oe a "5%HAiNn.jt\v , 5JMIVERSJ&. A^IOSANGEU/- ^UIBRARYQ-c 3 c ^ I I ^^ ^ ^ ^.y^^i^ 06 "L /_ -"* i *lrr !** v? ^"*^ ^ ^tUNIVERS/A j*& January, 1837. NEW BOOKS PUBLISHED 011 PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, BY WHITTAKER AND Co., AVE-MARIA LANE, LONDON. - Two vols. 8vo., with illustrations of interesting localities and costumes, a new Map of Germany, and Frontispieces in Oil Colours, by BAXTER, price 24s. cloth, lettered. SKETCHES of GERMANY, and the GERMANS; with a Glance at Poland, Hungary, and Switzerland, in 1834, 1835, and 1836. By AN ENGLISHMAN, Resident in Germany. *** Tli is work comprises a full development of the present social and political state of Germany, gathered from a long residence at Vienna ; including notices of its .commercial relations and views, and the operation of the Prussian Com- mercial League. Also, a Tour from the German Ocean to the Baltic ; from thence through Berlin to Warsaw, on to Silesia and Bohemia; and through the greater part of the Austrian Empire to the Adriatic ; with a Voyage down the Danube, from TJlm into Hungary. ".All who desire to have an enlightened conductor to the almost innumerable places and objects of hieh interest contained within the wide circuit expressed in Hie title, whether the tour is to be iu person or in spirit, ouclit to become intimately acquainted with it." Monthly Review. " We have found the whole exceedingly pleasing, even where the author sioesover familiar ground, trodden by almost every visitor to Germany, such as her capital cities, baths, and rivers. On less frequented regions he is still more ayreeable, and bis touches more replete with novelty and intelli- gence." Literary (jatette. Fourth Edition, in one volume, revised, and illustrated by a Map of Ireland and a Chart of the Shannon, post 8vo. 12s. A JOURNEY THROUGHOUT IRELAND, during the Spring, Summer, and Autumn of 1834. By HENRY D. INGLIS. " The most striking, and the most valuable characteristic of this work is its strict honesty : we have often had to lament the difficulty of obtaining accurate information respfctin<; the stale of Ire- land; most writeis on this subject have yielded to the prejudices of party, if not to the extent of uttering falsehood, at least to the scarcely less culpable suppression 01' truth. We rejoice theri to have before us the evidence of a traveller like Mr. Jnglis, whose Murk bears in every page the.stiimp and impress of veracity." Atlieiieum. " Written in an honest and impartial spirit." Edinburgh Rericw, " Drawn by a careful and impartial man." '1'nnft. "He would refer to a passage in a recent work on Ireland, by Mr. Inglis, which lie believed, was regarded by both sides as impartial," lard Stanley's Speech in the House of Commons, 2nd April. 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THE BRITISH COLONIAL LIBRARY, FORMING A POPULAR AND AUTHENTIC DESCRIPTION OP THE SEVERAL Colonies of tJ;e British Oftnpfre, AND EMBRACING THE HISTORY PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY GEOLOGY CLIMATE ANIMAL, VEGE- TABLE, AND MINERAL KINGDOMS GOVERNMENT FINANCE MILITARY DEFENCE COMMERCE SHIPPING MONETARY SYSTEM RELIGION POPULATION, WHITE AND COLOURED EDUCATION AND THE PRESS EMIGRATION, SOCIAL STATE, &c. OF EACH SETTLEMENT. Pounded on Official and Public Documents, furnished by Government, the Hon. East India Company, &c., / And dedicated, by express command, to tlie King. BY R. MONTGOMERY MARTIN, ESQ., F.S.S. %* Each volume is complete in itself, and is issued periodically, at intervals of not less than two months, and the whole work will not exceed 12 volumes, foolscap 8vo. Illustrated by original Maps and Frontispieces, and handsomely bound in cloth and lettered, price Gs. each volume. Already Published. Vol. I. The CANADAS, Upper and Lower. Vol. II. 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MEMOIRS of NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, from the French of BOURRI EN NE, Private Secretary to the Emperor. Translated by JOHN S. MKMES, LL.D. " Bniirrienne WHS the playmate of Napoleon in early life, his companion through his first cam- paigns, and his private secirtary a fur he had rtaiht-d the summit ill |>c.\ver He liab made ihe heat use ot his Op|H>rtuliill8, and ba 1 . rr\el the countless wiitt-is that have attempted his bii'jjiai>h\ .'' Monthly lientio. " Wt- know from the best political authonty now liviuj; in England, that the writer's accounts ar* Perfectly corroborated_by facts." Literary Gazette. Works published by Whit taker and Co Biography, History, A.C. continued. In 2 large vols. 8vo., price 30s. The HISTORY of ITALY ; from the Fall of the Western Empire to the Commencement of the Wars of the French Revolution. By GEORGE PERCIVAL, Esq. 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"The translation of Baron Cuvier's inestimable work on the Animal Kingdom was undertaken with the intention of supplying the great arid acknowledged want in English literature or any trea- tise on Zoology possessing even tolerable pretensions to completeness. While continental nations were rapidly enlarging the hounds of Natural .Science, and minutely examining the details of its several departments, we continued to look on with apathy, though England possesstd the greatest facilities tor the cultivation of zoological knowledge, and the deepest interest in its advancement. The dawn of improvement commenced with the publication of the first part ot this work, and has since gone on steadily increasing. The first object of the conductors of this great undertaki to give a complete translation ot' the Baron's ' Regne Animal,' as close and accurate as tlie idioms of the two languages would admit; thus affording, for the first time, to their countrymen, a scientific synopsis of the varied living tribes that tenant earth, water, and air. arranged according to the laws of their conformation ; they could not avoid perceiving that the low state of zoological science in Eneland was owins to the prevalence of systems, in which arbitrary characters ami acci- dental resemblances, instead of structure, were made the basis of classification, and they but followed the opinion of all the enlightened men in Europe, when they adopted a system founded mainly on organization, ' a system of zoology,' as Cuvier himself describes it, ' that may serve tor an intro- duction and a guide in anatomical researches, and such a body of anatomy as may ttr.d todevelope and explain the zoological system.' " Had their labours terminated here, the conductors of the work felt, that though they would have performed services of no inconsiderable magnitude to I'ritish science, still the sphere of their utility would be limited ; for a mere catalogue of the divisions of the Animal kingdom, however abiy constructed, however valuable to the working zoologist and comparative anatomist, must, of neces- sity, seem dry and repulsive to the general reader. '1 hey, therefore, have added to the Karon's classification, a vast body of authentic information respecting the instincts, habits. &c. of animals, collected from the works of the most observant travellers, and the researches of the most eminent naturalists, conveyed in a popular form ; containing, theretore, all the interest that belongs to treatises on the remarkable productions of nature, without any sacrifice of scientific accuracy. Their plans received the sanction of Baron Cuvier himself: a little before his lamented decease, he expressed his great satisfaction at seeing, from the portion of the work then published, that he was about to be introduced to the British nation under more favourable auspices than he could reasonably have anticipated." Works published by Whittaker and Co. Natural History and Gardening- continued. A New Edition, with considerable Additions and Improvements, in 2 volumes, post 8vo., 28s. cloth and lettered. The FEATHERED TRIBES of the BRITISH ISLANDS. By ROBERT MUDIE. With considerable Additions and Improvements, and embellished with numerous Knruvinv* of Birds, carefully drawn and coloured by the best Artists, from real Specimens; and also by various lin^ravin wood, illustrative of some of the more remarkable points in the Natural Historv of Birds. " Mudie will be ranked amongst the most eminent field observers in this or any other country. The feathered Tribes is indeed ail exquisite \york, and unquestionably the be.st that lias yet appeared on the habits of our native birds. In short, it is only second to those of \Vilsou and Audutioi.." Seville H'outl's OrnilkoieffUt't Teit Botik. " Indispensable to every studier and every lover of the birds of Britain. This, like the rest of -Mr. .Mudie's works, is characterized by evidences of much oriuin.tl observation ; of a combinative habit of reflect. "iis on things observed ; of clearness of narration ; and of a capacity lor t!i-t uiiive, exciting speculations. "/jtutimi's Magazine <>t' \aiural History. " Mudie is one of the naturalists I love best : he has studied nature in the fields and woods, and by the b:inl:>> and braes of streams, all up to the highest waterfall." Hlachsavd's Magazine. Also, by the same Author, in 18mo., price 3s. Gd. in cloth. A POPULAR GUIDE to the OBSERVATION of NATURE; or Hints of Inducement to the Study of Natural Productions and Appearances in their Connexions and Relations ; showing the groat, extent of knowledge attainable by the unaided exercise of the Senses. By ROBERT MUDIE. " We are furnished with matter for the philosopher, the poet, the historian, the antiquary all who contemplate heaven and earth ; and this is furnished in a little book winch all may u-'-tii in the pocket, over the whole earth or the whole sea; and thus enable themselves to tnink, it they have never thought before, and if they have, to think much better." Cnr/iian'f Maja:ine. Also by the same Author. 18mo., with Engravings, price Gs. bound. FIRST LINES of ZOOLOGY ; by Question and Answer. For the Use of the Young. " A useful and well-arranced Catechism, going through the various branches of Zoology in a clear and simple manner, well adapted for the instruction of youth." Literary Gazette. 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"Thi> is, in every sense of the word, an exquisite little volume-exquisite in design, and exqui- AVw Alanthli, "japazine "*'* * """ W " h a " y b k S * mM ali ' ordlll us so lnllcl Also, by the same, 12mo. (U. cl,,th lettered. The WONDERS of the VEGETABLE KINGDOM DIS- PLAYED. "The interestine tacts relative to the vegetable economy are brought together in an easy and .,!/-' " le s - t >t' | n'"s and reflections savour of honourable intention and rational piety." Alomnly J\.ittu' f Ave-Maria Lane, London. 9 Natural SSistory and Gardening 1 continued. In 1 vol. 8vo. Illustrated by various Wood- cuts, price 14s. cloth. The HISTORY and DESCRIPTION of FOSSIL FUEL, the COLLIERIES and COAL TRADE of GREAT BRITAIN. By the Author of " Treatise on Manufactures in Metal," in Lardner's Cyclopaedia. "All will be satisfied of the attraction and valuable nature of the work from which we have gathered so much. It is really excellent in every way." Afon/A/y Review. 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They would call attention to the fact that God's promises to Israel of great national power, and the general characteristics of that people as recorded in Holy Writ, are now possessed only by the Anglo-Saxon race, and, therefore, depending on the truth of Scripture, they consider, as a logical sequence, that they are naturally descended from Hebrew -Israel, to whose descendants only those blessings were secured by an unconditional covenant by God Himself, whose faithfulness forms the foundation of their belief in the identity of lost Israel. On details there may be differences of opinion, but the very discussion of these in social gatherings must tend to elicit truth and discard error ; therefore to those who accord witli the view (in the main) the Committee appeals for that support which is given by Association " As iron sharpeneth iron, so does man the countenance of his friend " while to those who object an appeal is also made ; periodical meetings are open to all, and opponents will receive a courteous hearing, and their questions candid replies. LIST OF BOOKS Which may be obtained at Mr. GREEN'S, Bookseller, Norman Road, St. Leonards-ori-Sea, at a trifling cost per volume per week. / Anglo- Israel Post Bag ... ... Right Rev. Bishop Titcomb. 2. Our I nheritance in the Great Pyramid ... Professor Piaz::i 8, it i/th. if Horre Propheticae 2 vols. ... Rev. H. Marriott. r Tlie Future of Israel and Judah ... Rev. Dr. Wild (New York). The Lost Ten Tribes ... ... Rev. 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Douglas A. 0>txtm>-. */* ' Is Anglo-Israel Teaching Unscriptural ? ... Surgeon-General Grant. % Elements of Faith ... ... ('-//-n. 2? Genealogy of the Bj-igantes . I. L< GRAMMAR HEBREW LANGUAGE, COMPRISED IN A SERIES OF LECTURES; COMPILED FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES, AND DRAWN PRINCIPALLY Jtom Oriental founts, DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS IN THE UNIVERSITIES. BY THE REV. S. LEE, B.D. D.D. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HALLE, HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF PARIS, HONORARY ASSOCIATE AND F.R.S.L. AND M.R.A.S. &C., PREBENDARY OF BRISTOL, VICAR OF BANWELL, AND REGIUS PROFESSOR OF HEBREW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. SECOND EDITION, ENRICHED WITH MUCH ORIGINAL MATTER. LONDON: PRINTED FOR JAMES DUNCAN, 37, PATERNOSTER ROW; J. & J. J. DEIGHTON, AND T. STEVENSON, CAMBRIDGE; J. PARKER, OXFORD ; BELL & BRADFUTE, EDINBURGH ; AND M. OGLE, GLASGOW. 1832. Macintosh, Priiittr, Grral N< \v Street, London. Arfhex DEDICATION. < BIS TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE BARON BROUGHAM AND VAUX, LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND. MY LORD, The very munificent and disinterested manner, in which your Lordship has been pleased to notice my labours, (devoted as they have been for many years to the advancement of sacred and oriental literature in this country,) has made it a duty to seize the earliest oppor- tunity in my power, publicly to express my obligations for the favours so unexpectedly, and I will say so unusually, conferred. I will not affirm that our public institutions are generally not well endowed, but I may that to have performed the duties of both Hebrew and Arabic Professor in the University of Cambridge with some public credit, for nearly the last dozen years with a salary of forty pounds,* was not very likely to impress any one so circumstanced with the idea, that his pluralities were such as to render him an object of public animadversion, or to buoy him up with the notion, that his services had been met by his country * In addition to this, Lord Liverpool allowed me to draw annually upon the Treasury for the sura of 100/., upon producing a certificate of having delivered lectures. A 2 2107717 IV DEDICATION. with more than ordinary encouragement. How these particulars first found their way to your Lordship's notice, I have not the means of knowing : but I do know that the very handsome manner, in which you have been pleased to meet them, has left me no alter- native but that of gratefully acknowledging the obliga- tions which I owe and feel, and of assuring your Lordship, that I shall ever consider it my duty to endeavour to deserve the distinction. I have the honour to be, MY LORD, Your Lordship's most obliged, Humble Servant, THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. THE first Edition of this Grammar having been entirely sold off, and having been requested by the Publisher to prepare another, I avail myself of this opportunity to state why the Work appears in its present form, and how the Learner may most profitably use it. After all, then, that has been said about it, either publicly or privately, (and I here beg to offer my acknowledgments for all the favours thus done me,) my conviction is, that to present the Student with both the Synthetical and Analytical methods, at the same time, is by far the most likely to give him an interest, and to ground him, in the study of the Hebrew Language. To cultivate the memory, as well in this as in every other sort of study, I hold to be good ; but then I must insist upon it, that to interest and inform the mind is infinitely better. A very learned and deservedly celebrated opponent of mine, on this question, has argued that to give naked rules in Grammar, is always the most likely to insure the progress, and to advance the truth : while, however, he has not hesitated to advance reasons, analytically, in support of his own rules, whenever he thought fit to do so. My opinion has been, and still is, that where we have Men, and not mere Children, to study any Language or Science, it is our duty to lay before them at once, both the rule and the reasons for it : and thus, at one and the same time, to present the grounds * This edition consisted of 1,500 copies; and I cannot help looking upon the circumstance as a proof that Hebrew Literature is on the increase among us. VI PREFACE. of the matter proposed for instruction, with rules calculated to assist the memory in retaining it; and thus to contribute towards improving the mind by habits of close investigation und inquiry. By these means the Learner will have the advan- tage of seeing on what grounds his instructions rest, and consequently of determining for himself, whether they are such as are entitled to his cordial reception or not : while, on the other hand, the Grammarian who is accustomed only to consider the Language on which he is treating synthetically, is apt to form rules upon every example with which he meets, less in conformity with its real principles, than with those of that in which he has been accustomed to speak and write : which, it may be shewn, has abundantly been the case with all European Writers on the Arabic and Hebrew Grammar, and of which M. de Sacy (the Writer alluded to) is an illustrious and striking example.* With the view therefore of accomplishing this, I have, in the first place, considered the Vowels as either perfect or imperfect : not abstractedly, or with reference to the nature of things generally; but with reference to the formation of syllables as they are found to exist in this Language. I have, for example, termed (T) Kamets, ( ) Tsere, (^~] Kfur'ik giidol, (') Kholem, and ( ^ ) Shurek, Perfect vowels; be- cause, when combined with any one consonant, they will generally form full and perfect syllables. For a similar reason, I have termed another set of vowels, as ( - ) Pathakh, &c., Imperfect vowels; because, when employed in the forma- tion of syllables, they require the addition either of a second consonant or of an accent to form such full and perfect syl- lables. My reasons are these : When we come to read the Hebrew text, it is important to know where every syllable commences and terminates, in order duly to pronounce the words. And, again, when a Hebrew word is changed from * Proofs of this will hereafter be given in a Tract which it is my intention to publish. PREFACE. Vll the singular to the plural form, or when found in what is termed the state of construction, or receives one or other of the pronouns, the vowels composing it are usually found to vary ; and this in exact accordance with this view of the syllabication, in conjunction with the character of their etymology or derivation. I have therefore, in the first place, stated and exemplified this system of perfect and imperfect vowels with regard to the formation of syllables. The ex- ceptions introduced by the accents are next noticed : so that the Learner is, in a few hours, put in possession of one of the main principles which regulate the structure of this Language. I have, in the next place, considered the forms and force of the several sorts of Nouns, beginning with those which are the most simple, and proceeding to those which are the most augmented. The forms and force of the unaugmented nouns, we must necessarily take as postulates, grounded however on the usage of the Language. For the augmented ones I have endeavoured to account, by supposing them to present two or more of the simpler forms, joined together as com- pounds. By this means I have also endeavoured to ascer- tain their precise force ; and, in some instances at least, I think I have succeeded.* In all these cases too, or in as many as it seemed necessary, I have accounted for the changes of the vowels, in a way perhaps which can neither be bur- densome to the memory, perplexing to the Learner, nor liable to be soon forgotten ; and by which the numerous rules and exceptions of the school of Buxtorf are avoided, as is also the multifarious and indistinct doctrine of .the German Gram- marians, by which these nouns are distributed into not fewer than thirteen declensions ! * See the derivations proposed for the Niphhal, HipKhil, Hophhal, and Hith- species of the conjugation, Gram., pp.114 117. 118. 122. 123: and the doctrine respecting the use of the tenses of the Verbs, p. 327. Vlll PREFACE* The Particles I have treated, after Schroederus and others, as fragments of nouns, which enables us at once to ascertain their precise forms, force, and modes of construction. The Verbs I consider, in the next place, as consisting of nouns either simple or augmented, conjugated with one or other of the pronouns in an abridged form. In this I am not singular ; for the Hindoos, Arabs, and even some of our own European Grammarians, have done so before me. I adopt this view of the case, because it is both easy and natural, and because it will at once account both for the form and force of the verb in all its varieties of person. A point, however, of very great importance here is, the investigation of the prin- ciples by which primitive words are occasionally abridged, and by which the defective forms of both verbs and nouns can be easily and naturally accounted for. This investigation will be found in the third Lecture of this Work. Its use is, to shew in what particular cases certain letters and vowels are dropped or changed, and how all the verbs termed defective, are reducible to the Paradigm of the regular triliteral verb. This affords the advantage of saving much time and labour, and of cutting off the sources of almost infinite perplexity to the Student : the result being, that the conjugation is only one, and this the most simple and regular possible. The next improvement which, I flatter myself, I first pre- sented to the Public, is, an analytical investigation of the principles which regulate the use of the Tenses of the verb. It had been customary to suppose, that the two tenses were a past and a future ; and, because it had often been urged, forsooth, that this was extremely philosophical, (there being no point of time which could properly be termed present,} it was thought, that this was one of the greatest beauties of the Hebrew Language ! Unfortunately, however, it appears that this future is occasionally used as a present tense, and also as a past. No reason has been offered, as far as I know, for this its usage as a present tense ; but, for its use as a past, the conjunction T and, so, &c. has, most unaccountably, been made PREFACE. IX to account, and thence has taken the name of the conversive Faw ! A considerable number of instances however occurs, in which this tense is so used without any such conversive Faw : and What has been done in these cases ? Why, the instances have been said to present an enallage temporis ; and here the matter very wisely ended ! The next shift adopted by the Learned was, to term both these tenses Aorists ; and by this their uncertainty was regu- larly determined beyond all doubt. For now the Preterite could be construed as a past, present, or future, tense, as could also this Future, by rule the most indeterminate possible : so that the Translator or Commentator had nothing whatever to do, but to adopt whatever sense he pleased : his Grammar always supplying him with a law comprehensive enough to justify all his wanderings. Upon a little consideration, however, and with the assistance of a few native Commentators on the Arabic Grammar, I felt convinced that the whole of this was a mere tissue of trifling and error. I found (what indeed our Writers on the Arabic Grammar ought long ago to have told us) that these two tenses exhibited really a past, and a present, tense : and that they were universally used as such in one sense or other : it being customary with the Orientals of this family to contemplate past, present, or future, events, either as we do, or, as past, present, &c. with respect to some other time or circumstance introduced into the context : and also, to speak of events, which they believed should surely come to pass, as if they had already taken place. These usages too are not only natural, but they are also found to exist, more or less, in perhaps every language. With the Hebrews and Arabians however, owing probably to their natural warmth of temperament and expression, they are more frequent, and apparently abrupt, than they are found elsewhere. In this view of the case, then, all is natural, regular, and constant. The tenses are as certain and orderly in their use, as any framers of Language could make them : and the only instances in which failure is most likely to happen in their application, are those in which the Interpreter himself X PREFACE. is either uninstructed or unpractised in the usages of these particular dialects. To this doctrine, however, M. de Sacy has loudly, though not argumentatively, objected : not so much, I believe, because he thought it untrue, as because it appeared to be inconsistent with the doctrines laid down in his own Arabic Grammar ; which treats one of them, at least as an Aorist, and gives no just account of the use of the other. But, Is it likely that M. de Sacy can here be right, and the whole nation of the Arabs, the Persians, the Syrians, and others, wrong? Is it probable that they are ignoiant of the principles upon which they speak and write ? Or, that they speak and write upon no principles whatever, but go on at random (o/>//s,) leaving the hearer or reader to make them out as well as he can ? This is to my mind quite incredible : and, if I am at liberty to believe their best Writers on the subject, it is as untrue as it is incredible. In this view of the case too, there is a perfect end to the power of the conversive Vaw ; which I should consider a great advantage gained, knowing as I do, that it is in very many cases worse than useless.* To this again my learned opponent loudly objects, although he very well knows that no Arab Writer whatever, circumstanced nevertheless just as every Hebrew one is in this respect, has ever once thought of having recourse to such a conversive power in his conjunctive ( ^ ) IVaw ! The Arabs, as every one knows, can do very well without this unac- countable conversive letter, and so can the Syrians and the Ethiopians, employing nevertheless, at the same time, dialects most intimately connected with that of the Hebrew, and using the tenses of the verbs, just as I have exhibited them in this work. They, moreover, feel no want either of this Take one only out of the many which may be cited, viz. Is. ix. 5 : iapttrbV rnbjpn, which, according to the doctrine about the conversii-t 1, ought to be translated, " And the government was, or hath been, upon his shoulder" than which nothing can be more incongruous or false. PREFACE. XI doctrine of Aorists, or of the still broader precepts which took in the enallage temporum. The principles they have adopted are clearly stated and well defined, so that their con- versation is easy to be understood, and their written compo- sition clear and precise. The same is in all respects the case with the Hebrew; and, if it has here been accused of irregu- larity or indefiniteness, it was not because the Language itself was irregular or indefinite, but because its Grammarians had made it so. To the doctrine of the tenses, (which I now consider estab- lished,) I have in this Edition added that which determines the use of the Apocopated form and of the Paragogic letters, as found in the verbs. M. de Sacy has endeavoured to shew in his Arabic Grammar, that certain terminations of the Arabic verb are equivalent to the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Condi- tional modes, of the European Grammars ; and it is certain that cases occur in which these forms may be so translated. Upon a close and long continued examination of this question, however, I have been convinced, that no two things can be more distant from each other, than are the principles by which these modes of expression are regulated in the Oriental and European Grammars respectively. The detail will be too long to be inserted here, I reserve it therefore for publication in the Tract already alluded to. I will only remark now, that if any reliance can be placed on this doctrine, as laid down in this work for the first time, (and certain it is that it is most amply acknowledged by the Grammarians of Arabia,) a most im- portant improvement has been made in this part of Hebrew Grammar; and the consequence is, the Language itself, so far from being poor or defective, as it has been fashionable to affirm, is just as full and precise in these respects as its neighbour the Greek can be shewn to be. In the first Edition of this work, I expressed my doubts indeed, whether the paragogic H had in itself any thing like an optative force, such as had been ascribed to it by Dr. Gesenius and others. Upon more mature consideration, however, I have not only been con- vinced that this is the case generally, but that it also possesses Xll PREFACE. the power of expressing a correlative one in the subsequent members of antithetic sentences, as now stated in the Syntax. My reason for doubting then was, an apparent want of extent and uniformity in its use, which the results I have since arrived at have wholly satisfied. Very considerable improvements have likewise been made in every page of the Grammar, which need not now be specified. I may perhaps say, that I believe the Student will find it, if not every thing he may wish, yet certainly much nearer being so than it was when it first appeared. The attention of some more years to this subject, with the remarks and admonitions of others, will perhaps enable me to render this work still more worthy of the patronage of the Public : and, should a kind Providence continue to afford me health and oppor- tunities favourable for bringing about such a result, I trust I shall not be remiss in exerting my best efforts for its accomplishment. I now proceed to offer a few remarks on Oriental Grammar in general, and particularly with reference to its effects on the interpretation of the Bible. It has been the misfortune of the Hebrew Scriptures, (and indeed of the New Testa- ment in a great degree,) that they have generally been treated in Europe as if they had been mere European compositions. Hebrew Grammars have been constructed, not so much to shew the learner what was real Hebrew idiom, as to reduce the Hebrew Language itself to a comparison with one or other of the Languages of Europe. This might perhaps have been tolerable in the days of Buxtorf, when good Oriental Grammars and Commentaries on Grammar were extremely difficult of access. An opinion, too, has unfortunately prevailed, that many exceedingly valuable traditional interpretations were to be found in the hands of the Jews. And hence, the Buxtorfs and others were assiduous in giving currency to the notion, that no man could study the Holy Scriptures, with any prospect of success, who had not drunk deeply into the streams which had thus providentially come down to us. Hence PREFACE. Xlll originated the endless appeals to the Grammars, Lexicons, Commentaries, and Cabbala, of the Rabbins. The Talmud too was now ranked as a work, from which there was scarcely any appeal. And the consequence was, the obscurity of the Old Testament gradually became so great, and particularly when considered in connection with the New, that but few Divines among us would dare to attempt an explanation, (not to mention a reconciliation with the New,) of any considerable part of it. Out of this untractable obscurity seems to have arisen the art of applying a double, triple, &c., interpretation to Prophecy, as well as to much of the History of the Old Testament. The Writers of the New Testament, with some of the elder Fathers of the Church, took one consistent and steady view of these Scriptures :* the Rabbins, with their followers, took another : and, rather than break with either of these, the timid and inex- perienced preferred the alternative of taking both ! Hence too arose what has been termed " the Grammatical interpre- lotion," as opposed to the Theological one; when, alas! the first rudiments of the Grammar were scarcely known. And the consequence was, the Commentaries of the learned pre- sented the inquirer with scarcely any thing more than mere statements of Jewish opinions; or, with interpretations of the Sacred Text, which stood on no better grounds than those of ingenious conjecture. But this was not all. The Rabbins with Maimonides at their head, (a writer who obtained the flattering title of being the first Jew who ceased to play the fool,) drank pretty deeply into the metaphysics of Arabia, which, as might have been expected, afforded ample amends for the defects of Hebrew philology, which were then acknowledged and felt. I will not now enter into a consideration of the results actually arrived at: I will only affirm, that the work of desolation, * See my Sermons and Dissertations on the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, London, 1830, particularly the Preface and the former part of the Second Dissertation. XIV PREPACK. as it regarded Scriptural knowledge, seems to have arrived almost at its summit. Learning of the most imposing and most trifling character now filled the writings of the Commen- tators : and bodies of divinity, grounded upon these, were published to the world in numbers sufficiently great, both to surprise and confound the few, who were found bold enough to venture upon them. It was of little consequence, in this case, whether the Divine was of the orthodox or fanatical party, (parties which were then best known from the cast of their political opinions,) each was equally removed from the sim- plicity of the Scriptures: while each (I am not willing to allow) was in actual possession of the saving truths of religion. Their misfortune was, to have been led aside into an obscure, a steep, and a thorny, path. They had unwarily injured their own visual powers by subtleties and refinements, and the con- sequence was, they groped as in darkness at noon-day. Of late years these studies, (and it is much to be regretted these very methods of carrying them on,) have been revived, and greatly extended in Germany. And the result has been, (as it might have been expected it would,) that under Judaism and heathenism combined, a monstrous system, termed by its abettors " Rationalism," has actually been formed and most lavishly recommended. This, however, exhibits nothing more than a revival of the exploded scheme of the once celebrated Spinoza, adorned indeed with the splendid trappings of many an hour's, ay many a year's, laborious but crude and undigested lucubrations. The Grammars, Lexicons, and Commentaries of the Divines of this school, imitate as closely as possible those of the Jewish Rabbins. They incessantly appeal likewise to the Oriental dialects:* but in no case do they evince an acquaintance with real Oriental Grammar, or beyond what is given in the Grammaire Arabe of the Baron de Sacy ; which, as I shall shortly shew, exhibits little more than an endeavour to reduce the Grammar of the Arabs to the standard of that of * See my Sermons and Dissertations, Dissertation I. throughout. PREFACE. XV the Greeks and Latins. The system of conjecture, therefore, so extensively cultivated by the Rabbins, (not to insist on the false and foolish system of Theology also adopted by these Divines,) has at length so far succeeded in reducing the standard of the Holy Scriptures, that it is difficult to say, whether we should most admire or condemn the almost unexampled patience and industry, which has thus so nearly heathenized and unchurched this once venerable and pious school. Their great defects appear to me to be these : I. The \vant of a thorough acquaintance with real Oriental Philology ; which, I must be allowed to say, is not to be found in the Grammars of Oriental Languages composed by Europeans generally, nor yet in the Lexicons of Golius, Castell, or Giggeius, which they are in the daily habit of citing. Information of this sort is only to be found in the Grammars, Commentaries on Grammar, and Scholiasts, of the East : and these, if we except one or two Individuals, they have not yet read. In the next place, they are deficient in real Scriptural knowledge; I mean, in a knowledge of the Scriptures distinct and separate fi-om the systems and commentaries of the Jewish Rabbins.* Generally * See my Sermons and Dissertations, Cambridge, 1830. Diss. I. part ii. p. 124. Since writing the above, I have been favoured with a sight of the last number of the " Edinburgh Review" (No. 107), in which T am directly charged both with ignorance and misrepresentation in what I have said on the Rationalism of Germany, and on Dr. Gesenius in particular. My ignorance, it should seem, is apparent from the badness of my English, from my not knowing where to find a certain work of Bertholdt's, and from a false translation of a part of Dr. Gesenius's Commentary on Isaiah; and my disposition to misrepresent (coupled with this ignorance) from the manner in which I have stated and combated the opinions of Dr. Gesenius. On my bad English I will say nothing ; because no faulty passage is pointed out by my censor. On my ignorance of the works of Bertholdr, which the Reviewer says I have avowed, I need only say, no such avowal is made any where in my work, nor any mention whatever of an interpretation of the fifty-second and fifty-third chapters of Isaiah by Bertholdt. I have only said, (p. 152.) that " Mr. Bertholdt refers us here to a work by J. D. Kruiger, entitled " Commentatio, XVI PREFACE. speaking, no Commentary on the Old Testament is to be found at all comparable to that given by inspiration in the New. In &c." but, as I have not access to this work, I must lake my materials from others, &c. The learned Reviewer might, therefore, have spared his charitable help, as he terms it, as well as his uncharitable misrepresentation. Come we now to the false translation. The words of Gesenius are these, " Die Rede des Propheten wechselt hier mil der Rede Jehova'sso ab, dass. lii. 13 15. Jehova zu reden fortfahrt, wie in dem Vorgehenden : liii. 1 der Prophet redet, und zuar communicativ im Namen seines standes." My false translation is this: " The speaking of the Prophet is here so changed for that of Jehovah, that chap. lii. 13 15. (not chapter lii. 15, as the Reviewer has been pleased to give it,) Jehovah continues to speak as in the preceding context: in liii. 1. the prophet communicates in the name proper for his own station." The amended translation of the Reviewer is, " Jehovah and the Prophet speak here alter- nately. Thus, at the end of the fifty-second chapter, it is Jehovah who continues to speak, as in the foregoing verses; but, in the beginning of the fifty-third chapter, it is the prophet who speaks, communicatively indeed, (or in the manner of one who is holding communication with others,) and in the name of his order." Now, I should like to know what the real difference between these two translations is, as far as the matter discussed by me is concerned. I can see none : and I know my adversary can find none. But, if it be asked, Which of these versions is the most literal ? I think I know what the answer must be. The first three charges, therefore, of my Reviewer end in mere assumptions, just as creditable to himself as they are likely to be serviceable to the infidel cause, of which he is anxious to be thought a champion. Now for the case of misrepresentation and ignorance combined. " The con- clusion," it is said, " he (Dr. Gesenius) comes to at last is, that, in those pas- sages where the Prophet speaks of the servant of the Lord, he had in view not any one particular person, past, present, or future, but the body, or aggregate, of the prophets of the Lord collectively considered : in other words, the Prophetic order, which he thus personifies," &c. " In the face of all this Professor Lee ... comes forward and attributes to him an interpretation of the passage totally different from that which he has thus plainly and distinctly enounced. The servant of the Lord here mentioned, says Mr. Lee, is, according to Gesenius's comment, the Prophet Isaiah." " We should be inclined," it is added, " to consider this misrepresentation as merely a blunder of ignorance, had not Mr. Lee turned it to such triumphant account in taunting and exulting over his brother Doctor, &c." "This would be merely ridiculous, were there not strong reasons for suspecting that there is full as much of unfairness as of ignorance at the bottom of it." I think I may say, that my antagonist is not excessively ceremonious : he seems quite disposed too to give up the charge of ignorance, if he can thereby bring home that of malignity. But why all PREFACE. XV11 this we must look for the Theology of the ancient Hebrews, not in the writings of modern or even ancient unbelieving this waste of strength and of good breeding ? Surely there must be some object here besides that of a desire for the truth. But let this pass, and let us adopt the Reviewer's own statement of the case. Will the matter now be mended ? " The servant of the Lord, he (Dr. G.) had in view," (is) " not any one, &c.,. . . . but the body or aggregate of the prophets of the Lord collectively considered; in other words, the Prophetic order, which he thus personifies." Well : let us now apply either or both of these things, which however are very far from being identical. The passage had in view is, Is. lii. 13. liii. 9; and my general question was, How could this all possibly apply to Isaiah the Prophet? Let it now be asked, How could it, either to the body or aggregate of the Prophets, or to the Prophetic order personified ? Suppose we allow that these persons, or this office, may deal prudently, be extolled, &c., the ques- tion now will be, At what period was it, that one or both of them suffered martyrdom for the sins of the Jewish nation ? And then, as a reward for these sufferings, (liii. 11, 12.) enjoyed the blessings of a long life, with the happiness of contemplating a numerous offspring? (i. e. of Prophets and prophetic offices personified !) Again, How we are to make the notion of the whole body of the Prophets, alias the prophetic office, growing up before him, &c. to square with, "when WE shall see HIM. ...WE hid as it were OUR faces from HIM.... HE was despised, and WE esteemed HIM not : surely HE hath borne OUR GRIEFS," &c.? Who, I ask, is the WE and the HIM, in these passages? If Isaiah is now speaking in the " name of his order," surely he must form a part of both these bodies; and, as I formerly remarked, must be "acting moonshine and wall too !" My Censor is very well aware, that even on his own view of the case, the matter proposed is quite indefensible; but he has forgotten to say, that in endeavouring to set this right, he has only placed it in an infinitely more ludicrous light than I had done. And, let it be remembered, this is all with which 1 am concerned: my only object being to shew, that the Theological views of this school are untrue and unsound. With Dr. Gesenius's literary or gentlemanly reputation, I have nothing to do, except to express my admi- ration of both, which I have repeatedly done in the work in question ; but which I am sorry to be compelled to say, I cannot do for my Reviewer. I thank him, however, for having called my attention to the particular just noticed, as it has afforded me an opportunity to correct what I had said on the person of Isaiah being meant by Dr. Gesenius, and so to direct my arguments as eventually to shew, that the state of the case is really worse than I had represented it. My Censor now dismisses me, having, as he natters himself, determined that I am quite incapable of considering questions of this nature. The question at issue, however, is not whether the persons concerned are igno- rant ur learned ; hut whether the Orthodox or the Rationalist Divine be right h xviii PREFACE. Jews, nor yet in the Apocryphal books of Scripture. These may profitably be consulted ; but then, the greatest care must be taken to give them no more than their real due ; to make a prudent use of their Philology and History ; but to treat their Theology as a system adopted by blind and misguided men. I myself have been much surprised at the similarity of character discoverable between the Philology and Theology of the ancient Hebrews. Both appear to me to be of the most easy, simple, and definite, character. In neither have we any thing forced, unnatural, or metaphysical. They generally exhibit things as they are, or as they appear to be, naked, unincumbered, and detached from every species of refinement. The principal difficulty which an European has to contend with, accustomed as he has been to art and to abstract considerations, is, to divest himself of these, and to return to the simplicity of primitive times. The state of the mind too, unless I am very greatly mistaken, has quite as much to do as the powers or the head have in making the able Theologian, or the good Oriental Grammarian. There must always be a willing- ness to learn; to divest self of long-rooted prejudices, and in simplicity and godly sincerity, (qualities by far too lowly rated in general,) to drink deeply into the sincere milk of the word of truth. Without these, the interpreter of Scripture may write very learned commentaries, but they will be very useless, if not dangerous, books. With this, however, and with the aids now accessible to every one, there is great probability that the light which the Scriptures have long afforded us, will shine more and more, perhaps to the perfect day : and will not only put to flight the instances of darkness still visible among ourselves, but will succeed in dispensing their healing beams to the most distant parts of the earth. in his views. Personalities are certainly easier advanced than arguments; and where arguments are not to be had, which I have reason to suspect is the case here, the enlightened and liberal system attempted to be propped up must necessarily rest on personalities ! PREFACE. XIX I have been anxious to say thus much on the subject of Oriental Grammar considered in connection with the question of scriptural interpretation ; because I am of opinion that Theologians, of this and other European countries in general, evince a much greater lack of knowledge of this sort, than they do of natural ability, industry, or perseverance : while there are others, not indeed deficient in personal piety, but so little accustomed to extensive literary inquiry, and to modes of thinking and expression unlike their own, that they make no hesitation in coming at once to conclusions the most plausible, splendid, and flattering; but which have not the least possible foundation in truth ; and which, instead of recom- mending religion, as they might have been intended to do, tend eventually to injure it. Religion, to deserve that name, must necessarily be founded in TRUTH ; and this the most extended, the most scientific, and the most rigid inquiry, never can, and never will, injure. I may now offer a few remarks on the use of this Grammar. It is one of the greatest misfortunes to this country in general, and to the interest of true religion in particular, that so little en- couragement is given in our Universities to the study of sacred literature.* The necessary consequence is, a few may be found hardy enough to encounter the many years' labour, which is absolutely requisite to form the truly learned and enlightened Theologian : but these can never be numerous ; and times may come in which there may not be even one. In such a state of things, short, and if I may so speak, royal roads to this kind of eminence will daily be advanced and recommended by empirics, whom ignorance will not have it in its power to detect, and whom idleness and vanity will applaud as the prodigies of their times. f I need now say no more on this subject, than that these short and royal roads had very * The circumstance noticed in ray Dedication will, I trust, have a different tendency. f I need not say how remarkably this was exemplified a few years ago, in an attempt which was pretty extensively supported, to obtrude upon the British public a new translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. XX PREF.UT.. nearly succeeded in putting to flight every trace of real Hebrew learning in this country. The wire-drawn theories of Masclef, John Hutchinson, Parkhurst, and a host of others, certainly made every thing appear very easy to the learner, while, in fact, they effectually enveloped it in impenetrable darkness. It has more than once been suggested to me, that ni) Grammar had better be made more popular, and if possible, shorter. My answer once for all is : To those who have made up their minds to take none but a short and popular path, this Grammar will be found to answer full as well as any other can ; while it will have the advantage of enabling them to make a far greater progress, than such works themselves ever pretend to, should they eventually find courage enough to study it thoroughly. All that mere learners can first want must be, to see what terminations the nouns will take under their various inflexions, and how the verbs are generally con- jugated. With these the historical books of the Hebrew Bible can generally be made out, with the help of an analysis or translation, or both. And to the beginner who has a teacher at hand, perhaps, this will generally be the best method that can be recommended. I very well know how mxich a progress even of this sort will encourage the learner, who is otherwise unencouraged and unassisted. I know too how slo\v the very best of us are to imbibe, and to lay up in the mind, notions, with which we were not previously acquainted. Besides, it is natural and prudent to restrict our first efforts to limits which they will conveniently comprehend, and effec- tually fill. Time and opportunity will enable us to extend them ; and, if we proceed not more rapidly than sure, we shall at least have the satisfaction to know, that what we have done, we have hitherto done well; and, in these studies, this is every thing. The driveller in Theology is soon detected ; and, should he be so fortunate as to live and die without doing extensive mischief, he will not without having convinced the world that he was a mere pretender. These first steps then being taken, the next will necessarily be, to examine with care the nature and character of tho PREFACE. XXI etymology of the Hebrew language, the laws by which the syntax is regulated, the customs, modes of thinking, antiquities, religious belief, and expectations, of the ancient Hebrew nation, which will include the use of Commentaries, Concord- ances, ancient and modern Translations, the Oriental Lan- guages, Travellers, and in short every other help usually recommended to the student of Scripture. I mention these things, because some are apt to think that a knowledge of the Grammar, with the use of the Dictionary only, is quite enough to enable any one to be an able interpreter of Holy Writ ; while the truth is, language, opinions, and customs, are so intimately connected together, that they never can entirely be separated. Where however this is attempted, (and it is often attempted,) conjecture, uncertainty, and doubt, must necessarily supply their place. The study of the Oriental Languages indeed, which is indispensable to the critic, opens a very extensive field of inquiry. Our daily intercourse how- ever with the East, in addition to the numerous valuable ele- mentary and other Oriental works, which are now, by the munificence of the British public, daily making their appear- ance, has rendered this study comparatively easy and sure. And the probability is, that at no distant period it will be in the power of the British Divine, to call in to his aid every assistance which the East can afford him.* And my own opinion is, that if all these helps be duly appreciated and applied, we may indeed never have it in our power to boast of more erudite, laborious, acute, or pious, Divines than we now can, but we may of those who are more simple, more easy, more engaging, and more practical. I need now only add, what it is important the student should know, that the Hebrew Bible from which the extracts in this work are taken, is that which was printed under the superin- tendence of Mr. Judah d'Allemand for the Publisher of this work. * I allude to the Oriental translation Committee which was established a few years ago, principally by the zeal and activity of the Earl of Munster, aided by the assistance of our present gracious and beloved Sovereign, His Royal Highness the Duke of Sussex, and other members of the Royal Family. See the Reports of this Institution. CONTENTS. LECTURE I. ON THE LETTERS, &C. On the Alphabet 25 On the Powers of the Consonants 5 9 On their Numerical Values 9 10 Division into Gutturals, Palatals, &c 10 ib. Quiescence of the "OnS letters ib. 1 1 Division into Radical and Servile ib. On the Vowels ....< 12 13 On Sheva and its Substitutes 13 On the Formation of Syllables ib. 15 On the Combination of the Vowels with the Consonants 15 16 On the Initial and Final Characters of Sheva and its Substitutes .... 1 7 18 On Puthakh when termed Furtive 19 Use of Sheva and its Substitutes 19 20 On the Points, Dagesh and Muppik 2021 On the Mark Rapte 21 On the Vowel Kholem, with iff and EJ 21 On Khirik with or without 22 Distinctions between Kamets and Kamtts Khatuph 22 23 LECTURE II. ON THE HEBREW ACCENTS. Tables of the Hebrew Accents 24 26 On the Use of the Accents 26 28 Praxis on the Reading with Accents 28 32 LECTURE III. ON THE PRINCIPLES WHICH REGULATE THE ETYMOLOGY. Euphonic Changes in the Orthography, as it regards the Consonants 33 37 On the Contractions which take place in the Vowels. 37 38 On the General Changes of the Vowels 39 41 On the Use of Sheva and its Substitutes 41 44 Particular rules for the insertion of Dagesh 44 47 CONTENTS. XX111 LECTURE IV. ON THE GENERAL USE AND SITUATION OF THE ACCENTS. Their offices, Tonic and Euphonic 48 On the Tonic Accent 48 50 On the anomalies found in its situation 50 56 On the use and situation of the Euphonic Accent 56 57 Rules for its insertion , 57 59 On the use and position of Makkaph 59 60 Rules for its insertion 60 61 LECTURE V. ON THE TERMINATIONS OF GENDER, &C. On the Masculine Gender 62 64 On the formation of the Feminine from the Masculine 64 66 On the inflection of Nouns 66 On the formation of the Dual Number 66 67 On the formation of the Plural Number Masculine 67 70 On the formation of the Plural Number Feminine 70 72 On the changes of termination, &c. necessary for the state of con- struction 72 74 LECTURE VI. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH, &C. On the primitive character of the Nouns 74 75 On the Personal Pronouns, Separable and Inseparable 76 80 On the Inseparable Pronouns when attached to Nouns 80 83 Anomalies in Do 83 84 On the use and signification of Words generally 84 89 On the measures applied to the primitive forms 89 91 The Primitive Segolate forms, and their Euphonic character 91 93 On the first Species of Do. of the forms ^pS and IpQ 94 96 On the Second Species of Do. of the forms "TpQ and "Tf?Q 96 On the third, of the forms "T)"?? and "TpS 96 97 On the fourth, of the forms "TpQ and IpS 97 93 On the fifth, of the forms "Tp*S and "fpQ 98 100 On the abstract force of these Nouns 100 101 On the second general class of Primitive Nouns not Segolate, and which are concrete in sense 101 Their forms .101 CONTENTS. Tables, exhibiting their several inflections, as to gender, number, conjunction with the pronouns, and state of construction 101 105 LECTURE VII. ON THE AUGMENTED HEBREW NOUNS. Classification of these 1 5 * 07 On the reduplicated class of words 107108 The force of these when conjugated as Verbs 108 1 10 Tables exhibiting their inflections, &c 110 112 On Nouns said to be reduplicated by implication 11 2 1 1 3 On the augmented Nouns termed "'FDENH He-cmanti 11 3 1 1 5 Their force when conjugated as Verbs active and passive, in the forms Hiphhil and Hophhal 115117 Do. when in the form Hithpahil 118 121 Etymology of Nouns commencing with Z3 and 2 121 122 On the force of those conjugated in the Niphlml species 123 124 Tables of these forms generally 125 131 On those forms which have the He-emanti letters prefixed 131 132 LECTURE VIII. ON THE AUGMENTED, REDUPLICATED, AND COMPOUND WORDS. On those forms which have the He-emanti letters postfixed 132137 On the Reduplicated, and otherwise Compounded words 137 141 On the forms and composition of Nouns, adopted as Proper Names 141 148 LECTURE IX. ON THE ETYMOLOGY OP THE PARTICLES. On the forms and characters of the Separable Particles 148 153 Do. of the Inseparable Particles 153 157 On those termed Paragogic 157 164 On the Demonstrative Pronouns 164 On the Relative Pronoun "1CPM 164 165 On the Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns, &c 166 169 On the Definite Article n 169 174 On the Numerals f 174 173 LECTURE X. ON THE HEBREW VERBS. On Iheir etymology, forms, and properties 1 79 -187 CONTENTS. XXT Etymology and forms of the conjugation of the two Tenses of the first species Kal ., 187 199 On the Infinitive and Imperative forms , 199 203 On the Participles (as they have been termed) 203 LECTURE XL Etymology and forms of the conjugation in the second species, or Niphh&l 204208 Do. in the third species, or Pthtl 208 Do. in the fourth species, or Puhal 209212 Do. in the fifth and sixth species, or Hiphhil and Hophhdl 212 217 Do. in the seventh species, or Hithpahel 217 21 9 On the remaining augmented, but less usual, species of the con- jugation of Hebrew Verbs 219 221 LECTURE XII. ON THE DEFECTIVE VERBS. On the causes of the Defects found to exist in Hebrew Verbs gene- rally 222 The conjugations of those commencing with 3, reconciled with those of the regular triliteral Verbs 223 224 Do. of those commencing with N, and \ respectively 225 231 Do. of those having *), or \ for the middle radical letter respect- ively 231 233 Do. of those in which the third radical letter is subject to elision . . 234 237 Do. of those Verbs which have M for their third radical letter 238 239 LECTURE XIII. On those Verbs which have their second and third radical letters the same 239 242 On those Verbs which are doubly defective 243 248 On the Abbreviated Pronouns as attached to Verbs 248 254 On the mode of affixing these to the Defective Verbs 254 255 Tables exhibiting the conjugation, in the several species, of every sort of Verb, whether Defective or not, with their Infinitive and Participial forms 256 269 LECTURE XIV. ON THE SYNTAX. On the construction of the several sorts of Propositions generally . . 270 272 XXY1 CONTENTS. On the Predicate of Propositions in Hebrew 272274 On the concordance of the Subject with the Predicate 274 278 On the concordance of the Nominative with its Verb. . . 278 281 On the Nominative Absolute 281284 LECTURE XV. ON THE GENERAL DEPENDENCE OF WORDS ON ONE ANOTHER. This dependence is regulated by two principles, generally, i. e. that of Apposition, and that of the Definite State of Construction.. 285 On the Apposition of words, immediate and mediate 285 291 On that termed Hendiadys 291 On that affecting the Nouns of Time and Place 292293 On Attributives when in Apposition 293 295 On the Use of the Definite Article 295298 On the Adverbs, and other qualifying terms 298 301 On the emphatic repetition of words and phrases 301 302 On Nouns put in the Definite State of Construction, both imme- diately and mediately 303 307 On that sort of Definite Construction which has been termed Distinctive 308 309 On the construction of the Numerals 309 310 On their concordance with the thing numbered 310 Other modes of construction 310 312 LECTURE XVI. ON THE LOGICAL COMPLEMENTS OP WORDS GENERALLY, AND OF VERBS, IN PARTICULAR. The Principles by which these are regulated stated 312 314 Examples illustrative of these 315 321 On apparently Elliptical Constructions 321 325 On Impersonal Expressions 326 LECTURE XVII. ON THE MODES AND TENSES OP THE VERBS. On the Principles which regulate the use of the Tenses generally, in direct (or indicative) constructions 327337 Ditto in Subjunctive or Conditional constructions, whether regulated by the separable particles, or by the forms termed Apocope and Paragoge 337 347 On the Preterite used as a Future, or Imperative, emphatically 347 351 CONTENTS. XXVn Miscellaneous constructions 351 352 Opinions enounced as facts generally 352 354 Hypothetical sentences how enounced 354 356 Commands, requests, &c. enounced by the Imperative forms 356 357 Remarks on the Principles regulating these 357 LECTURE XVIII. ON THE NATURE AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICLES. On the Adverbs generally 358 360 The construction of ^H, ^b, DDN, 113?, ^21, ^2 360367 LECTURE XIX. ON THE NATURE AND USE OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. On their general usage 367 On the Relative Pronoun ~)27M (also p. 283.) 368 Of Adverbs, Prepositions, &c., simple and compound, DM ^fo /3, ^3 nps, -itPN 2,73?, DN T?, nata is, rnto, 79, DN, and on the forms used in oaths ib. 372 On the Copulative Conjunction 1 generally: when redundant, or defective : or denoting distribution 372 373 On the Conditional, Causal, and Conclusive, Conjunctions. ^VlH, DN, ^3, DM vp, 13, IS'b?;, 7^, "IK^ ^ab, nnri, -itfs nnri, -ircy nj?y, ]5b, -itw iv!, ^ ^ & c . 373374 On the Interjections , 374 375 LECTURE XX. ON THE COMPOSITION OF SENTENCES AS POINTED OUT BY THE INFLUENCE OF THE ACCENTS. On the distinctive powers of the Accents ... 376 378 A Table, &c. pointing out their rank, order, and powers 378 381 Words in Apposition, or definite construction, the nominative with its verb, &c. how combined 381 383 Nominative Absolute, how distinguished 383 Qualifying words and phrases, parentheses, &c 383 384 Parallelism, how pointed out 384 385 On the Accentuation of the Metrical Books, Job, Proverbs, and the Psalms . . . 385 388 ERRATA. Page line read 22 28 may, for will ib. 29 may, for must 25 26 Mundkh 32 13 id. 55 4 WWP 1 , T . . 69 14 n '7? 83 11 Jinttbb^Q 151 31 Kimkhi. ib.Mikhlol 171 36 $ib ib. 37 te#J 209 21 rn^Dn D^BB, j ib. 22 or flTj9B ' 279 25 which ' LECTURES HEBREW LANGUAGE LECTURE I. ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY, SYLLABICATION, &C., OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 1. AS it is proposed to offer, in the present course of Lectures, a comprehensive and practical view of the structure of the Hebrew Language, all discussions re- lating to General Grammar, Philology, and Antiquities, will be avoided as much as possible ; referring as we pro- ceed to Authors who have treated on these subjects. It will also be taken for granted, that the Student is acquainted with Grammar as generally taught ; and, that he is penman sufficiently good to write down such forms of letters, &c., as shall be laid before him. 2. But, although it is desirable that the Learner should know something of the principles of Grammar as generally taught ; yet, he must not hence be tempted to infer, that a system almost entirely at variance with that to which he has been accustomed, is unphilosophical or wrong : or, because he cannot at first sight comprehend all its bearings, that it is therefore uncouth, embar- rassed, or ambiguous. For it may be true, that the Language of the Patriarchs and Prophets is as con- sistent in its structure, as the subjects on which it treats B 2 LECTURE i. CART. 3. are interesting and momentous ; and, that it is as explicit and regular as other languages, which have been cul- tivated with much greater ardour, while they had infi- nitely less to offer in return. He must, therefore, allow the Language on which we are now entering, to stand or fall on its own merits ; and, our delineation of it to be judged by the rules of criticism peculiar to itself. We mention this in the outset, not to depreciate the labours of others who may have taken a different view of this subject ; but to warn the student, that the idioms of the Hebrew and other Dialects connected with it, are neither to be judged of nor explained by those of European lan- guages ; and hence, to caution him against that trouble and confusion, into which some have had the misfortune to fall. On the Alphabet. 3. The system of Orthography found in our Hebrew Bibles, and that which has ever been taught with the greatest success,* presents a succession of consonants written in a direction proceeding from the right hand of the page towards the left. Two or more of these are found in every word ; while the words themselves are separated from each other by a moderate space. To this system of consonants another is added consisting of vowels ; and these are placed above, in the middle, or below, the line of consonants, as their several natures may require. To this, again, is superadded another, con- sisting of Accents, which are also placed either above, in the middle, or below, the consonants, in the same line or rank with the vowels. Before the student can possibly read the Hebrew text, therefore, he must be made familiar with these several parts of Hebrew orthography. 4. We shall proceed, in the first place, to delineate and explain the characters of the consonants ; the number, forms, names, powers, and numerical values, of which are as follows. * We say, the greatest success; for after all that has been said by the advo- cates for the unpointed system, it will be extremely difficult to point out one writer of that school who has really advanced Hebrew learning. ART. 4.]] ON THE ALPHABET. FORMS. NAMES. POWERS. Numerical Values. Biblical. amari- tan. Rabbinical. X jV 6 P|7^ Alef I unaspirated, as in I. l humble, hour, &c. ^ r 3 9 3 !T3 Beth V or B respectively, II. as in van or ban. Y 3 ^ jrl 1 M 7O il Gimel i hard, as in gird, III. 7 or r\ 5 7 H/T Daleth gain. ), as in do, dare. IV. n S P ^H He I aspirated, as in V. % ^* . _ _ hard. 1 ] Vaw, or Waw V, by some, as in vow, by others, VI. _ W, as in work. 1 ^ t pt Ziyin Z, as in seal, or S in VII. n ^ P IT!"! Kh^th those. h strongly aspirat- VIII. ed, as ch in the German, nicht. u V 13 n^co Tab f, as in turn. IX. ^ nr ' "TV Y6d Y, as in yes, yonder. X. j or j and a 2 and as a P]3 Caph C, as in carry, cash. XX. affinal let- final *| L, 1 ') Z 5 ^^7 Lamed L, as in love, &c. XXX. 7j and as a iSS P and as a CD^Me-m M, as in man, &c. XL. final ^^ final P J and as a a J and as a |U Nun N, as in no, &c. L. final | final | D I^DSamech S, as in Sir ; never LX. # V * ] j! Ayin as S in those. The true sound of this letter being un- LXX. known, it is usu- ally passed over in silence, as H in humble : we shall designate it thus, H. ft or ft and 3 P and as a HS Pe PH, when without LXXX. * * ^* ta the point, as in as a final CT final Cl PAi/ij>;P,when | \ pointed, as in pint. V and as fll j and as a ^"T^ TsadcS TS, as in mats, &c. XC. a final V final [ p ** P P]1p K6ph K, as in look, &c. C. | <\ Ji'^l R^sh R, as in roast, &c. CC. F* xu P&h Shin SH, as in shine. CCC. sw D j"lj^j Sin S, as in son, neve as S in those. rvn A P Tav TH orTrespectivelj as in thin or tin cccc. 4 LECTURE I. CART. 6 * In this and all future examples where the Roman vowels will be put to represent the Hebrew ones, #, or #, will have the sound of the Italian a, or a in far ; and , as a in man ; e, or e, as a in wane or at in rain ; e, the same sound shortened : i, or i, as 00 in **0 ; i, as * in in : 6, or o, as o in 7*0*0 ; o, the same sound shortened : u, or ?7, as oo in #00 ; w, as oo in good. The first vowel in each case will represent the accented or emphatical syllable, e. g. a in father, &c. ; the second with the mark (-) as a, e, &c. will shew, that, as such vowel generally terminates a syllable, it will be pronounced openly, but not with an accent. 5. The Samaritan and Rabbinical forms of the Hebrew character have been given for the following reasons : 1 . The Samaritan Pentateuch being nothing more than a different edition of that in use among the Jews, the Student will want no other help for reading it, than the forms of the Samaritan character : and, 2. As the Rabbinical commentaries are composed, for the most part, in Biblical Hebrew, he will stand in need of little more than a copy of their alphabet to enable him to read them.* 6. The number and order of the consonants, as given in the table, are found in the text of the Hebrew Bible. The following are the passages : Psalms xxxiv. cxix. cxlv. ; Proverbs xxxi., from verse 10 to the end ; Lamentations i. ii. iii. iv. In Psalm xxxiv. how- ever, the verse beginning with 1 Van has either been lost, or both "f He and 1 Van are found in the 6th verse ; and in the cxlvth, that which should commence with 3 is also wanting. In the ii. iii. and ivth chapters of the Lamentations, y Aytn and Q Pe are found transposed, which may perhaps be attributed to the copyists. * Should he wish to make a considerable progress in Rabbinical learning, he will find some of the best books pointed out in Sect. xi. of my Sylloge Labrorum Orientalium. Cantab. 1821. ART. 8.3 ON THE CONSONANTS. 5 7. As to the forms of the consonants, it is highly probable that they were originally hieroglyphical :* but, whether the Hebrew or Samaritan form is the most ancient, a difference of opinion seems to have prevailed as early as the times of Jerome ; and which, as Schultens has justly remarked, has been contested in some instances with an acrimony, which neither the nature of the case, nor the love of truth, could justify ;-f- some maintaining, that the Samaritan was the primitive form, and that Ezra adopted the other on the return from Babylon : others, that the Biblical character, as we now have it, is the same with that in which Moses composed his Auto- graph. J For my own part, I am inclined to believe with Baver and some others, that which of the characters soever we take as exhibiting the most ancient form, the other is no greater a varia- tion from it, than may be traced in our own black letter as derived from the Roman ; and, by no means so great as that discernible between our own hand-writing and the printed letter, from which it has been derived. 8. The letters N H 7 D *\ D, when occurring at the end of a line, are sometimes lengthened out thus, K n^Q *1 .T"i, in order to fill up the space. On the Powers of the Consonants. 9. N Alef, as already remarked, has the power of an unaspirated H : that is, it is used for the purpose of enouncing the vowel following it without any audible aspiration. It appears probable also, that this was its power in ancient times ; not only, because the same letter has to this day the same power in the Syriac, Arabic, and * Champollion Precis, du Syst. Hier. pp. 312, 316. Plates A to K. P. Lacour. Essai sur les Hier. Bordeaux. 1821. pp. 45 48, 131, 166, &c. Though I can see no reason why we are to go to Egypt for the Hebrew Letters, unless we are to suppose that marks, representing certain substances and sounds, could not be formed elsewhere. See Geschichte der Hebraische Sprache, &c., von Wil. Gesenius, 4045. See my Sermons and Dissertations on Pro- phecy, &c. p. 1 17, &c. Proleg. to Bagster's Polyglott Bible, Prol. I. ii. f Fundam. Ling. Heb., p. 18. t See the controversy between Capell and Buxtorf. Crit. Sac. Buveri, Tract i. 12. p. 125 (mihi). 6 LECTURE i. CART. 10. Ethiopic, which are nothing more than dialects of the Hebrew, but because we find it occasionally put for H He, or y Ay in, in the Hebrew Bible itself ; and, in the cognate dialects, the Syriac and Chaldee, for ^ Y6d.* Among the Greeks and Latins it was expressed by one or other of the vowels unaspirated, and mostly by Alpha or A.f In writing Hebrew words in Roman letters, we shall form the syllable in which this letter is found, by representing that vowel only which accom- panies it. 10. 1 Beth is found either with or without a point in- scribed, as 3 or 1. In the first case it is pronounced as our B ; in the second, as V ; and hence, it is sometimes represented by 1 Vaw, as 23, occasionally written 13. In the cognate dialects it is often changed for S Pe or O Mem, being a letter of the same organ with them. But of this more will be said hereafter. 11. 3 Gtmelis also written with or without the point, thus 3 or X In the first case, all are agreed that it should be pronounced like G in the words gird, give, and the like. How it should be pronounced in the second, grammarians are not agreed. Some think it should take the sound of G in ginger ; others, that it should be pronounced as G in the German Gtemacht, &c. The usual practice, however, is, to sound it like G in gird, in every case.J 1 2. 1 Daleth is also found both with and without this * As will be shewn in my Hebrew Dictionary. t See the Bibliotheca Sacra by Masch, partis secund. vol. ii. pref. p. 35, &c. : also, the Dissertatio R. P. Bernhardi de Montfaucon de veteri literarum et vocalium Hebraicarum pronuntiatione, torn. ii. of his Hexapla of Origen, or in the Bibliotheca Hebraea of Wolfius, torn. ii. p. 648 ; or the Appendix to Jahn's Gramm. Ling. Heb. &c. J The manner in which the ancients represented this, and other letters of the Alphabet, may be seen in Masch or Montfaucon, as cited above. ART. 13.]] ON THE CONSONANTS. 7 point, as "n and T In the first case it is pronounced like D in dare, do, &c. In the second, some give it the sound of TH, in thine, this; others neglect this distinction, and pronounce it like D in every case. It is probable, that it was originally pronounced with the tip of the tongue placed against the roots of the fore-teeth, just as its corresponding letter is still pronounced by the Orientals ; which will give it rather a softer sound than that of our D. It is also probable, that it had two sounds, as it is the case now with the Arabic, where we have j Dal and j Dhal ; the former pronounced like D dental, the latter like th in thine. Hence we may account for "111 Davdr meaning a word, and "111 Dever, meaning a pestilence : the root of the former being j j Dhdbara, scripsit librum, &c., the other ^ Ddbara, ulcer atumfuit, &c. We also have j j Dhdbr from the first root signifying Scriptura, and j| j Dhdbir, bene discens, et edoctus, sapientiam, of similar import with "Ql Ddvdr, a word, relation, &c. ; and from the second, ^ Ddbr mors, of similar significa- tion with "HI Dever, pestis, &c. This method of con- sidering the powers of several other letters of the Alphabet, will generally explain the apparently conflicting significations sometimes found to prevail in the same Hebrew root, of which the modern Lexicographers have very properly availed themselves.* 13. It will be unnecessary to make any additional remarks on the following letters till we come to 11 Kheth; and, on this it is only necessary to say, that like 1 Ddleth, it probably had two sounds originally, the one more, the other less, aspirated, as noticed in the Dictionaries. * Eichhorn in his Edition of the Lexicon of Simonis, Schulz in his edition of Cocceius, and Dr. Gesenius in the Hebrew Dictionary. See also Storr's Observationes ad Analogiam et Syntaxin Hebraicam, p. 48. 8 LECTURE i. ART. 15, 14. 15 Teth should be pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth, just as our own T is, and hence it may be termed cerebral. 15. ^ Y6d is equivalent to our Y, as stated in the table. The Italians and Germans represent this letter by J, which they pronounce like our Y: and, as the first Hebrew Grammars studied in this country were imported from the Continent, we adopted the word Jehovah, Jehu, &c. which they very properly pronounced Yehovak, Yehu, &e. When occurring at the beginning of a word with the vowel i, it loses its power as a consonant, and takes the sound of the vowel only, as Is-ra-el, not Yis-ra-el. This is also found to take place in the Arabic, as Iktoby not Yektob, for ) even in ancient times. See Judg. xii. 6. / 18. y Ay in probably had, like 1 Daleth and n Kheth, two sounds originally ; one approaching to that of g mixed with h or r ; another to that of N Alef, just as it is the case with the Arabs, who have both c Ghain, and c Ain. The examples to be found in the modern Lexicons under this letter, as well as the various orthography of ART. 19.]] ON THE CONSONANTS. 9 proper names found in the Septuagint, may be considered as sufficient proof of this position.* At present, this letter is usually passed over, like the Alef, in silence. The sound of ng in king, given to it generally by the Jews, may probably have prevailed even in ancient times. I have observed in the pronunciation of the Arabs of Barbary, that they give a nasal sound to their Ain, c ; and, that the Archbishop of Jerusalem, who was some time ago in this country, pronounced the Syriac ** in this way, although the Maronites inform us, that it should be pronounced with a sort of compression of the throat.f We shall designate it in the Roman characters by an H, with a point under it. 19. The sound of p Koph is rather harder than that of 3 Cciph : it is made by a sudden compression of the throat, and may be compared to the noise made by water when discharging itself from a bottle : it is, perhaps, analogous with the Roman Q. The explanations given in the table will be sufficient for the remaining letters. 20. We now come to the numerical values of the letters. We have given in the Table (Art. 4) the letters corresponding to the units, tens, and hundreds, up to 400. The remaining hundreds up to one thousand, are thus expressed : the *f final Cdph is put for 500 ; Q final Mem for 600; j final Nun for 700; ?] final Pe 800; and If final Tsdde 900. One thousand is mostly expressed by the word ffbs Elef, a thousand; two thousand by C^sbs Alpdyim ; any number of thousands by using the word F]^S efef, thousand, or CTsbN Alafim, thousands, with the proper numeral prefixed, as the rules of Syntax shall require. Sometimes, as in the notes of the Masora, & stands for one thousand ; but on this subject the Hebrew tables of abbreviations should be consulted. * See the Lexicons of Gesenius, (and Simonis, edd. Eichhorn and Winer,) under this letter. See also Storr as above, p. 48. f Amira's Grammatica Syriaca, Rome, 1596, p. 6. I Joannis Buxtorfii de Abbreviaturis Hebraicis Liber, with the Supplement of Wolfius. Biblioth. Heb., torn. ii. p. 575. For the abbreviations found in the Masora, see the Tiberias, or Commentarius Masorethicus, of Buxtorf. 10 LECTURE i. CART. 21. 21. The numbers from ten to twenty are made by adding such unit to the numeral for ten, as will make the number required. Thus M* will represent eleven, i^ twelve, and so on. The number 15, however, is made by ItD, i. e. 9+6, not 7T, i. e. 10+5, because JT is one of the names of God. In like manner, 21 will be ND, 22 23, 32 nb, 42 3, and so on. On this principle, the number given at the end of Genesis for the verses found in that book is, lb < fS=1534. 22. Whether this method of expressing numbers formerly pre- vailed in the Hebrew manuscripts, has been a subject of some dispute, and one which it is now impossible to determine. That the numbers have been expressed in words written at length for some centuries, there seems to be no doubt, but whether this was the case in very ancient times or not, it is difficult to say.* 23. As the Hebrew letters are sometimes changed for one another, both in primitive words, and in the process of derivation ; and, as this change mostly takes place in letters of the same organ,f the following classification of them, according to the different organs of speech, has usually been given : 1 Gutturals, N Alef, H He, H Kheth, V Ayin. 2 Palatals, 3 Gimel, * Yod, 5 Cdph, p Koph. 3 Linguals, ^ Ddleth,U Teth, n Taw. 4 Sibilants, t Zdyin, D Sdmek, * Tsade, & Shin, US Sin. 5 Labials, 3. Beth, 1 Vaw, Q Mem, D Pe. 24. The letters b, Q, 3, "1, are termed liquids. J 25. Four of the letters of the Alphabet occasionally lose their powers as consonants, and are then said to be quiescent or silent. These letters are, N Alef, P! He, 1 Vaw, and ^ Yod, which form a sort of memoria tec/mica * See Baver's Critica Sacra, Tract i. 23, page (mihi) 188. t As 13 for S3 and fp the back; N^IE and Knn/af; and many others to be found in the dictionaries. J Whether any of the letters nWTIQ be with or without the points, as given in the table of the Alphabet, or whether others assume their own final forms or not, makes no difference as to their classification, they will still belong to one or other of the above classes. ART. 26.]] ON THE CONSONANTS. 11 in the word ^HM Ehevi, Those letters too which occa- sionally have a point inscribed, have, for the same reason, been formed into the technical word fiQSTQ Begad- kephdth. The final letters which are sometimes length- ened are exhibited in the words ^ftH >TTN Ohel Tamdr, Tamar's tent : and the finals which vary in form, as men- tioned in the table, are comprehended in the words YQ2to5 Cammenappets, " Like a disperser." 26. The letters have been further divided into two classes ; one containing such letters as are occasionally servile, that is, are employed in the process of gram- matical accidence and derivation; the other, those only which are never so employed ; the first have been termed servile, the second radical, letters. The servile letters are, however, occasionally radical, though the radical ones are never servile. 27. The servile letters are all comprehended in the following memoria technica, viz. 1751 JffN H$, Moshe Ethan Vecalev, i. e. Moses, Ethan, and Caleb. The remaining letters are termed radical.* 28. The best method the learner can adopt for making himself acquainted with the letters is, to write them over carefully and frequently, till he is quite familiar with all their forms. In doing this, he should strongly mark the difference between those letters, which are in some respects similar, such as 1 Beth, and 5 Cdph, A Gimel, and 2 Nun, and so on ; in order to avoid the * In almost all the printed copies of the Hebrew Bible, we find some of the letters occasionally larger or smaller than others ; others inverted, or suspended a little above the general line of printing; in one instance, we have a final letter in the middle of a word ; in others, a medial letter is used as a final : out of all which the Jews, and indeed some Christian writers, have endeavoured to elicit certain mysteries. But as they are most likely all owing to some accident in the transcription of the MSS., we may be excused in dismissing them without further notice. Perfect Vowels. 12 LECTURE i. CART. 20. confusion which beginners often experience, and to make that pleasant which is to many extremely irksome. If he use a pen, the point should be cut a little oblique, in order to make the horizontal strokes strong and regular ; the others, which should be perpendicular, should be made fine and equal. An oriental reed, however, makes by far the best pen for writing* these letters, which should be cut nearly like a pen, with a slit, and the point oblique, as already mentioned.* On the Vowels. 29. It has already been remarked, (Art. 3.) that the Hebrew vowels present a system of marks or characters arranged sometimes above, at others in the middle, and at others beneath, the consonants : we now proceed to delineate and explain this. Table of the Hebrew Vowels. Figure. Name. Power. KM Mipliticalions. Kamets a as 3 ba, % ga, *n da, &c T T T Tsere e ^ be, ?| ge, TJ de, &c Klnr'ik Gddol i ^ bl, 1J g~ t) 1TJ dl, &C It D/in KAo/ew b *J2 bo, *]% gd, "jt] do,kc, 1 t Pllt^ Slturtk u 13 bit, t|jj gu, !)T] du, &c * These reeds may be purchased at Messrs. Parbury and Allen's, Book- sellers in Leadenhall-street, London ; and at Stevenson's, Cambridge. The exact method of cutting and holding them may be seen in the Deve- loppemens des Principes de la Langue Arabe Moderne, par Auguste F. I. Herbin. f In these cases, the consonant ") is considered merely as the fulcrum of the accompanying vowels, and in the first it is often omitted, the point then rest- ing on the side of the preceding or following consonant. The * too is pretty much in the same predicament, and is also occasionally left out. In this case analogy must determine, whether it stand for a perfect or imperfect vowel. ART. 30.]] ON THE VOWELS. 13 Figure. Name. Power. Exemplifications. l Pdthakh a - "f3 bad, *7| gad, "H dad. / c "73 fed, II ged, fq ded. owel? . ]to P^TH KA*^ ffatf* i - 13 6/, "73 g^ "H <** zeft Khatuph o *|3 tod, 15 god, *H dod. Kibbuts u " 6d, *f ?| gwd, "7 rfurf. Sheva, and its Substitutes.* Shevd e ^^ ben, ^|| geH, Khatef Pdthakh a - l")^, 6rz, ^^ grz, 11^ D^"JJIl f their aspiration. In the first case, whenever any consonant has this point inscribed, and is, at the same time, both preceded and followed by a vowel, or is preceded by a vowel, and has also a Shevd, such consonant is to be read as two, e. g. "T?7 Limmed, or 1"Tp7 Limmedu. But, if such consonant is not so pre- ceded, &c., it cannot be doubled ; and in that case, it is found only in the letters nD5"TJ3, inscribed merely for the purpose of taking away their aspiration, as already noticed. Now, this last mostly takes place when such letter commences a syllable, as ^3 Caph, |3 Ben, &c. ; in some instances when it ends it, as Jpp hamt. It must also be remembered, that whenever any one of these letters is in a situation to be doubled, the aspiration will also be taken away by the influence of this point, e. g. 1S3 Kipper, not klphpher. 48. In the first of these cases, this mark has been termed Dagesh forte, in the second Dagesh lene ; terms, it must be confessed, ill chosen to designate the offices just described. I should prefer terming it Dugesh in every case, its situation being always sufficient to determine its powers, according to our rule. 49. Mappih is a single point (like Dagesh} inscribed in the letter Jl only, thus H. Its office is to shew, that this letter, when so marked, retains its power as a consonant, and is to be treated as such, both in the pronunciation ART. 50-3 ON THIS MARK 11A-PHE. 21 and etymology. The Jews consider it also as extending to the letter 1, as in rPTlfP Yehu-diy-yd ; but this is a useless distinction. On the Mark HSn RA-PHE. IV T 50. Formerly when Ddgesh was not found in any of the letters, a mark called H^H Bd-phe, was placed above it, in order to shew that the point had not been omitted by mistake. With the ancient Syrians this was nothing more than a point made with red ink. The Hebrews probably wrote it in the same way : but, as this point might be mistaken for the vowel Kholem, when printed, or, for one of the accents, the form of it was altered for a short line thus ( - ), which is still found in the Hebrew manuscripts,* though very rarely in the printed books. 51. Other points are sometimes found placed over certain words in the Hebrew Bible, the use of which is now unknown. The ac- counts given of these by the Rabbins may be seen in Buxtorf 's Thesaurus Grammaticus, lib. i. cap. v. art. 6, which need not be detailed here. 52. It will be seen by recurring to the table of vowels (Art. 29.), that Kholem is given with a "\ Vaw for its fulcrum, thus 1. The Vaw, however, is frequently left out. But, as the letters & Sin and W Shin are also written with a point on the left or right side, respectively, a question may arise, as to how the Kholem is to be represented in the case of its following W, or preceding VJ. The answer is : Supposing any consonant to follow &> Sin, and this fc> to have no other vowel-mark, then will its own diacritical point also stand for Kholem ; as !"13iP So-ne. In every other case, W will be merely the consonant s, as given in the Table (Art. 4.). In the next place, with respect to VJ Shin : Supposing any consonant to precede W Shin, having neither Vowel-mark nor Sheva, * And in these it is sometimes put over a letter requiring Dag&h forte by analogy, also over N and H when quiescent. 22 LECTURE i. HART. 53. then will the diacritical point of $ Shin stand also for Kholem, thus, Z^3 Bosh. But, if the preceding letter have a Vowel or Shevci, UJ Shin will be used merely as directed in the table of consonants. This expedient has been resorted to, in order to avoid the inconvenience of marking these points twice over, which must otherwise have taken place. 53. It will also be seen in the table of the vowels, that the letter h Yod has been placed above the point () then called Kliirik Gddol, in order to shew that it is a perfect vowel. This *" Yod, however, is frequently omitted ; and, when that is the case, an accent, as it will be seen hereafter, is mostly added to make the distinction. But, as this accent is also sometimes omitted, analogy will then be the only criterion by which the distinction can be known. 54. The learner will also perceive, that Kdmets, and Kdmets Khdtuph, have the same form, viz. (T). How then, it may be asked, are they to be distinguished ? I answer; Whenever any consonant follows the mark (*) having also a vowel of its own, it will be seen, that (T) must make a complete syllable, and must therefore be the vowel Kdmets, as in the word HD"1 Rd-phe. For here, as Q begins the following syllable, the "1 with (T) must necessarily constitute the preceding one : (T) therefore will here be the perfect vowel Kdmets. In the next place, (') found under any one of the letters 1731, (Art. 27.) at the beginning of a word, will be Kdmets ; because, in this case, a contraction must have taken place; as, vH3 Bd-khoti, for "^nn?, the (T) here being compensative of (-). So in l/ngtt Ba-d-hol-Jta, for T?0$'7-? These cases will be explained hereafter. 55. The following are the exceptions: 1. Should (T : ) Khdteph Kdmets follow (*), or a (T) which has arisen ART. 56.]] ON KAMETS KHATUPH. 23 out of (T : ) by the operation of a rule hereafter to be given, then will ( T ) be Kcimets Khdtuph, and must be read as o, although an accent accompany it ; as, ^J7^ Po-hol-kd, in which case the (T) Khdtuph being sustained by an accent, becomes equal to the perfect vowel ( 1 ), And, 2dly, when any consonant following (T) has no vowel, and the syllable is also without an accent, (T) will then be Kdmets Khdtuph ; as, HD^n Khok-ma, 13") Ron-nu, ^jj; Ik-botz, &c. 56. As to the names of the vowels, &c., they are generally Chaldee or Syriac, whence some have argued that their invention is modern.* But, as this will involve questions of no importance to the learner, nothing need be said on the subject here. 57. Whether the pronunciation here ascribed to the different consonants and vowels was that in use in ancient times, it is impos- sible now to say : nor is it of much importance either to the learner . or the critic. That the approximation is near, there cannot be much doubt ; and, that the system is generally the same, is, per- haps, sufficiently certain. But, as the Jews differ in their pronun- ciation in different countries, we have here taken that of the Portuguese Jews, as nearly as it could be obtained, which is gene- rally allowed to be the best. * The heads of the arguments urged on this question may be seen in the Inslitutiones Ling. Heb. by Schultens, p. 53, &c., or in the Arcanum punctua- tionis revelatum, by Capell, &c. Various hypotheses have been offered on the names of the letters : one of the latest, and perhaps most improbable, is, that, as they occasionally present forms not in use in the Hebrew, they must therefore have been taken from some more ancient form of the language ! 24f LECTURE ii. QART. 68. LECTURE II. ON THE HEBREW ACCENTS, &C. 58. HAVING given tables of the Hebrew consonants and vowels, with some explanations and rules as to their powers and use, we now come to consider the accents, and to give a table exhibiting their forms, situa- tions, and names, to be followed, as before, with some observations on their nature and application. The fol- lowing table given by Alting and adopted by Schultens and Gesenius, has been chosen as sufficiently extensive and explicit for our present purpose. The word here taken for the purpose of exhibiting the situation, &c. of accents, is cited from Isaiah Ivii. 18, and signifies, with its affixes, " And I will heal him." The distinctive powers which these accents are believed to possess, will be considered hereafter. 59. The Hebrew accents are found placed below, above, or on a level with, the line of the consonants. Those which are found below, are twelve in number : their situations, forms, and names, are as follows : No. Sit. and Form. Name. 2. i HNS") si runs ^OMSJA. 3. 1PJ i* 3"! Kl SHDED Tiphkha. 4. inSS"njSI1 Do. anterior.* 6. inSllST Hl^n^ Yethm. 7. in^ai^f n:i.d Mun&kh. s- inxs"i^i "nanD Mahptk. * Used in the poetical books only. ART. 59.]] ON THE ACCENTS. 25 No. Sit. and Form. Name. Yirakh. 11. in&snsi D - rniDjD Id - doubled. 12. Those which are placed above the line of consonants, are eighteen in number. Their names, forms, and situa- tions, are as follows : No. Sit. and Form. Name. 1. 'I^V^i"*1^1 l^Tl Rcviah. 2- inS5*lS1 Jrf. with J/|3. G&resh in the poetical books. 3. in^Entf"! l^P ^i?^ Zdkt/Kdtbn. 4- in^SI^T ^iTil Blpt ZaMfGaddl. 5. inxa")^ 1 ! ^^T^P *bw; ^ Pashtd. 7. inNS"IST n 1 ?^ 1 ?^ Shalshtleth. Zarka. 9- lilKSTNT KpTT Sarfttfantcrior. 5) Paz^r. G^resA. )J3 Id. doubled. T : Karn Ptidrd. 14. sinssni n^lTJ J2/^r TefeAa Gedbla. 15. lnB->n n33D Ktt^l*l nilshd KZtannd. Kadmd. n^lO Mundch superior. 18. inNS"l^1 ^FSn/D Mahpdk superior. T : v : ' - : - Zarka anterior, and the two last, are found thus in the poetical books only. The accents, written both above and below the line at 26 LECTURE II. CART. 60 ' the same time are four: their names, forms, and situa- tions, are as follows : No. Sit. and Form. Name. * injSt|")^1. Mahpdk with Merca. 2- intfihST Zarka with Merca. j- t : v : 3- inSSnSfl Zarkd with Mahpdk. 4 - 1 HNS") SI Munakh with Mahpdk. One only is found in the same line with the consonants. I irma-m'l ND^ L^*, or p^P) Pesik, according to its situation. It should be observed that, as several of these accents have the same form, they can be distinguished by their positions only. The best way to get acquainted with them is, to write them over a few times, first with, and then without, the tables.* 60. These marks are divided, with respect to their offices, into Tonic, and Euphonic, accents. 61. The tonic accent, however situated, can affect only the ultimate or penultimate syllable of any word, which * Various offices have been ascribed to these accents. By some they are thought to have been attached to the sacred text, in order to regulate the tone of voice, either in reading or chanting. Others have supposed them to have been affixed for the purpose of dividing it into its several members, as verses, the larger and smaller members of sentences, &c., and to point out the different dependence which these parts exhibit on one another. Others, again, have as- signed to them emphasis, parenthesis, parallelism, &c., while others have given them all these offices together. Some, again, have supposed them to be of divine, others of human, origin. In the present work we shall consider their application to the text, as the best grammarians usually have done, viz., as in- tended to divide the context into its different members, and to determine (for the most part) the tone-accent of the words in which they are found. As to their authority, we cannot allow it to be divine, until better proofs than any hitherto offered shall have been given on that point. As coming from men, who had perhaps made the Hebrew Bible the study of their lives, they are valuable. They may, nevertheless, be rejected, whenever a more convenient division can be discovered. ART. 62.3 ON THE ACCENTS. 27 it does by directing the accentuation to be placed on that syllable. When this accent is found on any other syllable, the tone-accentuation of such word can be known only from its analogy. In other cases, the accent will point it out. 62. When a word happens to have more than one tonic accent, and both are the same, the first will govern the accentuation; as, inn Tho-hu: but, when they are not the same, the last will have it ; e. g. D v 1'JiD7'l U-lemo-adim. 63. Generally, all words either being, or terminating in the form of, Segolates (to be considered hereafter), will have the accentuation on the penultimate syllable: all others on the ultimate. 64. The Euphonic accent supplies a sort of secondary accentuation to the syllable on which it is found, which can never be the ultimate of any word, nor even the penultimate of those having the Segolate form. 65. Of this accent, modern grammarians count two sorts, Metheg Jpp, and Makkdph ^D. The former of these has the same form with Silluk ( ) ; but, as it can never hold the same situation, the distinction is easily made. The latter takes the form of our hyphen ; as in ^3 "Jit* Eth-Ml, and generally deprives the preceding word of its tone-accent. In neither case is their insertion always solitary ; for, several Methegs are sometimes found in the same word, and several words are occasionally connected by the operation of Makkdph. Particular rules for their insertion will be given hereafter. 66. One mark more it may suffice to notice here, and that is, a small circle sometimes found over a word in the Hebrew context ; o thus, WSirr. The word over which this mark is found is said to be ^tys Kethio, or written ; and the mark itself is intended to direct the attention of the reader to some note to be found either in the 28 LECTURE H. [[ART. 67. margin, or at the foot of the page. For the most part, it directs the reader to a various reading, on the right side of which we find the word "Hi? Kert, meaning either reading or read* The readings thus pointed out in the Hebrew Bible amount to about ] 000, and are generally preferred to those found in the text. The far greater part of them has been found by Kennicott and De Rossi in the MSS. which they collated. f 67. Having thus far explained the powers of the several consonants, vowels, accents, &c., and given some rules on the subject of their combination, we now proceed to examine a portion or two of the Hebrew text, in exemplification of what has been said. The passage we shall first take is, Zephaniah iii. 8, in which we have all the letters of the Alphabet with most of the vowels and other marks. In reading this, we would advise the learner to mark each syllable distinctly with a slight pause, and to continue this practice until he is perfectly familiar with all the consonants, vowels, &c Ku-mi ley'om Yeho-vdl neum li khak-ku La-k6n. 14 13 12 11 10 9 lish-jiuk mum-ld-kbth lekov-tsi go-im le-esvph Mish-pa-ti ki 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 kin-a-thi be&h ki ap-pi kharbn kbl zah-mi hale-litm 20 25 24 hu-d-rets kol te-a-ktl For an explanation of these Masorelic marks, the Tiberias of Buxtorfius should be consulted. f Kennicott's Dissertatio Generalis, 39. De Rossi Proleg. xxxix. \ This word is pronounced "O'Tbjl Adb-ndl by the Jews, whenever it is found as pointed above : but, when it precedes the word ^3"TSI in the text, it then takes the points of the word D^nbs %.ldhiin, thus rTJrj!!, and is then pro- nounced Elohim. This is a mere Jewish superstition, derived from a consider- able antiquity ; it having been their opinion, that this name ought to be pro- nounced by none except the High Priest, and by him only once in the year. ART. 67/] ON THE ACCENTS. 29 The learner will recollect that he is to read, beginning at the right, and proceeding towards the left, hand (Art. 3.) ; and that the consonants must precede the vowels (Art. 31.). The numerals are added to shew the order of the words. Let us now proceed to analyse the syllables, &c. In No. 1, we have Lamed with Kdmets, making the open syllable La. After this we have Caph with Tsere, followed by Nun, making the syllable ken. Here, according to our system of syllabication, we should have had some imperfect vowel under the Caph (Art. 33.), which would have been sufficient to complete this syllable; but the accent Mahpak being added, the anomaly is cor- rected (ib.). No. 2. Kheth with Pathakh, followed by Caph with the point Dcigesh inscribed : and, as a vowel follows this letter, it must be doubled, the point is, therefore, Dcigesh forte (Art. 47.). The first syllable, consequently, is JchaJc, the second is ku, and this is composed of the second Caph, and the vowel Shurek. We next have the mark called MakMph, which is used to connect numbers 2 and 3 together, like our hyphen (Art. 65.). No. 3. Lamed with Khlrik followed by Y6d, making the open syllable It; to this is added the tonic accent Pas/itd, which may be represented by li. No. 4. we have Nun with S/ievd. In this case Sheva is very slightly pronounced (Art. 40.), but it is not reckoned as a syllable. In the next place we have Alef with Kibbuts followed by Mem. This syllable, therefore, must be pronounced urn, in which u has the sound of oo in good. The whole word will then be neum, in which the e will be passed over as rapidly as possible. We then have the mark Makltapli, as before. No. 5. is the word Jehovah, pronounced Yehd-vu. 30 LECTURE ii. CART. 67. Here Shevd is passed over rapidly as before. The point over the left limb of He is the vowel Kholem (Art. 52.) ; and, as the Vaw following has a vowel of its own, it is not quiescent in the preceding vowel Kholem, which it otherwise would be (Art. 37.). The first syllable, therefore, including the Shevd, will be Ye ho, the next Vd, in which the terminating Jl will be quiescent in the preceding Kumets. Over the Vaw commencing this last syllable, we have the accent Zdkeph Kdton. In no respect, therefore, can the mark (T) under this Vaw be a Kdmets Khdtuph. (Art. 54.). Nothing now occurs worth remark till we come to No. 11. In the word rpvfo Le-esoph, then, the first syllable consists of Lamed with Segol, accompanied by an Euphonic accent (Art. 65.) called MetJieg, making a complete syllable (Art. 33.). This syllable, therefore, is open Le. The Alef following, with Khdteph Segol which is a substitute of Shevd (Art. 46.), does not con- stitute a syllable ; and, therefore, it is passed over as rapidly as convenient, in connection with the following syllable Soph, which has the tonic accent Pashtd (Art. 59.). No. 12. The first syllable consists of Glmel with ( 1 ) Kholem (Art. 29.). The next syllable is commenced by Yod, with Khlrik following, and which, by analogy, should be followed by another Yod, as D^ Yim, or im (Art. 15.) : but the second Yod is frequently omitted, as will be seen hereafter. Khirik thus situated is never- theless a perfect vowel : and, as the syllable also ends with a consonant, the accent Geresh is added to rectify the syllabication (Art. 33.). No. 13. ^?E7. Here the first letter has an Initial Shevd, which will therefore be passed over rapidly. In the next place we have p Koph, followed by ( * ), i. e. either ART. 68.]] ON THE READING. 31 Kdmets or Kdmets Khdtuph. It cannot be Kdmets, because it precedes a consonant which has no vowel of its own, and is accompanied by no accent, (Art. 54.) The first syllable, therefore, will be Lekov, and the last, tst, which need not be further explained. On No. 14. it will be necessary only to remark, that the point placed over the middle of the letter 3 is the accent Revmh, not the vowel Kholem, which however follows that letter. A recurrence to the tables will always be sufficient to shew, that this accent is placed over the middle of the consonant, Kholem always on the one side. No. 19. forms one syllable only: the Khdteph Pathakh (-:) found under the T\ Kheth, being one of the sub- stitutes of Shevd, is not counted in the syllabication. 68. The names of the different accents will be found by turning to the table (Art. 59.), with which the Learner will do well to make himself familiar : other- wise, he will occasionally confound them with the vowels, and, in many instances, be unable to determine whether Shevd begins, or ends a syllable, or whether the mark ( T ) be Kdmets, or Kdmets Khdtuph. We shall subjoin a passage, for the sake of practice, in which the greater part of the accents is found, with the syllables in Roman letters, as in the last, in order to facilitate the reading. 2 KINGS I. 6. T^SK "ipx^. OTNij? 1 ? rhjj &$ V^N 'riEK'j e-le-nu vai-yo-mer Uk-ra-th&-nu, hd-ld ish e-ldw Vai-yb meru orra-n jv :- : vedib-bar-t&m eth-kem shd-ldkh asher ham-m^-lek el shu-vu leku $ rs at-td beis-ra~6l clo-him en hnmib-beli Yeho-va a-mdr k<> e-ltiu 32 LECTURE ii. [[ART. 69. pf vhj$ ^8 ^3! ^33 la-ktn hek-rdn elo-M zevuv bevd-hul lid-rush shb-ltakh ? nape /ci m\m-mkn-na the-iki Id shsham hd-li-thaasher ham-mit-td ; rnpn ta-miith 69. It will be unnecessary to point out the names of the different vowels and accents found in this extract, as the Learner will easily find them by recurring to the tables. It may be necessary however to remark, that the accent found between the third and fourth words is termed Legarme, not Pesik. The distinction consists in this : that when the accent Munach precedes the mark ( I ) it is then termed Legarme. When any other accent precedes, it is termed Pesik. In the word p? too, the accent is found over the 7, while the accented syllable is the following one p : but this accent, viz., Tetishd gedold, is always found on the first letter, see the Table, while the accentuation is regulated by the analogy (Art. 61.) As the word D5S* commences with Dagesh in the >, the vowel (T) terminating the preceding word is so connected with it, as to enable the reader to pronounce it as two, as in shsham (Art. 47.). 70. The Learner cannot now do better than to take a Hebrew Bible, and transcribe a chapter or more at a time, in Roman letters, divided into syllables as given above ; and this he should continue to do until he is quite familiar with the letters, vowels, accents, and syllables. After this he may read, which he had better do, aloud, until he finds no difficulty in enouncing every word fully and correctly. A little perseverance will accomplish this, which is perhaps the greatest difficulty he will have to encounter: and, when he has succeeded, he will find his progress both easy and delightful. ART. 71.)] LECTURE III. 33 LECTURE III. ON THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES WHICH PREVAIL IN REGULATING THE ETYMOLOGY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. s\ 71. IT is well known that changes take place in the consonants and vowels of all languages, which can be accounted for on no other principles than those of euphony. Certain vowels and consonants would, in some situations, introduce sounds so difficult of utterance and so grating to the ear, that conversation would become painful both to the speaker and hearer. In order to avoid these, certain changes are found to take place in the constitution of words, which at first sight appear to be anomalous, and which give great trouble to the learner until the laws by which they are regulated are understood. In no language is this more apparent than in the Hebrew and its dialects, particularly the Arabic. In the Sanscrit it prevails in a much greater degree, and is found in its descendant the Greek to give more trouble to the learner than any thing else brought under his observation. It is our intention to commence our investigation of the principles of the Hebrew lan- guage, by detailing the rules by which these apparent anomalies are regulated, for the purpose of enabling the learner to account for the different forms of words as they occur. Because, until he has some knowledge of this subject, he will meet with scarcely any thing but difficulty ; and may, after a study of some years, be induced, as many have been, to confess that there is nothing certain in this language. 72. It has been remarked (Art. 36, &c.), that the letters con- tained in the technical word ^IH^., will occasionally lose their power as consonants, or become quiescent in the sound of the preceding D *J4 LECTURE III. CART. 73 ' vowel, so that the pronunciation of the word will continue the same whether these letters be written or not : and, the consequence is, they are often omitted ; as, ^l?. 3 for "TfTiQ visitor, ^T 1 ?? f r C 7^ words, nh'M for nlnlH signs, n for nj elevation, l?7an for TOtp'an ffoy (fem.) approach, D?V^ f r c ,?V n ^ n ^ at ( is '0 * y" ? ^V^T f r ^?X ^ '' are known, &c. And, rice rersa, these letters will occasionally be inserted when the analogy does not require them : as "Tip? for "Tpf visiting, BMf:. for E|7. sfood,* &c. 73. Hence, when Aepa ( = ), or one of its substitutes, happens to be initial, and to precede one of the letters *TD$ t a contraction generally takes place, by which both (;) and the "^D^! letter is rejected, and the following vowel drawn back to the place of the rejected Shevd ; e. g. J"lb for njfW, TON for TONN, rP23 for jrana., T,7?i for fj?.?^, "ii?J?; for TjjSpr^ pn f or pri, >s f or ^3, ^ for ^-|, iba for ^nba, n^p; f or D^V ( p i. O f D for D-n^S ( c j^,, pi. of "TO), Q^n for D^Sn ( p l. o f where, however, the S is retained). 74. When any one of the letters V?r? terminates a word, and has no vowel either preceding or following, it is often rejected : as, ^E? for matt? a captive, ^ for $ a valley, 1f2 for n^|2 a /me, 1? for "0? a precept, "T3? for "1"!? or 1.17 (passing) yet, ever, eternal. 1. When these letters remain, they are said to be otiose (Art. V7.}, and this may happen either in the middle or at the end of a word : as, ^^517 thou broughtest, ^2 a valley. 2. Hence it is, that H standing as the third letter of a root, and losing its vowel, is rejected : as, ' for "T^, originally "l,??1 he reveals, '^ for H V^Jl, &c. This case is termed Apocope. The reason of it, as will be seen hereafter, is the removal of the accent. 75. Any one of the letters H, 1, O r \ when preceded and fol- lowed by a vowel, will occasionally be dropped : as, QTlTp? for OrpJTTE? I visited them; DVT^S for DHn^S they visited them; Dp T for D}7 he stood; l|l for 1?S J te understood; nb for PPH7 a lamb, Sec. 76. Either of the letters s or 3 \\hen initial,^ and 3 generally * Hence it is that the letters 1 H (for n rarely occurs in such situation,) have been termed " Matres lectionis," and supposed to have been used as vowels at some former period. t Mr. Stuart has, after Gesenius, given T1 for TV Jud. xix. 11 ; HJ-iri for n$ 2 Sam. xxii. 41, &c. ; niB? forS^ Jer. xlii/lO. as instances ia which ART. 77.)] ON ELISION. 35 when terminating a syllable (not the last) and having a Shevd (:), will be dropt: as, rnb for rnV] bearing a child; rip^T for f^T knowledge ; ^1 for V?fi approach ; ^3") for IP??"! he draws near ; "^Bl for Ti?|^ ; for^jsarr;. *)N f or m4g&| fifor J-I?BN. IrulA. In the latter case, when 3 is dropt, the following letter will, when it can, be doubled by Dagesh, which may therefore be considered as compensative, b likewise in the verb Hp v, when it ought to take ( : ) Shevd by analogy, is dropt : as, H|2 for Hpy take. 1. The reason of these elisions seems to be, that as the "* would be enounced with some difficulty with an initial Shevd, and the 2 in each case on account of its being a nasal, both have been neglected in writing. 77. When the last two letters of any root, and occasionally of derivatives, happen to be the same, one of them is usually dropt : as, ^^ for 3-j^p he surrounded ; 3D for 33D surrounding ; O3 for ^^ a people; C3S for Oj-pN a mother; which, however, will return (by Dagesh ) when any augment is made : as, ^D they have surrounded; "^3? my people, &c. In this case the rejection has probably taken place, in order to avoid an ambiguity which might arise from the operation of a rule hereafter to be considered, by which the Learner or Reader may possibly misunderstand this for a reduplication, introduced for the sake of emphasis or the like. 78. Letters of the same organ are, on account of a similarity of sound prevailing among them, sometimes changed the one for the other : e. g. 1. Labials : 1,1, 33, O r *]2 the back ; he escaped. Palatals : "1|1D or "99 he shut up ; or JJH he travelled; or SS-lp a handle. 3. Linguals : H^H or HpH he robbed. 4. Sibilants : tb or ^ or vj? he exulted cried out ; Ppl? or P}?^ he laughed. 5. Gutturals : HS3 O r ^(7^ he was weak ; mournful. f at ; O r 2. ? he he was * or 3 having a vowel, is dropt by the aphscresis. For my part, I doubt whether these are not rather infinitives than preterites ; and if they are so, the elision comes under the above rule, D 2 30 LECTURE in. CART. 73. 79. In a few instances, letters of different organs are changed one for another : as, 1. Sibilants for Linguals : "H,?? or "H^ he quenched; "lj|3 or "\&3 he matched; oft" O r fthSl a /r tree; ttnn or Hnn /,^N'2"D- > G3 Nevukadretslsdr. 80. The S |in^. letters, considered either as consonants or qui- escents, will occasionally be changed for one another : particularly, when the pronunciation of the word is not materially affected by the change : e. g. D^^S or D^? rags ; 3*fr or 3yn Z)o%, a proper name ; "H,?"? or "*VT ^ ^eraf ' ^IT?!? or "^ IT"! 1 "? baldness ; WpO or rnf?0 collection ; Vbh or ^"> Me Aeid ; C^ or D'?. '* * . ^_ an animal so called ; T 1 ^^"! or "P^"! the first ; H72 he revealed, for ^3, &c. 81. In like manner, 3 is occasionally found in the place of one or other of the ^HN letters : as, 2S3 for 2^^ he set up ; H3 for HN^ he mas beautiful. So in the Syriac, ^&J for **&! he kills. 82. The letters of a syllable are sometimes transposed ; as, for bDD / Je n,a* foolish ; 2^3 for Bg a lamb; *&* for ^S3 lie breathed; ">^S for V^? he broke out; p3M for p3 Ae ^Arf; ^1^W| fo r ms^l Dallies : and, in some cases, a letter is transposed to another syllable ; as, n jv?3? for n ^1? wickedness ; nttbb fo r n|?p27 a garment. 1. These changes and transpositions (i. e. from Art. 78. to this place) do not otherwise affect the grammar of the language, than point out to the student what roots, &c., are said to be cognate ; that is, are related to one another in their radical letters, and have the same, or very nearly the same, signification. The preceding, as well as the following, will affect the grammatical forms of words. 83. When the f"l of the Hithpdhel species of conjugation will, by analogy, precede any of the Sibilant letters (Art. 23.) a trans- position, and occasionally a change, of that letter will take place : e. g. In the first case, banpn fo r b ( 2pOn J ie loaded himself; ""^tpj? for "raHWpn ] ie caused to keep. In the second : P^V'n for P^On he justified. In this case only, is the ^ changed to 13. I. But, when a letter of the same organ with f"l (see Art. 23.) follows, both will coalesce by Dagesh placed in the radical ART. 82. 2.3 CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 37 letter : e. g. ^^ for "iSnrin, root ~Q^ he spoke ; "iH^n f or "inEnn, root ">ni3 he n, as clean ; E^rii! for D^^n, root 2pW he was complete. 2. This coalescence, which has been termed Assimilation, is found very generally to prevail ; but not without some exceptions which will be noticed hereafter. 3. In a few instances, this principle of assimilation is found to extend itself to other letters : e. g. ^H for ^l^in, root I"Dt he was pure; n ?'T I for <"IE?0 J 7> root HD3 he covered; N22n for S25rirT, root 33 he declared; DB'hN for OtfhrW, root DTI exalt- ing ; Dai^ri for DBitttflJ-l, roo t ^ he desolated, &c. 8*. Letters are sometimes added either for the purpose of facili- tating the pronunciation, or, for modifying the signification of words : e. g. in the first case : v^Bf^N for b'lXpJ;! yesterday ; *1\$ for ?1~JT the arm.* In the second : "^?^ most cruel, from ""ft? cruel, &c. Of this kind are the paragogic letters, as well as those used in forming the different species of nouns, conjugations, &c., of which an account will be given hereafter. The first of these cases is termed Prosthesis ; the second Epenthesis, Paragoge, Heemanthi, &c., according to their different offices and uses. 85. Letters are occasionally dropt, (Art. 72. 76.), so also D, (and 1 in the Syriac, Chaltlaic, and Arabic,) terminating words in the plural number, when those words happen to be in the state of definite construction, of which more hereafter. 7 likewise, in a very few instances at the end of proper names : as, "l^P for P^P, for the reason given in Art. 76. 1. On the Contractions which take place in the Fbwels. 86. As it may occasionally happen, in combining the vowels with the consonants, that certain sounds may arise either disagreeable to the ear, difficult of utterance, or, from some reason or other gene- rally avoided by the people speaking a given language ; it is of importance to know, in what cases these difficulties are found to arise in the language before us, and how they are obviated. 87. Whenever any vowel not homogeneous with one of the letters ** or 1 (Art. 38.) happens to precede such letter, a vowel will be formed from the combination partaking of the sound of both. * Of this sort are the words stablish and establish, special and especial, in Knglish. So in the Greek ffrti^ni; //. 5. In like manner, when Shevd precedes any perfect or imperfect vowel, or, a substitute of Shevd follows an imperfect one, a con- traction may take place, in which the Shevd or its substitute will disappear: as, 1st. HSU? for nNt? elevation; n|?b for riSPpb meeting ; ~ 1 P^ > for "Ifc'^ he says, &c. 2. "^Nb for '"?&$> saying ; ^SMJ for bj^ /, e separates ; and, by Art. 72, 2^ for 3^.1 ^e prosper*. 6. Either (-) or (T) preceding a guttural letter which has (T) Kdmets, is frequently changed into ( ) for the sake of euphony : as, "TfTO masc. njlMf fern, one; D^njl for n^HH Xp Mulkcwth, which is regularly written JTDbtt Malkuth : aad so of others. f There is a manifest anomaly in the first vowel of these words, which may be corrected thus : TRM or "TH^ nn or ring, 1HN or riHH. This last would approach the orthography of the Syrians; the other, that of the Arabs. ART. 88-3 CHANGES OF THE VOWELS. 3f) On the General Changes of the Vowels, 88. Could we suppose Hebrew words to have remained unaltered as to their original forms, or unvaried in pronunciation with refe- rence to the syllable on which the accent is placed, we might also suppose that no variation would ever have taken place in the vowels. But the fact, is, the forms of words vary, in order to express the different shades of meaning of which the root is capable ; and from this, as well as other causes, the accented syllable will not always remain the same : and, consequently, as the pronunciation of the word thus varied must alter, the vowels accompanying it must vary likewise. 89. Hence it will appear, that two circumstances are to be attended to with reference to the change of the Hebrew vowels. One is, the etymology or form of the word ; the other, the situa- tion of the accent. 90. The form of the word can only be understood from rules hereafter to be detailed. The principles, however, upon which the etymology rests, may here be considered ; and that will be sufficient at the present. 91. Any augment whatever prefixed to a word will not influence our present considerations, as the changes of the vowels do not depend upon this. We have now to do only with augments post- jixed to words ; because it is upon these alone that such changes depend. 92. These augments, then, may be considered as of two sorts : one commencing with a vowel, and which may be termed Asyllabic ; the other with a consonant, which may be termed Syllabic.* 93. We can readily perceive, that, upon any Asyllabic augment being postfixed to a word, the terminating consonant of such word must be taken in order to enounce it, otherwise it will remain silent ; it being contrary to the laws of syllabication for any vowel to begin a syllable (Art. 31.). If, then, we attach the asyllabic augment &~, which is the mark of the plural number masculine, to any word, such as E37 a people, or "^ pure, we must necessarily take the last letter of either of these words to enounce it : and, if * The reason of these terms is obvious : a vowel cannot commence a syl- lable in Hebrew ; hence augments thus commencing are termed Asyllabic : those commencing with a consonant are, for a similar reason, termed Syllabic. 40 LECTURE in. CART. 94. the word have by analogy but one such terminating letter, then must the preceding syllable necessarily be perfect; but, if not, im- perfect; e. g. "^ pure, (root ^^, the H being rejected by Art. 72.) adding &\, we have O'HSl Bu-rim, pure ones, &c. But, taking E? people, which is derived from the root E2 , (one of the radicals being rejected by Art. 77, we have E?,) and adding O^,. we shall have Q^V Ham-mim, peoples. It will entirely depend, therefore, upon the analogy of the word, whether the preceding vowel is to be perfect or not, due regard being had to the laws of syllabication. 94. In the next place, if our augment is Syllabic, as CD , (which is one of the pronominal affixes signifying your, and carrying the accent with it,) as Hebrew words generally end in a consonant, the preceding vowel, in such case, must necessarily be imperfect ; because, both the vowel will be without an accent, and it will be followed by a consonant : e. g. E,?"!5 Bar-kern, your pure one ; or, Ejf?^? Ham-mekem, your people. 95. Hence it will appear, that a perfect vowel will occasionally become imperfect; and, vice versa, an imperfect one, perfect: i. e. in other words, vowels will be changed for their homogeneous perfect or imperfect ones, as the rules of syllabication shall require. 96. This correspondence however in the vowels is of two sorts, Direct, and Oblique. 1. The direct correspondence is that of the perfect with the im- perfect vowels, respectively, as (T) with (-), () with (v), &-c. as given in the Table (Art 29.). 2. The oblique correspondence is that of vowels, in some respects, dissimilar; as, (T) or (-) with () or (); () or () with (\) or (); and ( -0 with (s). 97. Generally, therefore, when any change of the vowels must take place in order to comply with the laws of etymology and syllabication, those vowels which are either directly or obliquely homogeneous with their primitives, will be taken : the directly homogeneous ones for the most part; the other cases may be considered as exceptions to be learned by usage. 98. This change of the vowels, moreover, will occasionally affect the penultimate syllable of a word, as well as the ultimate. Let us now consider by what laws the change will be regulated in this case. 99. Generally, when the penultimate syllable ends in a perfect mutable vowel, that vowel will be rejected and its place be supplied ART. 100.]] CHANGES OF TIIF, VOWELS. 41* either by Shevd or one of its substitutes, according to rules here- after to be given ; but, if that vowel be immutable,* it will remain unaltered : e. g. affixing E^ ( to ~!j^T a word, we shall have E^^H Deva-rim, words : but, attaching it to "fft.lS visiting, where the penultimate vowel is immutable by analogy, we have Q'Hp'te persons visiting. 100. In like manner, if the penultimate syllable end in a con- sonant, and have no accent, it will necessarily remain immutable, whatever be the affix : as, 2^'jli?'? a sanctifier, iv : 101. In all cases, in which the penultimate is immutable either by analogy or position, the ultimate vowel, if mutable by analogy, will be rejected : but, when both are immutable, no change will take place in the vowels, whatever be the affix. Examples of the first case, "TCpQ a person visited, E^^fj ^i?1^7?> f ^ e second, . 102. The changes to which the vowels are liable from the acci- dence of the Grammar, can affect no vowel beyond the penul- timate: because, first, the prefixing of any augment whatever to a word does not affect its vowels (Art. 91); and, secondly, as no syllable beyond the penultimate can be affected by the tone- accent, neither can it by any augment affixed to such word : the syllables thus situated will therefore remain undisturbed by grammatical accidence. 103. The reason for abridging words, either in the ultimate, or penultimate, syllable (for both seldom occur together) when any augment is suffixed, seems to be this : Were words thus to be aug- mented in addition to their own primitive vowels, they would become inconveniently long. And, on the other hand, as those vowels, which have been termed immutable, constitute the distinctive character of the words in which they are found, perspicuity forbids that any change should take place in them. On the Use of Shevd and its Substitutes. 104. Having laid down the general laws relating to the changes of the vowels, we now proceed to notice a few affecting the use of Shevd and its Substitutes. To enter into all the minufige It will be shewn hereafter, in what cases this takes place. 42 LECTURE in. CAKT. 10.1. usually brought forward about these points, would neither be necessary nor agreeable to the student : the length and subtilty of the enquiry would not only be tedious and embarrassing, but when brought to a close, would probably leave him in possession of less practical knowledge on the subject, than the use of tables and his lexicon would supply. We shall therefore be brief, con- tenting ourselves with generals, and noticing a few anomalies as we proceed. 105. Shevd ( : ) may be either initial or Jinal (Art. 40.). It will be initial at the commencement of any syllable, whether that be at the beginning or in the middle of a word ; final when at the end of any syllable. 106. By grammatical accidence, however, two Shevds, or Shevd with a Substitute of Shevd, may concur as initials: but, as no one of them can stand for a vowel and so constitute a syllable when in conjunction with any consonant, some change must neces- sarily take place. In this case, the first Shevd, or Substitute for Shevd, will be changed into some imperfect vowel. 1. Shevd so situated, which always happens at the beginning of a word, mostly becomes Khirik ( ), sometimes Pdthakh (-) or Segol (): as, 1. "f^l for t^ he visits, t? for "fj??? in visiting : 2, ''{M? for 'JM? wings, and "fj?SM for "tpSN / visit. The use of Pdthakh (-), however, is rare, and can be known only from usage : Segol will occur only with W* or H. 2. One or other of the Substitutes of Shevd may concur with Shevd or with another Substitute of Shevd, either in the beginning or in the middle of a word, the change will then be into the imperfect vowel homogeneous with the substitute; e. g. ^?N for ''HJDN men, "H,-?^?. for "H-il? he is turned over. So, in the middle, TfVsS for 1?SB thy work, ^P^ for ? : ! they stand. There are, however, many exceptions : as, ^,??^? 1 ? it is made, or done, masc., but fern. "M^^-P?, which can be known only by usage. 3. But as the Substitutes of Shecd are various, it may be neces- sary here to state in what cases either of them is generally pre- ferred; because, upon this the operation of the foregoing rule will depend. * This is regularly the case in the first person singular of the species Kal, , and Pi/itt, when no guttural letter follows. ART. 106. 4-3 SHEVA AND ITS SUBSTITUTES. 43 4. Generally, when one of the guttural letters commences a syllable, whether in the beginning or in the middle of a word, and ought by analogy to take (;) Shevd; Khdteph Pdthakh (-:) is mostly taken in its place: e. g. 1. At the beginning of words: EH^y their father; ^,5"'?^ your brother ; "^^ who, which ; m&. make thou. 2. In the middle : '/?2 his redeemer; ^"fO?^ fear ye ; '"^V.^ she proceeded. 5. There is, however, a considerable number of exceptions to this rule:* and, 1st, Several monosyllables with their compounds commencing with N will take ( .) Khdteph Segol in the place of Shevd; as "H.?^?.*? Eltmelek, a proper name. 2dly, Infinitives and Imperatives of the conjugation Kal, when commencing with M : as, ^ 'ip$ eating, or eat thou ; "$. saying, or say thou. Sdly, The characteristic H of the Hiphhtl species, in verbs having the middle radical letter quiescent, and receiving some augment: as, ^^H! he restored him or it; B/TZ2! fie put them to death. The first person singular mostly follows the general rule, and takes (-:). 4thly, In a few words (:) is found with 37 at the beginning of a word: as, ^^ : strength; y.? a pestil ; FPti&. affliction; "H'"!" 1 -?. arrayed; *&$. respond ye. 6thly, Khdteph Segol (:) is also found in the middle of a word : as, ^7H^(7 towards the tent; ^T^n^ they take hold of thee ; ^C!*l and they become inflamed ; ^nprT she conceived me. 7thly. In the following we have (T : ) similarly situated: ^}i$P$? / rest ; "Hntp.Pl thou (fern.) didst bribe. And, Sthly, Generally, whenever a mutable "1 has been rejected, its place may be supplied by (T:) when commencing a word, and frequently when in the middle, whatever be the accompanying consonant : as, D^ttnn months, from ^1^ a month ; a V<7^ from ^rj*f tent ; D > ^7'r- pl" ra l of ^7.^ holiness, &c. And, 9thly, Some cases occur in which one or other of these Substitutes is found with a non-guttural letter, and when analogy does not seem to require it: e. g. ^L!$ gold, Gen. ii. 12; nnj?.^ she mas taken, ib. ver. 23; and a few others, which may perhaps be attributed to the mistakes of the copyists. 107. Any guttural letter, originally commencing a word, and having a substitute of Shevd in its own right, by Art. 106. 4. upon being preceded by some particle with Shevd, but which by Art. 106. 1. must become an imperfect vowel, will require that such * See nlso Art. 46. 44- LECTURE in. CART. i>s. imperfect vowel be homogeneous with that in the Substitute : e. g. <"tf^7 making, &c. prefixing *!, ft, ?, &c. which are the per- sonal preformatives of the present tense, we shall have ^f?^ he makes ; FIWT}ft she makes; n ^,3 me make, c. So likewise with other particles : as, ?, ?, 7, P, "! ; as, "^22 for "i?? 2 i n making ; "T223, *??, &c.' There are, however, some exceptions, as in the first persons singular of some of the species of conjugation, &c. ; as, "'j?P.??^ / make, &c., which seems to be derived from ^^V. as before ; all of which, however, will be found in the dictionaries. 108. There are also other substitutions made for the mark Shevd, which may be termed Euphonic. These take place, for the most part, at the end of words where two Shevds concurring, by analogy, would introduce some difficulty into the pronunciation. The vowels introduced in these cases are, (/), (-), or ( ). Segol is generally used when neither of the consonants concerned is guttural; (-)when one or two of them is so; and(-) when the first of them is "* Yod : e. g. "?].<$. for ^7^=> a king; where the primitive vowel, be that what it may, is generally made to corre- spond, in sound at least, with the substituted one for the mere sake of euphony : e. g. ">Bj? for "1?p a book ; "! for "?3?3 a boy ; JT3 for n^a a house; rnaa for n-aa a i a d y; mpib f or nroS t ' ' t, u (fern.) learning. So in verbs : vjT for ?}? (for I"V?\ Art. 74. 2.} he * i ^ * * * . ' reveals ' for 7r (for "^7?-> ^-) he causes to reveal ; "IH 1 ] for ") (for ^n^.ib.j, he becomes hot; ^?\] for b^rt (fo r nbyrt) rai s c thou, &c. Nouns of these forms, termed Segolate, having 1 for their middle radical letter, will take (T) Kdmets for their first vowel : as, ^"0$ death ; "H.)^) middle, &c. Particular Rules for the insertion of DAGESH. 109. The guttural letters, viz. N } Tf, n, and 37, to which ""! may be added, are, on account of the difficulty with which they are enounced, incapable of being doubled ; the consequence is, they can- not receive Ddgesh forte : and, as they do not come under the rule relating to the letters n??-^l (Art. 31.), they are also impervious to the operation oiDagesh when termed lene. Ddgesh, therefore, cannot be regularly inscribed in any one of them.* But, when analogy requires * In a few instances, however, it is found in ~) and M ; as in 1 Sam. x. 24 ; xvii. 25 ; Gen. xliii. 26 ; Ezek. xvi. 4 ; Job xxxiii. 21, &c. ART. HO.] INSERTION OF DAGESH. 45 its insertion, either the preceding vowel is made perfect, by way of compensation, as "H^l? Bd-rek, instead of "H^. Bar-rek, in which case it is said to be expressed ; or, it is only considered as being so, as, ^5(71*? mera-khe-pheth, instead of HSrnp for f-pflpP (Art. 43. note) ; here Ddgesh is said to be implied. 110. Generally, Ddgesh is to be inscribed in any one of the letters H??"^?, whenever such letter begins a syllable ; provided the preceding syllable do not end in a perfect vowel, or in one of the letters ^U.^ in a quiescent state, or in one of the Substitutes of Shevd; for then it will not be inscribed in any of these letters. The exceptions are as follows : 1. Should the preceding vowel be perfect, or the syllable end in one of the quiescent letters "^H!^, still, if two of the flPrn^a letters concur in the commencement of the following word, the first will receive Ddgesh; e. g. **&?* TjH^HM Emu-nd-thekd bepht, Psalm Ixxxix. 2. See also Isa. x. 9, Gen. xxxix. 12, &c. Ddgesh will also be inscribed, should such perfect vowel, or quiescent letter preceding, have a distinctive accent ; or, should the preceding word have any accent on the penultimate. A few exceptions are found when the preceding accent is conjunctive.-^ 2. When the preceding word ends in H with Mappik (Art. 49.), or one of the letters 1 or \ used as a diphthong, Ddgesh will be regularly inscribed in any riQ?"Q2 letter : because, in this case, such letter is considered as a consonant terminating the pre- ceding syllable, as above : e. g. D^tt ^S^ Betsid-ddh td-stm, not thd-sim, Gen. vi. 1 6. See also Gen. xvii. 20, xxvii. 41 ; Ps. li. 17. Hence it is, that after ^""P or T'O'T. Ddgesh may be used, because the former of these is read by the Jews "^ly Adondi, the latter t3^n 7S Elo-Mm. (See Art. 67. note.) There are, however, a few exceptions to this rule. See Isa. xxxiv. 1 1 ; Ezek. xxiii. 42 ; Ps. Ixviii. 18. 111. In the next place, when any one of the ^P?"!?? letters occurs, not being at the beginning of a word, but following ajinal * Some, however, read this passage without Ddgesh. f Exod. xv. 11, 16. Isa. liv.12. Jer. xx. 9. Dan. Hi. 3 ; v. 11. Ps. xxxv. 10. On the conjunctive and distinctive character of the accents, see the last lecture in this work. 4,($ LECTURE in. CART. in. i. Sheva (:), it will regularly receive the point Dagesh; as, ^112? Pa-kdd-td, ^TiT? Pa-kddt, except in the following cases. 1. When this (:) stands in the place originally occupied by either (T) or (), Ddgesh will not be inscribed in the f">??*!53 letter following : e. g. I,*?-?"?? kid-vd-re-kd, not *FJ2|n? kid-bd-re-kd : the primitive form of which is ""Q^T dd-vdr. So "*??*?, not ^ : ^ from "n^P or "H^E. So also ^r^ Bil-vav, from 3fjb Le-vtiv. 2. After an initial if?Aea (:) which would be pronounced, but which becomes quiescent upon some particle being prefixed, (Art. 41.) Ddgesh will not be inscribed : as, ''l^? Gevi'd, and, prefixing b, Via?? Lig-vul, not Lig-bid. So with BW2 1 ? ve/ure, "OS weeping, ^T? a he-goat, &c. as singulars, and B> 7-?^ worrf*, a< *7?T males, JTi"^|? sepulchres, &c. as plurals. Infinitives and Impera- tives of the form "^9, "Ip Q or "II?? with any augment, will also be excepted ; as, ^"n Rod-pho, his persecuting, ^^ Shik-vd, lie thou down, c. where the last radical letter is one of the fl??!^2 letters. 3. After a. final Shevd (:) following an imperfect vowel which has arisen out of some one of the substitutes of Shevd (Art. 106. 2. &c.) ; e. g. ^P^? Nd-ham-dd, not TTOT3, I sa . ]. 8. But if such Shevd itself have arisen out of one of these substi- tutes, Ddgesh will be inscribed; as, V.^Hl Yakh-pots, Deut. xxv. 7. 4. The affixed pronouns f , E3, 1^, never receive Ddgesh lene : the letters np?"j32 preceding m ; as, fVoba Mal-kiith, rWT3V Hav-duth, r\? 1 Yal-duth. So also I-?,?, and "f23 } when receiving any asyllabic augment, the latter in ^7?? Neg-dd only, Ps. cxvi. 14;* *n?Sl Big-do, 2 Kings ix. 13, &c., to which a few others might be added. 112. Ddgesh, in its capacity of reduplicating certain letters, is sometimes found at the beginning of words ; as, n-t~7TO pronounced Maz-ze, "VEk ^^^ Mo-shel Le-mor, &c., in which case it is purely euphonic. So also in ^$9 Mik-keddsh, for E7j?i?*? Mik-ddsh, Exod. xv. 17 ; rn?5 Vd-ek-kere-hd, for ^^, &c. 113. And, on the contrary, there area few instances, particularly in verbs having one of the liquids either for the second, or the two last radicals, in which every letter is written at length ; as, t?7? Tsil-16, Job xl. 21 ; ^MH Khon-nc-ni, Ps. ix. 14; not fe O r Which, however, II). vcr. lo, lis ART. 114.3 INSERTION OF DAGESH. 47 "*?2n : and others in which it is omitted, contrary to analogy ; as, nnbJE for nnyJB? she sent; =lV?n f or lbv>n praise ye; D l?n for D?ifn, Exod. v. 14, &c. 114. The following anomalies occur in the vowels occasionally, when coming in contact with Ddgesh either EXPRESSED or IMPLIED, &c. The vowel (-) coming before a guttural letter, and containing an implied Ddgesh (Art. 109.) is, for the sake of Euphony, often changed into ("); as, "fHN (masc.) and $$ (fern.) one ; D^nn for O^^p, or more commonly E'H/Jjri mountains; Httfy flames ; D^bn2 embers ; HpQ a leader ; E^V/? cities ; C f7.901 he repented himself; ^H?-'^ 1 ye become possessed; s nj!Jten they became puri- fad ; ^^$3 z * it I? & c> ' n some instances, (-) coming before Ddgesh forte is changed into () Khirik ; as, "i^? his daughter, from ^12 (rather from ^?? ; Arab. c^ou)i Gen. xxix. 6 ; D^jjn'zp thorns, from 2"nl3, 2 Sam. xxiv. 22. In the same manner, ^"12 a nine-press ; J"IH consternation ; Tp measure ; ^p^? circuitous ; D|? tribute; *]$ door-post; ^ morsel; and "f? <^e *irfe, change (-) into () upon receiving any asyllabic augment. The same takes place with the verb H^p dying, when found in the conjuga- tion Hiphhil; as, Q^Pri ye put to death, for Bfnan, Numb. xvii. 6, &c. The same is also found to prevail in the following verbs with syllabic augments ; viz. ^TfH- 1 f r ^H^ I have begotten thee, Ps. ii. 7, &c.; BflHrp. for D^^T ye shall possess, Deut. xi. 8, &c. These all, however, may be considered as arising either for the sake of euphony, out of the etymology, or else from the mere mistakes of the copyists. 48 LECTURE IV. C AR>1 '- LECTURE IV. ON THE GENERAL USE AND SITUATION OF THE ACCENTS. 115. OF the origin and use of these accents very little can now be said with any degree of certainty. Much labour and learning, indeed, have been bestowed on their investigation ; but, after all, the conclusions arrived at are beset with so much uncertainty, that some of the best Grammarians both Jewish and Christian have confessed that they knew but little on the subject.* We must, therefore, be content with the common rules respecting them, and here, with those only which are generally found to interfere with the vowels of the text. 116. These accents (Art. 60.) are said to have two offices ; the one Tonic, that is, having the power to moderate the tone of voice in which any portion of the Scripture is to be read ; the other Euphonic, that is, when added either for the purpose of giving a kind of secondary accent to words, or of regulating the syllables. It seems most likely, however, that they are added generally, for the purpose of filling up the system, as to perfect or imperfect vowels, and of obviating a great number of anomalies, which would otherwise occur. On the Tonic Accent. 1 1 7. The Tonic accent may be any one of those found in the table (Art. 59.) : and it will always be found either expressed, or implied,^ on the penultimate or ultimate syllable of every word. When on the penultimate, the word is said to be '^.rP Millicl ; when on the ultimate, ^7-: ^ Milrdh. The following are the general rules for its insertion. All words the penultimate vowel of which is imperfect and has not a consonant immediately following it, will have the Tonic * See my reply to Dr. Laurence, entitled, " A Vindication of certain Strictures," &c. Cambridge, 1 822, p. 1 7, &c. f That is, if the accent be one of those not placed on the regularly accen- tuated syllable, it must be considered as giving emphasis either to the penul- timate or ultimate, according to the analogy of the word. ART. 117. 2.3 ON THE ACCENTS. 49 accent on that syllable. Of this kind are all duals, and segolate nouns ; nouns having the feminine affix "*] (thy}, attached to dual or plural forms ; and all nouns having terminations peculiar to the segolate forms: as, E^T[ both hands, Gen. xxvii. 22 ; "P-! hunting; *]D3 silver; "H^S thy eyes (fern.), Cant. i. 15; "H^B thy appear- ances, Ib. ii. 14; ^"Vp? a rose; ^^I?P perfumed with incense, Ib. Hi. 6, &c. The reason is obvious ; the penultimate syllable is in all these cases imperfect, the addition of the accent is, therefore, necessary for the purposes of syllabication (Art. 33. 43.). Segolate nouns having the penultimate vowel perfect, will, on account of their peculiar character, retain the accent on that syllable : as ~l.n}? concealment ; rng (for /?")) death ; ^na (for in2) empti- ness (See Art. 43. note). Also proper names ending in ^: as, irpfn* Zedekiah. 2. Nouns receiving a syllabic pronominal affix, and at the same time a vowel of union (Art. 123. 1.), or, having likewise a paragogic 7 Nun, will have the accent on the penultimate of the word so formed : (The pronominal affixes usually termed grave, i. e. C3, T3, Djl, ?n, are excepted) e. g. ^J9^C? Judge me, Psalm xliii. 1 ; 33Q7D3 our soul ; ^Ty.^ its leaf, Ps. i. 3 ; 'in^rnJp thou rejoicest him, Ps. xxi. 7 ; V 1 ,?^- he imputes it, Gen. xv. 6 ; ^23 his face, Ps. xi. 7 ; *P,??? thy wings, Ps. xvii. 8 ; 'fn'QlH / rebuke thee, Ps. 1. 8; *PWn / have called thee, Ps. cxix. 146; ^"p they praise thee, Ps. Ixvii. 6 ; ^S^f? it (the wind) dispeileth it, Ps. i. 4. With the paragogic 1 of plural verbs: "M'TOfT! they seek me early, Prov. i. 28 ; "iT 3 / 1 *?"!^ they serve thee, Jsa. Ix. 7 ; ty^. they take him, Prov. v. 22. 3. Verbs terminating (i. e. in the process of conjugation) in the pronominal syllables R, ^, 13, and T3 ; as Jp^pn* thou art milling, Ps. xl. 7; ^"ib? / have announced (good tidings), Ib. v. 10; aa-ji^ rve have dealt falsely, Ps. xliv. 18 ; T,^ 7 ? *% (&) shall come, Ps. xlv. 16. 4. ^syllabic afformatives are subject to the same rule, in the * These cases ought, regularly, to be pointed, -nV^n, i. e . with ( T ) with the second syllable. The Jews however seem to have pointed verbs with (-), for the purpose of distinguishing them from nouns; as, "?)29 instead of "T|?5, and by this means an anomaly has been introduced among the syllables. E 50 LECTURE IV. C ART - U7.5. conjugation Hiphhil : as, V^P' 7 " 1 hope thou (fern.), Ps. xliii. 5; nyiZJ'in it (fern.) brought salvation, Ps. xliv. 4. Also in the surd and concave verbs : as, ^9 surround ye, Ps. xlviii. 1 3 ; ^O ^ ^Op^ it (fem.) hath overwhelmed me, Ps. Ixix. 3 ; typf-inN Ae 7 ! \ > and **.: as, n i/^ i< ?M^; 1"|l?? they visited; ^WD ///rfe thyself ({em.}; and finally, all words not comprehended in any of the preceding rules (i. e. Art. 117.). On certain Anomalies as to the situation of the decent, and on the changes effected by it on the vowels and consonants of words. 119. These generally take place, when the illative particle If is prefixed to verbs, in which case, 1st, the Tonic accent which is * These particulars will hereafter be illustrated by tables. f Usually termed Vow conversivum, but which corresponds to the Arabic -5 or > therefore, &c. ART. 119. 2-3 ON THE ACCENTS. 51 proper for the penultimate vowel in the past tense (Art. 117. 3.), will be removed to the ultimate : and, 2dly, vice versa, the accent proper for the ultimate in the present (Art. 118. 1.) will be removed to the penultimate: as, 1st, ^^Ili?! so I mill consecrate (for "^Enf?), Exod. xxix. 44 ; f??P^(?.*! so t/iou shall be gathered (for tt&pN3), Numb, xxvii. 13; nJ^Tani. so it shall divide; {?^5{T| thus thou shall bring, Exod. xxvi. 33 ; '"$'!'! so she shall increase, Isa. vi. 12 ; j?P^ < ] therefore thou shall place, Lev. xxiv. 6 ; ^JT^I so s ^ ie ^dl return, Lev. xxii. 13 ; ^tp. thus they shall place, Numb. vi. 27; ft^? 1 so thou shall enter, Gen. vi. 18. 2. This rule, however, is often disregarded : as, ^OjTp. so me took, Gen. xxxiv. 17; ^P,?^! and me mill depart: particularly in verbs having a quiescent letter for the third radical; as, TJ^^l and thou shall fear, Lev. xix. 32 ; > <0 VT"] an< ^ I m *M reveal, 1 Sam. xx. 12 ; ^,.'$1 an ^ ^ ou s ^ a ^ g in ^ captivity, Ezek. xii. 3. With some having the medial radical letter quiescent : as, nWD31 : an d thou shall Jlee, 2 Kings ix. 3. 3. In the next place, the accent will be removed from the ultimate to the penultimate syllable of the present tense, when the illative particle 1 is prefixed, and when the form of the verb will allow of the change : e. g. "I ($5*1 (for "f i]?!P.) so he is visited. But in the third person plural masc. it will keep its place : as, flg'.l (from TJPfT.)' The same holds good also in the form as, 1|??*1 so he visits. Corollary. Hence it will follow, that the accent being removed from the last syllable, the ultimate vowel must necessarily become imperfect (Art. 33.) : as, *.?! and he was struck (for ^21) ; 10rf"l (for 10^) and he said; n>! and he died (for ffltfi or rVttp^) ; and so of others. 4. In the conjugation termed Hiphhil, as it will be seen here- after, the terminating vowel is either (\) or (). Whenever, therefore, the accent is drawn back, by this or any other rule, the imperfect vowel will be () not (): as, Bp*JJ. so he raised (from D,7X or O>i). So ft$ so he lodged (for fe or rfe, Gen. xxviii. 11, Josh. viii. 9 ; n^l so he rested (for n3^ O r T^), Exod. x. 14, where (-) is taken on account of the guttural letter following. (Art. 45.) In one instance, however, we have V"!$5 (for VT?, root and she broke, Judg. ix. 53. E 2 52 LECTURE iv. ART. 119. 5. 5. When, however, the last letter of the root happens to be one of the *ffi-$ letters in a state of quiescence, the perfect vowel will occasionally remain : as, ^?,!p and he brings, Gen. iv. 3. 6. In many cases, also, this removal of the accent is altogether neglected: as, ^^^ so I sit, 1 Kings viii. 20, &c. 7. In consequence of this removal of the accent, the terminating vowel of the present tense of verbs is changed (No. 3. above), and entirely rejected with the consonant following, when that is quiescent: e. g. ?j for ""vfl (Art. 74.) ; and, by 108, the former will be <, which is termed Apocope. 8. Again, the accent is occasionally removed from the ultimate to the penultimate syllable both in the present tense and in the imperatives of verbs, for the purpose of expressing prohibition, for- bearance, exhortation, wishing or the like, with the greater emphasis ; as, ^??fp~ 'N turn not away, 1 Kings ii. 20 (for ^^1?) ; np-jn-bW chastise not, Prov. ix. 8 (for n^fl) ; JpiJ-rbN add not, Prov. xxx. 6 (for *lj5 < fal, where the vowel of the medial radical is also rejected though not followed by a quiescent H) ; "H.),*"!^. / mill mater thee (for "H^tf., the root being V\ usually HYI, in which case the final radical letter generally returns. In this case the ^ is doubled because the verb is in the conjugation Pthel). So ""'P^'H observe (for 1$n) ; rQTl gi V6) & c . Gen. xi. 3, 4 (for H^H Gen. xxix. 21). 9. So in verbs having the third radical letter a quiescent H : as, T let him rule (for nTV.) ; ITO let him be blotted out (for nnP), Ps. cix. 13 ; tt?.may he dilate (for nW^),.Gen. ix. 27 ; ^ } et it be (for nVP), Gen. i. 3 ; t^fff^ drink not (for nfltpn), Lev. x. 9 ; N^r^N let it not be seen (for HST^), Exod. xxxiv. 3 ; T^-V^M relax not (for n ,B"1^ ; where the verb takes the form of a segolate noun, see Art. 108); ^nrrb be not (for HVTO) ; and so of others. But it may here be remarked, as before, that the common form of the verb and usual position of the accent are often adopted : as, nl'7 lest I should see, Gen. xxi. 16 ; njfj^ lest he should see, Job iii. 9. 10. Examples of imperatives subject to Apocope : ^3 reveal thou (for H9| in Pihel); ^H sm i te thou (for HSH), Amos ix. 1 ; ^fl multiply thou (for rrj5p.n i n Hiphhil. Here the form assumed is that of a segolate noun, the first vowel becoming (), in order to accommodate itself to the sound of the second, Art. 108.), Ps. li. 4. ART. 119. 1J/] ON THE ACCENTS. 53 So b3?n cause thou to ascend (for nbVPT), Exod. xxxiii. 12 ; ^P?jl% thyself (to be) MC& (for nbnm), 2 Sam. xiii. 5. 11. It frequently happens in verbs ending with a radical 51 (for ") and receiving some asyllabic augment, that not only is the accent drawn back, as in the cases above mentioned (No. 8.), but the original radical letter also appears: as, ^R^ ** (fern.) hath trusted (for n P|7 according to the general paradigma, from the root non f or ^Jl), Ps. Ivii. 2. So -Vb^ they are tranquil (for *?#?, root nbttf or ^bttf, whence regularly ^^'), Ps. cxxii. 6, &c. ; VftW let them come (for -""P-Svi root n ^ r W). p s. Ixviii. 32 ; ^U bring ye (for -IJpNrr, Art. 73.), Jer. xii. 9. 12. In a few instances this drawing back of the accent also takes place in nouns and particles : as, D3? TljSn numerous art thou (in) peopfe (for y??"]). So D.l^? V!\?"3 grazZ art thou among the nations; rn} < nJ33 THE? a princess art thou among the provinces, Lam. i. 1 . In like manner we have *~fv, ! " tj ?b, or ^r 5 !? n hy ? (for ^^y, n ^7, or H^ab), where, according to Schrcederus, " subest adfectus exprobrantis, vel conquerentis, vel alius similis." To these he adds, ^ / (for ^), Ezek. xvii. 22.f 120. Again, the accent will be withdrawn from the ultimate to the penultimate syllable, in order to avoid the concurrence of two Tonic accents, which would happen when the following word is a monosyllable with an , accent, or a dissyllable with an accent on the penultima. But here, the penultimate vowel of the former of such two words, will remain perfect : as, "^ ^O^ he opened the rock (for n P-?), Ps. cv. 41 ; V ":jbw / m m betake me, Cant. iv. 6 ; rib$T ?'?3 ? has this come to pass ? (for rrjTnrr) Joel i. 2 ; N'T 'n'iny she (is) my sister, Gen. xx. 2 ; *fb 7/13') and he will give thee, Deut. xix. 8 ; *^P