892. VUl PREFACE. them by the authorities. In M. AVodon's opinion, market-garden- ing and dairy-farming are at present the only resources of small agriculturists, but he speaks highly of the future of plantations and the prospects of agricultural industrial establishments, which, in his opinion, are sure to prosper if carried on by competent men. A German Consular Report,* whilst fully recognising the great resources of the country and the prosperity of small agriculturists, points out that planters would have to contend against the high price of labour. This is only natural in a thinly populated country, but in proportion as population increases, so will the facilities for obtaining labourers increase likewise. The most recent English Consular Report, by Mr, H. Herbert,t is couched in equally favourable terms. To Englishmen, more especially, some trustworthy information about Paraguay should prove acceptable, not so much because of the tragic history of a country which, in an age gone by, has been the scene of the socialistic labours of the Jesuit missionaries — and which, under the elder Lopez, attained a remarkable degi-ee of prosperity, all of which was destroyed by the insensate conduct of his son — but rather on account of the openings which Paraguay holds out to British enterprise. The number of Englishmen in Paraguay is still small, but the British capital already invested in that country is very consider- able, and far exceeds in amount the investments of all other European nations combined. The steamers navigating the great rivers are British ; the railway is British ; and so are the tramways. Most of the banking capital of the country is British, and a consider- able proportion of the public lands has become the property of the British bondholders. If commercial transactions have largely passed into the hands of Germans, it is nevertheless a fact that even now fully one-half of the imports are of British manufacture or * Deutsches Handelsarchiv, 1892. t Diplomatic and Consular Reports, No. 1006, 1892. PREFACE. IX Mr. Herbert, in the Report already quoted, points out very appro- priately that if some of the English Companies have not succeeded, this is due in a large measure to the managers on the spot being controlled by boards of directors thousands of miles away, to whom everything has to be referred, and who are frequently in absolute ignorance of the local conditions of trade, and of the resom-ces of the country, in which their Companies operate. It is exactly on these points that M. de Bourgade's book will prove of service. In order still further to enhance its utility, an Appendix has been added, which will be found to contain the most recent statistics available. The Map which accompanies the volume is the first trustworthy map of the country ever issued, and is largely based upon un- published materials. London, July, 18Q2. CONTENTS. Page Pbeface ------ - vii PART I.-PHYSICAL FEATURES. Chap. I. — Geographical Exploration - - - - 1 Situation of Paraguay— Boundaries— Published sources of refer- ence — Father Quiroga— Page — Admiral Mouchez— Leverger — Toeppen— Olaf Storm— My own researches. Chap. II. — A Geological Survey - - - - 8 General aspect of Paraguay — The Central Cordillera — Faults of the Rio Paraguay and Rio Parana — The Chaco in the plio- cene period — Appearance of the Sierra Mbaracayu — Second- ary lines of dislocation — Volcanic eruptions of basalt and lava — Great erosions. Chap. III. — The Basin of the Parana - - - 14 The two great valleys of East and West — Successive populations — Jesuits and Spaniards — The valley of the Parana — Sources of the river — Three sections of the river — The Upper Parana — The Cataract of Guayra — The Central Parana — Affluents. Chap. IV. — The Basin of the Paraguay - - - 27 As sete lagoas — Communication between the basins of the Para- guay and of the Amazon — Descalvado — Lake Xareyes — The Cuyaba— The San Lorenzo — Corumba— The Bolivian ques- tion — M. Thomar — Suarez Arana and Calvimontes — Fuerte Olympo — The Pan de Az\icar — Las Siete Puntas. Chap. V. — The Basin of the Paraguay (continued) - - 37 The Rio Brauco and the Rio A pa — Itapucu Guazu — Puerto Casado — San Salvador — Villa Concepcion — Rosario — The affluents— The Apa — The Aquidaban— The Ypane — The Jejuy ■ — The Tibicuary — The Pilcomayo. Chap. VI. — Vegetable and Animal Life : Minerals - 56 Naturalists : Father Asperger, Azara, Bonpland, Parodi, Balanza — Forests, trees, and underwood — Denizens of the woods — Beasts, reptiles, birds and game — Hunters and hunting — Climate — Minerals. XU CONTENTS. PART II.- SOCIAL LIFE. Page Chap. I. — Government and Laws - - - - 75 Recent form of Goverumeut — Authority : legislative, judicial, and executive — The provinces — Foreign relations — Provision for education — Religion. Chap. II. — Financial Position - . - - 82 State of exchequer under Lopez — The loan of 1871-2 — Exchanges of London and Paris — The mission of Don J. S. Decoud — Regulation of liome and foreign debt — Taxation — Present resources — Prospective revenue. Chap. III.— Real Property ----- 90 Origin of property — Causes of depreciation in land — Government measures to raise the price — Public lands — Land speculations — Solidity as a basis — Difference from Argentine Republic — Future value — Classification of lands — Town-lands — Mort- gages and Banks. Chap. IV. — Population ----- 101 General statistics — Movement of the population since the be- ginning of the century — Erroneous returns — Difficulties of investigation — Density of population. Chap. V. — Immigration - - - - 109 Spread of emigration — Invasion of America by emigrants — Emi- gration a remedy for social crises in Europe — French com- mercial transactions at Buenos Aires— Importation of capital — Capital in Paraguay must precede immigration — Private Colonies and Colonies supported by the State — Market gardening — Farming on a large scale. PART III.— LABOUR. Chap. I. — Means of Communication - - - 123 Roads — Inland navigation — International navigation — Railway, Asuncion to Villa Encarnaciou — Transcontinental railway, Asuncion to Santos — Political independence of Paraguay. Chap. II.— The Soil - 142 A " rosado " — Varied character of soil — Sandy soil — The red earth of Paraguay — Humus — Burmeister and Najip — Soil of tlie Argentine Pampas and the Russian Chernozem — Black earth. Chap. III.— Stock Breeding - - - - 151 Organizing an estancia — Profits — Saladeros and tanneries — Horse- breeding — Horse-racing — Domestic animals. CONTEXTS. XUl Page Chap. IV. — Agricultural Products - - - - i6l Cereals — Wheat, mills and bread — Galleta — Maize — Gen. Esco- bar's experiments — Marvellous fertility — Eice — Barley — Farinaceous foods — Sopafideos — Breweries — Manioc — Hum- boldt's axiom — Potatoes — Sweet potatoes— Tomatoes — Beans — Onions — Increase of azotic food — Augury of progress. Chap. V. — The same (continued) - - - 172 The Vine — Cultivation in former years — Importation of wine — Fresh attempts at vine-culture — Expense — Profits — Two har- vests a year — Sugar-cane — Varieties of cane — Plantations — Produce— Paraguay rum — Introduction of alcohol — Coffee. Chap. VI.— Tobacco ------ 183 The best tobacco — The European smoker — Cultivation in Para- guay — Nicotine, and how minimized — Drying- process — Re- forms to be introduced — Cigar factories — Exhibition awards, 18S9. Chap. VII.— Timber 193 Industrial value — M. Plaisant's report — M. Rosetti — Qualities of the timber — Exportation. Chap. VIIL— Textile Plants 199 Abundance — Cotton and ramie — Ibyra — Its future — Guembepi ropes — Their use in travelling — Possible use for navy — The silk tree. Chap. IX.— Various Raw Materials - - - 205 Colours and dye-stuffs — Indigo and Urucu — Oil plants : ground- nuts, palms, and castor-oil — Medicinal plants : coca, jabo- randi, ipeca, and papa'ma. Chap. X.— Yerba-matd - - - - - 215 Discovery — Use — Physiological importance — Yerba-forests — Gathering — Wages of yerbatero — Statistics of export. Chap. XI.— The Orange ----- 222 Origin — The apepu or American orange — Other varieties — Distri- bution of orange trees — Vitality — Gathering — Export — Price — Orange-wine — Orange-trade — Essence de petit grain. APPENDICES. I. — Statistical Summary of Paraguay ... 233 II. — Immigrants and Agricultural " Colonies " - - 237 III.— Money, Weights and Measures of Paraguay - - 239 Index ------- 241 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, From Photographs by M. de Malmann, Baron Liebig, and M. Oostendorp. I. Port of Asuncion II. Ruins of the Church of San Ignacio III. Victoria Falls on the Y-guazu IV. On the Banks of the Rio Paraguay V. Sanapana Indians VI. Country Folk of San Pedro VII. The Palace of Lopez at Asuncion, seen from the Port VIII. Market and Pantheon of Lopez at Asuncion IX. A 'Picada' in the Virgin Forest X. A Rancho near Villa Encarnacion XI. An Estaucia in the Misiones XII. In the Woods— a Yerbateros Settlement - XIII. A Convoy of Yerbateros - Frontisp iece. to face page 16 » )) 24 )5 )> 32 )5 )) Port 36 46 75 J) 96 124 )> I) 136 )> )) 152 » J) 215 220 Map of the Republic of Paraguay, drawn by E. de Bourgade, at end. PARAGUAY. Part I.— PHYSICAL FEATURES. Chapter I. GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATION. Situation of Paraguay — Boundaries — Published sources of reference — Father Quiroga — Page — Admiral Mouchez — Leverger — Toeppen — Olaf Storm — ily own researches. A GLAXCE at the map of South America at once reveals the fact that the bulk of its population is massed along the coast. The inhabited zone forms one continuous girdle round the land, extending from the torrid shores of the Gulf of Panama, to the ice-bound rocks of the Straits of Magellan. Sometimes, as in Bolivia or at Buenos Ayres, this zone widens out ; some- times, as in Chili and in certain parts of Brazil, it is reduced to a mere strip, enclosed between the sea and the cordillera : but nowhere does it lose its character of a border, bounded on the one hand by the ocean, on the other by the vast solitudes of the interior. To this general feature there is but one exception. On the shores of the Atlantic, in lat. 35'', the estuary of the La Plata spreads itself out. Into this debouches one of the largest rivers of the world, the Rio Parana, which ploughs its deep and gigantic way through the soil of America, and, aided by its affluent the Rio Paraguay, opens into the very heart of the continent a fine navigable highway " like the sea,"* the banks of which are as populous as the ocean-coast. * According to some writers, the Guarani word "Parana," signifies "like the sea." I cannot vouch for the accuracy of the etymology, as T have been 2 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. At the time of the conquest, the Spaniards, having ascended the river for nearly a thousand miles, founded one of their most flourishing colonies on its bank. This at the present day- bears the name of Paraguay, and constitutes a Republic, which is the only inland State of South America. Its land-locked position gives it quite a unique character, which will, in all likelihood, cause it to play in future no insignificant part amongst surrounding States. After being long undefined, the boundaries of Paraguay became the subject of protracted disputes, often degenerating into bloody wars between the powers of Spain and Portugal, and subsequently between the Free States of America. In 1870, after the terrible struggle which convulsed the States, the frontier question with Brazil and the Argentine Republic was settled, the boundary being definitely established by an international commission. Lying at the point of confluence of the two rivers, the Parana and the Paraguay, the territory of the Republic is divided by the latter stream into two distinct sections, situ ated respectively east and west. This natural division of the country is not merely geographical, but, as will be shown, it corresponds with the geological formation of the soil, as likewise with the economical condition of the inhabitants. Taking, therefore, the river as the basis from which our obser- vations may start, we may proceed to describe the frontiers of these sections of the Republic, Eastern Paraguay, or Para- guay proper, and Western Paraguay or the Chaco. Eastern Paraguay is bounded on the north by the rivers Apa and Estrella, on the east by the cordilleras of Amambay and Mbaracayu, and by the Parana, which runs also along the south. It lies between lat. 22° and 27° S., and long. 54° and 58*^ W., and is enclosed on all sides by Brazil and the Argen- tine Republic. unable to trace it in the modern Guarani. One thing seems certain, that the root " para " signifies dappled, or covered with bright patches. It is found in the word Paraguay (para-gua-y), which may be interpreted as betokening " water in which are bright spots." The word Parana is doubtless analogous. In any case it may be presumed the root " para " may apply to the sea. Hence the confusion. BOUNDARIES. 3 The Chaco, i.e., Western Paraguay, occupies, in the main, a more northerly situation than Eastern Paraguay, extending, in fact, along the inland river, from the mouth of the Rio Pilcomayo, in lat. 25° 20' S. (Mouchez), to that of the Rio Negro, in lat. 20° 10' S. (Page). The form of this eastern section is quadrilateral, bounded on the east by the Rio Paraguay, on the south by the Rio Pilco- mayo, on the north by the parallel intersecting the mouth of the Rio Negro, and on the west by a line separating the Chaco from Bolivia. This western line has not yet been laid down accurately upon our maps. It runs from the Pilcomayo to lat. 22° 10' S., and agrees approximately with a meridian 62° 10' W. of Greenwich. It is thus apparent that the frontiers of the Republic are not all indicated by natural landmarks : it is interesting there- fore to inquire into the origin of the conventional lines of demarcation, and to gather up whatever information bears upon the settlement. Upon this point there exists numerous geographical docu- ments that may be consulted. In fact, ever since the conquest, the country has been the subject of investigations, initiated at one time by private individuals, at another, by official order. When the Jesuits came to America on their missionary enter- prises, it was ordinarily one of their first concerns to obtain, as far as possible, a scientific knowledge of the districts which they aspired to evangelize. One detachment of their party might devote themselves to the work of colonization, but others would not fail to be occupied in studying the Indian languages, in observing the natural history, or in making local explorations. Some ascended the Upper Parana, pushing onwai'ds towards the sources of the Rio Paraguay, some meanwhile penetrating far into the wildernesses of the Chaco. Maps of greater or less accuracy were thus drawn up and forwarded to Rome or Madrid, and in this way some elements of South American geography were gradually established. Father Quiroga, one of the most energetic agents in the move- ment, made numerous observations connected with the latitude 4 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. of various places, which he published in his " Description du Rio Paraguay." Simultaneously with the arrival of the Jesuits came bold Spanish adventurers, such as Ayala, Cabeza de Vaca, and Chaves, who took possession of the territory in the name of the Spanish crown, overran the country far and wide, and penetrated even to Peru, thus opening up fresh districts to geographical research. Later on, when the national rivalry between Spain and Portugal made the assignment of definite limits to the respective territories a positive necessity, various scientific commissions were despatched into the interior, and Cabrera, Fonseca, Alvear, Flores, and Azara succeeded in as- certaining the real conditions of the region with more preci- sion ; and now, within our own time, the missions that have been maintained by the governments and societies of Europe and America have effected a still larger advance in our know- ledge of the country, the valuable labours of Leverger, Page, and Admiral Mouchez having put to rest many questions that were hitherto unsolved. Still, however, there remains much to be done, and a vast field lies open yet for explorers in the future. How much yet remains to be settled may be recognised by a comparison of the various maps that have been published up to the present date. Some of these maps present details of the highest interest, such as those of the Jesuits, of Azara, Flores, Page, and Mouchez ; the same may be said of the almost un- known productions of Leverger, of those issued by the com- mission of 1872, and even of the slight sketch by Toeppen ; but others there are which are mere compilations, amongst which must be included the publications of Brayer, Wisner of Morgenstein, and more recently of Nolte, all of which appear to have been adapted from what were already in existence, and which consequently only reproduce or exaggerate the errors of their predecessors. As the result of a careful scrutiny of all these various docu- ments, it may be safely concluded, as we shall endeavour to demonstrate, that there are many data referring to the whole course of the Rio Paraguay, to a portion of the course of the EARLY MAPS. 5 Rio Parana, and to certain valleys of the interior, which are to be accepted as accurate. At the same time it admits of no doubt that there is an ui'gent necessity for revising the maps of those regions which abut upon the eastern frontier, as well as those which profess to delineate the courses of the rivers in the central districts and in the Gran Chaco. Eminently trustworthy are the works of Admiral Mouchez, Avho has described the course of the Rio Paraguay from its confluence with the Parana to the Rio Apa ; his researches may be classed amongst the most valuable contributions to the geography of South America. The same remark applies to the maps of the Rio Parana from Corrientes to Villa Encar- nacion and the valleys of the Tibicuary and the Manduvira. Except for a few matters of detail, these maps are amply sufficient as a base for subsequent investigation. With regard to the course of the Upper Paraguay, a great measure of reliance may be placed upon Lieut. Page, whose represen- tations may very easily be checked by the aid of Leverger's researches. Nevertheless, in spite of the unpublished inves- tigations of the Brazilian navy, it would be a matter of much interest if a new survey could be made of these regions, which, however fairly known to river-pilots, have only been described in an imperfect and inadequate way. This was a task which I set myself in September, 1888; unfortunately, a serious wound which I received shortly after- wards in the Brazilian Province of Matto Grosso prevented my prosecuting my design. The attack which I suflered, together with my lamented companion, Henry Rochefort, jun., left me so prostrated in health that to proceed with my topo- graphical research was out of the question. Nevertheless, the map that is published at the end of this volume is marked by a number of important corrections, as well as by some new insertions relating to that portion of the River Paraguay which flows between the Apa and Bahia Negra. The boundary commission which, after the war in 1870, de- termined the frontier line between Paraguay and Brazil, pre- pared some maps which, though never published, are of consider- able interest. The survey embraced the northern and eastern 6 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. frontiers, following the course of the Apa, the Sierras Amambay and Mbaracayu, and the Central Parana. Although most conscientiously done, it requires some rectification, and does not completely accord with my own personal observations in the valley of the Ygatimi, which skirts the northern side of the Sierra Mbaracayu, nor does it agree with the longitudinal posi- tion which I assign to the Salto de Guayra or Sete Quedas, the extreme limit of the Paraguay Republic on the Upper Parana. The observations taken by Page have fixed the geographical co-ordinates of many points in the interior of Eastern Paraguay; Johnston's map has thrown light upon certain portions of the Paraguayan missions, whilst that sketched out by Toeppen has defined the course of the Aguara y Guazu. Such are the original documents which supply the materials for compiling the geography of Paraguay ; and if to these I may be permitted to add the outcome of my own individual researches in the valleys of the Jejuy and its afiluents, on the Sierra Mbaracayu, in the basin of the Ygatimi, at the Salto de Guayra, and on the Upper Paraguay, the enumeration of published authorities must be considered complete. Except in a few isolated particulars, all other maps tend to the perpetuation of errors that had previously been made. I have made it my endeavour that my own map shall pre- sent a resume of what have been ascertained to be established facts. As regards Western Paraguay or Chaco, there exist hardly any documents that can be esteemed of value. Unless it be for the part to the N.W. of Bahia Negra, Minchin's map, with reference to Chaco, is of no practical service. The only publi- cation which, in my opinion, can be reckoned of any use, is the outline put forth by Olaf J. Storm after the expedition made by Major Feilberg, of the Argentine Republic, to the Pilco- mayo, but this is very limited in its scope, not extending more than a degree and a half into the interior. It is upon the sole evidence of these authorities that the geography of Paraguay has to be written ; upon this evidence I have had entirely to rely, except so far as my own investiga- tions have assisted me. I should, however, add that the works EARLY MAPS. 7 of the various engineers who, for some time past, have been engaged in surveying the territory of the Republic, have fur- nished me with some useful information ; and I must not omit to mention the two very interesting publications by Dr. Demersay and Colonel du Graty, wliich, in 1850 and 1860 respectively, served to remind Europe that Paraguay was still in existence. (8) Chapter II. A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. General aspect of Paraguay— The Central Cordillera— Faults of tlie Rio Para- guay and Rio Parana— The Chaco in the pliocene period— Appearance of the Sierra Mbaracayu— Secondary lines of dislocation— Volcanic eruptions of basalt and lava— Great erosions. Paraguay is not a mountainous country, yet, when compared with the flats of the Argentine Republic, it might almost be classed as one of the most hilly districts of Centi-al America. Yet no imposing ranges are to be found there, and the name of mountain can hardly be assigned to the succession of hills of which the loftiest rarely exceed 1,500 feet in height, their general aspect bearing a resemblance to the picturesque features of Biscay. Starting from the banks of the Rio Paraguay, and proceed- ing towards the eastern frontier, the traveller will at first cross slightly undulated plains, over which, in countless meandei'- ings, flow the streams that descend from the central water- shed. As he advances he will observe that the scenery altex's its character ; the hills become more numerous, the horizon grows more contracted, and eminence after eminence, sur- rounded by luxuriant verdure, breaks upon the ^^ew. No sharp peak or rugged crest ever interrupts the rounded out- line of the distant ridges. Occasionally, in a gorge somewhat narrower than the rest, though not deep enough to be sombre, a mountain stream leaping down amongst barren rocks will appear to be assuming the character of a torrent ; but in its general aspect the country has none of the stern and rugged features of a true mountainous region. Only in the Andes are tokens of the convulsions of the rocks to be observed. Here everything is smiling and harmonious. The culminating point of the central chain is alone distia- guished by a somewhat sharper outline, while from its forest- ASPECT OF THE HILLS. g bed a rocky crest uprears itself, in. striking contrast to the bush-mantled surface of its lower ridges. And yet, like the Andes, these hills have passed through a period of great and terrible dislocation ; the time has been when they have reared up their lofty summits to the skies. Long before the mighty upheaval of the great Cordillera these very hills sustained the continent of America, and pro- tected its eastern plateaux from the incursions of the sea. The action of the climate has wrought their decapitation ; tor- rents unceasing and inexhaustible, permeating the entire soil while it was in the very process of formation, debased their topmost crests, filled up their crevices, and little by little the unremitted work of erosion denuded the mountain-flanks of the granite by which they were upheld. Portion after portion has crumbled away, and the fragments have had an enormous shai'e in filling up the vast estuaries which indented the Ameri- can coast-line at the tertiary era. Towards the north, in the direction of the extensive plateaux which divide the basin of the Amazon from that of the Parana, there survive some imposing ridges which have resisted the action of time. Here the streams, near their original sources, had not acquired sufficient momentum to have the eSect of levelling the mountain-tops in their descent ; it was only lower do^vn, as they approached the ocean, that they had accumu- lated the volume and velocity that displaced or destroyed whatever obstructed them, so that the whole chain of moun- tain was so near being annihilated that only the rarest traces of its former existence can be found. And, more than this, not only have the eminences been levelled, but such has been the violence of the waters that ever and again they have ploughed for themselves a passage through deep ravines. Although the development of these great geological pheno- mena has thus, to so large an extent, effaced the primeval out- line of the sierra, and its residuum is now concealed by a luxu- riant overgx'owth of tropical vegetation, yet the historical im- portance of the ridge is still apparent from its very position, and from the part which it fulfils as the division-line of the waters. lO GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Along its whole extent, from about lat. 15°, where it con- nects the central plateau with its southern limit on the banks of the Uruguay, this vast ridge may be regarded as the real axis of the southern half of South America, It partitions the immense basin of the Parana into two sections ; one to the east, including the Upper Parana, the other to the west, in- cluding the Paraguay. To explain fully its geological import- ance would be to enter into scientific particulars which lie be- yond the scope of this work ; but I hope before long to publish a complete account of my own investigations on this subject. In order, however, to convey some little idea of the nature of the soil of Paraguay, I must beg to be pardoned for introducing a few dry geogenic details. It was probably the pliocene period that witnessed in their greatest intensity the phenomena that gave the American con- tinent its present configuration. These phenomena, I imagine, were developed in two distinct phases ; the first being charac- terised by the formation of the Sierra Amambay, and after- wards by that of the Andes ; the second dating from the commencement of the quaternary epoch, and extending to the upheaval of the Sierra do Paresis. The former of these movements, which for distinction's sake we may call the plication of the Andes, was gradual, and was effected by a lateral compression, east and west, resulting in a series of undulations, parallel to the present position of the Andes, and extending fx'om the shore of the Pacific Ocean to the depression of the Atlantic. All these mountain ranges, with the exception of the Sierra do Mar, face westwards, that is to say, their steepest slope is in that direction. Of all these the most important is that to which we have already referred as the axis of Paraguay, and the central ridge of the Parana basin. Under the name of the Sierra Seiada, it starts from the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso, skirts the frontier of Paraguay in long. 55° W., under the name of the Sierra Amambay, which it loses at lat. 24° S. From this point it takes a S.S.W. direction, crosses the territory of the Re- public under the names of the Cordilleras of Urucuty, Caguazu, FAULTS OF THE PARAGUAY AXD PARANA. II and Villa Rica successively, reaches the Parana in lat. 27° 20' S., where it causes the Apipe rapids, then enters the quarters of the Argentine missions, and finally loses itself in the ter- ritory of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay. On either side of this central axis (which Elie Beaumont designates a great " fold " or " tuck ") are deep depi-essions : the one on the west being steep and extending to the Andes, the other on the east sloping towards the Sierra do Mar. In the course of the disturbance two great breaks, or faults, were formed in the earth's crust, one of them beginning in long. '58° W., the traces of which I could follow for some hun- dreds of miles, where the parallelism of the terrestrial strata continues broken. All the eastern part of the land remained upheaved, like a gigantic wall, whilst the western zone sank down to a considerable depth, allowing the pliocene sea to peneti'ate to the very heart of Amei'ica. Parallel to this fault, and in a corresponding position with regard to the Sierra Amambay, there is another somewhere near long. 54° W. ; it faces west, but its depression is not so great as that of the western fault. These two breaks extended all along the central chain, which remained upreared Like a long band surrounded by the pliocene sea, from the waters of which were deposited the sedi- mentary strata which now constitute the soil of the green plain of the Argentine Republic and Chaco. Convulsions such as these would not occur without brinsring to the surface igneous matter from the bowels of the earth. Hence, all along the faults, volcanic chimneys yielded an out- let for the basaltic formations which may be seen in many parts of the region, and of which there is a fine specimen at the Cerro de Tacumbu, near Asuncion. It is obvious, moreover, that the effects of this settling of the earth's surface did not end here ; throughout the latter part of the tertiary era a transformation was going on, the effects of which were to be apparent at the commencement of the quaternary period. The process of cooling would supei"- vene, and thus a further subsidence would follow on, gradually causing fresh creases. These new folds, however, would not 12 GEOLOGICAL CnARACTERISTICS. this time be formed in the same direction as those of the preceding epoch, because there now existed insurmountable barriers to offer effective resistance to any compressions from east and west. On the one hand were the Andes, in the centre was the Sierra Amambay, and on the other hand stood the Sierra do Mar. All the forces of nature now proved themselves compara- tively powerless, except as they coincided with the axis of the mountains ; consequently all compi'ession was effected from north and south, and this resulted in the formation, in lat. 12° S., of that great transversal chain which, known as the Sierra do Paresis and Sierra Azul, separates the basin of the Amazon from that of the Parana. Simultaneously, and as the outcome of the same influence, various other geogenic folds were brought into position all following the same direction, being at right angles to the folds of the pliocene formation. Amongst them may be enumerated the Sierra dos Pyreneos in lat. 15°, the Sierra de las Quinze Puntas in lat. 20° 30', the Sierra Mbara- cayu in lat. 24°, and the Sierra dos Misiones in lat. 27°. The resistance offered to the movement by the great pliocene chains in many cases altered the original direction of the faults, and availed to produce a whole network of secondary creases, compressed in their character, and trending from N.W. to S.E. To this subsidiary system belong the Costa Pucu, near Asuncion ; the Cordillerita, the chain which joins Mt. Acay : further north the branches of the Fecho dos Moros, the Rabicho range, below Corumba, and the Cordilleras del Juncas in lat. 18°. Due likewise to the same influence, no doubt, is that network of breaks which I was able to investigate during my exploration of the basin of the Ygatimi. So also is the origin of those eminences to be accounted for which in the region of the Chiquitos constitutes the basins of the Jauru, an affluent of the Paraguay, and of the Rios Guapore and Mamore, sub-affluents of the Amazon. It will thus be apparent that the geological disturbance extended over an immense area, and was attended with the further result that it raised all the strata of the upper crust of the entire stretch of land from the Andes to the Sierra Amam- bay, and exposed the surface of the plains of Chaco. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. 1 3 From this succession of movements resulted the general con- figuration of the great Parana basin. The water-system was definitely established. In the huge break of long. 58° flowed the Rio Paraguay ; the Rio Parana retreated to the upper por- tion of the break in lat. 54°, but, coming in contact with the impassable chain of the Misiones, it was diverted from east to west, and reached the fault in lat. 58°, where, mingling its waters with those of the Paraguay, it assumed the course which it has maintained to the present day. In the lower section of the fault forsaken by the Parana are collected the waters which are now known as the Rio Uruguay. Towards the end of the preceding period eruptive pheno- mena again occurred, and craters were opened at various places amongst the breaks. The outflow of lava was considerable, but traces of this are now difficult to identify, because well nigh all the streams have been covered by recent alluvia, which in many districts, where watercourses are numerous, have assumed enormous proportions. Yet, although they are rare, I have discovered several notable prominences where the lava remains, one, amongst others, in the valley of the Mbae-y, near Paraguari and the Serro d'Acay. Such, in rough and general outline, is the geological record of the Parana basin. Its main features have been gathered by me during my travels in the interior, which aflfoi'ded me continual confirmation of my views. Especially interesting was my study at the rapids of the Ygatimi, and it is due to the knowledge that I so gained that I was able to foresee and establish the navigability of the rivers Y-hoby and Y-pyta. Di'awing our conclusions from the same facts, we may now proceed to study the hydrographical character of the region. (^4) Chapter III. TfTE BASIN OF THE PARANA. Tlie two great valleys of East and West — Successive populations — Jesuits and Spaniards — The valley of the Parana — Sources of the river — Three sections of the river — The Upper Parana — The Cataract of Guayra— The Central Parana — Affluents. From a geographical point of view, the interior of Paraguay must be acknowledged to be known but imperfectly. The vast virgin forests extending through the east and north have presented an obstacle to travellers before which they have recoiled. Beyond the valley that reaches from Asuncion to Villa En- carnacion, except for a few roads that have been opened for the purpose of exploring the forests of yerba-mat^, there are hardly any highways of communication, almost all transports being conducted along the rivers, upon the banks of which the population is mainly concentrated. In order, therefore, to give the most practical view of the country, it may seem best to confine our observations to the several water-courses. Having dealt in the preceding chap- ter with the configuration of the land, we may proceed to gather from the study of the hydrographical conditions of the country as good an acquaintance as we can with its physical geography. The whole territory, as it has been stated, is divided into two basins, that of the Parana to the east, that of the Paraguay to the west. At the present time the former of these is of minor importance ; all life, energy, and progress seem to be centred in the valley of the Paraguay, and especially on its left-hand shore. It is noteworthy that, in the 17th and 18th centuries, a con- trary state of things existed. It was then the Parana valley that was the more wealthy and populous of the two, and it JESUIT SETTLEMENTS. 15 was along the banks of that river, that are now well-nigh covered with impenetrable forest, that the mission-stations of the Jesuits were planted. The explanation of this change in the seat of colonization is not to be found in any difference of degree in the fertility of the soil, inasmuch as the two valleys would appear to be equally productive and easy of cultivation ; the reason is to be traced entirely to the different tempers that animated the colonists at different periods. When the Jesuits arrived, prompted by the desire to civilize the peoples of the new continent, it did not seem desirable that their young neophytes should be brought into close con- tact with the residents already settled ; it suited their ideas better that they should be so separated as to form an isolated community, living on their own resources, and only mingling Avith the population with the aim of christianizing it. For this design the vast wildernesses beyond the Parana seemed in every way to be adapted to their requirements. The locality was so far removed from the ordinary haunts of men that in order to reach their settlements it was necessary to cross the marshes of Nembucu or the Ibera lagoon, if not to venture over the Apipe rapids, and only few would be tempted to under- take the journey. Thus the missionary settlement was at once well sheltered, and quite secure from intrusion by outsiders. The time, however, came for the Jesuits to be expelled from their quarters. The Spaniards, having reduced the land to subjection, brought about a new system of colonization. Un- der new masters, new views were opened. The conquerors having no other aim than to utilize for themselves the labours of the Indian, and to promote an export trade, were quick to see that no advantage was to be gained by remaining in isolated valleys difficult of approach, and in no way adapted for commercial enterprise. Was not the Rio Paraguay navig- able throughout its course 1 Did it not promise every facility for agricultural work ? Accordingly, every means were taken and every inducement held out to attract population to its shores, with the result that by degrees the settlements on the Parana became totally deserted. 1 6 THE BASIN OF THE PARANA. At a subsequent time President Francia tried to revert to the system of isolation that had been favoured by the Jesuits, but he did not realize that matters were no longer under the same conditions, failing to foresee how inevitably the Paraguay must become a great highway to which settlers would flock. His scheme was altogether destitute of the bulwarks of pro- tection which had been provided by the Jesuit fathers ; as such it was bound to fail, and fail it did, most ignominiously. It seems necessaiy to enter into these particulars in order to explain the marked difference between the two basins as exhibited at present, the one entirely open to navigation and "with easy means of communication with the world, the other equally rich in natural resources, but quite deserted, though only waiting the introduction of railways to start it towards that grand future for which it is destined. The basin of the Pai'ana is, as we have noted, separated from that of the Amazon by the central plateau which runs from east to west between the Sierra d'Espinasso and the Andes. At about long. 47° 40' W. the plateau makes a bend to the S.S.E., forming an eastward boundary to the basin of the Rio San Francisco. In the angle thus formed between lat. 15° and 22°, are the original sources of the Parana. Two im- portant streams result ; one the Parana Hyba, flowing from the N.E., the other the Rio Grande, proceeding from the E. ; uniting in lat. 19'', these become the Parana proper. Some miles lower down navigation is blocked by the cataract of Urubupunga, the river flowing onwards from N.N.E. to S.S.W. as far as lat. 24°, where its coui'se is again broken by the cataract of Guayra. Down to this point I call the river the Upper Parana, reserving the name of the Central Parana for the portion which lies between the Salto de Guayra and the mouth of the Paraguay. The whole district of the Upper Pai-ana belongs to Brazil. It was in the 16th century that the Jesuits selected this fine spot for their settlement. I visited it in the course of my late exploration, and am convinced that no more eligible site for colonization could be imagined. All that is wanting is some highway of communication, and this I am considering /;'. I'Inil. \„liri-iUl C \ P.I nuiNS or Tiir. cnuucii ok sa\ icxacio ii; ii:T la iuv. .iiisi ri' \iissio\s THE SALTO DE GUATRA. 1 7 some measures to secure. The plains are watered on the right bank from the N". by the rivers Pardo, Yvinehima, Ygurey or Money, Amambay-guazu, Mbaraca-y, and Ygatimi, and on the left by the Tiet^, Paranapanema or Ypane, Ibahy, and the Pequiry. The stream throughout its course here is perfectly uniform, and were it not closed at its ends by the cataracts of Urubupunga and Guayi-a it miglit be navigated by large ves- sels. The general knowledge of the region is more or less vitiated by error, but I am indulging the hope of publishing an account of the district, which however does not come within the scope of this book. At the Salto de Guayra, or Sete Quedas (the seven falls) as the Brazilians call it, stands the frontier of Paraguay. Tlie river iirst skirts the territory of the Republic from IST. to S., then flows E. to W. as far as the confluence of the Rio Para- guay. It is this which I distinguish as the Central Parana ; it merits special study, not only on account of its position from a political point of view, but because of the peculiarity of some of its natural features. The geographical position of the Salto de Guayra ought, it is obvious, to be determined with strict exactness. It is not simply the spot where the Sierra Mbaracayu meets the Parana, it is the point which political treaties have assigned as the ex- treme N.E. limit of the Paraguayan frontier. It needs no argument to shew that if the position of this landmark is to determine the right of the possession of the soil, the adjacent states ought to be assured of the precise geographical situation of the boundary; nevertheless, up to the present date it re- mains a matter of no little uncertainty. This existence of doubt as to the true place on the map for the Salto de Guayra is not difficult to explain. Situated in an absolute wilderness, all but inaccessible through the natural obstacles of dense forests on land and dangerous rapids on the water, it is so far remote from the inhabited world that it has been visited by a very limited number of travellers. The Boundary Commissioners of 1788, those of 1874, and then my- self in 1887, are the only individuals who have faii-ly attempted to settle the matter. If the reader has any curiosity on the 15 THE BASIN OF THE PARANA. question, I may refer him to the works that I have published refen-ing to it.* It will suffice for me to say here that all parties are toler- ably well agreed as to the latitude : I place it at 24° 2' 59", differing only 32 seconds from the Commission of 1874. It is with regard to the longitude that there is so wide a variation. The maps that have hitherto been published adhere to the longitude assigned by Azara in the Commission of 1788, viz. : 56° 55' W. of Paris. This is notoriously incorrect, but the repetition of the error is in some measure to be accounted for by the reports of the Boundary Commission of 1874 not having been put into circulation. This latter commission specifies the longitude of the cataract as 56° 36' 35" 30 W. of Paris, thus placing it 18' 35" further to the east than the former. I have given the reasons which led me to consider that even this rectification was wanting in exactness, and which deter- mined me, after my exploration of the Rio Ygatimi, to ask the Government of Paraguay to organize a scheme of investi- gation by which the doubt may be dispelled. Until this has been granted I venture to think that I may hold to my com- putation that the precise longitude of the cataract is 56° 18' 8" W. of Paris, i.e., 53° 57' 53" W. of Greenwich. This is the estimate upon which I have drawn up the map appended to this work, and the rectification is important as attributing to Paraguay its proper breadth. A compai'ison of the maps issued before 1874, and those of more x'ecent date, will exhibit the various errors that have been made. With the exception of Admiral Mouchez' carefully executed map, shewing the course of the Paraguay, all the other maps concur in depicting the eastern confines of the Republic accord- ing to the deficient knowledge of the last century. As a consequence of this, the junction of the Sierras Amambay, Mbaracayu, and Urucuty is fixed to the west of long. 56°, and there is a proportional displacement of the adjacent valleys ; * (1) Revue de Paraguay, 1888, No. V. (2) Mem. ou the length of arc of lat. 24" between the Paraguay aud Parana. (3) Report made to the Academy of Science of Paraguay. THE CENTRAL PARANA. I 9 but after the journeys of Johnston and Toeppen it became clear beyond doubt that this point of junction lies considerably further to the east, an observation which my own survey enables me to corroborate. The misconception as to the actual position of the Salto de Guayra, together with the total lack of information about the region between the Parana and the Sierras Urucuty and Caaguazu, has entailed the result that, in attempting to main- tain the Cordilleras and the Salto respectively in their due positions, the valley of the Parana must be encroached upon to such a degree as to reduce it to a mere strip, which in no \vise corresponds with the reality. The errors, which would have at least been partially avoided by consulting the map of the Boundary Commission of 1874, ought not to re-appear in maps of a date subsequent to my researches. From the Salto de Guayra the Parana flows almost in a direct line S.S.W., as far as lat. 2T^, where it deflects due W. until it is joined by the Pai-aguay at Las Tres Bocas in lat. 27^ 17' S. and long. 58° 30' W. Downwards from this point the river again flows southward, and is known as the Lower Parana. It has been noticed already that the river in its middle course has a character in very remarkable contrast to what it bears both above and below. In its upper and lower channels it is wide, calm, and navigable, its stream passing in full flow through plains of little elevation, and following without let or hindrance the well-defined limits marked out by the extensive depressions in its bed. Altogether in contrast with this, the Central Parana is a violent torrent, compressed in its boundaries, subject to sudden risings, and rushing for full 400 miles over rocky shoals and rapids. It constitutes a huge irregularity in the midway pro- gress of the river, presenting an insuperable barrier to all access to the Upper Parana. Investigation of the conformation of the land adjacent to the river, and of the rocks from whence the great cataract issues, has enabled me to account for the phenomena which have effected the sudden change in the charac- ter of the water-coui'se. At the period of the formation of the 20 THE BASIN OF THE PARANA. Sierra Amambay, immense " faults," on either side and parallel to its axis, occurred, which cleft asunder the rocks, severing them so as to open two separate channels, in one of which was to flow the Parana, and in the other the Paraguay ; but a later disturbance intervened, upheaving the transversal sierras which crossed the depression of the Parana at about lat. 24", and originated the Sierra Mbaracayu. Through this the river had to force its passage, effecting an outlet for itself on the western side of the original depression. This is the cataract of Ouayra. Once disturbed in its bed, and made to deviate from its course within its rocky boundaries, it had to force for itself a new passage through a region dislocated by the recent con- vulsions. The vast bed of red sandstone, upon which the waters were precipitated from the height, was worn through by their violence, and the force of the current at the present time makes it quite easy to conceive how the torrent, overcoming whatever resistance it might find, would hollow out for itself a channel of exceeding depth, corresponding in many ways with the canons of Colorado. Such is the intensity with which the waters still rush onward that they are generally found to have worked down their level to a depth of 120 or 150 feet below the cliffs that enclose them. From this it results that nearly all the affluents that have not succeeded like the main-stream in ploughing their way through the sandstone have to descend into it by falling the entire height of the banks. Sometimes the cascades are close to the river, at other times they are at some distance away, according to the character of the erosions to which the valley has been exposed ; the streams, however, are all so closely obstructed by natural barriers, that not one of them is available for navigation. Forcing its way onward to regain its proper bed, the Parana flows from N.N.E. to S.S.W. for a distance of 3 degrees, and on reaching lat. 27° it is confronted by a fresh obstacle of the same kind as that above. This is the Sierra dos Misiones. But by this time the flood has exhausted its energy in over- coming whirlpools and rapids ; the vehement impulse that was communicated at the Salto de Guayra is found to be well-nigh spent, and no momentum is left to contend with the mountain THE LOWER PARANA. 2 1 range. On the farther side of the sierra the waters in the once deserted basin have collected in the stream that is known as the Uruguay ; meanwhile the Parana is diverted to the west, where the soil is of a more yielding character. Further on, in long. 5G° 40', another obstacle pi'esents itself, which has to be overcome — the central sierra having thrown out a spur, the off-shoot of the cordilleras Amambay and Villa Rica. A last effort seems demanded ; a passage is cleared at the rapids of Apipe (called the Salto Chico by the people of the country), and arriving at an inclined plane, the river is projected without further disturbance to the depression of the Paraguay, which it joins in long. 58° 40' W. The struggle of the Parana with the rocks is now over. Re- inforced by the waters of the Paraguay, which has now become its tributary, the broad stream flows calmly through the plains of Chaco, and, once more turning to the south, mingles its flood in the La Plata with the minor stream of the Uruguay, which, except for the projection of the Sierra dos Misiones, would have been merely one of its afiluents. Obviously, from a geological point of view, it is the middle section of the Parana that is the most interesting part of the river ; and still more might be said with regard to the beauties of its scenery. Hitherto but very few people have surveyed the wonders of its majestic banks. The difficulties of the journey, the de- ficiency of available means of transport, the terror with which the I'oar of the whirlpools and rapids has filled the untutored minds of the adjacent population, and the reputed ferocity of the Tupys Indians who congregate there, have all combined to arrest the approach of travellers. Traditions are perpetuated relating the most appalling stories concerning the early con- querors, and the Parana remains comparatively un visited. It may be deemed strange that, while the whole world is familiar with the name of the Falls of Niagara, so few have ever heard of the Salto de Guayra, that marvellous cataract of South America, the scene where one of the mightiest rivers in the world px'ecipitates itself into an unfathomable abyss. The re- nowned Spanish traveller, Feliz de Azara, Avho spent twezity 2 2 THE BASIN OP THE PARANA. years in exploring South America, has written an account of the giant phenomenon, which has been quoted as authoritative by more recent writers ; but, as a matter of fact, Azara only reproduced the description given by the Boundary Commission of 1788, colouring it with some of the imaginary tales of the Indians ; consequently, although he is scrupulously accurate to the best of his power, he has in this instance been involuntarily led into some degree of exaggeration. No later delineation of the cataract has been given, except that which was published in 1861 by Lieut. Patino, of the Paraguayan army. He was sent by Lopez to make a survey, and by way of report he transcribed his journal, every page of which attests his unquestioned veracity : a soldier with an alloted duty to perform, he noted down facts literally as he saw them. It was unfortunate, however, that Patino contented himself with merely reaching the base of the cataract. He had received his orders to go there, and at the cost of much hardship he obeyed ; but having once caught sight of the rapids, he concluded that he had ful- filled his instructions, and started back to Asuncion the same evening. The consequence of this was to make his account of the Pall most meagre as to details, and failing entirely to con- vey any idea of its grandeur. In my own account of my journey of 1887, I have written so detailed a description of the Salto that I need not again repeat it. It may suffice here to say that above the great cataract the Parana expands into a huge lake, between 4 and 5 miles wide, whence it issues in two branches. The waters, in united strength, having forced a breach in the range of hills running from the Sierra Mbaracayu, have formed channels by which they con- tinue to escape. Here the rapids begin. Traversing slightly inclined planes, the waters gather themselves in circular eddies, whence they flow in falls varying from 50 feet to 60 feet in depth ; these circular eddies, which are quite independent of each other, I'ange along an arc of about two miles in its stretch ; they are detached, like giant cauldrons yawning unexpectedly at one's feet, in which the flood seethes with incredible fury : every one of these has opened for itself a narrow orifice in the rock, through which, like a stone from a sling, the water is AFFLUENTS OF THE PARANA. 23 hurled into the central whirlpool. The width of these outlets rarely exceeds 15 yards, but their depth cannot be estimated. They all empty themselves into one immense central chamber, about 200 feet wide, rushing into it with astounding velocity. The channel is the only portion of the falls that can be seen by travellers approaching them from below, and it formed the leading feature in Azara's description. A more imposing spec- tacle can scarcely be conceived, and I doubt whether abysses such as these exist elsewhere in the world ; but I must hesitate to go as far as Azara in avowing that the earth all around trembles beneath the feet, or that the vapours that rise amidst the whirlpools descend in incessant rain. As for the noise produced by the cataract, I could not observe it at any great distance ; even at the edge of the channel it was quite possible to hold a conversation, and, notwithstanding Azara's fears, neither I nor my companions found ourselves deafened by the uproar. Were misunderstandings cleared away, and the dif- ficulties of travelling overcome, I see no reason why the Falls of Guayra should not attract visitors as much as the Falls of Niagara. The Central Parana has a large number of affluents, the mountainous character of the district through which it passes not allowing any body of water to collect in minor basins of much importance. The direction of the hills is nearl;^ always at right angles to that of the river, so that these affluents are forced into courses which carry them direct into the main stream. That which may rank as the most important is on the left shore, forming the boundary between Brazil and the Argentine Republic ; it is called the Rio-y-Guazu (the great river), and is likewise known by the Brazilians as the Rio Grande du Curi- tiba. It is asserted that Alvar Nuiiez (Cabeza de Vaca), one of the most celebrated amongst the adventurers at the conquest of the new world, made his way along its course across the continent from the Atlantic to Asuncion. According to the figures given by the Boundary Commission of 1874, the Y-Guaza joins the Parana in long. 54° 33' 8" W., and in lat. 25° 35' 28" S. About 6 miles from its mouth c 24 THE BASIN OP THE PARANA. its course is broken by the Salto Victoria, no mean rival to many other fine cataracts ; of course it does not offer the same imposing aspect as the prodigious abysses of the Guayra, the river being of such inferior volume to the gigantic Parana, but the height of the falls is greater, being estimated at little less than 200 feet, while as they are all confined within an area of a few hundred yards, they may be seen simultaneously, thus afibrding a noble couiy d'oeil. The accompanying engraving of the Salto Victoria is a truthful transcript from a photograph by Messrs. Malmann & Monnier. Being comparatively easy of access, the fall generally draws some half-dozen tourists every year. A boat, with all necessary provisions for the excursion, can be obtained at the yerbateros' settlement at Tacurupucu, a little higher up the Parana on the Paraguay shore. North of the Y-Guazu the principal afiluents of the Parana on the left are the Yaguary and the San Francisco, the courses of which lie in Brazilian territory, and are undelineated. To the south, and in the territory of the Argentine Republic, the afiluents are the Yassy the Aguaray-Guazu, the Pira-y-Mi and the Pira-y-Guazu, the Parana-y-Guazu, the Parana-y-Mi, and the Jabebiry. It was in the vicinity of some of these that the Jesuits established a number of their principal missions. Nothing of these now remains except some ruins in dense forests, although it may be mentioned that an attempt has been made, under General Roca, to organize in the new Argentine province Los Misiones, some fresh settlements on the very sites that were occupied by the Jesuit community. The afiluents of the Middle Parana on the right, lying within the territory of Paraguay, are much more considerable than those on the left. Such of them as are in the lower part traverse districts that may be described as populous, whilst those in the upper part irrigate rich yerbales, a certain pro- portion of which are already under cultivation, the rest being well-nigh sure, in the general advance of Paraguayan afiairs, not to remain unworked for long. There is very much confusion in the nomenclature of all these various streams. Names have been assigned them by THE IGUREY. 25 the Jesuits and by the Boundary Commissioners respectively, which by no means coincide. It has even happened that in the case of a contested frontier the exigencies of the moment liave induced a competent commission knowingly to acquiesce in what was erroneous, thus stereotyping a misconception. For instance, the first affluent below the Salto Guayra has been designated the Garey, the Igurey, or the Piraty-Y, accord- ing as there has been the disposition or not to identify it with the Igurey-Money, a river indicated in the treaty made in 1750 between Spain and Portugal, but which really flows into the Upper Parana above the Amambay in lat. 25°. Acting upon the representation of the Boundary Commission of 1874, we may now accept its denomination as the Piraty-Y. It has a certain interest attaching to it as skirting the southern side of the Sierra Mbaracayu, and carrying down in its loose soil traces of a mineral wealth which probably exists in the unex- plored regions from which it descends. Its sources would appear to be about lat. 24°. It is not navigable. The river, for which we may retain the name of the Igurey, joins the Parana about 30 miles from the Guayra Palls. On many maps it is marked as the Rio Pelotas. It rises in the extreme west of the Sierra Mbaracayu, at the foot of a moun- tain to which the yerbateros give the name of the Cerro Nogues. In my map it is placed in long. 55° 13' 15" W. and lat. 24° 2' 10" S. It issues originally from two lagoons a little to the north of lat. 24°, in the yerbales known as the Rancho Carapa. Toeppen, when he was making his journey up the Aguaray-Guazu, passed near the lagoons, but he was unable to ascertain what was the direction of the current. In 1887 Mons. G. Du Bois Du Tilleul came to the conclusion that they gave birth to the Arroyo Carapa, which, as a matter of fact, is simply the upper part of the Igurey. The entire length of the river may be taken as somewhat over 70 miles. It was partially explored also in 1887 by M. Ladouce, who found that it was navigable for about 20 miles above the cataract that obstructs its course 9 miles from its junction Avith the Parana. The valley through which it flows is narrow and thickly wooded ; on the south it is bounded by a plateau 2 6 THE BASIN OF THE PARANA. sloping towards the valley of the Jejuy-Mi and Jejuy-Guazu, both affluents of the Paraguay. All about here the hills are sharply defined, and form the connecting link between the great Central Sierra of Paraguay and the Sierra Amambay, About 8 miles below the mouth of the Igurey we find the mouth of the Rio Pozuelos. On Mouchez' map this river is made to appear of much greater importance than the Igurey ; in all other maps it is represented as altogether inferior. In the absence of experimental knowledge, it is manifestly im- possible to give any decisive opinion on the point ; but, as it is beyond dispute that the central cordillera at the presumed position of the sources of the stream takes a S.W. direction, it seems no unreasonable inference that the length of the Rio Pozuelos must not be far short of that of the Igurey. Much the same may be said with respect to the Itaimb^ Guazu, lacanguazu, Santa Theresa, and Ibiturocay, which are quite unknown in the lower part of their courses. Near their sources, on the contrary, they are taken possession of by the yerbateros, who cultivate large tracts of land upon their banks. For years past the yerbateros, under Major Pacifico de Vargas, have been working on the borders of the Santa Theresa and the Ibiturocay ; but, as they have not pushed their labours far inland, the information they can give is very limited, and goes little beyond the statement that the district is inhabited by an interesting Indian tribe, of quiet, inofiensive habits, which has been visited by Lieut. Patiiio and M. Ladouce. The probability is that both these rivers are navigable above the falls that divide them from the Parana. Just at this point the Parana valley is parted into two divisions by an ofishoot of the Central Sierra, which takes a S.E. direction. The eastern section includes some little rivers, as the Itabo, the Pindayguy, and the Tatiup^ ; the western supplies affluents for the Acaray, which is one of the Parana's most important tributaries. The map may be trusted to exhibit further hydrographical characteristics, and will allow me to refrain from entering more minutely into these dry details. (27) Chapter IV. THE BASIN OP THE PARAGUAY. As sete lagoas — Communication between the basins of the Paraguay and of the Amazon— Descalvado— Lake Xareyes — The Cuyaba — The San Lorenzo— Corumba — The Bolivian question— M. Thouar — Suarez Arana and Cal- vimontes — Fuerte Olympo — The Pan de Azucar — Las Siete Puntas. Although the Paraguay is an affluent of the Parana, it has an importance of its own, which raises it to an equality with the great river into which it flows ; and for the population of South America it may be said to bear a relation corresponding with that of the Missouri to the Mississippi in the United States. We have already seen how the depression of the Paraguay follows a direct course from lat. 14° to lat. 35°, and although in lat. 37° the Parana comes into possession, it may be said only to usurp the bed of its rival. Up to this point the Para- guay has played the leading part. Of great depth, well em- bedded within its banks, unvarying in its current and velocity, and containing a vast volume of water at all seasons, it can always be navigated by the largest vessels, so that the Ameri- can trade can be carried by its means into the very heart of the continent. Neither the Parana nor the Amazon, nor any other of the great rivers, is capable of rendering service so large as this. In his well-known " Expedition dans les parties centrales de I'Amerique du Sud," M. de Castelnau has recorded that the Rio Paraguay has its source in lat. 14° 35' S., and long. 56° 10' W., at a place called As sete lagoas, situated about 1,000 feet above the level of the sea. The plateau, which is of no great elevation, is part of the Central Sierra of America, and forms the watershed of the basins of the Parana and the Amazon. It is overlooked by the two mountain ridges of Tomador and Tamandua, which 28 THE BASIN OF THE PARAGUAY. connect it on the east with the Sierra Azul, and on the west with the Sierra Paresis. Some writers say that the Rio Arinos, a tributary of the Tapajos, one of the principal affluents of the Amazon, has its source on the same plateau, and in the same lagoons as the Paraguay. At the beginning of its course the Paraguay, being augmented by the waters of the Santa Ana and the Tamandua, flows due south. In lat. 15° 45' it receives on its right hand bank the Sepotaba, and in lat, 16° the Cabacal, at the spot where stands the town of San Luis de Caceres, which was formerly known as Villa Maria. About 40 miles lower down it is joined by the Jauru, which flows from the west. One of the affluents of the Jauru, the Aguapey, has the same source as the Alegre, which unites itself with the Guapore, an affluent of the Amazon. For some time the scheme has been mooted that these streams might be converted into a river-highway connecting the basins of the Amazon and the Parana, but the rapids of Mamore and Madura appear to render the conception visionary. Although at this height the Paraguay flows through the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso, a region lying outside the proper scope of this volume, I deem it well to enter into some of these geographical details for two reasons : first, because so many writers have published accounts which are far from accurate ; and secondly, because it is with specific reference to these particulars that sooner or later the projected scheme will have to be promoted of establishing communication be- tween the immense southern and central territories of South America. Having passed the Bahia de las Piedras, where it is joined by the Jauru, the Paraguay is deflected westward by a chain of mountains, of which the Morro de Caforo forms a part. On the left it takes up the Rio Novo, on the bank of which has been erected M. Cibils' great factory — Descalvado, at Avhich the condensed soups, for which there is so large demand in England, are prepared. Legends that refer to the geographical record of this spot are numerous, but not to be trusted. When the Spanish con- LAKE XAREYES. 29 querors first pushed their way thus far, their progress, they are alleged to have declared, was arrested by an immense lagoon, to which they gave the name of Laguna de los Xareyes. This they represented as the source of the Paraguay, and invested it with marvellous properties, maintaining that in its centre was situated the great El Dorado that was the dream and stimulus of the adventurers who set forth to explore the New World. Their statements so prevailed that the Laguna de los Xareyes was recognised by subsequent writers on this part of America, and it was assigned a place on every map. Unfor- tunately, the lagoon never existed. It is just probable that those intruders may have made their advance to the Upper Paraguay at a season of heavy flood, when the adjacent vicinity was inundated, as is still not un- frequently the case, and thus there might be a pretext for the error ; but in reality there are only a few unimportant marshes, through which the river-channel proceeds in a course that is well defined, the banks for a considerable distance being suf- ficiently high above the stream to preclude any fear of their being submerged. Such is the site that has been selected for Descalvado. Some distance lower down on the right, two deep-sunk lakes open into the river, one known as Uberava, the other as Gayba ; and just below these, in lat. IS'', the largest of all the left-hand affluents, the San Lorenzo, pours in its stream. At present very little can be said to be known about the San Lorenzo; only in its lower course has it been scientifically explored. It admits of being ascended by small steamers, but these proceed no further than the Rio Cuyaba, an affluent on the right-hand bank, which leads to a town of the same name, the capital of the Brazilian Province of Matto Grosso. A little higher up is Diamantino, a small town, now almost deserted. According to some observations made by Vogel in 1888, not published, but communicated to me by Dr. Morsbach, Cuyaba is situated about 600 feet above sea level. Pontes y Laxerde places it in lat. L5° 37' and long. 54° 7', which is an indication of the slightness of the decline of the Paraguay- Parana basin. 30 THE BASIN OP THE PARAGUAY. Below the mouth of the San Lorenzo, on the right hand, is the'Laguna Mandiory, and beyond that the important chain of hills which includes the Pan d'Amolar, Los Durados, and the Chanes. Making a bend round the mountain range, the river proceeds in a S.W. direction as far as lat. 19°, where it reaches on the right the Laguna de Caceres, near the outlet of which is built the small town of Corumba, with the great Brazilian arsenal of Ladavio a short distance further on. Some special political interest attaches to this lagoon, inas- much as here is the sole point of communication between the Republic of Bolivia and the Rio Paraguay. A short time since Bolivia put a custom-house there at a place named Piedra Branca. It is at the end of a bad road leading along the upper frontier of Chaco, as far as the town of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, which lies about 400 miles inland. Usually the Laguna de Caceres has but little water, and can only be navigated by ships of small draught ; indeed, during some months of the year it is by no means an uncommon occur- rence that the sailors are obliged to leave their vessels, and get into the water to drag them over the muddy deposit, at the risk of being bitten by the ray-fish, parinhas, and palometas, with which the lagoon abounds. The significance of this may be apprehended by reviewing the political situation of Bolivia during the last few years. Formerly the Republic had for its frontier a certain portion of the river Paraguay north of Bahia Negra ; but when the idea was started of opening communication with the Amazon by way of the Madeira and Marmore, Bolivia exchanged with Brazil the territory that she held on the Paraguay for a tract of land upon the Marmore. At the time the transaction seemed equitable and satisfactory enough, but it subsequently became a matter of extreme regret to the Bolivians. They had failed to realize the impossibility of accomplishing the scheme of intercommunication, and when the disastrous war in Chili had brought about the closing of their ports on the Pacific, they had to discover that, in surrendering their frontier land on the Paraguay, they had deprived themselves of the only outlet by which commerce could be maintained with the outer COIMBRA. 31 woi'ld. The bay of Caceres was all that was left them, and this, as we have seen, was not only unfitted for navigation, but was situated in what might be called " the Caudine Forks " of the Brazilian Custom-house at Corumba, which rendered it practically useless. Such are the circumstances from which originated the claim which the Bolivian Government makes for a part of the ter- ritory of Chaco. The claim is utterly indefensible, interfering as it does with the rights of Paraguay. We shall have to rever:. to this question later on ; it has arisen from the anxiety of Bolivia to gain possession of some port of ingress and egress on a navigable river, thus getting deliverance from the imprison- ment in which their present frontier confines them amidst the Andes. After passing Corumba, the Paraguay flows towards the west ; it makes numerous curves round about the chains of Rabicho and Pyrepytanga on the right, receives the waters of the Tacuari on the left, and then, turning S.W. in lat. 19^ 30', arrives at the cliffs on which are the ruins of Albuquerque Nuovo. Facing these is the mouth of the Rio Miranda, or Mondego, a navigable afiluent on the left, which leads to the little town of IVliranda, which has grown up amidst the most luxuriant pasture-lands of Bi'azil. On the right hand shore lower down is the fortress of Co- imbra, the extreme militai'y outpost of the Brazilians, Near the fort in the mountain side there are some remarkable grot- toes, the extent of which has not been accurately ascertained ; numberless stalactites hang down from the vaulted roofs, and the pillars assume fantastic shapes, curious as any to be found in caves of world-wide notoriety ; it would seem as though it needed but a few poets or enthusiastic tourists to celebrate their wonders, and the grottoes of Coimbra might fairly rival those of Finland. But a few miles more and the river quits Brazilian for Para- guayan soil, so far, at least, as concerns the right-hand bank. Nearly at lat. 20° and long. 63° is the mouth of the Rio Negro, the northern boundary mark of the Paraguayan possessions in Chaco. Like so many other of these streams, but little is 32 THE BASIN OF TPIE PARAGUAY. known of it save at its lower course ; it issues from a large la- goon about six miles to the north, known as the Bahia Negra ; but although an attempt to survey it was made by Captain Fernandez, of the Argentine army, it is still confounded Avith the rivers Tucavaca, Otuquis, and Aguas-Calientes. Distant six miles from Bahia Negra is a settlement which has been the occasion of various demonstrations on the part of the Bolivian and Paraguayan Governments. It was originally called Chamacoco, after the Indians who resided in the locality ; it was subsequently named Puerto Pacheco by the Bolivians ; now, however, it is simply known as Bahia Negra. The settle- ment has its position on an elevation about 12 feet above the liver, and consists of a number of buildings occupied mainly by the workmen who are engaged in the neighbouring forests, and of the fort garrisoned by Paraguayan troops. Its altitude above the sea, according to Minchin's map, is about 300 feet. It was in 1884 that M. Suarez Arana, a Bolivian, applied to the Paraguayan Government for leave to establish a settlement here, under the impression that it would serve as a good starting-point for a roadway that should lead across the desert of Chaco to the environs of Sucre. Paraguay acceded to the request, making stipulation that there should be no erection either of a military station or a custom-house. It was an arduous undertaking. There were marshes to cross and forests to clear ; water was scarce, and the resident Indians were unfriendly. Effort upon effort seemed ineffectual. So impressed, however, was Suarez Arana with the value of his design, that in spite of difficulties he persevei'ed resolutely in the task, until he had succeeded in making a picada (or bridle-path) half-way from the coast. He was obliged to stop at the foot of a hill called Cerro San Miguel, marked in Min- chin's map in lat. 19° 20' S. In 1886 M. Arana resigned his post, and the Bolivian Gov- ernment entrusted his project to M. Thouar, a Frenchman, who had already once crossed the Chaco in search of the remains of Dr. Crevaux. The enterprise again failed of suc- cess. M. Thouar came to the conclusion that no passage could be made at that latitude ; he went so far as to deny the ROLIVIA AND PARAGUAY. 33 existence of the Cerro San Miguel, and refusing to make any- further effort in that direction, he led his party some distance to the south, and thence endeavoured to reach the Pilcomayo. The adventure proved most disastrous. M. Thouar was aban- doned by all his party, and narrowly escaped a violent death at the hands of the Indians.* Some months later the son of M. Suarez Arana and a M. Calvimontes took up afresh the original scheme. They suc- ceeded in reaching the Ceri'o San Miguel, Avhich certainly existed in spite of M. Thouar's asseverations to the contrary, and persisting in their progress, reached the banks of the Para- guay on May 19th, 1888, thus demonstrating beyond dispute the practicability of the proposed line of communication at about the latitude of 20° S. ; — a fact of significant importance, as it may not improbably bear upon the future development of the region. All throughout this time Bolivia had had little expectation that the outlet would be found, but now that the picada had been so far accomplished, and that the scheme seemed feasible in consequence of the success of Arana and Calvimontes, the government proceeded to revive their claim to the territory of Chaco. The consequence was, as might be anticipated, the military occupation by Paraguay of the disputed point, in virtue of the right of sovereignty which from time immemorial she had exercised over the soil. This ensued on the 14th of September, 1888. Forwards, from the mouth of the Rio Negro to the Rio Apa, the general direction of the Paraguay is towards the south, with the Brazilian territory on the left hand and Para- guayan Chaco opposite. As a rule the left shore is about 10 or 12 feet above the stream, the plain of Chaco on the other side being usually quite low, although at intervals there is rising ground to the height of 20 or 25 feet, extending some GO feet inland. The pilots who ascend the river have given names to the most conspicuous of these plateaux, calling them * M. Tlioiiar is publishing in the " Tour du, Monde" an account of this ex- pedition, entitled, " Voyage dans le Chaco boreal.'" 34 THE BASIN OF THE PARAGUAY. successively the Barrancas of Cabeza de Buey, Campos Que- mados, Murandas, and Rabo d'Ema. Opposite the last is the mouth of the Nabilcque, on the left-hand bank. According to the statement of one of the residents in Corumba, which, however, I only accept with reserve, the Nabileque is not a river at all, but only an arm of the Para- guay, of which the other end is found at a short distance above the fortress of Coimbra. It is said that during the war, when Lopez despatched his fleet up the main stream with the design of surprising the settlement, some Cadjuevos In- dians, whose sympathies were with the allies, started up this supposed river in their canoes, reached Coimbra before the warships, and gave warning of the impending attack. Below the Nabileque, also on the left bank, is the Rio Branco, which flows down from the central cordillera. About two miles lower on the right, in lat. 21°, is Fuerte Olympo, formerly called Fuerte Borbon, a settlement established in 1792 by the Government of Paraguay ; the eminence on which it stands is part of a mountain chain known as Las Tres Hei'- manas, and consisting of six hills, of which the most northerly is separated from Fuerte Olympo by a lagoon, and bears the name of Cerro del Norte. The country all about this im- portant outpost is sufficiently elevated to be above the reach of floods, and is perfectly fit for cultivation. Opposite, on the Brazilian side, M, Malheiro has established a large cattle- ranch, where some very fine beasts are bred. The growing crops, however, belonging to the estate are on the Paraguay side, within the territory of Chaco. This an-angement seems generally adopted hereabouts ; and I found that both M. Barros and M. Boaventura, who have estates lower down on the Brazilian shore, spoke of the supe- riority of the Chaco soil for cereals — a condition which augurs well for future colonization. As the river flows southward, its banks become higher. Beyond the mouth of the Rio Terere, a conspicuous mountain chain attracts the eye, to which the Brazilians have given the name of Fecho dos Moros. It forms a portion of that second- ary network of bi'oken hills of which we have already spoken, PAN DE AZUCAR. 35 and composed as it is of a nucleus of hard syenite, it has re- sisted the erosive influence which has worn away such a large part of the Cordilleras. Amongst these hills the great river makes many windings : one place there is in which it expands into a sheet of water more than half a mile in breadth, and, being apparently quite enclosed, it suggests comparison with one of the beautiful hidden lakes of the Pyrenees. Towering above the rest of the range to the north is an im- posing peak, so regular in its conical form as to be precisely like a sugar-loaf. The Spanish invaders at once gave it the name of the Pan de Azucar, and it has always remained prominent in the annal': of the locality. It has been the starting-place of most of the expeditions from Paraguay to Peru, one of these being the expedition of Irala in 1547. Mouchez estimates the height of the Pan de Azucar as about 1200 feet, but I do not know whence he deiuved this measure- ment, and I was unable to verify it, because at the period in my journey when I was there I was suffering from the wound I had received in Corumba, and was unable to make the ascent. In 1887, the officers of the Brazilian navy made various observations, but the result of these has hitherto been un- published. The height and situation of the hill unite in making it one of the best strategical positions in this part of the river, and it was the claim to its possession that entailed the prolonged dispute between Paraguay and Bi'azil, pending the settlement of the boundary question. According as the Rio Branco or the Rio Apa should be adjudged the frontier, the Fecho dos Moi'os would accrue to one power or to the other, inasmuch as the entire range, except one solitary peak, lies on the left hand bank. The contention was finally settled in favour of Brazil. Leaving this range behind, the Paraguay next makes a bend to the east. It becomes narrower, and, at a point that is known as the Paso de Taruma, is somewhat difficult for navi- gation. It is here that M. Barros and M. Boaventura have the estates to which reference has been made. 36 THE BASIN OP THE PARAGUAY. About 40 miles below the Pan de Azucar, but on the Chaco side of the river, is another group of hills — Las Siete Puntas. Nearly facing this is the mouth of the Tepoty, the last affluent that the Paraguay receives before reaching the Apa, 36 miles lower down. A forest farm has recently been started on the left, a few miles above the Apa. It has been called Colonia Formosa, and not improbably may become the centre for an increasing population. Lieut. Page reckons the distance from Bahia Negra to the Rio Apa to be about 192 miles. The land adjacent to the river is richly wooded, and all adapted for cultivation. As yet the country is overrun by Indians, some of whom are very ferocious ; those on the left hand shore belong to the Cadjuevos tribe ; on the left are the Chamacocos, the Angaites, and the Sanapanas. The last of these are gradually softening down and beginning to work in the enclosures ; the Chamacocos re- tain their warlike instincts, and are perpetually engaged in internecine strife. (37) Chapter V. THE BASIN OF THE PARAGUAY (continued). The Rio Brauco aud tlie Rio Apa— Itapucu Guazu— Puerto Casado— San Salvador —Villa Coucepcion — Rosario — The affluents— The Apa— The Aquidabau— The Ypane- The Jejuy— The Tibicuary— The Pilcomayo. Historically, the mouth of the Rio Apa constitutes one of the most important points in the geography of Pai'aguay. From the close of last century down to quite a recent date, the determination of its true position has been a theme for discus- sion by successive boundary commissions. The government of Spain never failed to claim against Por- tugal its title to the sovereignty of the land north of the river. Paraguay, Avhen independent, continued the struggle, and in- sisted upon the rational interpretation of the Treaty of St. Ildefonse, which fixed the boundary at the Rio Blanco ; but after the war of the Triple Alliance it was the Brazilian inter- pretation of the treaty that was accepted, and the Rio Apa was definitely declared to be the northern frontier of Paraguay. The latitude of the river-bar has often been taken ; but the result has varied from lat. 22° 2', given by Fr. Quiroga, to 22° 6', assigned by M. Leverger. Admiral Mouchez, on whom reliance should be placed, places it in 22^^ 5' 8".* As to its longitudes, there are but three known estimates — that of Page, who gives 58° 15'; that of Mouchez, who gives 57° 58' 7"; and that of the 1874 Commission, which is 57° 58' 36". The map published by Nolte places the river-mouth in long. 58° 2 ', but I am not aware on what authority. A Brazilian colony cultivates the fertile soil at the mouth of T,he stream, and opposite to this stands a Paraguayan outpost called Confluencia, which guai'ds the frontier. * Other reckonings that are given are — Pasos, 22° 3' ; Azara, 22° 4' ; Boundary Commission, 1874, 22° 4' 45" -24 ; Demersay, 29° 3' 30". 38 THE BASIN OF THE PARAGUAY. Below the Rio Apa the navigation of the Paraguay becomes somewhat impeded by rocks and sandbanks. It would seem as if between lat. 22° and lat. 23*^ the river has been diverted from its original channel, and, forcing itself on among the hills on the left, has deviated for a while from the lowlands of the Chaco. All along this part the unevenness of the ground on both sides of the river is very noticeable ; hei'e, too, the outlying and detached spurs of the Sierra Amambay are found across the river, losing themselves in gradual descents in the Chaco plains. The scenery hereabouts is very picturesque. The tall cliffs of grey marble are hollowed out into grottoes, sometimes paral- lel with the bank, and sometimes running inland along the edge of some deserted arm of the stream, which has widened itself out almost to become a lake ; these are all full of animation from such teeming flocks of birds as Paraguay alone can show. Giant cactuses and towering tree-ferns cling to every projection on the face of the marble, redeeming it completely from its native bareness. The horizon is bounded by lofty hills, which for the most part are thickly wooded, and at certain seasons are clothed with flowers of exquisite hue; in one place the lapacho, with its blossoms like great clusters of violets, pre- dominating ; in another, the brilliant yellow of the paratodo overpowering the less conspicuous blooms below. All the way from Itapuca-Guazu to the vicinity of the ancient town of Divino Salvador is a scene of perpetual enchantment. Several stations have been planted in this locality, and a visitor would be well accommodated. Beyond the cliffs of Itapuca-Guazu, opposite the Monte Colony, is what was the fortress of Francia, and six miles lower down is Puerto Casado, whence can be seen the heights of the Cerros Moradas, which form the extreme spur of the Quinze Puntas on the left bank of the river. Since the war a set- tlement has been established at the foot of these hills, which, after bearing the names of Santa Maria del Apa and Colonia Francia, is now known as the Colonia Morada de Risso. A variety of excursions may be made from this spot ; hunting expeditions may also be undertaken, as huge jaguars, or Ameri- can tigers, abound in the woods. COURSE OF THE RIVER. 39 A little lower down an island lies mid-stream, and on the shore are the rocks of Peiia hermosa ; below these are the fantastic grottoes of Piedras Partidas, and then the passo of Itapuca-mi is reached ; after which the banks are again low, and the scenery over the plains resumes its monotonous aspect ; not that the navigation of the river can be considered safe until the somewhat dangerous reach at Los Arrecifes has been passed. On the Chaco side, a little further on, and only a few miles from San Salvador, is the colony of San Carlos. This, previous to the war, was the site of a flourishing town ; nothing, how- ever, now remains but the church, which is intact, and the ruins of the barracks. In lat. 23*^ 10' 50" (according to Mouchez) is the mouth of the river Aquidaban, and in lat. 23° 23' 56" (according to Page) is Villa Concepcion, one of the most important towns in Para- guay. A large island extends to the mouth of the Ypan^ which is about six miles from the town. There is little that demands notice in the further course of the river until it reaches the northern mouth of the Jejuy, in about lat. 24° 12' S., and long. 57° 20' W. The river has two arms, of which the smaller lies a little to the south. Below Villa Concepcion the banks of the river are high on the left, those on the Chaco side being quite low ; the channel is well defined, and the stream flows through it so uniformly that all shipping proceeds without hindrance. Two miles to the south of the Jejuy is a small military station called Barranquerita. All steamers stop at this place, which is the starting-point of the road to San Pedro on the Jejuy. Between Barranquerita and the port for the town of Rosario there is passed the little river Yeteti, opposite to which is the mouth of the Aragua-y-Guaza, said to be a branch of the Pilco- mayo. The expedition of Capt. Fernandez was lost here in 1886. The puerto has been placed on an elevated barranca, about three miles from the town, which it is designed to serve, and from which it is separated by some troublesome marshes. Ro- sario, however, may be reached by ascending the Quarepoty, although the current of the little river is occasionally so strong as to make stiff work for the boatmen. D 40 THE BASIN OF THE PARAGUAY. Formerly some prosperous estates existed just below E